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diff --git a/42540-8.txt b/42540-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 88efaf2..0000000 --- a/42540-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12859 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Peter the Great, Emperor of -Russia, by Voltaire - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The History of Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia - -Author: Voltaire - -Translator: Tobias Smollett - -Release Date: April 15, 2013 [EBook #42540] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETER THE GREAT *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Clark and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - Transcriber's Note: - - Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as - possible, including inconsistent spelling and tenses. Some changes - have been made. They are listed at the end of the text. - - The table of contents was created by the transcriber. - - Italic text has been marked with _underscores_. - OE ligatures have been expanded. - - - - -[Illustration: _H. Corbould._ _W. Chevalier._ - -_He ran every where in person to put a stop to the pillage and -slaughter._ - -_Chap. 13._] - - - - - THE - HISTORY - _OF_ - PETER THE GREAT. - - [Illustration: - _H. Corbould._ _W. Chevalier._ - - _Council him for his own safety, - not to pardon me._ - - _Chap. 36._] - - - London: - - ENGRAVED FOR THE ENGLISH CLASSICS. - - PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL JOHNSON & SON. - MANCHESTER. - - - - - THE - HISTORY - OF - PETER THE GREAT, - EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. - - - FROM THE FRENCH OF VOLTAIRE, - BY SMOLLETT. - - - MANCHESTER: - S. JOHNSON & SON, No. 3, OLDHAM-STREET; - AND 48, CHURCH-ST., LIVERPOOL. - - MDCCCXLV. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER - - I. Description of Russia. - - II. Continuation of the description of Russia, population, - finances, armies, customs, religion: state of Russia before - Peter the Great. - - III. The ancestors of Peter the Great. - - IV. John and Peter. Horrible Sedition among the Strelitzes. - - V. Administration of the princess Sophia. Extraordinary quarrel - about religion. A conspiracy. - - VI. The reign of Peter the First.--Beginning of the grand - reformation. - - VII. Congress and Treaty with the Chinese. - - VIII. Expedition to the Palus Mæotis; conquest of Azoph.--The czar - sends young gentlemen into foreign countries for improvement. - - IX. Travels of Peter the Great. - - X. A conspiracy punished.--The corps of strelitzes abolished, - alterations in customs, manners, church, and state. - - XI. War with Sweden.--The battle of Narva. - - XII. Resources after the battle of Narva. That disaster entirely - repaired. Peter gains a victory near the same place. The - person who was afterwards empress made prisoner at the - storming of a town. Peter's successes. His triumph at Moscow. - - XIII. Reformation at Moscow.--Further successes.--Founding of - Petersburg.--The czar takes Narva, &c. - - XIV. Peter the Great keeps possession of all Ingria, while Charles - XII. is triumphant in other places.--Rise of - Menzikoff.--Petersburg secured.--The czar executes his - designs notwithstanding the victories of the king of Sweden. - - XV. While Peter is strengthening his conquests, and improving the - police of his dominion, his enemy Charles XII. gains several - battles: gives laws to Poland and Saxony, and to Augustus, - notwithstanding a victory gained by the Russians.--Augustus - resigns the crown, and delivers up Patkul, the czar's - ambassador.--Murder of Patkul, who is sentenced to be broke - upon the wheel. - - XVI. Attempts made to set up a third king of Poland.--Charles XII. - sets out from Saxony with a powerful army, and marches through - Poland in a victorious manner.--Cruelties committed.--Conduct - of the czar.--Successes of the king of Sweden, who at length - advances towards Russia. - - XVII. Charles XII. crosses the Boristhenes, penetrates into the - Ukraine, but concerts his measures badly.--One of his armies - is defeated by Peter the Great: he loses his supply of - provisions and ammunition: advances forward through a desert - country: his adventures in the Ukraine. - - XVIII. Battle of Pultowa. - - XIX. Consequences of the battle of Pultowa.--Charles XII. takes - refuge among the Turks.--Augustus, whom he had dethroned, - recovers his dominions.--Conquests of Peter the Great. - - XX. Campaign of Pruth. - - XXI. Conclusion of the Affairs of Pruth. - - XXII. Marriage of the czarowitz.--The marriage of Peter and Catherine - publicly solemnized.--Catherine finds her brother. - - XXIII. Taking of Stetin.--Descent upon Finland.--Event of the year - 1712. - - XXIV. Successes of Peter the Great.--Return of Charles XII. into his - own dominions. - - XXV. State of Europe at the return of Charles XII. Siege of - Stralsund. - - XXVI. New travels of the czar. - - XXVII. Continuation of the Travels of Peter the Great.--Conspiracy of - baron Gortz.--Reception of the czar in France. - - XXVIII. Of the return of the czar to his dominions.--Of his politics - and occupations. - - XXIX. Proceedings against prince Alexis Petrowitz. - - XXX. Works and establishments in 1718, and the following years. - - XXXI. Of the trade of Russia. - - XXXII. Of the laws. - - XXXIII. Of Religion. - - XXXIV. The congress of Aland or Oeland. Death of Charles XII., &c. The - treaty of Nystadt. - - XXXV. Conquests in Persia. - - XXXVI. Of the Coronation of the Empress Catherine I. and the Death of - Peter the Great. - - - Original Pieces Relative to this History: - - Sentence pronounced against the Czarowitz Alexis. - - The Peace of Nystadt. - - Ordinance of the Emperor Peter I. for the crowning of the - Empress Catherine. - - - - -PETER THE GREAT. - - - - -CHAP. I. - - DESCRIPTION OF RUSSIA. - - -The empire of Russia is the largest in the whole globe, extending from -west to east upwards of two thousand common leagues of France,[1] and -about eight hundred in its greatest breadth from north to south. It -borders upon Poland and the Frozen Sea, and joins to Sweden and China. -Its length from the island of Dago, in the westernmost part of Livonia, -to its most eastern limits, takes in near one hundred and seventy -degrees, so that when it is noon in the western parts of the empire, it -is nearly midnight in the eastern. Its breadth from north to south is -three thousand six hundred wersts, which make eight hundred and fifty of -our common French leagues. - -The limits of this country were so little known in the last century, -that, in 1689, when it was reported, that the Chinese and the Russians -were at war, and that in order to terminate their differences, the -emperor _Camhi_ on the one hand, and the czars Ivan or John, and Peter, -on the other, had sent their ministers to meet an embassy within three -hundred leagues of Pekin, on the frontiers of the two empires, the -account was at first treated as a fiction. - -The country now comprehended under the name of Russia, or the Russias, -is of a greater extent than all the rest of Europe, or than ever the -Roman empire was, or that of Darius subdued by Alexander; for it -contains upwards of one million one hundred thousand square leagues. -Neither the Roman empire, nor that of Alexander, contained more than -five hundred and fifty thousand each; and there is not a kingdom in -Europe the twelfth part so extensive as the Roman empire; but to make -Russia as populous, as plentiful, and as well stored with towns as our -southern countries, would require whole ages, and a race of monarchs -such as Peter the Great. - -The English ambassador, who resided at Petersburg in 1733, and who had -been at Madrid, says, in his manuscript relation, that in Spain, which -is the least populous state in Europe, there may be reckoned forty -persons to every square mile, and in Russia not above five. We shall see -in the second chapter, whether this minister was mistaken. Marshal -Vauban, the greatest of engineers, and the best of citizens, computes, -that, in France, every square mile contains two hundred inhabitants. -These calculations are never very exact, but they serve to shew the -amazing disproportion in the population of two different countries. - -I shall observe here, that from Petersburg to Pekin, there is hardly one -mountain to be met with in the route which the caravans might take -through independent Tartary, and that from Petersburg to the north of -France, by the road of Dantzic, Hamburg, and Amsterdam, there is not -even a hill of any eminence to be seen. This observation leaves room to -doubt of the truth of that theory, which makes the mountains to have -been formed by the rolling of the waves of the sea, and supposes all -that is at present dry land, to have been for a long time covered with -water: but how comes it to pass, that the waves, which, according to the -supposition, formed the Alps, the Pyrenees, and Mount Taurus, did not -likewise form some eminence or hill from Normandy to China, which is a -winding space of above three thousand leagues? Geography, thus -considered, may furnish lights to natural philosophy, or at least give -room for rational doubts. - -Formerly we called Russia by the name of Muscovy, from the city of -Moscow, the capital of that empire, and the residence of the grand -dukes: but at present the ancient name of Russia prevails. - -It is not my business in this place to inquire, why the countries from -Smolensko, to the other side of Moscow, were called White Russia, or why -Hubner gives it the name of Black, nor for what reason the government of -Kiow should be named Red Russia. - -It is very likely that Madies the Scythian, who made an irruption into -Asia, near seven hundred years before our vulgar æra, might have carried -his arms into these regions, as Gengis-Khan and Tamerlane did -afterwards, and as probably others had done long before Madies. Every -part of antiquity is not deserving of our inquiries; that of the -Chinese, the Indians, the Persians, and the Egyptians, is ascertained -from illustrious and interesting monuments; but these monuments suppose -others of a far more ancient date, since it required many ages to teach -men the art of transmitting their thoughts by permanent signs, and no -less time was required to form a regular language; and yet we have no -such monuments even in this polite part of Europe. The art of writing -was a long time unknown to all the North: the patriarch Constantine, who -wrote the history of Kiow in the Russian language, acknowledges, that -the use of writing was not known in these countries in the fifth -century. - -Let others examine whether the Huns, the Slavi, and the Tartars, -formerly led their wandering and famished tribes towards the source of -the Boristhenes;[2] my design is to shew what czar Peter created, and -not to engage in a useless attempt, to clear up the chaos of antiquity. -We should always keep in mind, that no family upon earth knows its first -founder, and consequently, that no nation knows its first origin. - -I use the name of Russians to designate the inhabitants of this great -empire. That of Roxolanians, which was formerly given them, would indeed -be more sonorous, but we shall conform to the custom of the language in -which we write. News-papers and other memoirs have for some time used -the word Russians; but as this name comes too near to that of Prussians, -I shall abide by that of Russ, which almost all our writers have given -them. Besides, it appeared to me, that the most extensive people on the -earth ought to be known by some appellation that may distinguish them -absolutely from all other nations.[3] - -This empire is at present divided into sixteen large governments, that -will one day be subdivided, when the northern and eastern countries come -to be more inhabited. - -These sixteen governments, which contain several immense provinces are -the following:-- - - -LIVONIA. - -The nearest province to our part of the world is that of Livonia, one of -the most fruitful in the whole North. In the twelfth century the -inhabitants were pagans; at this time certain merchants of Bremen and -Lubeck traded to this country, and a body of religious crusaders, called -_port-glaives_, or sword-bearers, who were afterwards incorporated in -the Teutonic order, made themselves masters of this province in the -thirteenth century, at the time when the fury of the crusades armed the -Christians against every one who was not of their religion. Albert, -margrave of Brandenburg, grand-master of these religious conquerors, -made himself sovereign of Livonia and of Brandenburg-Prussia, about the -year 1514. From that time, the Russians and Poles began to dispute for -the possession of this province. Soon afterwards it was invaded by the -Swedes, and for a long while continued to be ravaged by these several -powers. Gustavus Adolphus having conquered it, it was then ceded to the -Swedes in 1660, by the famous treaty of Oliva; and, at length, czar -Peter wrested it from these latter, as will be seen in the course of -this history. - -Courland, which joins to Livonia, is still in vassalage to Poland, -though it depends greatly upon Russia. These are the western limits of -this empire in Christendom. - - -_Of the Governments of_ REVEL, PETERSBURG, _and_ WYBURG. - -More northward is the government of Revel and Esthonia. Revel was built -by the Danes in the thirteenth century. The Swedes were in possession -of this province, from the time that country put itself under the -protection of that crown in 1561. This is another of the conquests of -Peter the Great. - -On the borders of Esthonia lies the gulf of Finland. To the eastward of -this sea, and at the junction of the Neva with the lake Ladoga,[4] is -situated Petersburg, the most modern and best built city in the whole -empire, founded by czar Peter, in spite of all the united obstacles -which opposed its foundation. - -This city is situated on the bay of Kronstat, in the midst of nine -rivers, by which its different quarters are divided. In the centre of -this city is almost an impregnable fortress, built on an island, formed -by the main-stream of the river Neva: seven canals are cut from the -rivers, and wash the walls of one of the royal palaces of the admiralty, -of the dock-yard for the galleys, and of several buildings of -manufactories. Thirty-five large churches contribute to adorn the city; -among which five are allotted for foreigners of the Roman Catholic, -Calvinist, and Lutheran religions: these are as so many temples raised -to toleration, and examples to other nations. There are five palaces; -the old one, called the summer palace, situated on the river Neva, has a -very large and beautiful stone balustrade, which runs all along the -river side. The new summer palace near the triumphal gate, is one of the -finest pieces of architecture in Europe. The admiralty buildings, the -school for cadets, the imperial college, the academy of sciences, the -exchange, and the merchants' warehouses, are all magnificent structures, -and monuments of taste and public utility. The town-house, the public -dispensary, where all the vessels are of porcelain, the court magazines, -the foundery, the arsenal, the bridges, the markets, the squares, the -barracks for the horse and foot guards, contribute at once to the -embellishment and safety of the city, which is said to contain at -present four hundred thousand souls. In the environs of the city are -several villas or country-seats, which surprise all travellers by their -magnificence. There is one in particular which has water-works superior -to those of Versailles. There was nothing of all this in 1702, the whole -being then an impassable morass. Petersburg is considered as the capital -of Ingria, a small province subdued by Peter I. Wyburg, another of his -conquests, and that part of Finland which was lost, and ceded by the -Swedes in 1742, make another government. - - -ARCHANGEL. - -Higher up, proceeding towards the north, is the province of Archangel, a -country entirely new to the southern nations of Europe. It took its name -from St. Michael, the Archangel, under whose patronage it was put long -after the Russians had embraced Christianity, which did not happen till -the beginning of the eleventh century; and they were not known to the -other nations of Europe till the middle of the sixteenth. The English, -in 1533, endeavouring to find out a north-east passage to the East -Indies, Chancellor, captain of one of the ships fitted out for this -expedition, discovered the port of Archangel in the White Sea; at that -time it was a desert place, having only one convent, and a little -church, dedicated to St. Michael, the Archangel. - -The English sailing up the river Dwina,[5] arrived at the midland part -of the country, and at length at Moscow. Here they easily made -themselves masters of the trade of Russia, which was removed from the -city of Novogorod, where it was carried on by land to this sea-port, -which is inaccessible indeed during seven months in the year; but, -nevertheless, this trade proved more beneficial to the empire than the -fairs of Novogorod, that had fallen to decay in consequence of the wars -with Sweden. The English obtained the privilege of trading thither -without paying any duties; a manner of trading which is apparently the -most beneficial to all nations. The Dutch soon came in for a share of -the trade of Archangel, then unknown to other nations. - -Long before this time, the Genoese and Venetians had established a trade -with the Russians by the mouth of the Tanais or Don,[6] where they had -built a town called Tana. This branch of the Italian commerce was -destroyed by the ravages of Tamerlane, in that part of the world; but -that of Archangel continued, with great advantages both to the English -and Dutch, till the time that Peter the Great opened a passage into his -dominions by the Baltic Sea. - - -RUSSIAN LAPLAND. - -_Of the Government of Archangel._ - -To the west of Archangel, and within its government, lies Russian -Lapland, the third part of this country, the other two belonging to -Sweden and Denmark. This is a very large tract, occupying about eight -degrees of longitude, and extending in latitude from one polar circle to -the North Cape[7]. The natives of this country were confusedly known to -the ancients, under the name of troglodytes and northern pigmies; -appellations suitable enough to men, who, for the most part, are not -above four feet and a half high, and dwell in caverns; they are just the -same people they were at that time. They are of a tawny complexion, -though the other people of the north are white, and for the most part -very low in stature; though their neighbours, and the people of Iceland, -under the polar circle, are tall: they seem made for their mountainous -country, being nimble, squat, and robust; their skins are hard, the -better to resist the cold, their thighs and legs are slender, their feet -small, to enable them to run more nimbly amongst the rocks, with which -their province is covered. They are passionately fond of their own -country, which none but themselves can be pleased with, and are able to -live no where else. Some have affirmed, upon the credit of Olaus, that -these people were originally natives of Finland, and that they removed -into Lapland, where they diminished in stature: but why might they not -as well have made choice of lands less northerly, where the conveniences -of life were to be had in greater plenty? How comes it that they differ -so totally from their pretended ancestors in features, figure, and -complexion? Methinks we might, with as great reason, suppose that the -grass which grows in Lapland is produced from that of Denmark, and that -the fishes, peculiar to their lakes, came from those of Sweden. It is -most likely that the Laplanders are, like their animals, the produce of -their own country, and that nature has made the one for the other. - -Those who inhabit the frontiers of Finland, have adopted some of the -expressions of their neighbours, as happens to every people: but when -two nations give to things of common use, to objects which are -continually before their eyes, names absolutely different, it affords a -strong presumption, that one of them is not a colony from the other. The -Finlanders call a bear Karu, the Laplanders Muriet: the sun in the -Finnish language is called Auringa, in the Lapland tongue Beve. Here is -not the least analogy. The inhabitants of Finland, and Swedish Lapland, -formerly worshipped an idol whom they called Iumalac, and since the -reign of Gustavus Adolphus, to whom they are indebted for the -appellation of Lutherans, they call Jesus Christ the son of Iumalac. The -Muscovite or Russian Laplanders, are at present thought to be of the -Greek church; but those who wander about the mountains of the North -Cape, are satisfied with adoring one God under certain rude forms, as -has been the ancient custom of all the nations called Nomades, or -wandering nations. - -This race of people, who are inconsiderable in numbers, have but very -few ideas, and are happy in not having more, which would only occasion -them to have new wants which they could not satisfy: at present they -live contented, and free from diseases, notwithstanding the excessive -coldness of their climate; they drink nothing but water, and attain to a -great age. The custom imputed to them of entreating strangers to lie -with their wives and daughters, which they esteem as an honour done to -them, probably arose from a notion of the superiority of strangers, and -a desire of amending, by their means, the defects of their own race. -This was a custom established amongst the virtuous Lacedemonians. A -husband would entreat a favour of a comely young man, to give him -handsome children, whom he might adopt. Jealousy, and the laws, prevent -the rest of mankind from giving their wives up to the embraces of -another; but the Laplanders have few or no laws, and are in all -probability, strangers to jealousy. - - -MOSCOW. - -Ascending the river Dwina from north to south, we travel up the country -till we come to Moscow, the capital of the empire. This city was long -the centre of the Russian dominions, before they were extended on the -side of China and Persia. - -Moscow, lying in 55 degrees and a half, north latitude, in a warmer -climate, and more fruitful soil than that of Petersburg, is situated in -the midst of a large and delightful plain on the river Moskwa, and two -lesser rivers, which with the former lose themselves in the Occa, and -afterwards help to swell the stream of the Wolga. This city, in the 13th -century, was only a collection of huts inhabited by a set of miserable -wretches, oppressed by the descendants of Gengis Khan. - -The Kremlin, or ancient palace of the great dukes, was not built till -the 14th century; of such modern date are cities in this part of the -world. This palace was built by Italian architects, as were several -churches in the Gothic taste which then prevailed throughout all Europe. -There are two built by the famous Aristotle, of Bologna, who flourished -in the 15th century; but the private houses were no better than wooden -huts. - -The first writer who brought us acquainted with Moscow, was Olearius; -who, in 1633, went thither as the companion of an embassy from the duke -of Holstein. A native of Holstein must naturally be struck with wonder -at the immense extent of the city of Moscow, with its five quarters, -especially the magnificent one belonging to the czars, and with the -Asiatic splendour which then reigned at that court. There was nothing -equal to it in Germany at that time, nor any city by far so extensive or -well peopled. - -On the contrary, the earl of Carlisle, who was ambassador from Charles -II. to the czar Alexis, in 1633, complains in his relation that he could -not meet with any one convenience of life in Moscow; no inns on the -road, nor refreshments of any kind. One judged as a German, the other as -an Englishman, and both by comparison. The Englishman was shocked to see -most of the Boyards or Muscovite noblemen, sleep upon boards or benches, -with only the skins of animals under them; but this was the ancient -practice of all nations. The houses, which were almost all built of -wood, had scarcely any furniture, few or none of their tables were -covered with cloth; there was no pavement in the streets; nothing -agreeable; nothing convenient; very few artificers, and those few -extremely awkward, and employed only in works of absolute necessity. -These people might have passed for Spartans, had they been sober. - -But, on public days, the court displays all the splendour of a Persian -monarch. The earl says, he could see nothing but gold and precious -stones on the robes of the czar and his courtiers. These dresses were -not manufactured in the country; and yet, it is evident, that the people -might be rendered industrious long before that time. In the reign of the -czar Boris Godonow, the largest bell was cast at Moscow, in Europe; and -in the patriarchal church there were several ornaments in silver, worked -in a very curious manner. These pieces of workmanship, which were made -under the direction of Germans and Italians, were only transient -efforts. It is daily industry, and the continual exercise of a great -number of arts, that makes a nation flourishing. Poland, and the -neighbouring nations, were at that time very little superior to the -Russians. The handicraft trades were not in greater perfection in the -north of Germany, nor were the polite arts much better known, than in -the middle of the seventeenth century. - -Though the city of Moscow, at that time, had neither the magnificence -nor arts of our great cities in Europe, yet its circumference of twenty -miles; the part called the Chinese town, where all the rarities of China -are exhibited; the spacious quarter of the Kremlin, where stood the -palace of the czars; the gilded domes, the lofty and conspicuous -turrets; and, lastly, the prodigious number of its inhabitants, -amounting to near 500,000. All this together, rendered Moscow one of the -most considerable cities in the world. - -Theodore, or Foedor, eldest brother to Peter the Great, began to -improve Moscow. He ordered several large houses to be built of stone, -though without any regular architecture. He encouraged the principal -persons of his court to build, advancing them sums of money, and -furnishing them with materials. He was the first who collected studs of -fine horses, and made several useful embellishments. Peter, who was -attentive to every thing, did not neglect Moscow at the time he was -building Petersburg; for he caused it to be paved, adorned it with noble -edifices, and enriched it with manufactures; and, within these few -years, M. de Showalow, high chamberlain to the empress Elizabeth, -daughter to Peter the Great, has founded an university in this city. -This is the same person who furnished me with the memorials, from which -I have compiled the present history, and who was himself much more -capable to have done it, even in the French language, had not his great -modesty determined him to resign the task to me, as will evidently -appear from his own letters on this subject, which I have deposited in -the public library of Geneva. - - -SMOLENSKO. - -Westward of the duchy of Moscow, is that of Smolensko, a part of the -ancient Sarmatia Europea. The duchies of Moscow and Smolensko composed -what is properly called White Russia. Smolensko, which at first belonged -to the great dukes of Russia, was conquered by the great duke of -Lithuania, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and was retaken -one hundred years afterwards by its old masters. Sigismund III. king of -Poland, got possession of it in 1611. The czar Alexis, father of Peter -I. recovered it again in 1654, since which time it has always -constituted part of the Russian empire. The panegyric of Peter the -Great, pronounced in the academy of sciences at Paris, takes notice, -that before his time the Russians had made no conquests either to the -west or south; but this is evidently a mistake. - - -_Of the Governments of_ NOVOGOROD _and_ KIOW, _or the_ UKRAINE. - -Between Petersburg and Smolensko, lies the province of Novogorod;[8] and -is said to be the country in which the ancient _Slavi_, or Sclavonians, -made their first settlements. But from whence came these _Slavi_, whose -language has spread over all the north-east part of Europe? _Sla_ -signifies a chief, and _slave_ one belonging to a chief. All that we -know concerning these ancient _Slaves_ is, that they were a race of -conquerors; that they built the city of Novogorod the Great, at the head -of a navigable river; and that this city was for a long time in -possession of a flourishing trade, and was a potent ally to the Hanse -Towns. Czar Iwan Wassiliawitsch (or John Basilowitz) made a conquest of -it in 1467, and carried away all its riches, which contributed to the -magnificence of the court of Moscow, till then almost unknown. - -To the south of the province of Smolensko, we meet with the province of -Kiow, otherwise called the Lesser Russia, Red Russia, or the Ukraine, -through which runs the Dnieper, called by the Greeks the Boristhenes. -The difference of these two names, the one so harsh to pronounce, and -the other so melodious, served to shew us, together with a hundred other -like instances, the rudeness of all the ancient people of the North, in -comparison with the graces of the Greek language. Kiow, the capital -city, formerly Kisow, was built by the emperors of Constantinople, who -made it a colony: here are still to be seen several Greek inscriptions -upwards of twelve hundred years old. This is the only city of any -antiquity in these countries, where men lived so long together without -building walls. Here it was that the great dukes of Russia held their -residence in the eleventh century, before the Tartars brought it under -their subjection. - -The inhabitants of the Ukraine, called Cossacks, are a mixture of the -ancient Roxolanians, Sarmatians, and Tartars, blended together. Rome and -Constantinople, though so long the mistress of other nations, are not to -compare in fertility of country with the Ukraine. Nature has there -exerted her utmost efforts for the service of mankind; but they have not -seconded those efforts by industry, living only upon the spontaneous -productions of an uncultivated, but fruitful soil, and the exercise of -rapine. Though fond, to a degree of enthusiasm, of that most valuable of -all blessings, liberty; yet they were always in subjection, either to -the Poles or to the Turks, till the year 1654, when they threw -themselves into the arms of Russia, but with some limitations. At length -they were entirely subdued by Peter the Great. - -Other nations are divided into cities and towns; this into ten -regiments. At the head of which is a chief, who used to be elected by a -majority of votes, and is called by the name of Hetman, or Itman. This -captain of the nation was not invested with supreme power. At present -the itman is a person nominated by the czar, from among the great lords -of the court; and is, in fact, no more that the governor of the -province, like governors of the _pays d'etats_ in France, that have -retained some privileges. - -At first the inhabitants of this country were all either Pagans or -Mahometans; but, when they entered into the service of Poland, they -were baptized Christians of the Roman communion; and now, that they are -in the service of Russia, they belong to the Greek church. - -Amongst these are comprehended the Zaporavian Cossacks, who are much the -same as our Bucaniers, or freebooters, living upon rapine. They are -distinguished from all other people, by never admitting women to live -among them; as the Amazons are said never to have admitted any man. The -women, whom they make use of for propagation, live upon other islands on -the river; they have no marriages amongst them, nor any domestic -economy; they inroll the male children in their militia, and leave the -girls to the care of their mothers. A brother has frequently children by -his sister, and a father by his daughter. They know no other laws than -customs, introduced by necessity: however, they make use of some prayers -from the Greek ritual. Fort St. Elizabeth has been lately built on the -Boristhenes, to keep them in awe. They serve as irregulars in the -Russian armies, and hapless is the fate of those who fall into their -hands. - - -_Of the Governments of_ BELGOROD, WORONITZ, _and_ NISCHGOROD. - -To the north-east of the province of Kiow, between the Boristhenes and -the Tanais, or Don, is the government of Belgorod, which is as large as -that of Kiow. This is one of the most fruitful provinces of Russia, and -furnishes Poland with a prodigious number of that large cattle known by -the name of Ukraine oxen. These two provinces are secured from the -incursions of the petty Tartar tribes, by lines extending from the -Boristhenes to the Tanais, and well furnished with forts and redoubts. - -Farther northward we cross the Tanais, and come into the government of -Worownitz, or Veronise, which extends as far as the banks of the Palus -Mæotis. In the neighbourhood of the capital of this province, which is -called, by the Russians, Woronestch, at the mouth of the river of the -same name, which falls into the Don, Peter the Great built his first -fleet; an undertaking which was at that time entirely new to the -inhabitants of these vast dominions. From thence we come to the -government of Nischgorod, abounding with grain, and is watered by the -river Wolga. - - -ASTRACAN. - -From the latter province we proceed southward to the kingdom of -Astracan. This country reaches from forty-three and a half degrees north -latitude (in a most delightful climate) to near fifty, including about -as many degrees of longitude as of latitude. It is bounded on one side -by the Caspian Sea, and on the other by the mountains of Circassia, -projecting beyond the Caspian, along mount Caucasus. It is watered by -the great river Wolga, the Jaick, and several other lesser streams, -between which, according to Mr. Perry, the English engineer, canals -might be cut, that would serve as reservoirs to receive the overflowing -of the waters; and by that means answer the same purposes as the canals -of the Nile, and make the soil more fruitful: but to the right and left -of the Wolga and Jaick, this fine country was inhabited, or rather -infested, by Tartars, who never apply themselves to agriculture, but -have always lived as strangers and sojourners upon the face of the -earth. - -The above named engineer, Perry, who was employed by Peter the Great in -these parts, found a vast track of land covered with pasture, leguminous -plants, cherry and almond trees, and large flocks of wild sheep, who fed -in these solitary places, and whose flesh was excellent. The inhabitants -of these countries must be conquered and civilized, in order to second -the efforts of nature, who has been forced in the climate of Petersburg. - -The kingdom of Astracan is a part of the ancient Capshak, conquered by -Gengis-Khan, and afterwards by Tamerlane, whose dominion extended as far -as Moscow. The czar, John Basilides, grandson of John Basilowitz, and -the greatest conqueror of all the Russian princes, delivered his country -from the Tartarian yoke, in the sixteenth century, and added the kingdom -of Astracan to his other conquests, in 1554. - -Astracan is the boundary of Asia and Europe, and is so situated as to be -able to carry on a trade with both; as merchandizes may be conveyed from -the Caspian Sea, up to this town, by means of the Wolga. This was one of -the grand schemes of Peter the Great, and has been partly carried into -execution. An entire suburb of Astracan is inhabited by Indians. - - -OREMBURG. - -To the south-east of the kingdom of Astracan, is a small country, newly -planted, called Oremburg. The town of this name was built in the year -1734, on the banks of the river Jaick. This province is thick covered -with hills, that are parts of Mount Caucasus. The passes in these -mountains, and of the rivers that run down from them, are defended by -forts raised at equal distances. In this region, formerly uninhabited, -the Persians come at present, to hide from the rapacity of robbers, -such of their effects as have escaped the fury of the civil wars. The -city of Oremburg is become the asylum of the Persians and their riches, -and is grown considerable by their calamities. The natives of Great -Bukari come hither to trade, so that it is become the mart of Asia. - - -_Of the Government of_ CASAN, _and of_ GREAT PERMIA. - -Beyond the Wolga and Jaick, towards the north, lies the kingdom of -Casan, which, like that of Astracan, fell by partition to one of the -sons of Gengis Khan, and afterwards to a son of Tamerlane, and was at -length conquered by John Basilides. It is still inhabited by a number of -Mahometan Tartars. This vast country stretches as far as Siberia; it is -allowed to have been formerly very flourishing and rich, and still -retains some part of its pristine opulence. A province of this kingdom, -called Great Permia, and since Solikam, was the staple for the -merchandizes of Persia, and the furs of Tartary. There has been found in -Permia a great quantity of the coin of the first Caliphs, and some -Tartarian idols, made of gold;[9] but these monuments of ancient -opulence were found in the midst of barren deserts and extreme poverty, -where there were not the least traces of commerce: revolutions of this -nature may easily happen to a barren country, seeing they are so soon -brought about in the most fruitful provinces. - -The famous Swedish prisoner, Strahlemberg, who made such advantageous -use of his misfortunes, and who examined those extensive countries with -so much attention, was the first who gave an air of probability to a -fact, which before had been always thought incredible; namely, -concerning the ancient commerce of these provinces. Pliny and Pomponius -Mela relate, that, in the reign of Augustus, a king of the Suevi made a -present to Metellus Celer of some Indians who had been cast by a storm -upon the coasts bordering on the Elbe. But how could inhabitants of -India navigate the Germanic seas? This adventure was deemed fabulous by -all our moderns, especially after the change made in the commerce of our -hemisphere by the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. But formerly it -was no more extraordinary to see an Indian trading to the parts to the -north west of his country, than to see a Roman go from India by the way -of Arabia. The Indians went to Persia, and thence embarked on the -Hyrcanian Sea, and ascending the Rha, now the Wolga, got to Great Permia -through the river Kama; from whence they might take shipping again on -the Black Sea, or the Baltic. They have, in all times, been enterprising -men. The Tyrians undertook most surprising voyages. - -If after surveying all these vast provinces, we direct our view towards -the east, we shall find the limits of Europe and Asia again confounded. -A new name is wanting for a considerable part of the globe. The ancients -divided their known world into Europe, Asia, and Africa: but they had -not seen the tenth part of it: hence it happens, that when we pass the -Palus Mæotis we are at a loss to know where Europe ends, or Asia begins; -all that tract of country lying beyond mount Taurus was distinguished by -the general appellation of Scythia, and afterwards by that of Tartary. -It might not be improper, perhaps, to give the name of Terræ Arcticæ, -or Northern Lands, to the country extending from the Baltic Sea to the -confines of China; as that of Terræ Australes, or Southern Lands, are to -that equally extensive part of the world, situated under the Antarctic -Pole, and which serves to counterpoise the globe. - - -_Of the Governments of_ SIBERIA, _of the_ SAMOJEDES, _the_ OSTIAKS -KAMTSHATKA, _&c._ - -Siberia, with the territories beyond it, extends from the frontiers of -the provinces of Archangel, Casan, and Astracan, eastward as far as the -sea of Japan: it joined the southern parts of Russia by Mount Caucasus; -from thence, to the country of Kamtshatka, is about one thousand two -hundred computed French leagues; and from southern Tartary, which serves -as its boundary, to the Frozen Sea, about four hundred, which is the -least breadth of the Russian empire. This country produces the richest -furs; and this occasioned the discovery of it in the year 1563. - -In the sixteenth century, in the reign of the czar, John Basilides, -and not in that of Foedor Johannowitz, a private person in the -neighbourhood of Archangel, named Anika, one tolerably rich for his -condition of life and country, took notice that certain men of an -extraordinary figure, and dressed in a manner unknown to that country, -and who spoke a language understood by none but themselves, came every -year down a river which falls into the Dwina,[10] and brought martens -and black foxes, which they trucked for nails and pieces of glass; just -as the first savages of America used to exchange their gold with the -Spaniards: he caused them to be followed by his sons and servants, as -far as their own country. These were the Samojedes, a people who seem -to resemble the Laplanders, but are of a different race. They are, like -that people, unacquainted with the use of bread; and like them, they -yoke rein-deer to draw their sledges. They live in caverns and huts, -amidst the snow;[11] but in other respects, nature has made a visible -difference between this species of men and the Laplanders. Their upper -jaw projects forward, so as to be on a level with their nose, and their -ears are placed higher. Both the men and women have no hair in any other -part of their bodies, but their heads; and their nipple is of a deep -black, like ebony. The Lapland men and women are distinguished by no -such marks. By memoirs sent from these countries so little known, I have -been informed, that the author of the curious natural history of the -king's garden, is mistaken, where, in speaking of the many curiosities -of human nature, he confounds the Lapland race with that of the -Samojedes. There are many more different species of men than is commonly -thought. The Samojedes, and the Hottentots, seem to be the two extremes -of our continent; and if we observe the black nipples of the Samojedian -women, and the apron with which nature has furnished the Hottentot -females, and which hangs half way down their thighs, we may have some -idea of the great variety of our animal species, a variety unknown to -those inhabiting great cities, who are generally strangers to almost -every thing that is not immediately within their view. - -The Samojedes are as singular in their moral as in their physical -distinctions; they pay no worship to the Supreme Being; they border upon -Manicheism, or rather upon the religion of the ancient Magi in this one -point, that they acknowledge a good and an evil principle. The horrible -climate they inhabit may in some measure excuse this belief, which is of -such ancient date, and so natural to those who are ignorant and unhappy. - -Theft, or murder, is never heard of amongst them; being in a manner -devoid of passions, they are strangers to injustice; they have no terms -in their language to denote vice and virtue, their extreme simplicity -has not yet permitted them to form abstract ideas, they are wholly -guided by pensation, and this is perhaps an incontestable proof that men -naturally love justice, when not blinded by inordinate passions. - -Some of these savages were prevailed on to suffer themselves to be -carried to Moscow, where many things they saw struck them with -admiration. They gazed upon the emperor as their god, and voluntarily -engaged for themselves and countrymen a present of two martens, or -sables, every year for each inhabitant. Colonies were soon settled -beyond the Oby,[12] and the Irtis,[13] and some forts built. In the year -1595, a Cossack officer was sent into this country, who conquered it for -the czar with only a few soldiers and some artillery, as Cortez did -Mexico; but he only made a conquest of barren deserts. - -In sailing up the Oby to the junction of the river Irtis with the Tobol, -they found a petty settlement, which they converted into the town of -Tobol,[14] now the capital of Siberia, and a considerable place. Who -could imagine that this country was for a long time the residence of -those very Huns, who under Attila carried their depredations as far as -the gates of Rome, and that these Huns came from the north of China? The -Usbeck Tartars succeeded the Huns, and the Russians the Usbecks. The -possession of these savage countries has been disputed with as much -murderous fury, as that of the most fruitful provinces. Siberia was -formerly better peopled than it is at present, especially towards the -southern parts; if we may judge from the rivers and sepulchral -monuments. - -All this part of the world, from the sixtieth degree of latitude, or -thereabouts, as far as those mountains of perpetual ice which border the -north seas, is totally different from the regions of the temperate zone, -the earth produces neither the same plants, nor the same animals, nor -are there the same sort of fishes in their lakes and rivers. - -Below the country of the Samojedes lies that of the Ostiaks, along the -river Oby. These people have no resemblance in any respect with the -Samojedes, save that like them and all the first race of men, they are -hunters, fishermen, and shepherds; some of them have no religion, not -being formed into any society, and the others who live together in herds -or clans, have a kind of worship, and pray to the principal object of -their wants; they adore the skin of a sheep, because this creature is of -all others the most serviceable to them; just as the Egyptian husbandmen -made choice of an ox, as an emblem of the Deity who created that -creature for the use of man. - -The Ostiaks have likewise other idols, whose origin and worship are as -little deserving our notice as their worshippers. There were some -converts to Christianity made amongst them in the year 1712; but these, -like the lowest of our peasants, are Christians without knowing what -they profess. Several writers pretend that these people were natives of -Great Permia, but as Great Permia is in a manner a desert, how comes it -that its inhabitants should settle themselves at such a distance, and so -inconveniently? This is a difficulty not worth clearing up. Every nation -which has not cultivated the polite arts, deserves to remain in -obscurity. - -In the country of the Ostiaks in particular, and amongst their -neighbours the Burates and Jakutians, they often discover a kind of -ivory under ground, the nature of which is as yet unknown. Some take it -to be a sort of fossil, and others the tooth of a species of elephants, -the breed of which have been destroyed: but where is the country that -does not afford some natural productions, which at once astonish and -confound philosophy. - -Several mountains in this country abound with the amianthes or asbestos, -a kind of incombustible flax, of which a sort of cloth and paper is -sometimes made. - -To the south of the Ostiaks are the Burates, another people, who have -not yet been made Christians. Eastward there are several hordes, whom -the Russians have not as yet entirely subdued. - -None of these people have the least knowledge of the calendar: they -reckon their time by snows, and not by the apparent motion of the sun: -as it snows regularly, and for a long time every winter, they say, 'I am -so many snows old,' just as we say, I am so many years. - -And here I must relate the accounts given by the Swedish officer -Strahlemberg, who was taken prisoner in the battle of Pultowa, and lived -fifteen years in Siberia, and made the entire tour of that country. He -says, that there are still some remains of an ancient people, whose skin -is spotted or variegated with different colours, and that he himself had -seen some of them, and the fact has been confirmed to me by Russians -born at Tobolsky. The variety of the human species seems to be greatly -diminished, as we find very few of these extraordinary people, and they -have probably been exterminated by some other race: for instance there -are very few Albinos, or White Moors; one of them was presented to the -academy of sciences at Paris, which I saw. It is the same with respect -to several other species of animals which are rare. - -As to the Borandians, of whom mention is made so frequently in the -learned history of the king's garden, my memoirs say, that this race of -people is entirely unknown to the Russians. - -All the southern part of these countries is peopled by numerous hordes -of Tartars. The ancient Turks came from this part of Tartary to conquer -these extensive countries, of which they are at present in possession. -The Calmucs and Monguls are the very Scythians who, under Madies, made -themselves masters of Upper Asia, and conquered Cyaxares, king of the -Medes. They are the men, whom Gengis Khan and his sons led afterwards as -far as Germany, and was termed the Mogul empire under Tamerlane. These -people afford a lively instance of the vicissitudes which have happened -to all nations; some of their hordes, so far from being formidable now, -are become vassals to Russia. - -Among these is a nation of Calmucs, dwelling between Siberia and the -Caspian Sea, where, in the year 1720, there was discovered a -subterraneous house of stone, with urns, lamps, earrings, an equestrian -statue of an oriental prince, with a diadem on his head, two women -seated on thrones, and a roll of manuscripts, which were sent by Peter -the Great to the academy of inscriptions at Paris, and proved to be -written in the Thibet language: all these are striking proofs, that the -liberal arts formerly resided in this now barbarous country, and are -lasting evidences of the truth of what Peter the Great was wont several -times to say, viz. that the arts had made the tour of the globe. - -The last province is Kamtshatka, the most eastern part of the continent. -The inhabitants were absolutely void of all religion when they were -first discovered. The north part of this country likewise affords fine -furs, with which the inhabitants clothed themselves in winter, though -they went naked all the summer season. The first discoverers were -surprised to find in the southern parts men with long beards, while in -the northern parts, from the country of the Samojedes, as far as the -mouth of the river Amur, they have no more beards than the Americans. -Thus, in the empire of Russia, there is a greater number of different -species, more singularities, and a greater diversity of manners and -customs, than in any country in the known world. - -The first discovery of this country was made by a Cossack officer, who -went by land from Siberia to Kamtshatka, in 1701, by order of Peter the -Great, who, notwithstanding his misfortune at Narva, still continued to -extend his care from one extremity of the continent to the other. -Afterwards, in 1725, some time before death surprised him, in the midst -of his great exploits, he sent Captain Bering, a Dane, with express -orders to find out, if possible, a passage by the sea of Kamtshatka, to -the coast of America. Bering did not succeed in his first attempt; but -the empress Anne sent him out again in 1733. M. Spengenberg, captain of -a ship, his associate in this voyage, set out the first from Kamtshatka, -but could not put to sea till the year 1739, so much time was taken up -in getting to the port where they were to embark, in building and -fitting out the ships, and providing the necessaries. Spengenberg sailed -as far as the north part of Japan, through a streight, formed by a long -chain of islands, and returned without having discovered the passage. - -In 1741, Bering cruised all over this sea, in company with De Lisle de -la Croyere, the astronomer, of the same family of L'Isle, which has -produced such excellent geographers: another captain likewise went upon -the same discovery. They both made the coast of America, to the -northward of California. Thus the north-east passage, so long sought -after, was at length discovered, but there were no refreshments to be -met with in those barren coasts. Their fresh water failed them, and part -of the crew perished with the scurvy. They saw the northern bank of -California for above a hundred miles, and saw some leathern canoes, with -just such a sort of people in them as the Canadians. All their -endeavours however proved fruitless: Bering ended his life in an island, -to which he gave his name. The other captain, happening to be closer in -with the Californian coast, sent ten of his people on shore, who never -returned. The captain, after waiting for them in vain, found himself -obliged to return back to Kamtshatka, and De Lisle died as he was going -on shore. Such are the disasters that have generally attended every new -attempt upon the northern seas. But what advantages may yet arise from -these powerful and dangerous discoveries, time alone can prove. - -We have now described all the different provinces that compose the -Russian dominions, from Finland to the sea of Japan. The largest parts -of this empire have been all united at different times, as has been the -case in all other kingdoms in the world. The Scythians, Huns, -Massagetes, Slavians, Cimbrians, Getes, and Sarmatians, are now subjects -of the czar. The Russians, properly so called, are the ancient Roxolani -or Slavi. - -Upon reflection, we shall find that most states were formed in the same -manner. The French are an assemblage of Goths, of Danes called Normands, -of northern Germans, called Burgundians; of Franks, Allmans, and some -Romans, mixed with the ancient Celtæ. In Rome and Italy there are -several families descended from the people of the North, but none that -we know of from the ancient Romans. The supreme pontiff is frequently -the offspring of a Lombard, a Goth, a Teuton, or a Cimbrian. The -Spaniards are a race of Arabs, Carthaginians, Jews, Tyrians, Visigoths, -and Vandals, incorporated with the ancient inhabitants of the country. -When nations are thus intermixed, it is a long time before they are -civilized, or even before their language is formed. Some, indeed, -receive these sooner, others later. Polity and the liberal arts are so -difficult to establish, and the new raised structure is so often -destroyed by revolutions, that we may wonder all nations are not so -barbarous as Tartars. - - - - -CHAP. II. - - Continuation of the description of Russia, population, finances, - armies, customs, religion: state of Russia before Peter the Great. - - -The more civilized a country is, the better it is peopled. Thus China -and India are more populous than any other empires, because, after a -multitude of revolutions, which changed the face of sublunary affairs, -these two nations made the earliest establishments in civil society: the -antiquity of their government, which has subsisted upwards of four -thousand years, supposes, as we have already observed, many essays and -efforts in preceding ages. The Russians came very late; but the arts -having been introduced amongst them in their full perfection, it has -happened, that they have made more progress in fifty years, than any -other nation had done before them in five hundred. The country is far -from being populous, in proportion to its extent; but, such as it is, it -has as great a number of inhabitants as any other state in Christendom. -From the capitation lists, and the register of merchants, artificers, -and male peasants, I might safely assert, that Russia, at present, -contains at least twenty-four millions of male inhabitants: of these -twenty-four millions, the greatest part are villains or bondmen, as in -Poland, several provinces of Germany, and formerly throughout all -Europe. The estate of a gentleman in Russia and Poland is computed, not -by his increase in money, but by the number of his slaves. - -The following is a list, taken in 1747, of all the males who paid the -capitation or poll-tax:-- - - Merchants or tradesmen 198000 - - Handicrafts 16500 - - Peasants incorporated with the merchants and handicrafts 1950 - - Peasants called Odonoskis, who contribute to maintain the - militia 430220 - - Others who do not contribute thereto 26080 - - Workmen of different trades, whose parents are not known 1000 - - Others who are not incorporated with the companies of - tradesmen 4700 - - Peasants immediately dependent on the crown, about 555000 - - Persons employed in the mines belonging to the crown, - partly Christians, partly Mahometans and Pagans 64000 - - Other peasants belonging to the crown, who work in the - mines, and in private manufactories 24200 - - New converts to the Greek church 57000 - - Tartars and Ostiaks (peasants) 241000 - - Mourses, Tartars, Mordauts, and others, whether Pagans - or Christians, employed by the admiralty 7800 - - Tartars subject to contribution, called Tepteris, - Bobilitz, &c. 28900 - - Bondmen to several merchants, and other privileged persons, - who though not landholders, are allowed to have slaves 9100 - - Peasants in the lands set apart for the support of the crown 418000 - - Peasants on the lands belonging to her majesty, - independently of the rights of the crown 60500 - - Peasants on the lands confiscated to the crown 13600 - - Bondmen belonging to the assembly of the clergy, and who - defray other expenses 37500 - - Bondmen belonging to gentlemen 3550000 - - Bondmen belonging to bishops 116400 - - Bondmen belonging to convents, whose numbers were reduced - by Peter the Great 721500 - - Bondmen belonging to cathedral and parish churches 23700 - - Peasants employed as labourers in the docks of the - admiralty, or in other public works, about 4000 - - Labourers in the mines, and in private manufactures 16000 - - Peasants on the lands assigned to the principal - manufactures 14500 - - Labourers in the mines belonging to the crown 3000 - - Bastards brought up by the clergy 40 - - Sectaries called Raskolniky 2200 - ------- - Total 6646390 - ------- - -Here we have a round number of six millions six hundred forty-six -thousand three hundred and ninety male persons, who pay the poll-tax. In -this number are included boys and old men, but girls and women are not -reckoned, nor boys born between the making of one register of the lands -and another. Now, if we only reckon triple the number of heads subject -to be taxed, including women and girls, we shall find near twenty -millions of souls. - -To this number we may add the military list, which amounts to three -hundred and fifty thousand men: besides, neither the nobility nor -clergy, who are computed at two hundred thousand, are subject to this -capitation. - -Foreigners, of whatever country or profession, are likewise exempt: as -also the inhabitants of the conquered countries, namely, Livonia, -Esthonia, Ingria, Carelia, and a part of Finland, the Ukraine, and the -Don Cossacks, the Calmucks, and other Tartars, Samojedes, the -Laplanders, the Ostiaks, and all the idolatrous people of Siberia, a -country of greater extent than China. - -By the same calculation, it is impossible that the total of the -inhabitants of Russia should amount to less than twenty-four millions. -At this rate, there are eight persons to every square mile. The English -ambassador, whom I have mentioned before, allows only five; but he -certainly was not furnished with such faithful memoirs as those with -which I have been favoured. - -Russia therefore is exactly five times less populous than Spain, but -contains near four times the number of inhabitants: it is almost as -populous as France or Germany; but, if we consider its vast extent, the -number of souls is thirty times less. - -There is one important remark to be made in regard to this enumeration, -namely, that out of six million six hundred and forty thousand people -liable to the poll-tax, there are about nine hundred thousand that -belong to the Russian clergy, without reckoning either the ecclesiastics -of the conquered countries, of the Ukraine, or of Siberia. - -Therefore, out of seven persons liable to the poll-tax, the clergy have -one; but, nevertheless, they are far from possessing the seventh part of -the whole revenues of the state, as is the case in many other kingdoms, -where they have at least a seventh of all estates; for their peasants -pay a capitation to the sovereign; and the other taxes of the crown of -Russia, in which the clergy have no share, are very considerable. - -This valuation is very different from that of all other writers, on the -affairs of Russia; so that foreign ministers, who have transmitted -memoirs of this state to their courts, have been greatly mistaken. The -archives of the empire are the only things to be consulted. - -It is very probable, that Russia has been better peopled than it is at -present; before the small-pox, that came from the extremities of Arabia, -and the great-pox that came from America, had spread over these -climates, where they have now taken root. The world owes these two -dreadful scourges, which have depopulated it more than all its wars, the -one to Mahomet, and the other to Christopher Columbus. The plague, which -is a native of Africa, seldom approached the countries of the North: -besides, the people of those countries, from Sarmatia to the Tartars, -who dwell beyond the great wall, having overspread the world by their -irruptions, this ancient nursery of the human species must have been -surprisingly diminished. - -In this vast extent of country, there are said to be about seventy-four -thousand monks, and five thousand nuns, notwithstanding the care taken -by Peter the Great to reduce their number; a care worthy the legislator -of an empire where the human race is so remarkably deficient. These -thirteen thousand persons, thus immured and lost to the state, have, as -the reader may have observed, seventy-two thousand bondmen to till their -lands, which is evidently too great a number: there cannot be a stronger -proof how difficult it is to eradicate abuses of a long standing. - -I find, by a list of the revenues of the empire in 1735, that reckoning -the tribute paid by the Tartars, with all taxes and duties in money, the -sum total amounted to thirteen millions of rubles, which makes -sixty-five millions of French livres, exclusive of tributes in kind. -This moderate sum was at that time sufficient to maintain three hundred -and thirty-nine thousand five hundred, as well sea as land forces: but -both the revenues and troops are augmented since that time. - -The customs, diets, and manners of the Russians, ever bore a greater -affinity to those of Asia than to those of Europe: such was the old -custom of receiving tributes in kind, of defraying the expenses of -ambassadors on their journeys, and during their residence in the -country, and of never appearing at church, or in the royal presence with -a sword; an oriental custom, directly the reverse of that ridiculous and -barbarous one amongst us, of addressing ourselves to God, to our king, -to our friends, and to our women, with an offensive weapon, which hangs -down to the bottom of the leg. The long robe worn on public days, had a -more noble air than the short habits of the western nations of Europe. A -vest lined and turned up with fur, with a long scimar, adorned with -jewels for festival days; and those high turbans, which add to the -stature, were much more striking to the eye than our perukes and close -coats, and more suitable to cold climates; but this ancient dress of all -nations seems to be not so well contrived for war, nor so convenient for -working people. Most of their other customs were rustic; but we must not -imagine, that their manners were so barbarous as some writers would have -us believe. Albert Krants relates a story of an Italian ambassador, whom -the czar ordered to have his hat nailed to his head, for not pulling it -off while he was making his speech to him. Others attribute this -adventure to a Tartar, and others again to a French ambassador. - -Olearius pretends, that the czar Michael Theodorowitz, banished the -marquis of Exideüil, ambassador from Henry IV. of France, into Siberia; -but it is certain, that this monarch sent no ambassador to Moscow, and -that there never was a marquis of Exideüil in France. In the same manner -do travellers speak about the country of Borandia, and of the trade they -have carried on with the people of Nova Zémbla, which is scarcely -inhabited at all, and the long conversations they have had with some of -the Samojedes, as if they understood their language. Were the enormous -compilations of voyages to be cleared of every thing that is not true -nor useful in them, both the works and the public would be gainers by -it. - -The Russian government resembled that of the Turks, in respect to the -standing forces, or guards, called Strelitzes, who, like the -janissaries, sometimes disposed of the crown, and frequently disturbed -the state as much as they defended it. Their number was about forty -thousand. Those who were dispersed in the provinces, subsisted by rapine -and plunder; those in Moscow lived like citizens, followed trades, did -no duty, and carried their insolence to the greatest excess: in short, -there was no other way to preserve peace and good order in the kingdom, -but by breaking them; a very necessary, and at the same time a very -dangerous step. - -The public revenues did not exceed five millions of rubles, or about -twenty-five millions of French livres. This was sufficient when czar -Peter came to the crown to maintain the ancient mediocrity, but was not -a third part of what was necessary to go certain lengths, and to render -himself and people considerable in Europe: but at the same time many of -their taxes were paid in kind, according to the Turkish custom, which -is less burthensome to the people than that of paying their tributes in -money. - - -OF THE TITLE OF CZAR. - -As to the title of czar, it may possibly come from the tzars or tchars -of the kingdom of Casan. When John, or Ivan Basilides, completed the -conquest of this kingdom in the sixteenth century, which had been begun -by his grandfather, who afterwards lost it, he assumed this title, which -his successors have retained ever since. Before John Basilides, the -sovereign of Russia, took the title of Welike Knez, i. e. great prince, -great lord, great chief, which the Christian nations afterwards rendered -by that of great duke. Czar Michael Theodorowitz, when he received the -Holstein embassy, took to himself the following titles: 'Great knez, and -great lord, conservator of all the Russias, prince of Wolodomer, Moscow, -Novogorod, &c. tzar of Casan, tzar of Astracan, and tzar of Siberia.' -Tzar was, therefore, a title belonging to these eastern princes; and, -therefore, it is more probable to have been derived from the tshas of -Persia, than from the Roman Cæsars, whom the Siberian tzars, on the -banks of the Oby, can hardly be supposed to have ever heard. - -No title, however pompous, is of any consequence, if those who bear it -are not great and powerful themselves. The word emperor, which -originally signified no more than general of the army, became the title -of the sovereign of the Roman republic: it is now given to the supreme -governor of all the Russias, more justly than to any other potentate, if -we consider the power and extent of his dominions. - - -RELIGION. - -The established religion of this country has, ever since the eleventh -century, been that of the Greek church, so called in opposition to the -Latin; though there were always a greater number of Mahometan and Pagan -provinces, than of those inhabited by Christians. Siberia, as far as -China, was in a state of idolatry; and, in some of the provinces, they -were utter strangers to all kind of religion. - -Perry, the engineer, and baron Strahlemberg, who both resided so many -years in Russia, tell us, that they found more sincerity and probity -among the Pagans than the other inhabitants; not that paganism made them -more virtuous, but their manner of living, which, was that of the -primitive ages, as they are called, freed them from all the tumultuous -passions; and, in consequence, they were known for their integrity. - -Christianity did not get footing in Russia and the other countries of -the North, till very late. It is said, that a princess, named Olha, -first introduced it, about the end of the tenth century, as Clotilda, -niece to an Arian prince, did among the Franks; the wife of Miceslaus, -duke of Poland, among the Poles; and the sister of the emperor Henry II. -among the Hungarians. Women are naturally easily persuaded by the -ministers of religion, and as easily persuade the other part of mankind. - -It is further added, that the princess Olha caused herself to be -baptized at Constantinople, by the name of Helena; and that, as soon as -she embraced Christianity, the emperor John Zimisces fell in love with -her. It is most likely that she was a widow; however, she refused the -emperor. The example of the princess Olha, or Olga, as she is called, -did not at first make many proselytes. Her son,[15] who reigned a long -time, was not of the same way of thinking as his mother, but her -grandson, Wolodomer, who was born of a concubine, having murdered his -brother and mounted the throne, sued for the alliance of Basiles, -emperor of Constantinople, but could obtain it only on condition of -receiving baptism: and this event, which happened in the year 987, is -the epocha when the Greek church was first established in Russia. -Photius, the patriarch, so famous for his immense erudition, his -disputes with the church of Rome, and for his misfortunes, sent a person -to baptize Wolodomer, in order to add this part of the world to the -patriarchal see.[16] - -Wolodimer, or Wolodomer, therefore completed the work which his -grandmother had begun. A Greek was made the first metropolitan, or -patriarch of Russia; and from this time the Russians adopted an -alphabet, taken partly from the Greek. This would have been of advantage -to them, had they not still retained the principles of their own -language, which is the Sclavonian in every thing, but a few terms -relating to their liturgy and church government. One of the Greek -patriarchs, named Jeremiah, having a suit depending before the divan, -came to Moscow to solicit it; where, after some time, he resigned his -authority over the Russian churches, and consecrated patriarch, the -archbishop of Novogorod, named Job. This was in the year 1588, from -which time the Russian church became as independent as its empire. The -patriarch of Russia has ever since been consecrated by the Russian -bishops, and not by the patriarch of Constantinople. He ranked in the -Greek church next to the patriarch of Jerusalem, but he was in fact the -only free and powerful patriarch; and, consequently, the only real one. -Those of Jerusalem, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, are mercenary -chiefs of a church, enslaved by the Turks; and even the patriarchs of -Jerusalem and Antioch are no longer considered as such, having no more -credit or influence in Turkey, than the rabbins of the Jewish synagogues -settled there. - -It was from a person who was a patriarch of all the Russias, that Peter -the Great was descended in a right line. These new prelates soon wanted -to share the sovereign authority with the czars. They thought it not -enough that their prince walked bare-headed, once a year before the -patriarch, leading his horse by the bridle. These external marks of -respect only served to increase their thirst for rule; a passion which -proved the source of great troubles in Russia, as well as in other -countries. - -Nicon, a person whom the monks look upon as a saint, and who was -patriarch in the reign of Alexis, the father of Peter the Great, wanted -to raise his dignity above that of the throne; for he not only assumed -the privilege of sitting by the side of the czar in the senate, but -pretended that neither war nor peace could be made without his consent. -His authority was so great, that, being supported by his immense wealth, -and by his intrigues with the clergy and the people, he kept his master -in a kind of subjection. He had the boldness to excommunicate some -senators who opposed his excessive insolence; till at last, Alexis, -finding himself not powerful enough to depose him by his own authority, -was obliged to convene a synod of all the bishops. There the patriarch -was accused of having received money from the Poles; and being -convicted, was deposed, and confined for the remainder of his days in a -monastery, after which the prelates chose another patriarch in his -stead. - -From the first infancy of Christianity in Russia, there have been -several sects there, as well as in other countries; for sects are as -frequently the fruits of ignorance, as of pretended knowledge: but -Russia is the only Christian state of any considerable extent, in which -religion has not excited civil wars, though it has felt some occasional -tumults. - -The Raskolnikys, who consist at present of about two thousand males, and -who are mentioned in the foregoing list,[17] are the most ancient sect -of any in this country. It was established in the twelfth century, by -some enthusiasts, who had a superficial knowledge of the New Testament: -they made use then, and still do, of the old pretence of all sectaries, -that of following the letter, and accused all other Christians of -remissness. They would not permit a priest, who had drank brandy, to -confer baptism; they affirmed, in the words of our Saviour, that there -is neither a first nor a last, among the faithful; and held, that one of -the elect might kill himself for the love of his Saviour. According to -them it is a great sin to repeat the hallelujah three times; and, -therefore, repeat it only twice. The benediction is to be given only -with three fingers. In other respects, no society can be more regular, -or strict in its morals. They live like the quakers, and, like them, do -not admit any other Christians into their assemblies, which is the -reason that these have accused them of all the abominations of which the -heathens accused the primitive Galileans: these latter, the gnostics, -and with which the Roman catholics have charged the protestants. They -have been frequently accused of cutting the throat of an infant, and -drinking its blood; and of mixing together in their private ceremonies, -without distinction of kindred, age, or even of sex. They have been -persecuted at times, and then they shut themselves up in their hamlets, -set fire to their houses, and thrown themselves into the flames. Peter -took the only method of reclaiming them, which was by letting them live -in peace. - -But to conclude, in all this vast empire, there are but twenty-eight -episcopal sees; and in Peter's time there were but twenty-two. This -small number was, perhaps, one of the causes to which the Russian church -owes its tranquillity. So very circumscribed was the knowledge of the -clergy, that czar Theodore, brother to Peter the Great, was the first -who introduced the custom of singing Psalms in churches. - -Theodore and Peter, especially the latter, admitted indifferently, into -their councils and their armies, those of the Greek, the Latin, the -Lutheran, and the Calvinist communion, leaving every one at liberty to -serve God after his own conscience, provided he did his duty to the -state. At that time there was not one Latin church in this great empire -of two thousand leagues, till Peter established some new manufactures at -Astracan, when there were about sixty Roman catholic families, under the -direction of the capuchins; but the jesuits endeavouring to establish -themselves in his dominions, he drove them out by an edict, published in -the month of April, 1718. He tolerated the capuchins as an insignificant -set of monks, but considered the jesuits as dangerous politicians. - -The Greek church has at once the honour and satisfaction to see its -communion extended throughout an empire of two thousand leagues in -length, while that of Rome is not in possession of half that tract in -Europe. Those of the Greek communion have, at all times, been -particularly attentive to maintain an equality between theirs and the -Latin church; and always upon their guard against the zeal of the see of -Rome, which they look upon as ambition; because, in fact, that church, -whose power is very much circumscribed in our hemisphere, and yet -assumes the title of universal, has always endeavoured to act up to that -title. - -The Jews never made any settlements in Russia, as they have done in most -of the other states of Europe, from Constantinople to Rome. The Russians -have carried on their trade by themselves, or by the help of the nations -settled amongst them. Theirs is the only country of the Greek communion, -where synagogues are not seen by the side of Christian temples. - - -_Conclusion of the State of_ RUSSIA _before_ PETER _the_ GREAT. - -Russia is indebted solely to czar Peter for its great influence in the -affairs of Europe; being of no consideration in any other reign, since -it embraced Christianity. Before this period, the Russians made the same -figure on the Black Sea, that the Normans did afterwards on the coasts -of the ocean. In the reign of the emperor Heraclius, they fitted out an -armament of forty thousand small barks; appeared before Constantinople, -which they besieged, and imposed a tribute on the Greek emperors; but -the grand knez Wolodimar, being wholly taken up with the care of -establishing Christianity in his dominions, and wearied out with -intestine broils in his own family, weakened his dominions by dividing -them between his children. They almost all fell a prey to the Tartars, -who held Russia in subjection near two hundred years. At length John -Basilides freed it from slavery, and enlarged its boundaries: but, after -his time, it was ruined again by civil wars. - -Before the time of Peter the Great, Russia was neither so powerful, so -well cultivated, so populous, nor so rich as at present. It had no -possessions in Finland, nor in Livonia; and this latter alone had long -been worth more than all Siberia. The Cossacks were still unsubjected, -nor were the people of Astracan reduced to obedience; what little trade -was carried on, was rather to their disadvantage. The White Sea, the -Baltic, the Pontus Euxinus, the sea of Azoph, and the Caspian Sea, were -entirely useless to a nation that had not a single ship, nor even a term -in their language to express a fleet. If nothing more had been wanting -but to be superior to the Tartars, and the other nations of the north, -as far as China, the Russians undoubtedly had that advantage, but they -were to be brought upon an equality with civilized nations, and to be in -a condition, one day, of even surpassing several of them. Such an -undertaking appeared altogether impracticable, inasmuch as they had not -a single ship at sea, and were absolutely ignorant of military -discipline by land: nay, the most common manufactures were hardly -encouraged, and agriculture itself, that _primum mobile_ of trade, was -neglected. This requires the utmost attention and encouragement on the -part of a government; and it is to this that the English are indebted, -for finding in their corn a treasure far superior to their woollen -manufacture. - -This gross neglect of the necessary arts, sufficiently shews that the -people of Russia had no idea of the polite arts, which become necessary, -in their turn, when we have cultivated the others. They might indeed, -have sent some of the natives to gain instruction among foreigners, but -the difference of languages, manners, and religion, opposed it. Besides, -there was a law of state and religion, equally sacred and pernicious, -which prohibited any Russian from going out of his country, and thus -seemed to devote this people to eternal ignorance. They were in -possession of the most extensive dominions in the universe, and yet -every thing was wanted amongst them. At length Peter was born, and -Russia became a civilized state. - -Happily, of all the great lawgivers who have lived in the world, Peter -is the only one whose history is well known. Those of Theseus and -Romulus, who did far less than him, and of the founders of all -well-governed states, are blended with the most absurd fictions: whereas -here, we have the advantage of written truths, which would pass for -fictions, were they not so well attested. - - - - -CHAP. III. - - The ancestors of Peter the Great. - - -The family of Peter the Great have been in possession of the throne ever -since the year 1613. Before that time, Russia had undergone revolutions, -which had retarded the reformation of her police, and the introduction -of the liberal arts. This has been the fate of all human societies. No -kingdom ever experienced more cruel troubles. In the year 1597, the -tyrant Boris Godonow assassinated Demetrius (or Demetri, as he was -called), the lawful heir, and usurped the empire. A young monk took the -name of Demetrius, pretending to be that prince who had escaped from his -murderers; and with the assistance of the Poles, and a considerable -party (which every tyrant has against him), he drove out the usurper, -and seized the crown himself. The imposture was discovered as soon as he -came to the sovereignty, because the people were not pleased with him; -and he was murdered. Three other false Demetrius's started up, one after -another. Such a succession of impostors, supposes a country in the -utmost distraction. The less men are civilized, the more easily they are -imposed on. It may readily be conceived, how much these frauds augmented -the public confusion and misfortunes. The Poles, who had begun the -revolutions, by setting up the first false Demetrius, were on the point -of being masters of Russia. The Swedes shared in the spoils on the coast -of Finland, and laid claim to the crown. The state seemed on the verge -of utter destruction. - -In the midst of these calamities, an assembly, composed of the principal -boyards, chose for their sovereign a young man of fifteen years of age: -this happened in 1613, and did not seem a very likely method of putting -an end to these troubles. This young man was Michael Romanow,[18] -grandfather to czar Peter, and son to the archbishop of Rotow, surnamed -Philaretes, and of a nun, and related by the mother's side to the -ancient czars. - -It must be observed, that this archbishop was a powerful nobleman, whom -the tyrant Boris had obliged to become priest. His wife, Scheremetow, -was likewise compelled to take the veil; this was the ancient custom of -the western tyrants of the Latin church, as that of putting out the eyes -was with the Greek Christians. The tyrant Demetrius made Philaretes -archbishop of Rostow, and sent him ambassador to Poland, where he was -detained prisoner by the Poles, who were then at war with the Russians; -so little was the law of nations known to the different people of these -times. During his father's confinement, young Romanow was elected czar. -The archbishop was exchanged against some Polish prisoners; and, at his -return, his son created him patriarch, and the old man was in fact king, -under his son's name. - -If such a government appears extraordinary to strangers, the marriages -of czar Michael Romanow, will seem still more so. The Russian princes -had never intermarried with foreign states since the year 1490, or after -they became masters of Casan and Astracan; they seem to have followed -the Asiatic customs in almost every thing, and especially in that of -marrying only among their own subjects. - -This conformity to the ancient customs of Asia, was still more -conspicuous at the ceremonies observed at the marriage of a czar. A -number of the most beautiful women in the provinces were sent for to -court, where they were received by the grand gouvernante of the court, -who provided apartments for them in her own house, where they all eat -together. The czar paid them visits, sometimes incognito, and sometimes -in his real character. The wedding-day was fixed, without its being -declared on whom the choice had fallen. At the appointed time, the -happy she was presented with a rich wedding-suit, and other dresses -were given to the rest of the fair candidates, who then returned home. -There have been four instances of these marriages. - -In this manner was Michael Romanow espoused to Eudocia, the daughter of -a poor gentleman, named Streschneu. He was employed in ploughing his -grounds with his servants, when the lords of the bed-chamber came to him -with presents from the czar, and to acquaint him that his daughter was -placed on the throne. The name of the princess is still held in the -highest veneration by the Russians. This custom is greatly different -from ours, but not the less respectable on that account. - -It is necessary to observe, that before Romanow was elected czar, a -strong party had made choice of prince Ladislaus, son to Sigismund III. -king of Poland. At the same time, the provinces bordering on Sweden had -offered the crown to a brother of Gustavus Adolphus: so that Russia was -in the same situation then in which we have so frequently seen Poland, -where the right of electing a king has been the source of civil wars. -But the Russians did not follow the example of the Poles, who entered -into a compact with the prince whom they elected; notwithstanding they -had smarted from the oppression of tyrants, yet they voluntarily -submitted to a young man, without making any conditions with him. - -Russia never was an elective kingdom; but the male issue of the ancient -sovereigns failing, and six czars, or pretenders, having perished -miserably in the late troubles, there was, as we have observed, a -necessity for electing a monarch; and this election occasioned fresh -wars with Poland and Sweden, who maintained, with force of arms, their -pretended rights to the crown of Russia. The right of governing a nation -against its own will, can never be long supported. The Poles, on their -side, after having advanced as far as Moscow, and exercised all the -ravages in which the military expeditions of those times chiefly -consisted, concluded a truce for fourteen years. By this truce, Poland -remained in possession of the duchy of Smolensko, in which the -Boristhenes has its source. The Swedes also made peace, in virtue of -which they remained in possession of Ingria, and deprived the Russians -of all communication with the Baltic Sea, so that this empire was -separated more than ever from the rest of Europe. - -Michael Romanow, after this peace, reigned quietly, without making any -alteration in the state, either to the improvement or corruption of the -administration. After his death, which happened in 1645, his son, Alexis -Michaelowitz (or son of Michael), ascended the throne by hereditary -right. It may be observed, that the czars were crowned by the patriarch -of Russia, according to the ceremonies in use at Constantinople, except -that the patriarch of Russia, was seated on the same ascent with the -sovereign, and constantly affected an equality highly insulting to the -supreme power. - - -ALEXIS MICHAELOWITZ. - -Alexis was married in the same manner as his father, and from among the -young women presented, he chose the one who appeared the most amiable in -his eyes. He married a daughter of the boyard Meloslauski, in 1647; his -second wife, whom he married in 1671, was of the family of Nariskin, and -his favourite Morosow was married to another. There cannot be a more -suitable title found for this favourite than that of vizier, for he -governed the empire in a despotic manner; and, by his great power, -excited several commotions among the strelitzes and the populace, as -frequently happens at Constantinople. - -The reign of Alexis was disturbed by bloody insurrections, and by -domestic and foreign wars. A chief of the Don Cossacks, named -Stenko-Rasin, endeavoured to make himself king of Astracan, and was for -a long time very formidable; but, being at length defeated and taken -prisoner, he ended his life by the hands of the executioner; like all -those of this stamp, who have nothing to expect but a throne or a -scaffold. About twelve thousand of his adherents are said to have been -hanged on the high road to Astracan. In this part of the world, men -being uninfluenced by morality, were to be governed only by rigour; and -from this severity, frequently carried on to a degree of cruelty, arose -slavery, and a secret thirst of revenge. - -Alexis had a war with the Poles that proved successful, and terminated -in a peace, which secured to him the possession of Smolensko, Kiow, and -the Ukraine: but he was unfortunate against the Swedes, and the -boundaries of the Russian empire were contracted within a very narrow -compass on that side of the kingdom. - -The Turks were at that time his most formidable enemies: they invaded -Poland, and threatened the dominions of the czar that bordered upon Crim -Tartary, the ancient Taurica Chersonesus. In 1671, they took the -important city of Kaminiek, and all that belonged to Poland in the -Ukraine. The Cossacks of that country, ever averse to subjection, knew -not whether they belonged to the Turks, Poland, or Russia. Sultan -Mahomet IV. who had conquered the Poles, and had just imposed a tribute -upon them, demanded, with all the haughtiness of an Ottoman victor, that -the czar should evacuate his possessions in the Ukraine, but received as -haughty a denial from that prince. Men did not know at that time how to -disguise their pride, by an outside of civility. The sultan, in his -letter, styled the sovereign of the Russias only Christian Hospodar, and -entitled himself 'most gracious majesty, king of the universe.' The czar -replied in these terms, 'that he scorned to submit to a Mahometan dog, -and that his scimetar was as good as the grand seignior's sabre.' - -Alexis at that time formed a design which seemed to presage the -influence which the Russian empire would one day obtain in the Christian -world. He sent ambassadors to the pope, and to almost all the great -sovereigns in Europe, excepting France (which was in alliance with the -Turks), in order to establish a league against the Ottoman Porte. His -ambassadors at the court of Rome succeeded only in not being obliged to -kiss the pope's toe; and in other courts they met with only unprofitable -good wishes; the quarrels of the Christian princes between themselves, -and the jarring interests arising from those quarrels, having constantly -prevented them from uniting against the common enemy of Christianity. - -In the mean time, the Turks threatened to chastise the Poles, who -refused to pay their tribute: czar Alexis assisted on the side of Crim -Tartary, and John Sobieski, general of the crown, wiped off his -country's stain in the blood of the Turks, at the famous battle of -Choczim,[19] in 1674, which paved his way to the throne. Alexis -disputed this very throne with him, and proposed to unite his extensive -dominions to Poland, as the Jagellons had done; but in regard to -Lithuania, the greatness of his offer was the cause of its being -rejected. He is said to have been very deserving of the new kingdom, by -the manner in which he governed his own. He was the first who caused a -body of laws to be digested in Russia, though imperfect; and introduced -both linen and silk manufactures, which indeed were not long kept up; -nevertheless, he had the merit of their first establishment. He peopled -the deserts about the Wolga and the Kama, with Lithuanian, Polish, and -Tartarian families, whom he had taken prisoners in his wars: before his -reign, all prisoners of war were the slaves of those to whose lot they -fell. Alexis employed them in agriculture: he did his utmost endeavours -to introduce discipline among his troops. In a word, he was worthy of -being the father of Peter the Great; but he had no time to perfect what -he had begun, being snatched away by a sudden death, at the age of -forty-six, in the beginning of the year 1677, according to our style, -which is eleven days forwarder than that of Russia. - - -FOEDOR, or THEODORE ALEXIOWITZ. - -Upon the death of Alexis, son of Michael, all fell again into confusion. -He left, by his first marriage, two princes, and six princesses. -Theodore, the eldest, ascended the throne at fifteen years of age. He -was a prince of a weak and sickly constitution, but of merit superior to -his bodily infirmities. His father Alexis had caused him to be -acknowledged his successor, a year before his death: a conduct observed -by the kings of France from Hugh Capet down to Lewis the Young, and by -many other crowned heads. - -The second son of Alexis was Iwan, or John, who was still worse treated -by nature than his brother Theodore, being almost blind and dumb, very -infirm, and frequently attacked with convulsions. Of six daughters, born -of this first marriage, the only one who made any figure in Europe was -the princess Sophia, who was remarkable for her great talents; but -unhappily still more so for the mischief she intended against Peter the -Great. - -Alexis, by his second marriage with another of his subjects, daughter of -the boyard Nariskin, had Peter and the princess Nathalia. Peter was born -the 30th of May (or the 10th of June new stile), in the year 1672, and -was but four years old when he lost his father. As the children of a -second marriage were not much regarded in Russia, it was little expected -that he would one day mount the throne. - -It had ever been the character of the family of Romanow to civilize -their state. It was also that of Theodore. We have already remarked, in -speaking of Moscow, that this prince encouraged the inhabitants of that -city to build a great number of stone houses. He likewise enlarged that -capital, and made several useful regulations in the general police; but, -by attempting to reform the boyards, he made them all his enemies: -besides, he was not possessed of sufficient knowledge, vigour, or -resolution, to venture upon making a general reformation. The war with -the Turks, or rather with the Crim Tartars, in which he was constantly -engaged with alternate success, would not permit a prince of his weak -state of health to attempt so great a work. Theodore, like the rest of -his predecessors, married one of his own subjects, a native of the -frontiers of Poland; but having lost her in less than a year after -their nuptials, he took for his second wife, in 1682, Martha Matweowna, -daughter of the secretary Nariskin.[20] Some months after this marriage, -he was seized with the disorder which ended his days, and died without -leaving any children. As the czars married without regard to birth, they -might likewise (at least at that time) appoint a successor without -respect to primogeniture. The dignity of consort and heir to the -sovereign seemed to be entirely the reward of merit; and, in that -respect, the custom of this empire was much preferable to the customs of -more civilized states. - -Theodore, before he expired, seeing that his brother Iwan was by his -natural infirmities incapable of governing, nominated his younger -brother Peter, heir to the empire of Russia. Peter, who was then only in -his tenth year, had already given the most promising hopes. - -If, on the one hand, the custom of raising a subject to the rank of -czarina, was favourable to the females, there was another which was no -less hard upon them; namely, that the daughters of the czars were very -seldom married, but were most of them obliged to pass their lives in a -monastery. - -The princess Sophia, third daughter of czar Alexis, by his first -marriage, was possessed of abilities, equally great and dangerous. -Perceiving that her brother Theodore had not long to live, she did not -retire to a convent; but finding herself situated between two brothers, -one of whom was incapable of governing, through his natural inability; -and the other, on account of his youth, she conceived the design of -placing herself at the head of the empire. Hence, in the last hours of -czar Theodore, she attempted to act the part that Pulcheria had formerly -played with her brother, the emperor Theodosius. - - - - -CHAP. IV. - - JOHN AND PETER. - - Horrible Sedition among the Strelitzes.[21] - - -[Sidenote: 1682.] - -Czar Theodore's eyes were scarcely closed, when the nomination of a -prince of only ten years old to the throne, the exclusion of the elder -brother, and the intrigues of the princess Sophia, their sister, excited -a most bloody revolt among the strelitzes. Never did the janissaries, -nor the prætorian guards, exercise more horrible barbarities. The -insurrection began two days after the interment of Theodore, when they -all ran to arms in the Kremlin, which is the imperial palace at Moscow. -There they began with accusing nine of their colonels, for keeping back -part of their pay. The ministry was obliged to break the colonels, and -to pay the strelitzes the money they demanded: but this did not satisfy -them, they insisted upon having these nine officers delivered up to -them, and condemned them, by a majority of votes, to suffer the Battogs, -or Knout; the manner of which punishment is as follows:-- - -The delinquent is stripped naked, and laid flat on his belly, while two -executioners beat him over the back with switches, or small canes, till -the judge, who stands by to see the sentence put in execution, says, 'It -is enough.' The colonels, after being thus treated by their men, were -obliged to return them thanks, according to the custom of the eastern -nations; where criminals, after undergoing their punishment, must kiss -the judge's hand. Besides complying with this custom, the officers gave -them a sum of money, which was something more than the custom. - -While the strelitzes thus began to make themselves formidable, the -princess Sophia, who secretly encouraged them, in order to lead them by -degrees from crime to crime, held a meeting at her house, consisting of -the princesses of the blood, the generals of the army, the boyards, the -patriarch, the bishops, and even some of the principal merchants; where -she represented to them, that prince John, by right of birth and merit, -was entitled to the empire, the reins of which she intended to keep in -her own hands. At the breaking up of the assembly, she caused a promise -to be made to the strelitzes, of an augmentation of pay, besides -considerable presents. Her emissaries were in particular employed to -stir up the soldiery against the Nariskin family, especially the two -brothers of the young dowager czarina, the mother of Peter the First. -These persuaded the strelitzes, that one of the brothers, named John, -had put on the imperial robes, had seated himself on the throne, and had -attempted to strangle prince John; adding, moreover, that the late czar -Theodore had been poisoned by a villain, named Daniel Vongad, a Dutch -physician. At last Sophia put into their hands a list of forty noblemen, -whom she stiled enemies to their corps, and to the state, and as such -worthy of death. These proceedings exactly resembled the proscriptions -of Sylla, and the Roman triumvirate, which had been revived by -Christian II. in Denmark and Sweden. This may serve to shew, that such -cruelties prevail in all countries in times of anarchy and confusion. -The mutineers began the tragedy with throwing the two knez, or princes, -Dolgorouki and Matheof, out of the palace-windows; whom the strelitzes -received upon the points of their spears, then stripped them, and -dragged their dead bodies into the great square; after this they rushed -into the palace, where meeting with Athanasius Nariskin, a brother of -the young czarina, and one of the uncles of czar Peter, they murdered -him in like manner; then breaking open the door of a neighbouring -church, where three of the proscribed persons had taken refuge, they -drag them from the altar, strip them naked, and stab them to death with -knives. - -They were so blinded with their fury, that seeing a young nobleman of -the family of Soltikoff, a great favourite of theirs, and who was not -included in the list of the proscribed, and some of them mistaking him -for John Nariskin, whom they were in search of, they murdered him upon -the spot; and what plainly shews the manners of those times, after -having discovered their error, they carried the body of young Soltikoff, -to his father to bury it; and the wretched parent, far from daring to -complain, gave them a considerable reward for bringing him the mangled -body of his son. Being reproached by his wife, his daughters, and the -widow of the deceased, for his weakness, 'Let us wait for an opportunity -of being revenged,' said the old man. These words being overheard by -some of the soldiers, they returned furiously back into the room, -dragged the aged parent by the hair, and cut his throat at his own door. - -Another party of the strelitzes, who were scouring the city in search -of the Dutch physician, Vongad, met with his son, of whom they inquired -for his father; the youth trembling, replied, he did not know where he -was, upon which they immediately dispatched him. Soon after, a German -physician falling in their way, 'You are a doctor,' said they, 'and if -you did not poison our master, Theodore, you have poisoned others, and -therefore merit death;' and thereupon killed him. - -At length they found the Dutchman, of whom they were in quest, disguised -in the garb of a beggar; they instantly drag him before the palace. The -princesses who loved this worthy man, and placed great confidence in his -skill, begged the strelitzes to spare him, assuring them that he was a -very good physician, and had taken all possible care of their brother -Theodore. The strelitzes made answer, that he not only deserved to die -as a physician, but also as a sorcerer; and that they had found in his -house, a great dried toad, and the skin of a serpent. They furthermore -required to have young Nariskin delivered up to them, whom they had -searched for in vain for two days: alleging, that he was certainly in -the palace, and that they would set fire to it, unless he was put into -their hands. The sister of John Nariskin, and the other princesses, -terrified by their menaces, went to acquaint their unhappy brother in -the place of his concealment, with what had passed; upon which the -patriarch heard his confession, administers the viaticum, and extreme -unction to him, and then, taking an image of the blessed Virgin, which -was said to perform miracles, he leads the young man forth by the hand, -and presents him to the strelitzes, shewing them, at the same time, the -image of the Virgin. The princesses, who in tears surrounded Nariskin, -falling upon their knees before the soldiers, besought them, in the name -of the blessed Virgin, to spare their relation's life; but the inhuman -wretches tore him from their arms, and dragged him to the foot of the -stairs, together with the physician Vongad, where they held a kind of -tribunal among themselves, and condemned them both to be put to the -torture. One of the soldiers, who could write, drew up a form of -accusation, and sentenced the two unfortunate princes to be cut in -pieces; a punishment inflicted in China and Tartary on parricides, and -called the punishment of ten thousand slices. After having thus used -Nariskin and Vongad, they exposed their heads, feet, and hands, on the -iron points of a balustrade. - -While this party of the strelitzes were thus glutting their fury in the -sight of the princesses, the rest massacred every one who was obnoxious -to them, or suspected by the princess Sophia. - -This horrid tragedy concluded with proclaiming the two princes, John and -Peter, in June, 1682, joint sovereigns, and associating their sister -Sophia with them, in the quality of co-regent; who then publicly -approved of all their outrages, gave them rewards, confiscated the -estates of the proscribed, and bestowed them upon their murderers. She -even permitted them to erect a monument, with the names of the persons -they had murdered, as being traitors to their country: and to crown all, -she published letters-patent, thanking them for their zeal and -fidelity. - - - - -CHAP. V. - - Administration of the princess Sophia. Extraordinary quarrel about - religion. A conspiracy. - - -Such were the steps by which the princess Sophia did in effect ascend -the throne of Russia, though without being declared czarina; and such -the examples that Peter the First had before his eyes. Sophia enjoyed -all the honours of a sovereign; her bust was on the public coin; she -signed all dispatches, held the first place in council, and enjoyed a -power without control. She was possessed of a great share of -understanding, and some wit; made verses in the Russian language, and -both spoke and wrote extremely well. These talents were set off by the -addition of an agreeable person, and sullied only by her ambition. - -She procured a wife for her brother John, in the manner already -described in several examples. A young lady named Soltikoff, of the -family with the nobleman of that name who had been assassinated by the -seditious strelitzes, was sent for from the heart of Siberia, where her -father commanded a fortress, to be presented to czar John at Moscow. Her -beauty triumphed over all the intrigues of her rivals, and John was -married to her in 1684. At every marriage of a czar we seem to read the -history of Ahasuerus, or that of Theodosius the Younger. - -In the midst of the rejoicings on account of this marriage, the -strelitzes raised a new insurrection, and (who would believe it?) on -account of religion! of a particular tenet! Had they been mere soldiers, -they would never have become controvertists, but they were also -citizens of Moscow. Whosoever has, or assumes a right of speaking in an -authoritative manner to the populace, may found a sect. This has been -seen in all ages, and all parts of the world, especially since the -passion of dogmatizing has become the instrument of ambition, and the -terror of weak minds. - -Russia had experienced some previous disturbances on occasion of a -dispute, whether the sign of the cross was to be made with three -fingers, or with two! One Abakum, who was also a priest, had set up some -new tenets at Moscow, in regard to the Holy Spirit; which according to -the Scriptures, enlightened all the faithful; as likewise with respect -to the equality of the primitive Christians, and these words of -Christ:--'There shall be amongst you neither first nor last.' Several -citizens and many of the strelitzes, embraced the opinions of Abakum. -One Raspop[22] was the chief of this party, which became considerable. -The sectaries, at length, entered (July 16, 1682, new stile) the -cathedral, where the patriarch and his clergy were officiating; drove -them out of the church with stones, and seated themselves very devoutly -in their places, to receive the Holy Spirit. They called the patriarch -the 'ravenous wolf in the sheepfold;' a title which all sects have -liberally bestowed on each other. The princess Sophia, and the two -czars, were immediately made acquainted with these disturbances: and the -other strelitzes, who were staunch to the good old cause, were given to -understand, that the czars and the church were in danger. Upon this the -strelitzes and burghers of the patriarchal party attacked the -Abakumists: but a stop was put to the carnage, by publishing a -convocation of a council, which was immediately assembled in a hall of -the palace. This took up very little time, for they obliged every priest -they met to attend. The patriarch, and a bishop, disputed against -Raspop; but at the second syllogism, they began to throw stones at one -another. The council ended with ordering Raspop, and some of his -faithful disciples to have their heads struck off; and the sentence was -executed by the sole order of the three sovereigns, Sophia, John, and -Peter. - -During these troubles, there was a knez, named Chowanskoi, who having -been instrumental in raising the princess Sophia to the dignity she then -held, wanted, as a reward for his services, to have a share in the -administration. - -It may be supposed, that he found Sophia not so grateful as he could -wish; upon which he espoused the cause of religion, and the persecuted -Raspopians, and stirred up a party among the strelitzes and the people, -in defence of God's name. - -This conspiracy proved a more serious affair than the enthusiastic riot -of Raspop. An ambitious hypocrite always carries things farther than a -simple fanatic. Chowanskoi aimed at no less than the imperial dignity; -and to rid himself of all cause of fear, he resolved to murder the two -czars, Sophia, the other princesses, and every one who was attached to -the imperial family. The czars and the princesses were obliged to retire -to the monastery of the Holy Trinity, within twelve leagues of -Petersburg.[23] This was, at the same time, a convent, a palace, and a -fortress, like Mount Cassino,[24] Corhy,[25] Fulda,[26] Kempten,[27] -and several others belonging to the Latin church. This monastery of the -Trinity belongs to the monks of St. Basil. It is surrounded by deep -ditches, and ramparts of brick, on which is planted a numerous -artillery. The monks are possessed of all the country round for four -leagues. The imperial family were in full safety there, but more on -account of the strength, than the sanctity of the place. Here Sophia -treated with the rebel knez; and having decoyed him half way, caused his -head to be struck off, together with those of one of his sons, and -thirty-seven strelitzes who accompanied him. - -[Sidenote: 1682.] - -The body of strelitzes upon this news, fly to arms, and march to attack -the convent of Trinity, threatening to destroy every thing that came in -their way. The imperial family stood upon their defence; the boyards arm -their vassals, all the gentlemen flocked in, and a bloody civil war -seemed on the point of beginning. The patriarch somewhat pacified the -strelitzes, who began to be intimidated with the number of troops that -were marching towards them on all sides: in short, their fury was -changed into fear, and their fear into the most abject submission; a -change common to the multitude. Three thousand seven hundred of this -corps, followed by their wives and children, with ropes tied about their -necks, went in procession to the convent of the Trinity, which three -days before they had threatened to burn to the ground. In this -condition, these unhappy wretches present themselves before the gate of -the convent, two by two, one carrying a block and another an axe; and -prostrating themselves on the ground, waited for their sentence. They -were pardoned upon their submission, and returned back to Moscow, -blessing their sovereigns; and still disposed, though unknown to -themselves, to commit the same crime upon the very first opportunity. - -These commotions being subsided, the state resumed an exterior of -tranquillity; but Sophia still remained possessed of the chief -authority, leaving John to his incapacity, and keeping Peter in the -subjection of a ward. In order to strengthen her power, she shared it -with Prince Basil Galitzin, whom she created generalissimo, minister of -state, and lord keeper. Galitzin was in every respect superior to any -person in that distracted court: he was polite, magnificent, full of -great designs, more learned than any of his countrymen, as having -received a much better education, and was even master of the Latin -tongue, which was, at that time, almost entirely unknown in Russia. He -was of an active and indefatigable spirit, had a genius superior to the -times he lived in, and capable, had he had leisure and power, as he had -inclination, to have changed the face of things in Russia. This is the -eulogium given of him by La Neuville, at that time the Polish envoy in -Russia; and the encomiums of foreigners are seldom to be suspected. - -This minister bridled the insolence of the strelitzes, by distributing -the most mutinous of that body among the several regiments in the -Ukraine, in Casan, and Siberia. It was under his administration that the -Poles, long the rivals of Russia, gave up, in 1686, all pretensions to -the large provinces of Smolensko and the Ukraine. He was the first who -sent an embassy to France, in 1687; a country which had, for upwards of -twenty years, been in the zenith of its glory, by the conquests, new -establishments, and the magnificence of Lewis XIV. and especially by the -improvement of the arts, there can be not only external grandeur, but -solid glory. France had not then entered into any correspondence with -Russia, or rather was unacquainted with that empire; and the academy of -inscriptions ordered a medal to be struck to commemorate this embassy, -as if it had come from the most distant part of the Indies; but -notwithstanding all this, the ambassador Dolgorouski miscarried in his -negotiation, and even suffered some gross affronts on account of the -behaviour of his domestics, whose mistakes it would have been better to -have overlooked; but the court of Lewis XIV. could not then foresee, -that France and Russia would one day reckon among the number of their -advantages, that of being cemented by the closest union. - -Russia was now quiet at home, but she was still pent up on the side of -Sweden, though enlarged towards Poland, her new ally, in continual -alarms on the side of Crim Tartary, and at variance with China in regard -to the frontiers. - -The most intolerable circumstance for their empire, and which plainly -shewed, that it had not yet attained to a vigorous and regular -administration, was, that the khan of the Crim Tartars exacted an annual -tribute of 6000 rubles, in the nature of that which the Turk had imposed -on the Poles. - -Crim Tartary is the ancient Taurica Chersonesus, formerly so famous by -the commerce of the Greeks, and still more by their fables, a fruitful -but barbarous country. It took its name of Crimea, or Crim, from the -title of its first khans, who took this name before the conquests of the -sons of Gengis Khan. To free his country from this yoke, and wipe off -the disgrace of such tribute, the prime minister, Galitzin, marched in -person (1687, 1688,) into Crim Tartary, at the head of a numerous army. -These armies were not to be compared to the present troops; they had no -discipline; there was hardly one regiment completely armed; they had no -uniform clothing, no regularity: their men indeed were inured to hard -labour and a scarcity of provisions, but then they carried with them -such a prodigious quantity of baggage, as far exceeded any thing of the -kind in our camps, where the greatest luxury prevails. Their vast -numbers of waggons for carrying ammunition and provisions, in an -uninhabitable and desert country, greatly retarded the expedition -against Crim Tartary. The army found itself in the midst of the vast -deserts, on the river Samara, unprovided with magazines. Here Galitzin -did what in my opinion, was never done any where else: he employed -thirty thousand men in building a town on the banks of the Samara, to -serve as a place for magazines in the ensuing campaign: it was begun in -one year, and finished in the third month of the following; the houses -indeed were all wood except two, which were brick; the ramparts were of -turf, but well lined with artillery; and the whole place was in a -tolerable state of defence. - -This was all that was done of any consequence in this ruinous -expedition. In the mean while Sophia continued to govern in Moscow, -while John had only the name of czar; and Peter, now at the age of -seventeen, had already the courage to aim at real sovereignty. La -Neuville, the Polish envoy, then resident at Moscow, and who was -eye-witness to all that passed, pretends that Sophia and Galitzin had -engaged the new chief of the strelitzes, to sacrifice to them their -young czar: it appears, at least, that six hundred of these strelitzes -were to have made themselves masters of his person. The private memoirs -which have been entrusted to my perusal by the court of Russia, affirm, -that a scheme had actually been laid to murder Peter the First: the blow -was on the point of being struck, and Russia for ever deprived of the -new existence she has since received. The czar was once more obliged to -take refuge in the convent of the Trinity, the usual asylum of the court -when threatened by the soldiers. There he assembled the boyards of his -party, raised a body of forces, treats with the captains of the -strelitzes, and called in the assistance of certain Germans, who had -been long settled in Moscow, and were all attached to his person from -his having already shewn himself the encourager of strangers. Sophia and -John, who continued at Moscow, used every means to engage the strelitzes -to remain firm to their interests; but the cause of young Peter, who -loudly complained of an attempt meditated against himself and his -mother, prevailed over that of the princess, and of a czar, whose very -aspect alienated all hearts. All the acomplices were punished with a -severity to which that country was as much accustomed as to the crimes -which occasioned it. Some were beheaded after undergoing the punishment -of the knout or battocks. The chief of the strelitzes was put to death -in the same manner, and several other suspected persons had their -tongues cut out. Prince Galitzin escaped with his life, through the -intercession of one of his relations, who was a favourite of czar Peter; -but he was stripped of all his riches, which were immense, and banished -to a place in the neighbourhood of Archangel. La Neuville, who was -present at the whole of this catastrophe, relates, that the sentence -pronounced upon Galitzin was in these terms: 'Thou art commanded, by the -most clement czar, to repair to Karga, a town under the pole, and there -to continue the remainder of thy days. His majesty, out of his extreme -goodness, allows thee three pence per day for thy subsistence.' - -There is no town under the pole. Karga is in the 62nd degree of -latitude, and only six degrees and a half further north than Moscow. -Whoever pronounced this sentence must have been a very bad geographer. -La Neuville was probably imposed upon by a false account. - -1689.] At length the princess Sophia was once more sent back to her -monastery at Moscow,[28] after having so long held the reins of -government; and this revolution proved, to a woman of her disposition, a -sufficient punishment. - -From this instant Peter began to reign in reality; his brother John -having no other share in the government, but that of seeing his name to -all public acts. He led a retired life, and died in 1696. - - - - -CHAP. VI. - - The reign of Peter the First.--Beginning of the grand reformation. - - -Peter the Great was tall, genteel, well made, with a noble aspect, -piercing eyes and a robust constitution, fitted for all kinds of -hardship and bodily exercise. He had a sound understanding, which is the -basis of all real abilities; and to this was joined an active -disposition, which prompted him to undertake and execute the greatest -things. His education was far from being worthy of his genius. The -princess Sophia was, in a peculiar manner, interested to let him remain -in ignorance, and to indulge himself in those excesses which youth, -idleness, custom, and the high rank he held, made but too allowable. -Nevertheless, he had been lately married, (June 1689) like others of his -predecessors, to one of his own subjects, the daughter of colonel -Lapuchin; but, as he was young, and for some time enjoyed none of the -prerogatives of the crown, but that of indulging his pleasures without -restraint, the ties of wedlock were not always sufficient to keep him -within just bounds. The pleasures of the table, in which he indulged -himself rather too freely, with foreigners, who had been invited to -Moscow by prince Galitzin, seemed not to presage that he would one day -become the reformer of his country; however, in spite of bad examples, -and even the allurements of pleasure, he applied himself to the arts of -war and government, and which, even then, shewed that he had the seeds -of greatness in him. - -It was still less expected, that a prince, who was subject to such a -constitutional dread of water, as to subject him to cold sweats, and -even convulsions, when he was obliged to cross a small river or brook, -should become one of the best seamen in all the north. In order to -get the better of nature, he began by jumping into the water, -notwithstanding the horror he felt at it, till at length this aversion -was changed into a fondness for that element.[29] - -He often blushed at the ignorance in which he had been brought up. He -learned, almost of himself, without the help of a master, enough of -German and high Dutch, to be able to write and explain himself tolerably -well in both those languages. The Germans and Dutch appeared to him as -the most civilized nations, because the former had already erected, in -Moscow, some of those arts and manufactures which he was desirous of -seeing established in his empire, and the latter excelled in the art of -navigation, which he already began to look upon as the most necessary of -all others. - -Such were the dispositions which Peter cherished, notwithstanding the -follies of his youth. At the same time, he found himself disturbed by -factions at home, had the turbulent spirit of the strelitzes to keep -under, and an almost uninterrupted war to manage against the Crim -Tartars. For though hostilities had been suspended in 1689, by a truce, -it had no long continuance. - -During this interval, Peter became confirmed in his design of -introducing the arts into his country. - -His father Alexis had, in his lifetime, entertained the same views, but -he wanted leisure, and a favourable opportunity to carry them into -execution; he transmitted his genius to his son, who was more -clear-sighted, more vigorous, and more unshaken by difficulties and -obstacles. - -Alexis had been at a great expense in sending for Bothler,[30] a ship -builder and sea captain, from Holland, together with a number of -shipwrights and sailors. These built a large frigate and a yacht upon -the Wolga, which they navigated down that river to Astracan, where they -were to be employed in building more vessels, for carrying on an -advantageous trade with Persia, by the Caspian Sea. Just at this time -the revolt of Stenko-Rasin broke out, and this rebel destroyed these two -vessels, which he ought to have preserved for his own sake, and murdered -the captain; the rest of the crew fled into Persia, from whence they got -to some settlements belonging to the Dutch East India company. A -master-builder, who was a good shipwright, staid behind in Russia, where -he lived a long time in obscurity. - -One day, Peter taking a walk at Ishmaelof, a summer-palace built by his -grandfather, he perceived, among several other rarities, an old English -shallop, which had lain entirely neglected: upon which he asked -Timmerman, a German, and his mathematical teacher, how came that little -boat to be of so different a construction from any he had seen on the -Moska? Timmerman replied, that it was made to go with sails and oars. -The young prince wanted instantly to make a trial of it; but it was -first to be repaired and rigged. Brant, the ship-builder abovementioned, -was by accident found out at Moscow, where he lived retired; he soon put -the boat in order, and worked her upon the river Yauza, which washes the -suburbs of the town. - -Peter caused his boat to be removed to a great lake, in the -neighbourhood of the convent of the Trinity; he likewise made Brant -build two more frigates, and three yachts, and piloted them himself. A -considerable time afterwards, viz. in 1694, he made a journey to -Archangel, and having ordered a small vessel to be built in that port, -by the same Brant, he embarked therein on the Frozen Sea, which no -sovereign beside himself had ever beheld. On this occasion, he was -escorted by a Dutch man of war, under the command of captain Jolson, and -attended by all the merchant-vessels then in the port of Archangel. He -had already learned the manner of working a ship; and, notwithstanding -the pains his courtiers took to imitate their master, he was the only -one who made a proficiency in it. - -He found it no less difficult to raise a well disciplined body of land -forces, on whom he could depend, than to establish a navy. His first -essay in navigation, on a lake, previous to his journey to Archangel, -was looked upon only as the amusements of a young prince of genius; and -his first attempt to form a body of disciplined troops, likewise -appeared as nothing more than that of diversion. This happened during -the regency of the princess Sophia; and, had he been suspected of -meaning any thing serious by this amusement, it might have been attended -with fatal consequences to him. - -He placed his confidence in a foreigner, the celebrated Le Fort, of a -noble and ancient family in Piedmont, transplanted near two centuries -ago to Geneva, where they have filled the most considerable posts in the -state. He was intended to have been brought up to the trade, to which -the town is indebted for the figure it now makes; having formerly been -known only as the seat of religious controversies. - -But his genius, which prompted him to the greatest undertakings, engaged -him to quit his father's house at the age of fourteen; and he served -four months[31] in quality of a cadet in the citadel of Marseilles; from -thence he went to Holland, where he served some time as a volunteer, and -was wounded at the siege of Grave, a strong fortified town on the Meuse, -which the prince of Orange, afterwards king of England, retook from -Lewis XIV. in 1674. After this, led by hopes of preferment, wherever he -could find it, he embarked with a German colonel, named Verstin, who had -obtained a commission from Peter's father, the czar Alexis, to raise -soldiers in the Netherlands, and bring them to Archangel. But, when he -arrived at that port, after a most fatiguing and dangerous navigation, -the czar Alexis was no more; the government was changed, and Russia in -confusion. The governor of Archangel suffered Verstin, Le Fort, and his -whole troop, to remain a long time, in the utmost poverty and distress, -and even threatened to send them into the extremity of Siberia; upon -which every man shifted for himself. Le Fort, in want of every thing, -repaired to Moscow, where he waited upon the Danish resident, named De -Horn, who made him his secretary: there he learned the Russian language, -and some time afterwards found means to be introduced to the czar Peter; -the elder brother, Iwan, not being a person for his purpose. Peter was -taken with him, and immediately gave him a company of foot. Le Fort had -seen very little service, he knew but little of letters, not having -studied any particular art or science; but he had seen a great deal, and -had a talent of making the most of what he saw. Like the czar, he owed -every thing to his own genius; he understood the German and Dutch -languages, which Peter was learning, as those of two nations that might -be of service in his designs. Every thing conspired to make him -agreeable to Peter, to whom he strictly attached himself. From being the -companion of his pleasures, he became his favourite, and confirmed -himself in that station by his abilities. The czar made him his -confidant in the most dangerous design that a prince of that country -could possibly form, namely, that of putting himself in a condition to -be able one day to break the seditious and barbarous body of forces -called the strelitzes. It had cost the great sultan or basha Osman his -life, for attempting to disband the janissaries. Peter, young as he was, -went to work in a much abler manner than Osman. - -He began with forming, at his country-seat at Preobrazinski, a company -of fifty of his youngest domestics; and some young gentlemen, the sons -of boyards, were chosen for their officers: but, in order to teach these -young noblemen a subordination, to which they were wholly unaccustomed, -he made them pass through all the different military degrees, and -himself set them the example, by serving first as a drum, then as a -private soldier, a serjeant, and a lieutenant of the company. Nothing -was ever more extraordinary, nor more useful, than this conduct. The -Russians had hitherto made war in the same manner as our ancestors at -the time of the feudal tenures, when the unexperienced nobles took the -field at the head of their vassals, undisciplined, and ill armed: a -barbarous method, sufficient indeed to act against the like armies, but -of no use against regular troops. - -This company, which was formed wholly by Peter himself, soon increased -in numbers, and became afterwards the regiment of Preobrazinski guards. -Another regiment, formed on the same plan, became in time the regiment -of Semeniousky guards. - -The czar had already a regiment of five thousand men that could be -depended upon, trained by general Gordon, a Scotchman, and composed -almost entirely of foreigners. Le Fort, who had borne arms but a short -time, but whose capacity was equal to every thing, undertook to raise a -regiment of twelve thousand men, which he effected: five colonels were -appointed to serve under him, and he saw himself on a sudden general of -this little army, which had been raised, as much to oppose the -strelitzes, as the enemies of the state. - -One thing worthy of being remarked,[32] and which fully confutes the -hasty error of those who pretend that France lost very few of its -inhabitants by the revocation of the edict of Nantz, is, that one-third -of his army, which was only called a regiment, consisted of French -refugees. Le Fort disciplined his new troops, as if he had been all his -lifetime a soldier. - -Peter was desirous of seeing one of those images of war, the mock -fights, which had lately been introduced in times of peace: a fort was -erected, which was to be attacked by one part of his new troops, and -defended by the other. The difference between this fight, and others of -the like nature, was, that instead of a sham engagement, there was a -real one, in which some of his men were slain, and a great many -wounded.[33] Le Fort, who commanded the attack, received a considerable -wound. These bloody sports were intended to initiate the young troops -into the service of the field; but it required much labour, and even -some degree of sufferings to compass this end. - -These warlike amusements did not take off the czar's attention to his -naval project. As he had made Le Fort a general by land, notwithstanding -his having never borne a command; he now made him admiral, though he had -never had the direction of a ship, but he knew him deserving both of the -one and the other. It is true, that he was an admiral without a fleet, -and a general with only his regiment for an army. - -By degrees the czar reformed that great abuse in the army, viz. the -independence of the boyards, who, in time of war, used to bring into the -field a multitude of their vassals and peasants: this was exactly the -ancient government of the Franks, Huns, Goths, and Vandals, who indeed -subdued the Roman empire in its state of decline, but would have been -totally destroyed, had they had the warlike disciplined legions of -ancient Rome to encounter, or such armies as are now brought into the -field. - -Admiral Le Fort was not long, however, before he had something more than -an empty title. He employed some Dutchmen and Venetians in building a -number of barcolongos, or kind of long barks, and also two ships of -about thirty guns each, at the mouth of the Woronitz, which falls into -the Tanais, or Don: these vessels were to fall down the river, and keep -in awe the Crim Tartars, with whom hostilities had been renewed. - -The czar was now to determine (in 1689) against which of the following -powers he would declare war, whether against the Turks, the Swedes, or -the Chinese. But here it will be proper to premise on what terms he then -stood with China, and which was the first treaty of peace concluded by -that nation. - - - - -CHAP. VII. - - Congress and Treaty with the Chinese.[34] - - -We must set out by forming a proper idea of the limits of the Chinese -and Russian empires at this period. When we leave Siberia, properly so -called, and also far behind us to the south, a hundred hordes of -Tartars, with white and black Calmucks, and Mahometan and Pagan Monguls, -we come to the 130th degree of longitude, and the 52d of latitude upon -the river Amur.[35] To the northward is a great chain of mountains, that -stretches as far as the Frozen Sea, beyond the polar circle. This -river, which runs upwards of five hundred leagues,[36] through Siberia -and Chinese Tartary, falls, after many windings, into the sea of -Kamtshatka. It is affirmed for a truth, that at its mouth, which opens -with this sea, there is sometimes caught a monstrous fish, much larger -than the hippopotamus of the Nile, and that the tooth thereof is the -finest ivory. It is furthermore said, that this ivory was formerly an -object of trade; that they used to convey it through Siberia, which is -the reason why several pieces of it are still found under the ground in -that country. This is the most probable account of the fossil ivory, of -which we have elsewhere spoken; for it appears highly chimerical to -pretend, that there were formerly elephants in Siberia. - -This Amur is likewise called the Black River by the Mantechoux Tartars, -and the Dragon's River by the Chinese. - -It was in these countries, so long unknown, that the Russians and -Chinese contested the limits of their empires.[37] The Russians had some -forts on the river Amur, about three hundred leagues from the great -wall. Many hostilities had arisen between these two nations on account -of these forts: at length both began to understand their interests -better; the emperor Camhi preferred peace and commerce to an -unprofitable war, and sent several ambassadors to Niptchou, one of -those settlements. The ambassadors had ten thousand men in their -retinue, including their escort: this was Asiatic pomp; but what is very -remarkable, is, that there was not an example in the annals of the -empire, of an embassy being sent to another potentate; and what is still -more singular, that the Chinese had never concluded a treaty of peace -since the foundation of their monarchy. Though twice conquered by the -Tartars, who attacked and subjected them, they never made war upon any -people, excepting a few hordes that were quickly subdued, or as quickly -left to themselves, without any treaty. So that this nation, so renowned -for morality, knew nothing of what we call the 'Law of nations;' that is -to say, of those vague rules of war and peace, of the privileges of -foreign ministers, of the formalities of treaties, nor of the -obligations resulting from thence, nor of the disputes concerning -precedency and point of honour. - -But in what language were the Chinese to negotiate with the Russians, in -the midst of deserts? This difficulty was removed by two jesuits, the -one a Portuguese, named Pereira, the other a Frenchman, whose name was -Gerbillon; they set out from Pekin with the Chinese ambassadors, and -were themselves the real negotiators. They conferred in Latin with a -German belonging to the Russian embassy, who understood this language. -The chief of that embassy was Golowin, governor of Siberia, who -displayed a greater magnificence than the Chinese themselves, and -thereby gave a high idea of the Russian empire, to a people who thought -themselves the only powerful nation under the sun. - -The two jesuits settled the limits of both empires at the river -Kerbechi, near the spot where the treaty was concluded. All the country, -to the southward of this line of partition, was adjudged to the Chinese, -and the north to the Russians, who only lost a small fort which was -found to have been built beyond the limits: a peace was agreed to, and -after some few altercations, both parties swore to observe it, in the -name of the same God;[38] and in these terms, 'If any of us shall -entertain the least thought of kindling anew the flames of war, we -beseech the supreme Lord of all things, and who knows all hearts, to -punish the traitor with sudden death.' - -From this form of treaty, used alike by Chinese and Christians, we may -infer two important truths: the first, that the Chinese government is -neither atheistical nor idolatrous, as has been so frequently and -falsely charged upon it, by contradictory imputations. Secondly, that -all nations, who cultivate the gift of reason and understanding, do, in -effect, acknowledge the same God, notwithstanding the particular -deviations of that reason, through the want of being properly -instructed. - -The treaty was drawn up in Latin, and two copies were made of it. The -Russian ambassadors set their names the first to the copy that remained -in their possession, and the Chinese also signed theirs the first, -agreeable to the custom observed by European nations, when two equal -powers conclude a treaty with each other. On this occasion was observed -another custom belonging to the Asiatic nations, and which was indeed, -that of the earliest ages. The treaty was engraven on two large marble -pillars, erected on the spot, to determine the boundaries of the two -empires. - -Three years after this, the czar sent Isbrand Ides, a Dane, his -ambassador to China; and the commerce he then established between the -two nations, continued with advantage to each, till the rupture between -them in the year 1722; but since this short interruption, it has been -revived with redoubled vigour. - - - - -CHAP. VIII. - - Expedition to the Palus Mæotis; conquest of Azoph.--The czar sends - young gentlemen into foreign countries for improvement. - - -It was not so easy to have peace with the Turks, and indeed, the time -seemed come for the Russians to rise upon their ruins. The republic of -Venice, that had long groaned under their yoke, began now to rouse -itself. The Doge Morosini, the same who had surrendered Candy to the -Turks, afterwards took from them the Peloponnesus, which conquest got -him the title of Peloponnesian, an honour which revived the memory of -the Roman republic. Leopold, emperor of Germany, had proved successful -against the Ottoman power in Hungary; and the Poles made shift to check -the incursions of the Crim Tartars. - -Peter took advantage of these circumstances, to discipline his troops, -and to procure himself the empire of the Black Sea. General Gordon -marched along the Tanais, towards Azoph, with his numerous regiment of -five thousand men, followed by general Le Fort, with his regiment of -twelve thousand; by a body of Strelitzes, under the command of Sheremeto -and Schein, natives of Prussia; by a body of Cossacks, and by a large -train of artillery: in a word, every thing was ready for this -expedition. - -1694.] This grand army began its march under the command of marshal -Sheremeto, or Scheremetoff, in the beginning of the summer of 1695, to -attack the town of Azoph, at the mouth of the Tanais, and at the -extremity of the Palus Mæotis, now called the Zaback Sea. The czar -himself was with the army, but only in quality of a volunteer, being -determined to learn, some time before he took upon him to command. -During their march, they stormed two forts which the Turks had built on -the banks of the river. - -This expedition was attended with some considerable difficulties. The -place was well fortified, and defended by a numerous garrison. A number -of barcolongos, resembling the Turkish saicks, and built by Venetians, -with two small Dutch ships of war, that were to sail out of the -Woronitz, could not be got ready soon enough to enter the sea of Azoph. -All beginnings meet with obstacles. The Russians had never yet made a -regular siege; and the first attempt did not meet with all the success -that could be desired. - -One Jacob, a native of Dantzic, had the direction of the artillery, -under the command of general Schein; for as yet they had none but -foreign officers belonging to the train, and none but foreign engineers -and pilots. This Jacob had been condemned to the bastinade, or _knout_, -by Schein, the Russian general. At that time rigorous discipline was -thought to be the only method of strengthening command; and the Russians -quietly submitted to it, notwithstanding their natural bent to sedition; -and after the punishment, did their duty as usual. But the Dane thought -in a different manner, and resolved to be revenged for the treatment he -had received, and thereupon nailed up the cannon, deserted to the Turks, -turned Mahometan, and defended Azoph, with great success, against his -former masters. This instance shews, that the lenity which is now -practised in Russia, is much preferable to the former severities; and is -better calculated to retain those in their duty, who by a good -education, have a proper sense of honour. It was absolutely necessary at -that time, to use the utmost rigour towards the common people; but since -their manners have been changed, the empress Elizabeth[39] has -completed, by clemency, the work her father begun, by the authority of -the laws. This lenity has even been carried, by this princess, to a -degree unexampled, in the history of any nation. She has promised, that, -during her reign, no person shall be punished with death, and she has -kept her word. She is the first sovereign who ever shewed so much regard -for the lives of men. By an institution, equally prudent and humane, -malefactors are now condemned to serve in the mines, and other public -works: by which means their very punishments prove of service to the -state. In other countries, they know only how to put a criminal to -death, with all the apparatus of execution, without being able to -prevent the perpetration of crimes. The apprehension of death makes, -perhaps, less impression on those miscreants, who are, for the most -part, bred up in idleness, than the fear of punishment and hard labour, -renewed every day. - -To return to the siege of Azoph, which place was now defended by the -same person who had before directed the attacks against it; the -Russians, in vain, attempted to take it by storm; and after losing a -great number of men, were obliged to raise the siege. - -Perseverance in his undertakings, was the distinguishing character of -Peter the Great. In the spring of 1696, he brought a still more -considerable army before Azoph. About this time died czar John, his -brother, who though he had not, while living, been the least curb to -Peter's authority, having enjoyed only the bare title of czar, yet he -had been some restraint upon him in regard to appearances. The money -which had been appropriated to the support of John's dignity and -household, were now applied to the maintenance of the army. This proved -no small help to a government, whose revenues were not near so great as -they are at present. Peter wrote to the emperor Leopold, to the -states-general, and to the elector of Brandenburg, to obtain engineers, -gunners, and seamen. He likewise took some Calmucks into his pay, whose -light horse are very useful against the Crim Tartars. - -The most agreeable of the czar's successes, was that of his little -fleet, which was at length completed, and well commanded. It defeated -the Turkish saicks, sent from Constantinople, and took some of them. The -siege was carried on regularly by trenches, but not altogether in our -method; the trenches being three times deeper than ours, with parapets -as high as ramparts. At length the garrison surrendered, the 28th of -July, 1696. N. S. without being allowed the honours of war, or to carry -out with them either arms or ammunition: they were likewise obliged to -deliver up the renegade, Jacob, to the conquerors. - -The czar immediately set about fortifying Azoph, built strong forts to -protect it, and made a harbour capable of holding large vessels, with a -design to make himself master of the Streights of Caffa, or the -Cimmerian Bosphorus, which commands the entrance into the Pontus -Euxinus, or Black Sea; places famous in ancient times, by the naval -armaments of Mithridates. He left thirty-two armed saicks before -Azoph,[40] and made all the necessary preparations for fitting out a -fleet against the Turks, to consist of nine ships of sixty guns, and of -forty-one, from thirty to fifty. He obliged his principal nobles, and -the richer merchants, to contribute towards this armament; and thinking -that the estates of the clergy ought to help towards the common cause, -he obliged the patriarch, the bishops, and principal clergy, to pay down -a sum of ready money to forward this expedition, in honour of their -country, and the advantage of the Christian faith. The Cossacks were -employed in building a number of those light boats in use amongst them, -and which were excellent for the purpose of cruising on the coast of -Crim Tartary. The Ottoman empire was alarmed at this powerful armament; -the first that had ever been attempted on the Palus Mæotis. The czar's -scheme was to drive the Turks and the Tartars for ever out of the -Taurica Chersonesus, and afterwards to establish a free and easy -commerce with Persia through Georgia. This is the very trade which the -Greeks formerly carried on to Colchos, and to this peninsula of Crim -Tartary, which Peter now seemed on the point of conquering. - -Having subdued the Turks and the Tartars, he was willing to accustom his -people to splendid shows as well as to military labour. He made his -army to enter into Moscow, under triumphal arches, in the midst of -superb fire-works, and every thing that could add to the lustre of the -festival. The soldiers who had fought on board the Venetian saicks -against the Turks, and who were a distinct corps of themselves, marched -first. Marshal Sheremeto, the generals Gordon and Schein, admiral Le -Fort, and the other general officers, all took the precedence of their -monarch in this procession, who declared he had no rank in the army, -being desirous to convince the nobility, by his example, that the only -way to acquire military preferment, was to deserve it.[41] - -This triumphal entry seemed somewhat a-kin to those of the ancient -Romans, in which the conquerors were wont to expose the prisoners they -had taken, to public view, and sometimes put them to death: in like -manner, the slaves, taken in this expedition, follow the army; and the -deserter Jacob, who had betrayed them, was drawn in an open cart, in -which was a gibbet, to which his body was fastened after he had been -broke upon the wheel. - -On this occasion was struck the first medal in Russia, with this -remarkable legend, in the language of the country. 'Peter the First, -august emperor of Muscovy.' On the reverse was the city of Azoph, with -these words; 'Victorious by Fire and Water.' - -Peter felt a sensible concern in the midst of all these successes, that -his ships and gallies in the sea of Azoph, had been built entirely by -the hands of foreigners; and wished as earnestly to have a harbour in -the Baltic Sea, as upon the Pontus Euxinus. - -Accordingly, in the month of March 1677, he sent threescore young -Russians of Le Fort's regiment, into Italy, most of them to Venice, and -the rest to Leghorn, to instruct themselves in the naval art, and the -manner of constructing gallies. He likewise sent forty others into -Holland,[42] to learn the method of building and working large ships: -and others likewise into Germany, to serve in the land forces, and -instruct themselves in the military discipline of that nation. At length -he took a resolution to absent himself for a few years from his own -dominions, in order to learn how to govern them the better. He had an -irresistible inclination to improve himself by his own observation and -practice in the knowledge of naval affairs, and of the several arts -which he was so desirous to establish in his own country. He proposed to -travel _incognito_ through Denmark, Brandenburg, Holland, Vienna, -Venice, and Rome. France and Spain were the only countries he did not -take into his plan; Spain, because the arts he was in quest of, were too -much neglected there; and France, because in that kingdom they reigned -with too much ostentation, and that the parade and state of Lewis XIV. -which had disgusted so many crowned heads, ill agreed with the private -manner in which he proposed to travel. Moreover, he was in alliance -with most of the powers, whose dominions he intended to visit, except -those of France and Rome. He likewise remembered, with some degree of -resentment, the little respect shewn by Lewis XIV. to his embassy in -1687, which had proved more famous than successful; and lastly he -already began to espouse the cause of Augustus, elector of Saxony, with -whom the prince of Conti had lately entered into a competition for the -crown of Poland. - - - - -CHAP. IX. - - Travels of Peter the Great. - - -[Sidenote: 1697.] - -Having thus determined to visit the several countries and courts -above-mentioned in a private character, he put himself into the retinue -of three ambassadors, in the same manner as he had before mingled in the -train of his generals at his triumphant entry into Moscow. - -[43] The three ambassadors were, general Le Fort, the boyard Alexis -Gollowin, commissary-general of war, and governor of Siberia, the same -who signed the perpetual treaty of peace with the plenipotentiaries -of China, on the frontiers of that empire; and Wonitzin, diak, or -secretary of state, who had been long employed in foreign courts. Four -principal secretaries, twelve gentlemen, two pages for each ambassador, -a company of fifty guards, with their officers, all of the regiment -of Preobrazinski, composed the chief retinue of this embassy, which -consisted in the whole of two hundred persons; and the czar, reserving -to himself only one valet de chambre, a servant in livery, and a dwarf, -mingled with the crowd. It was a thing unparalleled in history, for a -king of five-and-twenty years of age, to quit his dominions, in order -to learn the art of governing. His victory over the Turks and Tartars, -the splendour of his triumphant entry into Moscow, the number of foreign -troops attached to his service, the death of his brother John, his -co-partner in the empire, and the confinement of the princess Sophia to -a cloister, and above all the universal respect shewn to his person, -seemed to assure him the tranquillity of his kingdom during his absence. -He intrusted the regency in the hands of the boyard Strechnef, and the -knez or prince Romadonowski, who were to deliberate with the rest of the -boyards in cases of importance. - -Two troops raised by general Gordon remained behind in Moscow, to keep -every thing quiet in that capital. Those strelitzes, who were thought -likely to create a disturbance, were distributed in the frontiers of -Crim Tartary, to preserve the conquest of Azoph, and to check the -incursions of the Tartars. Having provided against every incident, he -gave a free scope to his passion and desire of improvement. - -As this journey proved the cause, or at least the pretext, of the bloody -war, which so long traversed, but in the end promoted, all the designs -of the czar; which drove Augustus, king of Poland, from the throne; -placed that crown on the head of Stanislaus, and then stript him of it; -which made Charles XII. king of Sweden, the first of conquerors for nine -years, and the most unfortunate of kings for nine more; it is necessary, -in order to enter into a detail of these events, to take a view of the -state of Europe at that time. - -Sultan Mustapha II. sat at that time on the Ottoman throne; the weakness -of whose administration would not permit him to make any great efforts, -either against Leopold, emperor of Germany, whose arms were successful -in Hungary, nor against the czar, who had lately taken Azoph from him, -and threatened to make himself master of the Pontus Euxinus; nor even -against the Venetians, who had made themselves masters of all the -Peloponnesus. - -John Sobieski, king of Poland, for ever famous by the victory of -Chocksim, and the deliverance of Vienna, died the 17th of June, 1696, -and the possession of that crown was in dispute between Augustus, -elector of Saxony, who obtained it, and Armond, prince of Conti, who had -only the honour of being elected. - -1697.] Sweden had lately lost, but without regret, Charles XI. her -sovereign, who was the first king who had ever been really absolute in -that country, and who was the father of a prince still more so, and with -whom all despotic power ceased. He left the crown to his son Charles -XII. a youth of only fifteen years of age. This was in all appearance a -conjuncture the most favourable for the czar's design; he had it in his -power to extend his dominions on the Gulf of Finland, and on the side of -Livonia. But he did not think it enough to harass the Turks on the Black -Sea; the settlements on the Palus Mæotis, and the borders of the Caspian -Sea, were not sufficient to answer his schemes of navigation, commerce, -and power. Besides, glory, which is the darling object of every -reformer, was to be found neither in Persia, nor in Turkey, but in our -parts of Europe, where great talents are rendered immortal. In a word, -Peter did not aim at introducing either the Persian or Turkish manners -among his subjects. - -Germany, then at war both with the Turks and with the French, and united -with Spain, England, and Holland, against the single power of Lewis XIV. -was on the point of concluding peace, and the plenipotentiaries were -already met at the castle of Ryswick, in the neighbourhood of the Hague. - -It was during this situation of affairs, that Peter and his ambassador -began their journey in the month of April, 1697, by the way of Great -Novogorod: from thence they travelled through Esthonia and Livonia, -provinces formerly disputed by the Russians, Swedes, and Poles, and -which the Swedes at last acquired by superiority of arms. - -The fertility of Livonia, and the situation of its capital, Riga, were -temptations to the czar, to possess himself of that country. He -expressed a curiosity to see the fortifications of the citadel. But -count D'Alberg, governor of Riga, taking umbrage at this request, -refused him the satisfaction he desired, and affected to treat the -embassy with contempt. This behaviour did not at all contribute to cool -the inclination the czar might have, to make himself one day master of -those provinces. - -From Livonia they proceeded to Brandenburg-Prussia, part of which had -been inhabited by the ancient Vandals; Polish Prussia had been included -in European Sarmatia. Brandenburg-Prussia was a poor country and badly -peopled; but its elector, who afterwards took the name of king, -displayed a magnificence on this occasion, equally new and destructive -to his dominions. He piqued himself upon receiving this embassy in his -city of Konigsberg, with all the pomp of royalty. The most sumptuous -presents were made on both sides. The contrast between the French dress -which the court of Berlin affected, and the long Asiatic robes of the -Russians, with their caps buttoned up with pearls and diamonds, and -their scimitars hanging at their belts, produced a singular effect. The -czar was dressed after the German fashion. The prince of Georgia, who -accompanied him, was clad in a Persian habit, which displayed a -different magnificence. This is the same who was taken prisoner -afterwards at the battle of Narva, and died in Sweden. - -Peter despised all this ostentation; it was to have been wished that he -had shewn an equal contempt for the pleasures of the table, in which the -Germans, at that time, placed their chiefest glory. It was at one of -those entertainments,[44] then too much in fashion, and which are alike -fatal to health and morality, that he drew his sword upon his favourite, -Le Fort; but he expressed as much contrition for this sudden sally of -passion, as Alexander did for the murder of Clytus; he asked pardon of -Le Fort, saying, that he wanted to reform his subjects, and could not -yet reform himself. General Le Fort, in his manuscript praises the czar -more for this goodness of heart, than he blames him for his excess of -passion. - -The ambassadors then went through Pomerania and Berlin; and, from -thence, one part took its way through Magdeburg, and the other by -Hamburg, a city which already began to be considerable by its extensive -commerce, but not so rich and populous as it has become since. From -thence they directed their route towards Minden, crossed Westphalia, and -at length, by the way of Cleves, arrived at Amsterdam. - -The czar reached this city fifteen days before the ambassadors. At his -first coming, he lodged in a house belonging to the East India company; -but soon afterwards he took a small apartment in the dock-yard, -belonging to the admiralty. He then put on the habit of a Dutch skipper, -and in that dress went to the village of Saardam, a place where a great -many more ships were built at that times, than at present. This village -is as large, as populous, and as rich, and much neater, than many -opulent towns. The czar greatly admired the multitude of people who were -constantly employed there, the order and regularity of their times of -working, the prodigious dispatch with which they built and fitted out -ships, the incredible number of warehouses, and machines, for the -greater ease and security of labour. The czar began with purchasing a -bark, to which he made a mast with his own hands; after that, he worked -upon all the different parts in the construction of a vessel, living in -the same manner as the workmen at Saardam, dressing and eating the same -as them, and working in the forges, the rope-walks, and in the several -mills, which are in prodigious numbers in that village, for sawing -timber, extracting oil, making paper, and wire-drawing. He caused -himself to be enrolled in the list of carpenters, by the name of Peter -Michaelhoff, and was commonly called Peter Bas, or Master Peter: the -workmen were at first confounded at having a crowned head for a -fellow-labourer, but soon became familiarized to the sight. - -While he was thus handling the compass and the axe at Saardam, a -confirmation was brought him of the division in Poland, and of the -double nomination of the elector Augustus, and the prince of Conti. The -carpenter of Saardam immediately promised king Augustus to assist him -with thirty thousand men; and, from his work-loft, issued out orders to -his army that was assembled in the Ukraine against the Turks. - -11th Aug. 1697.] His troops gained a victory over the Tartars near -Azoph, and a few months afterwards took from them the city of Or, or -Orkapi, which we call Precop.[45] As to himself, he still continued -improving in different arts: he went frequently from Saardam to -Amsterdam, to hear the lectures of the celebrated anatomist, Ruysch; and -made himself master of several operations in surgery, which, in case of -necessity, might be of use both to himself and his officers. He went -through a course of natural philosophy, in the house of the burgomaster -Witzen, a person for ever estimable for his patriotic virtue, and the -noble use he made of his immense riches, which he distributed like a -citizen of the world, sending men of abilities, at a great expense, to -all parts of the globe, in search of whatever was most rare and -valuable, and fitting out vessels at his own charge to make new -discoveries. - -Peter Bas gave a truce to his labours for a short time, but it was only -to pay a private visit at Utrecht, and at the Hague, to William, king of -England, and stadtholder of the United Provinces. General Le Fort was -the only one admitted to the private conference of the two monarchs. -Peter assisted afterwards at the public entry of his ambassadors, and at -their audience: they presented, in his name, to the deputy of the -states, six hundred of the most beautiful sables that could be procured; -and the states, over and above the customary presents on these -occasions, of a gold chain and a medal, gave them three magnificent -coaches. They received the first visits of all the plenipotentiaries who -were at the congress of Ryswick, excepting those of France, to whom they -had not notified their arrival, not only because the czar espoused the -cause of Augustus against the prince of Conti, but also because king -William, whose friendship he was desirous of cultivating, was averse to -a peace with France. - -At his return to Amsterdam he resumed his former occupations, and -completed with his own hands, a ship of sixty guns, that he had begun -himself, and sent her to Archangel; which was the only port he had at -that time on the ocean. - -He not only engaged in his service several French refugees, Swiss, and -Germans; but he also sent all sorts of artists over to Moscow, and he -previously made a trial of their several abilities himself. There were -few trades or arts which he did not perfectly well understand, in their -minutest branches: he took a particular pleasure in correcting with his -own hands, the geographical maps, which at that time laid down at hazard -the positions of the towns and rivers in his vast dominions, then very -little known. There is still preserved, a map, on which he marked out, -with his own hand, his projected communication of the Caspian and Black -Seas, the execution of which he had given in charge to Mr. Brekel, a -German engineer. The junction of these two seas was indeed a less -difficult enterprise than that of the Ocean and Mediterranean, which was -effected in France; but the very idea of joining the sea of Azoph with -the Caspian, astonished the imagination at that time: but new -establishments in that country became the object of his attention, in -proportion as his successes begat new hopes. - -His troops, commanded by general Schein and prince Dolgorowski, had -lately gained a victory over the Tartars near Azoph, and likewise over a -body of janissaries sent by sultan Mustapha to their assistance. (July -1696.) This success served to make him more respected, even by those who -blamed him, as a sovereign, for having quitted his dominions, to turn -workman at Amsterdam. They now saw, that the affairs of the monarch did -not suffer by the labours of the philosopher, the traveller, and the -artificer. - -He remained at Amsterdam, constantly employed in his usual occupations -of shipbuilding, engineering, geography, and the practice of natural -philosophy, till the middle of January 1698, and then he set out for -England, but still as one of the retinue of his ambassadors. - -King William sent his own yacht to meet him, and two ships of war as -convoy. In England he observed the same manner of living as at Amsterdam -and Saardam; he took an apartment near the king's dockyard, at Deptford, -where he applied himself wholly to gain instruction. The Dutch -builders had only taught him their method, and the practical part of -shipbuilding. In England he found the art better explained; for there -they work according to mathematical proportion. He soon made himself so -perfect in this science, that he was able to give lessons to others. He -began to build a ship according to the English method of construction, -and it proved a prime sailor. The art of watchmaking, which was already -brought to perfection in London, next attracted his attention, and he -made himself complete master of the whole theory. Captain Perry, the -engineer, who followed him from London to Russia, says, that from the -casting of cannon, to the spinning of ropes, there was not any one -branch of trade belonging to a ship that he did not minutely observe, -and even put his hand to, as often as he came into the places where -those trades were carried on. - -In order to cultivate his friendship, he was allowed to engage several -English artificers into his service, as he had done in Holland; but, -over and above artificers, he engaged likewise some mathematicians, -which he would not so easily have found in Amsterdam. Ferguson, a -Scotchman, an excellent geometrician, entered into his service, and was -the first person who brought arithmetic into use in the exchequer in -Russia, where before that time, they made use only of the Tartarian -method of reckoning, with balls strung upon a wire; a method which -supplied the place of writing, but was very perplexing and imperfect, -because, after the calculation, there was no method of proving it, in -order to discover any error. The Indian ciphers, which are now in use, -were not introduced among us till the ninth century, by Arabs; and they -did not make their way into the Russian empire till one thousand years -afterwards. Such has been the fate of the arts, to make their progress -slowly round the globe. He took with him two young students from a -mathematical school,[46] and this was the beginning of the marine -academy, founded afterwards by Peter the Great. He observed and -calculated eclipses with Ferguson. Perry, the engineer, though greatly -discontented at not being sufficiently rewarded, acknowledges, that -Peter made himself a proficient in astronomy; that he perfectly well -understood the motions of the heavenly bodies, as well as the laws of -gravitation, by which they are directed. This force, now so evidently -demonstrated, and before the time of the great Newton so little known, -by which all the planets gravitate towards each other, and which retain -them in their orbits, was already become familiar to a sovereign of -Russia, while other countries amused themselves with imaginary vertices, -and, in Galileo's nation, one set of ignorant persons ordered others, as -ignorant, to believe the earth to be immoveable. - -Perry set out in order to effect a communication between rivers, to -build bridges, and construct sluices. The czar's plan was to open a -communication by means of canals between the Ocean, the Caspian, and the -Black Seas. - -We must not forget to observe, that a set of English merchants, with the -marquis of Caermarthen[47] at their head, gave Peter fifteen thousand -pounds sterling, for the permission of vending tobacco in Russia. The -patriarch, by a mistaken severity, had interdicted this branch of trade; -for the Russian church forbid smoking, as an unclean and sinful action. -Peter, who knew better things, and who, amongst his many projected -changes, meditated a reformation of the church, introduced this -commodity of trade into his dominions. - -Before Peter left England, he was entertained by king William with a -spectacle worthy such a guest: this was a mock sea-fight. Little was it -then imagined, that the czar would one day fight a real battle on this -element against the Swedes, and gain naval victories in the Baltic. In -fine, William made him a present of the vessel in which he used to go -over to Holland, called the Royal Transport, a beautiful yacht, and -magnificently adorned. In this vessel Peter returned to Holland the -latter end of 1698, taking with him three captains of ships of war, five -and twenty captains of merchant ships, forty lieutenants, thirty pilots, -as many surgeons, two hundred and fifty gunners, and upwards of three -hundred artificers. This little colony of persons skilful in all -branches, sailed from Holland to Archangel, on board the Royal -Transport, and from thence were distributed into all the different -places where their services were necessary. Those who had been engaged -at Amsterdam went by the way of Narva, which then belonged to the -Swedes. - -While he was thus transplanting the arts and manufacture of England and -Holland into his own country, the officers, whom he had sent to Rome, -and other places in Italy, had likewise engaged some artists in his -service. General Sheremeto, who was at the head of his embassy to Italy, -took the tour of Rome, Naples, Venice, and Malta, while the czar -proceeded to Vienna with his other ambassadors. He had now only to view -the military discipline of the Germans, after having seen the English -fleets, and the dock-yards of Holland. Politics had likewise as great a -share in this journey as the desire of instruction. The emperor was his -natural ally against the Turks. Peter had a private audience of Leopold, -and the two monarchs conferred standing, to avoid the trouble of -ceremony. - -There happened nothing worthy remark during his stay at Vienna, except -the celebration of the ancient feast of the landlord and landlady, which -had been disused for a considerable time, and which Leopold thought -proper to revive on the czar's account. This feast, which by the Germans -is called Wurtchafft, is celebrated in the following manner:-- - -The emperor is landlord and the empress landlady, the king of the -Romans, the archdukes and the archduchesses are generally their -assistants: they entertain people of all nations as their guests, who -come dressed after the most ancient fashion of their respective -countries: those who are invited to the feast, draw lots for tickets, on -each of which is written the name of the nation, and the character or -person they are to represent. One perhaps draws a ticket for a Chinese -mandarin; another for a Tartarian mirza; a third a Persian satrap; and a -fourth for a Roman senator; a princess may, by her ticket, be a -gardener's wife, or a milk-maid; a prince a peasant, or a common -soldier. Dances are composed suitable to all those characters, and the -landlord and landlady with their family wait at table. Such was the -ancient institution; but on this occasion[48] Joseph, king of the -Romans, and the countess of Traun, represented the ancient Egyptians. -The archduke Charles, and the countess of Walstein, were dressed like -Flemings in the time of Charles the Fifth. The archduchess Mary -Elizabeth and count Traun were in the habits of Tartars; the archduchess -Josephina and the count of Workslaw were habited like Persians, and the -archduchess Mariamne and prince Maximilian of Hanover in the character -of North Holland peasants. Peter appeared in the dress of a Friesland -boor, and all who spoke to him addressed him in that character, at the -same time talking to him of the great czar of Muscovy. These are -trifling particulars; but whatever revives the remembrance of ancient -manners and customs, is in some degree worthy of being recorded. - -Peter was ready to set out from Vienna, in order to proceed to Venice, -to complete his tour of instruction, when he received the news of a -rebellion, which had lately broke out in his dominions. - - - - -CHAP. X. - - A conspiracy punished.--The corps of strelitzes abolished, - alterations in customs, manners, church, and state. - - -Czar Peter, when he left his dominions to set out on his travels, had -provided against every incident, even that of rebellion. But the great -and serviceable things he had done for his country, proved the very -cause of this rebellion. - -Certain old boyards, to whom the ancient customs were still dear, and -some priests, to whom the new ones appeared little better than -sacrilege, began these disturbances, and the old faction of the princess -Sophia took this opportunity to rouse itself anew. It is said, that one -of her sisters, who was confined to the same monastery, contributed not -a little to excite these seditions. Care was taken to spread abroad the -danger to be feared from the introduction of foreigners to instruct the -nation. In short, who would believe, that[49] the permission which the -czar had given to import tobacco into his empire, contrary to the -inclination of the clergy, was one of the chief motives of the -insurrection? Superstition, the scourge of every country, yet the -darling of the multitude, spread itself from the common people to the -strelitzes, who had been scattered on the frontiers of Lithuania: they -assembled in a body, and marched towards Moscow, with the intent to -place the princess Sophia on the throne, and for ever to prevent the -return of a czar who had violated the established customs,[50] by -presuming to travel for instruction among foreigners. The forces -commanded by Schein and Gordon, who were much better disciplined than -the strelitzes, met them fifteen leagues from Moscow, gave them battle, -and entirely defeated them: but this advantage, gained by a foreign -general over the ancient militia, among whom were several of the -burghers of Moscow, contributed still more to irritate the people. - -To quell these tumults, the czar sets out privately from Vienna, passes -through Poland, has a private interview with Augustus, concerts measures -with that prince for extending the Russian dominions on the side of the -Baltic, and at length arrived at Moscow, where he surprised every one -with his presence: he then confers rewards on the troops who had -defeated the strelitzes, (Sept. 1698,) of whom the prisons were now -full. If the crimes of these unhappy wretches were great, their -punishment was no less so. Their leaders, with several of their officers -and priests, were condemned to death; some were broken upon the -wheel,[51] and two women were buried alive; upwards of two thousand of -the strelitzes were executed, part of whom were hung round about the -walls of the city, and others put to death in different manners, and -their dead bodies remained exposed for two days in the high roads,[52] -particularly about the monastery where the princesses Sophia and Eudocia -resided.[53] Monuments of stone were erected, on which their crimes and -punishments were set forth. A great number of them who had wives and -children at Moscow, were dispersed with their families into Siberia, the -kingdom of Astracan, and the country of Azoph. This punishment was at -least of service to the state, as they helped to cultivate and people a -large tract of waste land. - -Perhaps, if the czar had not found it absolutely necessary to make such -terrible examples, he might have employed part of those strelitzes whom -he put to death, upon the public works; whereas they were now lost both -to him and the state: the lives of men ought to be held in great -estimation, especially in a country where the increase of inhabitants -ought to have been the principal care of the legislature: but he thought -it necessary to terrify and break the spirit of the nation by -executions, and the parade attending them. The entire corps of the -strelitzes, whose number not one of his predecessors had even dared to -think of diminishing, was broke for ever, and their very name abolished. -This change was effected without any resistance, because matters had -been properly prepared beforehand. The Turkish sultan, Osman, as I have -already remarked, was deposed and murdered in the same century, only for -giving the janissaries room to suspect that he intended to lessen their -number. Peter had better success, because he had taken better measures. - -Of this powerful and numerous body of the strelitzes, he left only two -feeble regiments, from whom there could no longer be any danger; and yet -these still retaining their old spirit of mutiny, revolted again in -Astracan, in the year 1705, but were quickly suppressed. - -But while we are relating Peter's severity in this affair of state, let -us not forget to commemorate the more than equal humanity he shewed some -time afterwards, when he lost his favourite Le Fort, who was snatched -away by an untimely fate, March 12, N. S. 1699, at the age of 46. He -paid him the same funeral honours as are bestowed on the greatest -sovereigns, and assisted himself in the procession, carrying a pike in -his hand, and marching after the captains, in the rank of a lieutenant, -which he held in the deceased general's regiment, hereby setting an -example to his nobles, of the respect due to merit and the military -rank. - -After the death of Le Fort, it appeared plainly, that the changes in the -state were not owing to that general, but to the czar himself. Peter had -indeed been confirmed in his design by his several conversations with Le -Fort; but he had formed and executed them all without his assistance. - -As soon as he had suppressed the strelitzes, he established regular -regiments on the German model, who were all clothed in a short and -commodious uniform, in the room of those long and troublesome coats, -which they used to wear before; and, at the same time, their exercise -was likewise more regular. - -The regiment of Preobrazinski guards was already formed; it had taken -its name from the first company of fifty men, whom the czar had trained -up in his younger days, in his retreat at Preobrazinski, at the time -when his sister Sophia governed the state, and the other regiment of -guards was also established. - -As he had himself passed through the lowest degrees in the army, he was -resolved that the sons of his boyards and great men, should serve as -common soldiers before they were made officers. He sent some of the -young nobility on board of his fleet at Woronitz and Azoph, where he -obliged them to serve their apprenticeship as common seamen. No one -dared to dispute the commands of a master who had himself set the -example. The English and Dutch he had brought over with him were -employed in equipping this fleet for sea, in constructing sluices, and -building docks, for careening the ships, and to resume the great work of -joining the Tanais, or Don, and the Wolga, which had been dropped by -Brekel, the German. And now he began to set about his projected -reformations in the council of state, in the revenue, in the church, and -even in society itself. - -The affairs of the revenue had been hitherto administered much in the -same manner as in Turkey. Each boyard paid a stipulated sum for his -lands, which he raised upon the peasants, his vassals; the czar -appointed certain burghers and burgomasters to be his receivers, who -were not powerful enough to claim the right of paying only such sums as -they thought proper into the public treasury. This new administration of -the finances, was what cost him the most trouble: he was obliged to try -several methods before he could fix upon a proper one. - -The reformation of the church, which in all other countries is looked -upon as so dangerous and difficult an attempt, was not so to him. The -patriarchs had at times opposed the authority of the crown, as well as -the strelitzes; Nicon with insolence, Joachin, one of his successors, in -an artful manner. - -The bishops had arrogated the power of life and death, a prerogative -directly contrary to the spirit of religion, and the subordination of -government. This assumed power, which had been of long standing, was now -taken from them. The patriarch Adrian, dying at the close of this -century, Peter declared that there should for the future be no other. - -This dignity then was entirely suppressed, and the great income -belonging thereto was united to the public revenue, which stood in need -of this addition. Although the czar did not set himself up as the head -of the Russian church, as the kings of Great Britain have done in regard -to the church of England; yet he was, in fact, absolute master over it, -because the synods did not dare either to disobey the commands of a -despotic sovereign, or to dispute with a prince who had more knowledge -than themselves. - -We need only to cast an eye on the preamble to the edict, concerning his -ecclesiastical regulations, issued in 1721, to be convinced that he -acted at once as master and legislator: 'We should deem ourselves guilty -of ingratitude to the Most High, if, after having reformed the military -and civil orders, we neglect the spiritual, &c. For this cause, -following the example of the most ancient kings, who have been famed for -piety, we have taken upon us to make certain wholesome regulations, -touching the clergy.' It is true, he convened a synod for carrying into -execution his ecclesiastical decrees, but the members of this synod, at -entering upon their office, were to take an oath, the form of which had -been drawn up and signed by himself. This was an oath of submission and -obedience, and was conceived in the following terms: 'I swear to be a -faithful and obedient servant and subject to my true and natural -sovereign, and to the august successors whom it shall please him to -nominate, in virtue of the incontestable right of which he is possessed: -I acknowledge him to be the supreme judge of this spiritual college: I -swear by the all-seeing God, that I understand and mean this oath in the -full force and sense, which the words convey to those who read or hear -it.' This oath is much stronger than that of the supremacy in England. -The Russian monarch was not, indeed, one of the fathers of the synod, -but he dictated their laws; and, though he did not touch the holy -censer, he directed the hands that held it. - -Previous to this great work, he thought, that in a state like his, which -stood in need of being peopled, the celibacy of the monks was contrary -to nature, and to the public good. It was the ancient custom of the -Russian church, for secular priests to marry at least once in their -lives: they were even obliged so to do: and formerly they ceased to be -priests as soon as they lost their wives. But that a multitude of young -people of both sexes should make a vow of living useless in a cloister, -and at the expense of others, appeared to him a dangerous institution. -He, therefore, ordered that no one should be admitted to a monastic -life, till they were fifty years old, a time of life very rarely subject -to a temptation of this kind; and he forbid any person to be admitted, -at any age soever, who was actually in possession of any public employ. - -This regulation has been repealed since his death, because the -government has thought proper to shew more complaisance to the -monasteries: but the patriarchal dignity has never been revived, and its -great revenues are now appropriated to the payment of the troops. - -These alterations at first excited some murmurings. A certain priest -wrote, to prove that Peter was antichrist, because he would not admit of -a patriarch; and the art of printing, which the czar encouraged in his -kingdom, was made use of to publish libels against him: but, on the -other hand, there was another priest who started up to prove that Peter -could not be antichrist, because the number 666 was not to be found in -his name, and that he had not the sign of the Beast. All complaints, -however, were soon quieted. Peter, in fact, gave much more to the church -than he took from it; for he made the clergy, by degrees, more regular -and more learned. He founded three colleges at Moscow, where they teach -the languages, and where those who are designed for the priesthood are -obliged to study. - -One of the most necessary reforms was the suppression, or at least the -mitigation of the Three Lents, an ancient superstition of the Greek -church, and as prejudicial with respect to those who are employed in -public works, and especially to soldiers, as was the old Jewish -superstition of not fighting on the sabbath-day. Accordingly the czar -dispensed with his workmen and soldiers at least, observing these lents, -in which, though they were not permitted to eat, they were accustomed to -get drunk. He likewise dispensed with their observance of meagre days; -the chaplains of the fleet and army were obliged to set the example, -which they did without much reluctance. - -The calendar, another important object. Formerly, in all the countries -of the world, the chiefs of religion had the care of regulating the -year, not only on account of the feasts to be observed, but because, in -ancient times, the priests were the only persons who understood -astronomy. - -The year began with the Russians on the 1st of September. Peter ordered, -that it should for the future commence the first day of January, as -among the other nations of Europe. This alteration was to take place in -the year 1700, at the beginning of the century, which he celebrated by a -jubilee, and other grand solemnities. It was a matter of surprise, to -the common people, how the czar should be able to change the course of -the sun. Some obstinate persons, persuaded that God had created the -world in September, continued their old style: but the alteration took -place in all the public offices, in the whole court of chancery, and in -a little time throughout the whole empire. Peter did not adopt the -Gregorian calendar, because it had been rejected by the English -mathematicians; but which must, nevertheless, be one day received in all -countries. - -Ever since the 5th century, the time when letters first came into use -amongst them, they had been accustomed to write upon long rolls, made -either of the bark of trees, or of parchment, and afterwards of paper; -and the czar was obliged to publish an edict, ordering every one, for -the future, to write after our manner. - -The reformation now became general. Their marriages were made formerly -after the same manner as in Turkey and Persia, where the bridegroom does -not see his bride till the contract is signed, and they can no longer go -from their words. This custom may do well enough among those people, -where polygamy prevails, and where the women are always shut up; but it -is a very bad one in countries where a man is confined to one wife, and -where divorces are seldom allowed. - -The czar was willing to accustom his people to the manners and customs -of the nations which he had visited in his travels, and from whence he -had taken the masters who were now instructing them. - -It appeared necessary that the Russians should not be dressed in a -different manner from those who were teaching them the arts and -sciences; because the aversion to strangers, which is but too natural to -mankind, is not a little kept up by a difference of dress. The full -dress, which at that time partook of the fashions of the Poles, the -Tartars, and the ancient Hungarians, was, as we have elsewhere observed, -very noble; but the dress of the burghers and common people resembled -those jackets plaited round the waist, which are still given to the poor -children in some of the French hospitals.[54] In general, the robe was -formerly the dress of all nations, as being a garment that required the -least trouble and art; and, for the same reason, the beard was suffered -to grow. The czar met with but little difficulty in introducing our mode -of dress, and the custom of shaving among his courtiers; but the people -were more obstinate, he found himself obliged to lay a tax on long coats -and beards. Patterns of close-bodied coats were hung up in public -places; and whoever refused to pay the tax were obliged to suffer their -robes and their beards to be curtailed: all this was done in a jocular -manner, and this air of pleasantry prevented seditions. - -It has ever been the aim of all legislators to render mankind more -sociable; but it is not sufficient to effect this end, that they live -together in towns, there must be a mutual intercourse of civility. This -intercourse sweetens all the bitterness of life. The czar, therefore, -introduced those assemblies which the Italians call _ridotti_. To these -assemblies he invited all the ladies of his court, with their daughters; -and they were to appear dressed after the fashions of the southern -nations of Europe. He was even himself at the pains of drawing up -rules for all the little decorums to be observed at these social -entertainments. Thus, even to good breeding among his subjects, all was -his own work, and that of time. - -To make his people relish these innovations the better, he abolished the -word _golut_, _slave_, always made use of by the Russians when they -addressed their czar, or presented any petition to him; and ordered, -that, for the future, they should make use of the word _raab_, which -signifies _subject_. This alteration in no wise diminished the obedience -due to the sovereign, and yet was the most ready means of conciliating -their affections. Every month produced some new change or institution. -He carried his attention even to the ordering painted posts to be set up -in the road between Moscow and Woronitz, to serve as mile stones at the -distance of every verst; that is to say, every seven hundred paces, and -had a kind of caravanseras, or public inns, built at the end of every -twentieth verst. - -While he was thus extending his cares to the common people, to the -merchants, and to the traveller, he thought proper to make an addition -to the pomp and splendour of his own court; for though he hated pomp or -show in his own person, he thought it necessary in those about him; he -therefore instituted the order of St. Andrew,[55] in imitation of the -several orders with which all the courts of Europe abound. Golowin, who -succeeded Le Fort in the dignity of high admiral, was the first knight -of this order. It was esteemed a high reward to have the honour of being -admitted a member. It was a kind of badge that entitled the person who -bore it to the respect of the people. This mark of honour costs nothing -to the sovereign, and flatters the self-love of a subject, without -rendering him too powerful. - -These many useful innovations were received with applause by the wiser -part of the nation; and the murmurings and complaints of those who -adhered to the ancient customs were drowned in the acclamations of men -of sound judgment. - -While Peter was thus beginning a new creation in the interior part of -his state, he concluded an advantageous truce with the Turks, which gave -him the liberty to extend his territories on another side. Mustapha the -Second, who had been defeated by prince Eugene, at the battle of Zeuta, -in 1697, stripped of the Morea by the Venetians, and unable to defend -Azoph, was obliged to make peace with his victorious enemies, which -peace was concluded at Carlowitz, (Jan. 26, 1699,) between Peterwaradin -and Salankamon, places made famous by his defeats. Temeswaer was made -the boundary of the German possessions, and of the Ottoman dominions. -Kaminieck was restored to the Poles; the Morea, and some towns in -Dalmatia, which had been taken by the Venetians, remained in their hands -for some time; and Peter the First continued in possession of Casaph, -and of a few forts built in its neighbourhood. - -It was not possible for the czar to extend his dominions on the side of -Turkey, without drawing upon him the forces of that empire, before -divided, but now united. His naval projects were too vast for the Palus -Mæotis, and the settlements on the Caspian Sea would not admit of a -fleet of men of war: he therefore turned his views towards the Baltic -Sea, but without relinquishing those in regard to the Tanais and Wolga. - - - - -CHAP. XI. - - War with Sweden.--The battle of Narva. - - -[Sidenote: 1700.] - -A grand scene was now opened on the frontiers of Sweden. One of the -principal causes of all the revolutions which happened from Ingria, as -far as Dresden, and which laid waste so many countries for the space of -eighteen years, was the abuse of the supreme power, by Charles XI. king -of Sweden, father of Charles XII. This is a fact which cannot be too -often repeated, as it concerns every crowned head, and the subjects of -every nation. Almost all Livonia, with the whole of Esthonia, had been -ceded by the Poles to Charles XI. king of Sweden, who succeeded Charles -X. exactly at the time of the treaty of Oliva. It was ceded in the -customary manner, with a reservation of rights and privileges. Charles -XI. shewing little regard to these privileges, John Reinhold Patkul, a -gentleman of Livonia, came to Stockholm in 1692, at the head of six -deputies from the province, and laid their complaints at the foot of the -throne, in respectful, but strong terms.[56] Instead of an answer, the -deputies were ordered to be imprisoned, and Patkul was condemned to lose -his honour and his life. But he lost neither, for he made his escape to -the country of Vaud, in Switzerland, where he remained some time; when -he afterwards was informed, that Augustus, elector of Saxony, had -promised, at his accession to the throne of Poland, to recover the -provinces that had been wrested from that kingdom; he hastened to -Dresden, to represent to that prince, how easily he might make himself -master of Livonia, and revenge upon a king, only seventeen years of age, -the losses that Poland had sustained by his ancestors. - -At this very time czar Peter entertained thoughts of seizing upon Ingria -and Carelia. These provinces had formerly belonged to the Russians, but -the Swedes had made themselves masters of them by force of arms, in the -time of the false Demetriuses, and had retained the possession of them -by treaties: another war and new treaties might restore them again to -Russia. Patkul went from Dresden to Moscow, and, by exciting up the two -monarchs to avenge his private causes, he cemented a close union between -them, and directed their preparations for invading all the places -situated to the east and south of Finland. - -Just at this period, the new king of Denmark, Frederick IV. entered into -an alliance with the czar and the king of Poland, against Charles, the -young king of Sweden, who seemed in no condition to withstand their -united forces. Patkul had the satisfaction of besieging the Swedes in -Riga, the capital of Livonia, and directing the attack in quality of -major-general. - -The czar marched near eighty thousand men into Ingria. It is true, that, -in this numerous army, he had not more than twelve thousand good -soldiers, being those he had disciplined himself; namely, the two -regiments of guards, and some few others, the rest being a badly armed -militia, with some Cossacks, and Circassian Tartars; but he carried -with him a train of a hundred and forty-five pieces of cannon. He laid -siege to Narva, a small town in Ingria, that had a very commodious -harbour, and it was generally thought the place would prove an easy -conquest. - -Sept.] It is known to all Europe, how Charles XII. when not quite -eighteen years of age, made head against all his enemies, and attacked -them one after another; he entered Denmark, put an end to the war in -that kingdom in less than six weeks, sent succours to Riga, obliged the -enemy to raise the siege, and marched against the Russians encamped -before Narva, through the midst of ice and snow, in the month of -November. - -The czar, who looked upon Narva as already in his possession, was gone -to Novogorod, (Nov. 18,) and had taken with him his favourite, -Menzikoff, then a lieutenant in the company of bombardiers, of the -Preobrazinski regiment, and afterwards raised to the rank of -field-marshal and prince; a man whose singular fortunes entitle him to -be spoken of more at large in another place. - -Peter left the command of the army, with his instructions for the siege, -with the prince of Croi; whose family came from Flanders, and who had -lately entered into the czar's service.[57] Prince Dolgorouki acted as -commissary of the army. The jealousy between these two chiefs, and the -absence of the czar, were partly the occasion of the unparalleled defeat -at Narva. - -Charles XII. having landed at Pernau, in Livonia, with his troops, in -the month of October advanced northward to Revel, where he defeated an -advanced body of Russians. He continued his march, and meeting with -another body, routed that likewise. The runaways returned to the camp -before Narva, which they filled with consternation. The month of -November was now far advanced; Narva, though unskilfully besieged, was -on the point of surrendering. The young king of Sweden had not at that -time above nine thousand men with him, and could bring only six pieces -of cannon to oppose to a hundred and forty-five, with which the Russian -intrenchments were defended. All the relations of that time, and all -historians without exception, concur in making the Russian army then -before Narva amount to eighty thousand men. The memoirs with which I -have been furnished say sixty thousand; be that as it may, it is -certain, that Charles had not quite nine thousand; and that this battle -was one of those which have proved, that the greatest victories have -been frequently gained by inferior numbers, ever since the famed one of -Arbela.[58] - -Nov. 30.] Charles did not hesitate one moment to attack with his small -troop this army, so greatly superior; and, taking advantage of a violent -wind, and a great storm of snow, which blew directly in the faces of the -Russians, he attacked their intrenchments under cover of some pieces of -cannon, which he had posted advantageously for the purpose. The Russians -had not time to form themselves in the midst of that cloud of snow, that -beat full in their faces, and astonished by the discharge of cannon, -that they could not see, and never imagined how small a number they had -to oppose. - -The duke de Croi attempted to give his orders, but prince Dolgorouki -would not receive them. The Russian officers rose upon the German -officers; the duke's secretary, with Colonel Lyon, and several others, -were murdered. Every one abandoned his post; and tumult, confusion, and -a panic of terror, spread through the whole army. The Swedish troops had -nothing more to do, but to cut in pieces those who were flying. Some -threw themselves into the river Narva, where great numbers were drowned; -others threw down their arms, and fell upon their knees before the -conquering Swedes. - -The duke de Croi, general Alland, and the rest of the general officers, -dreading the Russians more than the Swedes, went in a body and -surrendered themselves prisoners to count Steinbock. The king of Sweden -now made himself master of all the artillery. Thirty thousand of the -vanquished enemy laid down their arms at his feet, and filed off -bare-headed and disarmed before him. Prince Dolgorouki, and all the -Russian generals, came and surrendered themselves, as well as the -Germans, but did not know till after they had surrendered, that they had -been conquered by eight thousand men. Amongst the prisoners, was the son -of a king of Georgia, whom Charles sent to Stockholm: his name was -Mittelesky Czarovits, or czar's son, an additional proof that the title -of czar, or tzar, had not its original from the Roman Cæsars. - -Charles XII. did not lose more than one thousand two hundred men in this -battle. The czar's journal, which has been sent me from Petersburg, -says, that including those who died at the siege of Narva, and in the -battle, and those who were drowned in their flight, the Russians lost no -more than six thousand men. Want of discipline, and a panic that seized -the army, did all the work of that fatal day. The number of those made -prisoners of war, was four times greater than that of the conquerors; -and if we may believe Norberg,[59] count Piper, who was afterwards taken -prisoner by the Russians, reproached them, that the number of their -people made prisoners in the battle, exceeded by eight times the number -of the whole Swedish army. If this is truth, the Swedes must have made -upwards of seventy-two thousand prisoners. This shews how seldom writers -are well informed of particular circumstances. One thing, however, -equally incontestable and extraordinary, is, that the king of Sweden -permitted one half of the Russian soldiers to retire back, after having -disarmed them, and the other half to repass the river, with their arms; -by this unaccountable presumption, restoring to the czar troops that, -being afterwards well disciplined, became invincible.[60] - -Charles had all the advantages that could result from a complete -victory. Immense magazines, transports loaded with provisions, posts -evacuated or taken, and the whole country at the mercy of the Swedish -army, were consequences of the fortune of this day. Narva was now -relieved, the shattered remains of the Russian army did not shew -themselves; the whole country as far as Pleskow lay open; the czar -seemed bereft of all resource for carrying on the war; and the king of -Sweden, victor in less than twelve months over the monarchs of Denmark, -Poland, and Russia, was looked upon as the first prince in Europe, at -an age when other princes hardly presume to aspire at reputation. But -the unshaken constancy that made a part of Peter's character, prevented -him from being discouraged in any of his projects. - -A Russian bishop composed a prayer to St. Nicholas,[61] on account of -this defeat, which was publicly read in all the churches throughout -Russia. This composition shews the spirit of the times, and the -inexpressible ignorance from which Peter delivered his country. Amongst -other things, it says, that the furious and terrible Swedes were -sorcerers; and complains that St. Nicholas had entirely abandoned his -Russians. The prelates of that country would blush to write such stuff -at present; and, without any offence to the holy St. Nicholas, the -people soon perceived that Peter was the most proper person to be -applied to, to retrieve their losses. - - - - -CHAP. XII. - - Resources after the battle of Narva. That disaster entirely - repaired. Peter gains a victory near the same place. The person who - was afterwards empress made prisoner at the storming of a town. - Peter's successes. His triumph at Moscow.[62] - - The years 1701 and 1703. - - -The czar having, as has been already observed, quitted his army before -Narva, in the end of November, 1700, in order to go and concert matters -with the king of Poland, received the news of the victory gained by the -Swedes, as he was on his way. His constancy in all emergencies was equal -to the intrepidity and valour of Charles. He deferred the conference -with Augustus, and hastened to repair the disordered state of his -affairs. The scattered troops rendezvoused at Great Novogorod, and from -thence marched to Pleskow, on the lake Peipus. - -It was not a little matter to be able to stand upon the defensive, after -so severe a check: 'I know very well,' said Peter, 'that the Swedes will -have the advantage of us for some time, but they will teach us at length -to conquer them.' - -1701.] Having provided for the present emergency, and ordered recruits -to be raised on every side, he sent to Moscow to cast new cannon, his -own having been all taken before Narva. There being a scarcity of metal, -he took all the bells of the churches, and of the religious houses in -Moscow. This action did not savour much of superstition, but at the same -time it was no mark of impiety. With those bells he made one hundred -large cannon, one hundred and forty-three field-pieces, from three to -six pounders, besides mortars and howitzers, which were all sent to -Pleskow. In other countries the sovereign orders, and others execute; -but here the czar was obliged to see every thing done himself. While he -was hastening these preparations, he entered into a negotiation with the -king of Denmark, who engaged to furnish him with three regiments of -foot, and three of cavalry; an engagement which that monarch could not -fulfil. - -As soon as this treaty was signed, he hurried to the theatre of war. He -had an interview with king Augustus, at Birzen, (Feb. 27.) on the -frontiers of Courland and Lithuania. His object was, to confirm that -prince in his resolution of maintaining the war against Charles XII. and -at the same time to engage the Polish Diet to enter into the quarrel. It -is well known, that a king of Poland is no more than the head person in -a republic. The czar had the advantage of being always obeyed; but the -kings of Poland, and England, at present the king of Sweden, are all -obliged to treat with their subjects.[63] Patkul and a few Poles in the -interest of their monarch, assisted at these conferences. Peter promised -to aid them with subsidies, and an army of twenty-five thousand men. -Livonia was to be restored to Poland, in case the diet would concur with -their king, and assist in recovering this province: the diet hearkened -more to their fears, than to the czar's proposals. The Poles were -apprehensive of having their liberties restrained by the Saxons and -Russians, and were still more afraid of Charles XII. It was therefore -agreed by the majority, not to serve their king, and not to fight. - -The partisans of Augustus grew enraged against the contrary faction, and -a civil war was lighted up in the kingdom; because their monarch had an -intention to restore to it a considerable province. - -Feb.] Peter then had only an impotent ally in king Augustus, and feeble -succours in the Saxon troops; and the terror which Charles XII. inspired -on every side, reduced Peter to the necessity of depending entirely upon -his own strength. - -March 1.] After travelling with the greatest expedition from Moscow to -Courland, to confer with Augustus: he posted back from Courland to -Moscow, to forward the accomplishment of his promises. He actually -dispatched Prince Repnin, with four thousand men, to Riga, on the banks -of the Duna, where the Saxon troops were intrenched. - -July.] The general consternation was now increased; for Charles, passing -the Duna in spite of all the Saxons, who were advantageously posted on -the opposite side, gained a complete victory over them; and then, -without waiting a moment, he made himself master of Courland, advanced -into Lithuania, and by his presence encouraged the Polish faction that -opposed Augustus. - -Peter, notwithstanding all this, still pursued his designs. General -Patkul, who had been the soul of the conference at Birzen, and who had -engaged in his service, procured him some German officers, disciplined -his troops, and supplied the place of general Le Fort: the czar ordered -relays of horses to be provided for all the officers, and even for the -German, Livonian, and Polish soldiers, who came to serve in his armies. -He likewise inspected in person into every particular relating to their -arms, their clothing, and subsistence. - -On the confines of Livonia and Esthonia, and to the eastward of the -province of Novogorod, lies the great lake Peipus, which receives the -waters of the river Velika, from out of the middle of Livonia, and gives -rise in its northern part to the river Naiova, that washes the walls of -the town of Narva, near which the Swedes gained their famous victory. -This lake is upwards of thirty leagues in length, and from twelve to -fifteen in breadth. It was necessary to keep a fleet there, to prevent -the Swedish ships from insulting the province of Novogorod; to be ready -to make a descent upon their coasts, and above all, to be a nursery for -seamen. Peter employed the greatest part of the year 1701, in building -on this lake an hundred half gallies, to carry about fifty men each; and -other armed barks were fitted out on the lake Ladoga. He directed all -these operations in person, and set his new sailors to work: those who -had been employed in 1697, at the Palus Mæotis were then stationed near -the Baltic. He frequently quitted those occupations to go to Moscow, and -the rest of the provinces, in order to enforce the observance of the -late customs he had introduced, or to establish new ones. - -Those princes who have employed the leisure moments of peace in raising -public works, have acquired to themselves a name: but that Peter, just -after his misfortune at Narva, should apply himself to the junction of -the Baltic, Caspian, and the Black seas, by canals, has crowned him with -more real glory than the most signal victory. It was in the year 1702, -that he began to dig that deep canal, intended to join the Tanais and -the Wolga. Other communications were likewise to be made, by means of -lakes between the Tanais and the Duna; whose waters empty themselves -into the Baltic, in the neighbourhood of Riga. But this latter project -seemed to be still at a great distance, as Peter was far from having -Riga in his possession. - -While Charles was laying all Poland waste, Peter caused to be brought -from that kingdom, and from Saxony, a number of shepherds, with their -flocks, in order to have wool fit for making good cloth; he likewise -erected manufactories of linen and paper: gave orders for collecting a -number of artificers; such as smiths, braziers, armourers, and -founders, and the mines of Siberia were ransacked for ore. Thus was he -continually labouring for the embellishment and defence of his -dominions. - -Charles pursued the course of his victories, and left a sufficient body -of troops, as he imagined, on the frontiers of the czar's dominions, to -secure all the possessions of Sweden. He had already formed a design to -dethrone Augustus, and afterwards to pursue the czar with his victorious -army to the very gates of Moscow. - -There happened several slight engagements in the course of this year, -between the Russians and Swedes, in which the latter did not always -prove superior; and even in those where they had the advantage, the -Russians improved in the art of war. In short, in little more than -twelve months after the battle of Narva, the czar's troops were so well -disciplined, that they defeated one of the best generals belonging to -the king of Sweden. - -Peter was then at Pleskow, from whence he detached numerous bodies of -troops, on all sides, to attack the Swedes; who were now defeated by a -native of Russia, and not a foreigner. His general, Sheremeto, by a -skilful manoeuvre, beat up the quarters of the Swedish general, -Slipenbak, in several places, near Derpt, on the frontiers of Livonia; -and at last obtained a victory over that officer himself. (Jan. 11, -1702.) And now, for the first time, the Russians took from the Swedes -four of their colours; which was thought a considerable number. - -May.] The lakes Peipus and Ladoga were for some time afterwards the -theatres of sea-fights between the Russians and Swedes; in which the -latter had the same advantages as by land: namely, that of discipline -and long practice; but the Russians had some few successes with their -half gallies, at the lake Peipus, and the field-marshal Sheremeto took a -Swedish frigate. - -By means of this lake, the czar kept Livonia and Esthonia in continual -alarms; his gallies frequently landed several regiments in those -provinces; who reimbarked whenever they failed of success, or else -pursued their advantage: the Swedes were twice beaten in the -neighbourhood of Derpt, (June, July,) while they were victorious every -where else. - -In all these actions the Russians were always superior in number; for -this reason, Charles XII. who was so successful in every other place, -gave himself little concern about these trifling advantages gained by -the czar: but he should have considered, that these numerous forces of -his rival were every day growing more accustomed to the business of -fighting, and might soon become formidable to himself. - -While both parties were thus engaged, by sea and land, in Livonia, -Ingria, and Esthonia, the czar is informed that a Swedish fleet had set -sail, in order to destroy Archangel; upon which he immediately marched -thither, and every one was astonished to hear of him on the coasts of -the Frozen Sea, when he was thought to be at Moscow. He put the town -into a posture of defence, prevented the intended descent, drew the plan -of a citadel, called the New Dwina, laid the first stone, and then -returned to Moscow, and from thence to the seat of war. - -Charles made some alliances in Poland; but the Russians, on their side, -made a progress in Ingria and Livonia. Marshal Sheremeto marched to meet -the Swedish army, under the command of Slipenbak, gave that general -battle near the little river Embac, and defeated him, taking sixteen -colours, and twenty pieces of cannon. Norberg places this action on the -first of December, 1701; but the journal of Peter the Great, fixes it on -the nineteenth of July, 1702. - -6th Aug.] After this advantage, the Russian general marched onwards, -laid the whole country under contributions, and takes the little town of -Marienburg, on the confines of Ingria and Livonia. There are several -towns of this name in the north of Europe; but this, though it no longer -exists, is more celebrated in history than all the others, by the -adventure of the empress Catherine. - -This little town, having surrendered at discretion, the Swedes, who -defended it, either through mistake or design, set fire to the magazine. -The Russians, incensed at this, destroyed the town, and carried away all -the inhabitants. Among the prisoners was a young woman, a native of -Livonia, who had been brought up in the house of a Lutheran minister of -that place, named Gluck, and who afterwards became the sovereign of -those who had taken her captive, and who governed Russia by the name of -the empress Catherine. - -There had been many instances before this, of private women being raised -to the throne; nothing was more common in Russia, and in all Asiatic -kingdoms, than for crowned heads to marry their own subjects; but that a -poor stranger, who had been taken prisoner in the storming of a town, -should become the absolute sovereign of that very empire, whither she -was led captive, is an instance which fortune never produced before nor -since in the annals of the world. - -The Russian arms proved equally successful in Ingria: for their half -gallies on the lake Ladoga compelled the Swedish fleet to retire to -Wibourg,[64] a town at the other extremity of this great lake, from -whence they could see the siege of the fortress of Notebourg, which was -then carrying on by general Sheremeto. This was an undertaking of much -greater importance than was imagined at that time, as it might open a -communication with the Baltic Sea, the constant aim of Peter the Great. - -Notebourg was a strong fortified town, built on an island in the lake -Ladoga, which it entirely commands, and by that means, whoever is in -possession of it, must be masters of that part of the river Neva, which -falls into the sea not far from thence. The Russians bombarded the town -night and day, from the 18th of September to the 12th October; and at -length gave a general assault by three breaches. The Swedish garrison -was reduced to a hundred men only capable of defending the place; and, -what is very astonishing, they did defend it, and obtain, even in the -breach, an honourable capitulation: moreover, colonel Slipenbak, who -commanded there, would not surrender the town, but on condition of being -permitted to send for two Swedish officers from the nearest post, to -examine the breaches (Oct. 16.), in order to be witnesses for him to the -king his master, that eighty-three men, who were all then left of the -garrison capable of bearing arms, besides one hundred and fifty sick and -wounded, did not surrender to a whole army, till it was impossible for -them to fight longer, or to preserve the place. This circumstance alone -shews what sort of an enemy the czar had to contend with, and the -necessity there was of all his great efforts and military discipline. He -distributed gold medals among his officers on this occasion, and gave -rewards to all the private men; except a few, whom he punished for -running away during the assault. Their comrades spit in their faces, and -afterwards shot them to death; thus adding ignominy to punishment. - -Notebourg was repaired, and its name changed to that of Shlusselburg, or -the City of the Key; that place being the key of Ingria and Finland. The -first governor was that Menzikoff, whom we have already mentioned, and -who was become an excellent officer, and had merited this honour by his -gallant behaviour during the siege. His example served as an -encouragement to all who have merit without being distinguished by -birth. - -After this campaign of 1702, the czar resolved that Sheremeto, and the -officers who had signalized themselves, should make a triumphal entry -into Moscow. (Dec. 17.) All the prisoners taken in this campaign marched -in the train of the victors, who had the Swedish colours and standards -carried before them, together with the flag of the Swedish frigate taken -on the lake Peipus. Peter assisted in the preparations for this -triumphal pomp, as he had shared in the great actions it celebrated. - -These shows naturally inspired emulation, otherwise they would have been -no more than idle ostentation. Charles despised every thing of this -kind, and, after the battle of Narva, held his enemies, their efforts, -and their triumphs, in equal contempt. - - - - -CHAP. XIII. - - Reformation at Moscow.--Further successes.--Founding of - Petersburg.--The czar takes Narva, &c. - - -The short stay which the czar made at Moscow, in the beginning of the -winter 1703, was employed in seeing all his new regulations put into -execution, and in improving the civil as well as the military -government. Even his very amusements were calculated to inspire his -subjects with a taste for the new manner of living he had introduced -amongst them. In this view, he invited all the boyards, and principal -ladies of Moscow, to the marriage of one of his sisters, at which every -one was required to appear dressed after the ancient fashion. A dinner -was served up just in the same manner as those in the sixteenth -century.[65] By an old superstitious custom, no one was to light a fire -on the wedding-day, even in the coldest season. This custom was -rigorously observed upon this occasion. The Russians formerly never -drank wine, but only mead and brandy; no other liquors were permitted on -this day, and, when the guests made complaints, he replied, in a joking -manner, 'This was a custom with your ancestors, and old customs are -always the best.' This raillery contributed greatly to the reformation -of those who preferred past times to the present, at least it put a stop -to their murmurings; and there are several nations that stand in need of -the like example. - -A still more useful establishment than any of the rest, was that of a -printing-press, for Russian and Latin types; the implements of which -were all brought from Holland. They began by printing translations in -the Russian language of several books of morality and polite literature. -Ferguson founded schools for geometry, astronomy, and navigation. - -Another foundation, no less necessary, was that of a large hospital; not -one of those houses which encourage idleness, and perpetuate the misery -of the people, but such as the czar had seen at Amsterdam, where old -persons and children are employed at work, and where every one within -the walls is made useful in some way or other. - -He established several manufactories; and, as soon he had put in motion -all those arts to which he gave birth in Moscow, he hastened to -Woronitz, to give directions for building two ships, of eighty guns -each, with long cradles, or caserns, fitted to the ribs of the vessel, -to buoy her up, and carry her safely over the shoals and banks of sand -that lay about Azoph; an ingenious contrivance, similar to that used by -the Dutch in Holland, to get their large ships over the Pampus. - -Having made all the necessary preparations against the Turks, he turned -his attention, in the next place, against the Swedes. He went to visit -the ships that were building at Olonitz (March 30, 1703.), a town -between the lakes Ladago and Onega, where he had established a foundry -for making all kinds of arms; and, when every thing bore a military -aspect, at Moscow flourished all the arts of peace. A spring of mineral -waters, which has been lately discovered near Olonitz, has added to the -reputation of that place. From thence he proceeded to Shlusselburg, -which he fortified. - -We have already observed, that Peter was determined to pass regularly -through all the military degrees: he had served as lieutenant of -bombardiers, under prince Menzikoff, before that favourite was made -governor of Shlusselburg, and he now took the rank of captain, and -served under marshal Sheremeto. - -There was an important fortress near the lake Ladoga, and not far from -the river Neva, named Nyantz, or Nya.[66] It was necessary to make -himself master of this place, in order to secure his conquest, and -favour his other designs. He therefore undertook to transport a number -of small barks, filled with soldiers, and to drive off the Swedish -vessels that were bringing supplies, while Sheremeto had the care of the -trenches. (May 22.) The citadel surrendered, and two Swedish vessels -arrived, too late to assist the besieged, being both attacked and taken -by the czar. His journal says, that, as a reward for his service, 'The -captain of bombardiers was created knight of the order of St. Andrew by -admiral Golowin, the first knight of that order.' - -After the taking of the fort of Nya, he resolved upon building the city -of Petersburg, at the mouth of the Neva, upon the gulf of Finland. - -The affairs of king Augustus were in a desperate way; the excessive -victories of the Swedes in Poland had emboldened his enemies in the -opposition; and even his friends had obliged him to dismiss a body of -twenty thousand Russians, that the czar had sent him to reinforce his -army. They thought, by this sacrifice, to deprive the malcontents of all -pretext for joining the king of Sweden: but enemies are disarmed by -force, a show of weakness serving only to make them more insolent. These -twenty thousand men, that had been disciplined by Patkul, proved of -infinite service in Livonia and Ingria, while Augustus was losing his -dominions. This reinforcement, and, above all, the possession of Nya, -enabled the czar to found his new capital. - -It was in this barren and marshy spot of ground, which has communication -with the main land only by one way, that Peter laid the foundation of -Petersburg, in the sixtieth degree of latitude, and the forty-fourth and -a half of longitude. The ruins of some of the bastions of Nya was made -use of for the first stones of the foundation.[67] They began by -building a small fort upon one of the islands, which is now in the -centre of the city. The Swedes beheld, without apprehension, a -settlement in the midst of a morass, and inaccessible to vessels of -burden; but, in a very short time, they saw the fortifications advanced, -a town raised, and the little island of Cronstadt, situated over against -it, changed, in 1704, into an impregnable fortress, under the cannon of -which even the largest fleets may ride in safety. - -These works, which seemed to require a time of profound peace, were -carried on in the very bosom of war; workmen of every sort were called -together, from Moscow, Astracan, Casan, and the Ukraine, to assist in -building the new city. Neither the difficulties of the ground, that was -to be rendered firm, and raised, the distance of the necessary -materials, the unforeseen obstacles, which are for ever starting up in -all great undertakings; nor, lastly, the epidemical disorder, which -carried off a prodigious number of the workmen, could discourage the -royal founder; and, in the space of five months, a new city rose from -the ground. It is true, indeed, it was little better than a cluster of -huts, with only two brick houses, surrounded by ramparts; but this was -all that was then necessary. Time and perseverance accomplished the -rest. In less than five months, after the founding of Petersburg, a -Dutch ship came to trade there, (Nov.) the captain of which was -handsomely rewarded, and the Dutch soon found the way to Petersburg. - -While Peter was directing the establishment of this colony, he took care -to provide every day for its safety, by making himself master of the -neighbouring posts. A Swedish colonel, named Croniort, had taken post on -the river Sestra, and thence threatened the rising city. Peter, without -delay, marched against him with his two regiments of guards, defeated -him, (July 8.) and obliged him to repass the river. Having thus put his -town in safety, he repaired to Olonitz,(Sep.) to give directions for -building a number of small vessels, and afterwards returned to -Petersburg, on board a frigate that had been built by his direction, -taking with him six transport vessels, for present use, till the others -could be got ready. Even at this juncture he did not forget his ally, -the king of Poland, but sent him (Nov.) a reinforcement of twelve -thousand foot, and a subsidy in money of three hundred thousand rubles, -which make about one million five hundred thousand French livres.[68] It -has been remarked, that his annual revenue did not exceed then five -million rubles; a sum, which the expense of his fleets, of his armies, -and of his new establishments, seemed more than sufficient to exhaust. -He had, at almost one and the same time, fortified Novogorod, -Pleskow, Kiow, Smolensko, Azoph, Archangel, and founded a capital. -Notwithstanding all which, he had still a sufficiency left to assist his -ally with men and money. Cornelius le Bruine, a Dutchman, who was on his -travels, and at that time in Russia, and with whom he frequently -conversed very freely, as indeed he did with all strangers, says, that -the czar himself assured him, that he had still three hundred thousand -rubles remaining in his coffers, after all the expenses of the war were -defrayed. - -In order to put his infant city of Petersburg out of danger of insult, -he went in person to sound the depth of water thereabouts, fixed upon a -place for building the fort of Cronstadt; and, after making the model of -it in wood with his own hands, he employed prince Menzikoff to put it in -execution. From thence he went to pass the winter at Moscow, (Nov. 5.) -in order to establish, by degrees, the several alterations he had made -in the laws, manners, and customs of Russia. He regulated the finances, -and put them upon a new footing. He expedited the works that were -carrying on in the Woronitz, at Azoph, and in a harbour which he had -caused to be made on the Palus Mæotis, under the fort of Taganrock. - -Jan. 1704.] The Ottoman Porte, alarmed at these preparations, sent an -embassy to the czar, complaining thereof: to which he returned for -answer that he was master in his own dominions, as well as the grand -seignior was in Turkey, and that it was no infringement of the peace to -render the Russian power respectable on the Euxine Sea. - -March 30.] Upon his return to Petersburg, finding his new citadel of -Cronstadt, which had been founded in the bosom of the sea, completely -finished, he furnished it with the necessary artillery. But, in order to -settle himself firmly in Ingria, and entirely to repair the disgrace he -had suffered before Narva, he esteemed it necessary to take that city. -While he was making preparations for the siege, a small fleet appeared -on the lake of Peipus, to oppose his designs. The Russian half galleys -went out to meet them, gave them battle, and took the whole squadron, -which had on board ninety-eight pieces of cannon. After this victory, -the czar lays siege to Narva both by sea and land, (April.) and, which -was most extraordinary, he lays siege to the city of Derpt in Esthonia -at the same time. - -Who would have imagined, that there was a university in Derpt? Gustavus -Adolphus had founded one there, but it did not render that city more -famous, Derpt being only known by these two sieges. Peter was -incessantly going from the one to the other, forwarding the attacks, and -directing all the operations. The Swedish general Slipenbak was in the -neighbourhood of Derpt, with a body of two thousand five hundred men. - -The besiegers expected every instant when he would throw succours into -the place; but Peter, on this occasion, had recourse to a stratagem -worthy of more frequent imitation: he ordered two regiments of foot, and -one of horse, to be clothed in the same uniform, and to carry the same -standards and colours as the Swedes: these sham Swedes attack the -trenches, (June 27.) and the Russians pretend to be put to flight; the -garrison, deceived by appearances, make a sally; upon which the mock -combatants join their forces and fall upon the Swedes, one half of whom -were left dead upon the place, and the rest made shift to get back to -the town. Slipenbak arrives soon after with succours to relieve it, but -is totally defeated. At length Derpt was obliged to capitulate, (July -23.) just as the czar was preparing every thing for a general assault. - -At the same time Peter met with a considerable check, on the side of his -new city of Petersburg; but this did not prevent him either from going -on with the works of that place, or from vigorously prosecuting the -siege of Narva. It has already been observed, that he sent a -reinforcement of troops and money to king Augustus, when his enemies -were driving him from his throne; but both these aids proved useless. -The Russians having joined the Lithuanians in the interest of Augustus, -were totally defeated in Courland by the Swedish general Levenhaupt: -(July 31.) and had the victors directed their efforts towards Livonia, -Esthonia, and Ingria, they might have destroyed the czar's new works, -and baffled all the fruits of his great undertakings. Peter was every -day sapping the breast-work of Sweden, while Charles seemed to neglect -all resistance, for the pursuit of a less advantageous, though a more -brilliant fame. - -On the 13th of July, 1704, only a single Swedish colonel, at the head of -his detachment, obliged the Polish nobility to nominate a new king, on -the field of election, called Kolo, near the city of Warsaw. The -cardinal-primate of the kingdom, and several bishops, submitted to a -Lutheran prince, notwithstanding the menaces and excommunications of the -supreme pontiff: in short, every thing gave way to force. All the world -knows in what manner Stanislaus Leczinsky was elected king, and how -Charles XII. obliged the greatest part of Poland to acknowledge him. - -Peter, however, would not abandon the dethroned king, but redoubled his -assistance, in proportion to the necessities of his ally; and, while his -enemy was making kings, he beat the Swedish generals one after another -in Esthonia and Ingria; from thence he passed to the siege of Narva, and -gave several vigorous assaults to the town. There were three bastions, -famous at least for their names, called Victory, Honour, and Glory. The -czar carried them all three sword-in-hand. The besiegers forced their -way into the town, where they pillaged and exercised all those cruelties -which were but too customary at that time, between the Swedes and -Russians. - -August 20.] Peter, on this occasion, gave an example that ought to have -gained him the affections of all his new subjects: he ran every where in -person, to put a stop to the pillage and slaughter, rescues several -women out of the clutches of the brutal soldiery, and, after having, -with his own hand, killed two of those ruffians who had refused to obey -his orders, he enters the town-house, whither the citizens had ran in -crowds for shelter, and laying his sword, yet reeking with blood, upon -the table--'This sword,' said he, 'is not stained with the blood of your -fellow citizens, but with that of my own soldiers, which I have spilt to -save your lives'. - - - - -CHAP. XIV. - - Peter the Great keeps possession of all Ingria, while Charles XII. - is triumphant in other places.--Rise of Menzikoff.--Petersburg - secured.--The czar executes his designs notwithstanding the - victories of the king of Sweden.[69] - - -[Sidenote: 1704.] - -Peter being now master of all Ingria, conferred the government of that -province upon Menzikoff; and at the same time gave him the title of -prince, and the rank of major-general. Pride and prejudice might, in -other countries, find means to gainsay, that a pastry cook's boy should -be raised to be a general and governor, and to princely dignity; but -Peter had already accustomed his subjects to see, without surprise, -every thing given to merit, and nothing to mere nobility. Menzikoff, by -a lucky accident, had, while a boy, been taken from his original -obscurity, and placed in the czar's family,[70] where he learnt several -languages, and acquired a knowledge of public affairs, both in the -cabinet and field; and having found means to ingratiate himself with his -master, he afterwards knew how to render himself necessary. He greatly -forwarded the works at Petersburg, of which he had the direction; -several brick and stone houses were already built, with an arsenal and -magazines; the fortifications were completed, but the palaces were not -built till some time afterwards. - -Peter was scarcely settled in Narva, when he offered fresh succours to -the dethroned king of Poland; he promised him a body of troops over and -above the twelve thousand men he had already sent him, and actually -dispatched general Repnin (Aug. 19.) from the frontiers of Lithuania, -with six thousand horse, and the same number of foot. All this while he -did not lose sight of his colony of Petersburg: the buildings went on -very fast; his navy encreased daily; several ships and frigates were on -the stocks at Olmutz; these he took care to see finished, and brought -them himself into the harbour of Petersburg. - -Oct. 11.] Each time he returned to Moscow, was distinguished by -triumphal entries. In this manner did he revisit it this year, from -whence he made only one excursion, to be present at the launching of his -first ship of eighty guns upon the Woronitz, (Dec. 30.) of which ship he -himself had drawn the dimensions the preceding year. - -May, 1705.] As soon as the campaign could be opened in Poland, he -hastened to the army, which he had sent to the assistance of Augustus, -on the frontiers of that kingdom; but, while he was thus supporting his -ally, a Swedish fleet put to sea, to destroy Petersburg, and the -fortress of Cronslot, as yet hardly finished. This fleet consisted of -twenty-two ships of war, from fifty-four to sixty-four guns each, -besides six frigates, two bomb-ketches, and two fire-ships. The troops -that were sent on this expedition, made a descent on the little island -of Kotin; but a Russian colonel, named Tolbogwin, who commanded a -regiment there, ordered his soldiers to lie down flat on their bellies, -while the Swedes were coming on shore, and then suddenly rising up, they -threw in so brisk and well directed a fire, that the Swedes were put -into confusion, and forced to retreat with the utmost precipitation to -their ships, leaving behind them all their dead, and upwards of three -hundred prisoners. (June 7.) - -However, their fleet still continued hovering about the coast, and -threatened Petersburg. They made another descent, and were repulsed as -before (June 25.): a body of land-forces were also advancing from -Wiburn,[71] under the command of the Swedish general Meidel, and took -their route by Shlusselburg: this was the most considerable attempt that -Charles had yet made upon those territories, which Peter had either -conquered or new formed. The Swedes were every where repulsed, and -Petersburg remained in security. - -Peter, on the other hand, advanced towards Courland, with a design to -penetrate as far as Riga. His plan was to make himself master of -Livonia, while Charles XII. was busied in reducing the Poles entirely -under the obedience of the new king he had given them. The czar was -still at Wilnaw in Lithuania, and his general Sheremeto was approaching -towards Mittau, the capital of Courland; but there he was met by general -Levenhaupt, already famous by several victories, and a pitched battle -was fought between the two armies at a place called Gemavershoff, or -Gemavers. - -In all those actions where experience and discipline decide the day, the -Swedes, though inferior in number, had the advantage. The Russians were -totally defeated, (June 28.) and lost their artillery. Peter, -notwithstanding the loss of three battles, viz. at Gemavers, at -Jacobstadt, and at Narva, always retrieved his losses, and even -converted them to his advantage. - -After the battle of Gemavers, he marched his army into Courland; came -before Mittau, made himself master of the town, and afterwards laid -siege to the citadel, which he took by capitulation. - -Sept. 14, 1705.] The Russian troops at that time had the character of -distinguishing their successes by rapine and pillage; a custom of too -great antiquity in all nations. But Peter, at the taking of Narva, had -made such alterations in this custom, that the Russian soldiers -appointed to guard the vaults where the grand dukes of Courland were -buried, in the castle of Mittau, perceiving that the bodies had been -taken out of their tombs, and stripped of their ornaments, refused to -take possession of their post, till a Swedish colonel had been first -sent for to inspect the condition of the place; who gave them a -certificate that this outrage had been committed by the Swedes -themselves. - -A rumour which was spread throughout the whole empire, that the czar had -been totally defeated at the battle of Gemavers, proved of greater -prejudice to his affairs, than even the loss of that battle. The -remainder of the ancient strelitzes in garrison at Astracan, emboldened -by this false report, mutinied, and murdered the governor of the town. -Peter was obliged to send marshal Sheremeto with a body of forces to -quell the insurrection, and punish the mutineers. - -Every thing seemed now to conspire against the czar; the success and -valour of Charles XII.; the misfortunes of Augustus; the forced -neutrality of Denmark; the insurrection of the ancient strelitzes; the -murmurs of a people, sensible of the restraint, but not of the utility -of the late reform; the discontent of the grandees, who found themselves -subjected to military discipline; and, lastly, the exhausted state of -the finances, were sufficient to have discouraged any prince except -Peter: but he did not despond, even for an instant. He soon quelled the -revolt, and having provided for the safety of Ingria, and secured the -possession of the citadel of Mittau, in spite of the victorious -Levenhaupt, who had not troops enough to oppose him; he found himself at -liberty to march an army through Samojitia and Lithuania. - -He now shared with Charles XII. the glory of giving laws to Poland. He -advanced as far as Tikoczin: where he had an interview for the second -time with king Augustus; when he endeavoured to comfort him under his -misfortunes, promising to revenge his cause, and, at the same time, made -him a present of some colours, which Menzikoff had taken from the troops -of his rival. The two monarchs afterwards went together to Grodno, the -capital of Lithuania, where they staid till the 15th of December. At -their parting, Peter presented him both men and money, and then, -according to his usual custom, went to pass some part of the winter at -Moscow, (30 Dec.) to encourage the arts and sciences there, and to -enforce his new laws there, after having made a very difficult and -laborious campaign. - - - - -CHAP. XV. - - While Peter is strengthening his conquests, and improving the police - of his dominion, his enemy Charles XII. gains several battles: gives - laws to Poland and Saxony, and to Augustus, notwithstanding a - victory gained by the Russians.--Augustus resigns the crown, and - delivers up Patkul, the czar's ambassador.--Murder of Patkul, who is - sentenced to be broke upon the wheel. - - -[Sidenote: 1706.] - -Peter was hardly returned to Moscow, when he heard that Charles XII. -after being every where victorious, was advancing towards Grodno, to -attack the Russian troops. King Augustus had been obliged to fly from -Grodno, and retire with precipitation towards Saxony, with four -regiments of Russian dragoons; a step which both weakened and -discouraged the army of his protector. Peter found all the advances to -Grodno occupied by the Swedes, and his troops dispersed. - -While he was with the greatest difficulty assembling his troops in -Lithuania, the famous Schullemburg, who was the last support Augustus -had left, and who afterwards gained so much glory by the defence of -Corfu against the Turks, was advancing on the side of Great Poland, with -about twelve thousand Saxons, and six thousand Russians, taken from the -body troops with which the czar had entrusted that unfortunate prince. -Schullemburg expected with just reason, that he should be able to prop -the sinking fortunes of Augustus; he perceived that Charles XII. was -employed in Lithuania, and that there was only a body of ten thousand -Swedes under general Renschild to interrupt his march; he therefore -advanced with confidence as far as the frontiers of Silesia; which is -the passage out of Saxony into Upper Poland. When he came near the -village of Fraustadt, on the frontiers of that kingdom, he met marshal -Renschild, who was advancing to give him battle. - -Whatever care I take to avoid repeating what has been already mentioned -in the history of Charles XII., I am obliged in this place to take -notice once more, that there was in the Saxon army a French regiment, -that had been taken prisoners at the famous battle of Hochsted (or -Blenheim) and obliged to serve in the Saxon troops. My memoirs say, that -this regiment had the charge of the artillery, and add, that the French, -struck with the fame and reputation of Charles XII., and discontented -with the Saxon service, laid down their arms as soon as they came in -sight of the enemy (Feb.), and desired to be taken into the Swedish -army, in which they continued to the end of the war. This defection was -as the beginning, or signal of a total overthrow to the Russian army, of -which no more than three battalions were saved, and almost every man of -these was wounded; and as no quarter was granted, the remainder was cut -in pieces. - -Norberg, the chaplain, pretends, that the Swedish word at this battle -was, 'In the name of God,' and that of the Russians, 'Kill all;' but it -was the Swedes who killed all in God's name. The czar himself declares, -in one of his manifestoes,[72] that a number of Russians, Cossacks, and -Calmucks, that had been made prisoners, were murdered in cool blood -three days after that battle. The irregular troops on both sides had -accustomed their generals to these cruelties, than which greater were -never committed in the most barbarous times. I had the honour to hear -king Stanislaus himself say, that in one of those engagements which were -so frequent in Poland, a Russian officer who had formerly been one of -his friends, came to put himself under his protection, after the defeat -of the corps he commanded; and that the Swedish general Steinbock shot -him dead with a pistol, while he held him in his arms. - -This was the fourth battle the Russians had lost against the Swedes, -without reckoning the other victories of Charles XII. in Poland. The -czar's troops that were in Grodno, ran the risk of suffering a still -greater disgrace, by being surrounded on all sides; but he fortunately -found means to get them together, and even to strengthen them with new -reinforcements. But necessitated at once to provide for the safety of -this army, and the security of his conquests in Ingria, he ordered -prince Menzikoff to march with the army under his command eastward, and -from thence southward as far as Kiow. - -While his men were upon their march, he repairs to Shlusselburg, from -thence to Narva, and to his colony of Petersburg (August), and puts -those places in a posture of defence. From the Baltic he flies to the -banks of the Boristhenes, to enter into Poland by the way of Kiow, -making it still his chief care to render those victories of Charles, -which he had not been able to prevent, of as little advantage to the -victor as possible. At this very time he meditated a new conquest; -namely, that of Wibourg, the capital of Carelia, situated on the gulf of -Finland. He went in person to lay siege to this place, but for this time -it withstood the power of his arms; succours arrived in season, and he -was obliged to raise the siege. (Oct.) His rival, Charles XII. did not, -in fact, make any conquests, though he gained so many battles: he was -at that time in pursuit of king Augustus in Saxony, being always more -intent upon humbling that prince, and crushing him beneath the weight of -his superior power and reputation, than upon recovering Ingria, that had -been wrested from him by a vanquished enemy. - -He spread terror through all Upper Poland, Silesia, and Saxony. King -Augustus's whole family, his mother, his wife, his son, and the -principal nobility of the country, were retired into the heart of the -empire. Augustus now sued for peace, choosing rather to trust himself to -the mercy of his conqueror, than in the arms of his protector. He -entered into a treaty which deprived him of the crown of Poland, and -covered him at the same time with ignominy. This was a private treaty, -and was to be concealed from the czar's generals, with whom he had taken -refuge in Poland, while Charles XII. was giving laws in Leipsic, and -acting as absolute master throughout his electorate. - -His plenipotentiaries had already signed the fatal treaty (Sept. 14.), -by which he not only divested himself of the crown of Poland, but -promised never more to assume the title of king; at the same time he -recognized Stanislaus, renounced his alliance with the czar his -benefactor; and, to complete his humiliation, engaged to deliver up to -Charles XII. John Reinold Patkul, the czar's ambassador and general in -the Russian service, who was then actually fighting in his cause. He had -some time before ordered Patkul to be arrested upon false suspicions, -contrary to the law of nations; and now, in direct violation of these -laws, he delivered him up to the enemy. It had been better for him to -have died sword-in-hand, than to have concluded such a treaty; a treaty, -which not only robbed him of his crown, and of his reputation, but -likewise endangered his liberty, because he was at that time in the -power of prince Menzikoff in Posnania, and the few Saxons that he had -with him, were paid by the Russians. - -Prince Menzikoff was opposed in that district by a Swedish army, -reinforced with a strong party of Poles, in the interest of the new king -Stanislaus, under the command of general Meyerfeld; and not knowing that -Augustus had engaged in a treaty with the enemies of Russia, had -proposed to attack them, and Augustus did not dare to refuse. The battle -was fought near Calish (Oct. 19.), in the palatinate belonging to -Stanislaus; this was the first pitched battle the Russians had gained -against the Swedes. Prince Menzikoff had all the glory of the action, -four thousand of the enemy were left dead on the field, and two thousand -five hundred and ninety-eight were made prisoners. - -It is difficult to comprehend how Augustus could be prevailed on, after -this battle, to ratify a treaty which deprived him of all the fruits of -his victory. But Charles was still triumphant in Saxony, where his -very name spread terror. The success of the Russians appeared so -inconsiderable, and the Polish party against Augustus was so strong, -and, in fine, that monarch was so ill-advised, that he signed the fatal -convention. Neither did he stop here: he wrote to his envoy Finkstein a -letter, that was, if possible, more shameful than the treaty itself; for -therein he asked pardon for having obtained a victory, 'protesting, that -the battle had been fought against his will; that the Russians and the -Poles, his adherents, had obliged him to it; that he had, with a view of -preventing it, actually made some movements to abandon Menzikoff; that -Meyerfeld might have beaten him, had he made the most of that -opportunity; that he was ready to restore all the Swedish prisoners, or -to break with the Russians; and that, in fine, he would give the king of -Sweden all possible satisfaction,' for having dared to beat his troops. - -This whole affair, unparalleled and inconceivable as it is, is, -nevertheless, strictly true. When we reflect, that, with all this -weakness, Augustus was one of the bravest princes in Europe, we may -plainly perceive, that the loss or preservation, the rise or decline of -empires, are entirely owing to fortitude of mind. - -Two other circumstances concurred to complete the disgrace of the king -of Poland elector of Saxony, and heighten the abuse which Charles XII. -made of his good fortune; the first was his obliging Augustus to write a -letter of congratulation to the new king Stanislaus on his election: the -second was terrible, he even compelled Augustus to deliver up Patkul, -the czar's ambassador and general.[73] It is sufficiently known to all -Europe, that this minister was afterwards broke alive upon the wheel at -Casimir, in the month of September, 1707. Norberg, the chaplain, -confesses that the orders for his execution were all written in -Charles's own hand. - -There is not a civilian in all Europe, nay even the vilest slave, but -must feel the whole horror of this barbarous injustice. The first crime -of this unfortunate man was, the having made an humble representation of -the rights and privileges of his country, at the head of six Livonian -gentlemen, who were sent as deputies from the whole province: having -been condemned to die for fulfilling the first of duties, that of -serving his country agreeable to her laws. This iniquitous sentence put -him in full possession of a right, which all mankind derive from nature, -that of choosing his country. Being afterwards made ambassador to one of -the greatest monarchs in the universe, his person thereby became sacred. -On this occasion the law of force violated that of nature and nations. -In former ages cruelties of this kind were hidden in the blaze of -success, but now they sully the glory of a conqueror. - - - - -CHAP. XVI. - - Attempts made to set up a third king of Poland.--Charles XII. sets - out from Saxony with a powerful army, and marches through Poland in - a victorious manner.--Cruelties committed.--Conduct of the - czar.--Successes of the king of Sweden, who at length advances - towards Russia. - - -[Sidenote: 1707.] - -Charles XII. enjoyed the fruits of his good fortune in Altranstadt near -Leipsic, whither the Protestant princes of the German empire repaired in -droves to pay homage to him, and implore his protection. He received -ambassadors from almost all the potentates in Europe. The emperor Joseph -implicitly followed his directions. Peter then perceiving that king -Augustus had renounced his protection and his own crown, and that a part -of the Polish nation had acknowledged Stanislaus, listened to the -proposals made him by Yolkova, of choosing a third king. - -A diet was held at Lublin, in which several of the palatines were -proposed; and among others, Prince Ragotski was put upon the list; that -prince, who was so long kept in prison, when young, by the emperor -Leopold, and who afterwards when he procured his liberty, was his -competitor for the throne of Hungary. - -This negotiation was pushed very far, and Poland was on the point of -having three kings at one time. Prince Ragotski not succeeding, Peter -thought to bestow the crown on Siniauski, grand general of the republic; -a person of great power and interest, and head of a third party, that -would neither acknowledge the dethroned king, nor the person elected by -the opposed party. - -In the midst of these troubles, there was a talk of peace, as is -customary on the like occasions. Besseval the French envoy in Saxony -interposed, in order to bring about a reconciliation between the czar -and the king of Sweden. It was thought at that time by the court of -France, that Charles, having no longer either the Russians or Poles to -fight against, might turn his arms against the emperor Joseph, with whom -he was not on very good terms, and on whom he had imposed several laws -during his stay in Saxony. But Charles made answer, that he would treat -with the czar in Moscow. It was on this occasion that Peter said, 'My -brother Charles wants to act the Alexander, but he shall not find a -Darius in me.' - -The Russians however were still in Poland, and were in the city of -Warsaw, while the king whom Charles XII. had set over the Poles was -hardly acknowledged by that nation. In the mean time, Charles was -enriching his army with the spoils of Saxony. - -Aug. 22.] At length he began his march from Altranstadt, at the head of -an army of forty-five thousand men; a force which it seemed impossible -for the czar to withstand, seeing he had been entirely defeated by eight -thousand only at Narva. - -Aug. 27.] It was in passing by the walls of Dresden, that Charles made -that very extraordinary visit to king Augustus, which, as Norberg says, -'will strike posterity with admiration.' It was running an unaccountable -risk, to put himself in the power of a prince whom he had deprived of -his kingdom. From thence he continued his march through Silesia, and -re-entered Poland. - -This country has been entirely ravaged by war, ruined by factions, and -was a prey to every kind of calamity. Charles continued advancing with -his army through the province of Muscovia, and chose the most difficult -ways he could take. The inhabitants, who had taken shelter in the -morasses, resolved to make him at least pay for his passage. Six -thousand peasants dispatched an old man of their body to speak to him: -this man who was of a very extraordinary figure, clad in white, and -armed with two carabines, made a speech to Charles; but as the standers -by did not well understand what he said, they, without any further -ceremony, dispatched him in his harangue, and before their king's face. -The peasants, in a rage, immediately withdrew, and took up arms. All who -could be found were seized, and obliged to hang one another; the last -was compelled to put the rope about his neck himself, and to be his own -executioner. All their houses were burnt to the ground. This fact is -attested by Norberg, who was an eye-witness, and therefore cannot be -contradicted, as it cannot be related without inspiring horror. - -1708, Feb. 6.] Charles being arrived within a few leagues of Grodno in -Lithuania, is informed of the czar's being there in person with a body -of troops; upon which, without staying to deliberate, he takes only -eight hundred of his guards, and sets out for Grodno. A German officer, -named Mulfels, who commanded a body of troops, posted at one of the -gates of the town, making no doubt, when he saw Charles, but that he was -followed by his whole army, instead of disputing the passage with him, -leaves it open, and takes to flight. The alarm is now spread through the -whole town; every one imagines the whole Swedish army already entered; -the few Russians who made any resistance, are cut in pieces by the -Swedish guards; and all the officers assure the czar, that the -victorious army had made itself master of the place. Hereupon Peter -retreats behind the ramparts, and Charles plants a guard of thirty men -at the very gate through which the czar had just before entered. - -In this confusion some of the Jesuits, whose college had been taken to -accommodate the king of Sweden, as being the handsomest structure in the -place, went by night to the czar, and for this time told the whole -truth. Upon this, Peter immediately returns into the town, and forces -the Swedish guards. An engagement ensues in the streets and public -places; but, at length, the whole Swedish army appearing in sight, the -czar is obliged to yield to superior numbers, and leaves the town in the -hands of the victor, who made all Poland tremble. - -Charles had augmented his forces in Livonia and Finland, and Peter had -every thing to fear, not only for his conquests on this side, together -with those in Lithuania, but also for his ancient territories, and even -for the city of Moscow itself. He was obliged then to provide at once -for the safety of all these different places, at such a distance from -each other. Charles could not make any rapid conquest to the eastward of -Lithuania in the depth of winter, and in a marshy country, subject to -epidemical disorders, which had been spread by poverty and famine, from -Warsaw, as far as Minski. Peter posted his troops so as to command the -passes of the rivers, (April 8.) guarded all the important posts, and -did every thing in his power to impede the marches of his enemy, and -afterwards hastened to put things in a proper situation at Petersburg. - -Though Charles was lording it in Poland, he took nothing from the czar; -but Peter, by the use he made of his new fleet, by landing his troops in -Finland, by the taking and dismantling the town of Borgau, (May 22.) and -by seizing a great booty, was procuring many real and great advantages -to himself, and distressing his enemy. - -Charles, after being detained a long time in Lithuania, by continual -rains, at length reached the little river of Berezine, some few leagues -from the Boristhenes. Nothing could withstand his activity: he threw a -bridge over the river in sight of the Russians; beat a detachment that -guarded the passage, and got to Holozin on the river Bibitsch, where the -czar had posted a considerable body of troops to check the impetuous -progress of his rival. The little river of Bibitsch is only a small -brook in dry weather; but at this time it was swelled by the rains to a -deep and rapid stream. On the other side was a morass, behind which the -Russians had thrown up an intrenchment for above a quarter of a league, -defended by a large and deep ditch, and covered by a parapet, lined with -artillery. Nine regiments of horse, and eleven of foot, were -advantageously posted in these lines, so that the passage of the river -seemed impracticable. - -The Swedes, according to the custom of war, got ready their pontoons, -and erected batteries to favour their passage; but Charles, whose -impatience to engage would not let him brook the least delay, did not -wait till the pontoons were ready. Marshal Schwerin, who served a long -time under him, has assured me several times, that one day that they -were to come to action, observing his generals to be very busy in -concerting the necessary dispositions, said tartly to them, 'When will -you have done with this trifling?' and immediately advanced in person at -the head of his guards, which he did particularly on this memorable day. - -He flung himself into the river, followed by his regiment of guards. -Their numbers broke the impetuosity of the current, but the water was as -high as their shoulders, and they could make no use of their firelocks. -Had the artillery of the parapet been but tolerably well served, or had -the infantry but levelled their pieces in a proper manner, not a single -Swede would have escaped. - -July 25.] The king, after wading the river, passed the morass on foot. -As soon as the army had surmounted these obstacles within sight of the -Russians, they drew up in order of battle, and attacked the enemies -intrenchments seven different times, and it was not till the seventh -attack that the Russians gave way. By the accounts of their own -historians, the Swedes took but twelve field-pieces, and twenty-four -mortars. - -It was therefore evident, that the czar had at length succeeded in -disciplining his troops, and this victory of Holozin, while it covered -Charles XII. with glory, might have made him sensible of the many -dangers he must have to encounter in adventuring into such distant -countries, where his army could march only in small bodies, through -woods, morasses, and where he would be obliged to fight out every step -of his way; but the Swedes, being accustomed to carry all before them, -dreaded neither danger nor fatigue.[74] - - - - -CHAP. XVII. - - Charles XII. crosses the Boristhenes, penetrates into the Ukraine, - but concerts his measures badly.--One of his armies is defeated by - Peter the Great: he loses his supply of provisions and ammunition: - advances forward through a desert country: his adventures in the - Ukraine. - - -[Sidenote: 1708.] - -At last Charles arrives on the borders of the Boristhenes, at a small -town called Mohilow. This was the important spot where it was to be -determined, whether he should direct his march eastward, towards Moscow; -or southwards, towards the Ukraine. His own army, his friends, his -enemies, all expected that he would direct his course immediately for -the capital of Russia. Which ever way he took, Peter was following him -from Smolensko with a strong army; no one expected that he would turn -towards the Ukraine. He was induced to take this strange resolution by -Mazeppa, hetman of the Cossacks, who, being an old man of seventy and -without children, ought to have thought only of ending his days in -peace: gratitude should have bound him to the czar, to whom he was -indebted for his present dignity; but whether he had any real cause of -complaint against that prince, or that he was dazzled with the lustre of -Charles's exploits, or whether, in time, he thought to make himself -independent, he betrayed his benefactor, and privately espoused the -interests of the king of Sweden, flattering himself with the hopes of -engaging his whole nation in a rebellion with himself. - -Charles made not the least doubt of subduing the Russian empire, as soon -as his troops should be joined by so warlike a people as the Cossacks. -Mazeppa was to furnish him with what provisions, ammunition, and -artillery, he should want; besides these powerful succours, he was to be -joined by an army of sixteen or seventeen thousand men, out of Livonia, -under the command of general Levenhaupt, who was to bring with him a -prodigious quantity of warlike stores and provisions. Charles was not at -the trouble of reflecting, whether the czar was within reach of -attacking the army, and depriving him of these necessary supplies. He -never informed himself whether Mazeppa was in a condition to observe his -promises; if that Cossack had credit enough to change the disposition of -a whole nation, who are generally guided only by their own opinion; or -whether his army was provided with sufficient resources in case of an -accident; but imagined, if Mazeppa should prove deficient in abilities -or fidelity, he could trust in his own valour and good fortune. The -Swedish army then advanced beyond the Boristhenes towards the Desna; it -was between these two rivers, that he expected to meet with Mazeppa. His -march was attended with many difficulties and dangers, on account of the -badness of the road, and the many parties of Russians that were hovering -about these regions. - -Sept. 11.] Menzikoff, at the head of some horse and foot, attacked the -king's advanced guard, threw them into disorder, and killed a number of -his men. He lost a great number of his own, indeed, but that did not -discourage him. Charles immediately hastened to the field of battle, and -with some difficulty repulsed the Russians, at the hazard of his own -life, by engaging a party of dragoons, by whom he was surrounded. All -this while Mazeppa did not appear, and provisions began to grow scarce. -The Swedish soldiers, seeing their king share in all their dangers, -fatigues, and wants, were not dispirited; but though they admired his -courage, they could not refrain from murmuring at his conduct. - -The orders which the king had sent to Levenhaupt to march forward with -all haste, to join him with the necessary supplies, were not delivered -by twelve days so soon as they should have been. This was a long delay -as circumstances then stood. However, Levenhaupt at length began his -march; Peter suffered him to pass the Boristhenes, but as soon as his -army was got between that river and the lesser ones, which empty -themselves into it, he crossed over after him, and attacked him with his -united forces, which had followed in different corps at equal distances -from one another. This battle was fought between the Boristhenes and the -Sossa.[75] - -Prince Menzikoff was upon his return with the same body of horse, with -which he had lately engaged Charles XII. General Baur followed him, and -the czar himself headed the flower of his army. The Swedes imagined they -had to deal with an army of forty thousand men, and the same was -believed for a long time on the faith of their relation; but my late -memoirs inform me, that Peter had only twenty thousand men in this day's -engagement, a number not much superior to that of the enemy: but his -vigour, his patience, his unwearied perseverance, together with that of -his troops, animated by his presence, decided the fate, not of that day -only, but of three successive days, during which the fight was renewed -at different times. - -They made their first attack upon the rear of the Swedish army, near the -village of Lesnau, from whence this battle borrows its name. This first -shock was bloody, without proving decisive. Levenhaupt retreated into a -wood, and thereby saved his baggage. (Oct. 7.) The next morning, when -the Swedes were to be driven from this wood, the fight was still more -bloody, and more to the advantage of the Russians. Here it was that the -czar, seeing his troops in disorder, cried out to fire upon the -runaways, and even upon himself, if they saw him turn back. The Swedes -were repulsed, but not thrown into confusion. - -At length a reinforcement of four thousand dragoons arriving, he fell -upon the Swedes a third time; who retreated to a small town called -Prospock, where they were again attacked; they then marched towards the -Desna, the Russians still pursuing them: yet they were never broken, -but lost upwards of eight thousand men, seventeen pieces of cannon, and -forty-four colours: the czar took fifty-six officers and near nine -hundred private men prisoners; and the great convoy of provisions and -ammunition that were going to Charles's army, fell into the hands of the -conqueror. - -This was the first time that the czar in person gained a pitched battle, -against an enemy who had distinguished himself by so many victories over -his troops: he was employed in a general thanksgiving for his success, -when he received advice that general Apraxin had lately gained an -advantage over the enemy in Ingria, (Sept. 17,) some leagues from Narva, -an advantage less considerable indeed than that of Lesnau; but this -concurrence of fortunate events greatly raised the hopes and courage of -his troops. - -Charles XII. heard of these unfortunate tidings just as he was ready to -pass the Desna, in the Ukraine. Mazeppa at length joined him; but -instead of twenty thousand men, and an immense quantity of provisions, -which he was to have brought with him, he came with only two regiments, -and appeared rather like a fugitive applying for assistance, than a -prince, who was bringing powerful succours to his ally. This Cossack had -indeed begun his march with near fifteen or sixteen thousand of his -people, whom he had told, at their first setting out, that they were -going against the king of Sweden; that they would have the glory of -stopping that hero on his march, and that he would hold himself -eternally obliged to them for so great a service. - -But when they came within a few leagues of the Desna, he made them -acquainted with his real design. These brave people received his -declaration with disdain: they refused to betray a monarch, against -whom they had no cause of complaint, for the sake of a Swede, who had -invaded their country with an armed force, and who, after leaving it, -would be no longer able to defend them, but must abandon them to the -mercy of the incensed Russians, and of the Poles, once their masters, -and always their enemies: they accordingly returned home, and gave -advice to the czar of the defection of their chief: Mazeppa found -himself left with only two regiments, the officers of which were in his -own pay. - -He was still master of some strong posts in the Ukraine, and in -particular of Bathurin, the place of his residence, looked upon as the -capital of the country of the Cossacks: it is situated near some forests -on the Desna, at a great distance from the place where Peter had -defeated general Levenhaupt. There were always some Russian regiments -quartered in these districts. Prince Menzikoff was detached from the -czar's army, and got thither by round-about marches. Charles could not -secure all the passes; he did not even know them all, and had neglected -to make himself master of the important post of Starowdoub, which leads -directly to the Bathurin, across seven or eight leagues of forest, -through which the Desna directs its course. His enemy had always the -advantage of him, by being better acquainted with the country. - -Menzikoff and prince Galitzin, who had accompanied him, easily made -their passage good, and presented themselves before the town of -Bathurin, (Nov. 14,) which surrendered almost without resistance, was -plundered, and reduced to ashes. The Russians made themselves masters of -a large magazine destined for the use of the king of Sweden, and of all -Mazeppa's treasures. The Cossacks chose another hetman, named -Skoropasky, who was approved by the czar, who being willing to impress a -due sense of the enormous crime of treason on the minds of the people, -by a striking example of justice, the archbishop of Kiow, and two other -prelates, were ordered to excommunicate Mazeppa publicly, (Nov. 22,) -after which he was hanged in effigy, and some of his accomplices were -broken upon the wheel. - -In the meanwhile, Charles XII. still at the head of about twenty-five or -twenty-seven thousand Swedes, who were reinforced by the remains of -Levenhaupt's army, and the addition of between two or three thousand -men, whom Mazeppa had brought with him, and still infatuated with the -same notion of making all the Ukraine declare for him, passed the Desna -at some distance from Bathurin, and near the Boristhenes, in spite of -the czar's troops which surrounded him on all sides; part of whom -followed close in the rear, while another part lined the opposite side -of the river to oppose his passage. - -He continued his march through a desert country, where he met with -nothing but burned or ruined villages. The cold began to set in at the -beginning of December so extremely sharp, that in one of his marches -near two thousand of his men perished before his eyes: the czar's troops -did not suffer near so much, being better supplied; whereas the king of -Sweden's army, being almost naked, was necessarily more exposed to the -inclemency of the weather. - -In this deplorable situation, count Piper, chancellor of Sweden, who -never gave his master other than good advice, conjured him to halt, and -pass at least the severest part of the winter in a small town of the -Ukraine, called Romna, where he might intrench himself, and get some -provisions by the help of Mazeppa; but Charles replied, that--He was not -a person to shut himself up in a town. Piper then intreated him to -re-pass the Desna and the Boristhenes, to return back into Poland, to -put his troops into winter quarters, of which they stood so much in -need, to make use of the Polish cavalry, which was absolutely necessary; -to support the king he had nominated, and to keep in awe the partisans -of Augustus, who began already to bestir themselves. Charles answered -him again--That this would be flying before the czar, that the season -would grow milder, and that he must reduce the Ukraine, and march on to -Moscow.[76] - -January, 1709.] Both armies remained some weeks inactive, on account of -the intenseness of the cold, in the month of January, 1709; but as soon -as the men were able to make use of their arms, Charles attacked all the -small posts that he found in his way; he was obliged to send parties on -every side in search of provisions; that is to say, to scour the country -twenty leagues round, and rob all the peasants of their necessary -subsistence. Peter, without hurrying himself, kept a strict eye upon all -his motions, and suffered the Swedish army to dwindle away by degrees. - -It is impossible for the reader to follow the Swedes in their march -through these countries: several of the rivers which they crossed are -not to be found in the maps: we must not suppose, that geographers are -as well acquainted with these countries, as we are with Italy, France, -and Germany: geography is, of all the arts, that which still stands the -most need of improvement, and ambition has hitherto been at more pains -to desolate the face of the globe, than to give a description of it. - -We must content ourselves then with knowing, that Charles traversed the -whole Ukraine in the month of February, burning the villages wherever he -came, or meeting with others that had been laid in ashes by the -Russians. He advancing south-east, came to those sandy deserts, bordered -by mountains that separate the Nogay Tartars from the Don Cossacks. To -the eastward of those mountains are the altars of Alexander. Charles was -now on the other side of the Ukraine, in the road that the Tartars take -to Russia; and when he was got there, he was obliged to return back -again to procure subsistence: the inhabitants, having retired with all -their cattle into their dens and lurking-places, would sometimes defend -their subsistence against the soldiers, who came to deprive them of it. -Such of these poor wretches, who could be found, were put to death, -agreeably to what are falsely called, the rules of war. I cannot here -forbear transcribing a few lines from Norberg.[77] 'As an instance,' -says he, 'of the king's regard to justice, I shall insert a note, which -he wrote with his own hand to colonel Heilmen. - - 'Colonel, - - 'I am very well pleased that you have taken those peasants, who - carried off a Swedish soldier; as soon as they are convicted of the - crime, let them be punished with death, according to the exigency of - the case. - - 'Charles; and lower down, Budis.' - -Such are the sentiments of justice and humanity shewn by a king's -confessor; but, had the peasants of the Ukraine had it in their power -to hang up some of those regimented peasants of East Gothland, who -thought themselves entitled to come so far to plunder them, their wives, -and families, of their subsistence, would not the confessors and -chaplains of these Ukrainers have had equal reason to applaud their -justice? - -Mazeppa had for a considerable time, been in treaty with the -Zaporavians, who dwell about the two shores of the Boristhenes, and of -whom part inhabit the islands on that river. It is this division that -forms the nation, of whom mention has already been made in the first -chapter of this history, and who have neither wives nor families, and -subsist entirely by rapine. During the winter they heap up provisions in -their islands, which they afterwards go and sell in the summer, in the -little town of Pultowa; the rest dwell in small hamlets, to the right -and left of this river. All together choose a particular hetman, and -this hetman is subordinate to him of the Ukraine. The person, at that -time at the head of the Zaporavians, came to meet Mazeppa; and these two -barbarians had an interview, at which each of them had a horse's tail, -and a club borne before him, as ensigns of honour. - -To shew what this hetman of the Zaporavians and his people were, I think -it not unworthy of history, to relate the manner in which this treaty -was concluded. Mazeppa gave a great feast to the hetman of the -Zaporavians, and his principal officers, who were all served in plate. -As soon as these chiefs had made themselves drunk with brandy, they took -an oath (without stirring from table) upon the Evangelists, to supply -Charles with men and provisions; after which they carried off all the -plate and other table-furniture. Mazeppa's steward ran after them, and -remonstrated, that such behaviour ill-suited with the doctrine of the -Gospels, on which they had so lately sworn. Some of Mazeppa's domestics -were for taking the plate away from them by force; but the Zaporavians -went in a body to complain to Mazeppa, of the unparalleled affront -offered to such brave fellows, and demanded to have the steward -delivered up to them, that they might punish him according to law. This -was accordingly complied with, and the Zaporavians, according to law, -tossed this poor man from one to another like a ball, and afterwards -plunged a knife to his heart. - -Such were the new allies that Charles XII. was obliged to receive; part -of whom he formed into a regiment of two thousand men; the remainder -marched in separate bodies against the Cossacks and Calmucks of the -czar's party, that were stationed about that district. - -The little town of Pultowa, with which those Zaporavians carry on a -trade, was filled with provisions, and might have served Charles for a -place of arms. It is situated on the river Worsklaw, near a chain of -mountains, which command it on the north side. To the eastward is a vast -desert. The western part is the most fruitful, and the best peopled. The -Worsklaw empties itself into the Boristhenes, about fifteen leagues -lower down; from Pultowa, one may go northward, through the defiles, -which communicate with the road to Moscow, a passage used by the -Tartars. It is very difficult of access, and the precautions taken by -the czar had rendered it almost impervious; but nothing appeared -impossible to Charles, and he depended upon marching to Moscow, as soon -as he had made himself master of Pultowa: with this view he laid siege -to that town in the beginning of May. - - - - -CHAP. XVIII. - - Battle of Pultowa. - - -Here it was that Peter expected him; he had disposed the several -divisions of his army at convenient distances for joining each other, -and marching all together against the besiegers: he had visited the -countries which surround the Ukraine; namely the duchy of Severia, -watered by the Desna, already made famous by his victory: the country of -Bolcho, in which the Occa has its source; the deserts and mountains -leading to the Palus Mæotis; and lately he had been in the neighbourhood -of Azoph, where he caused that harbour to be cleansed, new ships to be -built, and the citadel of Taganroc to be repaired. Thus did he employ -the time that passed between the battles of Lesnau and Pultowa, in -preparing for the defence of his dominions. As soon as he heard the -Swedes had laid siege to the town, he mustered all his forces; the -horse, dragoons, infantry, Cossacks, and Calmucks, advanced from -different quarters. His army was well provided with necessaries of every -kind; large cannon, field pieces, ammunition of all sorts, provisions, -and even medicines for the sick: this was another degree of superiority -which he had acquired over his rival. - -On the 15th day of June, 1709, he appeared before Pultowa, with an army -of about sixty thousand effective men; the river Worsklaw was between -him and Charles. The besiegers were encamped on the north-west side of -that river, the Russians on the south-east. - -Peter ascends the river above the town, fixes his barges, marches over -with his army, and draws a long line of intrenchments, (July 3.) which -were begun and completed in one night, in the face of the enemy. Charles -might then judge, whether the person, whom he had so much despised, and -whom he thought of dethroning at Moscow, understood the art of war. This -disposition being made, Peter posted his cavalry between two woods, and -covered it with several redoubts, lined with artillery. Having thus -taken all the necessary measures, (July 6.) he went to reconnoitre the -enemy's camp, in order to form the attack. - -This battle was to decide the fate of Russia, Poland, and Sweden, and of -two monarchs, on whom the eyes of all Europe were fixed. The greatest -part of those nations, who were attentive to these important concerns, -were equally ignorant of the place where these two princes were, and of -their situation: but knowing that Charles XII. had set out from Saxony, -at the head of a victorious army, and that he was driving his enemy -every where before him, they no longer doubted that he would at length -entirely crush him; and that, as he had already given laws to Denmark, -Poland, and Germany, he would now dictate conditions of peace in the -Kremlin of Moscow, and make a new czar, after having already made a new -king of Poland. I have seen letters from several public ministers to -their respective courts, confirming this general opinion. - -The risk was far from being equal between these two great rivals. If -Charles lost a life, which he had so often and wantonly exposed, there -would after all have been but one hero less in the world. The provinces -of the Ukraine, the frontiers of Lithuania, and of Russia, would then -rest from their calamities, and a stop would be put to the general -devastation which had so long been their scourge. Poland would, -together with her tranquillity, recover her lawful prince, who had been -lately reconciled to the czar, his benefactor; and Sweden, though -exhausted of men and money, might find motives of consolation under her -heavy losses. - -But, if the czar perished, those immense labours, which had been of such -utility to mankind, would be buried with him, and the most extensive -empire in the world would again relapse into the chaos from whence it -had been so lately taken. - -There had already been some skirmishes between the detached parties of -the Swedes and Russians, under the walls of the town. In one of these -rencounters, (June 27.) Charles had been wounded by a musket-ball, which -had shattered the bones of his foot: he underwent several painful -operations, which he bore with his usual fortitude, and had been -confined to his bed for several days. In this condition he was informed, -that Peter intended to give him battle; his notions of honour would not -suffer him to wait to be attacked in his intrenchments. Accordingly he -gave orders for quitting them, and was carried himself in a litter. -Peter the Great acknowledges, that the Swedes attacked the redoubts, -lined with artillery, that covered his cavalry, with such obstinate -valour, that, notwithstanding the strongest resistance, supported by a -continual fire, the enemy made themselves masters of two redoubts. Some -writers say, that when the Swedish infantry found themselves in -possession of the two redoubts, they thought the day their own, and -began to cry out--Victory. The chaplain, Norberg, who was at some great -distance from the field of battle, amongst the baggage (which was indeed -his proper place) pretends, that this was a calumny; but, whether the -Swedes cried victory or not, it is certain they were not victorious. The -fire from the other redoubts was kept up without ceasing, and the -resistance made by the Russians, in every part, was as firm as the -attack of their enemies was vigorous. They did not make one irregular -movement; the czar drew up his army without the intrenchments in -excellent order, and with surprising dispatch. - -The battle now became general. Peter acted as major-general; Baur -commanded the right wing, Menzikoff the left, and Sheremeto the centre. -The action lasted about two hours: Charles, with a pistol in his hand, -went from rank to rank, carried in a litter, on the shoulders of his -drabans; one of which was killed by a cannon-ball, and at the same time -the litter was shattered in pieces. He then ordered his men to carry him -upon their pikes; for it would have been difficult, in so smart an -action, let Norberg say as he pleases, to find a fresh litter ready -made. Peter received several shots through his clothes and his hat; both -princes were continually in the midst of the fire, during the whole -action. At length, after two hours desperate engagement, the Swedes were -taken on all sides, and fell into confusion; so that Charles was obliged -to fly before him, whom he had hitherto held in so much contempt. This -very hero, who could not mount his saddle during the battle, now fled -for his life on horseback; necessity lent him strength in his retreat: -he suffered the most excruciating pain, which was increased by the -mortifying reflection of being vanquished without resource. The Russians -reckoned nine thousand two hundred and twenty-four Swedes left dead on -the field of battle, and between two and three thousand made prisoners -in the action, the chief of which was cavalry. - -Charles XII. fled with the greatest precipitation, attended by the -remains of his brave army, a few field-pieces, and a very small quantity -of provisions and ammunition. He directed his march southward, towards -the Boristhenes, between the two rivers Workslaw and Psol, or Sol, in -the country of the Zaporavians. Beyond the Boristhenes, are vast -deserts, which lead to the frontiers of Turkey. Norberg affirms, that -the victors durst not pursue Charles; and yet he acknowledges, that -prince Menzikoff appeared on the neighbouring heights, (July 12.) with -ten thousand horse, and a considerable train of artillery, while the -king was passing the Boristhenes. - -Fourteen thousand Swedes surrendered themselves prisoners of war to -these ten thousand Russians; and Levenhaupt, who commanded them, signed -the fatal capitulation, by which he gave up those Zaporavians who had -engaged in the service of his master, and were then in the fugitive -army. The chief persons taken prisoners in the battle, and by the -capitulation, were count Piper, the first minister, with two secretaries -of state, and two of the cabinet; field-marshal Renschild, the generals -Levenhaupt, Slipenbak, Rozen, Stakelber, Creutz, and Hamilton, with -three general aides-de-camp, the auditor-general of the army, -fifty-nine staff-officers, five colonels, among whom was the prince of -Wirtemberg; sixteen thousand nine hundred and forty-two private men and -non-commissioned officers: in short, reckoning the king's own domestics, -and others, the conqueror had no less than eighteen thousand seven -hundred and forty-six prisoners in his power: to whom, if we add nine -thousand two hundred and twenty-four slain in battle, and nearly two -thousand that passed the Boristhenes with Charles, it appears, plainly, -that he had, on that memorable day, no less than twenty-seven thousand -effective men under his command.[78] - -Charles had begun his march from Saxony with forty-five thousand men, -Levenhaupt had brought upwards of sixteen thousand out of Livonia, and -yet scarce a handful of men was left of all this powerful army; of a -numerous train of artillery, part lost in his marches, and part buried -in the morasses; he had now remaining only eighteen brass cannon, two -howitzers, and twelve mortars; and, with inconsiderable force, he had -undertaken the siege of Pultowa, and had attacked an army provided with -a formidable artillery. Therefore he is, with justice, accused of having -shewn more courage than prudence, after his leaving Germany. On the side -of the Russians, there were no more than fifty-two officers and one -thousand two hundred and ninety-three private men killed; an undeniable -proof, that the disposition of the Russian troops was better than those -of Charles, and that their fire was infinitely superior to that of the -Swedes. - -We find, in the memoirs of a foreign minister to the court of Russia, -that Peter, being informed of Charles's design to take refuge in Turkey, -wrote a friendly letter to him, intreating him not to take so desperate -a resolution, but rather to trust himself in his hands, than in those -of the natural enemy of all Christian princes. He gave him, at the same -time, his word of honour, not to detain him prisoner, but to terminate -all their differences by a reasonable peace. This letter was sent by an -express as far as the river Bug, which separates the deserts of the -Ukraine from the grand seignior's dominions. As the messenger did not -reach that place till Charles had entered Turkey, he brought back the -letter to his master. The same minister adds further, that he had this -account from the very person who was charged with the letter.[79] This -anecdote is not altogether improbable; but I do not meet with it either -in Peter's journals, or in any of the papers entrusted to my care. What -is of greater importance, in relation to this battle, was its being the -only one, of the many that have stained the earth with blood, that, -instead of producing only destruction, has proved beneficial to mankind, -by enabling the czar to civilize so considerable a part of the world. - -There have been fought more than two hundred pitched battles in Europe, -since the commencement of this century to the present year. The most -signal, and the most bloody victories, have produced no other -consequences than the reduction of a few provinces ceded afterwards by -treaties, and retaken again by other battles. Armies of a hundred -thousand men have frequently engaged each other in the field; but the -greatest efforts have been attended with only slight and momentary -successes; the most trivial causes have been productive of the greatest -effects. There is no instance, in modern history, of any war that has -compensated, by even a better good, for the many evils it has -occasioned: but, from the battle of Pultowa, the greatest empire under -the sun has derived its present happiness and prosperity. - - - - -CHAP. XIX. - - Consequences of the battle of Pultowa.--Charles XII. takes refuge - among the Turks.--Augustus, whom he had dethroned, recovers his - dominions.--Conquests of Peter the Great. - - -[Sidenote: 1709.] - -The chief prisoners of rank were now presented to the conqueror, who -ordered their swords to be returned, and invited them to dinner. It is a -well known fact, that, on drinking to the officers, he said, 'To the -health of my masters in the art of war.' However, most of his masters, -particularly the subaltern officers, and all the private men, were soon -afterwards sent into Siberia. There was no cartel established here for -exchange of prisoners between the Russians and Swedes; the czar, indeed, -had proposed one before the siege of Pultowa, but Charles rejected the -offer, and his troops were in every thing the victims of his inflexible -pride. - -It was this unseasonable obstinacy that occasioned all the misfortunes -of this prince in Turkey, and a series of adventures, more becoming a -hero of romance than a wise or prudent king; for, as soon as he arrived -at Bender, he was advised to write to the grand-vizier, as is the custom -among the Turks; but this he thought would be demeaning himself too far. -The like obstinacy embroiled him with all the ministers of the Porte, -one after another, in short, he knew not how to accommodate himself -either to times or circumstances.[80] - -The first news of the battle of Pultowa produced a general revolution in -minds and affairs in Poland, Saxony, Sweden, and Silesia. Charles, while -all powerful in those parts, had obliged the emperor Joseph to take a -hundred and five churches from the catholics in favour of the Silesians -of the confession of Augsburg. The catholics then no sooner received -news of the defeat of Charles, than they repossessed themselves of all -the Lutheran temples. The Saxons now thought of nothing but being -revenged for the extortions of a conqueror, who had robbed them, -according to their own account, of twenty-three millions of crowns. - -The king of Poland, their elector, immediately protested against the -abdication that had been extorted from him, and being now reconciled to -the czar (Aug. 3.), he left no stone unturned to reascend the Polish -throne. Sweden, overwhelmed with consternation, thought her king for a -long time dead, and in this uncertainty the senate knew not what to -resolve. - -Peter in the mean time determined to make the best use of his victory, -and therefore dispatched marshal Sheremeto with an army into Livonia, on -the frontiers of which province that general had so often distinguished -himself. Prince Menzikoff was sent in haste with a numerous body of -cavalry to second the few troops left in Poland, to encourage the nobles -who were in the interest of Augustus to drive out his competitor, who -was now considered in no better light than a rebel, and to disperse a -body of Swedes and troops that were still left in that kingdom under the -command of general Crassau. - -The czar soon after sets out in person, marches through the province of -Kiow, and the palatinates of Chelm and Upper Volhinia, and at length -arrives at Lublin, where he concerts measures with the general of -Lithuania. He then reviews the crown troops, who all take the oath of -allegiance to king Augustus, from thence he proceeds to Warsaw, and at -Thera enjoyed the most glorious of all triumphs (Sept. 18.), that of -receiving the thanks of a king, whom he had reinstated in his dominions. -There it was that he concluded a treaty against Sweden, with the kings -of Denmark, Poland, and Prussia (Oct. 7.): in which he was resolved to -recover from Charles all the conquests of Gustavus Adolphus. Peter -revived the ancient pretensions of the czars to Livonia, Ingria, -Carelia, and part of Finland; Denmark laid claim to Scania, and the king -of Prussia to Pomerania. - -Thus had Charles XII. by his unsuccessful valour, shook the noble -edifice that had been erected by the prosperous bravery of his ancestor -Gustavus Adolphus. The Polish nobility came in on all sides to renew -their oaths to their king, or to ask pardon for having deserted him; and -almost the whole kingdom acknowledged Peter for its protector. - -To the victorious arms of the czar, to these new treaties, and to this -sudden revolution, Stanislaus had nothing to oppose but a voluntary -resignation: he published a writing called Universale, in which he -declares himself ready to resign the crown, if the republic required -it. - -Peter, having concerted all the necessary measures with the king of -Poland, and ratified the treaty with Denmark, set out directly to finish -his negotiation with the king of Prussia. It was not then usual for -sovereign princes to perform the function of their own ambassadors. -Peter was the first who introduced this custom, which has been followed -by very few. The elector of Brandenburg, the first king of Prussia, had -a conference with the czar at Marienverder, a small town situated in the -western part of Pomerania, and built by the old Teutonic knights, and -included in the limits of Prussia, lately erected into a kingdom. This -country indeed was poor, and of a small extent; but its new king, -whenever he travelled, displayed the utmost magnificence; with great -splendour he had received czar Peter at his first passing through his -dominions, when that prince quitted his empire to go in search of -instruction among strangers. But he received the conqueror of Charles -XII. in a still more pompous manner. (Oct. 20.) Peter for this time -concluded only a defensive treaty with him, which afterwards, however, -completed the ruin of Sweden. - -Not an instant of time was lost. Peter, having proceeded with the -greatest dispatch in his negotiations, which elsewhere are wont to take -up so much time, goes and joins his army, then before Riga, the capital -of Livonia; he began by bombarding the place (Nov. 21.), and fired off -the three first bombs himself; then changed the siege into a blockade; -and, when well assured that Riga could not escape him, he repaired to -his city of Petersburg, to inspect and forward the works carrying on -there, the new buildings, and finishing of his fleet; and having laid -the keel of a ship of fifty-four guns, (Dec. 3.) with his own hands, he -returned to Moscow. Here he amused himself with assisting in the -preparations for the triumphal entry, which he exhibited in the capital. -He directed every thing relating to that festival, and was himself the -principal contriver and architect. - -He opened the year 1710 with this solemnity, so necessary to his -subjects, whom it inspired with notions of grandeur, and was highly -pleasing to every one who had been fearful of seeing those enter their -walls as conquerors, over whom they now triumphed. Seven magnificent -arches were erected, under which passed in triumph, the artillery, -standards, and colours, taken from the enemy, with their officers, -generals, and ministers, who had been taken prisoners, all on foot, -amidst the ringing of bells, the sound of trumpets, the discharge of a -hundred pieces of cannon, and the acclamations of an innumerable -concourse of people, whose voices rent the air as soon as the cannon -ceased firing. The procession was closed by the victorious army, with -the generals at its head; and Peter, who marched in his rank of -major-general. At each triumphal arch stood the deputies of the several -orders of the state; and at the last was a chosen band of young -gentlemen, the sons of boyards, clad in Roman habits, who presented a -crown of laurels to their victorious monarch. - -This public festival was followed by another ceremony, which proved no -less satisfactory than the former. In the year 1708 happened an accident -the more disagreeable to Peter, as his arms were at that time -unsuccessful. Mattheof, his ambassador to the court of London, having -had his audience of leave of queen Anne, was arrested for debt, at the -suit of some English merchants, and carried before a justice of peace to -give security for the monies he owed there. The merchants insisted that -the laws of commerce ought to prevail before the privileges of foreign -ministers; the czar's ambassador, and with him all the public ministers, -protested against this proceeding, alleging, that their persons ought to -be always inviolable. The czar wrote to queen Anne, demanding -satisfaction for the insult offered him in the person of his ambassador. - -But the queen had it not in her power to gratify him; because, by the -laws of England, tradesmen were allowed to prosecute their debtors, -and there was no law that excepted public ministers from such -prosecution.[81] The murder of Patkul, the czar's ambassador, who had -been executed the year before by the order of Charles XII. had -encouraged the English to shew so little regard to a character which had -been so cruelly profaned. The other public ministers who were then at -the court of London, were obliged to be bound for the czar's ambassador; -and at length all the queen could do in his favour, was to prevail on -her parliament to pass an act, by which no one for the future could -arrest an ambassador for debt; but after the battle of Pultowa, the -English court thought proper to give satisfaction to the czar. - -The queen made by a formal embassy an excuse for what had passed. Mr. -Whitworth,[82] the person charged with this commission, began his -harangue with the following words.--(Feb. 16.) 'Most high and mighty -emperor.' He told the czar that the person who had presumed to arrest -his ambassador, had been imprisoned and rendered infamous. There was no -truth in all this, but it was sufficient that he said so, and the title -of emperor, which the queen had not given Peter before the battle of -Pultowa, shewed the consideration he had now acquired in Europe. - -This title had been already granted him in Holland, not only by those -who had been his fellow-workmen in the dock-yards at Saardam, and seemed -to interest themselves most in his glory, but likewise by the principal -persons in the state, who unanimously styled him emperor, and made -public rejoicings for his victory, even in the presence of the Swedish -minister. - -The universal reputation which he had acquired by his victory of -Pultowa, was still further increased by his not suffering a moment to -pass without making some advantages of it. In the first place, he laid -siege to Elbing, a Hans town of Regal Prussia in Poland, where the -Swedes had still a garrison. The Russians scaled the walls, entered the -town, and the garrison surrendered prisoners of war. (Mar. 11.) This was -one of the largest magazines belonging to Charles XII. The conquerors -found therein one hundred and eighty-three brass cannon, and one hundred -and fifty-seven mortars. Immediately after the reduction of Elbing, -Peter re-marched from Moscow to Petersburg (April 2.); as soon as he -arrived at this latter place, he took shipping under his new fortress of -Cronslot, coasted along the shore of Carelia, and notwithstanding a -violent storm, brought his fleet safely before Wiburg, the capital of -Carelia in Finland; while his land-forces advanced over the frozen -morasses, and in a short time the capital of Livonia beheld itself -closely blockaded (June 23.): and after a breach was made in the walls, -Wiburg surrendered, and the garrison, consisting of four thousand men, -capitulated, but did not receive the honours of war, being made -prisoners notwithstanding the capitulation. Peter charged the enemy with -several infractions of this kind, and promised to set these troops at -liberty, as soon as he should receive satisfaction from the Swedes, for -his complaints. On this occasion the king of Sweden was to be consulted, -who continued as inflexible as ever; and those soldiers, whom, by a -little concession, he might have delivered from their confinement, -remained in captivity. Thus did king William III. in 1695, arrest -marshal Boufflers, notwithstanding the capitulation of Namur. There have -been several instances of such violations of treaties, but it is to be -wished there never had been any. - -After the taking of this capital, the blockade of Riga was soon changed -into a regular siege, and pushed with vigour. They were obliged to break -the ice on the river Dwina, which waters the walls of the city. An -epidemical disorder, which had raged some time in those parts, now got -amongst the besiegers, and carried off nine thousand; nevertheless, the -siege was not in the least slackened; it lasted a considerable time, but -at length the garrison capitulated (July 15.): and were allowed the -honours of war; but it was stipulated by the capitulation, that all the -Livonian officers and soldiers should enter into the Russian service, as -natives of a country that had been dismembered from that empire, and -usurped by the ancestors of Charles XII. But the Livonians were restored -to the privileges of which his father had stripped them, and all the -officers entered into the czar's service: this was the most noble -satisfaction that Peter could take for the murder of his ambassador, -Patkul, a Livonian, who had been put to death, for defending those -privileges. The garrison consisted of near five thousand men. A short -time afterwards the citadel of Pennamund was taken, and the besiegers -found in the town and fort above eight hundred pieces of artillery of -different kinds. - -Nothing was now wanting, to make Peter entirely master of the province -of Carelia, but the possession of the strong town of Kexholm, built on -an island in the lake of Ladoga, and deemed impregnable; it was -bombarded soon after, and surrendered in a short time. (Sep. 19.) The -island of Oesel in the sea, bordering upon the north of Livonia, was -subdued with the same rapidity. (Sep. 23.) - -On the side of Esthonia, a province of Livonia, towards the north, and -on the gulf of Finland, are the towns of Pernau and Revel: by the -reduction of these Peter completed the conquest of all Livonia. Pernau -surrendered after a siege of a few days (Aug. 25.), and Revel -capitulated (Sep. 10.) without waiting to have a single cannon fired -against it; but the besieged found means to escape out of the hands of -the conquerors, at the very time that they were surrendering themselves -prisoners of war: for some Swedish ships, having anchored in the road, -under favour of the night, the garrison and most of the citizens -embarked on board, and when the besiegers entered the town, they were -surprised to find it deserted. When Charles XII. gained the victory of -Narva little did he expect that his troops would one day be driven to -use such artifices. - -In Poland, Stanislaus finding his party entirely ruined, had taken -refuge in Pomerania, which still belonged to Charles XII. Augustus -resumed the government, and it was difficult to decide who had acquired -most glory, Charles in dethroning him, or Peter in restoring him to his -crown. - -The subjects of the king of Sweden were still more unfortunate than that -monarch himself. The contagious distemper, which had made such havock -over Livonia, passed from thence into Sweden, where, in the city of -Stockholm, it carried off thirty thousand persons: it likewise desolated -the provinces, already thinned of their inhabitants; for during the -space of ten years successively, most of the able-bodied men had quitted -their country to follow their master, and perished in foreign climes. - -Charles's ill fortune pursued him also in Pomerania: his army had -retired thither from Poland, to the number of eleven thousand; the czar, -the kings of Denmark and Prussia, the elector of Hanover, and the duke -of Holstein, joined together to render this army useless, and to compel -general Crassau, who commanded it, to submit to neutrality. The regency -of Stockholm, hearing no news of their king, and distracted by the -mortality that raged in that city, were glad to sign this neutrality, -which seemed to deliver one of its provinces at least from the horrors -of war. The emperor of Germany favoured this extraordinary convention, -by which it was stipulated, that the Swedish army then in Pomerania -should not march from thence to assist their monarch in any other part -of the world; nay, it was furthermore resolved in the German empire, to -raise an army to enforce the execution of this unparalleled convention. -The reason of this was, that the emperor of Germany, who was then at war -with France, was in hopes to engage the Swedish army to enter into his -service. This whole negotiation was carried on while Peter was subduing -Livonia, Esthonia, and Carelia. - -Charles XII. who was all this time at Bender, putting every spring in -motion to engage the divan to declare war against the czar, received -this news as one of the severest blows his untoward fortune had dealt -him: he could not brook, that his senate at Stockholm should pretend to -tie up the hands of his army, and it was on this occasion that he wrote -them word, he would send one of his boots to govern them. - -The Danes, in the mean time, were making preparations to invade Sweden; -so that every nation in Europe was now engaged in war, Spain, Portugal, -Italy, France, Germany, Holland, and England, were contending for the -dominions left by Charles II. of Spain; and the whole North was up in -arms against Charles XII. There wanted only a quarrel with the Ottoman -empire, for every village in Europe to be exposed to the ravages of war. -This quarrel happened soon afterwards, when Peter had attained to the -summit of his glory, and precisely for that reason. - - - - -CHAP. XX. - - Campaign of Pruth. - - -Sultan Achmet III. declared war against Peter I. not from any regard to -the king of Sweden, but, as may readily be supposed, merely from a view -to his own interest. The Khan of the Crim Tartars could not without -dread, behold a neighbour so powerful as Peter I. The Porte had, for -some time, taken umbrage at the number of ships which this prince had on -the Palus Mæotis, and in the Black Sea, at his fortifying the city of -Azoph, and at the flourishing state of the harbour of Taganroc, already -become famous; and, lastly, at his great series of successes, and at the -ambition which success never fails to augment. - -It is neither true, nor even probable, that the Porte should have begun -the war against the czar, on the Palus Mæotis, for no other reason than -because a Swedish ship had taken a bark on the Baltic, on board of which -was found a letter from a minister, whose name has never been mentioned. -Norberg tells us, that this letter contained a plan for the conquest of -the Turkish empire; that it was carried to Charles XII. who was then in -Turkey, and was by him sent to the divan; and that immediately after the -receipt of this letter, war was declared. But this story carries the -mark of fiction with it. It was the remonstrances of the khan of -Tartary, who was more uneasy about the neighbourhood of Azoph, than the -Turkish divan, that induced this latter to give orders for taking the -field.[83] - -It was in the month of August, and before the czar had completed the -reduction of Livonia, when Achmet III. resolved to declare war against -him. The Turks, at that time, could hardly have had the news of the -taking of Riga; and, therefore, the proposal of restoring to the king of -Sweden the value in money, of the effects he had lost at the battle of -Pultowa, would have been the most absurd thing imaginable, if not -exceeded by that of demolishing Petersburg. The behaviour of Charles -XII. at Bender, was sufficiently romantic; but the conduct of the -Turkish divan would have been much more so, if we suppose it to have -made any demands of this kind. - -Nov. 1710.] The khan of Tartary, who was the principal instigator of -this war, paid Charles a visit in his retreat at Bender. They were -connected by the same interests, inasmuch as Europe makes part of the -frontiers of Little Tartary. Charles and the khan were the two greatest -sufferers by the successes of the czar; but the khan did not command the -forces of the grand seignior. He was like one of the feudatory princes -of Germany, who served in the armies of the empire with their own -troops, and were subject to the authority of the emperor's generals for -the time being. - -Nov. 29, 1710.] The first step taken by the divan, was to arrest -Tolstoy, the czar's ambassador at the Porte, in the streets of -Constantinople, together with thirty of his domestics, who, with their -master, were all confined in the prison of the Seven Towers. This -barbarous custom, at which even savages would blush, is owing to the -Turks having always a number of foreign ministers residing amongst them -from other courts, whereas they never send any in return. They look upon -the ambassadors of Christian princes in no other light than as merchants -or consuls; and, having naturally as great a contempt for Christians as -they have for Jews, they seldom condescend to observe the laws of -nations, in respect to them, unless forced to it; at least, they have -hitherto persisted in this barbarous pride. - -The famous vizier, Achmet Couprougli, the same who took the island of -Candia, under Mahomet IV., insulted the son of the French ambassador, -and even carried his brutality so far as to strike him, and afterwards -to confine him in prison, without Lewis XIV., proud and lofty as he was, -daring to resent it, otherwise than by sending another minister to the -Porte. The Christian princes, who are so remarkably delicate on the -point of honour amongst themselves, and have even made it a part of the -law of nations, seem to be utterly insensible on this head in regard to -the Turks. - -Never did a crowned head suffer greater affronts in the persons of his -ministers, than czar Peter. In the space of a few years, his -ambassador at the court of London was thrown into jail for debt, his -plenipotentiary at the courts of Poland and Saxony was broke upon the -wheel, by order of the king of Sweden; and now his minister at the -Ottoman Porte was seized and thrown into a dungeon at Constantinople, -like a common felon.[84] - -We have already observed, in the first part of this history, that he -received satisfaction from queen Anne, of England, for the insult -offered to his ambassador at London. The horrible affront he suffered, -in the person of Patkul, was washed away in the blood of the Swedes -slain at the battle of Pultowa; but fortune permitted the violation of -the law of nations by the Turks to pass unpunished. - -Jan. 1711.] The czar now found himself obliged to quit the theatre of -war in the west, and march towards the frontiers of Turkey. He began by -causing ten regiments, which he had in Poland, to advance towards -Moldavia.[85] He then ordered marshal Sheremeto to set out from Livonia, -with his body of forces; and, leaving prince Menzikoff at the head of -affairs at Petersburg, he returned to Moscow, to give orders for opening -the ensuing campaign. - -Jan. 18.] He now establishes a senate of regency: the regiment of guards -begin their march, he issues orders for all the young nobility to follow -him to the field, to learn the art of war, and places some of them in -the station of cadets, and others in that of subaltern officers. Admiral -Apraxin goes to Azoph to take the command by sea and land. These several -measures being taken, the czar publishes an ordonnance in Moscow for -acknowledging a new empress. This was the person who had been taken -prisoner in Marienburg, in the year 1702. Peter had, in 1696, repudiated -his wife Eudoxia Lopoukin (or Lapouchin) by whom he had two children. -The laws of his church allow of no divorces; but, had they not, Peter -would have enacted a new law to permit them. - -The fair captive of Marienburg, who had taken the name of Catherine, had -a soul superior to her sex and her misfortunes. She rendered herself so -agreeable to the czar, that this prince would have her always near his -person. She accompanied him in all his excursions, and most fatiguing -campaigns: sharing in his toils, and softening his uneasiness by her -natural gaiety, and the great attention she shewed to oblige him on all -occasions, and the indifference she expressed for the luxury, dress, and -other indulgences, of which the generality of her sex are, in other -countries, wont to make real necessities. She frequently softened the -passionate temper of the czar, and, by making him more clement and -merciful, rendered him more truly great. In a word, she became so -necessary to him, that he married her privately, in 1707. He had already -two daughters by her, and the following year she bore him a third, who -was afterwards married to the duke of Holstein.[86] - -March 17, 1711.] The czar made this private marriage known the very day -he set out with her to try the fortune of his arms against the Turks. -The several dispositions he had made seemed to promise a successful -issue. The hetman of the Cossacks was to keep the Tartars in awe, who -had already began to commit ravages in the Ukraine. The main body of -the Russian army was advancing towards Niester, and another body of -troops, under prince Galitzin, were in full march through Poland. Every -thing went on favourably at the beginning: for Galitzin having met with -a numerous body of Tartars near Kiow, who had been joined by some -Cossacks and some Poles of king Stanislaus' party, as also a few Swedes, -he defeated them entirely, and killed near five thousand men. These -Tartars had, in their march through the open country, made about ten -thousand prisoners. It has been the custom of the Tartars, time -immemorial, to carry with them a much greater number of cords than -scimitars, in order to bind the unhappy wretches they surprise. The -captives were all set free, and those who had made them prisoners were -put to the sword. The whole Russian army, if it had been assembled -together, would have amounted to sixty thousand men. It was to have been -farther augmented by the troops belonging to the king of Poland. This -prince, who owed every thing to the czar, came to pay him a visit at -Jaroslaw, on the river Sana, the 3d of June, 1714, and promised him -powerful succours. War was now declared against the Turks, in the name -of these two monarchs: but the Polish diet, not willing to break with -the Ottoman Porte, refused to ratify the engagement their king had -entered into. It was the fate of the czar to have, in the king of -Poland, an ally who could never be of any service to him. He entertained -the same hopes of assistance from the princes of Moldavia and Walachia, -and was, in the like manner, disappointed. - -These two provinces ought to have taken this opportunity to shake off -the Turkish yoke. These countries were those of the ancient Daci, who, -together with the Gepidi, with whom they were intermixed, did, for a -long time, disturb the Roman empire. They were at length subdued by the -emperor Trajan, and Constantine the First made them embrace the -Christian religion. Dacia was one of the provinces of the eastern -empire; but shortly after these very people contributed to the ruin of -that of the west, by serving under the Odoacers and Theodorics. - -They afterwards continued to be subject to the Greek empire; and when -the Turks made themselves masters of Constantinople, were governed and -oppressed by particular princes; at length they were totally subjected -by the Padisha, or Turkish emperor, who now granted them an investiture. -The Hospodar, or Waiwod, chosen by the Ottoman Porte to govern these -provinces, is always a Christian of the Greek church. The Turks, by this -choice, give a proof of their toleration, while our ignorant declaimers -are accusing them of persecution. The prince, nominated by the Porte, is -tributary to, or rather farms these countries of the grand seignior; -this dignity being always conferred on the best bidder, or him who makes -the greatest presents to the vizier, in like manner as the Greek -patriarch, at Constantinople. Sometimes this government is bestowed on a -dragoman, that is to say, the interpreter to the divan. These provinces -are seldom under the government of the same Waiwod, the Porte choosing -to divide them, in order to be more sure of retaining them in -subjection. Demetrius Cantemir was at this time Waiwod of Moldavia. This -prince was said to be descended from Tamerlane, because Tamerlane's true -name was Timur, and Timur was a Tartarian khan; and so, from the name -Tamurkan, say they, came the family of Cantemir. - -Bassaraba Brancovan had been invested with the principality of -Walachia, but had not found any genealogist to deduce his pedigree from -the Tartarian conqueror. Cantemir thought the time now come to shake off -the Turkish yoke, and render himself independent by means of the czar's -protection. In this view he acted in the very same manner with Peter as -Mazeppa had done with Charles XII. He even engaged Bassaraba for the -present to join him in the conspiracy, of which he hoped to reap all the -benefit himself: his plan being to make himself master of both -provinces. The bishop of Jerusalem, who was at that time at Walachia, -was the soul of this conspiracy. Cantemir promised the czar to furnish -him with men and provisions, as Mazeppa did the king of Sweden, and kept -his word no better than he had done. - -General Sheremeto advanced towards Jassi, the capital of Moldavia, to -inspect and occasionally assist the execution of these great projects. -Cantemir came thither to meet him, and was received with all the honours -due to a prince: but he acted as a prince in no one circumstance, but -that of publishing a manifesto against the Turkish empire. The hospodar -of Walachia, who soon discovered the ambitious views of his colleague, -quitted his party, and returned to his duty. The bishop of Jerusalem -dreading, with reason, the punishment due to his perfidy, fled and -concealed himself: the people of Walachia and Moldavia continued -faithful to the Ottoman Porte, and those, who were to have furnished -provisions for the Russian army, carried them to the Turks. - -The vizier, Baltagi Mahomet had already crossed the Danube, at the head -of one hundred thousand men, and was advancing towards Jassi, along the -banks of the river Pruth (formerly the Hierasus), which falls into the -Danube, and which is nearly the boundary of Moldavia and Bessarabia. He -then dispatched count Poniatowsky,[87] a Polish gentleman, attached to -the fortunes of the king of Sweden, to desire that prince to make him a -visit, and see his army. Charles, whose pride always got the better of -his interest, would not consent to this proposal: he insisted that the -grand vizier should make him the first visit, in his asylum near Bender. -When Poniatowsky returned to the Ottoman camp, and endeavoured to excuse -this refusal of his master, the vizier, turning to the khan of the -Tartars, said, 'This is the very behaviour I expected from this proud -pagan.' This mutual pride, which never fails of alienating the minds of -those in power from each other, did no service to the king of Sweden's -affairs; and indeed that prince might have easily perceived, from the -beginning, that the Turks were not acting for his interest, but for -their own. - -While the Turkish army was passing the Danube, the czar advanced by the -frontiers of Poland, and passed the Boristhenes, in order to relieve -marshal Sheremeto, who was then on the banks of the Pruth, to the -southward of Jassi, and in danger of being daily surrounded by an army -of ten thousand Turks, and an army of Tartars. Peter, before he passed -the Boristhenes, was in doubt whether he should expose his beloved -Catherine to these dangers, which seemed to increase every day; but -Catherine, on her side, looked upon this solicitude of the czar, for her -ease and safety, as an affront offered to her love and courage; and -pressed her consort so strongly on this head, that he found himself -under a necessity to consent that she should pass the river with him. -The army beheld her with eyes of joy and admiration, marching on -horseback at the head of the troops, for she rarely made use of a -carriage. After passing the Boristhenes, they had a tract of desert -country to pass through, and then to cross the Bog, and afterwards the -river Tiras, now called the Niester, and then another desert to -traverse, before they came to the banks of the Pruth. Catherine, during -this fatiguing march, animated the whole army by her cheerfulness and -affability. She sent refreshments to such of the officers who were sick, -and extended her care even to the meanest soldier. - -July 4, 1711.] At length the czar brought his army in sight of Jassi. -Here he was to establish his magazine. Bassaraba, the hospodar of -Walachia, who had again embraced the interest of the Ottoman Porte, but -still, in appearance, continued a friend to the czar, proposed to that -prince to make peace with the Turks, although he had received no -commission from the grand vizier for that purpose. His deceit, however, -was soon discovered; and the czar contented himself with demanding only -provisions for his army, which Bassaraba neither could nor would -furnish. It was very difficult to procure any supplies from Poland; and -these, which prince Cantemir had promised, and which he vainly hoped to -procure from Walachia, could not be brought from thence. These -disappointments rendered the situation of the Russian army very -disagreeable; and, as an addition to their afflictions, they were -infested with an immense swarm of grasshoppers, that covered the face of -the whole country, and devoured, or spoiled, every thing where they -alighted. They were likewise frequently in want of water during their -march through sandy deserts, and beneath a scorching sun: what little -they could procure, they were obliged to have brought in vessels to the -camp, from a considerable distance. - -During this dangerous and fatiguing march, the czar, by a singular -fatality, found himself in the neighbourhood of his rival and -competitor, Charles; Bender not being above twenty-five leagues from the -place where the Russian army was encamped, near Jassi. Some parties of -Cossacks made excursions even to the place of that unfortunate monarch's -retreat; but the Crim Tartars, who hovered round that part of the -country, sufficiently secured him from any attempt that might be made to -seize his person; and Charles waited in his camp with impatience, and -did not fear the issue of the war. - -Peter, as soon as he had established some magazines, marched in haste -with his army to the right of the river Pruth. His essential object was -to prevent the Turks, who were posted to the left, and towards the head -of the river, from crossing it, and marching towards him. This effected, -he would then be master of Moldavia and Walachia: with this view, he -dispatched general Janus, with the vanguard of the army, to oppose the -passage of the Turks; but the general did not arrive till they had -already began to cross the river upon their bridges; upon which he was -obliged to retreat, and his infantry was closely pursued by the Turks, -till the czar came up in person to his assistance. - -The grand vizier now marched directly along the river towards the czar. -The two armies were very unequal in point of numbers: that of the Turks, -which had been reinforced by the Tartarian troops, consisted of nearly -two hundred and fifty thousand men, while that of the Russians hardly -amounted to thirty-five thousand. There was indeed a considerable body -of troops, headed by general Renne, on their march from the other side -of the Moldavian mountains; but the Turks had cut off all communication -with those parts. - -The czar's army now began to be in want of provisions, nor could, -without the greatest difficulty, procure water, though encamped at a -very small distance from the river; being exposed to a furious discharge -from the batteries, which the grand vizier had caused to be erected on -the left side of the river, under the care of a body of troops, that -kept up a constant fire against the Russians. By this relation, which is -strictly circumstantial and true, it appears that Baltagi Mahomet, the -Turkish vizier, far from being the pusillanimous, or weak commander, -which the Swedes have represented him, gave proofs, on this occasion, -that he perfectly well understood his business. The passing the Pruth in -the sight of the enemy, obliging him to retreat, and harassing him in -that retreat; the cutting off all communication between the czar's army, -and a body of cavalry that was marching to reinforce it; the hemming in -this army, without the least probability of a retreat; and the cutting -off all supplies of water and provisions, by keeping it constantly under -the check of the batteries on the opposite side of the river, were -manoeuvres that in no ways bespoke the unexperienced or indolent -general. - -Peter now saw himself in a situation even worse than that to which he -had reduced his rival, Charles XII. at Pultowa; being, like him, -surrounded by a superior army, and in greater want of provisions; and, -like him, having confided in the promises of a prince, too powerful to -be bound by those promises, he resolved upon a retreat; and endeavoured -to return towards Jassi, in order to choose a more advantageous -situation for his camp. - -July 20, 1711.] He accordingly decamped under favour of the night; but -his army had scarcely begun its march, when, at break of day, the Turks -fell upon his rear: but the Preobrazinski regiment turning about, and -standing firm, did, for a considerable time, check the fury of their -onset. The Russians then formed themselves, and made a line of -intrenchments with their waggons and baggage. The same day (July 21.) -the Turks returned again to the attack, with the whole body of their -army; and, as a proof that the Russians knew how to defend themselves, -let what will be alleged to the contrary, they also made head against -this very superior force for a considerable time, killed a great number -of their enemies, who in vain endeavoured to break in upon them. - -There were in the Ottoman army two officers belonging to the king of -Sweden, namely, count Poniatowsky and the count of Sparre, who had the -command of a body of Cossacks in that prince's interest. My papers -inform me, that these two generals advised the grand vizier to avoid -coming to action with the Russians, and content himself with depriving -them of supplies of water and provisions, which would oblige them either -to surrender prisoners of war, or to perish with famine. Other memoirs -pretend, on the contrary, that these officers would have persuaded -Mahomet to fall upon this feeble and half-starved army, in a weak and -distressed condition, and put all to the sword. The first of these seems -to be the most prudent and circumspect; but the second is more agreeable -to the character of generals who had been trained up under Charles XII. - -The real fact is, that the grand vizier fell upon the rear of the -Russian army, at the dawn of day, which was thrown into confusion, and -there remained only a line of four hundred men to confront the Turks. -This small body formed itself with amazing quickness, under the orders -of a German general, named Alard, who, to his immortal honour, made such -rapid and excellent dispositions on this occasion, that the Russians -withstood, for upwards of three hours, the repeated attack of the whole -Ottoman army, without losing a foot of ground. - -The czar now found himself amply repaid for the immense pains he had -taken to inure his troops to strict discipline. At the battle of Narva, -sixty thousand men were defeated by only eight thousand, because the -former were undisciplined; and here we behold a rear-guard, consisting -of only eight thousand Russians, sustaining the efforts of one hundred -and fifty thousand Turks, killing seven thousand of them, and obliging -the rest to return back. - -After this sharp engagement, both armies intrenched themselves for that -night: but the Russians still continued enclosed, and deprived of all -provisions, even water; for notwithstanding they were so near the river -Pruth, yet they did not dare approach its banks; for as soon as any -parties were sent out to find water, a body of Turks, posted on the -opposite shore, drove them back by a furious discharge from their -cannon, loaded with chain shot: and the body of the Turkish army, which -had attacked that of the czar the day before, continued to play upon -them from another quarter, with the whole force of their artillery. - -The Russian army appeared now to be lost beyond resource, by its -position, by the inequality of numbers, and by the want of provisions. -The skirmishes on both sides were frequent and bloody: the Russian -cavalry being almost all dismounted, could no longer be of any service, -unless by fighting on foot: in a word, the situation of affairs was -desperate. It was out of their power to retreat, they had nothing left -but to gain a complete victory; to perish to the last man, or to be made -slaves by the infidels. - -All the accounts and memoirs of those times unanimously agree, that the -czar, divided within himself, whether or not he should expose his wife, -his army, his empire, and the fruits of all his labours, to almost -inevitable destruction; retired to his tent, oppressed with grief, and -seized with violent convulsions, to which he was naturally subject, and -which the present desperate situation of his affairs brought upon him -with redoubled violence. In this condition he remained alone in his -tent, having given positive orders, that no one should be admitted to be -a witness to the distraction of his mind. But Catherine, hearing of his -disorders, forced her way in to him; and, on this occasion, Peter found -how happy it was for him that he had permitted his wife to accompany him -in this expedition. - -A wife, who, like her, had faced death in its most horrible shapes, and -had exposed her person, like the meanest soldier, to the fire of the -Turkish artillery, had an undoubted right to speak to her husband, and -to be heard. The czar accordingly listened to what she had to say, and -in the end suffered himself to be persuaded to try and send to the -vizier with proposals of peace. - -It has been a custom, from time immemorial, throughout the East, that -when any people apply for an audience of the sovereign, or his -representative, they must not presume to approach them without a -present. On this occasion, therefore, Catherine mustered the few jewels -that she had brought with her, on this military tour, in which no -magnificence or luxury were admitted; to these she added two black -foxes' skins, and what ready money she could collect; the latter was -designed for a present to the kiaia. She made choice herself of an -officer, on whose fidelity and understanding she thought she could -depend, who, accompanied with two servants, was to carry the presents to -the grand vizier, and afterwards to deliver the money intended for the -kiaia into his own hand. This officer was likewise charged with a letter -from marshal Sheremeto to the grand vizier. The memoirs of czar Peter -mentions this letter, but they take no notice of the other particulars -of Catherine's conduct in this business; however, they are sufficiently -confirmed by the declaration issued by Peter himself, in 1723, when he -caused Catherine to be crowned empress, wherein we find these -words:--'She has been of the greatest assistance to us in all our -dangers, and particularly in the battle of Pruth, when our army was -reduced to twenty-two thousand men.' If the czar had then indeed no more -men capable of bearing arms, the service which Catherine did him, on -that occasion, was fully equivalent to the honours and dignities -conferred upon her. The MS. journal of Peter the Great observes, that on -the day of the bloody battle (on the 20th July), he had thirty-one -thousand five hundred and fifty-four foot, and six thousand six hundred -and ninety-two horse, the latter almost all dismounted; he must then -have lost sixteen thousand two hundred and forty-six men in that -engagement. The same memoirs affirm, the loss sustained by the Turks -greatly exceeded that of the Russians; for as the former rushed upon the -czar's troops pell-mell, and without observing any order, hardly a -single fire of the latter missed its effect. If this is fact, the affair -of the 20th and 21st of July, was one of the most bloody that had been -known for many ages. - -We must either suspect Peter the Great of having been mistaken, in his -declaration at the crowning of the empress, when he acknowledges 'his -obligations to her of having saved his army, which was reduced to -twenty-two thousand men,' or accuse him of a falsity in his journal, -wherein he says, that the day on which the above battle was fought, his -army, exclusive of the succours he expected from the other side the -Moldavian mountains, amounted to thirty-one thousand five hundred and -fifty-four foot, and six thousand six hundred and ninety-two horse. -According to this calculation, the battle of Pruth must have been by far -more terrible than the historians or memorials have represented on -either side. There must certainly be some mistake here, which is no -uncommon thing in the relation of campaigns, especially when the writer -enters into a minute detail of circumstances. The surest method, -therefore, on these occasions, is to confine ourselves to the principal -events, the victory and the defeat; as we can very seldom know, with any -degree of certainty, the exact loss on either side. - -But however here the Russian army might be reduced in point of numbers, -there were still hopes that the grand vizier, deceived by their vigorous -and obstinate resistance, might be induced to grant them peace, upon -such terms as might be honourable to his master's arms, and at the same -time not absolutely disgraceful to those of the czar. It was the great -merit of Catherine to have perceived this possibility, at a time when -her consort and his generals expected nothing less than inevitable -destruction. - -Norberg, in his History of Charles XII. quotes a letter, sent by the -czar to the grand vizier, in which he expresses himself thus:--'If, -contrary to my intentions, I have been so unhappy as to incur the -displeasure of his highness, I am ready to make reparation for any cause -of complaint he may have against me; I conjure you, most noble general, -to prevent the further effusion of blood; give orders, I beseech you, to -put a stop to the dreadful fire of your artillery, and accept the -hostage I herewith send you.' - -This letter carries all the marks of falsity with it, as do indeed most -of the random pieces of Norberg: it is dated 11th July, N. S. whereas no -letter was sent to Baltagi Mahomet till the 21st, N. S. neither was it -the czar who wrote to the vizier, but his general Sheremeto: there were -no such expressions made use of as--'if the czar has had the misfortune -to incur the displeasure of his highness;' such terms being suitable -only to a subject, who implores the pardon of his sovereign, whom he has -offended. There was no mention made of any hostage, nor was any one -sent. The letter was carried by an officer, in the midst of a furious -cannonade on both sides. Sheremeto, in his letter, only reminded the -vizier of certain overtures of peace that the Porte had made at the -beginning of the campaign, through the mediation of the Dutch and -English ministers, and by which the divan demanded that the fort and -harbour of Taganroc should be given up, which were the real subjects of -the war. - -21st July, 1711.] Some hours elapsed before the messenger received an -answer from the grand vizier, and it was apprehended that he had either -been killed by the enemy's cannon, or that they detained him prisoner. A -second courier was therefore dispatched, with duplicates of the former -letters, and a council of war was immediately held, at which Catherine -was present. At this council ten general officers signed the following -resolution:-- - -'Resolved, If the enemy will not accept the conditions proposed, and -should insist upon our laying down our arms, and surrendering at -discretion, that all the ministers and general officers are unanimously -of opinion, to cut their way through the enemy sword in hand.' - -In consequence of this resolution, a line of intrenchments was thrown -round the baggage, and the Russians marched some few paces out of their -camp, towards the enemy, when the grand vizier caused a suspension of -arms to be proclaimed between the two armies. - -All the writers of the Swedish party have treated the grand vizier as a -cowardly and infamous wretch, who had been bribed to sell the honour of -his master's arms. In the same manner have several authors accused count -Piper of receiving money from the duke of Marlborough, to persuade the -king of Sweden to continue the war against the czar; and have laid to -the charge of the French minister, that he purchased the peace of -Seville for a stipulated sum. Such accusations ought never to be -advanced but on very strong proofs. It is very seldom that a minister -will stoop to such meannesses, which are always discovered, sooner or -later, by those who have been entrusted with the payment of the money, -or by the public registers, which never lie. A minister of state stands -as a public object to the eyes of all Europe. His credit and influence -depend wholly upon his character, and he is always sufficiently rich to -be above the temptation of becoming a traitor. - -The place of viceroy of the Turkish empire is so illustrious, and the -profits annexed to it, in time of war, so immense, there was such a -profusion of every thing necessary, and even luxurious, in the camp of -Baltagi Mahomet, and, on the other hand, so much poverty and distress in -that of the czar, that surely the grand vizier was rather in a condition -to give than to receive. The trifling present of a woman, who had -nothing to send but a few skins and some jewels, in compliance with the -established custom of all courts, or rather those in particular of the -East, can never be considered in the light of a bribe. The frank and -open conduct of Baltagi Mahomet seems at once to give the lie to the -black accusations with which so many writers have stained their -relations. Vice chancellor Shaffiroff paid the vizier a public visit in -his tent: every thing was transacted in the most open manner, on both -sides; and indeed it could not be otherwise. The very first article of -the negotiation was entered upon in the presence of a person wholly -devoted to the king of Sweden, a domestic of count Poniatowsky, who was -himself one of that monarch's generals. This man served as an -interpreter, and the several articles were publicly reduced to writing -by the vizier's chief secretary, Hummer Effendi. Moreover, count -Poniatowsky was there in person. The present sent to the kiaia was -offered probably in form, and every thing was transacted agreeable to -the oriental customs. Other presents were made by the Turks in return; -so that there was not the least appearance of treachery or contrivance. -The motives which determined the vizier to consent to the proposals -offered him, were, first that the body of troops under the command of -general Renne, on the borders of the river Sireth, in Moldavia, had -already crossed three rivers, and were actually in the neighbourhood of -the Danube, where Renne had already made himself master of the town and -castle of Brahila, defended by a numerous garrison, under the command of -a basha. Secondly, the czar had likewise another body of troops -advancing through the frontiers of Poland; and, lastly, it is more than -probable that the vizier was not fully acquainted with the extreme -scarcity that was felt in the Russian camp. One enemy seldom furnishes -another with an exact account of his provisions and ammunition; on the -contrary, either side are accustomed rather to make a parade of plenty, -even at a time when they are in the greatest necessity. There can be no -artifices practised to gain intelligence of the true state of an -adversary's affairs, by means of spies, between the Turks and the -Russians. The difference of their dress, of their religion, and of their -language, will not permit it. They are, moreover, strangers to that -desertion which prevails in most of our armies; and, consequently, the -grand vizier could not be supposed to know the desperate condition to -which the czar's army was reduced. - -Baltagi, who was not fond of war, and who, nevertheless, had conducted -this very well, thought that his expedition would be sufficiently -successful, if he put his master in possession of the towns and harbours -which made the subject of the war, stopt the progress of the victorious -army under Renne, and obliged that general to quit the banks of the -Danube, and return back into Russia, and for ever shut the entrance of -the Palus Mæotis, the Cimmerian Bosphorus, and the Black Sea, against an -enterprising prince; and, lastly, if he avoided taking these certain -advantages, on the hazard of a new battle (in which, after all, despair -might have got the better of superiority of numbers). The preceding day -only he had beheld his janissaries repulsed with loss; and there wanted -not examples of many victories having been gained by the weaker over the -strong. Such then were Mahomet's reasons for accepting the proposals of -peace. His conduct, however, did not merit the approbation of Charles's -officers, who served in the Turkish army, nor of the khan of Tartary. It -was the interest of the latter, and his followers, to reject all terms -of accommodation which would deprive them of the opportunity of ravaging -the frontiers of Russia and Poland. Charles XII. desired to be revenged -on his rival, the czar: but the general, and the first minister of the -Ottoman empire, was neither influenced by the private thirst of revenge, -which animated the Christian monarch, nor by the desire of booty, which -actuated the Tartar chief. - -As soon as the suspension of arms was agreed to, and signed, the -Russians purchased of the Turks the provisions, of which they stood in -need. The articles of the peace were not signed at that time, as is -related by La Motraye, and which Norberg has copied from him. The -vizier, among other conditions, demanded that the czar should promise -not to interfere any more in the Polish affairs. This was a point -particularly insisted upon by count Poniatowsky; but it was, in fact, -the interest of the Ottoman crown, that the kingdom of Poland should -continue in its then defenceless and divided state; accordingly this -demand was reduced to that of the Russian troops evacuating the -frontiers of Poland. The khan of Tartary, on his side, demanded a -tribute of forty thousand sequins. This point, after being long debated, -was at length given up. - -The grand vizier insisted a long time, that prince Cantemir should be -delivered up to him, as Patkul had been to the king of Sweden. Cantemir -was exactly in the same situation as Mazeppa had been. The czar caused -that hetman to be arraigned and tried for his defection, and afterwards -to be executed in effigy. The Turks were not acquainted with the nature -of such proceeding; they knew nothing of trials for contumacy, nor of -public condemnations. The affixing a sentence on any person, and -executing him in effigy, were the more unusual amongst them, as their -law forbids the representation of any human likeness whatever. The -vizier in vain insisted on Cantemir's being delivered up; Peter -peremptorily refused to comply, and wrote the following letter with his -own hand, to his vice-chancellor Shaffiroff. - -'I can resign to the Turks all the country, as far as Curtzka, because I -have hopes of being able to recover it again; but I will, by no means, -violate my faith, which, once forfeited, can never be retrieved. I have -nothing I can properly call my own, but my honour. If I give up that, I -cease to be longer a king.' - -At length the treaty was concluded, and signed, at a village called -Falksen, on the river Pruth. Among other things, it was stipulated, that -Azoph, and the territories belonging thereto, should be restored, -together with all the ammunition and artillery that were in the place, -before the czar made himself master thereof, in 1696. That the harbour -of Taganroc, in the Zabach Sea, should be demolished, as also that of -Samara, on the river of the same name; and several other fortresses. -There was likewise another article added, respecting the king of Sweden, -which article alone, sufficiently shews the little regard the vizier had -for that prince; for it was therein stipulated, that the czar should not -molest Charles, in his return to his dominions, and that afterwards the -czar and he might make peace with the other, if they were so inclined. - -It is pretty evident by the wording of this extraordinary article, that -Baltagi Mahomet had not forgot the haughty manner in which Charles XII. -had behaved to him a short time before, and it is not unlikely that this -very behaviour of the king of Sweden might have been one inducement with -Mahomet to comply so readily with his rival's proposals for peace. -Charles's glory depended wholly on the ruin of the czar: but we are -seldom inclinable to exalt those who express a contempt for us: however, -this prince, who refused the vizier a visit in his camp, on his -invitation, when it was certainly his interest to have been upon good -terms with him, now came thither in haste and unasked, when the work -which put an end to all his hopes was on the point of being concluded. -The vizier did not go to meet him in person, but contented himself with -sending two of his bashas, nor would he stir out of his tent, till -Charles was within a few paces of him. - -This interview passed, as every one knows, in mutual reproaches. Several -historians have thought, that the answer which the vizier made to the -king of Sweden, when that prince reproached him with not making the czar -prisoner, when he might have done it so easily, was the reply of a weak -man. 'If I had taken him prisoner,' said Mahomet, 'who would there be -to govern his dominions?' - -It is very easy, however, to comprehend, that this was the answer of a -man who was piqued with resentment, and these words which he -added--'For it is not proper that every crowned head should quit his -dominions'--sufficiently shewed that he intended to mortify the refugee -of Bender. - -Charles gained nothing by his journey, but the pleasure of tearing the -vizier's robe with his spurs; while that officer, who was in a condition -to make him repent this splenetic insult, seemed not to notice it, in -which he was certainly greatly superior to Charles. If any thing could -have made that monarch sensible, in the midst of his life, how easily -fortune can put greatness to the blush, it would have been the -reflection, that at the battle of Pultowa, a pastry-cook's boy had -obliged his whole army to surrender at discretion; and in this of Pruth -a wood-cutter was the arbiter of his fate, and that of his rival the -czar: for the vizier, Baltagi Mahomet, had been a cutter of wood in the -grand seignior's seraglio, as his name implied; and, far from being -ashamed of that title, he gloried in it: so much do the manners of the -eastern people differ from ours. - -When the news of this treaty reached Constantinople, the grand seignior -was so well pleased, that he ordered public rejoicings to be made for a -whole week, and Mahomet, the kiaia, or lieutenant-general, who brought -the tidings to the divan, was instantly raised to the dignity of boujouk -imraour, or master of the horse: a certain proof that the sultan did not -think himself ill served by his vizier. - -Norberg seems to have known very little of the Turkish government, when -he says, that 'the grand seignior was obliged to keep fair with Baltagi -Mahomet, that vizier having rendered himself formidable.' The -janissaries indeed have often rendered themselves formidable to their -sultans; but there is not one example of a vizier, who has not been -easily sacrificed to the will or orders of his sovereign, and Mahomet -was in no condition to support himself by his own power. Besides, -Norberg manifestly contradicts himself, by affirming in the same page, -that the janissaries were irritated against Mahomet, and that the sultan -stood in dread of his power. - -The king of Sweden was now reduced to the necessity of forming cabals in -the Ottoman court; and a monarch, who had so lately made kings by his -own power, was now seen waiting for audience, and offering memorials and -petitions which were refused. - -Charles ran through all the ambages of intrigue, like a subject who -endeavours to make a minister suspected by his master. In this manner he -acted against Mahomet, and against those who succeeded him. At one time -he addressed himself to the sultana Valide by means of a Jewess, who had -admission into the seraglio; at another, he employed one of the eunuchs -for the same purpose. At length he had recourse to a man who was to -mingle among the grand seignior's guards, and, by counterfeiting a -person out of his senses, to attract the attention of the sultan, and by -that means deliver into his own hand a memorial from Charles. From all -these various schemes, the king of Sweden drew only the mortification of -seeing himself deprived of his thaim; that is to say, of the daily -pension which the Porte of its generosity had assigned him for his -subsistence, and which amounted to about one thousand five hundred -French livres.[88] The grand vizier, instead of remitting this -allowance to him as usual, sent him an order, in the form of a friendly -advice, to quit the grand seignior's dominions. - -Charles, however, was absolutely determined not to depart, still -flattering himself with the vain hope, that he should once more re-enter -Poland and Russia with a powerful army of Turks. Every one knows what -was the issue of his inflexible boldness in the year 1714, and how he -engaged an army of janissaries, Spahis, and Tartars, with only himself, -his secretaries, his valet de chambre, cook, and stable men; that he was -taken prisoner in that country, where he had been treated with the -greatest hospitality; and that he at length got back to his own kingdom -in the disguise of a courier, after having lived five years in Turkey: -from all which it remains to be acknowledged, that if there was reason -in the conduct of this extraordinary prince, it was a reason of a very -different nature to that of other men. - - - - -CHAP. XXI. - - Conclusion of the Affairs of Pruth. - - -It is necessary in this place to repeat an event already related in the -History of Charles XII. It happened during the suspension of arms which -preceded the treaty of Pruth, that two Tartarian soldiers surprised and -took prisoners two Italian officers belonging to the czar's army, and -sold them to an officer of the Turkish janissaries. The vizier being -informed of this breach of public faith, punished the two Tartars with -death. How are we to reconcile this severe delicacy with the violation -of the law of nations in the person of Tolstoy, the czar's ambassador, -whom this very vizier caused to be arrested in the streets of -Constantinople, and afterwards imprisoned in the castle of the Seven -Towers? There is always some reason for the contradictions we find in -the actions of mankind. Baltagi Mahomet was incensed against the khan of -Tartary, for having opposed the peace he had lately made, and was -resolved to shew that chieftain that he was his master. - -The treaty was no sooner concluded, than the czar quitted the borders of -the Pruth, and returned towards his own dominions, followed by a body of -eight thousand Turks, whom the vizier had sent as an army of observation -to watch the motions of the Russian army during its march, and also to -serve as an escort or safeguard to them against the wandering Tartars -which infested those parts. - -Peter instantly set about accomplishing the treaty, by demolishing the -fortresses of Samara and Kamienska; but the restoring of Azoph, and the -demolition of the port of Taganroc, met with some difficulties in the -execution. According to the terms of the treaty it was necessary to -distinguish the artillery and ammunition which belonged to the Turks in -Azoph before that place was taken by the czar, from those which had been -sent thither after it fell into his hands. The governor of the place -spun out this affair to a tedious length, at which the Porte was greatly -incensed, and not without reason: the sultan was impatient to receive -the keys of Azoph. The vizier promised they should be sent from time to -time, but the governor always found means to delay the delivery of them. -Baltagi Mahomet lost the good graces of his master, and with them his -place. The khan of Tartary and his other enemies made such good use of -their interest with the sultan, that the grand vizier was deposed, -several bashas were disgraced at the same time; but the grand seignior, -well convinced of this minister's fidelity, did not deprive him either -of his life or estate, but only sent him to Mytilene to take on him the -command of that island. This simple removal from the helm of affairs -(Nov. 1711,), and the continuing to him his fortunes, and above all the -giving him the command in Mytilene, sufficiently contradicts all that -Norberg has advanced, to induce us to believe that this vizier had been -corrupted with the czar's money. - -Norberg asserts furthermore, that the Bostangi basha, who came to divest -him of his office, and to acquaint him of the grand seignior's sentence, -declared him at the same time, 'a traitor, one who had disobeyed the -orders of his sovereign lord, had sold himself to the enemy for money, -and was found guilty of not having taken proper care of the interests of -the king of Sweden.' In the first place, this kind of declarations are -not at all in use in Turkey: the orders of the grand seignior always -being issued privately, and executed with secresy. Secondly, if the -vizier had been declared a traitor, a rebel, and a corrupted person, -crimes of this nature would have been instantly punished with death in a -country where they are never forgiven. Lastly, if he was punishable for -not having sufficiently attended to the interests of the king of Sweden, -it is evident that this prince must have had such a degree of influence -at the Ottoman Porte, as to have made the other ministers to tremble, -who would consequently have endeavoured to gain his good graces; -whereas, on the contrary, the basha Jussuf, aga of the janissaries, who -succeeded Mahomet Baltagi as grand vizier, had the same sentiments as -his predecessor, in relation to Charles's conduct, and was so far from -doing him any service that he thought of nothing but how to get rid of -so dangerous a guest; and when count Poniatowsky, the companion and -confidant of that monarch, went to compliment the vizier on his new -dignity, the latter spoke to him thus. 'Pagan, I forewarn thee, that if -ever I find thee hatching any intrigues, I will, upon the first notice, -cause thee to be thrown into the sea with a stone about thy neck.' - -This compliment count Poniatowsky himself relates in the memoirs which -he drew up at my request, and is a sufficient proof of the little -influence his master had in the Turkish court. All that Norberg has -related touching the affairs of that empire, appear to come from -a prejudiced person, and one who was very ill informed of the -circumstances he pretends to write about. And we may count among the -errors of a party-spirit and political falsehoods, every thing which -this writer advances unsupported by proofs, concerning the pretended -corruption of a grand vizier, that is, of a person who had the disposal -of upwards of sixty millions per annum, without being subject to the -least account.[89] I have now before me the letter which count -Poniatowsky wrote to King Stanislaus immediately after the signing the -treaty of Pruth, in which he upbraids Baltagi Mahomet with the slight he -shewed to the king of Sweden, his dislike to the war, and the -unsteadiness of his temper; but never once hints the least charge of -corruption: for he knew too well what the place of grand vizier was, to -entertain an idea, that the czar was capable of setting a price upon the -infidelity of the second person in the Ottoman empire. - -Schaffirow and Sheremeto, who remained at Constantinople as hostages on -the part of the czar for his performance of the treaty, were not used in -the manner they would have been if known to have purchased this peace, -and to have joined with the vizier in deceiving his master. They were -left to go at liberty about the city, escorted by two companies of -janissaries. - -The czar's ambassador Tolstoy having been released from his confinement -in the Seven Towers, immediately upon the signing of the treaty of -Pruth, the Dutch and English ministers interposed with the new vizier to -see the several articles of that treaty put into execution. - -Azoph was at length restored to the Turks, and the fortresses mentioned -in the treaty were demolished according to stipulation. And now the -Ottoman Porte, though very little inclinable to interfere in the -differences between Christian princes, could not without vanity behold -himself made arbitrator between Russia, Poland, and the king of Sweden; -and insisted that the czar should withdraw his troops out of Poland, and -deliver the Turkish empire from so dangerous a neighbour; and, desirous -that the Christian princes might continually be at war with each other, -wished for nothing so much as to send Charles home to his own dominions, -but all this while had not the least intention of furnishing him with an -army. The Tartars were still for war, as an artificer is willing to -seize every opportunity to exercise his calling. The janissaries -likewise wished to be called into the field, but more out of hatred -against the Christians, their naturally restless disposition, and from a -fondness for rapine and licentiousness, than from any other motives. -Nevertheless, the English and Dutch ministers managed their negotiations -so well, that they prevailed over the opposite party: the treaty of -Pruth was confirmed, but with the addition of a new article, by which it -was stipulated that the czar should withdraw his forces from Poland -within three months, and that the sultan should immediately send Charles -XII. out of his dominions. - -We may judge from this new treaty whether the king of Sweden had that -interest at the Porte which some writers would have us to believe. He -was evidently sacrificed on this occasion by the new vizier, basha -Jussuf, as he had been before by Baltagi Mahomet. The historians of his -party could find no other expedient to colour over this fresh affront, -but that of accusing Jussuf of having been bribed like his predecessor. -Such repeated imputations, unsupported by any proofs, are rather the -clamours of an impotent cabal, than the testimonies of history; but -faction, when driven to acknowledge facts, will ever be endeavouring to -alter circumstances and motives; and, unhappily, it is thus that all the -histories of our times will be handed down to posterity so altered, that -they will be unable to distinguish truth from falsehoods. - - - - -CHAP. XXII. - - Marriage of the czarowitz.--The marriage of Peter and Catherine - publicly solemnized.--Catherine finds her brother. - - -This unsuccessful campaign of Pruth proved more hurtful to the czar than -ever the battle of Narva was; for after that defeat he had found means -not only to retrieve his losses, but also to wrest Ingria out of the -hands of Charles XII.; but by the treaty of Falksten, in which he -consented to give up to the sultan his forts and harbours on the Palus -Mæotis, he for ever lost his projected superiority in the Black Sea. -He had besides an infinite deal of work on his hands; his new -establishments in Russia were to be perfected, he had to prosecute his -victories over the Swedes, to settle king Augustus firmly on the Polish -throne, and to manage affairs properly with the several powers with whom -he was in alliance; but the fatigues he had undergone having impaired -his health, he was obliged to go to Carlsbad[90] to drink the waters of -that place. While he was there he gave orders for his troops to enter -Pomerania, who blockaded Stralsund, and took five other towns in the -neighbourhood. - -Pomerania is the most northern province of Germany, bounded on the east -by Prussia and Poland, on the west by Brandenburg, on the south by -Mecklenburg, and on the north by the Baltic Sea. It has changed masters -almost every century: Gustavus Adolphus got possession of it in his -famous thirty years war, and it was afterwards solemnly ceded to the -crown of Sweden by the treaty of Westphalia: with a reservation of the -little bishopric of Camin, and a few other small towns lying in Upper -Pomerania. The whole of this province properly belongs to the elector of -Brandenburg, in virtue of a family compact made with the dukes of -Pomerania, whose family being extinct in 1637, consequently by the laws -of the empire the house of Brandenburg had an undoubted right to the -succession; but necessity, the first of all laws, occasioned this family -compact to be set aside by the treaty of Osnaburg; after which, almost -the whole of Pomerania fell to the lot of the victorious Swedes. - -The czar's intention was to wrest from Sweden all the provinces that -crown was possessed of in Germany; and, in order to accomplish his -design, he found it necessary to enter into a confederacy with the -electors of Hanover and Brandenburg, and the king of Denmark. Peter drew -up the several articles of the treaty he projected with these powers, -and also a complete plan of the necessary operations for rendering him -master of Pomerania. - -In the meanwhile he went to Torgau, to be present at the nuptials of his -son the czarowitz Alexis with the princess of Wolfenbuttel (Oct. 23, -1711.), sister to the consort of Charles VI. emperor of Germany; -nuptials which, in the end, proved fatal to his own peace of mind, and -to the lives of the unfortunate pair. - -The czarowitz was born of the first marriage of Peter the Great to -Eudocia Lapoukin, to whom he was espoused in 1689: she was at that time -shut up in the monastery of Susdal; their son Alexis Petrowitz, who was -born the 1st of March, 1690, was now in his twenty-second year: this -prince was not then at all known in Europe; a minister, whose memoirs of -the court of Russia have been printed, says in a letter he writes to his -master, dated August 25, 1711, that 'this prince was tall and well made, -resembled his father greatly, was of an excellent disposition, very -pious, had read the Bible five times over, took great delight in the -ancient Greek historians, appeared to have a very quick apprehension and -understanding, was well acquainted with the mathematics, the art of war, -navigation, and hydraulics; that he understood the German language, and -was then learning the French, but that his father would never suffer him -to go through a regular course of study.' - -This character is very different from that which the czar himself gives -of his son some time afterwards, in which we shall see with how much -grief he reproaches him with faults directly opposite to those good -qualities, for which this minister seems so much to admire him. - -We must leave posterity, therefore, to determine between the testimony -of a stranger, who may have formed too slight a judgment, and the -declaration of a parent, who thought himself under a necessity of -sacrificing the dictates of nature to the good of his people. If the -minister was no better acquainted with the disposition of Alexis than he -seems to have been with his outward form, his evidence will have but -little weight; for he describes this prince as tall and well made, -whereas the memoirs sent me from Petersburg say, that he was neither the -one nor the other. - -His mother-in-law, Catherine, was not present at his nuptials; for -though she was already looked upon as czarina, yet she had not been -publicly acknowledged as such: and moreover, as she had only the title -of highness given her at the czar's court, her rank was not sufficiently -settled to admit of her signing the contract, or to appear at the -ceremony in a station befitting the consort of Peter the Great. She -therefore remained at Thorn in Polish Prussia. Soon after the nuptials -were celebrated, the czar sent the new-married couple away to -Wolfenbuttel (Jan. 9, 1712), and brought back the czarina to Petersburg -with that dispatch and privacy which he observed in all his journies. - -Feb. 19, 1712.] Having now disposed of his son, he publicly solemnized -his own nuptials with Catherine, which had been declared in private -before. This ceremony was performed with as much magnificence as could -be expected in a city but yet in its infancy, and from a revenue -exhausted by the late destructive war against the Turks, and that which -he was still engaged in against the king of Sweden. The czar gave orders -for, and assisted himself in, all the preparations for the ceremony, -according to the usual custom; and Catherine was now publicly declared -czarina, in reward for having saved her husband and his whole army. - -The acclamations with which this declaration was received at Petersburg -were sincere: the applauses which subjects confer on the actions of a -despotic sovereign are generally suspected; but on this occasion they -were confirmed by the united voice of all the thinking part of Europe, -who beheld with pleasure, on the one hand, the heir of a vast monarchy -with no other glory than that of his birth, married to a petty princess; -and, on the other hand, a powerful conqueror, and a law-giver, publicly -sharing his bed and his throne with a stranger and a captive, who had -nothing to recommend her but her merit: and this approbation became more -general as the minds of men grew more enlightened by that sound -philosophy, which has made so great a progress in our understandings -within these last forty years: a philosophy, equally sublime and -discerning, which teaches us to pay only the exterior respect to -greatness and authority, while we reserve our esteem and veneration for -shining talents and meritorious services. - -And here I think myself under an obligation to relate what I have met -touching this marriage in the dispatches of count Bassewitz, aulic -counsellor at Vienna, and long time minister from Holstein at the court -of Russia; a person of great merit, and whose memory is still held in -the highest esteem in Germany. In some of his letters he speaks thus: -'The czarina had not only been the main instrument of procuring the czar -that reputation which he enjoyed, but was likewise essentially necessary -in the preservation of his life. This prince was unhappily subject to -violent convulsion fits, which were thought to be the effects of poison -which had been given him while he was young. Catherine alone had found -the secret of alleviating his sufferings by an unwearied assiduity and -attention to whatever she thought would please him, and made it the -whole study of her life to preserve a health so valuable to the kingdom -and to herself, insomuch, that the czar finding he could not live -without her, made her the companion of his throne and bed.' I here only -repeat the express words of the writer himself. - -Fortune, which has furnished us with many extraordinary scenes in this -part of the world, and who had raised Catherine from the lowest abyss of -misery and distress to the pinnacle of human grandeur, wrought another -extraordinary incident in her favour some few years after her marriage -with the czar, and which I find thus related in a curious manuscript of -a person who was at that time in the czar's service, and who speaks of -it as a thing to which he was eye-witness. - -An envoy from king Augustus to the court of Peter the Great, being on -his return home through Courland, and having put up at an inn by the -way, heard the voice of a person who seemed in great distress, and whom -the people of the house were treating in that insulting manner which is -but too common on such occasions: the stranger, with a tone of -resentment, made answer, that they would not dare to use him thus, if he -could but once get to the speech of the czar, at whose court he had -perhaps more powerful protectors than they imagined. - -The envoy, upon hearing this, had a curiosity to ask the man some -questions, and, from certain answers he let fall, and a close -examination of his face, he thought he found in him some resemblance of -the empress Catherine; and, when he came to Dresden, he could not -forbear writing to one of his friends at Petersburg concerning it. This -letter, by accident, came to the czar's hands, who immediately sent an -order to prince Repnin, then governor of Riga, to endeavour to find out -the person mentioned in the letter. Prince Repnin immediately dispatched -a messenger to Mittau, in Courland, who, on inquiry, found out the man, -and learned that his name was Charles Scavronsky; that he was the son of -a Lithuanian gentleman, who had been killed in the wars of Poland, and -had left two children then in the cradle, a boy and a girl, who had -neither of them received any other education than that which simple -nature gives to those who are abandoned by the world. Scavronsky, who -had been parted from his sister while they were both infants, knew -nothing further of her than that she had been taken prisoner in -Marienburg, in the year 1704, and supposed her to be still in the -household of prince Menzikoff, where he imagined she might have made -some little fortune. - -Prince Repnin, agreeable to the particular orders he had received from -the czar, caused Scavronsky to be seized, and conducted to Riga, under -pretence of some crime laid to his charge; and, to give a better colour -to the matter, at his arrival there, a sham information was drawn up -against him, and he was soon after sent from thence to Petersburg, under -a strong guard, with orders to treat him well upon the road. - -When he came to that capital, he was carried to the house of an officer -of the emperor's palace, named Shepleff, who, having been previously -instructed in the part he was to play, drew several circumstances from -the young man in relation to his condition; and, after some time, told -him, that although the information, which had been sent up from Riga -against him, was of a very serious nature, yet he would have justice -done him; but that it would be necessary to present a petition to his -majesty for that purpose; that one should accordingly be drawn up in his -name, and that he (Shepleff) would find means that he should deliver it -into the czar's own hands. - -The next day the czar came to dine with Shepleff, at his own house, who -presented Scavronsky to him; when his majesty, after asking him -abundance of questions was convinced, by the natural answers he gave, -that he was really the czarina's brother; they had both lived in -Livonia, when young, and the czar found every thing that Scavronsky said -to him, in relation to his family affairs, tally exactly with what his -wife had told him concerning her brother, and the misfortunes which had -befallen her and her brother in the earlier part of their lives. - -The czar, now satisfied of the truth, proposed the next day to the -empress to go and dine with him at Shepleff's; and, when dinner was -over, he gave orders that the man, whom he had examined the day before, -should be brought in again. Accordingly he was introduced, dressed in -the same clothes he had wore while on his journey to Riga; the czar not -being willing that he should appear in any other garb than what his -unhappy circumstances had accustomed him to. - -He interrogated him again, in the presence of his wife; and the MS. -adds, that, at the end, he turned about to the empress, and said these -very words:--'This man is your brother; come hither, Charles, and kiss -the hand of the empress, and embrace your sister.' - -The author of this narrative adds further, that the empress fainted away -with surprise; and that, when she came to herself again, the czar said, -'There is nothing in this but what is very natural. This gentlemen is my -brother in-law; if he has merit, we will make something of him; if he -has not, we must leave him as he is.' - -I am of opinion, that this speech shews as much greatness as simplicity, -and a greatness not very common. My author says, that Scavronsky -remained a considerable time at Shepleff's house; that the czar assigned -him a handsome pension, but that he led a very retired life. He carries -his relation of this adventure no farther, as he made use of it only to -disclose the secret of Catherine's brother: but we know, from other -authorities, that this gentleman was afterwards created a count; that he -married a young lady of quality, by whom he had two daughters, who were -married to two of the principal noblemen in Russia. I leave to those, -who may be better informed of the particulars, to distinguish what is -fact in this relation, from what may have been added; and shall only -say, that the author does not seem to have told this story out of a -fondness for entertaining his readers with the marvellous, since his -papers were not intended to be published. He is writing freely to a -friend, about a thing of which he says he was an eye-witness. He may -have been mistaken in some circumstances, but the fact itself has all -the appearance of truth; for if this gentleman had known that his sister -was raised to so great dignity and power, he would not certainly have -remained so many years without having made himself known to her. And -this discovery, however extraordinary it may seem, is certainly not more -so than the exaltation of Catherine herself; and both the one and the -other are striking proofs of the force of destiny, and may teach us to -be cautious how we treat as fabulous several events of antiquity, which -perhaps are less contradictory to the common order of things, than the -adventures of this empress. - -The rejoicings made by the czar Peter for his own marriage, and that of -his son, were not of the nature of those transient amusements which -exhaust the public treasure, and are presently lost in oblivion. He -completed his grand foundry for cannon, and finished the admiralty -buildings. The highways were repaired, several ships built, and others -put upon the stocks; new canals were dug, and the finishing hand put to -the grand warehouses, and other public buildings, and the trade of -Petersburg began to assume a flourishing face. He issued an ordinance -for removing the senate from Moscow to Petersburg, which was executed in -the month of April, 1712. By this step he made his new city the capital -of the empire, and early he employed a number of Swedish prisoners in -beautifying this city, whose foundation had been laid upon their defeat. - - - - -CHAP. XXIII. - - Taking of Stetin.--Descent upon Finland.--Event of the year 1712. - - -Peter, now seeing himself happy in his own family, and in his state, and -successful in his war against Charles XII. and in the several -negotiations which he had entered into with other powers, who were -resolved to assist him in driving out the Swedes from the continent, and -cooping them up for ever within the narrow isthmus of Scandinavia, began -to turn his views entirely towards the north-west coasts of Europe, not -laying aside all thoughts of the Palus Mæotis, or Black Sea. The keys of -Azoph, which had been so long withheld from the basha, who was to have -taken possession of that place for the sultan, his master, were now -given up; and, notwithstanding all the endeavours of the king of Sweden, -the intrigues of his friends at the Ottoman Porte, and even some menaces -of a new war on the part of the Turks, both that nation and the Russian -empire continued at peace. - -Charles XII. still obstinate in his resolution not to depart from -Bender, tamely submitted his hopes and fortunes to the caprice of a -grand vizier; while the czar was threatening all his provinces, arming -against him the king of Denmark, and the elector of Hanover, and had -almost persuaded the king of Prussia, and even the Poles and Saxons, to -declare openly for him. - -Charles, ever of the same inflexible disposition, behaved in the like -manner towards his enemies, who now seemed united to overwhelm him, as -he had done in all his transactions with the Ottoman Porte; and, from -his lurking-place in the deserts of Bessarabia, defied the czar, the -kings of Poland, Denmark, and Prussia, the elector of Hanover (soon -afterwards king of England), and the emperor of Germany, whom he had so -greatly offended, when he was traversing Silesia with his victorious -troops, and who now shewed his resentment, by abandoning him to his ill -fortune, and refused to take under his protection any of those -countries, which as yet belonged to the Swedes in Germany. - -1712.] It would have been no difficult matter for him to have broken the -league which was forming against him, would he have consented to cede -Stetin, in Pomerania, to Frederick (the first) king of Prussia, and -elector of Brandenburg, who had a lawful claim thereto; but Charles did -not then look upon Prussia as a power of any consequence: and indeed -neither he, nor any other person, could at that time foresee, that this -petty kingdom, and the electorate of Brandenburg, either of which were -little better than deserts, would one day become formidable. Charles -therefore would not listen to any proposal of accommodation, but -determined rather to stake all than to give up any thing, sent orders to -the regency of Stockholm, to make all possible resistance, both by sea -and land: and these orders were obeyed, notwithstanding that his -dominions were almost exhausted of men and money. The senate of -Stockholm fitted out a fleet of thirteen ships of the line, and every -person capable of bearing arms came voluntarily to offer their service: -in a word, the inflexible courage and pride of Charles seemed to be -infused into all his subjects, who were almost as unfortunate as their -master. - -It can hardly be supposed, that Charles's conduct was formed upon any -regular plan. He had still a powerful party in Poland, which assisted by -the Crim Tartars, might indeed have desolated that wretched country, but -could not have replaced Stanislaus on the throne; and his hope of -engaging the Ottoman Porte to espouse his cause, or convincing the divan -that it was their interest to send ten or twelve thousand men to the -assistance of his friends, under pretence that the czar was supporting -his ally, Augustus, in Poland, was vain and chimerical. - -Sep. 1712.] Nevertheless, he continued still at Bender, to wait the -issue of these vain projects, while the Russians, Danes, and Saxons, -were overrunning Pomerania. Peter took his wife with him on this -expedition. The king of Denmark had already made himself master of -Stade, a sea-port town in the duchy of Bremen, and the united forces of -Russia, Saxony, and Denmark, were already before Stralsund. - -Oct. 1712.] And now king Stanislaus, seeing the deplorable state of so -many provinces, the impossibility of his recovering the crown of Poland, -and the universal confusion occasioned by the inflexibility of Charles, -called a meeting of the Swedish generals, who were covering Pomerania -with an army of eleven thousand men, as the last resource they had left -in those provinces. - -When they were assembled, he proposed to them to make their terms with -king Augustus, offering himself to be the victim of this reconciliation. -On this occasion, he made the following speech to them, in the French -language, which he afterwards left in writing, and which was signed by -nine general officers, amongst whom happened to be one Patkul, -cousin-german to the unfortunate Patkul, who lost his life on the wheel, -by the order of Charles XII. - -'Having been hitherto the instrument of procuring glory to the Swedish -arms, I cannot think of proving the cause of their ruin. I therefore -declare myself ready to sacrifice the crown, and my personal interests, -to the preservation of the sacred person of their king, as I can see no -other method of releasing him from the place where he now is.' - -Having made this declaration (which is here given in his own words), he -prepared to set out for Turkey, in hopes of being able to soften the -inflexible temper of his benefactor, by the sacrifice he had made for -him. His ill fortune would have it, that he arrived in Bessarabia at the -very time that Charles, after having given his word to the sultan, that -he would depart from Bender, and having received the necessary -remittances for his journey, and an escort for his person, took the mad -resolution to continue there, and opposed a whole army of Turks and -Tartars, with only his own domestics. The former, though they might -easily have killed him, contented themselves with taking him prisoner. -At this very juncture, Stanislaus arriving, was seized himself; so that -two Christian kings were prisoners at one time in Turkey. - -At this time, when all Europe was in commotion, and that France had just -terminated a war equally fatal against one part thereof, in order to -settle the grandson of Lewis XIV. on the throne of Spain, England gave -peace to France, and the victory gained by Marshal Villars at Denain in -Flanders, saved that state from its other enemies. France had been, for -upwards of a century, the ally of Sweden, and it was the interest of the -former, that its ally should not be stript of his possessions in -Germany. Charles, unhappily, was at such a distance from his dominions, -that he did not even know what was transacting in France. - -The regency of Stockholm, by a desperate effort, ventured to demand a -sum of money from the French court, at a time when its finances were at -so low an ebb, that Lewis XIV. had hardly money enough to pay his -household servants. Count Sparre was sent with a commission to -negotiate this loan, in which it was not to be supposed he would -succeed. However, on his arrival at Versailles, he represented to the -marquis de Torci the inability of the regency to pay the little army -which Charles had still remaining in Pomerania, and which was ready to -break up and dispute of itself on account of the long arrears due to the -men; and that France was on the point of beholding the only ally she had -left, deprived of those provinces which were so necessary to preserve -the balance of power; that indeed his master, Charles, had not been -altogether so attentive to the interests of France in the course of his -conquests as might have been expected, but that the magnanimity of Lewis -XIV. was at least equal to the misfortunes of his royal brother and -ally. The French minister, in answer to this speech, so effectually set -forth the incapacity of his court to furnish the requested succours, -that count Sparre despaired of success. - -It so happened, however, that a private individual did that which Sparre -had lost all hopes of obtaining. There was at that time in Paris, a -banker, named Samuel Bernard, who had accumulated an immense fortune by -making remittances for the government to foreign countries, and other -private contracts. This man was intoxicated with a species of pride very -rarely to be met with from people of his profession. He was immoderately -fond of every thing that made an éclat, and knew very well, that one -time or another the government would repay with interest those who -hazarded their fortune to supply its exigencies. Count Sparre went one -day to dine with him, and took care to flatter his foible so well, that -before they rose from table the banker put six hundred thousand -livres[91] into his hand; and then immediately waiting on the marquis -de Torci, he said to him--'I have lent the crown of Sweden six hundred -thousand livres in your name, which you must repay me when you are -able.' - -Count Steinbock, who at that time commanded Charles's army in Pomerania, -little expected so seasonable a supply; and seeing his troops ready to -mutiny, to whom he had nothing to give but promises, and that the storm -was gathering fast upon him, and being, moreover, apprehensive of being -surrounded by the three different armies of Russia, Denmark, and Saxony, -desired a cessation of arms, on the supposition that Stanislaus' -abdication would soften the obstinacy of Charles, and that the only way -left him to save the forces under his command, was by spinning out the -time in negotiations. He therefore dispatched a courier to Bender, to -represent to the king of Sweden the desperate state of his finances and -affairs, and the situation of the army, and to acquaint him that he had -under these circumstances, found himself necessitated to apply for a -cessation of arms, which he should think himself very happy to obtain. -The courier had not been dispatched above three days, and Stanislaus was -not yet set out on his journey to Bender, when Steinbock received the -six hundred thousand livres from the French banker above-mentioned; a -sum, which was at that time an immense treasure in a country so -desolated. Thus unexpectedly reinforced with money, which is the grand -panacea for all disorders of state, Steinbock found means to revive the -drooping spirits of his soldiery; he supplied them with all they wanted, -raised new recruits, and in a short time saw himself at the head of -twelve thousand men, and dropping his former intention of procuring a -suspension of arms, he sought only for an opportunity of engaging the -enemy. - -This was the same Steinbock, who in the year 1710, after the defeat of -Pultowa, had revenged the Swedes on the Danes by the eruption he made -into Scania, where he marched against and engaged them with only a few -militia, whom he had hastily gathered together, with their arms slung -round them with ropes, and totally defeated the enemy. He was, like all -the other generals of Charles XII. active and enterprising; but his -valour was sullied by his brutality: as an instance of which, it will be -sufficient to relate, that having, after an engagement with the -Russians, given orders to kill all the prisoners, and perceiving a -Polish officer in the service of the czar, who had caught hold on king -Stanislaus' stirrup, then on horseback, in order to save his life, he, -Steinbock, shot him dead with his pistol in that prince's arms, as has -been already mentioned in the life of Charles XII. and king Stanislaus -has declared to the author of this History, that had he not been -withheld by his respect and gratitude to the king of Sweden, he should -immediately have shot Steinbock dead upon the spot. - -Dec. 9, 1712.] General Steinbock now marched by the way of Wismar to -meet the combined forces of the Russians, Danes, and Saxons, and soon -found himself near the Danish and Saxon army, which was advanced before -that of the Russians about the distance of three leagues. The czar sent -three couriers, one after another, to the king of Denmark, beseeching -him to wait his coming up, and thereby avoid the danger which threatened -him, if he attempted to engage the Swedes with an equality of force; but -the Danish monarch, not willing to share with any one the honour of a -victory which he thought sure, advanced to meet the Swedish general, -whom he attacked near a place called Gadebusch. This day's affair gave a -further proof of the natural enmity that subsisted between the Swedes -and Danes. The officers of these two nations fought with most -unparalleled inveteracy against each other, and neither side would -desist till death terminated the dispute. - -Steinbock gained a complete victory before the Russian army could come -up to the assistance of the Danes, and the next day received an order -from his master, Charles, to lay aside all thoughts of a suspension of -arms, who, at the same time, upbraided him for having entertained an -idea so injurious to his honour, and for which he told him he could make -no reparation, but by conquering or perishing. Steinbock had happily -obviated the orders and the reproach by the victory he had gained. - -But this victory was like that which had formerly brought such a -transient consolation to king Augustus, when in the torrent of his -misfortunes he gained the battle of Calish against the Swedes, who were -conquerors in every other place, and which only served to aggravate his -situation, as this of Gadebusch only procrastinated the ruin of -Steinbock and his army. - -When the king of Sweden received the news of Steinbock's success, he -looked upon his affairs as retrieved, and even flattered himself with -hopes to engage the Ottoman Porte to declare for him, who at that time -seemed disposed to come to a new rupture with the czar: full of these -fond imaginations, he sent orders to general Steinbock to fall upon -Poland, being still ready to believe, upon the least shadow of success, -that the day of Narva, and those in which he gave laws to his enemies, -were again returned. But unhappily he too soon found these flattering -hopes utterly blasted by the affair of Bender, and his own captivity -amongst the Turks. - -The whole fruits of the victory at Gadebusch were confined to the -surprising in the night-time, and reducing to ashes, the town of Altena, -inhabited by traders and manufacturers, a place wholly defenceless, and -which, not having been in arms, ought, by all the laws of war and -nations, to have been spared; however, it was utterly destroyed, several -of the inhabitants perished in the flames, others escaped with their -lives, but naked, and a number of old men, women, and children, perished -with the cold and fatigue they suffered, at the gates of Hamburg. Such -has too often been the fate of several thousands of men for the quarrels -of two only; and this cruel advantage was the only one gained by -Steinbock; for the Russians, Danes, and Saxons pursued him so closely, -that he was obliged to beg for an asylum in Toningen, a fortress in the -duchy of Holstein, for himself and army. - -This duchy was at that time subjected to the most cruel ravages of any -part of the North, and its sovereign was the most miserable of all -princes. He was nephew to Charles XII. and it was on his father's -account, who had married Charles's sister, that that monarch carried his -arms even into the heart of Copenhagen, before the battle of Narva, and -for whom he likewise made the treaty of Travendahl, by which the dukes -of Holstein were restored to their rights. - -This country was in part the cradle of the Cimbri, and of the old -Normans, who overrun the province of Neustria, in France, and conquered -all England, Naples, and Sicily; and yet, at this present time, no -state pretends less to make conquests than this part of the ancient -Cimbrica Chersonesus, which consists only of two petty duchies; namely, -that of Sleswic, belonging in common to the king of Denmark and the duke -of Holstein, and that of Gottorp, appertaining to the duke alone. -Sleswic is a sovereign principality; Holstein is a branch of the German -empire, called the Roman empire. - -The king of Denmark, and the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, were of the same -family; but the duke, nephew to Charles XII. and presumptive heir to his -crown, was the natural enemy of the king of Denmark, who had endeavoured -to crush him in the very cradle. One of his father's brothers, who was -bishop of Lubec, and administrator of the dominions of his unfortunate -ward, now beheld himself in the midst of the Swedish army, whom he durst -not succour, and those of Russia, Denmark, and Saxony, that threatened -his country with daily destruction. Nevertheless, he thought himself -obliged to try to save Charles's army, if he could do it without -irritating the king of Denmark, who had made himself master of his -country, which he exhausted, by raising continual contributions. - -This bishop and administrator was entirely governed by the famous baron -Gortz, the most artful and enterprising man of his age, endowed with a -genius amazingly penetrating, and fruitful in every resource: with -talents equal to the boldest and most arduous attempts; he was as -insinuating in his negotiations as he was hardy in his projects; he had -the art of pleasing and persuading in the highest degree, and knew how -to captivate all hearts by the vivacity of his genius, after he had won -them by the softness of his eloquence. He afterwards gained the same -ascendant over Charles XII. which he had then over the bishop; and all -the world knows, that he paid with his life the honour he had of -governing the most ungovernable and obstinate prince that ever sat upon -a throne. - -Gortz had a private conference with general Steinbock,[92] at which he -promised to deliver him up the fortress of Toningen,[93] without -exposing the bishop administrator, his master, to any danger: and, at -the same time, gave the strongest assurances to the king of Denmark, -that he would defend the place to the uttermost. In this manner are -almost all negotiations carried on, affairs of state being of a very -different nature from those of private persons; the honour of ministers -consisting wholly in success, and those of private persons in the -observance of their promises. - -General Steinbock presented himself before Toningen: the commandant -refused to open the gates to him, and by this means put it out of the -king of Denmark's power to allege any cause of complaint against the -bishop administrator; but Gortz causes an order to be given in the name -of the young duke, a minor, to suffer the Swedish army to enter the -town. The secretary of the cabinet, named Stamke, signs this order in -the name of the duke of Holstein: by this means Gortz preserves the -honour of an infant who had not as yet any power to issue orders; and he -at once serves the king of Sweden, to whom he was desirous to make his -court, and the bishop administrator his master, who appeared not to have -consented to the admission of the Swedish troops. The governor of -Toningen, who was easily gained, delivered up the town to the Swedes, -and Gortz excused himself as well as he could to the king of Denmark, by -protesting that the whole had been transacted without his consent. - -The Swedes retired partly within the walls, and partly under the cannon -of the town: but this did not save them: for general Steinbock was -obliged to surrender himself prisoner of war, together with his whole -army, to the number of eleven thousand men, in the same manner as about -sixteen thousand of their countrymen had done at the battle of Pultowa. - -By this convention it was agreed, that Steinbock with his officers and -men might be ransomed or exchanged. The price for the general's ransom -was fixed at eight thousand German crowns;[94] a very trifling sum, but -which Steinbock however was not able to raise; so that he remained a -prisoner in Copenhagen till the day of his death. - -The territories of Holstein now remained at the mercy of the incensed -conqueror. The young duke became the object of the king of Denmark's -vengeance, and was fated to pay for the abuse which Gortz had made of -his name: thus did the ill fortune of Charles XII. fall upon all his -family. - -Gortz perceiving his projects thus dissipated, and being still resolved -to act a distinguished part in the general confusion of affairs, -recalled to mind a scheme which he had formed to establish a neutrality -in the Swedish territories in Germany. - -The king of Denmark was ready to take possession of Toningen; George, -elector of Hanover, was about to seize Bremen and Verden, with the city -of Stade; the new-made king of Prussia, Frederick William, cast his -views upon Stetin, and czar Peter was preparing to make himself master -of Finland; and all the territories of Charles XII. those of Sweden -excepted, were going to become the spoils of those who wanted to share -them. How then could so many different interests be rendered compatible -with a neutrality? Gortz entered into negotiation at one and the same -time with all the several princes who had any views in this partition; -he continued night and day passing from one province to the other; he -engaged the governor of Bremen and Verden to put those two duchies into -the hands of the elector of Hanover by way of sequestration, so that the -Danes should not take possession of them for themselves: he prevailed -with the king of Prussia to accept jointly with the duke of Holstein, of -the sequestration of Stetin and Wismar, in consideration of which, the -king of Denmark was to act nothing against Holstein, and was not to -enter Toningen. It was most certainly a strange way of serving Charles -XII. to put his towns into the hands of those who might choose if they -would ever restore them; but Gortz, by delivering these places to them -as pledges, bound them to a neutrality, at least for some time; and he -was in hopes to be able afterwards to bring Hanover and Brandenburg to -declare for Sweden: he prevailed on the king of Prussia whose ruined -dominions stood in need of peace, to enter into his views, and in short -he found means to render himself necessary to all these princes, and -disposed of the possessions of Charles XII. like a guardian, who gives -up one part of his ward's estate to preserve the other, and of a ward -incapable of managing his affairs himself; and all this without any -regular authority or commission, or other warrant for his conduct, than -full powers given him by the bishop of Lubec, who had no authority to -grant such powers from Charles himself. - -Such was the baron de Gortz, and such his actions, which have not -hitherto been sufficiently known. There have been instances of an -Oxenstiern, a Richlieu, and an Alberoni, influencing the affairs of all -parts of Europe; but that the privy counsellor of a bishop of Lubec -should do the same as they, without his conduct being avowed by any one, -is a thing hitherto unheard of. - -June, 1713.] Nevertheless he succeeded to his wishes in the beginning; -for he made a treaty with the king of Prussia, by which that monarch -engaged, on condition of keeping Stetin in sequestration, to preserve -the rest of Pomerania for Charles XII. In virtue of this treaty, Gortz -made a proposal to the governor of Pomerania, Meyerfeld, to give up the -fortress of Stetin to the king of Prussia for the sake of peace, -thinking that the Swedish governor of Stetin would prove as easy to be -persuaded as the Holsteiner who had the command of Toningen; but the -officers of Charles XII. were not accustomed to obey such orders. -Meyerfeld made answer, that no one should enter Stetin but over his dead -body and the ruins of the place, and immediately sent notice to his -master of the strange proposal. The messenger at his arrival found -Charles prisoner at Demirtash, in consequence of his adventure at -Bender, and it was doubtful, at that time, whether he would not remain -all his life in confinement in Turkey, or else be banished to some of -the islands in the Archipelago, or some part of Asia under the dominion -of the Ottoman Porte. However Charles from his prison sent the same -orders to Meyerfeld, as he had before done to Steinbock; namely, rather -to perish than to submit to his enemies, and even commanded him to take -his inflexibility for his example. - -Gortz, finding that the governor of Stetin had broke in upon his -measures, and would neither hearken to a neutrality nor a sequestration, -took it into his head, not only to sequester the town of Stetin of his -own authority, but also the city of Stralsund, and found means to make -the same kind of treaty (June, 1713,) with the king of Poland, elector -of Saxony, for that place, which he had done with the elector of -Brandenburg for Stetin. He clearly saw how impossible it would be for -the Swedes to keep possession of those places without either men or -money, while their king was a captive in Turkey, and he thought himself -sure of turning aside the scourge of war from the North by means of -these sequestrations. The king of Denmark himself at length gave into -the projects of Gortz: the latter had gained an entire ascendant over -prince Menzikoff, the czar's general and favourite, whom he had -persuaded that the duchy of Holstein must be ceded to his master, and -flattered the czar with the prospect of opening a canal from Holstein -into the Baltic Sea; an enterprise perfectly conformable to the -inclination and views of this royal founder: and, above all, he laboured -to insinuate to him, that he might obtain a new increase of power, by -condescending to become one of the powers of the empire, which would -entitle him to a vote in the diet of Ratisbon, a right that he might -afterwards for ever maintain by that of arms. - -In a word, no one could put on more different appearances, adapt himself -to more opposite interests, or act a more complicated part, than did -this skilful negotiator; he even went so far as to engage prince -Menzikoff to ruin the very town of Stetin, which he was endeavouring to -save; and in which, at length, to his misfortune, he succeeded but too -well. - -When the king of Prussia saw a Russian army before Stetin, he found that -place would be lost to him, and remain in the possession of the czar. -This was just what Gortz expected and waited for. Prince Menzikoff was -in want of money; Gortz got the king of Prussia to lend him four hundred -thousand crowns: he afterwards sent a message to the governor of the -place, to know of him--whether he would rather choose to see Stetin in -ashes, and under the dominion of Russia, or to trust it in the hands of -the king of Prussia, who would engage to restore it to the king, his -master?--The commandant at length suffered himself to be persuaded, and -gave up the place, which Menzikoff entered; and, in consideration of the -four hundred thousand crowns, delivered it afterwards, together with all -the territories thereto adjoining, into the hands of the king of -Prussia, who, for form's sake, left therein two battalions of the troops -of Holstein, and has never since restored that part of Pomerania. - -From this period, the second king of Prussia, successor to a weak and -prodigal father, laid the foundation of that greatness, to which his -state has since arrived by military discipline and economy. - -The baron de Gortz, who put so many springs in motion, could not, -however, succeed in prevailing on the Danes to spare the duchy of -Holstein, or forbear taking possession of Toningen. He failed in what -appeared to have been his first object, though he succeeded in all his -other views, and particularly in that of making himself the most -important personage of the North, which, indeed, was his principal -object. - -The elector of Hanover then had secured to himself Bremen and Verden, of -which Charles XII. was now stripped. The Saxon army was before Wismar -(Sept. 1715); Stetin was in the hands of the king of Prussia; the -Russians were ready to lay siege to Stralsund, in conjunction with the -Saxons; and these latter had already landed in the island of Rugen, and -the czar, in the midst of the numberless negotiations on all sides, -while others were disputing about neutralities and partitions, makes a -descent upon Finland. After having himself pointed the artillery against -Stralsund, he left the rest to the care of his allies and prince -Menzikoff, and, embarking in the month of May, on the Baltic Sea, on -board a ship of fifty guns, which he himself caused to be built at -Petersburg, he sailed for the coast of Finland, followed by a fleet of -ninety-two whole, and one hundred and ten half-gallies, having on board -near sixteen thousand troops. He made his descent at Elsingford, (May -22. N. S. 1713.) the most southern part of that cold and barren country, -lying in 61 degrees north latitude; and, notwithstanding the numberless -difficulties he had to encounter, succeeded in his design. He caused a -feint attack to be made on one side of the harbour, while he landed his -troops on the other, and took possession of the town. He then made -himself master of Abo, Borgo, and the whole coast. The Swedes now seemed -not to have one resource left; for it was at this very time, that their -army, under the command of general Steinbock, was obliged to surrender -prisoners of war at Toningen. - -These repeated disasters which befel Charles, were, as we have already -shewn, followed by the loss of Bremen, Verden, Stetin, and a part of -Pomerania; and that prince himself, with his ally and friend, -Stanislaus, were afterwards both prisoners in Turkey: nevertheless, he -was not to be undeceived in the flattering notion he had entertained of -returning to Poland, at the head of an Ottoman army, replacing -Stanislaus on the throne, and once again making his enemies tremble. - - - - -CHAP. XXIV. - - Successes of Peter the Great.--Return of Charles XII. into his own - dominions. - - -[Sidenote: 1713.] - -Peter, while he was following the course of his conquests, completed the -establishment of his navy, brought twelve thousand families to settle in -Petersburg, kept all his allies firm to his person and fortunes, not -withstanding they had all different interests and opposite views; and -with his fleet kept in awe all the sea-ports of Sweden, on the gulfs of -Finland and Bothnia. - -Prince Galitzin, one of his land-generals, whom he had formed himself, -as he had done all his other officers, advanced from Elsingford, where -the czar had made his descent, into the midst of the country, near the -village of Tavasthus, which was a post that commanded the gulf of -Bothnia, and was defended by a few Swedish regiments, and about eight -thousand militia. In this situation, a battle was unavoidable, (Mar. 13, -1714.) the event of which proved favourable to the Russians, who -entirely routed the whole Swedish army, and penetrated as far as Vaza, -so that they were now masters of about eighty leagues of country. - -The Swedes were still in possession of a fleet, with which they kept the -sea. Peter had, for a considerable time, waited with impatience for an -opportunity of establishing the reputation of his new marine. -Accordingly he set out from Petersburg, and having got together a fleet -of sixteen ships of the line, and one hundred and eighty galleys, fit -for working among the rocks and shoals that surround the island of -Aland, and the other islands in the Baltic Sea, bordering upon the -Swedish coast, he fell in with the fleet of that nation near their own -shores. This armament greatly exceeded his in the largeness of the -ships, but was inferior in the number of galleys, and more proper for -engaging in the open sea, than among rocks, or near the shore. The -advantage the czar had in this respect was entirely owing to himself: he -served in the rank of rear-admiral on board his own fleet, and received -all the necessary orders from admiral Apraxin. Peter resolved to make -himself master of the island of Aland, which lies only twelve leagues -off the Swedish coast; and, though obliged to pass full in view of the -enemy's fleet, he effected this bold and hazardous enterprise. His -galleys forced a passage through the enemy, whose cannon did not fire -low enough to hurt them, and entered Aland; but as that coast is almost -surrounded with rocks, the czar caused eighty small galleys to be -transported by men over a point of land, and launched into the sea, at a -place called Hango, where his large ships were at anchor. Erenschild, -the Swedish rear-admiral, thinking that he might easily take or sink all -these galleys, stood in shore, in order to reconnoitre their situation, -but was received with so brisk a fire from the Russian fleet, that most -of his men were killed or wounded; and all the galleys and praams he had -brought with him were taken, together with his own ship. (Aug. 8.) The -admiral himself endeavoured to escape in a boat, but being wounded, was -obliged to surrender himself prisoner, and was brought on board the -galley where the czar was, navigating it himself. The scattered remains -of the Swedish fleet made the best of their way home; and the news of -this accident threw all Stockholm into confusion, which now began to -tremble for its own safety. - -Much about the same time, colonel Scouvalow Neuschlof attacked the only -remaining fortress on the western side of Finland, and made himself -master of it, after a most obstinate resistance on the part of the -besieged. - -This affair of Aland was, next to that of Pultowa, the most glorious -that had ever befallen the arms of Peter the Great, who now saw himself -master of Finland, the government of which he committed to prince -Galitzin, and returned to Petersburg (Sept. 15.), victorious over the -whole naval force of Sweden, and more than ever respected by his allies; -the stormy season now approaching, not permitting him to remain longer -with his ships in the Finlandish and Bothnic seas. His good fortune also -brought him back to his capital, just as the czarina was brought to bed -of a princess, who died, however, about a year afterwards. He then -instituted the order of St. Catherine, in honour of his consort,[95] and -celebrated the birth of his daughter by a triumphal entry, which was of -all the festivals to which he had accustomed his subjects, that which -they held in the greatest esteem. This ceremony was ushered in by -bringing nine Swedish galleys, and seven praams filled with prisoners, -and rear-admiral Erenschild's own ship, into the harbour of Cronstadt. - -The cannon, colours, and standards, taken in the expedition to Finland, -and which had come home in the Russian admiral's ship, were brought on -this occasion to Petersburg, and entered that metropolis in order of -battle. A triumphal arch, which the czar had caused to be erected, and -which, as usual, was made from a model of his own, was decorated with -the insignia of his conquests. Under this arch the victors marched in -procession, with admiral Apraxin, at their head; then followed the czar -in quality of rear-admiral, and the other officers according to their -several ranks. They were all presented one after another to the -vice-admiral Rodamonoski, who, at this ceremony represented the -sovereign. This temporary vice-emperor distributed gold medals amongst -all the officers, and others of silver to the soldiers and sailors. The -Swedish prisoners likewise passed under the triumphal arch, and admiral -Erenschild followed immediately after the czar, his conqueror. When they -came to the place where the vice-czar was seated on his throne, admiral -Apraxin presented to him rear-admiral Peter, who demanded to be made -vice-admiral, in reward for his services. It was then put to the vote, -if his request should be granted; and it may easily be conceived that he -had the majority on his side. - -After this ceremony was over, which filled every heart with joy, and -inspired every mind with emulation, with a love for his country, and a -thirst of fame, the czar made the following speech to those present: a -speech which deserves to be transmitted to the latest posterity. - -'Countrymen and friends! what man is there among you, who could have -thought, twenty years ago, that we should one day fight together on the -Baltic Sea, in ships built by our own hands; and that we should -establish settlements in countries conquered by our own labours and -valour?--Greece is said to have been the ancient seat of the arts and -sciences: they afterwards took up their abode in Italy, from whence they -spread themselves through every part of Europe. It is now our turn to -call them ours, if you will second my designs, by joining study to -obedience. The arts circulate in this globe, as the blood does in the -human body; and perhaps they may establish their empire amongst us, on -their return back to Greece, their mother country; and I even venture to -hope, that we may one day put the most civilized nations to the blush, -by our noble labours and the solid glory resulting therefrom.' - -Here is the true substance of this speech, so every way worthy of a -great founder, and which has lost its chief beauties in this, and every -other translation; but the principal merit of this eloquent harangue is, -its having been spoken by a victorious monarch, at once the founder and -lawgiver of his empire. - -The old boyards listened to this speech with greater regret for the -abolition of their ancient customs, than admiration of their master's -glory; but the young ones could not hear him without tears of joy. - -The splendour of these times were further heightened by the return of -the Russian ambassadors from Constantinople, (Sept. 15, 1714.) with a -confirmation of the peace with the Turks: an ambassador sent by Sha -Hussein from Persia, had arrived some time before with a present to the -czar of an elephant and five lions. He received, at the same time, an -ambassador from Mahomet Babadir, khan of the Usbeck Tartars, requesting -his protection against another tribe of Tartars; so that both -extremities of Asia and Europe seemed to join to offer him homage, and -add to his glory. - -The regency of Stockholm, driven to despair by the desperate situation -of their affairs, and the absence of their sovereign, who seemed to have -abandoned his dominions, had come to a resolution no more to consult him -in relation to their proceedings; and, immediately after the victory the -czar gained over their navy, they sent to the conqueror to demand a -passport, for an officer charged with proposals of peace. The passport -was sent; but, just as the person appointed to carry on the negotiation -was on the point of setting out, the princess Ulrica Eleonora, sister to -Charles XII. received advice from the king her brother, that he was -preparing, at length, to quit Turkey, and return home to fight his own -battles. Upon this news the regency did not dare to send the negotiator -(whom they had already privately named) to the czar; and, therefore, -resolved to support their ill-fortune till the arrival of Charles to -retrieve it. - -In effect, Charles, after a stay of five years and some months in -Turkey, set out from that kingdom in the latter end of October, 1714. -Every one knows that he observed the same singularity in his journey, -which characterized all the actions of his life. He arrived at Stralsund -the 22d of November following. As soon as he got there, baron de Gortz -came to pay his court to him; and, though he had been the instrument of -one part of his misfortunes, yet he justified his conduct with so much -art, and filled the imagination of Charles with such flattering hopes, -that he gained his confidence, as he had already done that of -every other minister and prince with whom he had entered into any -negotiations. In short, he made him believe, that means might be found -to draw off the czar's allies, and thereby procure an honourable peace, -or at least to carry on the war upon an equal footing; and from this -time Gortz gained a greater ascendancy over the mind of the king of -Sweden than ever count Piper had. - -The first thing which Charles did after his arrival at Stralsund was to -demand a supply of money from the citizens of Stockholm, who readily -parted with what little they had left, as not being able to refuse any -thing to a king, who asked only to bestow, who lived as hard as the -meanest soldier, and exposed his life equally in defence of his country. -His misfortunes, his captivity, his return to his dominions, so long -deprived of his presence, were arguments which prepossessed alike his -own subjects and foreigners in his favour, who could not forbear at once -to blame and admire, to compassionate and to assist him. His reputation -was of a kind totally differing from that of Peter the Great: it -consisted not in cherishing the arts and sciences, in enacting laws, in -establishing a form of government, nor in introducing commerce among his -subjects; it was confined entirely to his own person. He placed his -chief merit in a valour superior to what is commonly called courage. He -defended his dominions with a greatness of soul equal to that valour, -and aimed only to inspire other nations with awe and respect for him: -hence he had more partizans than allies. - - - - -CHAP. XXV. - - State of Europe at the return of Charles XII. Siege of Stralsund. - - -When Charles XII. returned to his dominions in the year 1714, he found -the state of affairs in Europe very different from that in which he had -left them. Queen Anne of England was dead, after having made peace with -France. Lewis XIV. had secured the monarchy of Spain for his grandson -the duke of Anjou, and had obliged the emperor Charles VI. and the Dutch -to agree to a peace, which their situation rendered necessary to them; -so that the affairs of Europe had put on altogether a new face. - -Those of the north had undergone a still greater change. Peter was -become sole arbiter in that part of the world: the elector of Hanover, -who had been called to fill the British throne, had views of extending -his territories in Germany, at the expense of Sweden, who had never had -any possessions in that country, but since the reign of the great -Gustavus. The king of Denmark aimed at recovering Scania, the best -province of Sweden, which had formerly belonged to the Danes. The king -of Prussia, as heir to the dukes of Pomerania, laid claim to a part of -that province. On the other hand, the Holstein family, oppressed by the -king of Denmark, and the duke of Mecklenburg, almost at open war with -his subjects, were suing to Peter the Great to take them under his -protection. The king of Poland, elector of Saxony, was desirous to have -the duchy of Courland annexed to Poland; so that, from the Elbe to the -Baltic Sea, Peter the First was considered as the support of the several -crowned heads, as Charles XII. had been their greatest terror. - -Many negotiations were set on foot after the return of Charles to his -dominions, but nothing had been done. That prince thought he could raise -a sufficient number of ships of war and privateers, to put a stop to the -rising power of the czar by sea; with respect to the land war, he -depended upon his own valour; and Gortz, who was on a sudden become his -prime minister, persuaded him, that he might find means to defray the -expense, by coining copper money, to be taken at ninety-six times less -than its real value, a thing unparalleled in the histories of any state; -but in the month of April, 1715, the first Swedish privateers that put -to sea were taken by the czar's men of war, and a Russian army marched -into the heart of Pomerania. - -The Prussians, Danes, and Saxons, now sat down with their united forces -before Stralsund, and Charles XII. beheld himself returned from his -confinement at Demirtash and Demirtoca on the Black Sea, only to be more -closely pent up on the borders of the Baltic. - -We have already shewn, in the history of this extraordinary man, with -what haughty and unembarrassed resolution he braved the united forces of -his enemies in Stralsund; and shall therefore, in this place, only add a -single circumstance, which, though trivial, may serve to shew the -peculiarity of his character. The greatest part of his officers having -been either killed or wounded during the siege, the duty fell hard upon -the few who were left. Baron de Reichel, a colonel, having sustained a -long engagement upon the ramparts, and being tired out by repeated -watchings and fatigues, had thrown himself upon a bench to take a little -repose; when he was called up to mount guard again upon the ramparts. As -he was dragging himself along, hardly able to stand, and cursing the -obstinacy of the king his master, who subjected all those about him to -such insufferable and fruitless fatigues, Charles happened to overhear -him. Upon which, stripping off his own cloak, he spread it on the ground -before him, saying, 'My dear Reichel, you are quite spent; come, I have -had an hour's sleep, which has refreshed me, I'll take the guard for -you, while you finish your nap, and will wake you when I think it is -time;' and so saying, he wrapt the colonel up in his cloak; and, -notwithstanding all his resistance, obliged him to lie down to sleep, -and mounted the guard himself. - -It was during this siege that the elector of Hanover, lately made king -of England, purchased of the king of Denmark the province of Bremen and -Verden, with the city of Stade, (Oct. 1715.) which the Danes had taken -from Charles XII. This purchase cost king George eight hundred thousand -German crowns. In this manner were the dominions of Charles bartered -away, while he defended the city of Stralsund, inch by inch, till at -length nothing was left of it but a heap of ruins, which his officers -compelled him to leave; (Dec. 1713.) and, when he was in a place of -safety, general Ducker delivered up those ruins to the king of Prussia. - -Some time afterwards, Ducker, being presented to Charles, that monarch -reproached him with having capitulated with his enemies; when Ducker -replied, 'I had too great a regard for your majesty's honour, to -continue to defend a place which you was obliged to leave.' However the -Prussians continued in possession of it no longer than the year 1721, -when they gave it up at the general peace. - -During the siege of Stralsund, Charles received another mortification, -which would have been still more severe, if his heart had been as -sensible to the emotions of friendship, as it was to those of fame and -honour. His prime minister, count Piper, a man famous throughout all -Europe, and of unshaken fidelity to his prince (notwithstanding the -assertions of certain rash persons, or the authority of a mistaken -writer): this Piper, I say, had been the victim of his master's ambition -ever since the battle of Pultowa. As there was as that time no cartel -for the exchange of prisoners subsisting between the Russians and -Swedes, he had remained in confinement at Moscow; and though he had not -been sent into Siberia, as the other prisoners were, yet his situation -was greatly to be pitied. The czar's finances at that time were not -managed with so much fidelity as they ought to be, and his many new -establishments required an expense which he could with difficulty -answer. In particular, he owed a considerable sum of money to the Dutch, -on account of two of their merchant-ships which had been burnt on the -coast of Finland, in the descent the czar had made on that country. -Peter pretended that the Swedes were to make good the damage, and wanted -to engage count Piper to charge himself with this debt: accordingly he -was sent for from Moscow to Petersburg, and his liberty was offered him, -in case he could draw upon Sweden letters of exchange to the amount of -sixty thousand crowns. It is said he actually did draw bills for this -sum upon his wife at Stockholm, but that she being unable or unwilling -to take them up, they were returned, and the king of Sweden never gave -himself the least concern about paying the money. Be this as it may, -count Piper was closely confined in the castle of Schlusselburg, where -he died the year after, at the age of seventy. His remains were sent to -the king of Sweden, who gave them a magnificent burial; a vain and -melancholy return to an old servant, for a life of suffering, and so -deplorable an end! - -Peter was satisfied with having got possession of Livonia, Esthonia, -Carelia, and Ingria, which he looked upon as his own provinces, and to -which he had, moreover, added almost all Finland, which served as a kind -of pledge, in case his enemies should conclude a peace. He had married -one of his nieces to Charles Leopold, duke of Mecklenburg, in the month -of April of the same year, (1715.) so that all the sovereigns of the -north were now either his allies or his creatures. In Poland, he kept -the enemies of king Augustus in awe; one of his armies, consisting of -about eight thousand men, having, without any loss, quelled several of -those confederacies, which are so frequent in that country of liberty -and anarchy: on the other hand, the Turks, by strictly observing their -treaties, left him at full liberty to exert his power, and execute his -schemes in their utmost extent. - -In this flourishing situation of his affairs, scarcely a day passed -without being distinguished by new establishments, either in the navy, -the army, or the legislature: he himself composed a military code for -the infantry. - -Nov. 8.] He likewise founded a naval academy at Petersburg; dispatched -Lange to China and Siberia, with a commission of trade; set -mathematicians to work, in drawing charts of the whole empire; built a -summer's palace at Petershoff; and at the same time built forts on the -banks of the Irtish, stopped the incursions and ravages of the -Bukari[96] on the one side, and, on the other, suppressed the Tartars of -Kouban. - -1715.] His prosperity seemed now to be at its zenith, by the empress -Catherine's being delivered of a son, and an heir to his dominions being -given him, in a prince born to the czarowitz Alexis; but the joy for -these happy events, which fell out within a few days of each other, was -soon damped by the death of the empress's son; and the sequel of this -history will shew us, that the fate of the czarowitz was too -unfortunate, for the birth of a son to this prince to be looked upon as -a happiness. - -The delivery of the czarina put a stop for some time to her -accompanying, as usual, her royal consort in all his expeditions by sea -and land; but, as soon as she was up again, she followed him to new -adventures. - - - - -CHAP. XXVI. - - New travels of the czar. - - -Wismar was at this time besieged by the czar's allies. This town, which -belonged of right to the duke of Mecklenburg, is situated on the Baltic, -about seven leagues distant from Lubec, and might have rivalled that -city in its extensive trade, being once one of the most considerable of -the Hans Towns, and the duke of Mecklenburg exercised therein a full -power of protection, rather than of sovereignty. This was one of the -German territories yet remaining to the Swedes, in virtue of the peace -of Westphalia: but it was now obliged to share the same fate with -Stralsund. The allies of the czar pushed the siege with the greatest -vigour, in order to make themselves masters of it before that prince's -troops should arrive; but Peter himself coming before the place in -person, after the capitulation, (Feb. 1716,) which had been made without -his privacy, made the garrison prisoners of war. He was not a little -incensed, that his allies should have left the king of Denmark in -possession of a town which was the right of a prince, who had married -his niece; and his resentment on this occasion (which that artful -minister, de Gortz, soon after turned to his own advantage) laid the -first foundation of the peace, which he meditated to bring about between -the czar and Charles XII. - -Gortz took the first opportunity to insinuate to the czar, that Sweden -was sufficiently humbled, and that he should be careful not to suffer -Denmark and Prussia to become too powerful. The czar joined in opinion -with him, and as he had entered into the war, merely from motives of -policy, whilst Charles carried it on wholly on the principles of a -warrior; he, from that instant, slackened in his operations against the -Swedes, and Charles, every where unfortunate in Germany, determined to -risk one of those desperate strokes which success only can justify, and -carried the war into Norway. - -In the meantime, Peter was desirous to make a second tour through -Europe. He had undertaken his first, as a person who travelled for -instruction in the arts and sciences: but this second he made as a -prince, who wanted to dive into the secrets of the several courts. He -took the czarina with him to Copenhagen, Lubec, Schwerin, and Nystadt. -He had an interview with the king of Prussia at the little town of -Aversburg, from thence he and the empress went to Hamburg, and to -Altena, which had been burned by the Swedes, and which they caused to be -rebuilt. Descending the Elbe as far as Stade, they passed through -Bremen, where the magistrates prepared a firework and illuminations for -them, which formed, in a hundred different places, these words--'Our -deliverer is come amongst us.' At length he arrived once more at -Amsterdam, (Dec. 17, 1716,) and visited the little hut at Saardam, where -he had first learned the art of ship-building, about eighteen years -before, and found his old dwelling converted into a handsome and -commodious house, which is still to be seen, and goes by the name of the -Prince's House. - -It may easily be conceived, with what a kind of idolatry he was received -by a trading and seafaring set of people, whose companion he had -heretofore been, and who thought they saw in the conqueror of Pultowa, a -pupil who had learned from them to gain naval victories; and had, after -their example, established trade and navigation in his own dominions. In -a word, they looked upon him as a fellow-citizen, who had been raised to -the imperial dignity. - -The life, the travels, the actions of Peter the Great, as well as of his -rival, Charles of Sweden, exhibit a surprising contrast to the manners -which prevail amongst us, and which are, perhaps, rather too delicate; -and this may be one reason, that the history of these two famous men so -much excites our curiosity. - -The czarina had been left behind at Schwerin indisposed, being greatly -advanced in her pregnancy; nevertheless, as soon as she was able to -travel, she set out to join the czar in Holland, but was taken in labour -at Wesel, and there delivered of a prince, (Jan. 14, 1717,) who lived -but one day. It is not customary with us for a lying-in-woman to stir -abroad for some time; but the czarina set out, and arrived at Amsterdam -in ten days after her labour. She was very desirous to see the little -cabin her husband had lived and worked in. Accordingly, she and the czar -went together, without any state or attendance, excepting only two -servants, and dined at the house of a rich ship-builder of Saardam, -whose name was Kalf, and who was one of the first who had traded to -Petersburg. His son had lately arrived from France, whither Peter was -going. The czar and czarina took great pleasure in hearing an adventure -of this young man, which I should not mention here, only as it may serve -to shew the great difference between the manners of that country and -ours. - -Old Kalf, who had sent this son of his to Paris, to learn the French -tongue, was desirous that he should live in a genteel manner during his -stay there; and accordingly had ordered him to lay aside the plain garb -which the inhabitants of Saardam are in general accustomed to wear, and -to provide himself with fashionable clothes at Paris, and to live, in a -manner, rather suitable to his fortune than his education; being -sufficiently well acquainted with his son's disposition to know, that -this indulgence would have no bad effect on his natural frugality and -sobriety. - -As a calf is in the French language called veau, our young traveller, -when he arrived at Paris, took the name of De Veau. He lived in a -splendid manner, spent his money freely, and made several genteel -connexions. Nothing is more common at Paris, than to bestow, without -reserve, the title of count and marquis, whether a person has any claim -to it or not, or even if he is barely a gentleman. This absurd practice -has been allowed by the government, in order that, by thus confounding -all ranks, and consequently humbling the nobility, there might be less -danger of civil wars, which, in former times, were so frequent and -destructive to the peace of the state. In a word, the title of marquis -and count, with possessions equivalent to that dignity, are like those -of knight, without being of any order; or abbé, without any church -preferment; of no consequence, and not looked upon by the sensible part -of the nation. - -Young Mr. Kalf was always called the count de Veau by his acquaintance -and his own servants: he frequently made one in the parties of the -princesses; he played at the duchess of Berri's, and few strangers were -treated with greater marks of distinction, or had more general -invitations among polite company. A young nobleman, who had been always -one of his companions in these parties, promised to pay him a visit at -Saardam, and was as good as his word: when he arrived at the village, he -inquired for the house of count Kalf; when, being shewn into a -carpenter's work-shop, he there saw his former gay companion, the young -count, dressed in a jacket and trowsers, after the Dutch fashion, with -an axe in his hand, at the head of his father's workmen. Here he was -received by his friend, in that plain manner to which he had been -accustomed from his birth, and from which he never deviated. The -sensible reader will forgive this little digression, as it is a satire -on vanity, and a panegyric on true manners. - -The czar continued three months in Holland, during which he passed his -time in matters of a more serious nature than the adventure just -related. Since the treaties of Nimeguen, Ryswic, and Utrecht, the Hague -had preserved the reputation of being the centre of negotiations in -Europe. This little city, or rather village, the most pleasant of any in -the North, is chiefly inhabited by foreign ministers, and by travellers, -who come for instruction to this great school. They were, at that time, -laying the foundation of a great revolution in Europe. The czar, having -gotten intelligence of the approaching storm, prolonged his stay in the -Low Countries, that he might be nearer at hand, to observe the -machinations going forward, both in the North and South, and prepare -himself for the part which it might be necessary for him to act therein. - - - - -CHAP. XXVII. - - Continuation of the Travels of Peter the Great.--Conspiracy of baron - Gortz.--Reception of the czar in France. - - -He plainly saw that his allies were jealous of his power, and found that -there is often more trouble with friends than with enemies. - -Mecklenburg was one of the principal subjects of those divisions, which -almost always subsist between neighbouring princes, who share in -conquests. Peter was not willing that the Danes should take possession -of Wismar for themselves, and still less that they should demolish the -fortifications, and yet they did both the one and the other. - -He openly protected the duke of Mecklenburg, who had married his niece, -and whom he regarded like a son-in-law, against the nobility of the -country, and the king of England as openly protected these latter. On -the other hand, he was greatly discontented with the king of Poland, or -rather with his minister, count Flemming, who wanted to throw off that -dependance on the czar, which necessity and gratitude had imposed. - -The courts of England, Poland, Denmark, Holstein, Mecklenburg, and -Brandenburg, were severally agitated with intrigues and cabals. - -Towards the end of the year 1716, and beginning of 1717, Gortz, who, as -Bassewitz tells us in his Memoirs, was weary of having only the title of -counsellor of Holstein, and being only private plenipotentiary to -Charles XII. was the chief promoter of these intrigues, with which he -intended to disturb the peace of all Europe. His design was to bring -Charles XII. and the czar together, not only with a view to finish the -war between them, but to unite them in friendship, to replace Stanislaus -on the crown of Poland, and to wrest Bremen and Verden out of the hands -of George I., king of England, and even to drive that prince from the -English throne, in order to put it out of his power to appropriate to -himself any part of the spoils of Charles XII. - -There was at the same time a minister of his own character, who had -formed a design to overturn the two kingdoms of England and France: this -was cardinal Alberoni, who had more power at that time in Spain, than -Gortz had in Sweden, and was of as bold and enterprising a spirit as -himself, but much more powerful, as being at the head of affairs in a -kingdom infinitely more rich, and never paid his creatures and -dependants in copper money. - -Gortz, from the borders of the Baltic Sea, soon formed a connexion with -Alberoni in Spain. The cardinal and he both held a correspondence with -all the wandering English who were in the interest of the house of -Stuart. Gortz made visits to every place where he thought he was likely -to find any enemies of king George, and went successively to Germany, -Holland, Flanders, and Lorrain, and at length came to Paris, about the -end of the year 1716. Cardinal Alberoni began, by remitting to him in -Paris a million of French livres, in order (to use the cardinal's -expression) to set fire to the train. - -Gortz proposed, that Charles XII. should yield up several places to the -czar, in order to be in a condition to recover all the others from his -enemies, and that he might be at liberty to make a descent in Scotland, -while the partisans of the Stuart family should make an effectual rising -in England: after their former vain attempts to effect these views, it -was necessary to deprive the king of England of his chief support, which -at that time was the regent of France. It was certainly very -extraordinary, to see France in league with England, against the -grandson of Lewis XIV., whom she herself had placed on the throne of -Spain, at the expence of her blood and treasure, notwithstanding the -strong confederacy formed to oppose him; but it must be considered, that -every thing was now out of its natural order, and the interests of the -regent not those of the kingdom. Alberoni, at that time, was carrying on -a confederacy in France against this very regent.[97] And the -foundations of this grand project were laid almost as soon as the plan -itself had been formed. Gortz was the first who was let into the secret, -and was to have made a journey into Italy in disguise, to hold a -conference with the pretender, in the neighbourhood of Rome; from -thence he was to have hastened to the Hague, to have an interview with -the czar, and then to have settled every thing with the king of Sweden. - -The author of this History is particularly well informed of every -circumstance here advanced, for baron Gortz proposed to him to accompany -him in these journies; and, notwithstanding he was very young at that -time, he was one of the first witnesses to a great part of these -intrigues. - -Gortz returned from Holland in the latter part of 1716, furnished with -bills of exchange from cardinal Alberoni, and letters plenipotentiary -from Charles XII. It is incontestable that the Jacobite party were to -have made a rising in England, while Charles, in his return from Norway, -was to make a descent in the north of Scotland. This prince, who had not -been able to preserve his own dominions on the continent, was now going -to invade and overrun those of his neighbours, and just escaped from his -prison in Turkey, and from amidst the ruins of his own city of -Stralsund, Europe might have beheld him placing the crown of Great -Britain on the head of James III. in London, as he had before done that -of Poland on Stanislaus at Warsaw. - -The czar, who was acquainted with a part of Gortz's projects, waited for -the unfolding of the rest, without entering into any of his plans, or -indeed knowing them all. He was as fond of great and extraordinary -enterprises as Charles XII., Gortz, or Alberoni; but then it was as the -founder of a state, a lawgiver, and a sound politician; and perhaps -Alberoni, Gortz, and even Charles himself, were rather men of restless -souls, who sought after great adventures, than persons of solid -understanding, who took their measures with a just precaution; or -perhaps, after all, their ill successes may have subjected them to the -charge of rashness and imprudence. - -During Gortz's stay at the Hague, the czar did not see him, as it would -have given too much umbrage to his friends the states-general, who were -in close alliance with, and attached to, the party of the king of -England; and even his ministers visited him only in private, and with -great precaution, having orders from their master to hear all he had to -offer, and to flatter him with hopes, without entering into any -engagement, or making use of his (the czar's) name in their conferences. -But, notwithstanding all these precautions, those who understood the -nature of affairs, plainly saw by his inactivity, when he might have -made a descent upon Scania with the joint fleets of Russia and Denmark, -by his visible coolness towards his allies, and the little regard he -paid to their complaints, and lastly, by this journey of his, that there -was a great change in affairs, which would very soon manifest itself. - -In the month of January, 1717, a Swedish packet-boat, which was carrying -letters over to Holland, being forced by a storm upon the coast of -Norway, put into harbour there. The letters were seized, and those of -baron de Gortz and some other public ministers being opened, furnished -sufficient evidence of the projected revolution. The court of Denmark -communicated these letters to the English ministry, who gave orders for -arresting the Swedish minister, Gillembourg, then at the court of -London, and seizing his papers; upon examining which they discovered -part of his correspondence with the Jacobites. - -Feb. 1717.] King George immediately wrote to the states-general, -requiring them to cause the person of baron Gortz to be arrested, -agreeable to the treaty of union subsisting between England and that -republic for their mutual security. But this minister, who had his -creatures and emissaries in every part, was quickly informed of this -order; upon which he instantly quitted the Hague, and was got as far as -Arnheim, a town on the frontiers, when the officers and guards, who were -in pursuit of him, and who are seldom accustomed to use such diligence -in that country, came up with and took him, together with all his -papers: he was strictly confined and severely treated; the secretary -Stank, the person who had counterfeited the sign manual of the young -duke of Holstein, in the affair of Toningen, experienced still harsher -usage. In fine, the count of Gillembourg, the Swedish envoy to the court -of Great Britain, and the baron de Gortz, minister plenipotentiary from -Charles XII. were examined like criminals, the one at London, and the -other at Arnheim, while all the foreign ministers exclaimed against this -violation of the law of nations. - -This privilege, which is much more insisted upon than understood, and -whose limits and extent have never yet been fixed, has, in almost every -age, received violent attacks. Several ministers have been driven from -the courts where they resided in a public character, and even their -persons have been more than once seized upon, but this was the first -instance of foreign ministers being interrogated at the bar of a court -of justice, as if they were natives of the country. The court of London -and the states-general laid aside all rules upon seeing the dangers -which menaced the house of Hanover; but, in fact, this danger, when once -discovered, ceased to be any longer danger, at least at that juncture. - -The historian Norberg must have been very ill informed, and have had a -very indifferent knowledge of men and things, or at least have been -strangely blinded by partiality, or under severe restrictions from his -own court, to endeavour to persuade his readers, that the king of Sweden -had not a very great share in this plot. - -The affront offered to his ministers fixed Charles more than ever in his -resolution to try every means to dethrone the king of England. But here -he found it necessary, once in his life time, to make use of -dissimulation. He disowned his ministers and their proceedings, both to -the regent of France and the states-general; from the former of whom he -evicted a subsidy, and with the latter it was for his interest to -keep fair. He did not, however, give the king of England so much -satisfaction, and his ministers, Gortz and Gillembourg, were kept six -months in confinement, and this repeated insult animated in him the -desire of revenge. - -Peter, in the midst of all these alarms and jealousies, kept himself -quiet, waiting with patience the event of all from time; and having -established such good order throughout his vast dominions, as that he -had nothing to fear, either at home or from abroad, he resolved to make -a journey to France. Unhappily he did not understand the French -language, by which means he was deprived of the greatest advantage he -might have reaped from his journey; but he thought there might be -something there worthy observation, and he had a mind to be a nearer -witness of the terms on which the regent stood with the king of England, -and whether that prince was staunch to his alliance. - -Peter the Great was received in France as such a monarch ought to be. -Marshal Tessé was sent to meet him, with a number of the principal -lords of the court, a company of guards and the king's coaches; but he, -according to his usual custom, travelled with such expedition, that he -was at Gournay when the equipages arrived at Elbeuf. Entertainments were -made for him in every place on the road where he chose to partake of -them. On his arrival he was received in the Louvre, where the royal -apartments were prepared for him, and others for the princes Kourakin -and Dolgorouki, the vice-chancellor Shaffiroff, the ambassador Tolstoy, -the same who had suffered in his person that notorious violation of the -laws of nations in Turkey, and for the rest of his retinue. Orders were -given for lodging and entertaining him in the most splendid and -sumptuous manner: but Peter, who was come only to see what might be of -use to him, and not to suffer these ceremonious triflings, which were a -restraint upon his natural plainness, and consumed a time that was -precious to him, went the same night to take up his lodgings at the -other end of the city in the hotel of Lesdiguiére, belonging to marshal -Villeroi, where he was entertained at the king's expense in the same -manner as he would have been at the Louvre. The next day (May 8, 1717.) -the regent of France went to make him a visit in the before mentioned -hotel, and the day afterwards the young king, then an infant, was sent -to him under the care of his governor, the marshal de Villeroi, whose -father had been governor to Lewis XIV. On this occasion, they, by a -polite artifice, spared the czar the troublesome restraint of returning -this visit immediately after receiving it, by allowing an interview of -two days for him to receive the respects of the several corporations of -the city; the second night he went to visit the king: the household were -all under arms, and they brought the young king quite to the door of -the czar's coach. Peter, surprised and uneasy at the prodigious -concourse of people assembled about the infant monarch, took him in his -arms, and carried him in that manner for some time. - -Certain ministers, of more cunning than understanding, have pretended in -their writings, that marshal de Villeroi wanted to make the young king -of France take the upper hand on this occasion, and that the czar made -use of this stratagem to overturn the ceremonial under the appearance of -good nature and tenderness; but this notion is equally false and absurd. -The natural good breeding of the French court, and the respect due to -the person of Peter the Great, would not permit a thought of turning the -honours intended him into an affront. The ceremonial consisted in doing -every thing for a great monarch and a great man, that he himself could -have desired, if he had given any attention to matters of this kind. The -journeys of the emperor Charles IV. Sigismund, and Charles V. to France, -were by no means comparable, in point of splendour, to this of Peter the -Great. They visited this kingdom only from motives of political -interest, and at a time when the arts and sciences, as yet in their -infancy, could not render the era of their journey so memorable: but -when Peter the Great, on his going to dine with the duke d'Antin, in the -palace of Petitbourg, about three leagues out of Paris, saw his own -picture, which had been drawn for the occasion, brought on a sudden, and -placed in a room where he was, he then found that no people in the world -knew so well how to receive such a guest as the French. - -He was still more surprised, when, on going to see them strike the -medals in the long gallery of the Louvre, where all the king's artists -are so handsomely lodged; a medal, which they were then striking, -happening to fall to the ground, the czar stooped hastily down to take -it up, when he beheld his own head engraved thereon, and on the reverse -a Fame standing with one foot upon a globe, and underneath these words -from Virgil--'Vires acquirit eundo;' an allusion equally delicate and -noble, and elegantly adapted to his travels and his fame. Several of -these medals in gold were presented to him, and to all those who -attended him. Wherever he went to view the works of any artists, they -laid the master-pieces of their performances at his feet, which they -besought him to accept. In a word, when he visited the manufactories of -the Gobelins, the workshop of the king's statuaries, painters, -goldsmiths, jewellers, or mathematical instrument-makers, whatever -seemed to strike his attention at any of those places, were always -offered him in the king's name. - -Peter, who was a mechanic, an artist, and a geometrician, went to visit -the academy of sciences, who received him with an exhibition of every -thing they had most valuable and curious; but they had nothing so -curious as himself. He corrected, with his own hand, several -geographical errors in the charts of his own dominions, and especially -in those of the Caspian Sea. Lastly, he condescended to become one of -the members of that academy, and afterwards continued a correspondence -in experiments and discoveries with those among whom he had enrolled -himself as a simple brother. If we would find examples of such -travellers as Peter, we must go back to the times of a Pythagoras and an -Anacharsis, and even they did not quit the command of a mighty empire, -to go in search of instruction. - -And here we cannot forbear recalling to the mind of the reader the -transport with which Peter the Great was seized on viewing the monument -of cardinal Richelieu. Regardless of the beauties of the sculpture, -which is a master-piece of its kind, he only admired the image of a -minister who had rendered himself so famous throughout Europe by -disturbing its peace, and restored to France that glory which she had -lost after the death of Henry IV. It is well known, that, embracing the -statue with rapture, he burst forth into this exclamation--'Great man! I -would have bestowed one half of my empire on thee, to have taught me to -govern the other.' And now, before he quitted France, he was desirous to -see the famous madame de Maintenon, whom he knew to be, in fact, the -widow of Lewis XIV. and who was now drawing very near her end; and his -curiosity was the more excited by the kind of conformity he found -between his own marriage and that of Lewis; though with this difference -between the king of France and him, that he had publickly married an -heroine, whereas Lewis XIV. had only privately enjoyed an amiable wife. - -The czarina did not accompany her husband in this journey: he was -apprehensive that the excess of ceremony would be troublesome to her, as -well as the curiosity of a court little capable of distinguishing the -true merit of a woman, who had braved death by the side of her husband -both by sea and land, from the banks of the Pruth to the coast of -Finland. - - - - -CHAP. XXVIII. - - Of the return of the czar to his dominions.--Of his politics and - occupations. - - -The behaviour of the Sorbonne to Peter, when he went to visit the -mausoleum of cardinal Richelieu, deserves to be treated of by itself. - -Some doctors of this university were desirous to have the honour of -bringing about a union between the Greek and Latin churches. Those who -are acquainted with antiquity need not be told, that the Christian -religion was first introduced into the west by the Asiatic Greeks: that -it was born in the east, and that the first fathers, the first councils, -the first liturgies, and the first rites, were all from the east; that -there is not a single title or office in the hierarchy, but was in -Greek, and thereby plainly shews the same from whence they are all -derived to us. Upon the division of the Roman empire, it was next to -impossible, but that sooner or later there must be two religions as well -as two empires, and that the same schism should arise between the -eastern and western Christians, as between the followers of Osman and -the Persians. - -It is this schism which certain doctors of the Sorbonne thought to crush -all at once by means of a memorial which they presented to Peter the -Great, and effect what Pope Leo XI. and his successors had in vain -laboured for many ages to bring about, by legates, councils, and even -money. These doctors should have known, that Peter the Great, who was -the head of the Russian church, was not likely to acknowledge the pope's -authority. They expatiated in their memorial on the liberties of the -Gallican church, which the czar gave himself no concern about. They -asserted that the popes ought to be subject to the councils, and that a -papal decree is not an article of faith: but their representations were -in vain; all they got by their pains, was to make the pope their enemy -by such free declarations, at the same time that they pleased neither -the czar nor the Russian church. - -There were, in this plan of union, certain political views, which the -good fathers did not understand, and some points of controversy which -they pretended to understand, and which each party explained as they -thought proper. It was concerning the Holy Ghost, which, according to -the Latin church, proceeds from the Father and Son, and which, at -present, according to the Greeks, proceeds from the Father through the -Son, after having, for a considerable time, proceeded from the Father -only: on this occasion they quoted a passage in St. Epiphanius, where it -is said, 'That the Holy Ghost is neither brother to the Son, nor -grandson to the Father.' - -But Peter, when he left Paris, had other business to mind, than that of -clearing up passages in St. Epiphanius. Nevertheless, he received the -memorial of the Sorbonne with his accustomed affability. That learned -body wrote to some of the Russian bishops, who returned a polite answer, -though the major part of them were offended at the proposed union. It -was in order to remove any apprehensions of such a union, that Peter, -some time afterwards, namely, in 1718, when he had driven the jesuits -out of his dominions, instituted the ceremony of a burlesque conclave. - -He had at his court an old fool, named Jotof, who had learned him to -write, and who thought he had, by that trivial service, merited the -highest honours and most important posts: Peter, who sometimes softened -the toils of government, by indulging his people in amusements, which -befitted a nation as yet not entirely reformed by his labours, promised -his writing-master, to bestow on him one of the highest dignities in the -world; accordingly, he appointed him knéz papa, or supreme pontiff, with -an appointment of two thousand crowns, and assigned him a house to live -in, in the Tartarian quarter at Petersburg. He was installed by a number -of buffoons, with great ceremony, and four fellows who stammered were -appointed to harangue him on the accession. He created a number of -cardinals, and marched in procession at their head, and the whole sacred -college was made drunk with brandy. After the death of this Jotof, an -officer, named Buturlin, was made Pope: this ceremony has been thrice -renewed at Moscow and Petersburg, the ridiculousness of which, though it -appeared of no moment, yet has by its ridiculousness confirmed the -people in their aversion to a church, which pretended to the supreme -power, and whose church had anathematized so many crowned heads. In this -manner did the czar revenge the cause of twenty emperors of Germany, ten -kings of France, and a number of other sovereigns; and this was all the -advantage the Sorbonne gained from its impolitic attempt to unite the -Latin and Greek churches. - -The czar's journey to France proved of more utility to his kingdom, by -bringing about a connexion with a trading and industrious people, than -could have arisen from the projected union between two rival churches; -one of which will always maintain its ancient independence, and the -other its new superiority. - -Peter carried several artificers with him out of France, in the same -manner as he had done out of England; for every nation, which he -visited, thought it an honour to assist him in his design of -introducing the arts and sciences into his new-formed state, and to be -instrumental in this species of new creation. - -In this expedition, he drew up a sketch of a treaty of commerce with -France, and which he put into the hands of his ministers at Holland, as -soon as he returned thither, but it was not signed by the French -ambassador, Chateauneuf, till the 15th August, 1717, at the Hague. This -treaty not only related to trade, but likewise to bringing about peace -in the North. The king of France and the elector of Brandenburg accepted -of the office of mediators, which Peter offered them. This was -sufficient to give the king of England to understand, that the czar was -not well pleased with him, and crowned the hopes of baron Gortz, who -from that time, left nothing undone to bring about a union between -Charles and Peter, to stir up new enemies against George I. and to -assist cardinal Alberoni in his schemes in every part of Europe. Gortz -now paid and received visits publicly from the czar's ministers at the -Hague, to whom he declared, that he was invested with full power from -the court of Sweden to conclude a peace. - -The czar suffered Gortz to dispose all his batteries, without assisting -therein himself, and was prepared either to make peace with the king of -Sweden, or to carry on the war, and continued still in alliance with the -kings of Denmark, Poland, and Russia, and in appearance with the elector -of Hanover. - -It was evident, that he had no fixed design, but that of profiting of -conjunctures and circumstances, and that his main object was to complete -the general establishments he had set on foot. He well knew, that -the negotiations and interests of princes, their leagues, their -friendships, their jealousies, and their enmities, were subject to -change with each revolving year, and that frequently not the smallest -traces remain of the greatest efforts in politics. A simple manufactory, -well established, is often of more real advantage to a state than twenty -treaties. - -Peter having joined the czarina, who was waiting for him in Holland, -continued his travels with her. They crossed Westphalia, and arrived at -Berlin in a private manner. The new king of Prussia was as much an enemy -to ceremonious vanities, and the pomp of a court, as Peter himself; and -it was an instructive lesson to the etiquette of Vienna and Spain, the -punctilio of Italy, and the politesse of the French court, to see a -king, who only made use of a wooden elbow-chair, who went always in the -dress of a common soldier, and who had banished from his table, not only -all the luxuries, but even the more moderate indulgences of life. - -The czar and czarina observed the same plain manner of living; and had -Charles been with them, the world might have beheld four crowned heads, -with less pomp and state about them than a German bishop, or a cardinal -of Rome. Never were luxury and effeminacy opposed by such noble -examples. - -It cannot be denied, that if one of our fellow-subjects had, from mere -curiosity, made the fifth part of the journeys that Peter I. did for the -good of his kingdom, he would have been considered as an extraordinary -person, and one who challenged our consideration. From Berlin he went to -Dantzic, still accompanied by his wife, and from thence to Mittau, where -he protected his niece, the duchess of Courland, lately become a widow. -He visited all the places he had conquered, made several new and useful -regulations in Petersburg; he then goes to Moscow, where he rebuilds the -houses of several persons that had fallen to ruin; from thence he -transports himself to Czaritsin, on the river Wolga, to stop the -incursions of the Cuban Tartars, constructs lines of communication from -the Wolga to the Don, and erects forts at certain distances, between the -two rivers. At the same time he caused the military code, which he had -lately composed, to be printed, and erected a court of justice, to -examine into the conduct of his ministers, and to retrieve the disorders -in his finances; he pardons several who were found guilty, and punishes -others. Among the latter was the great prince Menzikoff himself, who -stood in need of the royal clemency. But a sentence more severe, which -he thought himself obliged to utter against his own son, filled with -bitterness those days, which were, in other respects, covered with so -much glory. - - - - -CHAP. XXIX. - - Proceedings against prince Alexis Petrowitz. - - -Peter the Great, at the age of seventeen, had married, in the year 1689, -Eudocia Theodora, or Theodorouna Lapoukin. Bred up in the prejudices of -her country, and incapable of surmounting them like her husband, the -greatest opposition he met with in erecting his empire, and forming his -people, came from her: she was, as is too common to her sex, a slave to -superstition; every new and useful alteration she looked upon as a -species of sacrilege; and every foreigner, whom the czar employed to -execute his great designs, appeared to her no better than as corruptors -and innovators. - -Her open and public complaints gave encouragement to the factious, and -those who were the advocates for ancient customs and manners. Her -conduct, in other respects, by no means made amends for such heavy -imperfections. The czar was at length obliged to repudiate her in 1696, -and shut her up in a convent at Susdal, where they obliged her to take -the veil under the name of Helena. - -The son, whom he had by her in 1690, was born unhappily with the -disposition of his mother, and that disposition received additional -strength from his very first education. My memoirs say, that he was -entrusted to the care of superstitious men, who ruined his understanding -for ever. 'Twas in vain that they hoped to correct these first -impressions, by giving him foreign preceptors; their very quality of -being foreigners disgusted him. He was not born destitute of genius; he -spoke and wrote German well; he had a tolerable notion of designing, and -understood something of mathematics: but these very memoirs affirm, that -the reading of ecclesiastical books was the ruin of him. The young -Alexis imagined he saw in these books a condemnation of every thing -which his father had done. There were some priests at the head of the -malcontents, and by the priests he suffered himself to be governed. - -They persuaded him that the whole nation looked with horror upon the -enterprises of Peter; that the frequent illnesses of the czar promised -but a short life; and that his son could not hope to please the nation, -but by testifying his aversion for all changes of custom. These murmurs, -and these counsels, did not break out into an open faction or -conspiracy, but every thing seemed to tend that way, and the tempers of -the people were inflamed. - -Peter's marriage with Catherine in 1707, and the children which he had -by her, began to sour the disposition of the young prince. Peter tried -every method to reclaim him: he even placed him at the head of the -regency for a year; he sent him to travel; he married him in 1711, at -the end of the campaign of Pruth, to the princess of Brunswick. This -marriage was attended with great misfortunes. Alexis, now twenty years -old, gave himself up to the debauchery of youth, and that boorishness of -ancient manners he so much delighted in. These irregularities almost -brutalized him. His wife, despised, ill-treated, wanting even -necessaries, and deprived of all comforts, languished away in -disappointment, and died at last of grief, the first of November, 1715. - -She left the prince Alexis one son; and according to the natural order, -this son was one day to become heir to the empire. Peter perceived with -sorrow, that when he should be no more, all his labours were likely to -be destroyed by those of his own blood. After the death of the princess, -he wrote a letter to his son, equally tender and resolute: it finished -with these words: 'I will still wait a little time, to see if you will -correct yourself; if not, know that I will cut you off from the -succession, as we lop off a useless member. Don't imagine, that I mean -only to intimidate you; don't rely upon the title of being my only son; -for if I spare not my own life for my country, and the good of my -people, how shall I spare you? I will rather choose to leave my kingdom -to a foreigner who deserves it, than to my own son, who makes himself -unworthy of it.' - -This is the letter of a father, but it is still more the letter of a -legislator; it shews us, besides, that the order of succession was not -invariably established in Russia, as in other kingdoms, by those -fundamental laws which take away from fathers the right of disinheriting -their children; and the czar believed he had an undoubted prerogative to -dispose of an empire which he had founded. - -At this very time the empress Catherine was brought to bed of a prince, -who died afterwards in 1719. Whether this news sunk the courage of -Alexis, or whether it was imprudence or bad counsel, he wrote to his -father, that he renounced the crown, and all hopes of reigning. 'I take -God to witness,' says he, 'and I swear by my soul that I will never -pretend to the succession. I put my children into your hands, and I -desire only a provision for life.' - -The czar wrote him a second letter, as follows:[98]--'You speak of the -succession, as if I stood in need of your consent in the disposal -thereof. I reproached you with the aversion you have shewn to all kind -of business, and signified to you, that I was highly dissatisfied with -your conduct in general; but to these particulars you have given me no -answer. Paternal exhortations make no impression on you, wherefore I -resolved to write you this once for the last time. If you despise the -advice I give you while I am alive, what regard will you pay to them -after my death? But though you had the inclination at present to be true -to your promises, yet a corrupt priesthood will be able to turn you at -pleasure, and force you to falsify them. They have no dependance but -upon you. You have no sense of gratitude towards him who gave you your -being. Have you ever assisted him in toils and labours since you arrived -at the age of maturity? Do you not censure and condemn, nay, even affect -to hold in detestation, whatever I do for the good of my people? In a -word, I have reason to conclude, that if you survive me, you will -overturn every thing that I have done. Take your choice, either -endeavour to make yourself worthy of the throne, or embrace a monastic -state. I expect your answer, either in writing, or by word of mouth, -otherwise I shall treat you as a common malefactor.' - -This letter was very severe, and it was easy for the prince to have -replied, that he would alter his conduct; instead of which, he only -returned a short answer to his father, desiring permission to turn -monk.[100] - -This resolution appeared altogether unnatural; and it may furnish matter -of surprise, that the czar should think of travelling, and leaving a son -at home so obstinate and ill-affected; but, at the same time, his doing -so, is next to a proof, that he thought he had no reason to apprehend a -conspiracy from that son. - -The czar, before he set out for Germany and France, went to pay his son -a visit. The prince, who was at that time ill, or at least feigned -himself so, received his father in his bed, where he protested, with the -most solemn oaths, that he was ready to retire into a cloister. The czar -gave him six months to consider of it, and then set out on his travels -with the czarina. - -No sooner was he arrived at Copenhagen, than he heard (what he might -reasonably expect) that the czarowitz conversed only with factions and -evil-minded persons, who strove to feed his discontent. Upon this the -czar wrote to him, that he had to choose between a throne and a convent; -and that, if he had any thoughts of succeeding him, he must immediately -set out and join him at Copenhagen. - -But the confidants of the prince remonstrating to him how dangerous it -would be to trust himself in a place where he could have no friends to -advise him, and where he would be exposed to the anger of an incensed -father, and the machinations of a revengeful step-mother; he, under -pretence of going to join his father at Copenhagen, took the road to -Vienna, and threw himself under the protection of the emperor Charles -VI. his brother-in-law, intending to remain at his court till the death -of the czar. - -This adventure of the czarowitz was nearly the same as that of Lewis XI. -of France, who, when he was dauphin, quitted the court of his father -Charles VII. and took refuge with the duke of Burgundy; but the dauphin -was much more culpable than Alexis, inasmuch as he married in direct -opposition to his father's will, raised an army against him, and threw -himself into the arms of a prince, who was Charles's declared enemy, and -refused to hearken to the repeated remonstances of his father, to return -back to his court. - -The czarowitz, on the contrary, had married only in compliance with his -father's orders, had never rebelled against him, nor raised an army, nor -taken refuge in the dominions of an enemy, and returned to throw himself -at his feet, upon the very first letter he received from him; for, as -soon as Peter knew that his son had been at Vienna, and had afterwards -retired to Tyrol, and from thence to Naples, which, at that time, -belonged to the emperor, he dispatched Romanzoff, a captain of his -guards, and the privy-counsellor Tolstoy, with a letter written with his -own hand, and dated at Spa, the 21st of July, N. S. 1717. They found the -prince at Naples, in the castle of St. Elme, and delivered to him his -father's letter, which was as follows:-- - -'I now write to you for the last time, to acquaint you, that you must -instantly comply with my orders, which will be communicated to you by -Tolstoy and Romanzoff. If you obey, I give you my sacred word and -promise, that I will not punish you; and that, if you will return home, -I will love you more than ever; but, if you do not, I, as your father, -and in virtue of the authority which God has given me over you, denounce -against you my eternal curse; and, as your sovereign, declare to you, -that I will find means to punish your disobedience, in which I trust God -himself will assist me, and espouse the just cause of an injured parent -and king. - -'For the rest, remember that I have never laid any restraint upon you. -Was I obliged to leave you at liberty to choose your way of life? Had I -not the power in my own hands to oblige you to conform to my will? I had -only to command, and make myself obeyed.' - -The viceroy of Naples found it no difficult matter to persuade the -czarowitz to return to his father. This is an incontestable proof that -the emperor had no intention to enter into any engagements with the -prince, that might give umbrage to his father. Alexis therefore returned -with the envoys, bringing with him his mistress, Aphrosyne, who had been -the companion of his elopement. - -We may consider the czarowitz as an ill-advised young man, who had gone -to Vienna and to Naples, instead of going to Copenhagen, agreeable to -the orders of his father and sovereign. Had he been guilty of no other -crime than this, which is common enough with young and giddy persons, it -was certainly very excusable. The prince determined to return to his -father, on the faith of his having taken God to witness, that he not -only would pardon him, but that he would love him better than ever. But -it appears by the instructions given to the two envoys who went to fetch -him, and even by the czar's own letter, that his father required him to -declare the persons who had been his counsellors, and also to fulfil -the oath he had made of renouncing the succession. - -It seemed difficult to reconcile this exclusion of the czarowitz from -the succession, with the other part of the oath, by which the czar had -bound himself in his letter, namely that of loving his son better than -ever. Perhaps divided between paternal love, and the justice he owed to -himself and people, as a sovereign, he might limit the renewal of his -affection to his son in a convent, instead of to that son on a throne: -perhaps, likewise, he was in hopes to reduce him to reason, and to -render him worthy of the succession at last, by making him sensible of -the loss of a crown which he had forfeited by his own indiscretion. In a -circumstance so uncommon, so intricate, and so afflicting, it may be -easily supposed that the minds of both father and son were under equal -perturbation, and hardly consistent with themselves. - -The prince arrived at Moscow on the 13th of February, N. S. 1717; and -the same day went to throw himself at his father's feet, who was -returned to the city from his travels. They had a long conference -together, and a report was immediately spread through the city, that the -prince and his father were reconciled, and that all past transactions -were buried in oblivion. But the next day, orders were issued for the -regiments of guards to be under arms at break of day, and for all the -czar's ministers, boyards, and counsellors, to repair to the great hall -of the castle; as also for the prelates, together with two monks of St. -Basile, professors of divinity, to assemble in the cathedral, at the -tolling of the great bell. The unhappy prince was then conducted to the -great castle like a prisoner, and being come in his father's presence, -threw himself in tears at his feet, and presented a writing, containing -a confession of his faults, declaring himself unworthy of the -succession, and imploring only that his life might be spared.[101] - -The czar, raising up his son, withdrew with him into a private room, -where he put many questions to him, declaring to him at the same time, -that if he concealed any one circumstance relating to his elopement, his -life should answer for it. The prince was then brought back to the great -hall, where the council was assembled, and the czar's declaration, which -had been previously prepared, was there publicly read in his -presence.[102] - -In this piece the czar reproaches his son with all those faults we have -before related, namely, his little application to study, his connexions -with the favourers of the ancient customs and manners of the country, -and his ill-behaviour to his wife.--'He has even violated the conjugal -faith,' saith the czar in his manifesto, 'by giving his affection to a -prostitute of the most servile and low condition, during the life-time -of his lawful spouse.' It is certain that Peter himself had repudiated -his own wife in favour of a captive, but that captive was a person of -exemplary merit, and the czar had just cause for discontent against his -wife, who was at the same time his subject. The czarowitz, on the -contrary, had abandoned his princess for a young woman, hardly known to -any one, and who had no other merit but that of personal charms. So far -there appears some errors of a young man, which a parent ought to -reprimand in secret, and which he might have pardoned. - -The czar, in his manifesto, next reproaches his son with his flight to -Vienna, and his having put himself under the emperor's protection; and -adds, that he had calumniated his father, by telling the emperor that he -was persecuted by him; and that he had compelled him to renounce the -succession; and, lastly, that he had made intercession with the emperor -to assist him with an armed force. - -Here it immediately occurs, that the emperor could not, with any -propriety, have entered into a war with the czar on such an occasion; -nor could he have interposed otherwise between an incensed father and a -disobedient son, than by his good offices to promote a reconciliation. -Accordingly we find, that Charles VI. contented himself with giving a -temporary asylum to the fugitive prince, and readily sent him back on -the first requisition of the czar, in consequence of being informed of -the place his son had chosen for his retreat. - -Peter adds, in this terrible piece, that Alexis had persuaded the -emperor, that he went in danger of his life, if he returned back to -Russia. Surely it was in some measure justifying these complaints of the -prince, to condemn him to death at his return, and especially after so -solemn a promise to pardon him; but we shall see, in the course of this -history, the cause which afterwards moved the czar to denounce this -ever-memorable sentence. For the present let us turn our eyes upon an -absolute prince, pleading against his son before an august assembly.-- - -'In this manner,' says he, 'has our son returned; and although, by his -withdrawing himself and raising calumnies against us, he has deserved to -be punished with death, yet, out of our paternal affection, we pardon -his crimes; but, considering his unworthiness, and the series of his -irregular conduct, we cannot in conscience leave him the succession to -the throne of Russia; foreseeing that, by his vicious courses, he would, -after our decease, entirely destroy the glory of our nation, and the -safety of our dominions, which we have recovered from the enemy. - -'Now, as we should pity our states and our faithful subjects, if, by -such a successor, we should throw them back into a much worse condition -than ever they were yet; so, by the paternal authority, and, in quality -of sovereign prince, in consideration of the safety of our dominions, we -do deprive our said son Alexis, for his crimes and unworthiness, of the -succession after us to our throne of Russia, even though there should -not remain one single person of our family after us. - -'And we do constitute and declare successor to the said throne after us, -our second son, Peter,[103] though yet very young, having no successor -that is older. - -'We lay upon our said son Alexis our paternal curse, if ever at any time -he pretends to, or reclaims, the said succession. - -'And we desire our faithful subjects, whether ecclesiastics or seculars, -of all ranks and conditions, and the whole Russian nation, in conformity -to this constitution and our will, to acknowledge and consider our son -Peter, appointed by us to succeed, as lawful successor, and agreeably to -this our constitution, to confirm the whole by oath before the holy -altar, upon the holy gospel, kissing the cross. - -'And all those who shall ever at any time oppose this our will, and who, -from this day forward, shall dare to consider our son Alexis as -successor, or assist him for that purpose, declare them traitors to us -and our country. And we have ordered that these presents shall be every -where published and promulgated, to the end that no person may pretend -ignorance.' - -It would seem that this declaration had been prepared beforehand for the -occasion, or that it had been drawn up with astonishing dispatch: for -the czarowitz did not return to Moscow till the 13th of February, and -his renunciation in favour of the empress Catherine's son is dated the -14th. - -The prince on his part signed his renunciation, whereby he acknowledges -his exclusion to be just, as having merited it by his own fault and -unworthiness; 'And I do hereby swear,' adds he, 'in presence of God -Almighty in the Holy Trinity, to submit in all things to my father's -will,' &c. - -These instruments being signed, the czar went in procession to the -cathedral, where they were read a second time, when the whole body of -clergy signed their approbation with their seals at the bottom, to a -copy prepared for that purpose.[104] No prince was ever disinherited in -so authentic a manner. There are many states in which an act of this -kind would be of no validity; but in Russia, as in ancient Rome, every -father has a power of depriving his son of his succession, and this -power was still stronger in a sovereign than in a private subject, and -especially in such a sovereign as Peter. - -But, nevertheless, it was to be apprehended, that those who had -encouraged the prince in his opposition to his father's will, and had -advised him to withdraw himself from his court, might one day endeavour -to set aside a renunciation which had been procured by force, and -restore to the eldest son that crown which had been violently snatched -from him to place on the head of a younger brother by a second marriage. -In this case it was easy to foresee a civil war, and a total subversion -of all the great and useful projects which Peter had so much laboured to -establish; and therefore the present matter in question was to determine -between the welfare of near eighteen millions of souls (which was nearly -the number which the empire of Russia contained at that time), and the -interest of a single person incapable of governing. Hence it became -necessary to find out those who were disaffected, and accordingly the -czar a second time threatened his son with the most fatal consequences -if he concealed any thing: and the prince was obliged to undergo a -judicial examination by his father, and afterwards by the commissioners -appointed for that purpose. - -One principal article of the charge brought against him, and that which -served chiefly to his condemnation, was, a letter from one Beyer, the -emperor's resident at the court of Russia, dated at Petersburg, after -the flight of the prince. This letter makes mention of a mutiny in the -Russian army then assembled at Mecklenburg, and that several officers -talked of clapping up Catherine and her son in the prison where the late -empress, whom Peter had repudiated, was then confined, and of placing -the czarowitz on the throne, as soon as he could be found out and -brought back. These idle projects fell to the ground of themselves, and -there was not the least appearance that Alexis had ever countenanced -them. The whole was only a piece of news related by a foreigner; the -letter itself was not directed to the prince, and he had only a copy -thereof transmitted him while at Vienna. - -But a charge of a more grievous nature appeared against him, namely, the -heads of a letter written with his own hand, and which he had sent, -while at the court of Vienna, to the senators and prelates of Russia, in -which were the following very strong assertions:--'The continual -ill-treatment which I have suffered without having deserved it, have at -length obliged me to consult my peace and safety by flight. I have -narrowly escaped being confined in a convent, by those who have already -served my mother in the same manner. I am now under the protection of a -great prince, and I beseech you not to abandon me in this conjuncture.' - -The expression, _in this conjuncture_, which might be construed into a -seditious meaning, appeared to have been blotted out, and then inserted -again by his own hand, and afterwards blotted out a second time; which -shewed it to be the action of a young man disturbed in his mind, -following the dictates of his resentment, and repenting of it at the -very instant. There were only the copies of these letters found: they -were never sent to the persons they were designed for, the court of -Vienna having taken care to stop them; a convincing proof that the -emperor never intended to break with the czar, or to assist the son to -take up arms against his father. - -Several witnesses were brought to confront the prince, and one of them, -named Afanassief, deposed, that he had formerly heard him speak these -words,--'I shall mention something to the bishops, who will mention it -again to the lower clergy, and they to the parish priests, and the crown -will be placed on my head whether I will or not.' - -His own mistress, Aphrosyne, was likewise brought to give evidence -against him. The charge, however, was not well supported in all its -parts; there did not appear to have been any regular plan formed, any -chain of intrigues, or any thing like a conspiration or combination, nor -the least shadow of preparation for a change in the government. The -whole affair was that of a son, of a depraved and factious disposition, -who thought himself injured by his father, who fled from him, and who -wished for his death; but this son was heir to the greatest monarchy in -our hemisphere, and in his situation and place he could not be guilty of -trivial faults. - -After the accusations of his mistress, another witness was brought -against him, in relation to the former czarina his mother, and the -princess Mary his sister. He was charged with having consulted the -former in regard to his flight, and of having mentioned it to the -princess Mary. The bishop of Rostow, who was the confidant of all three, -having been seized, deposed, that the two princesses, who were then shut -up in a convent, had expressed their wishes for a revolution in affairs -that might restore them their liberty, and had even encouraged the -prince, by their advice, to withdraw himself out of the kingdom. The -more natural their resentment was, the more it was to be apprehended. We -shall see, at the end of this chapter, what kind of a person the bishop -of Rostow was, and what had been his conduct. - -The czarowitz at first denied several facts of this nature which were -alleged against him, and by this very behaviour subjected himself to the -punishment of death, with which his father had threatened him in case he -did not make an open and sincere confession. - -At last, however, he acknowledged several disrespectful expressions -against his father, which were laid to his charge, but excused himself -by saying, he had been hurried away by passion and drink. - -The czar himself drew up several new interrogations. The fourth ran as -follows:-- - -'When you found by Beyer's letter that there was a mutiny among the -troops in Mecklenburg, you seemed pleased with it; you must certainly -have had some reason for it; and I imagine you would have joined the -rebels even during my life-time?' - -This was interrogating the prince on the subject of his private -thoughts, which, though they might be revealed to a father, who may, by -his advice, correct them, yet might they also with justice be concealed -from a judge, who decides only upon acknowledged facts. The private -sentiments of a man's heart have nothing to do in a criminal process, -and the prince was at liberty either to deny them or disguise them, in -such manner as he should think best for his own safety, as being under -no obligation to lay open his heart, and yet we find him returning the -following answer: 'If the rebels had called upon me during your -life-time, I do verily believe I should have joined them, supposing I -had found them sufficiently strong.' - -It is hardly conceivable that he could have made this reply of himself, -and it would be full as extraordinary, at least according to the custom -in our part of the world, to condemn a person for confessing that he -might have thought in a certain manner in a conjuncture that never -happened. - -To this strange confession of his private thoughts, which had till then -been concealed in the bottom of his heart, they added proofs that could -hardly be admitted as such in a court of justice in any other country. - -The prince, sinking under his misfortunes, and almost deprived of his -senses, studied within himself, with all the ingenuity of fear, for -whatever could most effectually serve for his destruction; and at length -acknowledged, that in private confession to the archpriest James, he had -wished his father dead; and that his confessor made answer, 'God will -pardon you this wish: we all wish the same.' - -The canons of our church do not admit of proofs resulting from private -confession, inasmuch as they are held inviolable secrets between God and -the penitent: and both the Greek and Latin churches are agreed, that -this intimate and secret correspondence between a sinner and the Deity -are beyond the cognizance of a temporal court of justice. But here the -welfare of a kingdom and a king were concerned. The archpriest, being -put to the torture, confirmed all that the prince had revealed; and this -trial furnished the unprecedented instance of a confessor accused by his -penitent, and that penitent by his own mistress. To this may be added -another singular circumstance, namely, the archbishop of Rezan having -been involved in several accusations on account of having spoken too -favourably of the young czarowitz in one of his sermons, at the time -that his father's resentment first broke out against him; that weak -prince declared, in his answer to one of the interrogations, that he had -depended on the assistance of that prelate, at the same time that he was -at the head of the ecclesiastical court, which the czar had consulted in -relation to this criminal process against his son, as we shall see in -the course of this chapter. - -There is another remark to be made in this extraordinary trial, which we -find so very lamely related in the absurd History of Peter the Great, by -the pretended bojar Nestersuranoy, and that is the following: - -Among other answers which the czarowitz Alexis made to the first -question put to him by his father, he acknowledges, that while he was at -Vienna, finding that he could not be admitted to see the emperor, he -applied himself to count Schonborn, the high chamberlain, who told him, -the emperor would not abandon him, and that as soon as occasion should -offer, by the death of his father, that he would assist him to recover -the throne by force of arms. 'Upon which,' adds the prince, 'I made him -the following answer: "This is what I by no means desire: if the emperor -will only grant me his protection for the present, I ask no more."' This -deposition is plain, natural, and carries with it strong marks of the -truth; for it would have been the height of madness to have asked the -emperor for an armed force to dethrone his father, and no one would have -ventured to have made such an absurd proposal, either to the emperor, -prince Eugene, or to the council. This deposition bears date in the -month of February, and four months afterwards, namely, after the 1st of -July, and towards the latter end of the proceedings against the -czarowitz, that prince is made to say, in the last answers he delivered -in writing:-- - -'Being unwilling to imitate my father in any thing, I endeavoured to -secure myself the succession by any means whatever, _excepting such as -were just_. I attempted to get it by a foreign assistance; and, had I -succeeded, and that the emperor had fulfilled _what he had promised me_, -to replace me on the throne of Russia even by force of arms, I would -have left nothing undone to have got possession of it. For instance, if -the emperor had demanded of me, in return for his services, a body of my -own troops to fight for him against any power whatever, that might be in -arms against him, or a large sum of money to defray the charges of a -war, I should have readily granted every thing he asked, and should have -gratified his ministers and generals with magnificent presents. I would -at my own expense have maintained the auxiliary troops he might have -furnished to put me in possession of the crown; and, in a word, I should -have thought nothing too much to have accomplished my ends.' - -This answer seems greatly strained, and appears as if the unhappy -deponent was exerting his utmost efforts to appear more culpable than he -really was; nay, he seems to have spoken absolutely contrary to truth in -a capital point. He says the emperor had promised to procure him the -crown by force of arms. This is absolutely false: Schonborn had given -him hopes that, after the death of his father, the emperor might assist -him to recover his birth-right; but the emperor himself never made him -any promise. And lastly, the matter in question was not if he should -take arms against his father, but if he should succeed him after his -death? - -By this last deposition he declares what he believes he should have -done, had he been obliged to dispute his birth-right, which he had not -formally renounced till after his journey to Vienna and Naples. Here -then we have a second deposition, not of any thing he had already done, -and the actual commission of which, would have subjected him to the -rigorous inquiry of the law, but of what he imagines he should have done -had occasion offered, and which consequently is no subject of a -juridical inquiry. Thus does he twice together accuse himself of private -thoughts that he might have entertained in a future time. The known -world does not produce an instance of a man tried and condemned for -vague and inconsequential notions that came into his head, and which he -never communicated to any one; nor is there a court of justice in Europe -that will hear a man accuse himself of criminal thoughts; nay, we -believe that they are not punished by God himself, unless accompanied by -a fixed resolution to put them in practice. - -To these natural reflections it may be answered, that the czarowitz had -given his father a just right to punish him, by having withheld the -names of several of the accomplices of his flight. His pardon was -promised him only on condition of making a full and open confession, -which he did not till it was too late. Lastly, after so public an -affair, it was not in human nature that Alexis should ever forgive a -brother in favour of whom he had been disinherited; therefore, it was -thought better to punish one guilty person, than to expose a whole -nation to danger, and herein the rigour of justice and reasons of state -acted in concert. - -We must not judge of the manners and laws of one nation by those of -others. The czar was possessed of the fatal, but incontestable right of -punishing his son with death, for the single crime of having withdrawn -himself out of the kingdom against his consent; and he thus explains -himself in his declaration addressed to the prelates and others, who -composed the high courts of justice. 'Though, according to all laws, -civil and divine, and especially those of this empire, which grant an -absolute jurisdiction to fathers over their children (even fathers in -private life) we have a full and unlimited power to judge our son for -his crimes according to our pleasure, without asking the advice of any -person whatsoever: yet, as men are more liable to prejudice and -partiality in their own affairs, than in those of others, and as the -most eminent and expert physicians rely not on their judgment concerning -themselves, but call in the advice and assistance of others; so we, -under the fear of God, and an awful dread of offending him, in like -manner make known our disease, and apply to you for a cure; being -apprehensive of eternal death, if ignorant perhaps of the nature of our -distemper, we should attempt to cure ourselves; and the rather as in a -solemn appeal to Almighty God, I have signed, sworn, and confirmed a -promise of pardon to my son, in case he should declare to me the truth. - -'And though he has violated this promise, by concealing the most -important circumstances of his rebellious design against us; yet that we -may not in any thing swerve from our obligations, we pray you to -consider this affair with seriousness and attention, and report what -punishment he deserves without favour or partiality either to him or -me; for should you apprehend that he deserves but a slight punishment, -it will be disagreeable to me. I swear to you by the great God and his -judgments, that you have nothing to fear on this head. - -'Neither let the reflection of your being to pass sentence on the son of -your prince have any influence on you, but administer justice without -respect of persons, and destroy not your own souls and mine also, by -doing any thing to injure our country, or upbraid our consciences in the -great and terrible day of judgment.' - -The czar afterwards addressed himself to the clergy,[105] by another -declaration to the same purpose; so that every thing was transacted in -the most authentic manner, and Peter's behaviour through the whole of -this affair was so open and undisguised, as shewed him to be fully -satisfied of the justice of his cause. - -On the first of July the clergy delivered their opinion in writing. In -fact, it was their opinion only, and not a judgment, which the czar -required of them. The beginning is deserving the attention of all -Europe. - -'This affair (say the prelates and the rest of the clergy) does in no -wise fall within the verge of the ecclesiastical court, nor is the -absolute power invested in the sovereign of the Russian empire subject -to the cognizance of his people; but he has an unlimited power of acting -herein as to him shall seem best, without any inferior having a right to -intermeddle therein.' - -After their preamble they proceed to cite several texts of scripture, -particularly Leviticus, wherein it is said, 'Cursed be he that curseth -his father or mother;' and the gospel of St. Matthew, which repeats this -severe denunciation. And they concluded, after several other -quotations,[106] with these remarkable words: - -'If his majesty is inclinable to punish the offender according to his -deeds and the measure of his crimes, he has before him the examples in -the Old Testament, if on the other hand, he is inclined to shew mercy, -he has a pattern in our Lord Jesus Christ, who receives the prodigal -son, when returning with a contrite heart, who set free the woman taken -in adultery, whom the law sentenced to be stoned to death, and who -prefers mercy to burnt-offerings. He has likewise the example of David, -who spared his son Absalom, who had rebelled against and persecuted him, -saying to his captains, when going forth to the fight, "Spare my son -Absalom." The father was here inclinable to mercy, but divine Justice -suffered not the offender to go unpunished. - -'The heart of the czar is in the hands of God; let him take that side to -which it shall please the Almighty to direct him.' - -This opinion was signed by eight archbishops and bishops, four -archpriests, and two professors of divinity; and, as we have already -observed, the metropolitan archbishop of Rezan, the same with whom the -prince had held a correspondence, was the first who signed. - -As soon as the clergy had signed this opinion, they presented it to the -czar. It is easy to perceive that this body was desirous of inclining -his mind to clemency; and nothing can be more beautiful than the -contrast between the mercy of Jesus Christ, and the rigour of the Jewish -law, placed before the eyes of a father, who was the prosecutor of his -own son. - -The same day the czarowitz was again examined for the last time, and -signed his final confession in writing, wherein he acknowledges himself -'to have been a bigot in his youthful days, to have frequented the -company of priests and monks, to have drank with them, and to have -imbibed from their conversations the first impressions of dislike to the -duties of his station, and even to the person of his father.' - -If he made this confession of his own accord, it shews that he must have -been ignorant of the mild advice the body of clergy, whom he thus -accuses, had lately given his father; and it is a still stronger proof, -how great a change the czar had wrought in the manners of the clergy of -his time, who, from a state of the most deplorable ignorance, were in so -short a time become capable of drawing up a writing, which for its -wisdom and eloquence might have been owned, without a blush, by the most -illustrious fathers of the church. - -It is in this last confession that the czarowitz made that declaration -on which we have already commented, viz. that he endeavoured to secure -to himself the succession by any means whatever, except such as were -just. - -One would imagine, by this last confession, that the prince was -apprehensive he had not rendered himself sufficiently criminal in the -eyes of his judges, by his former self-accusations, and that, by giving -himself the character of a dissembler and a bad man, and supposing how -he might have acted had he been the master, he was carefully studying -how to justify the fatal sentence which was about to be pronounced -against him, and which was done on the 5th of July. This sentence will -be found, at length, at the end of this volume; therefore, we shall only -observe in this place that it begins, like the opinion of the clergy, by -declaring, that 'it belongs not to subjects to take cognizance of such -an affair, which depends solely on the absolute will of the sovereign, -whose authority is derived from God alone;' and then, after having set -forth the several articles of the charge brought against the prince, the -judges express themselves thus: 'What shall we think of a rebellious -design, almost unparalleled in history, joined to that of a horrid -parricide against him, who was his father in a double capacity?' - -Probably these words have been wrong translated from the trial printed -by order of the czar; for certainly there have been instances in history -of much greater rebellions; and no part of the proceedings against the -czarowitz discover any design in him of killing his father. Perhaps, by -the word parricide, is understood the deposition made by the prince, -that one day he declared at confession, that he had wished for the death -of his father. But, how can a private declaration of a secret thought, -under the seal of confession, be a double parricide? - -Be this as it may, the czarowitz was unanimously condemned to die, but -no mention was made in the sentence of the manner in which he was to -suffer. Of one hundred and forty-four judges, there was not one who -thought of a lesser punishment than death. Whereas, an English tract, -which made a great noise at that time, observes, that if such a cause -had been brought before an English parliament, there would not have been -one judge out of one hundred and forty-four, that would have inflicted -even a penalty. - -There cannot be a stronger proof of the difference of times and places. -The consul Manlius would have been condemned by the laws of England to -lose his own life, for having put his son to death; whereas he was -admired and extolled for that action by the rigid Romans: but the same -laws would not punish a prince of Wales for leaving the kingdom, who, as -a peer of the realm, has a right to go and come when he pleases.[107] A -criminal design, not perpetrated, is not punishable by the laws in -England[108] or France, but it is in Russia. A continued formal and -repeated disobedience of commands would, amongst us, be considered only -an error in conduct, which ought to be suppressed; but, in Russia, it -was judged a capital crime in the heir of a great empire, whose ruin -might have been the consequence of that disobedience. Lastly, the -czarowitz was culpable towards the whole nation, by his design of -throwing it back into that state of darkness and ignorance, from which -his father had so lately delivered it. - -Such was the acknowledged power of the czar, that he might put his son -to death for disobedience to him, without consulting any one; -nevertheless, he submitted the affair to the judgment of the -representatives of the nation, so that it was in fact the nation itself -who passed sentence on the prince; and Peter was so well satisfied with -the equity of his own conduct, that he voluntarily submitted it to the -judgment of every other nation, by causing the whole proceedings to be -printed and translated into several languages. - -The law of history would not permit us to disguise or palliate aught in -the relation of this tragic event. All Europe was divided in its -sentiments, whether most to pity a young prince, prosecuted by his own -father, and condemned to lose his life, by those who were one day to -have been his subjects; or the father, who thought himself under a -necessity to sacrifice his own son to the welfare of his nation. - -It was asserted in several books, published on this subject, that the -czar sent to Spain for a copy of the proceedings against Don Carlos, who -had been condemned to death by his father, king Philip II. But this is -false, inasmuch as Don Carlos was never brought to his trial: the -conduct of Peter I. was totally different from that of Philip. The -Spanish monarch never made known to the world the reasons for which he -had confined his son, nor in what manner that prince died. He wrote -letters on this occasion to the pope and the empress, which were -absolutely contradictory to each other. William prince of Orange accused -Philip publicly of having sacrificed his son and his wife to his -jealousy, and to have behaved rather like a jealous and cruel husband, -and an unnatural and murderous father, than a severe and upright judge. -Philip suffered this accusation against him to pass unanswered: Peter, -on the contrary, did nothing but in the eye of the world; he openly -declared, that he preferred his people to his own son, submitted his -cause to the judgment of the principal persons of his kingdom, and made -the whole world the judge of their proceedings and his own. - -There was another extraordinary circumstance attending this unhappy -affair, which was, that the empress Catherine, who was hated by the -czarowitz, and whom he had publicly threatened with the worst of -treatment, whenever he should mount the throne, was not in any way -accessary to his misfortunes; and was neither accused, nor even -suspected by any foreign minister residing at the court of Russia, of -having taken the least step against a son-in-law, from whom she had so -much to fear. It is true, indeed, that no one pretends to say she -interceded with the czar for his pardon: but all the accounts of these -times, and especially those of the count de Bassewitz, agree, that she -was greatly affected with his misfortunes. - -I have now before me the memoirs of a public minister, in which I find -the following words: 'I was present when the czar told the duke of -Holstein, that the czarina Catherine, had begged of him to prevent the -sentence passed upon the czarowitz, being publicly read to that prince. -'Content yourself,' said she, 'with obliging him to turn monk; for this -public and formal condemnation of your son will reflect an odium on your -grandson.' - -The czar, however, would not hearken to the intercession of his spouse; -he thought there was a necessity to have the sentence publicly read to -the prince himself, in order that he might have no pretence left to -dispute this solemn act, in which he himself acquiesced, and that being -dead in law, he could never after claim a right to the crown. - -Nevertheless, if, after the death of Peter, a formidable party had arose -in favour of Alexis, would his being dead in law have prevented him from -ascending the throne? - -The prince then had his sentence read to him: and the memoirs I have -just mentioned observe, that he fell into a fit on hearing these words: -'The laws divine and ecclesiastical, civil and military, condemn to -death, without mercy, those whose attempts against their father and -their sovereign have been fully proved.' These fits it is said, turned -to an apoplexy, and it was with great difficulty he was recovered at -that time. Afterwards, when he came a little to himself, and in the -dreadful interval, between life and death, he sent for his father to -come to him: the czar accordingly went, and both father and son burst -into a flood of tears. The unhappy culprit asked his offended parent's -forgiveness, which he gave him publicly: then, being in the agonies of -death, extreme unction was administered to him in the most solemn -manner, and soon after he expired in the presence of the whole court, -the day after the fatal sentence had been pronounced upon him. His body -was immediately carried to the cathedral, where it lay in state, exposed -to public view for four days, after which it was interred in the church -of the citadel, by the side of his late princess; the czar and czarina -assisting at the funeral. - -And here I think myself indispensably obliged to imitate, in some -measure, the conduct of the czar; that is to say, to submit to the -judgment of the public, the several facts which I have related with the -most scrupulous exactness, and not only the facts themselves, but -likewise the various reports which were propagated in relation to them, -by authors of the first credit. Lamberti, the most impartial of any -writer on this subject and at the same time the most exact, and who has -confined himself to the simple narrative of the original and authentic -pieces, relating to the affairs of Europe, seems in this matter to have -departed from that impartiality and discernment for which he is so -remarkable; for he thus expresses himself. - -'The czarina, ever anxious for the fortune of her own son, did not -suffer the czar to rest till she had obliged him to commence the -proceedings against the czarowitz, and to prosecute that unhappy prince -to death: and, what is still more extraordinary, the czar, after having -given him the knout (which is a kind of torture) with his own hand, was -himself his executioner, by cutting off his head, which was afterwards -so artfully joined to the body, that the separation could not be -perceived, when it was exposed to public view. Some little time -afterwards, the czarina's son died, to the inexpressible regret of her -and the czar. This latter, who had beheaded his own son, coming now to -reflect, that he had no successor, grew exceedingly ill-tempered. Much -about that time also, he was informed, that his spouse, the czarina, was -engaged in a secret and criminal correspondence with prince Menzikoff. -This, joined to the reflection, that she had been the cause of his -putting to death with his own hand his eldest son, made him conceive a -design to strip her of the imperial honours, and shut her up in a -convent, in the same manner as he had done his first wife, who is still -living there. It was a custom with the czar to keep a kind of diary of -his private thoughts in his pocket book, and he had accordingly entered -therein a memorandum of this his intention. The czarina having found -means to gain over to her interest all the pages of the czar's -bed-chamber, one of them finding his pocket-book, which he had -carelessly left on the table, brought it to Catherine, who upon reading -this memorandum, immediately sent for prince Menzikoff, and communicated -it to him, and, in a day or two afterwards, the czar was seized with a -violent distemper, of which he died. This distemper was attributed to -poison, on account of its being so sudden and violent, that it could not -be supposed to proceed from a natural cause, and that the horrible act -of poisoning was but too frequently used in Russia.' - -These accusations, thus handed down by Lamberti, were soon spread -throughout Europe; and, as there still exist a great number of pieces, -both in print and manuscript, which may give a sanction to the belief of -this fact to the latest posterity, I think it is my duty to mention, in -this place, what is come to my knowledge from unexceptionable authority. - -In the first place, then, I take it upon me to declare, that the person -who furnished Lamberti with this strange anecdote, was in fact a native -of Russia, but of a foreign extraction, and who himself did not reside -in that country, at the time this event happened, having left it several -years before. I was formerly acquainted with him; he had been in company -with Lamberti, at the little town of Nyon,[109] whither that writer had -retired, and where I myself have often been. This very man declared to -me, that he had never told this story to Lamberti, but in the light of a -report, which had been handed about at that time. - -This example may suffice to shew, how easy it was in former times, -before the art of printing was found out, for one man to destroy the -reputation of another, in the minds of whole nations, by reason that -manuscript histories were in a few hands only, and not exposed -to general examination and censure, or of the observations of -contemporaries, as they now are. A single line in Tacitus or Sallust, -nay, even in the authors of the most fabulous legends was enough to -render a great prince odious to the half of mankind, and to perpetuate -his name with infamy to successive generations. - -How was it possible that the czar could have beheaded his son with his -own hand, when extreme unction was administered to the latter in the -presence of the whole court? Was he dead when the sacred oil was poured -upon his head? When or how could this dissevered head have been rejoined -to its trunk? It is notorious, that the prince was not left alone a -single moment, from the first reading of his sentence to him to the -instant of his death. - -Besides, this story of the czar's having had recourse to the sword, -acquits him at least of having made use of poison. I will allow, that it -is somewhat uncommon, that a young man in the vigour of his days should -die of a sudden fright, occasioned by hearing the sentence of his own -death read to him, and especially when it was a sentence that he -expected; but, after all, physicians will tell us that this is not a -thing impossible. - -If the czar dispatched his son by poison, as so many authors would -persuade us, he by that means deprived himself of every advantage he -might expect from this fatal process, in convincing all Europe that he -had a right to punish every delinquent. He rendered all the reasons for -pronouncing the condemnation of the czarowitz suspected; and, in fact, -accused himself. If he was desirous of the death of his son, he was in -possession of full power to have caused the sentence to be put in -execution: would a man of any prudence then, would a sovereign, on whom -the eyes of all his neighbours were fixed, have taken the base and -dastardly method of poisoning the person, over whose devoted head he -himself already held the sword of justice? Lastly, would he have -suffered his memory to have been transmitted to posterity as an assassin -and a poisoner, when he could so easily have assumed the character of an -upright though severe judge? - -It appears then, from all that has been delivered on this subject in the -preceding pages, that Peter was more the king than the parent; and that -he sacrificed his own son to the sentiments of the father and lawgiver -of his country, and to the interest of his people, who, without this -wholesome severity, were on the verge of relapsing again into that state -from which he had taken them. It is evident that he did not sacrifice -this son to the ambition of a step-mother, or to the son he had by her, -since he had often threatened the czarowitz to disinherit him, before -Catherine brought him that other son, whose infirm infancy gave signs of -a speedy death, which actually happened in a very short time afterwards. -Had Peter taken this important step merely to please his wife, he must -have been a fool, a madman, or a coward; neither of which, most -certainly, could be laid to his charge. But he foresaw what would be the -fate of his establishments, and of his new-born nation, if he had such a -successor as would not adopt his views. The event has verified this -foresight: the Russian empire is become famous and respectable -throughout Europe, from which it was before entirely separated; whereas, -had the czarowitz succeeded to the throne, every thing would have been -destroyed. In fine, when this catastrophe comes to be seriously -considered, the compassionate heart shudders, and the rigid applauds. - -This great and terrible event is still fresh in the memories of mankind; -and it is frequently spoken of as a matter of so much surprise, that it -is absolutely necessary to examine what contemporary writers have said -of it. One of these hireling scribblers, who has taken on him the title -of historian, speaks thus of it in a work which he has dedicated to -count Bruhl, prime minister to his Polish majesty, whose name indeed may -seem to give some weight to what he advances. 'Russia was convinced that -the czarowitz owed his death to poison, which had been given him by his -mother-in-law.' But this accusation is overturned by the declaration -which the czar made to the duke of Holstein, that the empress Catherine -had advised him to confine his son in a monastery. - -With regard to the poison which the empress is said to have given -afterwards to her husband, that story is sufficiently destroyed by the -simple relation of the affair of the page and pocket-book. What man -would think of making such a memorandum as this, 'I must remember to -confine my wife in a convent?' Is this a circumstance of so trivial a -nature, that it must be set down lest it should be forgotten? If -Catherine had poisoned her son-in-law and her husband she would have -committed crimes; whereas, so far from being suspected of cruelty, she -had a remarkable character for lenity and sweetness of temper. - -It may now be proper to shew what was the first cause of the behaviour -of the czarowitz, of his flight, and of his death, and that of his -accomplices, who fell by the hands of the executioner. It was owing then -to mistaken notions in religion, and to a superstitious fondness for -priests and monks. That this was the real source from whence all his -misfortunes were derived, is sufficiently apparent from his own -confession, which we have already set before the reader, and in -particular, by that expression of the czar in his letter to his unhappy -son, 'A corrupt priesthood will be able to turn you at pleasure.' - -The following is, almost word for word, the manner in which a certain -ambassador to the court of Russia explains these words.--Several -ecclesiastics, says he, fond of the ancient barbarous customs, and -regretting the authority they had lost by the nation having become more -civilized, wished earnestly to see prince Alexis on the throne, from -whose known disposition they expected a return of those days of -ignorance and superstition which were so dear to them. In the number of -these was Dozitheus, bishop of Rostow. This prelate feigned a revelation -from St. Demetrius, and that the saint had appeared to him, and had -assured him as from God himself, that the czar would not live above -three months; that the empress Eudocia, who was then confined in the -convent of Susdal (and had taken the veil under the name of sister -Helena), and the princess Mary the czar's sister, should ascend the -throne and reign jointly with prince Alexis. Eudocia and the princess -Mary were weak enough to credit this imposture, and were even so -persuaded of the truth of this prediction, that the former quitted her -habit and the convent, and throwing aside the name of sister Helena, -reassumed the imperial title and the ancient dress of the czarina's, -and caused the name of her rival Catherine to be struck out of the form -of prayer. And when the lady abbess of the convent opposed these -proceedings, Eudocia answered her haughtily--That as Peter had punished -the strelitzes who had insulted his mother, in like manner would prince -Alexis punish those who had offered an indignity to his. She caused the -abbess to be confined to her apartment. An officer named Stephen Glebo -was introduced into the convent; this man Eudocia made use of as the -instrument of her designs, having previously won him over to her -interest by heaping favours on him. Glebo caused Dozitheus's prediction -to be spread over the little town of Susdal, and the neighbourhood -thereof. But the three months being nearly expired, Eudocia reproached -the bishop with the czar's being still alive, 'My father's sins,' -answered Dozitheus, 'have been the cause of this; he is still in -purgatory, and has acquainted me therewith.' Upon this Eudocia caused a -thousand masses for the dead to be said, Dozitheus assuring her that -this would not fail of having the desired effect: but in about a month -afterwards, he came to her and told, that his father's head was already -out of purgatory; in a month afterwards he was freed as far as his -waist, so that then he only stuck in purgatory by his feet; but as soon -as they should be set free, which was the most difficult part of the -business, the czar would infallibly die. - -The princess Mary, persuaded by Dozitheus, gave herself up to him, on -condition that his father should be immediately released from purgatory, -and the prediction accomplished, and Glebo continued his usual -correspondence with the old czarina. - -It was chiefly on the faith of these predictions that the czarowitz -quitted the kingdom, and retired into a foreign country, to wait for the -death of his father. However the whole scheme was soon discovered; -Dozitheus and Glebo were seized; the letters of the princess Mary to -Dozitheus, and those of sister Helena to Glebo, were read in the open -senate. In consequence of which, the princess Mary was shut up in the -fortress of Schusselbourg, and the old czarina removed to another -convent, where she was kept a close prisoner. Dozitheus and Glebo, -together with the other accomplices of these idle and superstitious -intrigues, were put to the torture, as were likewise the confidants of -the czarowitz's flight. His confessor, his preceptor, and the steward of -his household, all died by the hands of the executioner. - -Such then was the dear and fatal price at which Peter the Great -purchased the happiness of his people, and such were the numberless -obstacles he had to surmount in the midst of a long and dangerous war -without doors, and an unnatural rebellion at home. He saw one half of -his family plotting against him, the majority of the priesthood -obstinately bent to frustrate his designs, and almost the whole nation -for a long time opposing its own felicity, of which as yet it was not -become sensible. He had prejudices to overcome, and discontents to -sooth. In a word, there wanted a new generation formed by his care, who -would at length entertain the proper ideas of happiness and glory, which -their fathers were not able to comprehend or support. - - - - -CHAP. XXX. - - Works and establishments in 1718, and the following years. - - -Throughout the whole of the foregoing dreadful catastrophe, it appeared -clearly, that Peter had acted only as the father of his country, and -that he considered his people as his family. The punishments he had been -obliged to inflict on such of them, who had endeavoured to obstruct or -impede the happiness of the rest, were necessary, though melancholy -sacrifices, made to the general good. - -1718.] This year, which was the epoch of the disinheriting and death of -his eldest son, was also that of the greatest advantage he procured to -his subjects, by establishing a general police hitherto unknown; by the -introduction or improvement of manufactures and works of every kind, by -opening new branches of trade, which now began to flourish, and by the -construction of canals, which joined rivers, seas, and people, -that nature had separated from each other. We have here none of -those striking events which charm common readers; none of those -court-intrigues which are the food of scandal and malice, nor of those -great revolutions which amaze the generality of mankind; but we behold -the real springs of public happiness, which the philosophic eye delights -to contemplate. - -He now appointed a lieutenant-general of police over the whole empire, -who was to hold his court at Petersburg, and from thence preserve order -from one end of the kingdom to the other. Extravagance in dress, and the -still more dangerous extravagance of gaming, were prohibited under -severe penalties; schools for teaching arithmetic, which had been first -set on foot in 1716, were now established in many towns in Russia. The -hospitals, which had been began, were now finished, endowed, and filled -with proper objects. - -To these we may add the several useful establishments which had been -projected some time before, and which were completed a few years -afterwards. The great towns were now cleared of those innumerable swarms -of beggars, who will not follow any other occupation but that of -importuning those who are more industrious than themselves, and who lead -a wretched and shameful life at the expense of others: an abuse too much -overlooked in other nations. - -The rich were obliged to build regular and handsome houses in -Petersburg, agreeable to their circumstances, and, by a master-stroke of -police, the several materials were brought carriage free to the city, by -the barks and waggons which returned empty from the neighbouring -provinces. - -Weights and measures were likewise fixed upon an uniform plan, in the -same manner as the laws. This uniformity, so much, but in vain desired, -in states that have for many ages been civilized, was established in -Russia without the least difficulty or murmuring; and yet we fancy that -this salutary regulation is impracticable amongst us. - -The prices of the necessaries of life were also fixed. The city of -Petersburg was well lighted with lamps during the night; a convenience -which was first introduced in Paris by Louis XIV., and to which Rome is -still a stranger. Pumps were erected for supplying water in cases of -fire; the streets were well paved, and rails put up for the security of -foot passengers: in a word, every thing was provided that could minister -to safety, decency, and good order, and to the quicker dispatch and -convenience of the inland trade of the country. Several privileges were -granted to foreigners, and proper laws enacted to prevent the abuse of -those privileges. In consequence of these useful and salutary -regulations, Petersburg and Moscow put on a new face. - -The iron and steel manufactories received additional improvements, -especially those which the czar had founded at about ten miles distance -from Petersburg, of which he himself was the first superintendant, and -wherein no less than a thousand workmen were employed immediately under -his eye. He went in person to give directions to those who farmed the -corn-mills, powder-mills, and mills for sawing timber, and to the -managers of the manufactories for cordage and sail-cloth, to the -brick-makers, slaters, and the cloth-weavers. Numbers of workmen in -every branch came from France to settle under him; these were the fruits -he reaped from his travels. - -He established a board of trade, which was composed of one half natives, -and the other half foreigners, in order that justice might be equally -distributed to all artists and workmen. A Frenchman settled a -manufactory for making fine looking-glass at Petersburg, with the -assistance of prince Menzikoff. Another set up a loom for working -curious tapestry, after the manner of the Gobelins; and this manufactory -still meets with great encouragement. A third succeeded in making of -gold and silver thread, and the czar ordered that no more than four -thousand marks of gold or silver should be expended in these works in -the space of a year; by this means to prevent the too great consumption -of bullion in the kingdom. - -He gave thirty thousand rubles, that is, about one hundred and fifty -thousand French livres,[110] together with all the materials and -instruments necessary for making the several kinds of woollen stuffs. By -this useful bounty he was enabled to clothe all his troops with the -cloth made in his own country; whereas, before that time, it was -purchased from Berlin and other foreign kingdoms. - -They made as fine linen cloth in Moscow as in Holland; and at his death -there were in that capital and at Jaroslaw, no less than fourteen linen -and hempen manufactories. - -It could certainly never be imagined, at the time that silk sold in -Europe for its weight in gold, that one day there would arise on the -banks of the lake Ladoga, in the midst of a frozen region, and among -unfrequented marshes, a magnificent and opulent city, where the silks of -Persia should be manufactured in as great perfection as at Ispahan. -Peter, however, undertook this great phenomenon in commerce, and -succeeded in the attempt. The working of iron mines was carried to their -highest degree of perfection; several other mines of gold and silver -were discovered, and the council of mines was appointed to examine and -determine, whether the working of these would bring in a profit adequate -to the expense. - -But, to make so many different arts and manufactures flourish, and to -establish so many various undertakings, it was not alone sufficient to -grant patents, or to appoint inspectors: it was necessary that our -great founder should behold all these pass under his own eye in their -beginnings, and work at them with his own hands, in the same manner as -we have already seen him working at the construction, the rigging, and -the sailing of a ship. When canals were to be dug in marshy and almost -impassable grounds, he was frequently seen at the head of the workmen -digging the earth, and carrying it away himself. - -In this same year (1718) he formed the plan of the canal and sluices of -Ladoga: this was intended to make a communication between the Neva and -another navigable river, in order for the more easy conveyance of -merchandize to Petersburg, without taking the great circuit of the lake -Ladoga, which, on account of the storms that prevailed on the coast, was -frequently impassable for barks or small vessels. Peter levelled the -ground himself, and they still preserve the tools which he used in -digging up and carrying off the earth. The whole court followed the -example of their sovereign, and persisted in a work, which, at the same -time, they looked upon as impracticable; and it was finished after his -death: for not one of his projects, which had been found possible to be -effected, was abandoned. - -The great canal of Cronstadt, which is easily drained of its waters, and -wherein they careen and clean the men of war, was also began at the same -time that he was engaged in the proceedings against his son. - -In this year also he built the new city of Ladoga. A short time -afterwards, he made the canal which joins the Caspian Sea to the gulf of -Finland and to the ocean. The boats, after sailing up the Wolga, came -first to the communication of two rivers, which he joined for that -purpose; from thence, by another canal, they enter into the lake of -Ilmen, and then fall into the canal of Ladoga, from whence goods and -merchandizes may be conveyed by sea to all parts of the world. - -In the midst of these labours, which all passed under his inspection, he -carried his views from Kamschatka to the most eastern limits of his -empire, and caused two forts to be built in these regions, which were so -long unknown to the rest of the world. In the meantime, a body of -engineers, who were draughted from the marine academy established in -1715, were sent to make the tour of the empire, in order to form exact -charts thereof, and lay before mankind the immense extent of country -which he had civilized and enriched. - - - - -CHAP. XXXI. - - Of the trade of Russia. - - -The Russian trade without doors was in a manner annihilated before the -reign of Peter. He restored it anew, after his accession to the throne. -It is notorious, that the current of trade has undergone several changes -in the world. The south part of Russia was before the time of Tamerlane, -the staple of Greece, and even of the Indies; and the Genoese were the -principal factors. The Tanais and the Boristhenes were loaded with the -productions of Asia: but when Tamerlane, towards the end of the -fourteenth century, had conquered the Taurican Chersonesus, afterwards -called Crimea or Crim Tartary, and when the Turks became masters of -Azoph, this great branch of trade was totally destroyed. Peter formed -the design of reviving it, by getting possession of Azoph; but the -unfortunate campaign of Pruth wrested this city out of his hands, and -with it all his views on the Black Sea: nevertheless he had it still in -his power to open as extensive a road to commerce through the Caspian -Sea. The English who, in the end of the fifteenth, and beginning of the -sixteenth century, had opened a trade to Archangel, had endeavoured to -do the same likewise by the Caspian Sea, but failed in all their -attempts for this purpose. - -It has been already observed, that the father of Peter the Great caused -a ship to be built in Holland, to trade from Astracan to the coast of -Persia. This vessel was burnt by the rebel Stenkorazin, which put an -immediate stop to any views of trading on a fair footing with the -Persians. The Armenians, who are the factors of that part of Asia, were -received by Peter the Great into Astracan; every thing was obliged to -pass through their hands, and they reaped all the advantage of that -trade; as is the case with the Indian traders, and the Banians, and with -the Turks, as well as several nations in Christendom, and the Jews: for -those who have only one way of living, are generally very expert in that -art on which they depend for a support; and others pay a voluntary -tribute to that knowledge in which they know themselves deficient. - -Peter had already found a remedy for this inconvenience, in the treaty -which he made with the sophi of Persia, by which all the silk, which was -not used for the manufactories in that kingdom, was to be delivered to -the Armenians of Astracan, and by them to be transported into Russia. - -The troubles which arose in Persia soon overturned this arrangement; and -in the course of this history, we shall see how the sha, or emperor of -Persia, Hussein, when persecuted by the rebels, implored the assistance -of Peter; and how that monarch, after having supported a difficult war -against the Turks and the Swedes, entered Persia, and subjected three of -its provinces. But to return to the article of trade. - - -_Of the Trade with China._ - -The undertaking of establishing a trade with China seemed to promise the -greatest advantages. Two vast empires, bordering on each other, and each -reciprocally possessing what the other stood in need of, seemed to be -both under the happy necessity of opening a useful correspondence, -especially after the treaty of peace, so solemnly ratified between these -two empires in the year 1689, according to our way of reckoning. - -The first foundation of this trade had been laid in the year 1653. There -was at that time two companies of Siberian and Bukarian families settled -in Siberia. Their caravans travelled through the Calmuck plains; after -they had crossed the deserts of Chinese Tartary, and made a considerable -profit by their trade; but the troubles which happened in the country of -the Calmucks, and the disputes between the Russians and the Chinese, in -regard to the frontiers, put a stop to this commerce. - -After the peace of 1689, it was natural for the two great nations to fix -on some neutral place, whither all the goods should be carried. The -Siberians, like all other nations, stood more in need of the Chinese, -than these latter did of them; accordingly permission was asked of the -emperor of China, to send caravans to Pekin, which was readily granted. -This happened in the beginning of the present century. - -It is worthy of observation, that the emperor Camhi had granted -permission for a Russian church in the suburbs of Pekin; which church -was to be served by Siberian priests, the whole at the emperor's own -expense, who was so indulgent to cause this church to be built for the -accommodation of several families of eastern Siberia; some of whom had -been prisoners before the peace of 1680, and the others were adventurers -from their own country, who would not return back again after the peace -of Niptchou. The agreeable climate of Pekin, the obliging manners of the -Chinese, and the ease with which they found a handsome living, -determined them to spend the rest of their days in China. The small -Greek church could not become dangerous to the peace of the empire, as -those of the Jesuits have been to that of other nations; and moreover, -the emperor Camhi was a favourer of liberty of conscience. Toleration -has, in all times, been the established custom in Asia, as it was in -former times all over the world, till the reign of the Roman emperor -Theodosius I. The Russian families, thus established in China, having -intermarried with the natives, have since quitted the Christian -religion, but their church still subsists. - -It was stipulated, that this church should be for the use of those who -come with the Siberian caravans, to bring furs and other commodities -wanted at Pekin. The voyage out and home, and the stay in the country, -generally took up three years. Prince Gagarin, governor of Siberia, was -twenty years at the head of this trade. The caravans were sometimes very -numerous; and it was difficult to keep the common people, who made the -greatest number, within proper bounds. - -They passed through the territories of a Laman priest, who is a kind of -Tartarian sovereign, resides on the sea-coast of Orkon, and has the -title of Koutoukas: he is the vicar of the grand Lama, but has rendered -himself independent, by making some change in the religion of the -country, where the Indian tenet of metempsychosis is the prevailing -opinion. We cannot find a more apt comparison for this priest than in -the bishops of Lubeck and Osnaburg, who have shaken off the dominion of -the church of Rome. The caravans, in their march, sometimes committed -depredations on the territories of this Tartarian prelate, as they did -also on those of the Chinese. This irregular conduct proved an -impediment to the trade of those parts; for the Chinese threatened to -shut the entrance into their empire against the Russians, unless a stop -was put to these disorders. The trade with China was at that time very -advantageous to the Russians, who brought from thence gold, silver, and -precious stones, in return for their merchandize. The largest ruby in -the world was brought out of China to prince Gagarin, who sent it to -prince Menzikoff; and it is now one of the ornaments of the imperial -crown. - -The exactions put in practice by prince Gagarin were of great prejudice -to that trade, which had brought him so much riches; and, at length, -they ended in his own destruction; for he was accused before the court -of justice, established by the czar, and sentenced to lose his head, a -year after the condemnation of the czarowitz, and the execution of all -those who had been his accomplices. - -About the same time, the emperor Camhi, perceiving his health to decay, -and knowing, by experience, that the European mathematicians were much -more learned in their art than those of his own nation, thought that -the European physicians must also have more knowledge than those of -Pekin, and therefore sent a message to the czar, by some ambassadors who -were returning from China to Petersburg, requesting him to send him one -of his physicians. There happened at that time to be an English surgeon -at Petersburg, who offered to undertake the journey in that character; -and accordingly set out in company with a new ambassador, and one -Laurence Lange, who has left a description of that journey. This embassy -was received, and all the expense of it defrayed with great pomp, by -Camhi. The surgeon, at his arrival, found the emperor in perfect health, -and gained the reputation of a most skilful physician. The caravans who -followed this embassy made prodigious profits; but fresh excesses having -been committed by this very caravan, the Chinese were so offended -thereat, that they sent back Lange, who was at that time resident from -the czar at the Chinese court, and with him all the Russian merchants -established there. - -The emperor Camhi dying, his son Yontchin, who had as great a share of -wisdom, and more firmness than his father, and who drove the Jesuits out -of his empire, as the czar had done from Russia in 1718, concluded a -treaty with Peter, by which the Russian caravans were no more to trade -on the frontiers of the two empires. There are only certain factors, -dispatched in the name of the emperor or empress of Russia, and these -have liberty to enter Pekin, where they are lodged in a vast house, -which the emperor of China formerly assigned for the reception of the -envoys from Corea: but it is a considerable time since either caravans -or factors have been sent from Russia thither so that the trade is now -in a declining way, but may possibly soon be revived. - - -_Of the Trade of_ PETERSBURG, _and the other ports of the_ RUSSIAN -EMPIRE. - -There were at this time above two hundred foreign vessels traded to the -new capital, in the space of a year. This trade has continued -increasing, and has frequently brought in five millions (French money) -to the crown. This was greatly more than the interest of the money which -this establishment had cost. This trade, however, greatly diminished -that of Archangel, and was precisely what the founder desired; for the -port of Archangel is too dangerous, and at too great distance from other -ports: besides that, a trade which is carried on immediately under the -eye of an assiduous sovereign, is always the most advantageous. That of -Livonia continued still on the same footing. The trade of Russia in -general has proved very successful; its ports have received from one -thousand to twelve hundred vessels in a year, and Peter discovered the -happy expedient of joining utility to glory. - - - - -CHAP. XXXII. - - Of the laws. - - -It is well known, that good laws are scarce, and that the due execution -of them is still more so. The greater the extent of any state, and the -variety of people of which it is composed, the more difficult it is to -unite them by the same body of laws. The father of czar Peter formed a -digest or code under the title of _Oulogenia_, which was actually -printed, but it by no means answered the end intended. - -Peter, in the course of his travels, had collected materials for -repairing this great structure, which was falling to decay in many of -its parts. He gathered many useful hints from the governments of -Denmark, Sweden, England, Germany, and France, selecting from each of -these different nations what he thought most suitable to his own. - -There was a court of boyards or great men, who determined all matters -_en dernier ressort_. Rank and birth alone gave a seat in this assembly; -but the czar thought that knowledge was likewise requisite, and -therefore this court was dissolved. - -He then instituted a procurator-general, assisted by four assistors, in -each of the governments of the empire. These were to overlook the -conduct of the judges, whose decrees were subject to an appeal to the -senate which he established. Each of those judges was furnished with a -copy of the _Oulogenia_, with additions and necessary alterations, until -a complete body of laws could be formed. - -It was forbid to these judges to receive any fees, which, however -moderate, are always an abusive tax on the fortunes and properties of -those concerned in suits of law. The czar also took care that the -expenses of the court were moderate, and the decisions speedy. The -judges and their clerks had salaries appointed them out of the public -treasury, and were not suffered to purchase their offices. - -It was in the year 1718, at the very time that he was engaged in the -process against his son, that he made the chief part of these -regulations. The greatest part of the laws he enacted were borrowed from -those of the Swedes, and he made no difficulty to admit to places in his -courts of judicature such Swedish prisoners who were well versed in the -laws of their own country, and who, having learnt the Russian language, -were willing to continue in that kingdom. - -The governor of each province and his assistors had the cognizance of -private causes within such government; from them there was an appeal to -the senate; and if any one, after having been condemned by the senate, -appealed to the czar himself, and such appeal was found unjust, he was -punished with death: but to mitigate the rigour of this law, the czar -created a master of the requests, who received the petitions of those -who had affairs depending in the senate, or in the inferior courts, -concerning which the laws then in force were not sufficiently -explanatory. - -At length, in 1722, he completed his new code, prohibiting all the -judges, under pain of death, to depart therefrom in their decrees, or to -set up their own private opinions in place of the general statutes. This -dreadful ordonnance was publicly fixed up, and still remains in all the -courts of judicature of the empire. - -He erected every thing anew; there was not, even to the common affairs -of society, aught but what was his work. He regulated the degrees -between man and man, according to their posts and employments, from the -admiral and the field-marshal to the ensign, without any regard to -birth. - -Having always in his own mind, and willing to imprint it on those of his -subjects, that services are preferable to pedigree, a certain rank was -likewise fixed for the women; and she who took a seat in a public -assembly, that did not properly belong to her, was obliged to pay a -fine. - -By a still more useful regulation, every private soldier, on being made -an officer, instantly became a gentleman; and a nobleman, if his -character had been impeached in a court of justice, was degraded to a -plebeian. - -After the settling of these several laws and regulations, it happened -that the increase of towns, wealth, and population in the empire, new -undertakings, and the creation of new employs, necessarily introduced a -multitude of new affairs and unforeseen cases, which were all -consequences of that success which attended the czar in the general -reformation of his dominions. - -The empress Elizabeth completed the body of laws which her father had -begun, in which she gave the most lively proofs of that mildness and -clemency for which she was so justly famed. - - - - -CHAP. XXXIII. - - Of Religion. - - -At this time Peter laboured more than ever to reform the clergy. He had -abolished the patriarchal office, and by this act of authority had -alienated the minds of the ecclesiastics. He was determined that the -imperial power should be free and absolute, and that of the church -respected, but submissive. His design was, to establish a council of -religion, which should always subsist, but dependent on the sovereign, -and that it should give no laws to the church, but such as should be -approved of by the head of the state, of which the church was a part. He -was assisted in this undertaking by the archbishop of Novogorod, named -Theophanes Procop, or Procopowitz, i.e. son of Procop. - -This prelate was a person of great learning and sagacity: his travels -through the different parts of Europe had afforded him opportunities of -remarks on the several abuses which reign amongst them. The czar, who -had himself been a witness of the same, had this great advantage in -forming all his regulations, that he was possessed of an unlimited power -to choose what was useful, and reject what was dangerous. He laboured, -in concert with the archbishop, in the years 1718 and 1719, to effect -his design. He established a perpetual synod, to be composed of twelve -members, partly bishops, and partly archpriests, all to be chosen by the -sovereign. This college was afterwards augmented to fourteen. - -The motives of this establishment were explained by the czar in a -preliminary discourse. The chief and most remarkable of these was, 'That -under the administration of a college of priests, there was less danger -of troubles and insurrections, than under the government of a single -head of the church; because the common people, who are always prone to -superstition, might, by seeing one head of the church, and another of -the state, be led to believe that they were in fact two different -powers.' And hereupon he cites as an example, the divisions which so -long subsisted between the empire and the papal see, and which stained -so many kingdoms with blood. - -Peter thought, and openly declared, that the notion of two powers in a -state, founded on the allegory of the two swords, mentioned in the -apostles, was absurd and erroneous. - -This court was invested with the ecclesiastical power of regulating all -penances, and examining into the morals and capacity of those nominated -by the court to bishoprics, to pass judgment _en dernier ressort_ in all -causes relating to religion, in which it was the custom formerly to -appeal to the patriarch, and also to take cognizance of the revenues of -monasteries, and the distribution of alms. - -This synod had the title of _most holy_, the same which the patriarchs -were wont to assume, and in fact the czar seemed to have preserved the -patriarchal dignity, but divided among fourteen members, who were all -dependant on the crown, and were to take an oath of obedience, which the -patriarchs never did. The members of this holy synod, when met in -assembly, had the same rank as the senators; but they were like the -senate, all dependant on the prince. But neither this new form of church -administration, nor the ecclesiastical code, were in full vigour till -four years after its institution, namely in 1722. Peter at first -intended, that the synod should have the presentation of those whom they -thought most worthy to fill the vacant bishoprics. These were to be -nominated by the emperor, and consecrated by the synod, Peter frequently -presided in person at the assembly. One day that a vacant see was to be -filled, the synod observed to the emperor, that they had none but -ignorant persons to present to his majesty: 'Well, then,' replied the -czar, 'you have only to pitch upon the most honest man, he will be worth -two learned ones.' - -It is to be observed, that the Greek church has none of that motley -order called secular abbots. The _petit collet_ is unknown there, -otherwise than by the ridiculousness of its character, but by another -abuse (as every thing in this world must be subject to abuse) the -bishops and prelates are all chosen from the monastic orders. The first -monks were only laymen, partly devotees, and partly fanatics, who -retired into the deserts, where they were at length gathered together by -St. Basil, who gave them a body of rules, and then they took vows, and -were reckoned as the lower order of the church, which is the first step -to be taken to arise at higher dignities. It was this that filled all -Greece and Asia with monks. Russia was overrun with them. They became -rich, powerful, and though excessively ignorant, they were, at the -accession of Peter to the throne, almost the only persons who knew how -to write. Of this knowledge they made such an abuse, when struck and -confounded with the new regulations which Peter introduced in all the -departments of government, that he was obliged in 1703 to issue an -edict, forbidding the use of pen and ink to the monks, without an -express order from the archimandrite, or prior of the convent, who in -that case was responsible for the behaviour of those to whom he granted -this indulgence. - -Peter designed to make this a standing law, and at first he intended, -that no one should be admitted into any order under fifty years of age; -but that appeared too late an age, as the life of man being in general -so limited, there was not time sufficient for such persons to acquire -the necessary qualifications for being made bishops; and therefore, with -the advice of his synod, he placed it at thirty years complete, but -never under; at the same time expressly prohibiting any person -exercising the profession of a soldier, or an husbandman, to enter into -a convent, without an immediate order from the emperor, or the synod, -and to admit no married man upon any account, even though divorced from -his wife; unless that wife should at the same time embrace a religious -life of her own pure will, and that neither of them had any children. No -person in actual employ under government can take the habit, without an -express order of the state for that purpose. Every monk is obliged to -work with his own hands at some trade. The nuns are never to go without -the walls of their convent, and at the age of fifty are to receive the -tonsure, as did the deaconesses of the primitive church; but if, before -undergoing that ceremony, they have an inclination to marry, they are -not only allowed, but even exhorted so to do. An admirable regulation in -a country where population is of infinitely greater use than a monastic -life. - -Peter was desirous that those unhappy females, whom God has destined to -people a kingdom, and who, by a mistaken devotion, annihilated in -cloisters that race of which they would otherwise become mothers, should -at least be of some service to society, which they thus injure; and -therefore ordered, that they should all be employed in some handy works, -suitable to their sex. The empress Catherine took upon herself the care -of sending for several handicrafts over from Brabant and Holland, whom -she distributed among these convents, and, in a short time, they -produced several kinds of work, which the empress and her ladies always -wore as a part of their dress. - -There cannot perhaps be any thing conceived more prudent than these -institutions; but what merits the attention of all ages, is the -regulation which Peter made himself, and which he addressed to the synod -in 1724. The ancient ecclesiastical institution is there very learnedly -explained, and the indolence of the monkish life admirably well exposed; -and he not only recommends an application to labour and industry, but -even commands it; and that the principal occupation of those people -should be, to assist and relieve the poor. He likewise orders, that sick -and infirm soldiers shall be quartered in the convents, and that a -certain number of monks shall be set apart to take care of them, and -that the most strong and healthy of these shall cultivate the lands -belonging to those convents. He orders the same regulations to be -observed in the monasteries for women, and that the strongest of these -shall take care of the gardens, and the rest to wait on sick or infirm -women, who shall be brought from the neighbouring country into the -convents for that purpose. He also enters into the minutest details -relating to these services; and lastly, he appoints certain monasteries -of both sexes for the reception and education of orphans. - -In reading this ordinance of Peter the Great, which was published the -31st January, 1724, one would imagine it to have been framed by a -minister of state and a father of the church. - -Almost all the customs in the Russian church are different from those of -ours. As soon as a man is made a sub-deacon, we prohibit him from -marrying, and he is accounted guilty of sacrilege if he proves -instrumental to the population of his country. On the contrary, when any -one has taken a sub-deacon's order in Russia, he is obliged likewise to -take a wife, and then may rise to the rank of priest, and arch-priest, -but he cannot be made a bishop, unless he is a widower and a monk. - -Peter forbid all parish-priests from bringing up more than one son to -the service of the church, unless it was particularly desired by the -parishioners; and this he did, lest a numerous family might in time come -to tyrannize over the parish. We may perceive in these little -circumstances relating to church-government, that the legislator had -always the good of the state in view, and that he took every precaution -to make the clergy properly respected, without being dangerous, and -that they should be neither contemptible nor powerful. - -In those curious memoirs, composed by an officer who was a particular -favourite of Peter the Great, I find the following anecdote:--One day a -person reading to the czar that number of the English Spectator, in -which a parallel is drawn between him and Lewis XIV. 'I do not think,' -said Peter, 'that I deserve the preference that is here given me over -that monarch; but I have been fortunate enough to have the superiority -over him in one essential point, namely, that of having obliged my -clergy to live in peace and submission; whereas my brother Lewis has -suffered himself to be ruled by his.' - -A prince, whose days were almost wholly spent in the fatigues of war, -and his nights in the compiling laws for the better government of so -large an empire, and in directing so many great labours, through a space -of two thousand leagues, must stand in need of some hours of amusement. -Diversions at that time were neither so noble or elegant as they now -are, and therefore we must not wonder if Peter amused himself with the -entertainment of the sham conclave, of which mention has been already -made, and other diversions of the same stamp, which were frequently at -the expense of the Romish church, to which he had a great dislike, and -which was very pardonable in a prince of the Greek communion, who was -determined to be master in his own dominions. He likewise gave several -entertainments of the same kind at the expense of the monks of his own -country; but of the ancient monks, whose follies and bigotry he wished -to ridicule, while he strove to reform the new. - -We have already seen that previous to his publishing his church-laws, -he created one of his fools pope, and celebrated the feast of the sham -conclave. This fool, whose name was Jotof, was between eighty and -ninety. The czar took it into his head to make him marry an old widow of -his own age, and to have their nuptials publicly solemnized; he caused -the invitation to the marriage guests to be made by four persons who -were remarkable for stammering. The bride was conducted to church by -decrepit old men, four of the most bulky men that could be found in -Russia acted as running footmen. The music were seated in a waggon drawn -by bears, whom they every now and then pricked with goads of iron, and -who, by their roaring, formed a full base, perfectly agreeable to the -concert in the cart. The married couple received the benediction in the -cathedral from the hands of a deaf and blind priest, who, to appear more -ridiculous, wore a large pair of spectacles on his nose. The procession, -the wedding, the marriage-feast, the undressing and putting to bed of -the bride and bridegroom, were all of a piece with the rest of this -burlesque ceremony. - -We may perhaps be apt to look upon this as a trivial and ridiculous -entertainment for a great prince; but is it more so than our carnival? -or to see five or six hundred persons with masks on their faces, and -dressed in the most ridiculous manner, skipping and jumping about -together, for a whole night in a large room, without speaking a word to -each other? - -In fine, were the ancient feasts of the fools and the ass, and the abbot -of the cuckolds, which were formerly celebrated in our churches, much -superior, or did our comedies of the foolish mother exhibit marks of a -greater genius? - - - - -CHAP. XXXIV. - - The congress of Aland or Oeland. Death of Charles XII., &c. The - treaty of Nystadt. - - -These immense labours, this minute review of the whole Russian empire, -and the melancholy proceedings against his unhappy son, were not the -only objects which demanded the attention of the czar; it was necessary -to secure himself without doors, at the same time that he was settling -order and tranquillity within. The war with Sweden was still carried on, -though faintly, in hopes of approaching peace. - -It is a known fact, that in the year 1717, cardinal Alberoni, prime -minister to Philip V. of Spain, and baron Gortz, who had gained an -entire ascendant over the mind of Charles XII. had concerted a project -to change the face of affairs in Europe, by effecting a reconciliation -between this last prince and the czar, driving George I. from the -English throne, and replacing Stanislaus on that of Poland, while -cardinal Alberoni was to procure the regency of France for his master -Philip. Gortz, as has been already observed, had opened his mind on this -head to the czar himself. Alberoni had begun a negotiation with prince -Kourakin, the czar's ambassador at the Hague, by means of the Spanish -ambassador, Baretti Landi, a native of Mantua, who had, like the -cardinal, quitted his own country to live in Spain. - -Thus a set of foreigners were about to overturn the general system, for -masters under whose dominion they were not born, or rather for -themselves. Charles XII. gave into all these projects, and the czar -contented himself with examining them in private. Since the year 1716 he -had made only feeble efforts against Sweden, and those rather with a -view to oblige that kingdom to purchase peace by restoring those places -it had taken in the course of the war, than with an intent to crush it -altogether. - -The baron Gortz, ever active and indefatigable in his projects, had -prevailed on the czar to send plenipotentiaries to the island of Oeland -to set on foot a treaty of peace. Bruce, a Scotchman, and grand master -of the ordnance in Russia, and the famous Osterman, who was afterwards -at the head of affairs, arrived at the place appointed for the congress -exactly at the time that the czarowitz was put under arrest at Moscow. -Gortz and Gillembourg were already there on the part of Charles XII. -both impatient to bring about a reconciliation between that prince and -Peter, and to revenge themselves on the king of England. It was an -extraordinary circumstance that there should be a congress, and no -cessation of arms. The czar's fleet still continued cruising on the -coasts of Sweden, and taking the ships of that nation. Peter thought by -keeping up hostilities to hasten the conclusion of a peace, of which he -knew the Swedes stood greatly in need, and which must prove highly -glorious to the conqueror. - -Notwithstanding the little hostilities which still continued, every -thing bespoke the speedy approach of peace. The preliminaries began by -mutual acts of generosity, which produce stronger effects than many -hand-writings. The czar sent back without ransom marshal Erenschild, -whom he had taken prisoner with his own hands, and Charles in return did -the same by Trubetskoy and Gallowin, who had continued prisoners in -Sweden ever since the battle of Narva. - -The negotiations now advanced apace, and a total change was going to be -made in the affairs of the North. Gortz proposed to the czar to put the -duchy of Mecklenburg into his hands. Duke Charles, its sovereign, who -had married a daughter of czar John, Peter's elder brother, was at -variance with the nobility of the country, who had taken arms against -him. And Peter, who looked upon that prince as his brother-in-law, had -an army in Mecklenburg ready to espouse his cause. The king of England, -elector of Hanover, declared on the side of the nobles. Here was another -opportunity of mortifying the king of England, by putting Peter in -possession of Mecklenburg, who, being already master of Livonia, would -by this means, in a short time, become more powerful in Germany than any -of its electors. The duchy of Courland was to be given to the duke of -Mecklenburg, as an equivalent for his own, together with a part of -Prussia at the expense of Poland, who was to have Stanislaus again for -her king. Bremen and Verden were to revert to Sweden; but these -provinces could not be wrested out of the hands of the king of England -but by force of arms; accordingly Gortz's project was (as we have -already said) to effect a firm union between Peter and Charles XII., and -that not only by the bands of peace, but by an offensive alliance, in -which case they were jointly to send an army into Scotland. Charles XII. -after having made himself master of Norway, was to make a descent on -Great Britain, and he fondly imagined he should be able to set a new -sovereign on the throne of those kingdoms, after having replaced one of -his own choosing on that of Poland. Cardinal Alberoni promised both -Peter and Charles to furnish them with subsidies. The fall of the king -of England would, it was supposed, draw with it that of his ally, the -regent of France, who being thus deprived of all support, was to fall a -victim to the victorious arms of Spain, and the discontent of the French -nation. - -Alberoni and Gortz now thought themselves secure of totally overturning -the system of Europe, when a cannon ball from the bastions of -Frederickshal in Norway confounded all their mighty projects. Charles -XII. was killed, the Spanish fleet was beaten by that of England, the -conspiracy which had been formed in France was discovered and quelled, -Alberoni was driven out of Spain, and Gortz was beheaded at Stockholm; -and of all this formidable league, so lately made, the czar alone -retained his credit, who by not having put himself in the power of any -one, gave law to all his neighbours. - -At the death of Charles XII. there was a total change of measures in -Sweden. Charles had governed with a despotic power, and his sister -Ulrica was elected Queen on express condition of renouncing arbitrary -government. Charles intended to form an alliance with the czar against -England and its allies, and the new government of Sweden now joined -those allies against the czar. - -The congress at Oeland, however, was not broken up; but the Swedes, now -in league with the English, flattered themselves that the fleets of that -nation sent into the Baltic would procure them a more advantageous -peace. A body of Hanoverian troops entered the dominions of the duke of -Mecklenburg (Feb. 1716.), but were soon driven from thence by the czar's -forces. - -Peter likewise had a body of troops in Poland, which kept in awe both -the party of Augustus, and that of Stanislaus; and as to Sweden, he had -a fleet always ready, either to make a descent on their coasts, or to -oblige the Swedish government to hasten matters in the congress. This -fleet consisted of twelve large ships of the line, and several lesser -ones, besides frigates and galleys. The czar served on board this fleet -as vice-admiral, under the command of admiral Apraxin. - -A part of this fleet signalized itself in the beginning against a -Swedish squadron, and, after an obstinate engagement, took one ship of -the line, and two frigates. Peter, who constantly endeavoured, by every -possible means, to encourage and improve the navy he had been at so much -pains to establish, gave, on this occasion, sixty thousand French -livres[111] in money among the officers of this squadron, with several -gold medals, besides conferring marks of honour on those who principally -distinguished themselves. - -About this time also the English fleet under admiral Norris came up the -Baltic, in order to favour the Swedes. Peter, who well knew how far he -could depend on his new navy, was not to be frightened by the English, -but boldly kept the sea, and sent to know of the English admiral if he -was come only as a friend to the Swedes, or as an enemy to Russia? The -admiral returned for answer, that he had not as yet any positive orders -from his court on that head: however Peter, notwithstanding this -equivocal reply, continued to keep the sea with his fleet. - -The English fleet, which in fact was come thither only to shew itself, -and thereby induce the czar to grant more favourable conditions of peace -to the Swedes, went to Copenhagen, and the Russians made some descents -on the Swedish coast, and even in the neighbourhood of Copenhagen, (July -1719.) where they destroyed some copper mines, burnt about fifteen -thousand houses, and did mischief enough to make the Swedes heartily -wish for a speedy conclusion of the peace. - -Accordingly the new queen of Sweden pressed a renewal of the -negotiations; Osterman himself was sent to Stockholm, and matters -continued in this situation during the whole of the year 1719. - -The following year the prince of Hesse, husband to the queen of Sweden, -and now become king, in virtue of her having yielded up the sovereign -power in his favour, began his reign by sending a minister to the court -of Petersburg, in order to hasten the so much desired peace; but the war -was still carried on in the midst of these negotiations. - -The English fleet joined that of the Swedes, but did not yet commit any -hostilities, as there was no open rupture between the courts of Russia -and England, and admiral Norris even offered his master's mediation -towards bringing about a peace; but as this offer was made with arms in -hand, it rather retarded than facilitated the negotiations. The coasts -of Sweden, and those of the new Russian provinces in the Baltic, are so -situated, that the former lay open to every insult, while the latter are -secured by their difficult access. This was clearly seen when admiral -Norris, after having thrown off the mask, (June 1720.) made a descent in -conjunction with the Swedish fleet on a little island in the province of -Esthonia, called Narguen, which belonged to the czar, where they only -burnt a peasant's house; but the Russians at the same time made a -descent near Wasa, and burnt forty-one villages, and upwards of one -thousand houses, and did an infinite deal of damage to the country round -about. Prince Galitzin boarded and took four Swedish frigates, and the -English admiral seemed to have come only to be spectator of that pitch -of glory to which the czar had raised his infant navy; for he had but -just shewn himself in those seas, when the Swedish frigates were carried -in triumph into the harbour of Cronslot before Petersburg.[112] On this -occasions methinks the English did too much if they came only as -mediators, and too little if as enemies. - -Nov. 1720.] At length, the new king of Sweden demanded a cessation of -arms; and as he found the menaces of the English had stood him in no -stead, he had recourse to the duke of Orleans, the French regent; and -this prince, at once an ally of Russia and Sweden, had the honour of -effecting a reconciliation between them. (Feb. 1721.) He sent Campredon, -his plenipotentiary, to the court of Petersburg, and from thence to that -of Stockholm. A congress was opened at Nystadt,[113] but the czar would -not agree to a cessation of arms till matters were on the point of being -concluded and the plenipotentiaries ready to sign. He had an army in -Finland ready to subdue the rest of that province, and his fleets were -continually threatening the Swedish coasts, so that he seemed absolute -master of dictating the terms of peace; accordingly they subscribed to -whatever he thought fit to demand. By this treaty he was to remain in -perpetual possession of all that his arms had conquered, from the -borders of Courland to the extremity of the gulf of Finland, and from -thence again of the whole extent of the country of Kexholm, and that -narrow slip of Finland which stretches out to the northward of the -neighbourhood of Kexholm; so that he remained master of all Livonia, -Esthonia, Ingria, Carelia, with the country of Wybourg, and the -neighbouring isles, which secured to him the sovereignty of the sea, as -likewise of the isles of Oessel, Dago, Mona, and several others: the -whole forming an extent of three thousand leagues of country, of unequal -breadth, and which altogether made a large kingdom, that proved the -reward of twenty years' immense pains and labour. - -The peace was signed at Nystadt the 10th September, 1721, N. S. by the -Russian minister Osterman, and general Bruce. - -Peter was the more rejoiced at that event, as it freed him from the -necessity of keeping such large armies on the frontiers of Sweden, as -also from any apprehensions on the part of England, or of the -neighbouring states, and left him at full liberty to exert his whole -attention to the modelling of his empire, in which he had already made -so successful a beginning, and to cherish arts and commerce, which he -had introduced among his subjects, at the expense of infinite labour and -industry. - -In the first transports of his satisfaction, we find him writing in -these terms to his plenipotentiaries; 'You have drawn up the treaty as -if we ourself had dictated and sent it to you to offer the Swedes to -sign. This glorious event shall be ever present to our remembrance.' - -All degrees of people, throughout the Russian empire, gave proofs of -their satisfaction, by the most extraordinary rejoicings of all kinds, -and particularly at Petersburg. The triumphal festivals, with which the -czar had entertained his people during the course of the war, were -nothing to compare to these rejoicings for the peace, which every one -hailed with unutterable satisfaction. The peace itself was the most -glorious of all his triumphs; and what pleased more than all the pompous -shows on the occasion, was a free pardon and general release granted to -all prisoners, and a general remission of all sums due to the royal -treasury for taxes throughout the whole empire, to the day of the -publication of the peace. In consequence of which a multitude of -unhappy wretches, who had been confined in prison, were set at -liberty, excepting only those guilty of highway-robbery, murder, or -treason.[114] - -It was at this time that the senate decreed Peter the titles of _Great_, -_Emperor_, and _Father of his Country_. Count Golofkin, the high -chancellor, made a speech to the czar in the great cathedral, in the -name of all the orders of the state, the senators crying aloud, _Long -live our emperor and father!_ in which acclamations they were joined by -the united voice of all the people present. The ministers of France, -Germany, Poland, Denmark, and the states-general, waited on him, with -their congratulations, on the titles lately bestowed on him, and -formally acknowledged for emperor him who had been always publicly known -in Holland by that title, ever since the battle of Pultowa. The names of -_Father_, and of _Great_, were glorious epithets, which no one in Europe -could dispute him; that of _Emperor_ was only a honorary title, given by -custom to the sovereigns of Germany, as titular kings of the Romans; and -it requires time before such appellations come to be formally adopted by -those courts where forms of state and real glory are different things. -But Peter was in a short time after acknowledged emperor by all the -states of Europe, excepting only that of Poland, which was still divided -by factions, and the pope, whose suffrage was become of very little -significance, since the court of Rome had lost its credit in proportion -as other nations became more enlightened. - - - - -CHAP. XXXV. - - Conquests in Persia. - - -The situation of Russia is such, as necessarily obliges her to keep up -certain connexions with all the nations that lie in the fifth degree of -north latitude. When under a bad administration, she was a prey by turns -to the Tartars, the Swedes, and the Poles; but when governed by a -resolute and vigorous prince, she became formidable to all her -neighbours. Peter began his reign by an advantageous treaty with the -Chinese. He had waged war at one and the same time against the Swedes -and the Turks, and now prepared to lead his victorious armies into -Persia. - -At this time Persia began to fall into that deplorable state, in which -we now behold her. Let us figure to ourselves the thirty years' war in -Germany, the times of the league, those of the massacre of St. -Bartholomew, and the reigns of Charles VI. and of king John in France, -the civil wars in England, the long and horrible ravages of the whole -Russian empire by the Tartars, or their invasion of China; and then we -shall have some slight conception of the miseries under which the -Persian empire has so long groaned. - -A weak and indolent prince, and a powerful and enterprising subject, are -sufficient to plunge a whole nation into such an abyss of disasters. -Hussein, sha, shaic, or sophi of Persia, a descendant of the great sha -Abbas, who sat at this time on the throne of Persia, had given himself -wholly up to luxury and effeminacy: his prime minister committed acts of -the greatest violence and injustice, which this great prince winked at, -and this gave rise to forty years' desolation and bloodshed. - -Persia, like Turkey, has several provinces, all governed in a different -manner; she has subjects immediately under her dominion, vassals, -tributary princes, and even nations, to whom the court was wont to pay a -tribute, under the name of subsidies; for instance, the people of -Daghestan, who inhabit the branches of mount Caucasus, to the westward -of the Caspian Sea, which was formerly a part of the ancient Albania; -for all nations have changed their appellation and their limits. These -are now called Lesgians, and are mountaineers, who are rather under the -protection, than the dominion, of Persia; to these the government paid -subsidies for defending the frontiers. - -At the other extremity of the empire, towards the Indies, was the prince -of Candahar, who commanded a kind of martial militia, called Aghwans. -This prince of Candahar was a vassal of the Persian, as the hospodars of -Walachia and Moldavia are of the Turkish empire: this vassalage was not -hereditary, but exactly the same with the ancient feudal tenures -established throughout Europe, by that race of Tartars who overthrew the -Roman empire. The Aghwan militia, of which the prince of Candahar was -the head, was the same with the Albanians on the coasts of the Caspian -Sea, in the neighbourhood of Daghestan, and a mixture of Circassians and -Georgians, like the ancient Mamelucks who enslaved Egypt. The name of -Aghwans is a corruption; Timur, whom we call Tamerlane, had led these -people into India, and they remained settled in the province of -Candahar, which sometimes belonged to the Mogul empire, and sometimes to -that of Persia. It was these Aghwans and Lesgians who began the -revolution. - -Mir-Weis, or Meriwitz, intendant of the province, whose office was only -to collect the tributes, assassinated the prince of Candahar, armed the -militia, and continued master of the province till his death, which -happened in 1717. His brother came quietly to the succession, by paying -a slight tribute to the Persian court. But the son of Mir-Weis, who -inherited the ambition of his father, assassinated his uncle, and began -to erect himself into a conqueror. This young man was called -Mir-Mahmoud, but he was known in Europe only by the name of his father, -who had begun the rebellion. Mahmoud reinforced his Aghwans, by adding -to them all the Guebres he could get together. These Guebres were an -ancient race of Persians, who had been dispersed by the caliph Omar, and -who still continued attached to the religion of the Magi (formerly -flourished in the reign of Cyrus), and were always secret enemies to the -new Persians. Having assembled his forces, Mahmoud marched into the -heart of Persia, at the head of a hundred thousand men. - -At the same time the Lesgians or Albanians, who, on account of the -troublesome times, had not received their subsidies from the court of -Persia, came down from their mountains with an armed force, so that the -flames of civil war were lighted up at both ends of the empire, and -extended themselves even to the capital. - -These Lesgians ravaged all that country which stretches along the -western borders of the Caspian Sea, as far as Derbent, or the Iron Gate. -In this country is situated the city of Shamache, about fifteen leagues -distant from the sea, and is said to have been the ancient residence of -Cyrus, and by the Greeks called Cyropolis, for we know nothing of the -situation or names of these countries, but what we have from the Greeks; -but as the Persians never had a prince called Cyrus, much less had they -any city called Cyropolis. It is much in the same manner that the Jews, -who commenced authors when they were settled in Alexandria, framed a -notion of a city called Scythopolis, which, said they, was built by the -Scythians in the neighbourhood of Judea, as if either Scythians or -ancient Jews could have given Greek names to their towns. - -The city of Shamache was very rich. The Armenians, who inhabit in the -neighbourhood of this part of the Persian empire, carried on an immense -traffic there, and Peter had lately established a company of Russian -merchants at his own expense, which company became very flourishing. The -Lesgians made themselves masters of this city by surprise, plundered it, -and put to death all the Russians who traded there under the protection -of shah Hussein, after having stripped all their warehouses. The loss on -this occasion was said to amount to four millions of rubles. - -Peter upon this sent to demand satisfaction of the emperor Hussein, who -was then disputing the throne with the rebel Mahmoud, who had usurped -it, and likewise of Mahmoud himself. The former of these was willing to -do the czar justice, the other refused it; Peter therefore resolved to -right himself, and take advantage of the distractions in the Persian -empire. - -Mir-Mahmoud still pushed his conquests in Persia. The sophi hearing that -the emperor of Russia was preparing to enter the Caspian Sea, in order -to revenge the murder of his subjects at Shamache, made private -application to him, by means of an Armenian, to take upon him at the -same time the defence of Persia. - -Peter had for a considerable time formed a project to make himself -master of the Caspian Sea, by means of a powerful naval force, and to -turn the tide of commerce from Persia and a part of India through his -own dominions. He had caused several parts of this sea to be sounded, -the coasts to be surveyed, and exact charts made of the whole. He then -set sail for the coast of Persia the 15th day of May, 1722. Catherine -accompanied him in this voyage, as she had done in the former. They -sailed down the Wolga as far as the city of Astracan. From thence he -hastened to forward the canals which were to join the Caspian, the -Baltic, and the Euxine seas, a work which has been since executed in -part under the reign of his grandson. - -While he was directing these works, the necessary provisions for his -expedition were arrived in the Caspian Sea. He was to take with him -twenty-two thousand foot, nine thousand dragoons, fifteen thousand -Cossacks, and three thousand seamen, who were to work the ships, and -occasionally assist the soldiery in making descents on the coast. The -horse were to march over land through deserts where there was frequently -no water to be had, and afterwards to pass over the mountains of -Caucasus, where three hundred men are sufficient to stop the progress of -a whole army; but the distracted condition in which Persia then was, -warranted the most hazardous enterprises. - -The czar sailed about a hundred leagues to the southward of Astracan, -till he came to the little town of Andrewhoff. It may appear -extraordinary to hear of the name of Andrew on the coasts of the -Hyrcanian Sea; but some Georgians, who were formerly a sect of -Christians, had built this town, which the Persians afterwards -fortified; but it fell an easy prey to the czar's arms. From thence he -continued advancing by land into the province of Daghestan, and caused -manifestoes to be circulated in the Turkish and Persian languages.[115] -It was necessary to keep fair with the Ottoman Porte, who reckoned among -its subjects, not only the Circassians and Georgians, who border upon -this country, but also several powerful vassals, who had of late put -themselves under the protection of the grand seignior. - -Among others there was one very powerful, named Mahmoud d'Utmich, who -took the title of sultan, and had the courage to attack the czar's -troops, by which he was totally defeated, and the story says, that his -whole country was made a bonfire on the occasion. - -Sept. 14, 1722.] In a short time afterwards Peter arrived at the city of -Derbent, by the Persians and Turks called Demir Capi, that is, the Iron -Gate, and so named from having formerly had an iron gate at the south -entrance. The city is long and narrow, its upper part joins to a rocky -branch of Mount Caucasus, and the walls of the lower part are washed by -the sea, which in violent storms make a breach over them. These walls -might pass for one of the wonders of antiquity, being forty feet in -height, and six in breadth, defended with square towers at the distance -of every fifty feet. The whole work seems one uniform piece, and is -built of a sort of brown free-stone mixed with pounded shells, which -served as mortar, so that the whole forms a mass harder than marble. The -city lies open from the sea, but part of it next the land appears -impregnable. There are still some ruins of an old wall like that of -China, which must have been built in the earliest times of antiquity, -and stretched from the borders of the Caspian Sea to the Pontus Euxinus; -and this was probably a rampart raised by the ancient kings of Persia -against those swarms of barbarians which dwelt between those two seas. - -According to the Persian tradition, the city of Derbent was partly -repaired and fortified by Alexander the Great. Arrian and Quintus -Curtius tell us, that Alexander absolutely rebuilt this city. They say -indeed that it was on the banks of the Tanais or Don, but then in their -time the Greeks gave the name of Tanais to the river Cyrus, which runs -by the city. It would be a contradiction to suppose that Alexander -should build a harbour in the Caspian Sea, on a river that opens into -the Black Sea. - -There were formerly three or four other ports in different parts of the -Caspian Sea, all which were probably built with the same view; for the -several nations inhabiting to the west, east, and north of that sea, -have in all times been barbarians, who had rendered themselves -formidable to the rest of the world, and from hence principally issued -those swarms of conquerors who subjugated Asia and Europe. - -And here I must beg leave to remark, how much pleasure authors in all -ages have taken to impose upon mankind, and how much they have preferred -a vain show of eloquence to matter of fact. Quintus Curtius puts into -the mouths of Scythians an admirable speech full of moderation and -philosophy, as if the Tartars of those regions had been all so many -sages, and that Alexander had not been the general nominated by the -Greeks against the king of Persia, sovereign of the greatest part of -southern Scythia and the Indies. Other rhetoricians, thinking to imitate -Quintus Curtius, have studied to make us look upon those savages of -Caucacus and its dreary deserts, who lived wholly upon rapine and -bloodshed, as the people in the world most remarkable for austere virtue -and justice, and have painted Alexander, the avenger of Greece, and the -conqueror of those who would have enslaved him and his country, as a -public robber, who had ravaged the world without justice or reason. - -Such writers do not consider, that these Tartars were never other than -destroyers, and that Alexander built towns in the very country which -they inhabited; and in this respect I may venture to compare Peter the -Great to Alexander; like him he was assiduous and indefatigable in his -pursuits, a lover and friend of the useful arts; he surpassed him as a -lawgiver, and like him endeavoured to change the tide of commerce in the -world, and built and repaired at least as many towns as that celebrated -hero of antiquity. - -On the approach of the Russian army, the governor of Derbent resolved -not to sustain a siege, whether he thought he was not able to defend the -place, or that he preferred the czar's protection to that of the tyrant -Mahmoud; brought the keys of the town and citadel (which were silver) -and presented them to Peter, whose army peaceably entered the city, and -then encamped on the sea-shore. - -The usurper, Mahmoud, already master of great part of Persia, in vain -endeavoured to prevent the czar from taking possession of Derbent: he -stirred up the neighbouring Tartars, and marched into Persia to the -relief of the place; but, too late, for Derbent was already in the hands -of the conqueror. - -Peter however was not in a condition to push his successes any further -at this time. The vessels which were bringing him a fresh supply of -provisions, horses, and recruits, had been cast away near Astracan, and -the season was far spent. He therefore returned to Moscow, Jan. 5. which -he entered in triumph; and after his arrival (according to custom) gave -a strict account of his expedition to the vice-czar Romadanowski, thus -keeping up this extraordinary farce, which, says his eulogium, -pronounced in the academy of sciences at Paris, ought to have been -performed before all the monarchs of the earth. - -The empire of Persia continued to be divided between Hussein and the -usurper Mahmoud. The first of these thought to find a protector in the -czar, and the other dreaded him as an avenger, who was come to snatch -the fruits of his rebellion out of his hands. Mahmoud exerted all his -endeavours to stir up the Ottoman Porte against Peter, and for this -purpose sent an embassy to Constantinople, while the princes of -Daghestan, who were under the protection of the grand seignior, and had -been stript of their territories by the victorious army of Peter, cried -aloud for vengeance. The divan was now alarmed for the safety of -Georgia, which the Turks reckon in the number of their dominions. - -The grand seignior was on the point of declaring war against the czar, -but was prevented by the courts of Vienna and Paris. The emperor of -Germany at the same time declared, that if Russia should be attacked by -the Turks, he must be obliged to defend it. The marquis de Bonac, the -French ambassador at Constantinople, made a dextrous use of the menaces -of the imperial court, and at the same time insinuated, that it was -contrary to the true interest of the Turkish empire, to suffer a rebel -and an usurper to set the example of dethroning sovereigns, and that the -czar had done no more than what the grand seignior himself ought to have -done. - -During these delicate negotiations, Mir Mahmoud was advanced to the -gates of Derbent, and had laid waste all the neighbouring country in -order to cut off all means of subsistence from the Russian army. That -part of ancient Hyrcania, now called Ghilan, was reduced to a desert, -and the inhabitants threw themselves under the protection of the -Russians, whom they looked upon as their deliverers. - -In this they followed the example of the sophi himself. That unfortunate -prince sent a formal embassy to Peter the Great, to request his -assistance; but the ambassador was hardly departed, when the rebel, Mir -Mahmoud, seized on Ispahan and the person of his master. - -Thamaseb, the son of the dethroned sophi, who was taken prisoner, found -means to escape out of the tyrant's hands, and got together a body of -troops, with which he gave the usurper battle. He seconded his father's -entreaties to Peter the Great for his protection, and sent to the -ambassador the same instructions which Shah Hussein had given him. - -This ambassador, whose name was Ishmael Beg, found that his negotiations -had proved successful, even before he arrived in person; for, on landing -at Astracan, he learnt that general Matufkin was going to set out with -fresh recruits to reinforce the army in Daghestan. The dey of Baku or -Bachu, which with the Persians gives to the Caspian Sea the name of the -Sea of Bacou, was not yet taken. The ambassador therefore gave the -Russian general a letter for the inhabitants, in which he exhorted them -in his master's name to submit to the emperor of Russia. The ambassador -then proceeded to Petersburg, and general Matufkin departed to lay siege -to the city of Bachu. (Aug. 1723.) The Persian ambassador arrived at the -czar's court the very day that tidings were brought of the reduction of -that city. - -Baku is situate near Shamache, but is neither so well peopled, nor so -rich as the latter. It is chiefly remarkable for the naptha, with which -it furnishes all Persia. Never was treaty so speedily concluded as that -of Ishmael Beg. (Sept. 1723.) Czar Peter promised to march with his -forces into Persia, in order to revenge the death of his subjects, and -to succour Thamaseb against the usurper of his crown, and the new sophi -in return was to cede to him, not only the towns of Bachu and Derbent, -but likewise the provinces of Ghilan, Mazanderan, and Asterabath. - -Ghilan is, as we have already observed, the ancient South Hyrcania; -Mazanderan, which joins to it, is the country of the Mardi, or Mardians; -and Asterabath borders upon Mazanderan. These were the three principal -provinces of the ancient Median kings; so that Peter beheld himself, by -the means of arms and treaties, in possession of the original kingdom of -Cyrus. - -It may not be foreign to our subject to observe, that by the articles of -this convention, the prices of necessaries to be furnished to the army -were settled. A camel was to cost only sixty franks (about twelve -rubles) a pound of bread no more than five farthings, the same weight of -beef about six. These prices furnish a convincing proof of the plenty -he found in these countries, that possessions in land are of the most -intrinsic value, and that money, which is only of nominal worth, was at -that time very scarce. - -Such was the deplorable state to which Persia was then reduced, that the -unfortunate sophi Thamaseb, a wanderer in his own kingdom, and flying -before the face of the rebel, Mahmoud, who had dipt his hands in the -blood of his father and his brothers, was necessitated to entreat the -court of Russia and the Turkish divan to accept of one part of his -dominions to preserve for him the rest. - -It was agreed then, between czar Peter, sultan Achmet III. and the sophi -Thamaseb, that the first of these should keep the three provinces -above-named, and that the Porte should have Casbin, Tauris, and Erivan, -besides what she had already taken from the usurper. Thus was this noble -kingdom dismembered at once by the Russians, the Turks, and the Persians -themselves. - -And now the emperor Peter might be said to extend his dominions from the -furthest part of the Baltic Sea, beyond the southern limits of the -Caspian. Persia still continued a prey to violations and devastations, -and its natives, till then opulent and polite, were now sunk in poverty -and barbarism, while the Russian people had arisen from indigence and -ignorance to a state of riches and learning. One single man, by a -resolute and enterprising genius, had brought his country out of -obscurity; and another, by his weakness and indolence, had brought -destruction upon his. - -Hitherto we know very little of the private calamities which for so long -a time spread desolation over the face of the Persian empire. It is -said, that shah Hussein was so pusillanimous as to place with his own -hands the tiara or crown of Persia on the head of the usurper Mahmoud, -and also that this Mahmoud afterwards went mad. Thus the lives of so -many thousands of men depend on the caprice of a madman or a fool. They -add furthermore, that Mahmoud, in one of his fits of frenzy, put to -death with his own hand all the sons and nephews of the shah Hussein to -the number of a hundred; and that he caused the gospel of St. John to be -read upon his head, in order to purify himself, and to receive a cure -for his disorder. These and such like Persian fables have been -circulated by our monks, and afterwards printed in Paris. - -The tyrant, after having murdered his uncle, was in his turn put to -death by his nephew Eshreff, who was as cruel and bloody a tyrant as -Mahmoud himself. - -Shah Thamaseb still continued imploring the assistance of Russia. This -Thamaseb or shah Thomas, was assisted and afterwards replaced on the -throne by the famous Kouli Khan, and was again dethroned by the same -Kouli Khan. - -The revolutions and wars which Russia had afterwards to encounter -against the Turks, and in which she proved victorious, the evacuating -the three provinces in Persia, which cost Russia more to keep than they -were worth, are events which do not concern Peter the Great, as they did -not happen till several years after his death; it may suffice to -observe, that he finished his military career by adding three provinces -to his empire on the part next to Persia, after having just before added -the same number on that side next to Sweden. - - - - -CHAP. XXXVI. - - Of the Coronation of the Empress Catherine I. and the Death of Peter - the Great. - - -Peter, at his return from his Persian expedition, found himself in a -better condition than ever to be the arbiter of the North. He now openly -declared himself the protector of Charles XII. whose professed enemy he -had been for eighteen years. He sent for the duke of Holstein, nephew to -that monarch, to his court, promised him his eldest daughter in -marriage, and began to make preparations for supporting him in his -claims on the duchy of Holstein Sleswick, and even engaged himself so to -do by a treaty of alliance, (Feb. 1724.) which he concluded with the -crown of Sweden. - -He continued the works he had begun all over his empire, to the further -extremity of Kamtshatka, and for the better direction of them, -established an academy of sciences at Petersburg. The arts began now to -flourish on every side: manufactures were encouraged, the navy was -augmented, the army well provided, and the laws properly enforced. He -now enjoyed his glory in full repose; but was desirous of sharing it in -a new manner with her who, according to his own declaration, by -remedying the disaster of the campaign of Pruth, had been in some -measure the instrument of his acquiring that glory. - -Accordingly, the coronation of his consort Catherine was performed at -Moscow, in presence of the duchess of Courland, his eldest brother's -daughter, and the duke of Holstein, his intended son-in-law. (May 28, -1724.) The declaration which he published on this occasion merits -attention: he therein cites the examples of several Christian princes -who had placed the crown on the heads of their consorts, as likewise -those of the heathen emperors, Basilides, Justinian, Heraclius, and Leo, -the philosopher. He enumerates the services Catherine had done to the -state, and in particular in the war against the Turks,--'Where my army,' -says he, 'which had been reduced to 22,000 men, had to encounter an army -above 200,000 strong.' He does not say, in this declaration, that the -empress was to succeed to the crown after his death; but this ceremony, -which was altogether new and unusual in the Russian empire, was one of -those means by which he prepared the minds of his subjects for such an -event. Another circumstance that might perhaps furnish a stronger reason -to believe that he destined Catherine to succeed him on the throne, was, -that he himself marched on foot before her the day of her coronation, as -captain of a new company, which he had created under the name of the -_knights of the empress_. - -When they arrived at the cathedral, Peter himself placed the crown on -her head; and when she would have fallen down and embraced his knees, he -prevented her; and, at their return from the church, caused the sceptre -and globe to be carried before her. The ceremony was altogether worthy -an emperor; for on every public occasion Peter shewed as much pomp and -magnificence as he did plainness and simplicity in his private manner of -living. - -Having thus crowned his spouse, he at length determined to give his -eldest daughter, Anna Petrowna, in marriage to the duke of Holstein. -This princess greatly resembled her father in the face, was very -majestic, and of a singular beauty. She was betrothed to the duke of -Holstein on the 24th of November, 1724, but with very little ceremony. -Peter having for some time past found his health greatly impaired, and -this, together with some family uneasiness, that perhaps rather -increased his disorder, which in a short time proved fatal, permitted -him to have but very little relish for feasts or public diversions in -this latter part of his life. [116] The empress Catherine had at that -time a young man for the chamberlain of her household, whose name was -Moens de la Croix, a native of Russia, but of Flemish parents, -remarkably handsome and genteel. His sister, madame de Balc, was -bed-chamber-woman to the empress, and these two had entirely the -management of her household. Being both accused of having taken -presents, they were sent to prison, and afterwards brought to their -trial by express order of the czar; who, by an edict in the year 1714, -had forbidden any one holding a place about court to receive any present -or other gratuity, on pain of being declared infamous, and suffering -death; and this prohibition had been several times renewed. - -The brother and sister were found guilty, and received sentence, and all -those who had either purchased their services or given them any gratuity -in return for the same, were included therein, except the duke of -Holstein and his minister count Bassewitz: as it is probable that the -presents made by that prince, to those who had a share in bringing about -his marriage with the czar's daughter, were not looked upon in a -criminal light. - -Moens was condemned to be beheaded, and his sister (who was the -empress's favourite) to receive eleven strokes of the knout. The two -sons of this lady, one of whom was an officer in the household, and the -other a page, were degraded, and sent to serve as private soldiers in -the army in Persia. - -These severities, though they shock our manners, were perhaps necessary -in a country where the observance of the laws is to be enforced only by -the most terrifying rigour. The empress solicited her favourite's -pardon; but the czar, offended at her application, peremptorily refused -her, and, in the heat of his passion, seeing a fine looking-glass in the -apartment, he, with one blow of his fist, broke it into a thousand -pieces; and, turning to the empress, 'Thus,' said he, 'thou seest I can, -with one stroke of my hand, reduce this glass to its original dust.' -Catherine, in a melting accent, replied, 'It is true, you have destroyed -one of the greatest ornaments of your palace, but do you think that -palace is the more charming for its loss?' This answer appeased the -emperor's wrath; but all the favour that Catherine could obtain for her -bed-chamber-woman was, that she should receive only five strokes of the -knout instead of eleven. - -I should not have related this anecdote, had it not been attested by a -public minister, who was eye-witness of the whole transaction, and who, -by having made presents to the unfortunate brother and sister, was -perhaps himself one of the principal causes of their disgrace and -sufferings. It was this affair that emboldened those who judge of every -thing in the worst light, to spread the report that Catherine hastened -the death of her husband, whose choleric disposition filled her with -apprehensions that overweighed the gratitude she owed him for the many -favours he had heaped upon her. - -These cruel suspicions were confirmed by Catherine's recalling to court -her woman of the bed-chamber immediately upon the death of the czar, and -reinstating her in her former influence. It is the duty of an historian -to relate the public reports which have been circulated in all times in -states, on the decease of princes who have been snatched away by a -premature death, as if nature was not alone sufficient to put a period -to the existence of a crowned head as well as that of a beggar; but it -is likewise the duty of an historian to shew how far such reports were -rashly or unjustly formed. - -There is an immense distance between the momentary discontent which may -arise from the morose or harsh behaviour of a husband, and the desperate -resolution of poisoning that husband, who is at the same time our -sovereign and benefactor in the highest degree. The danger attending -such a design would have been as great as it was criminal. Catherine had -at that time a powerful party against her, who epoused the cause of the -son of the deceased czarowitz. Nevertheless, neither that faction, nor -any one person about the court, once suspected the czarina; and the -vague rumours which were spread on this head were founded only on the -mistaken notions of foreigners, who were very imperfectly acquainted -with the affair, and who chose to indulge the wretched pleasure of -accusing of heinous crimes those whom they thought interested to commit -them. But it was even very doubtful whether this was at all the case -with Catherine. It was far from being certain that she was to succeed -her husband. She had been crowned indeed, but only in the character of -wife to the reigning sovereign, and not as one who was to enjoy the -sovereign authority after his death. - -Peter, in his declaration, had only ordered this coronation as a matter -of ceremony, and not as conferring a right of governing. He therein only -cited the examples of emperors, who had caused their consorts to be -crowned, but not of those who had conferred on them the royal authority. -In fine, at the very time of Peter's illness, several persons believed -that the princess Anna Petrowna would succeed him jointly with her -husband the duke of Holstein, or that the czar would nominate his -grandson for his successor; therefore, so far from Catherine's being -interested in the death of the emperor, she rather seemed concerned in -the preservation of his life. - -It is undeniable, that Peter had, for a considerable time, been troubled -with an abscess in the bladder, and a stoppage of urine. The mineral -waters of Olnitz, and some others, which he had been advised to use, had -proved of very little service to him, and he had found himself growing -sensibly weaker, ever since the beginning of the year 1724. His labours, -from which he would not allow himself any respite, increased his -disorder, and hastened his end: (Jan. 1723.) his malady became now more -and more desperate, he felt burning pains, which threw him into an -almost constant delirium,[117] whenever he had a moment's interval, he -endeavoured to write, but he could only scrawl a few lines that were -wholly unintelligible; and it was with the greatest difficulty that the -following words, in the Russian language, could be distinguished:--'_Let -every thing be given to ----_' - -He then called for the princess Anna Petrowna, in order to dictate to -her, but by that time she could come to his bed-side, he had lost his -speech, and fell into a fit, which lasted sixteen hours. The empress -Catherine did not quit his bed-side for three nights together. At -length, he breathed his last in her arms, on the 28th of Jan. 1725. -about four o'clock in the morning. - -His body was conveyed into the great hall of the palace, accompanied by -all the imperial family, the senate, all the principal personages of -state, and an innumerable concourse of people. It was there exposed on a -bed of state, and every one was permitted to approach and kiss his hand, -till the day of his interment, which was on the 10-21st of March, -1725.[118] - -It has been thought, and it has been asserted in print, that he had -appointed his wife Catherine to succeed him in the empire, by his last -will, but the truth is, that he never made any will, or at least none -that ever appeared; a most astonishing negligence in so great a -legislator, and a proof that he did not think his disorder mortal. - -No one knew, at the time of his death, who was to succeed him: he left -behind him his grandson Peter, son of the unfortunate Alexis, and his -eldest daughter Anna, married to the duke of Holstein. There was a -considerable faction in favour of young Peter; but prince Menzikoff, who -had never had any other interests than those of the empress Catherine, -took care to be beforehand with all parties, and their designs; and -accordingly, when the czar was upon the point of giving up the ghost, he -caused the empress to remove into another apartment of the palace, where -all their friends were assembled ready: he had the royal treasures -conveyed into the citadel, and secured the guards in his interest, as -likewise the archbishop of Novogorod; and then they held a private -council, in presence of the empress Catherine, and one Macarof, a -secretary, in whom they could confide, at which the duke of Holstein's -minister assisted. - -At the breaking up of this council, the empress returned to the czar's -bed-side, who soon after yielded up the ghost in her arms. As soon as -his death was made known, the principal senators and general officers -repaired to the palace, where the empress made a speech to them, which -prince Menzikoff answered in the name of all present. The empress being -withdrawn, they proceeded to consider the proper forms to be observed on -the occasion, when Theophanes, archbishop of Pleskow, told the assembly, -that, on the eve of the coronation of the empress Catherine, the -deceased czar had declared to him, that his sole reason for placing the -crown on her head, was, that she might wear it after his death; upon -which the assembly unanimously signed the proclamation, and Catherine -succeeded her husband on the throne the very day of his death. - -Peter the Great was regretted by all those whom he had formed, and the -descendants of those who had been sticklers for the ancient customs soon -began to look on him as their father: foreign nations, who have beheld -the duration of his establishments, have always expressed the highest -admiration for his memory, acknowledging that he was actuated by a more -than common prudence and wisdom, and not by a vain desire of doing -extraordinary things. All Europe knows that though he was fond of fame, -he coveted it only for noble principles; that though he had faults, they -never obscured his noble qualities, and that, though, as a man, he was -liable to errors, as a monarch he was always great: he every way forced -nature, in his subjects, in himself, by sea and land: but he forced her -only to render her more pleasing and noble. The arts, which he -transplanted with his own hands, into countries, till then in a manner -savage, have flourished, and produced fruits which are lasting -testimonies of his genius, and will render his memory immortal, since -they now appear as natives of those places to which he introduced them. -The civil, political, and military government, trade, manufactures, the -arts and the sciences, have all been carried on, according to his plan, -and by an event not to be paralleled in history: we have seen four women -successively ascend the throne after him, who have maintained, in full -vigour, all the great designs he accomplished, and have completed those -which he had begun. - -The court has undergone some revolutions since his death, but the empire -has not suffered one. Its splendour was increased by Catherine I. It -triumphed over the Turks and the Swedes under Anna Petrowna; and under -Elizabeth it conquered Prussia, and a part of Pomerania; and lastly, it -has tasted the sweets of peace, and has seen the arts flourish in -fulness and security in the reign of Catherine the Second.[119] - -Let the historians of that nation enter into the minutest circumstances -of the new creation, the wars and undertakings of Peter the Great: let -them rouse the emulation of their countrymen, by celebrating those -heroes who assisted this monarch in his labours, in the field, and in -the cabinet. It is sufficient for a stranger, a disinterested admirer of -merit, to have endeavoured to set to view that great man, who learned of -Charles XII. to conquer him, who twice quitted his dominions, in order -to govern them the better, who worked with his own hands, in almost all -the useful and necessary arts, to set an example of instruction to his -people, and who was the founder and the father of his empire.[120] - -Princes, who reign over states long since civilized, may say to -themselves, 'If a man, assisted only by his own genius, has been capable -of doing such great things in the frozen climes of ancient Scythia, what -may not be expected from us, in kingdoms where the accumulated labours -of many ages have rendered the way so easy?' - - - - -ORIGINAL PIECES RELATIVE TO THIS HISTORY, AGREEABLE TO THE TRANSLATIONS -MADE AT THEIR FIRST PUBLICATION, BY ORDER OF CZAR PETER I. - - -SENTENCE _Pronounced against the CZAROWITZ ALEXIS, June 24th, 1718._ - -By virtue of an express ordinance issued by his czarish majesty, and -signed by his own hand, on the 13th of June, for the judgment of the -czarowitz Alexis Petrowitz, in relation to his crimes and transgressions -against his father and sovereign; the undernamed ministers and senators, -estates military and civil, after having assembled several times in the -regency chamber of the senate of Petersburg, and having heard read the -original writings and testimonies given against the czarowitz, as also -his majesty's admonitory letters to that prince, and his answers to them -in his own writing, and other acts relating to the process, and likewise -the criminal informations, declarations and confessions of the -czarowitz, partly written with his own hand, and partly delivered by -word of mouth to his father and sovereign, before the several persons -undernamed, constituted by his czarish majesty's authority to the effect -of the present judgment, do acknowledge and declare, that though -according to the laws of the Russian empire, it belongs not to them, the -natural subjects of his czarish majesty's sovereign dominions, to take -cognizance of an affair of this nature, which for its importance depends -solely on the absolute will of the sovereign, whose power, unlimited by -any law, is derived from God alone; yet, in submission to his ordinance -who hath given them this liberty, and after mature reflection, observing -the dictates of their consciences without fear, flattery, or respect of -persons, having nothing before their eyes but the divine laws applicable -to the present case, the canons and rules of councils, the authority of -the holy fathers and doctors of the church, and taking also for their -rule the instruction of the archbishops and clergy assembled at -Petersburg on this occasion, and conforming themselves to the laws and -constitutions of this empire, which are agreeable to those of other -nations, especially the Greeks and the Romans, and other Christian -princes; they unanimously agreed and pronounced the czarowitz Alexis -Petrowitz _to be worthy of death_, for the aforesaid crimes and capital -transgressions against his sovereign and father, he being his czarish -majesty's son and subject; and that, notwithstanding the promise given -by his czarish majesty to the czarowitz, in a letter sent by M. Tolstoy -and captain Romanzoff, dated from Spaw, the 10th of July, 1717, to -pardon his elopement if he voluntarily returned, as the czarowitz -himself acknowledges with gratitude, in his answer to that letter, dated -from Naples, the 4th of October, 1717, wherein he returns thanks to his -majesty for the pardon he had promised him solely on condition of his -speedy and voluntary return; yet he hath forfeited and rendered himself -unworthy of that pardon, by renewing and continuing his former -transgressions, as is fully set forth in his majesty's manifesto of the -3d of February, in this present year, and for not returning voluntarily -and of his own accord. - -And although his majesty did, upon the arrival of the czarowitz at -Moscow, and his humbly confessing in writing his crimes, and asking -pardon for them, take pity on him, as is natural for every father to act -towards a son, and at the audience, held in the great hall of the -castle, dated the said 3d day of February, did promise him full pardon -for all his crimes and transgressions, it was only on condition that he -would declare, without reserve or restriction, all his designs, and who -were his counsellors and abettors therein, but that if he concealed any -one person or thing, that in such case the promised pardon should be -null and void, which conditions the czarowitz did at that time accept -and receive, with all outward tokens of gratitude and obedience, -solemnly swearing on the holy cross and the blessed evangelists, and in -the presence of all those assembled at that time and for that purpose in -the cathedral church, that he would faithfully, and without reserve, -declare the whole truth. - -His majesty did also the next day confirm to the czarowitz in writing -the said promise, in the interrogatories which hereafter follow, and -which his majesty caused to be delivered to him, having first written at -the begining what follows: - -'As you did yesterday receive your pardon, on condition that you would -confess all the circumstances of your flight, and whatever relates -thereto; but if you concealed any part thereof, you should answer for it -with your life; and, as you have already made some confessions, it is -expected of you, for our more full satisfaction, and your own safety, to -commit the same to writing, in such order as shall in the course of your -examination be pointed out to you.' - -And at the end, under the seventh question, there was again written, -with his czarish majesty's own hand: - -'Declare to us, and discover whatever hath any relation to this affair, -though it be not here expressed, and clear yourself as if it were at -confession; for if you conceal any thing that shall by any other means -be afterwards discovered, do not impute the consequence to us, since you -have been already told, that in such case the pardon granted you should -be null and void.' - -Notwithstanding all which, the answers and confessions of the czarowitz -were delivered without any sincerity; he not only concealing many of his -accomplices, but also the capital circumstances relating to his own -transgressions, particularly his rebellious design in usurping the -throne even in the life-time of his father, flattering himself that the -populace would declare in his favour; all which hath since been fully -discovered in the criminal process, after he had refused to make a -discovery himself, as hath appeared by the above presents. - -Thus it hath appeared by the whole conduct of the czarowitz, as well as -by the confessions which he both delivered in writing, and by word of -mouth, particularly, that he was not disposed to wait for the succession -in the manner in which his father had left it to him after his death, -according to equity, and the order of nature which God has established; -but intended to take the crown off the head of his father, while living, -and set it upon his own, not only by a civil insurrection, but by the -assistance of a foreign force, which he had actually requested. - -The czarowitz has hereby rendered himself unworthy of the clemency and -pardon, promised him by the emperor his father; and since the laws -divine and ecclesiastical, civil and military, condemn to death, without -mercy, not only those whose attempts against their father and sovereign -have been proved by testimonies and writings; but even such as have been -convicted of an intention to rebel, and of having formed a base design -to kill their sovereign, and usurp the throne; what shall we think of a -rebellious design, almost unparalleled in history, joined to that of a -horrid parricide, against him who was his father in a double capacity; a -father of great lenity and indulgence, who brought up the czarowitz from -the cradle with more than paternal care and tenderness; who earnestly -endeavoured to form him for government, and with incredible pains, and -indefatigable application, to instruct him in the military art, and -qualify him to succeed to so great an empire? with how much stronger -reason does such a design deserve to be punished with death? - -It is therefore with hearts full of affliction, and eyes streaming with -tears, that we, as subjects and servants, pronounce this sentence; -considering that it belongs not to us to give judgment in a case of so -great importance, and especially to pronounce against the son of our -most precious sovereign lord the czar. Nevertheless, it being his -pleasure that we should act in this capacity, we, by these presents, -declare our real opinion, and pronounce this sentence of condemnation -with a pure and Christian conscience, as we hope to be able to answer -for it at the just, awful, and impartial tribunal of Almighty God. - -We submit, however, this sentence, which we now pass, to the sovereign -power, the will, and merciful revisal of his czarish majesty, our most -gracious sovereign. - - -THE PEACE OF NYSTADT. - -In the name of the Most Holy and undivided Trinity. - -Be it known by these presents, that whereas a bloody, long, and -expensive war has arisen and subsisted for several years past, between -his late majesty king Charles XII. of glorious memory, king of Sweden, -of the Goths, and Vandals, &c. &c. his successors to the throne of -Sweden, the lady Ulrica queen of Sweden, of the Goths and Vandals, &c. -and the kingdom of Sweden, on the one part; and between his czarish -majesty Peter the First, emperor of all the Russias, &c. and the empire -of Russia, on the other part; the two powers have thought proper to -exert their endeavours to find out means to put a period to those -troubles, and prevent the further effusion of so much innocent blood; -and it has pleased the Almighty to dispose the hearts of both powers, to -appoint a meeting of their ministers plenipotentiary, to treat of, and -conclude a firm, sincere and lasting peace, and perpetual friendship -between the two powers, their dominions, provinces, countries, vassals, -subjects, and inhabitants; namely, Mr. John Liliensted, one of the most -honourable privy-council to his majesty the king of Sweden, his kingdom -and chancery, and baron Otto Reinhold Stroemfeld, intendant of the -copper mines and fiefs of Dalders, on the part of his said majesty; and -on the part of his czarish majesty, count Jacob Daniel Bruce, his -general adjutant, president of the colleges of mines and manufactories, -and knight of the order of St. Andrew and the White Eagle, and Mr. Henry -John Frederic Osterman, one of his said majesty's privy-counsellors in -his chancery: which plenipotentiary ministers, being assembled at -Nystadt, and having communicated to each other their respective -commissions, and imploring the divine assistance, did enter upon this -important and salutary enterprise, and have, by the grace and blessing -of God, concluded the following peace between the crown of Sweden and -his czarish majesty. - -Art. 1. There shall be now and henceforward a perpetual and inviolable -peace, sincere union, and indissoluble friendship, between his majesty -Frederic the First, king of Sweden, of the Goths and Vandals, his -successors to the crown and kingdom of Sweden, his dominions, provinces, -countries, villages, vassals, subjects, and inhabitants, as well within -the Roman empire as out of said empire, on the one side; and his czarish -majesty Peter the First, emperor of all the Russias, &c. his successors -to the throne of Russia, and all his countries, villages, vassals, -subjects, and inhabitants, on the other side; in such wise, that for -the future, neither of the two reconciled powers shall commit, or suffer -to be committed, any hostility, either privately or publicly, directly -or indirectly, nor shall in any wise assist the enemies of each other, -on any pretext whatever, not contract any alliance with them, that may -be contrary to this peace, but shall always maintain and preserve a -sincere friendship towards each other, and as much as in them lies, -support their mutual honour, advantage and safety; as likewise prevent, -to the utmost of their power, any injury or vexation with which either -of the reconciled parties may be threatened by any other power. - -Art. 2. It is further mutually agreed upon betwixt the two parties, that -a general pardon and act of oblivion for all hostilities committed -during the war, either by arms or otherwise, shall be strictly observed, -so far as that neither party shall ever henceforth either call to mind, -or take vengeance for the same, particularly in regard to persons of -state, and subjects who have entered into the service of either of the -two parties during the war, and have thereby become enemies to the -other, except only the Russian Cossacks, who enlisted in the service of -the king of Sweden, and whom his czarish majesty will not consent to -have included in the said general pardon, notwithstanding the -intercession made for them by the king of Sweden. - -Art. 3. All hostilities, both by sea and land, shall cease both here and -in the grand duchy of Finland in fifteen days, or sooner, if possible, -after the regular exchange of the ratifications; and to this intent the -conclusion of the peace shall be published without delay. And in case -that, after the expiration of the said term, any hostilities should be -committed by either party, either by sea or land, in any manner -whatsoever, through ignorance of the conclusion of the peace, such -offence shall by no means prejudice the conclusion of said peace; on the -contrary, each shall make a reciprocal exchange of both men and effects -that may be taken after the said term. - -Art. 4. His majesty the king of Sweden does, by the present treaty, as -well for himself as for his successors to the throne and kingdom of -Sweden, cede to his czarish majesty, and his successors to the Russian -empire, in full, irrevocable and everlasting possession, the provinces -which have been taken by his czarish majesty's arms from the crown of -Sweden during this war, viz. Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and a part of -Carelia, as likewise the district of the fiefs of Wybourg specified -hereafter in the article for regulating the limits; the towns and -fortresses of Riga, Dunamund, Pernau, Revel, Dorpt, Nerva, Wybourg, -Kexholm, and the other towns, fortresses, harbours, countries, -districts, rivers, and coasts, belonging to the provinces: as likewise -the islands of Oesel, Dagoe, Moen, and all the other islands from the -frontiers of Courland, towards the coasts of Livonia, Esthonia, and -Ingria, and on the east side of Revel, and in the road of Wybourg, -towards the south-east, with all the present inhabitants of those -islands, and of the aforesaid provinces, towns, and countries; and in -general, all their appurtenances, dependencies, prerogatives, rights, -and advantages, without exception, in like manner as the crown of Sweden -possessed them. - -To which purpose, his majesty the king of Sweden renounces for ever, in -the most solemn manner, as well for his own part, as for his successors, -and for the whole kingdom of Sweden, all pretensions which they have -hitherto had, or could have, to the said provinces, islands, countries, -and towns; and all the inhabitants thereof shall, by virtue of these -presents, be discharged from the oath of allegiance, which they have -taken to the crown of Sweden, in such wise as that his Swedish majesty, -and the kingdom of Sweden, shall never hereafter either claim or demand -the same, on any pretence whatsoever; but, on the contrary, they shall -be and remain incorporated for ever into the empire of Russia. Moreover, -his Swedish majesty, and the kingdom of Sweden, promise by these -presents to assist and support from henceforth his czarish majesty, and -his successors to the empire of Russia, in the peaceable possession of -the said provinces, islands, countries, and towns; and that they will -find out and deliver up to the persons authorized by his czarish majesty -for that purpose, all the records and papers principally belonging to -those places which have been taken away and carried into Sweden during -the war. - -Art 5. His czarish majesty, in return, promises to evacuate and restore -to his Swedish majesty, and the kingdom of Sweden, within the space of -four weeks after the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, or -sooner if possible, the grand duchy of Finland, except only that part -thereof which has been reserved by the following regulation of the -limits which shall belong to his czarish majesty, so that his said -czarish majesty, and his successors, never shall have or bring the least -claim or demand on the said duchy, on any pretence whatever. His czarish -majesty further declares and promises, that certain and prompt payment -of two millions of crowns shall be made without any discount to the -deputies of the king of Sweden, on condition that they produce and give -sufficient receipts, as agreed upon; and the said payment shall be made -in such coin as shall be agreed upon by a separate article, which shall -be of equal force as if inserted in the body of this treaty. - -Art. 6. His majesty the king of Sweden does further reserve to himself, -in regard to trade, the liberty of buying corn yearly at Riga, Revel, -and Arensbourg, to the amount of fifty thousand rubles, which corn shall -be transported from thence into Sweden, without paying duty or any other -taxes, on producing a certificate, shewing that such corn has been -purchased for the use of his Swedish majesty, or by his subjects, -charged with the care of making this purchase by his said majesty; and -such right shall not be subject to, or depend on any exigency, wherein -his czarish majesty may find it necessary, either on account of a bad -harvest, or some other important reasons, to prohibit in general the -exportation of corn to any other nation. - -Art. 7. His czarish majesty does also promise, in the most solemn -manner, that he will in no wise interfere with the private affairs of -the kingdom of Sweden, nor with the form of government, which has been -regulated and established by the oath of allegiance, and unanimous -consent of the states of said kingdom; neither will he assist therein -any person whatever, in any manner, directly or indirectly; but, on the -contrary, will endeavour to hinder and prevent any disturbance -happening, provided his czarish majesty has timely notice of the same, -who will on all such occasions act as a sincere friend and good -neighbour to the crown of Sweden. - -Art. 8. And as they mutually intend to establish a firm sincere and -lasting peace, to which purpose it is very necessary to regulate the -limits so, that neither of the parties can harbour any jealousy, but -that each shall peaceably possess whatever has been surrendered to him -by this treaty of peace, they have thought proper to declare, that the -two empires shall from henceforth and for ever have the following -limits, beginning on the northern coast of the Bothnic gulf, near -Wickolax, from whence they shall extend to within half a league of the -sea-coast inland, and from the distance of half a league from the sea as -far as opposite to Willayoki, and from thence further inland; so that -from the sea-side, and opposite to Rohel, there shall be a distance of -about three-quarters of a league, in a direct line, to the road which -leads from Wibourg to Lapstrand, at three leagues distance from Wibourg, -and which proceeds the same distance of three leagues towards the north -by Wibourg, in a direct line to the former limits between Russia and -Sweden, even before the reduction of the district of Kexholm under the -government of the king of Sweden. Those ancient limits extend eight -leagues towards the north, from thence they run in a direct line through -the district of Kexholm, to the place where the harbour of Porogerai, -which begins near the town of Kudumagube, joins to the ancient limits, -between Russia and Sweden, so that his majesty the king and kingdom of -Sweden, shall henceforth possess all that part lying west and north -beyond the above specified limits, and his czarish majesty and the -empire of Russia all that part which is situated east and south of the -said limits. And as his czarish majesty surrenders from henceforth to -his Swedish majesty and the kingdom of Sweden, a part of the district of -Kexholm, which belonged heretofore to the empire of Russia, he promises, -in the most solemn manner, in regard to himself and successors to the -throne of Russia, that he never will make any future claim to this said -district of Kexholm, on any account whatever; but the said district -shall hereafter be and remain incorporated into the kingdom of Sweden. -As to the limits in the country of Lamparque, they shall remain on the -same footing as they were before the beginning of this war between the -two empires. It is further agreed upon, that commissaries shall be -appointed by each party, immediately after the ratification of this -treaty to regulate the limits as aforesaid. - -Art. 9. His czarish majesty further promises to maintain all the -inhabitants of the provinces of Livonia, Esthonia, and Oesel, as well -nobles as plebeians, and the towns, magistrates, companies, and trades, -in the full enjoyment of the said privileges, customs and prerogatives, -which they have enjoyed under the dominion of his Swedish majesty. - -Art. 10. There shall not hereafter be any violence offered to the -consciences of the inhabitants of the ceded countries; on the contrary, -his czarish majesty engages on his side to preserve and maintain the -evangelical (Lutheran) religion on the same footing as under the Swedish -government, provided there is likewise a free liberty of conscience -allowed to those of the Greek religion. - -Art. 11. In regard to the reductions and liquidations made in the reign -of the late king of Sweden in Livonia, Esthonia, and Oesel, to the great -injury of the subjects and inhabitants of those countries, which, -conformable to the justice of the affair in question, obliged his late -majesty the king of Sweden, of glorious memory, to promise, by an -ordinance (which was published the 13th day of April, 1700, that if any -one of his subjects could fairly prove, that the goods which had been -confiscated were their property justice should be done them, whereby -several subjects of the said countries have had such their confiscated -effects restored to them) his czarish majesty engages and promises, that -justice shall be done to every person, whether residing or not, who has -a just claim or pretension to any lands in Livonia, Esthonia, or the -province of Oesel, and can make full proof thereof, and that such person -shall be reinstated in the possession of his lands and effects. - -Art. 12. There shall likewise be immediate restitution made, conformable -to the general amnesty regulated and agreed by the second article, to -such of the inhabitants of Livonia, Esthonia, and the island of Oesel, -who may during this war have joined the king of Sweden, together with -all their effects, lands, and houses, which have been confiscated and -given to others, as well in the towns of these provinces, as in those of -Narva and Wibourg, notwithstanding they may have passed during the said -war by inheritance or otherwise into other hands, with any exception or -restraint, even though the proprietors should be actually in Sweden, -either as prisoners or otherwise; and such restitution shall take place -so soon as each person is re-naturalized by his respective government, -and produces his documents relating to his right; on the other hand, -these proprietors shall by no means lay claim to, or pretend to any part -of, the revenues, which may have been received by those who were in -possession in consequence of the confiscation, nor to any other -compensation for their losses in the war or otherwise. And all persons, -who are thus put in re-possession of their effects and lands, shall be -obliged to do homage to his czarish majesty, their present sovereign, -and further to behave themselves as faithful vassals and subjects; and -when they have taken the usual oath of allegiance, they shall be at -liberty to leave their own country to go and live in any other, which is -in alliance and friendship with the Russian empire, as also to enter -into the service of neutral powers, or to continue therein, if already -engaged, as they shall think proper. On the other hand, in regard to -those, who do not choose to do homage to his czarish majesty, they shall -be allowed the space of three years from the publication of the peace, -to sell or dispose of their effects, lands, and all belonging to them, -to the best advantage, without paying any more than is paid by every -other person, agreeably to the laws and statutes of the country. And if -hereafter, it should happen that an inheritance should devolve to any -person according to the laws of the country, and that such person shall -not as yet have taken the oath of allegiance to his czarish majesty, he -shall in such case be obliged to take the same at the time of entering -on the possession of his inheritance, otherwise to sell off all his -effects in the space of one year. - -Also those who have advanced money on lands in Livonia, Esthonia, and -the island of Oesel, and have lawful security for the same, shall enjoy -their mortgages peaceably, until both capital and interest are -discharged; on the other hand, the mortgages shall not claim any -interest, which expired during the war, and which have not been demanded -or paid; but those who in either of these cases have the administration -of the said effects, shall be obliged to do homage to his czarish -majesty. This likewise extends to all those who remain in his czarish -majesty's dominions, and who shall have the same liberty to dispose of -their effects in Sweden, and in those countries which have been -surrendered to that crown by this peace. Moreover, the subjects of each -of the reconciled powers shall be mutually supported in all their lawful -claims and demands, whether on the public, or on individuals within the -dominions of the two powers, and immediate justice shall be done them, -so that every person may be reinstated in the possession of what justly -belongs to him. - -Art. 13. All contributions in money shall from the signing of this -treaty cease in the grand duchy of Finland, which his czarish majesty by -the fifth article of this treaty cedes to his Swedish majesty and the -kingdom of Sweden; on the other hand the duchy of Finland shall furnish -his czarish majesty's troops with the necessary provisions and forage -gratis, until they shall have entirely evacuated the said duchy, on the -said footing as has been practised heretofore; and his czarish majesty -shall prohibit and forbid, under the severest penalties, the dislodging -any ministers or peasants of the Finnish nation, contrary to their -inclinations, or that the least injury be done to them. In consideration -of which, and as it will be permitted his czarish majesty, upon -evacuating the said countries and towns, to take with him his great and -small cannon, with their carriages and other appurtenances, and the -magazines and other warlike stores which he shall think fit. The -inhabitants shall furnish a sufficient number of horse and waggons as -far as the frontiers; and also, if the whole of this cannot be executed -according to the stipulated terms, and that any part of such artillery, -&c. is necessitated to be left behind, then, and in such cases, that -which is so left shall be properly taken care of, and afterwards -delivered to his czarish majesty's deputies, whenever it shall be -agreeable to them, and likewise be transported to the frontiers in -manner as above. If his czarish majesty's troops shall have found and -sent out of the country any deeds or papers belonging to the grand duchy -of Finland, strict search shall be made for the same, and all of them -that can be found shall be faithfully restored to deputies of his -Swedish majesty. - -Art. 14. All the prisoners on each side, of whatsoever nation, rank, and -condition, shall be set at liberty immediately after the ratification of -this treaty, without any ransom, at the same time every prisoner shall -either pay or give sufficient security for the payment of all debts by -them contracted. The prisoners on each side shall be furnished with the -necessary horses and waggons gratis during the time allotted for their -return home, in proportion to the distance from the frontiers. In regard -to such prisoners, who shall have sided with one or the other party, or -who shall choose to settle in the dominions of either of the two powers, -they shall have full liberty so to do without restriction: and this -liberty shall likewise extend to all those who have been compelled to -serve either party during the war, who may in like manner remain where -they are, or return home; except such who have voluntarily embraced the -Greek religion, in compliance to his czarish majesty; for which purpose -each party shall order that the edicts be published and made known in -their respective dominions. - -Art. 15. His majesty the king, and the republic of Poland, as allies to -his czarish majesty, are expressly comprehended in this treaty of peace, -and have equal right thereto, as if the treaty of peace between them and -the crown of Sweden had been inserted here at full length: to which -purpose all hostilities whatsoever shall cease in general throughout all -the kingdoms, countries, and patrimonies belonging to the two reconciled -parties, whether situated within or out of the Roman empire, and there -shall be a solid and lasting peace established between the two aforesaid -powers. And as no plenipotentiary on the part of his Polish majesty and -the republic of Poland has assisted at this treaty of peace, held at -Nystadt, and that consequently they could not at one and the same time -renew the peace by a solemn treaty between his majesty the king of -Poland and the crown of Sweden, his majesty the king of Sweden does -therefore engage and promise, that he will send plenipotentiaries to -open the conferences, so soon as a place shall be appointed for the said -meeting, in order to conclude, through the mediation of his czarish -majesty, a lasting peace between the two crowns, provided nothing is -therein contained which may be prejudicial to the treaty of perpetual -peace made with his czarish majesty. - -Art. 16. A free trade shall be regulated and established as soon as -possible, which shall subsist both by sea and land between the two -powers, their dominions, subjects, and inhabitants, by means of a -separate treaty on this head, to the good and advantage of their -respective dominions; and in the mean time the subjects of Russia and -Sweden shall have leave to trade freely in the empire of Russia and -kingdom of Sweden, so soon as the treaty of peace is ratified, after -paying the usual duties on the several kinds of merchandise; so that, -the subjects of Russia and Sweden shall reciprocally enjoy the same -privileges and prerogatives as are enjoyed by the closest friends of -either of the said states. - -Art. 17. Restitution shall be made on both sides, after the ratification -of the peace, not only of the magazines which were before the -commencement of the war established in certain trading towns belonging -to the two powers, but also liberty shall be reciprocally granted to the -subjects of his czarish majesty and the king of Sweden to establish -magazines in the towns, harbours, and other places subject to both or -either of the said powers. - -Art. 18. If any Swedish ships of war or merchant vessels shall have the -misfortune to be wrecked, or cast away by stress of weather, or any -other accident, on the coasts and harbours of Russia, his czarish -majesty's subjects shall be obliged to give them all aid and assistance -in their power to save their rigging and effects, and faithfully to -restore whatever may be drove on shore, if demanded, provided they are -properly rewarded. And the subjects of his majesty the king of Sweden -shall do the same in regard to such Russian ships and effects as may -have the misfortune to be wrecked or otherwise lost on the coasts of -Sweden; for which purpose, and to prevent all ill treatment, robbing, -and plundering, which commonly happens on such melancholy occasions, his -czarish majesty and the king of Sweden will cause a most rigorous -prohibition to be issued, and all who shall be found transgressing in -this point shall be punished on the spot. - -Art. 19. And to prevent all possible cause or occasion of -misunderstanding between the two parties, in relation to sea affairs, -they have concluded and determined, that any Swedish ships of war, of -whatever number or size, that shall hereafter pass by any of his czarish -majesty's forts or castles, shall salute the same with their cannon, -which compliment shall be directly returned in the same manner by the -Russian fort or castle; and, _vice versa_, any Russian ships of war, of -whatever number or size, that shall hereafter pass by any fort or castle -belonging to his Swedish majesty, shall salute the same with a discharge -of their cannon, which compliment shall be instantly returned in the -same manner by the Swedish fort; and in case any one or more Swedish and -Russian ships shall meet at sea, or in any harbour or elsewhere, they -shall salute each other with a common discharge, as is usually practised -on such occasions between the ships of Sweden and Denmark. - -Art. 20. It is mutually agreed between the two powers, no longer to -defray the expenses of the ministers of the two powers, as have been -done hitherto; but their representative ministers, plenipotentiaries, -and envoys, shall hereafter defray their own expenses and those of their -own attendants, as well on their journey as during their stay, and back -to their respective place of residence. On the other hand, either of the -two parties, on receiving timely notice of the arrival of an envoy, -shall order that their subjects give them all the assistance that may be -necessary to escort them safe on their journey. - -Art. 21. His majesty the king of Sweden does on his part comprehend his -majesty the king of Great Britain in this treaty of peace, reserving -only the differences subsisting between their czarish and his Britannic -majesties, which they shall immediately endeavour to terminate in a -friendly manner; and such other powers, who shall be named by the two -reconciled parties within the space of three months, shall likewise be -included in this treaty of peace. - -Art. 22. In case any misunderstanding shall hereafter arise between the -states and subjects of Sweden and Russia, it shall by no means prejudice -this treaty of perpetual peace; which shall nevertheless always be and -remain in full force agreeable to its intent, and commissaries shall -without delay be appointed on each side to inquire into and adjust all -disputes. - -Art. 23. All those who have been guilty of high treason, murder, theft, -and other crimes, and those who deserted from Sweden to Russia, and from -Russia to Sweden, either singly or with their wives and children, shall -be immediately sent back, provided the complaining party of the country -from whence they made their escape, shall think fit to recal them, let -them be of what nation soever, and in the same condition as they were at -their arrival, together with their wives and children, as likewise with -all they had stolen, plundered, or taken away with them in their flight. - -Art. 24. The exchange of the ratification of this treaty of peace, shall -be reciprocally made at Nystadt within the space of three weeks, after -the day of signing the same, or sooner, if possible. In witness whereof, -two copies of this treaty, exactly corresponding with each other, have -been drawn up, and confirmed by the plenipotentiary ministers on each -side, in virtue of the authority they have received from their -respective sovereigns; which copies they have signed with their own -hands, and sealed with their own seals. Done at Nystadt, this 30th day -of August, in the year of our Lord 1721. O. S. - - Jean Liliensted. - Otto Reinhold Stroemfeld. - Jacob Daniel Bruce. - Henry-John-Frederic Osterman. - - -_Ordinance of the Emperor Peter I. for the crowning of the Empress -Catherine._ - -We, Peter the First, emperor and autocrator of all the Russias, &c. to -all our officers ecclesiastical, civil, and military, and all others of -the Russian nation, our faithful subjects. - -No one can be ignorant that it has been a constant and invariable custom -among the monarchs of all Christian states, to cause their consorts to -be crowned, and that the same is at present practised, and hath -frequently been in former times by those emperors who professed the -holy faith of the Greek church; to wit, by the emperor Basilides, who -caused his wife Zenobia to be crowned; the emperor Justinian, his wife -Lucipina; the emperor Heraclius, his wife Martina: the emperor Leo, the -philosopher, his wife Mary; and many others, who have in like manner -placed the imperial crown on the head of their consorts, and whom it -would be too tedious here to enumerate. - -It is also well known to every one how much we have exposed our person, -and faced the greatest dangers, for the good of our country during the -one and twenty years' course of the late war, which we have by the -assistance of God terminated in so honourable and advantageous a manner, -that Russia hath never beheld such a peace, nor ever acquired so great -glory as in the late war. Now the empress Catherine, our dearly beloved -wife, having greatly comforted and assisted us during the said war, and -also in several other our expeditions, wherein she voluntarily and -cheerfully accompanied us, assisting us with her counsel and advice in -every exigence, notwithstanding the weakness of her sex, particularly in -the battle against the Turks, on the banks of the river Pruth, wherein -our army was reduced to twenty thousand men, while that of the Turks -amounted to two hundred and seventy thousand, and on which desperate -occasion she signalized herself in a particular manner, by a courage and -presence of mind superior to her sex, which is well known to all our -army, and to the whole Russian empire: therefore, for these reasons, and -in virtue of the power which God has given us, we have resolved to -honour our said consort Catherine with the imperial crown, as a reward -for her painful services; and we propose, God willing, that this -ceremony shall be performed the ensuing winter at Moscow. And we do -hereby give notice of this our resolution to all who are faithful -subjects, in favour of whom our imperial affection is unalterable. - - - THE END. - - - _S. Johnson & Son, Printers, Livesey St., Manchester._ - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] A French league contains three English miles. - -[2] The Boristhenes, or Dnieper, is one of the largest rivers in Europe; -it rises in the Walchonske Forest, runs through Lithuania, the country -of the Zoporag Cossacks, and that of the Nagisch Tartars, and falls into -the Black Sea near Oczakow. It has thirteen cataracts within a small -distance. - -[3] The reader will easily perceive, that the whole of this paragraph -relates only to the French language, for in English we make no such -distinctions in the name of these people, but always call them Russians. - -[4] A collection of water lying between the gulf of Finland and lake -Onega; it is the largest, and said to contain a greater number of fish -than any other in Europe. - -[5] We must not confound this river with another of the same name that -runs through Lithuania in Poland, and dividing Livonia and Courland, -falls into the Baltic at Dunamunder fort, below Riga. - -[6] This was by the ancients reckoned among the most famous rivers in -the world, and the boundary between Asia and Europe. It issues from St. -John's Lake, not far from Tula, and after a long course, divides itself -into three arms, and falls into the sea below Azoph. - -[7] A promontory of the island of Maggero in the north of Norway, and is -the most northern point in Europe. - -[8] Grod, or gorod, signifies city in the Russian language. - -[9] Memoirs of Strahlemberg, confirmed by those sent me from Russia. - -[10] Memoirs sent from Petersburg. - -[11] Memoirs sent from Petersburg. - -[12] Called also the Ob. This large river issues from the lake Altin in -Calmuck Tartary, in Asia, from whence running north it forms the -boundary between Europe and Asia, and after traversing a vast tract of -above two thousand miles, it falls into a bay of the Frozen Sea. - -[13] In the Russian language Irtish. This river runs from N. to S. -through all Russia, and falling into the former river, forms part of the -boundary between Asia and Europe. - -[14] In the Russian language Tobolsky. - -[15] His name was Sowastowslaw. - -[16] This anecdote is taken from a private MS. entitled 'The -Ecclesiastical Government of Russia,' which is like wise deposited in -the public library. - -[17] See page 35. - -[18] Thus the Russians call this young man; but in all French authors we -find Romano, that language having no such letter as the W; others again -call him Romanoff. - -[19] Or Chotsin, a town of Upper Moldavia in European Turkey, well -fortified both by nature and art, situated on the Dniester, and subject -to the Turks, from whom it was taken by the Russians in 1739. - -[20] This must certainly be a mistake of M. de Voltaire, or an error in -the press; for the lady here spoken of was the daughter of Matthias -Apraxim, a person on whom Theodore had lately conferred nobility. - -[21] Extracted wholly from the memoirs sent from Moscow and Petersburg. - -[22] Here M. de Voltaire seems to have greatly mistaken the sense of -this word. Raspop not being a proper name, in which sense he takes it, -but signifies a degraded priest. - -[23] We suppose the author means Moscow. - -[24] Or Cossano, a small town and abbey in the Milanese. On the Adda, -near this place, an obstinate battle was fought between the Germans and -French, in 1705, when prince Eugene defeated the duke of Vendome. - -[25] A town and abbey on the borders of Westphalia, in Germany; the -abbot of which is a sovereign prince, and has a seat in the imperial -diet. - -[26] Or Fuld, a town and abbey of Hesse, in Germany; situate on a river -of the same name. It is governed by an abbot, who is a prince of the -empire. - -[27] An imperial city of Suabia, in Germany, situate on the Ifar. - -[28] How are we to reconcile this with what the author tells us in the -latter part of the third chapter, where he says, that this princess, -perceiving that her brother Theodore was near his end, declined retiring -to a convent, as was the usual custom of the princesses of the imperial -family. - -[29] We find, in the memoirs of count Strahlemberg, a Swedish officer, -who was taken prisoner at the battle of Pultowa, and continued many -years at the court of czar Peter, the following account of the true -cause of this extraordinary kind of hydrophobia. When Peter was about -five years of age, his mother took him with her in a coach for an -airing, and having to pass a dam, where there was a great fall of water -the child, who was then sleeping in his nurse's lap, was so terrified by -the rushing of the water (the noise of which waked him suddenly out of -his sleep), that he was seized with a violent fever, and, after his -recovery, he retained such a dread of that element, that he could not -bear the sight even of any standing water, much less to hear a running -stream. - -[30] Memoirs of Petersburg and Moscow. - -[31] This should certainly be four years; as we can hardly suppose a boy -of fourteen years and a half, would be received into the military -service of any country, and much less by the Dutch at that period of -time, when they stood in need of able and experienced soldiers, to -withstand the attacks of the French, who breathed nothing less than the -utter subversion of their state. - -[32] General Le Fort's MSS. - -[33] General Le Fort's MSS. - -[34] Extracted from memoirs sent from China; also from Petersburg, and -from letters published in Du Halde's History of China. - -[35] A famous and considerable river of the Asiatic part of the empire -of Russia, which falls into the eastern ocean. It was formerly called -Charan Muran, but at present the Chinese and Mauschurs give it the name -of Sagalin Ula. It also bears the several appellations of Jamur, Onon, -Helong, Kiang, and Skilka. It is formed by the junction of the rivers -Sckilk and Argun, and is navigable to the sea. - -[36] Busching, the famous geographer, says, that its whole length is no -more than four hundred miles, so that there must be a very great error -in one or other of these authors. - -[37] Memoirs of the jesuits Pereira and Gerbillon. - -[38] 1689, Sept. 8, new style. Memoirs of China. - -[39] The present reigning empress Catharine seems even to exceed her -aunt in lenity, which together with the superior qualifications of this -princess, affords her people the most happy presage of a glorious reign; -and it is not without reason, that the most sensible amongst them -flatter themselves with the hope, that under this august princess, the -Russian empire will arrive at its highest pinnacle of glory. - -[40] Le Fort's Memoirs. - -[41] It is in consequence of this glorious and equitable distinction, -that at this day we find nobility gives no precedence in the court of -Russia; nor can the son of a prince appear there in any other rank, than -that which his situation in the army gives him; while a private citizen, -who by his merit has raised himself above his condition, receives all -the honours due to his post; or more properly speaking, to the merit -which obtained him that post. A reputation of this kind would, methinks, -be attended with great advantages, both in England and France, as it -would be a means to raise in the youth of all ranks, a virtuous and -noble emulation. - -[42] General Le Fort's MSS. - -[43] The Petersburg Memoirs, and Memoirs of Le Fort. - -[44] Le Fort's MS. memoirs. - -[45] Precop, or Perekop, once a fortress on the Isthmus, which joins the -peninsula of Crim Tartary to the main land of little Tartary, in -European Turkey, and thence considered as the key to that country. It -has its name from the ditches cut across for the defence of the -peninsula. - -[46] These were two scholars from Christ Church Hospital, commonly -called blue coat boys. - -[47] The czar was particularly fond of this nobleman, because he was a -great lover of maritime affairs, frequently rowed and sailed with him -upon the water, and gave him what information he could concerning -shipping. - -[48] Le Fort's MSS. and those of Petersburg. - -[49] Le Fort's MSS. - -[50] A most extraordinary instance of the obstinate attachment of the -Russians to their old customs, happened in the time of the czar -Bassilowitz, and undoubtedly influenced him not a little in the severity -with which he treated his people. The king of Poland, Stephen Battori, -having recovered Livonia, went himself into that province to establish a -new form of government. According to the constant custom there, when any -peasant, all of whom were treated as slaves, had committed a fault, he -was whipped with a rod till the blood came. The king was willing to -commute this barbarous punishment for one that was more moderate; but -the peasants, insensible of the favour designed them, threw themselves -at his feet, and intreated him not to make any alterations in their -ancient customs, because they had experienced, that all innovations, far -from procuring them the least redress, had always made their burthens -sit the heavier on them. - -[51] Memoirs of captain Perry, the engineer, employed by Peter the -Great, in Russia, and MSS. of Le Fort. - -[52] Captain Perry, in p. 184 of his memoirs, says, that these -executions being performed in the depth of winter, their bodies were -immediately frozen; those who were beheaded, were ordered to be left in -the same posture as when executed, in ranks upon the ground, with their -heads lying by them: and those who were hanged round the three walls of -the city, were left hanging the whole winter, to the view of the people, -till the warm weather began to come on in the spring, when they were -taken down and buried together in a pit, to prevent infection. This -author adds, that there were other gibbets placed on all the public -roads leading to Moscow, where others of these rebels were hanged. - -[53] MSS. of Le Fort. - -[54] Somewhat like those of our blue coat boys in England. - -[55] 20th Sept. 1698. It is to be observed, that I always follow the new -style in my dates. - -[56] Norberg, chaplain and confessor to Charles XII. says, in his -history, 'That he had the insolence to complain of oppressions, and that -he was condemned to lose his honour and life.' This is speaking like the -high-priest of despotism. He should have observed, that no one can -deprive a citizen of his honour for doing his duty. - -[57] See the History of Charles XII. - -[58] A town on the river Lycus, in the province of Assyria, now called -Curdestan, where Alexander the Great fought his third and decisive -battle, with Darius, king of Persia. - -[59] Vol. I. p. 439, of the 4to. edition, printed at the Hague. - -[60] The chaplain Norberg, pretends, that, immediately after the battle -of Narva, the Grand Seignior wrote a letter of congratulation to the -king of Sweden, in these terms. 'The sultan Basha, by the grace of God, -to Charles XII. &c.' The letter was dated from the æra of the creation -of the world. - -[61] See History of Charles XII. - -[62] This chapter and the following, are taken entirely from the journal -of Peter the Great, sent me from Petersburg. - -[63] We must beg leave to remark in this place, that a king of England -has the power of doing good in virtue of his own authority, and may do -evil if so disposed, by having a majority in a corrupt parliament; -whereas, a king of Poland can neither do good nor evil, not having it in -his power to dispose even of a pair of colours. - -[64] This seems a mistake; our author probably meant to say Kercholme, -because Wibourg is not on the lake Ladoga, but on the gulf of Finland. - -[65] Taken from the journal of Peter the Great. - -[66] Some writers call it Nyenschantz. - -[67] Petersburg was founded on Whitsunday, the 27th May, 1703. - -[68] About sixty thousand pounds sterling. - -[69] All the foregoing chapters, and likewise those which follow, are -taken from the journals of Peter the Great, and the papers sent me from -Petersburg, carefully compared with other memoirs. - -[70] Menzikoff's parents were vassals of the monastery of Cosmopoly: at -the age of thirteen, he went to Moscow, and was taken into the service -of a pastry-cook. His employment was singing ballads, and crying puffs -and cakes about the streets. One day, as he was following this -occupation, the czar happening to hear him, and to be diverted with one -of his songs, sent for him, and asked him if he would sell his pies and -his basket? The boy answered, that his business was to sell his pies, -but he must ask his master's leave to sell his basket; yet as every -thing belonged to his prince, his majesty had only to lay his commands -upon him. The czar was so pleased with this answer, that he immediately -ordered him to court, where he gave him at first a mean employment; but -being every day more pleased with his wit, he thought fit to place him -about his person, and to make him groom of his bed-chamber, from whence -he gradually raised him to the highest preferments. He was tall and well -shaped. At his first coming into the czar's service, he inlisted in Le -Fort's company, and acquired, under that general's instruction, such a -degree of knowledge and skill, as enabled him to command armies, and to -become one of the bravest and most successful generals in Russia. - -[71] M. de Voltaire calls this city Wibourg, in this and some other -places of his history. The French are not always very attentive to the -right names of places, but here it is of some consequence. Wibourg is -the capital of Jutland in Denmark. Wiburn, the city here meant, is the -capital of Carelia in Russian Finland. - -[72] The czar's manifesto in the Ukraine, 1709. - -[73] The impartiality of an historian obliges us in this place to -advertise our readers, that it was not the fault of Augustus, that -Patkul was delivered up to the king of Sweden; Augustus having privately -sent orders to the commandant of the fort of Konigstein, where Patkul -was then confined, to suffer his prisoner to make his escape in time. -But the avarice of this officer proved fatal to the life of the unhappy -captive, and to the character of his own prince; for while he was -endeavouring to make the best bargain he could for himself, the time -slipped inconceivably away; and while they were yet debating upon the -price of the proposed releasement, the guards sent by Charles came and -demanded Patkul in the name of their sovereign. The commandant was -forced to obey, and the unhappy victim was delivered up, contrary to the -intentions of Augustus. - -[74] What would those Swedes say, were they living, to see the pitiful -figure their descendants have made in this war. - -[75] In the Russian language, Soeza. - -[76] This is acknowledged by Norberg himself, vol. ii. p. 263. - -[77] Vol. II. page 279. - -[78] The Memoirs of Peter the Great, by the pretended boyard Iwan -Nestesuranoy, printed at Amsterdam, in 1730, say, that the king of -Sweden, before he passed the Boristhenes, sent a general officer with -proposals of peace to the czar. The four volumes of these Memoirs are -either a collection of untruths and absurdities, or compilations from -common newspapers. - -[79] This fact is likewise found in a letter, printed before the -Anecdotes of Russia, p. 23. - -[80] La Motraye, in the relation of his travels, quotes a letter from -Charles XII. to the grand vizier; but this letter is false, as are most -of the relations of that mercenary writer; and Norberg himself -acknowledges that the king of Sweden never could be prevailed on to -write to the grand vizier. - -[81] The czar, says the preface to lord Whitworth's account of Russia, -who had been absolute enough to civilize savages, had no idea, could -conceive none, of the privileges of a nation civilized in the only -rational manner by laws and liberties. He demanded immediate and severe -punishment of the offenders: he demanded it of a princess, whom he -thought interested, to assert the sacredness of the persons of monarchs, -even in their representatives; and he demanded it with threats of -wreaking his vengeance on all English merchants and subjects established -in his dominions. In this light the menaces were formidable; otherwise, -happily, the rights of the whole people were more sacred here than the -persons of foreign ministers. The czar's memorials urged the queen with -the satisfaction which she herself had extorted, when only the boat and -servants of the earl of Manchester had been insulted at Venice. That -state had broken through the fundamental laws, to content the queen of -Great Britain. How noble a picture of government, when a monarch, that -can force another nation to infringe its constitution, dare not violate -his own? One may imagine with what difficulty our secretaries of state -must have laboured through all the ambages of phrase in English, French, -German, and Russ, to explain to Muscovite ears and Muscovite -understandings, the meaning of indictments, pleadings, precedents, -juries, and verdicts; and how impatiently Peter must have listened to -promises of a hearing next term? With what astonishment must he have -beheld a great queen, engaging to endeavour to prevail on her parliament -to pass an act to prevent any such outrage for the future? What honour -does it not reflect on the memory of that princess to own to an -arbitrary emperor, that even to appease him she dare not put the meanest -of her subjects to death uncondemned by law!--There are, says she, in -one of her dispatches to him, insuperable difficulties, with respect to -the ancient and fundamental laws of the government of our people; which -we fear do not permit so severe and rigorous a sentence to be given, as -your imperial majesty at first seemed to expect in this case; and we -persuade ourself, that your imperial majesty, who are a prince famous -for clemency and exact justice, will not require us, who are the -guardian and protectress of the laws, to inflict a punishment upon our -subjects, which the law does not impower us to do. Words so venerable -and heroic, that this broil ought to become history, and be exempted -from the oblivion due to the silly squabbles of ambassadors and their -privileges. If Anne deserved praise for her conduct on this occasion, it -reflects still greater glory on Peter, that this ferocious man should -listen to these details, and had moderation and justice enough to be -persuaded by the reason of them. - -[82] Afterwards created lord Whitworth, by king George I. - -[83] The account this chaplain gives of the demands of the grand -seignior is equally false and puerile. He says, that sultan Achmet, -previous to his declaring war against the czar, sent to that prince a -paper, containing the conditions on which he was willing to grant him -peace. These conditions, Norberg tells us, were as follows: 'That Peter -should renounce his alliance with Augustus, reinstate Stanislaus in the -possession of the crown of Poland, restore all Livonia to Charles XII., -and pay that prince the value in ready money of what he had taken from -him at the battle of Pultowa; and, lastly, that the czar should demolish -his newly-built city of Petersburg.' This piece was forged by one -Brazey, a half-starved pamphleteer, and author of a work entitled, -Memoirs, Satirical, Historical, and Entertaining. It was from this -fountain Norberg drew his intelligence; and however he may have been the -confessor of Charles XII. he certainly does not appear to have been his -confidant. - -[84] The new vizier embraced every opportunity of affronting the czar, -in the person of his envoy, and particularly in giving the French -ambassador the preference. It was customary, on the promotion of the -grand vizier, for all the foreign ministers to request an audience of -congratulation. Count Tolstoy was the first who demanded that audience; -but was answered--That the precedence had always been given to the -ambassador of France: whereupon Tolstoy informed the vizier--That he -must be deprived of the pleasure of waiting on him at all: which, being -maliciously represented, as expressing the utmost contempt of his -person, and the khan of Tartary being at the same time instigated to -make several heavy complaints against the conduct of the Russians on the -frontiers, count Tolstoy was immediately committed to the castle of the -Seven Towers. - -[85] It is very strange that so many writers always confound Walachia -and Moldavia together. - -[86] This duke of Holstein, at the time he married the daughter of Peter -I. was a prince of very inconsiderable power, though of one of the most -ancient houses in Germany. His ancestors had been stripped of great part -of their dominions by the kings of Denmark; so that, at the time of this -marriage, he found himself greatly circumscribed in point of -possessions; but, from this epoch of his alliance with the czar of -Muscovy, we may date the rise of the ducal branch of Holstein, which now -fills the thrones of Russia and Sweden, and is likewise in possession of -the bishopric of Lubec, which, in all probability, will fall to this -house, notwithstanding the late election, which at present is the -subject of litigation, the issue of which will, to all appearance, -terminate in favour of the prince, son to the present bishop, through -the protection of the courts of Vienna and Petersburg. The empress -Catherine, who now sits on the throne of Russia is herself descended -from this august house, by the side of her mother, who was sister to the -king of Sweden, to the prince-bishop of Lubec, and to the famous prince -George of Holstein, whose achievements made so much noise during the -war. This princess, whose name was Elizabeth, married the reigning -prince of Anbak Zerbst, whose house was indisputably the most ancient; -and, in former times, the most powerful in all Germany, since they can -trace their pedigree from the dukes of Ascania, who were formerly -masters of the two electorates of Saxony and Brandenburg, as appears by -their armorial bearings, which are, quarterly, the arms of Saxony and -Brandenburg. Of this branch of Zerbst there is remaining only the -present reigning prince, brother to the empress Catherine, who, in case -he should die without issue, will succeed to the principality of Yevern, -in East Friesland; from all which it appears already, that the family of -Holstein is at present the most powerful in Europe, as being in -possession of three crowns in the North.--[Since the above was written -important changes have taken place.] - -[87] This same count Poniatowsky, who was at that time in the service of -Charles XII., died afterwards castellan of Cracovia, and first senator -of the republic of Poland, after having enjoyed all the dignities to -which a nobleman of that country can attain. His connexions with Charles -XII. during that prince's retirement at Bender, first made him taken -notice of; and, it is to be wished, for the honour of his memory, that -he had waited till the conclusion of a peace between Sweden and Poland, -to be reconciled to king Augustus; but following the dictates of -ambition, rather than those of strict honour, he sacrificed the -interests of both Charles and Stanislaus, to the care of his own -fortune; and, while he appeared the most zealous in their cause, he -secretly did them all the ill services he could at the Ottoman Porte: to -this double dealing he owed the immense fortune of which he was -afterwards possessed. He married the princess Czartoriski, daughter of -the castellan of Vilna, a lady, for her heroic spirit, worthy to have -been born in the times of ancient Rome: when her eldest son, the present -grand chamberlain of the crown, had that famous dispute with Count -Tarlo, palatine of Lublin; a dispute which made so much noise in all the -public papers in the year 1742, this lady, after having made him shoot -at a mark every day, for three weeks, in order to be expert at firing, -said to him, as he was mounting his horse, to go to meet his -adversary--'Go, my son; but, if you do not acquit yourself with honour -in this affair, never appear before me again.' This anecdote may serve -as a specimen of the character of our heroine. The family of Czartoriski -is descended from the ancient Jagellins, who were, for several ages, in -lineal possession of the crown of Poland; and is, at this day, extremely -rich and powerful, by the alliances it has contracted, but they have -never been able to acquire popularity; and so long as count Tarlo (who -was killed in a duel with the young count Poniatowsky) lived, had no -influence in the dictines, or lesser assembly of the states, because -Tarlo, who was the idol of the nobles, and a sworn enemy to the -Czartoriski family, carried every thing before him, and nothing was done -but according to his pleasure. - -[88] About seventy pounds sterling. - -[89] French money, which is always counted by livres and makes about -three millions sterling. - -[90] A town in Bohemia famous for its mineral springs. - -[91] About fifty thousand pounds sterling. - -[92] Private memoirs of Bassowitz, Jan. 21, 1712. - -[93] A town of Sleswic, in Denmark, situated on the river Eyder, -fourteen miles from the German Ocean, having a very commodious harbour. - -[94] About twelve hundred pounds sterling. - -[95] In the preamble to this institution, the czar declared, that it was -to perpetuate the memory of her love in his distressed condition on the -banks of the river Pruth. He invested her with full power to bestow it -on such of her own sex as she should think proper. The ensigns of this -order are, a broad white riband, and wore over the right shoulder, with -a medal of St. Catherine, adorned with precious stones, and the motto, -'Out of love and fidelity.' - -[96] Inhabitants of a small town of Hungarian Dalmatia, with a harbour, -from whence the neighbouring sea takes the name of Golfo di Bickariga. - -[97] The conspiracy carried on in France by cardinal Alberoni, was -discovered in a very singular manner. The Spanish ambassador's -secretary, who used frequently to go to the house of one La Follon, a -famous procuress of Paris, to amuse himself for an hour or two after the -fatigues of business, had appointed a young nymph, whom he was fond of, -to meet him there at nine o'clock in the evening, but did not come to -her till near two o'clock in the morning. The lady, as may be supposed, -reproached him with the little regard he paid to her charms, or his own -promise; but he excused himself, by saying, that he had been obliged to -stay to finish a long dispatch in ciphers, which was to be sent away -that very night by a courier to Spain: so saying, he undressed and threw -himself into bed, where he quietly fell asleep. In pulling off his -clothes, he had, by accident, dropped a paper out of his pocket, which, -by its bulk, raised in the nymph that curiosity so natural to her sex. -She picked it up, and read it partly over, when the nature of its -contents made her resolve to communicate them to La Follon: accordingly, -she framed some excuse for leaving the room, and immediately went to the -apartment of the old lady, and opened her budget. La Follon, who was a -woman of superior understanding to most in her sphere, immediately saw -the whole consequence of the affair; and, after having recommended to -the girl, to amuse her gallant as long as possible, she immediately went -to waken the regent, to whom she had access at all hours, for matters of -a very different nature to the present. This prince, whose presence of -mind was equal to every exigency, immediately dispatched different -couriers to the frontiers; in consequence of which, the Spanish -ambassador's messenger was stopped at Bayonne, and his dispatches taken -from him; upon deciphering of which, they were found exactly to agree -with the original delivered to the regent by La Follon: upon this the -prince of Cellamar, the Spanish ambassador was put under an arrest, and -all his papers seized; after which he was sent under a strong guard to -the frontiers, where they left him to make the best of his way to his -own country. Thus an event, which would have brought the kingdom of -France to the verge of destruction, was frustrated by a votary of Venus, -and a priestess of the temple of pleasure. - -[98] As these letters and answers afford the most striking evidence of -the czar's prudence, and the prince's insincerity, and will convey to -the reader a clear idea of the grounds and motives of this extraordinary -transaction, we have inserted the following translation of them. The -first letter from the czar to his son, is dated the 27th of October, -1715, and displays a noble spirit of religion, with the most ardent -desire of leaving a successor who should perpetuate his name and glory -to future ages. - -'Son,' says the czar to him, 'you cannot be ignorant of what is known to -all the world, that our people groaned under the oppression of the -Swedes, before the beginning of this present war. By the usurped -possession of many of our maritime ports, so necessary to our state, -they cut us off from all commerce with the rest of mankind; and we saw, -with deep regret, that they had even cast a mist over the eyes of -persons of the greatest discernment, who tamely brooked their slavery, -and made no complaints to us. You know how much it cost us at the -beginning of this war, to make ourselves thoroughly experienced, and -to stand our ground in spite of all the advantages which our -irreconcileable enemies gained over us. The Almighty alone has conducted -us by his hand, and conducts us still. We submitted to that probationary -state with resignation to the will of God, not doubting but it was he -who made us pass through it: he has accepted our submission; and the -same enemy, before whom we were wont to tremble, now trembles before us. -These are effects, which, under God's assistance, we owe to our labour, -and those of our faithful and affectionate sons, and Russian subjects. -But while I survey the successes with which God has blessed our arms, if -I turn my eyes on the posterity that is to succeed me, my soul is -pierced with anguish; and I have no enjoyment of my present happiness, -when I carry my views into futurity. All my felicity vanishes away like -a dream, since you, my son, reject all means of rendering yourself -capable of governing well after me. Your incapacity is voluntary; for -you cannot excuse yourself from want of genius: it is inclination alone -you want. Far less can you plead the want of bodily strength, as if God -had not furnished you sufficiently in that respect: for though your -constitution be none the strongest, it cannot be reckoned weak. Yet you -will not so much as hear of warlike exercises; though it is by those -means we are risen from that obscurity in which we were buried, and have -made ourselves known to the nations about us, whose esteem we now enjoy. -I am far from desiring you to cherish in yourself a disposition to make -war for its own sake, and without just reasons: all I demand of you is, -that you would apply yourself to learn the military art; because, -without understanding the rules of war, it is impossible to be qualified -for government. I might set before your eyes many examples of what I -propose to you; but shall only mention the Greeks, with whom we are -united by the same profession of faith. Whence came the declension of -their empire, but from the neglect of arms? Sloth and inaction have -subjected them to tyrants, and that slavery under which they have -groaned. You are much mistaken if you imagine it is enough for a prince -that he have good generals to act under his orders: no, my son, it is -upon the chief himself that the eyes of the world are fixed; they study -his inclinations, and easily slide into the imitation of his manners. My -brother, during his reign, loved magnificence in dress, and splendid -equipages, and horses richly caparisoned; the taste of this country was -not much formed that way; but the pleasures of the prince soon became -those of the subjects, who are readily led to imitate him both in the -objects of his love and disgust. If people are so easily disengaged from -things that are only for pleasure, will they not be still more prone to -forget, and in process of time wholly to lay aside the use of arms, the -exercise of which grows the more irksome the less they are habituated to -them? You have no inclination to learn the profession of war; you do not -apply yourself to it; and consequently will never know it. How then will -you be able to command others, and to judge of the rewards which those -subjects deserve who do their duty, or of the punishment due to such as -fall short of obedience? You must judge only by other people's eyes; and -will be considered as a young bird, which reaching out its beak, is as -ready to receive poison as proper nourishment. You say, the infirm state -of your health makes you unfit to bear the fatigues of war; but that is -a frivolous excuse. I desire you not to undergo the fatigues of that -profession, though it is there that all great captains are begun; but I -wish you had an inclination to the military art; and reason may give it -you, if you have it not from nature. Had you once this inclination, it -would occupy your thoughts at all times, even in your hours of sickness. -Ask those who remember my brother's reign: his state of health was much -more infirm than your's; he could not manage a horse of never so little -mettle, nor hardly mount him: yet he loved horses, and perhaps there -never will be in the country finer stables than his. Hence you see, that -success does not always depend upon personal labour, but upon the -inclination. If you think that there are princes, whose affairs fail not -to succeed, though they go not to war in person, you are in the right; -but if they go not to the field of battle, they have, however, an -inclination to go, and are acquainted with the military art. For -instance, the late king of France did not always take the field himself; -but we know to what a degree he was a lover of war, and how many -glorious exploits he performed therein; which made his campaigns be -called the theatre and school of the world. The bent of that prince's -mind was not turned to military affairs only, he had also a taste for -the polite arts, for manufactures, and other institutions, which have -made his kingdom more flourishing than any other. After all these -remonstrances which I have laid before you, I return to my first -subject, which immediately concerns yourself. I am a man, and -consequently must die: to whom shall I leave the care of finishing what, -by God's grace, I have begun, and of preserving what I have in part -recovered? To a son who, like that slothful servant in the gospel, -buries his talent in the earth, and neglects to improve what God has -committed to his trust? How often have I reproached you for your -sullenness and indocility? I have been obliged to chastise you on that -account. For these several years past I have hardly spoke to you, -because I almost despair of bringing you back to the right way; -discouraged and disheartened by the fruitlessness of all my endeavours. -You loiter on in supine indolence; abandoning yourself to shameful -pleasures, without extending your foresight to the dangerous -consequences which such a conduct must produce both to yourself and the -whole state: you confine yourself to the government of your own house, -and in that station you acquit yourself very ill; St. Paul has told us, -'he that knows not how to govern his own house, how shall he be able to -rule the church of God?' In like manner I say to you, since you know not -how to manage your domestic affairs, how can you be able to govern a -kingdom? I am determined, at last, to signify to you my final purpose; -being willing, however, to defer the execution of it for a short time, -to see if you will reform: if not, know that I am resolved to deprive -you of the succession, as I would lop off a useless branch. Do not -imagine, that because I have no other child but you,[99] I mean by this -only to intimidate you: I will most certainly execute my resolution; and -God requires it of me: for, since I spare not my own life for the sake -of my country, and the welfare of my people, why should I allow an -effeminate prince to ascend the throne after me, who would sacrifice the -interest of the subject to his pleasures? and should he be obliged to -expose his life in their behalf, would leave them to perish, rather than -redress their grievances. I will call in a mere stranger to the crown, -if he be but worthy of that honour, sooner than my own son, if he is -unworthy. - - 'PETER.' - -To this letter the czarowitz replied: 'Most gracious sovereign and -father, I have read the letter which your majesty sent me of the 27th of -October, 1715, after the interment of my wife; and all the answer I can -make to it is, that if your majesty is determined to deprive me of the -succession to the crown of Russia, on account of my inability, your will -be done. I even request it of you very earnestly; because I judge not -myself fit for government. My memory is greatly impaired; and without -memory there is no managing affairs. The powers both of my body and mind -are much weakened by the diseases to which I have been incident, and I -am thereby incapacitated for the rule of so great a people. Such a -charge requires a man far more vigorous than I am. For these reasons I -am not ambitious to succeed you (whom God preserve through a length of -years) in the crown of Russia, even though I had no brother, as I have -one at present, whom God long preserve. As little will I for the future -set up any claim to the succession: to the truth of which I solemnly -swear, taking God to be my witness; and in testimony thereof I write and -sign these presents. I put my children into your hands: and for myself I -ask no more of you than a bare maintenance during my life, leaving the -whole to your pleasure. - - 'Your humble servant and son, - - 'ALEXIS.' - -Peter soon penetrated through the disguise his son had assumed, and -therefore wrote him the above letter, dated January 19, 1716, and which -he called his 'Last Admonition.' - -[99] This letter was written about eight days before the birth of Peter -Patrowitz, the czar's second son. - -[100] This letter was couched in the following terms:--'Most gracious -sovereign and father, yesterday morning I received your letter, of the -19th of this month: my indisposition hinders me from writing to you at -large, but I am willing to embrace the monastic state, and I beg your -gracious consent thereto. - - 'Your servant, and unworthy son, - - 'ALEXIS.' - -[101] The prince's renunciation was couched in the following terms:--'I, -the undernamed, declare upon the holy gospel, that on account of the -crimes I have committed against his czarish majesty, my father and -sovereign, as set forth in his manifesto, I am, through my own fault, -excluded from the throne of Russia. Therefore I confess and acknowledge -that exclusion to be just, as having merited it by my own fault and -unworthiness; and I hereby oblige myself, and swear in the presence of -Almighty God, in unity of nature, and trinity of persons, as my supreme -Judge, to submit in all things to my father's will, never to set up a -claim or pretension to the succession, or accept of it under any pretext -whatever, acknowledging my brother Peter Petrowitz as lawful successor -to the crown. In testimony whereof, I kiss the holy cross, and sign -these presents with my own hand. - - 'ALEXIS.' - -[102] As this extraordinary piece cannot fail of being interesting to -most part of our readers, we have ventured to subjoin the whole of it in -a note, our author having only given some few extracts. - - -_The Czar's Declaration._ - -Peter I. by the grace of God, czar, emperor of Russia, &c. to all our -faithful subjects, ecclesiastical, military, and civil, of all the -states of the Russian nation. It is notorious, and well known to the -greatest part of our faithful subjects, and chiefly to those who live in -the places of our residence, or who are in our service, with how much -care and application we have caused our eldest son Alexis to be brought -up and educated; having given him for that purpose, from his infancy, -tutors to teach him the Russian tongue, and foreign languages, and to -instruct him in all arts and sciences, in order not only to bring him up -in our Christian orthodox faith of the Greek profession, but also in the -knowledge of political and military affairs, and likewise in the -constitution of foreign countries, their customs and languages; through -the reading of history, and other books, in all manner of sciences, -becoming a prince of his high rank, he might acquire the qualifications -worthy of a successor to our throne of Great Russia. Nevertheless, we -have seen with grief, that all attention and care, for the education and -instruction of our son, proved ineffectual and useless, seeing he always -swerved from his filial obedience, shewing no application for what was -becoming a worthy successor, and slighting the precepts of the masters -we had appointed for him; but, on the contrary, frequenting disorderly -persons, from whom he could learn nothing good, or that would be -advantageous and useful to him. We have not neglected often to endeavour -to reclaim, and bring him back to his duty, sometimes by caresses and -gentle means, sometimes by reprimands, sometimes by paternal -corrections. We have more than once taken him with us into our army and -the field, that he might be instructed in the art of war, as one of the -chief sciences for the defence of his country; guarding him, at the same -time, from all hazard of the succession, though we exposed ourself to -manifest perils and dangers. We have at other times left him at Moscow, -putting into his hands a sort of regency in the empire, in order to form -him in the art of government, and that he might learn how to reign after -us. We have likewise sent him into foreign countries, in hopes and -expectation, that seeing, in his travels, governments so well regulated, -this would excite in him some emulation and an inclination to apply -himself to do well. But all our care has been fruitless, and like the -seed of the doctrine fallen upon a rock; for he has not only refused to -follow that which is good, but even is come to hate it, without shewing -any inclination, or disposition, either for military or political -affairs; hourly and continually conversing with base and disorderly -persons, whose morals are rude and abominable. As we were resolved to -endeavour, by all imaginable means, to reclaim him from that disorderly -course, and to inspire him with an inclination to converse with persons -of virtue and honour; we exhorted him to choose a consort among the -chief foreign houses, as is usual in other countries, and hath been -practised by our ancestors, the czars of Russia, who have contracted -alliances by marriages with other sovereign houses, and we have left him -at liberty to make a choice. He declared his inclination for the -princess, grand-daughter of the duke of Wolfenbuttle, then reigning, -sister-in-law to his imperial majesty the emperor of the Romans, now -reigning, and cousin to the king of Great Britain; and having desired us -to procure him that alliance, and permit him to marry that princess, we -readily consented thereunto, without any regard to the great expense -which was necessarily occasioned by that marriage: but, after its -consummation, we found ourselves disappointed of the hopes we had, that -the change in the condition of our son would produce good fruits, and -change his bad inclinations; for, notwithstanding his spouse was, as far -as we have been able to observe, a wise, sprightly princess, and of a -virtuous conduct, and that he himself had chosen her, he nevertheless -lived with her in the greatest disunion, while he redoubled his -affection for lewd people, bringing thereby a disgrace upon our house in -the eyes of foreign powers to whom that princess was related, which drew -upon us many complaints and reproaches. Our frequent advices and -exhortations to him, to reform his conduct, proved ineffectual, and he -at last violated the conjugal faith, and gave his affection to a -prostitute of the most servile and low condition, living publicly in -that crime with her, to the great contempt of his lawful spouse, who -soon after died; and it was believed that her grief, occasioned by the -disorderly life of her husband, hastened the end of her days. When we -saw his resolution to persevere in his vicious courses, we declared to -him, at the funeral of his consort, that if he did not for the future -conform to our will, and apply himself to things becoming a prince, -presumptive heir to so great an empire, we would deprive him of the -succession, without any regard to his being our only son (our second son -was not then born) and that he ought not to rely upon his being such, -because we would rather choose for our successor a stranger worthy -thereof, than an unworthy son; that we would not leave our empire to -such a successor, who would ruin and destroy what we have, by God's -assistance, established, and tarnish the glory and honour of the Russian -nation, for the acquiring of which we had sacrificed our ease and our -health, and willingly exposed our life on several occasions; besides, -that the fear of God's judgment would not permit us to leave the -government of such vast territories in the hands of one whose -insufficiency and unworthiness we were not ignorant of. In short, we -exhorted him in the most pressing terms we could make use of, to behave -himself with discretion, and gave him time to repent and return to his -duty. His answer to these remonstrances was, that he acknowledged -himself guilty in all these points; but alleged the weakness of his -parts and genius, which did not permit him to apply himself to the -sciences, and other functions recommended to him: he owned himself -incapable of our succession, and desired us to discharge him from the -same. Nevertheless, we continued to exhort him with a paternal -affection, and joining menaces to our exhortations; we forgot nothing to -bring him back to the right way. The operations of the war having -obliged us to repair to Denmark, we left him at Petersburg, to give him -time to return to his duty, and amend his ways; and, afterwards, upon -the repeated advices we received of the continuance of his disorderly -life, we sent him orders to come to us at Copenhagen, to make the -campaign, that he might thereby the better form himself. But, forgetting -the fear and commandments of God, who enjoins obedience even to private -parents, and much more to those who are at the same time sovereigns, our -paternal cares had no other return than unheard-of ingratitude; for, -instead of coming to us as we ordered, he withdrew, with large sums of -money, and his infamous concubine, with whom he continued to live in a -criminal course, and put himself under the protection of the emperor, -raising against us, his father and his lord, numberless calumnies and -false reports, as if we did persecute him, and intended, without cause, -to deprive him of the succession; alleging, moreover, that even his life -was not safe if he continued with us, and desired the emperor not only -to give him refuge in his dominions, but also to protect him against us -by force of arms. Every one may judge, what shame and dishonour this -conduct of our son hath drawn upon us and our empire, in the face of the -whole world; the like instance is hardly to be found in history. The -emperor, though informed of his excesses, and how he had lived with his -consort, sister-in-law to his imperial majesty, thought fit, however, -upon these pressing instances, to appoint him a place where he might -reside; and he desired farther, that he might be so private there, that -we might not come to the knowledge of it. Meanwhile his long stay having -made us fear, out of a tender and fatherly affection for him, that some -misfortune had befallen him, we sent persons several ways to get -intelligence of him, and, after a great deal of trouble, we were at last -informed by the captain of our guard, Alexander Romanzoff, that he was -privately kept in an imperial fortress at Tyrol; whereupon we wrote a -letter, with our own hand, to the emperor, to desire that he might be -sent back to us: but, notwithstanding the emperor acquainted him with -our demands, and exhorted him to return to us, and submit to our will, -as being his father and lord; yet he alleged, with a great many -calumnies against us, that he ought not to be delivered into our hands, -as if we had been his enemy, and a tyrant, from whom he had nothing to -expect but death. In short, he persuaded his imperial majesty, instead -of sending him back at that time to us, to remove him to some remote -place in his dominions, namely, Naples in Italy, and keep him there -secretly in the castle, under a borrowed name. Nevertheless, we having -notice of the place where he was, did thereupon dispatch to the emperor -our privy-counsellor, Peter Tolstoy, and the captain of our guard, -aforesaid, with a most pressing letter, representing how unjust it would -be to detain our son, contrary to all laws, divine and human, according -to which private parents, and with much more reason those who are -besides invested with a sovereign authority as we are, have an unlimited -power over their children, independently of any other judge; and we set -forth on one side, the just and affectionate manner with which we had -always used our son, and, on the other, his disobedience; representing, -in the conclusion, the ill consequences and animosities which the -refusal of delivering up our son to us might occasion, because we would -not leave this affair in that condition. We, at the same time, ordered -those we sent with that letter, to make verbal remonstrances even in -more pressing terms, and to declare that we should be obliged to -revenge, by all possible methods, such detaining our son. We wrote -likewise a letter to him with our own hand, to represent to him the -horror and impiety of his conduct, and the enormity of the crime he had -committed against us his father, and how God threatened in his laws to -punish disobedient children with eternal death: we threatened him, as a -father, with our curses, and, as his lord, to declare him a traitor to -his country, unless he returned, and obeyed our commands; and gave him -assurance, that if he did as we desired, and returned, we would pardon -his crime. Our envoys, after many solicitations, and the above -representation, made by us in writing, at last obtained leave of the -emperor to go and speak to our son, in order to dispose him to return -home. The imperial minister gave them at the same time to understand, -that our son had informed the emperor that we persecuted him, and that -his life was not safe with us, whereby he moved the emperor's -compassion, and induced him to take him into his protection; but that -the emperor, taking now into his consideration our true and solid -representations, promised to use his utmost endeavour to dispose him to -return to us; and would, moreover, declare to him, that he could not in -justice and equity refuse to deliver him to his father, or have any -difference with us on that account. Our envoys, upon their arrival at -Naples, having desired to deliver to him our letter, written with our -hand, sent us word, that he did refuse to admit them; but that the -emperor's viceroy had found means, by inviting him to his house, to -present them to him afterwards, much against his will. He did then, -indeed, receive our letter, containing our paternal exhortation, and -threatening our curse, but without shewing the least inclination to -return; alleging still a great many falsities and calumnies against us, -as if, by reason of several dangers he had to apprehend from us, he -could not, nor would not return; and boasting, that the emperor had not -only promised to defend and protect him against us, but even to set him -upon the throne of Russia against our will, by force of arms. Our envoys -perceiving this evil disposition, tried all imaginable ways to prevail -with him to return, they intreated him, they expatiated by turns upon -the graciousness of our assurances towards him, and upon our threats in -case of disobedience, and that we would even bring him away by force of -arms; they declared to him that the emperor would not enter into a war -with us on his account, and many other such-like representations did -they make to him. But he paid no regard to all this, nor shewed any -inclination to return to us, until the imperial viceroy, convinced at -last of his obstinacy, told him in the emperor's name, that he ought to -return; for that his imperial majesty could not by any law keep him from -us, nor, during the present war with Turkey, and also in Italy with -Spain, embroil himself with us upon his account. When he saw how the -case stood, fearing he should be delivered up to us, whether he would or -not, he at length resolved to return home; and declared his mind to our -envoys, and to the imperial viceroy: he likewise wrote the same thing to -us, acknowledging himself to be a criminal, and blameworthy. Now -although our son, by so long a course of criminal disobedience against -us, his father and lord, for many years, and particularly for the -dishonour he hath cast upon us in the face of the world, by withdrawing -himself, and raising calumnies against us, as if we were an unnatural -father, and for opposing his sovereign, hath deserved to be punished -with death; yet our paternal affection inclines us to have mercy upon -him, and we therefore pardon his crimes, and exempt him from all -punishment for the same. But considering his unworthiness, we cannot in -conscience, leave him after us the succession to the throne of Russia; -foreseeing that, by his vicious courses, he would entirely destroy the -glory of our nation and the safety of our dominions, which, through -God's assistance, we have acquired and established by incessant -application; for it is notorious and known to every one, how much it -hath cost us, and with what efforts we have not only recovered the -provinces which the enemy had usurped from our empire, but also -conquered several considerable towns and countries, and with what care -we have caused our people to be instructed in all sorts of civil and -military sciences, to the glory and advantage of the nation and empire. -Now, as we should pity our states and faithful subjects, if, by such a -successor, we should throw them back into a much worse condition than -ever they were yet; so, by the paternal authority, in virtue of which, -by the laws of our empire, any of our subjects may disinherit a son, and -give his succession to such other of his sons, as he pleases; and, in -quality of sovereign prince, in consideration of the safety of our -dominions, we do deprive our said son Alexis, for his crimes and -unworthiness, of the succession after us to the throne of Russia, even -though there should not remain one single person of our family after us. -And we do constitute and declare successor to the said throne after us, -our second son Peter, though yet very young, having no successor that is -older. We lay upon our said son Alexis our paternal curse, if ever at -any time he pretends to, or reclaims, the said succession; and we desire -our faithful subjects, whether ecclesiastics or seculars, of all ranks -and conditions, and the whole Russian nation, in conformity to this -constitution and our will, to acknowledge and consider our said son -Peter, appointed by our constitution, to confirm the whole by oath, -before the holy altar, upon the holy gospel, kissing the cross; and all -those who shall ever, at any time, oppose this our will, and who, from -this day forward, shall dare to consider our son Alexis, as successor, -or to assist him for that purpose, declare them traitors to us and their -country. And we have ordered that these presents shall be every where -published and promulgated, to the end that no person may pretend -ignorance.--Given at Moscow, the third of February, 1718. Signed with -our hand, and sealed with our seal. - - 'PETER.' - -[103] This was the son of the empress Catherine, who died April 15, -1719. - -[104] At the same time confirming it by an oath, the form of which was -as follows: 'I swear before Almighty God, and upon his holy gospel, that -whereas our most gracious sovereign, the czar Peter Alexiowitz, has -caused circular letters to be published through his empire, to notify -that he has thought fit to exclude his son, prince Alexis Petrowitz, -from the throne of Russia, and to appoint for his successor to the crown -his second son, the prince royal Peter Petrowitz; I do acknowledge this -order and regulation made by his majesty in favour of the said prince -Peter Petrowitz, to be just and lawful, and entirely conform and submit -myself to the same; promising always to acknowledge the said prince -royal Peter Petrowitz for his lawful successor, and to stand by him on -all occasions, even to the loss of my life, against all such as shall -presume to oppose the said succession; and that I never will, on any -pretence whatsoever assist the prince Alexis Petrowitz, nor in any -manner whatsoever contribute to procure him the succession. And this I -solemnly promise by my oath on the holy gospel, kissing the holy cross -thereupon.' - -[105] His declaration to the clergy concluded in this manner:--'Though -this affair does not fall within the verge of the spiritual, but of the -civil jurisdiction, and we have this day referred it to the imperial -decision of the secular court, but remembering that passage in the word -of God, which requires us on such occasions to consult the priests and -elders of the church, in order to know the will of Heaven, and being -desirous of receiving all possible instructions in a matter of such -importance, we desire of you, the archbishops, and the whole -ecclesiastical state, as teachers of the word of God, not to pronounce -judgment in this case, but to examine and give us your opinion -concerning it, according to the sacred oracles, from whom we may be best -informed what punishment my son deserves, and that you will give it us -in writing under your hands, that being properly instructed herein, we -may lay no burthen on our conscience. We therefore repose our confidence -in you, that, as guardians of the divine laws, as faithful pastors of -the Christian flock, and as well affected towards your country, you will -act suitable to your dignity, conjuring you by that dignity, and the -holiness of your function, to proceed without fear or dissimulation. - -[106] Besides the particular passages in holy writ cited on this -occasion, which were, Levit. xx. 1, 9. Deut. xxxi. Matt. xx. 1. Mark -vii. 9. Rom. i. 28. Ephes vi. 1. those from the constitutions of the -empire were as follows: 'If any person, by any ill design, forms any -attempt against the health of the czar, or does any thing to his -prejudice, and is found inclined to execute his pernicious designs, let -him be put to death, after he is convicted thereof.' Stat. 1. 'In like -manner, if any one, during the reign of his czarian majesty, through a -desire to reign in the empire of Russia, and put the czar to death, -shall begin to raise troops with this pernicious view; or if any one -shall form an alliance with the enemies of his czarian majesty, or hold -a correspondence with them, or assist them to arrive at the government, -or raise any other disorder; if any one declare it, and the truth be -found out upon such declaration, let the traitor suffer death upon -conviction of the treason.' Stat. 2. From the military laws the -following citations were made; chap. 3. art. 19. 'If any subject raises -men, and takes up arms against the czarian majesty; or if any person -forms a design of taking his majesty prisoner, or killing him; or if he -offers any violence to him; he and all his abettors and adherents shall -be quartered, as guilty of treason, and their goods confiscated.' To -which article the following explanation was added: 'They also shall -suffer the same punishment, who, though they have not been able to -execute their crime, shall be convicted of inclination and desire to -commit it; and likewise, those who shall not have discovered it when it -came to their knowledge,' chap. 26. art. 37. 'He who forms a design of -committing any treason, or any other matter of the like nature, shall be -punished with the same capital punishments as if he had actually -executed his design.' - -[107] M. de Voltaire is mistaken in this point; for, by our laws, no -peer of the realm can absent himself from the service of the parliament -during its session, without the liberty of the king or the house. - -[108] This is another mistake; for it is death by our law to compass or -imagine the death of the sovereign. - -[109] Or Nions, the capital of Montauban, in Dauphine, in France, -situate on the river Aigues, over which is a bridge, said to be a Roman -work. - -[110] At twenty-four to the pound sterling. - -[111] About three thousand pounds sterling. - -[112] The czar celebrated this victory by a naval triumph at Petersburg, -caused a gold medal to be struck to perpetuate the glory of the action, -presented prince Galitzin with a sword set with diamonds, and -distributed a large sum of money among the officers and sailors who had -given such signal proofs of their valour. - -[113] A little town of the Bothnick gulf in North Finland. - -[114] Notwithstanding the great rejoicings made on this occasion, Peter -was noways inattentive to the affairs of state; but held frequent -councils thereon: and being desirous, as his son Peter Petrowitz was -dead, to settle the succession on a prince who would follow his maxims, -and prosecute the great designs which he had begun for civilizing his -people, he ordered public notice to be given, on the 23d of February, to -all his subjects inhabiting the city of Moscow, to repair the next day -to Castle-church; which they having done, printed papers were delivered -to them all, signifying, 'That it was his imperial majesty's pleasure, -that every man should swear, and give under his hand, that he would not -only approve the choice his majesty would make of a successor, but -acknowledge the person he should appoint as emperor and sovereign.' An -order was likewise published a few days after at Petersburg, requiring -the magistrates and all persons to subscribe the same declaration; and -all the grandees of the empire were commanded, on pain of death and -confiscation, to repair to Moscow by the latter end of March for that -purpose, except those inhabiting Astracan and Siberia, who, living at -too great a distance, were excused from giving their personal -attendance, and permitted to subscribe before their respective -governors. This oath was readily taken by all ranks and degrees of the -people, who were well assured that their emperor would make choice of -one who was every way worthy of the succession, and capable of -supporting the dignity intended for him: but they were still in the dark -as to the identical person, though it was generally believed to be -prince Nariskin, who was nearly related to the emperor, and allowed to -have all the qualities requisite for his successor: but a little time -shewed them, that this conjecture was groundless. - -[115] These he published and distributed along the borders of the -Caspian Sea, therein declaring--That he came not upon the frontiers of -Persia, with an intention of reducing any of the provinces of that -kingdom to his obedience, but only to maintain the lawful possessor of -them on his throne, and to defend him powerfully, together with his -faithful subjects, against the tyranny of Mir Mahmoud, and to obtain -satisfaction from him and his Tartars, for the robberies and mischiefs -which they had committed in the Russian empire. - -[116] Memoirs of Bassewitz. - -[117] MS. memoirs of count de Bassewitz. - -[118] Catherine paid the last duties to her husband's ashes, with a pomp -becoming the greatest monarch that Russia, or perhaps any other country, -had ever known; and though there is no court of Europe where splendour -and magnificence is carried to a greater height on these occasions than -in that of Russia, yet it may with great truth be said, that she even -surpassed herself in the funeral honours paid to her great Peter. She -purchased the most precious kinds of marble, and employed some of the -ablest sculptors of Italy to erect a mausoleum to this hero, which -might, if possible, transmit the remembrance of his great actions to the -most distant ages. Not satisfied with this, she caused a medal to be -struck, worthy of the ancients. On one side was represented the bust of -the late emperor, with these words--'_Peter the Great, Emperor and -Sovereign of all Russia, born May 30, 1672_. On the reverse was the -empress sitting, with the crown on her head, the globe and sceptre by -her side on a table, and before her were a sphere, sea charts, plans, -mathematical instruments, arms, and a caduceus. At distances, in three -different places, were represented an edifice on the sea coast, with a -platform before it, a ship and galley at sea, and the late emperor in -the clouds, supported by eternity, looking on the empress, and shewing -her with his right hand all the treasures he had left her, with these -words, 'Behold what I have left you.' In the exergue, 'Deceased 28 -January, 1725.' Several of these medals she ordered to be struck in -gold, to the weight of fifty ducats and distributed among the foreign -ministers, and all the grandees of the empire, as a testimony of her -respect and gratitude to the memory of her late husband, to whose -generosity she took a pleasure in owning herself indebted for her -present elevated station. - -Mottley gives us the following, as the czar's epitaph: - - Here lieth, - All that could die of a man immortal, - PETER ALEXIOWITZ: - It is almost superfluous to add, - _Great Emperor of Russia!_ - A title, - Which, instead of adding to his glory, - Became glorious by his wearing it. - Let antiquity be dumb, - Nor boast her Alexander, or her Cæsar. - How easy was victory - To leaders who were followed by heroes! - And whose soldiers felt a noble disdain - At being thought less vigilant than their generals! - But he, - Who in this place first knew rest, - Found subjects base and inactive, - Unwarlike, unlearned, untractable; - Neither covetous of fame, nor fearless of danger; - Creatures with the names of men, - But with qualities rather brutal than rational! - Yet, even these - He polished from their native ruggedness; - And, breaking out like a new sun, - To illuminate the minds of a people, - Dispelled their night of hereditary darkness; - And, by force of his invincible influence, - Taught them to conquer - Even the conquerors of Germany. - Other princes have commanded victorious armies; - This commander created them. - Blush, O Art! at a hero who owed thee nothing - Exult, O Nature! for thine was this prodigy. - -[119] The distinguished regard which this princess shews for the arts -and sciences, and her endeavours to attract the great geniuses of all -nations to reside in her dominions, by every possible encouragement, -affords the strongest presumptions, that in her reign we shall see a -second age of Louis XIV. and of this we have had a recent proof, in the -obliging letter which this august princess wrote with her own hand to M. -d'Alembert, and the choice she has since made of M. Duplex, a member of -the royal academy of sciences at Paris, when the beforementioned -gentleman thought fit to decline the gracious offers she made him. In -which choice she has shewn that it is not birth nor rank, but true merit -and virtue, which she considers as the essential qualifications in a -person to whom she would confide the most sacred of all trusts, that of -the education of the grand duke, her son. What then may not be expected -from the administration of a sovereign so superior to vulgar prejudice? -And especially when assisted by a Woronzoff and a Galitzin, both the -professed friends and patrons of literature and the fine arts, which -they themselves have not disdained to cultivate, when business and the -weighty affairs of state have allowed them a few moments leisure. - -[120] The following anecdote, communicated by a nobleman of the -strictest probity, who was himself an eye-witness of the fact, will give -us a clear insight into the character and disposition of Peter I. In one -of the many plots which was formed against the life and government of -this monarch, there was among the number of those seized a soldier, -belonging to his own regiment of guards. Peter being told by his -officers that this man had always behaved extremely well, had a -curiosity to see him, and learn from his own mouth what might have been -his inducement to be concerned in a plot against him; and to this -purpose he dressed himself in a plain garb, and so as not to be known by -the man again, and went to the prison where he was confined, when, after -some conversation, 'I should be glad to know, friend,' said Peter, 'what -were your reasons for being concerned in an attempt against the emperor -your master, as I am certain that he never did you any injury, but on -the contrary, has a regard for you, as being a brave soldier, and one -who have always done your duty in the field; and therefore, if you were -to shew the least remorse for what you have done, I am persuaded that -the emperor would forgive you: but before I interest myself in your -behalf, you must tell me what motives you had to join the mutineers; and -repeat to you again, that the emperor is naturally so good and -compassionate, that I am certain he will give you your pardon.' - -'I know little or nothing of the emperor,' replied the soldier, 'for I -never saw him but at a distance; but he caused my father's head to be -cut off some time ago, for being concerned in a former rebellion, and it -is the duty of a son to revenge the death of his father, by that of the -person who took away his life. If then the emperor is really so good and -merciful as you have represented him, counsel him, for his own safety -not to pardon me; for were he to restore me my liberty, the first use I -should make of it would be, to engage in some new attempt against his -life, nor should I ever rest till I had accomplished my design; -therefore the securest method he can take, will be to order my head to -be struck off immediately, without which his own life is not in safety.' -The czar in vain used all the arguments he could think of, to set before -this desperado the folly and injustice of such sentiments; he still -persisted in what he had declared, and Peter departed, greatly chagrined -at the bad success of his visit, and gave orders for the execution of -this man and the rest of his accomplices. - - - - - Transcriber's notes: - - The following is a list of changes made to the original. - The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one. - - of procelain, the court magazines, the foundery, - of porcelain, the court magazines, the foundery, - - and brought martins and black foxes, - and brought martens and black foxes, - - Labourers in the mines belonging to the crown 300 - Labourers in the mines belonging to the crown 3000 - - dicipline by land: nay, the most common - discipline by land: nay, the most common - - and encouragement on the part of a govornment; - and encouragement on the part of a government; - - situated on the Driester, and subject to the Turks, - situated on the Dniester, and subject to the Turks, - - in a word, he was worthy of being the father of - In a word, he was worthy of being the father of - - to the empire, the reigns of which she intended - to the empire, the reins of which she intended - - He led a retired life, and died in 1646. - He led a retired life, and died in 1696. - - retook from Lewis XIV. in 1694. After this, - retook from Lewis XIV. in 1674. After this, - - up the renegado, Jacob, to the conquerors. - up the renegade, Jacob, to the conquerors. - - cruizing on the coast of Crim Tartary. The Ottoman - cruising on the coast of Crim Tartary. The Ottoman - - Marshal Sheremeto, the general Gordons and Schein, - Marshal Sheremeto, the generals Gordon and Schein, - - Accordingly, in the month of March 1677, he sent - Accordingly, in the month of March 1697, he sent - - by king Willian with a spectacle worthy such a - by king William with a spectacle worthy such a - - is signed, and they cad no longer go from their - is signed, and they can no longer go from their - - This is speaking like the high-priest of depotism. - This is speaking like the high-priest of despotism. - - he invited all the boyards, and principa lladies - he invited all the boyards, and principal ladies - - gained a pitched battle, againsr an enemy who - gained a pitched battle, against an enemy who - - ignorant of the place where these two princes where, - ignorant of the place where these two princes were, - - gave up those Zoporavians who had engaged in - gave up those Zaporavians who had engaged in - - prisoners. Is has been the custom of the - prisoners. It has been the custom of the - - Demetrius Cantemir, was at this time Waiwod of Moldavia. - Demetrius Cantemir was at this time Waiwod of Moldavia. - - perish with famine. other memoirs pretend, on - perish with famine. Other memoirs pretend, on - - and six thousand six hundred and nine-two - and six thousand six hundred and ninety-two - - almost every century: Gustavus Adolphus get possession - almost every century: Gustavus Adolphus got possession - - took great delight in the ancient Green historians, - took great delight in the ancient Greek historians, - - he gave orders that the man, whom he had exmained - he gave orders that the man, whom he had examined - - transmitted to the latest postesity. - transmitted to the latest posterity. - - And here we cannnot forbear recalling to the - And here we cannot forbear recalling to the - - Caspian Sea, in the neigbourhood of Daghestan, - Caspian Sea, in the neighbourhood of Daghestan, - - head of James II. in London, as he had before - head of James III. in London, as he had before - - not been attested by a a public minister, who was - not been attested by a public minister, who was - - Gods's assistance, we owe to our labour, and those of our - God's assistance, we owe to our labour, and those of our - - of the country, and his ill-behaviour to his wife.' - of the country, and his ill-behaviour to his wife. - - us word, that he did rufuse to admit them; but that the - us word, that he did refuse to admit them; but that the - - materials for reparing this great structure, which - materials for repairing this great structure, which - - who, was to have Stanislaus again for her king. - who was to have Stanislaus again for her king. - - of renouncing arbitary government. Charles - of renouncing arbitrary government. Charles - - in this situation during the whole of the pear 1719. - in this situation during the whole of the year 1719. - - them on his throne, and to defend him powerfully, toge- - them on his throne, and to defend him powerfully, together - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Peter the Great, -Emperor of Russia, by Voltaire - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETER THE GREAT *** - -***** This file should be named 42540-8.txt or 42540-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/5/4/42540/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Clark and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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