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diff --git a/42410-8.txt b/42410-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b4c4f8f..0000000 --- a/42410-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30290 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Great Events in the History of North and -South America, by Charles A. Goodrich - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Great Events in the History of North and South America - -Author: Charles A. Goodrich - -Release Date: March 25, 2013 [EBook #42410] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GREAT EVENTS *** - - - - -Produced by Douglas L. Alley, III, Adrian Mastronardi and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - - - - - - - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - - GREAT EVENTS - - IN - - THE HISTORY - - OF - - NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA; - - FROM THE ALLEGED - - DISCOVERY OF THE CONTINENT, - - BY THE NORTHMEN, IN THE TENTH CENTURY, - - TO - - THE PRESENT TIME; - - WITH BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF EMINENT MEN CONNECTED WITH - AMERICAN HISTORY. - - BY CHARLES A. GOODRICH, - - AUTHOR OF "UNITED STATES' HISTORY," "LIVES OF THE SIGNERS OF THE - DECLARATION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE," &c., &c. - - ILLUSTRATED WITH UPWARDS OF TWO HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS, - - CHIEFLY FROM ORIGINAL DESIGNS, BY EMINENT ARTISTS. - - HARTFORD: - PUBLISHED BY HOUSE & BROWN - - 1851. - - - - - ENTERED, ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1849, BY - CHARLES A. GOODRICH, - IN THE CLERK'S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF CONNECTICUT. - - FOUNDRY OF - S. ANDRUS AND SON, - HARTFORD. - - PRESS OF - WALTER S. WILLIAMS, - HARTFORD. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -The plan of the following work, whatever may be thought of its -execution, will commend itself, it is believed, to the taste and -judgment of the public. It proceeds upon the principle of _selection_, -being chiefly confined to the _Great Events_ of American History, and -which are treated of as _distinct subjects_. In these respects, the -work differs from other historical works on the same subject. - -The advantages of a work thus constructed, are too obvious to need -specification. Yet, it may be remarked, that great events in history -are like great objects in nature and art. It is the bolder features of -a country--the more costly and imposing edifices of the city--the -higher and more elaborate achievements of art--upon which we delight -to dwell. In like manner, great events attract our attention and -interest our minds, because of their relations--because of the higher -qualities of mind which, perhaps, gave them birth, and the striking -and lasting changes which grow out of them. They serve as landmarks in -our drift down the stream of time. We date from them. We refer to -them. We measure between them. We compare them one with another--their -causes, progress, influences; and, in so doing, our knowledge of men -and things is advanced--our false opinions are corrected--our topics -for interesting and profitable speculation and reflection greatly -multiplied. A thorough perusal of a work thus constructed will secure, -it is believed, a more competent and permanent knowledge of the -history of a country, than some half-dozen readings of that history, -written on the ordinary plan. - -The principle of selection will render the work the more valuable to -certain classes of persons--to those who, desirous of a competent -knowledge of the history of their country, have but a limited time to -devote to the study of it; to the young, whose minds are apt to become -wearied and perplexed with the number and details of minor events; and -to those who wish to refresh their recollections, without the labor -and loss of time incident to the perusal of works constructed on the -common plan. Each of these classes will find their interests consulted -in the work before them, while the general reader may profitably -proceed from the perusal of such a volume to those which describe -events and details more minutely. - -In regard to what constitute the 'Great Events of American History,' -there may be some diversity of opinion. As to _his_ selection, the -author has not the vanity to suppose that it is the best that could be -made. The journey has been a long one; and surely, it were not strange, -if some events had been magnified into an undue importance; while those -of perhaps even higher consideration were neglected, either for want of -a better judgment, or for want of more serious reflection. - -In the progress of the work, the author has endeavored to do justice -to the original settlers of the United States, and their immediate -descendants, by bringing into view their constant sense of their -dependence upon God. It will be seen that our forefathers were men who -feared God--who sought his blessing in all their great enterprises; -and when success crowned those enterprises, that they were ready to -acknowledge His good hand which had been with them. In seasons of -darkness, they fasted and prayed: in seasons of prosperity, they -rejoiced and gave thanks. - -In these respects, our ancestors did, indeed, only their duty; but, it -may well be urged upon the rising generation, which will soon take the -management of the affairs of this already-mighty nation--and which is -growing in population, wealth, and importance, every year--to imitate -an example so just! so beautiful! so impressive! - -The author has briefly to add, that the work was begun some years since; -but, until now, he has found no opportunity to complete it; nor should -he, even at this date, have had that pleasure, but for the important aid -of a highly valued literary friend, long favorably known to the public, -Rev. ROYAL ROBBINS, of Berlin, Ct., to whom, in this place, he is happy -to make his acknowledgments for valuable portions of the volume. - -[Illustration] - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - NORTH AMERICA.--UNITED STATES. - - PAGE. - - INTRODUCTION, 13 - - - I.--EARLY DISCOVERIES. - - I. _Northmen._--Claims for the Northmen; Voyages of Biarne, Leif, - Thorwald, Thorfinn, Helge, and Finnboge, 19 - - II. _Columbus._--Birth and Education of Columbus; Unsuccessful - application to several European Courts; Patronized by - Isabella; Sails from Palos; Early Discontent of his Crew; - Expedients by which they are quieted; Discovery of Land; First - appearance of the Natives; Cuba and Hispaniola discovered; - Columbus sets sail on his Return; Incidents of the Voyage; - Marks of consideration bestowed upon him; Second Voyage; - Further Discoveries; Complaints against him; Third Voyage; - Discovery of the Continent; Persecuted by Enemies; Sent home - in Chains; Kindness of Isabella; Fourth Voyage; Return and - Death, 26 - - III. _Sebastian Cabot._--Discovery of the North American Continent - by Sebastian Cabot, 45 - - II.--EARLY SETTLEMENTS. - - I. VIRGINIA, OR SOUTHERN COLONY. - - Unsuccessful Attempts to settle America; Expeditions of Sir - Humphrey Gilbert; Sir Walter Raleigh; Sir Richard Grenville; - Sir John White; First Permanent Settlement at Jamestown; - Colonists early in Want; Dissensions in their Councils; - Hostility of the Indians; Capture of Captain Smith; Generous - Conduct of Pocahontas; Gloomy Condition of the Colony; Timely - arrival of Assistance; Returning Prosperity; Establishment of - a Provisional Government; Introduction of Negro Slavery; Cruel - Massacre of the Colonists, 48 - - II. NEW ENGLAND, OR NORTHERN SETTLEMENTS. - - Plymouth; Massachusetts; Connecticut; New Haven; New Hampshire; - Rhode Island; Maine; Vermont--Character of the Early - Settlers, 61 - - III. MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN SETTLEMENTS. - - New York; New Jersey; Delaware; Maryland; N. Carolina; S. - Carolina; Georgia; Pennsylvania, 96 - - III.--INDIANS: THEIR TRIBES AND WARS. - - I. INDIAN TRIBES. - - General Division; Tribes in the Central and Southern parts of New - England; Tribes in the Northern parts; East of Lake Erie and - South of Lake Ontario; Southern Tribes, 104 - - II. ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. - - Various Speculations on the subject; Opinions of Voltaire, of Rev. - Thos. Thorowgood, Dr. Boudinot, Roger Williams, Hubbard, Thos. - Morton, John Josselin, Cotton Mather, Dr. Mitchell, Dr. - Swinton, 109 - - III. VIRGINIA INDIAN WARS. - - Early Troubles of the English with the Indians; Power and Cruelty - of Powhatan; his apparent Friendship for the Colonists; - Treacherous Conduct; Kindness of Pocahontas; Inhuman Conduct - of Lord De la War; Captivity of Pocahontas; Cruel Massacre of - the Whites; Opecancanough; Troubles with Totopotomoi; Anecdote - of Jack-of-the-feather, 113 - - IV. PLYMOUTH COLONY AND THE INDIANS. - - Early Rencontre at Plymouth; Friendly Intercourse established by - means of Samoset; Kindness of Squanto; Intercourse with - Massasoit; Contemplated Massacre defeated; Caunbitant; - Hobomok, 125 - - V. ENGLISH AND NARRAGANSETS. - - Territory of the Narragansets; Canonicus their Sachem; his mode of - Challenging the English to War; Union proposed between the - Pequods and Narragansets; how Defeated; Haughty Bearing of - Miantonimoh; Accused of a Conspiracy against the English; - Accusations repelled; Peace concluded between him and - Massachusetts; War between Uncas and Miantonimoh; the latter - captured, and delivered to the English; how disposed of; - Character of Uncas; Troubles with the Narragansets under - Ninigret; Expedition against him; its Issue, 142 - - VI. PEQUOD WAR. - - Territory of the Pequods; their Character; Sassacus; his Hatred of - the English; Cruelties practiced towards them; War declared by - Connecticut; Expedition of Captain Mason; Surprise and - Destruction of the Fort; Further Prosecution of the War; - Consequences resulting from it, 153 - - VII. PHILIP'S WAR. - - Causes of Philip's War; Character of Philip; General Spirit of - Hostility among the Indians; Outbreak at Swansey; Expedition - under General Savage; Expedition under Captain Church; - Perilous Situation of this latter party; Timely Arrival of - Captain Hutchinson; Second Expedition of Captain Church; - Critical Situation of Philip; Effects his Escape; Annoys the - Back Settlements of Massachusetts; Treachery of the Nipmucks; - Attack on Brookfield; Bloody Affair at Muddy Brook; Attack on - Springfield; Attack on Hatfield; Outrages at Northampton; - Large Force raised by Massachusetts, Plymouth, and - Connecticut, against the Narragansets; Philip's Fortress at - Kingston, Rhode Island; Destruction of it; Lancaster - destroyed; other Towns burned; Fatal Affair at Pawtuxet river, - Rhode Island; Stratagem of Cape Cod Indians; Attacks on - Rehoboth, Chelmsford, Sudbury, &c.; Expedition of Connecticut - troops; Conanchet captured; Long Meadow attacked; Hadley; - Fortunes of Philip on the wane; Successful Expedition at - Connecticut-river Falls; Attack on Hatfield; on Hadley; - Remarkable Interposition of a Stranger at Hadley, supposed to - be Goffe; Decline of Philip's Power; Pursued by Captain - Church; Death of Philip; Disastrous Effects of the War; - Philip's Warriors; Annawon; Reflections, 161 - - VIII. WAR OF WILLIAM III. - - Combination of French and Indians against the Americans; Burning - of Schenectady; Cause of it; Horrors attending it; Attack upon - Salmon Falls and upon Casco; Results of Expeditions fitted out - by New York and New England; Reduction of Port Royal; - Atrocities which marked the War; Attack on Haverhill, - Massachusetts; Heroic Conduct of Mrs. Dustan; Peace, 190 - - IX. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. - - Principal Scenes of this War in America; Attack upon Deerfield; - Captivity and Sufferings of Rev. Mr. Williams; Other Disasters - of the War; Peace; Death of Queen Anne; Accession of George - I.; Continued Sufferings of the Colonies of Massachusetts and - New Hampshire; Peace concluded with the Indians at Boston, 200 - - X. WAR OF GEORGE II. - - War between England and France, 1744; French take Casco; Effect of - this Declaration of War upon the Indians; Attack upon the - Great Meadows (now Putney); also, upon Ashuelot (now Keene); - Expedition against Louisburg; Particulars of it; Surrender of - it; Continuance of the War; Various places assaulted; Savage - Barbarities following the surrender of Fort Massachusetts; - Peace declared, 208 - - XI. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. - - Declaration of War between England and France; Causes of the War; - Mode of conducting it; Various Expeditions planned; Nova - Scotia taken from the French; General Braddock's Signal - Defeat; Failure of Expeditions against Niagara and Fort - Frontenac; Expedition against Crown Point; Battle of Lake - George; Campaign of 1756; Inefficiency of Lord Loudon; Loss of - Fort Oswego; Indian Atrocities in Pennsylvania; Campaign of - 1757; Massacre at Fort William Henry; Exploits of Colonel - Trye; Captain John Burke and others; Campaign of 1758; Capture - of Louisburg; Unsuccessful Expedition against Ticonderoga; - Capture of Fort Frontenac; Fort du Quesne taken; Campaign of - 1759; Ticonderoga and Crown Point taken; Niagara captured; - Siege and Capture of Quebec; Death of Wolfe and Montcalm; - Final Surrender of the French Possessions in Canada to the - English; Peace of Paris, 214 - - IV.--REVOLUTION. - - I. CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. - - Objects proposed in the Settlement of America; Forms of Government - conducive to Independence; Influence of Expenses; Colonies - obliged to defend themselves, and to defray the Expenses of - their own Wars and those of the Mother-country; British system - of Taxation commenced; Writs of Assistance; Stamp Act; - Formidable Opposition to it; Non-importation Act; Arrival of - British Forces; Boston Massacre; Destruction of the Gaspee; - Destruction of Tea; Boston Port Bill; Arrival of General Gage; - his Obnoxious Measures; Meeting of Congress; Preparations for - War; Obstinacy of the King and Parliament; Crisis arrives; - Determination of the Colonists, 238 - - II. EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION. - - I. _Battle of Lexington._--Cause or Occasion of the Battle; - British Detachment proceeds towards Concord; Reaches - Lexington; First Blood shed; Hancock and Adams; Captain - Wheeler and the British Officer; Stores destroyed; the British - harassed by the Americans; Retreat from Concord; Effect of - this affair upon the Country; Proceedings of the Massachusetts - Provincial Congress, 266 - - II. _Battle of Bunker's Hill._--American Patriotism; American and - British Forces; Fortification of Bunker's Hill; Attacked by - British Ships; Asa Pollard, the First Martyr; Preparations of - the British; Warren; Prescott's Injunction to his Troops; - British repulsed with terrible slaughter; Second Attack; - Charlestown set on fire at the same time; Second Repulse; - Putnam and Major Small; Death of Colonel Gardiner; Thrilling - Incident; Third Advance of the British; Death of Major - Pitcairn; Americans in want of Ammunition; Retreat; Death of - Warren; Respective Losses; Results of the Battle, 274 - - III. _Washington, Commander-in-Chief._--Effects of the Battle of - Bunker's Hill; Meeting of Congress; Appointment of a - Commander-in-Chief proposed; Difficulties in regard to a - Selection; Claims of Individuals; Interview between John and - Samuel Adams; Speech of the former; Washington Nominated; - Unanimously Confirmed; Manifesto of Congress; Public Fast, 291 - - IV. _Evacuation of Boston._--General Officers appointed; - Washington repairs to Cambridge; State of the Army; Great Want - of Gunpowder; Sickness in the Camp; Dorchester Heights - fortified; Proposal of the British General to attack the - American Intrenchments; Alters his plan, and evacuates Boston; - Embarkation of the British; Washington enters the city, 299 - - V. _Independence Declared._--Independence begun to be - contemplated; Causes which increased a desire for such an - event; Question of a Declaration of Independence enters the - Colonial Assemblies; Introduced to Congress by Richard Henry - Lee; Debated; State of Parties in respect to it; Measures - adopted to secure a favorable vote; Question taken, and - Declaration adopted; Signed; the Great Act of the Revolution; - its Influence immediately perceptible; Character of the - Signers; the Fourth of July, a time-honored and glorious day; - How it should be celebrated, 310 - - VI. _Attack on Sullivan's Island._--Invasion of Southern Colonies - proposed; Expedition dispatched; Charleston its first Object; - Proceedings of its Citizens; Sullivan's island Fortified; - Arrival of General Lee; his Opinion of Fort Moultrie; British - Fleet arrives; Preliminary Movements; Fort Moultrie attacked; - Remarkable Defence; Action described; Heroic Conduct of - Sergeant Jasper; Repulse of the British; Respective Losses; - Liberality of Governor Rutledge; Standards presented by Mrs. - Elliot; Death of Jasper, 322 - - VII. _Military Reverses: Loss of New York._--British take - possession of Staten Island; Strongly reinforced; State of the - American Army; New York and Brooklyn occupied; Battle of - Brooklyn; Americans repulsed; Long Island abandoned; - Remarkable retreat; Gloomy State of the American Army; - Washington retreats to Harlem; Movements of the British; - Washington retires to White Plains; Loss of Fort Washington; - American Army pursued; Retreats successively to New Brunswick, - Princeton, and Trenton; thence to the Pennsylvania side of the - Delaware; British go into Winter-quarters; Capture of General - Lee; Prevalent Spirit of Despondency, 338 - - VIII. _Returning Prosperity: Battles of Trenton and - Princeton._--Reliance of the Patriots upon God for Success; - Public Fast recommended by Congress; Offensive Operations - decided upon; Battle of Trenton; Washington victorious; Battle - of Princeton; British repulsed; American Army at Morristown; - British at Brunswick; Prospects brightening, 344 - - IX. _Occupation of Philadelphia._--Position of the Armies; British - remove to New York; Sail for the Chesapeake; Advance towards - Philadelphia; American Army also move towards the same place; - Meet at Brandywine; Battle; Americans repulsed; British enter - Philadelphia; Congress retire to Lancaster; Battle of - Germantown; Americans retreat; Ineffectual Attempts to force - the British to evacuate Philadelphia, 353 - - X. _Surrender of Burgoyne._--British Project for securing the - command of the Hudson between New York and Albany; Intrusted - to Generals Howe and Burgoyne; the latter leaves Canada with a - strong Force; Invests and takes Crown Point and Ticonderoga; - Affair of Skenesborough; Fort Edward abandoned; Retreat of - Americans to Stillwater; Battle of Bennington; General Gates - supersedes General Schuyler; Critical position of Burgoyne; he - advances upon Saratoga; Battle; Battle of Stillwater; Burgoyne - retreats, pursued by Gates; Capitulates; Public - Rejoicings, 360 - - XI. _Progress of the War._--State of affairs in England; Treaty - with France; Movements in the British Parliament; Overtures to - Congress; Rejection of them; Battle of Monmouth; Disastrous - Retreat of General Lee; Fortunate Interposition of Washington; - his Rebuke of Lee; Tremendous Battle; Sufferings of the - Armies; Renewal of the Contest; Midnight Retreat of the - British army; Subsequent Trial and Dismission of General - Lee, 378 - - XII. _Treachery of Arnold._--The Vulture in the Hudson; Midnight - Adventure; Benedict Arnold; Repairs to Cambridge; Expedition - to Canada; Created a Brigadier-general; Grounds of Complaint; - Honorable Conduct in Connecticut; Appointed to the command at - Philadelphia; Charges preferred against him; Reprimanded by - Washington; Plots against his Country; Correspondence with Sir - H. Clinton; Appointed to the command of West Point; Interview - with Andre; Capture of Andre; Arrival of Washington; Escape of - Arnold; Developments of his Traitorous Intentions; Trial and - Condemnation of Andre; Subsequent Incidents in the life of - Arnold, 391 - - XIII. _Concluding Scenes of the Revolution._--Theatre of War - changed to the South; Siege of Savannah; Battle of Camden; - Battle of Cowpens; Retreat; Subsequent Movements; Battles of - Guilford, Kohkirk's Hill, Ninety-Six, and Eutaw Springs; - Yorktown; Treaty of Peace; Cessation of Hostilities; Army - disbanded; Departure of the British; Final Interview between - Washington and his Officers; Resigns his Commission; Retires - to Mount Vernon, 415 - - XIV. _Naval Operations._--State of the Naval Affairs of the - Colonies at the commencement of the Revolution; First Naval - Engagement; Measures adopted by Congress to provide a Naval - Armament; Naval Officers appointed; Vessels built; Flag - adopted; Success of American Privateering; Distinguished Naval - Officers; Character of Naval Commanders; Particular - Engagements:--Randolph and Yarmouth; Raleigh and Druid; - Sub-marine Warfare, Le Bon Homme Richard and Serapis; Trumbull - and Watt; Alliance, Atalanta, and Trepassey; Congress and - Savage, 450 - - XV. _Eminent Foreigners connected with the Revolution._--George - III. King of England; General Burgoyne, Sir Henry Clinton, - Colonel Barre, Charles Townshend, Lord Cornwallis, William - Pitt, Marquis of Bute, George Grenville, Duke of Grafton, Lord - North, Colonel Tarleton, Sir Peter Parker, Sir William - Meadows, Sir Guy Carlton, General Gage, Marquis of Rockingham, - Edmund Burke, Kosciusko, Pulaski, Baron de Kalb, Baron - Steuben, Count Rochambeau, Count D'Estaing, 488 - - V.--FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. - - Original Governments of the Colonies; Union between them; Plan - proposed by Dr. Franklin; First Congress; Congress of '74; - Confederation; Defects of it; Convention of States proposed by - Virginia; Commissioners from five States meet at Annapolis; - Powers too limited to act; Recommend a General Convention of - States; Delegates appointed; Convention meets at Philadelphia; - Decides to form a new Constitution; Draft prepared, discussed, - and adopted; Speech of Doctor Franklin; Constitution signed; - Adopted by the several States; Amendments; States admitted - since the adoption; Remarks on the Constitution, 520 - - VI.--GEORGE WASHINGTON, PRESIDENT. - - A System of Revenue; Regulation of Departments; Amendments of the - Constitution; Establishment of a Judiciary; Assumption of - Debts; Removal of the Seat of Government; National Bank; - Indian War; Re-election of Washington; Difficulties with - France; Insurrection in Pennsylvania; Jay's Treaty; Election - of Mr. Adams; Farewell Address, 542 - - VII.--JOHN ADAMS, PRESIDENT. - - Difficulties with France; Treaty with that Power; Death of - Washington; Removal of the Seat of Government; Election of Mr. - Jefferson, 571 - - VIII.--THOMAS JEFFERSON, PRESIDENT. - - Purchase of Louisiana; War with Tripoli; Murder of Hamilton; - Re-election of Jefferson; Conspiracy and Trial of Burr; Attack - on the Chesapeake; British Orders in Council; Milan Decree; - Embargo; Election of Mr. Madison; Difficulties between France - and England, 590 - - IX.--JAMES MADISON, PRESIDENT. - - Battle of Tippecanoe; Early Session of Congress; Declaration of - War; Surrender of Hull; Capture of the Gurriere; Battle of - Queenstown; Capture of the Frolic; of the Macedonian; of the - Java; Battle of Frenchtown; Capture of the Peacock; - Re-election of Mr. Madison; Capture of York; Siege of Fort - Meigs; Capture of the Argus; Perry's Victory; Battle of the - Thames; Creek War; Battle of Chippewa and Bridgewater; Capture - of Washington City; Engagement on Lake Champlain; Battle of - New Orleans; Treaty of Ghent; Close of Mr. Madison's - Administration, 611 - - X.--JAMES MONROE, PRESIDENT. - - Tour of the President; Admission of Missouri; Provision for - Indigent Officers, &c.; Re-election of Mr. Monroe; Seminole - War; Revision of the Tariff; Visit of Lafayette; Review of Mr. - Monroe's Administration; Election of Mr. Adams, 658 - - XI.--JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, PRESIDENT. - - Controversy respecting the Creeks; Proposed Mission to Panama; - Internal Improvements; Fiftieth Anniversary of Independence; - "American System;" Election of General Jackson, 673 - - XII.--ANDREW JACKSON, PRESIDENT. - - Condition of the Country; Georgia and the Cherokees; Public Lands; - National Bank; Internal Improvements; Indian Hostilities; - Discontents in South Carolina; Re-election of Andrew Jackson; - Removal of the Deposites; Death of Lafayette; Deposite Act; - Seminole War; Treasury Circular; Election of Mr. Van Buren; - Character of Jackson's Administration, 683 - - XIII.--MARTIN VAN BUREN, PRESIDENT. - - Measures respecting Banks; Treasury Circular; Continuance of - Florida War; Internal Improvements; Public Expenses; - Difficulties in Maine; Border Troubles; Changes of Public - Opinion; Character of the Administration; Election of William - H. Harrison, 701 - - XIV.--WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON, PRESIDENT, 713 - - XV.--JOHN TYLER, PRESIDENT. - - Extra Session of Congress; Relations with Great Britain; - Settlement of the North-eastern Boundary; Difficulties in - Rhode Island; Modification of the Tariff; Bunker's Hill - Monument; Treaties; Annexation of Texas; Presidential Canvass; - Character of Mr. Tyler's Administration, 715 - - XVI.--JAMES K. POLK, PRESIDENT. - - Decease of General Jackson; Admission of Texas; Division of - Oregon; Mexican War; Siege of Fort Brown; Battle of Palo Alto; - Battle of Resaca de la Palma; Fall of Monterey; Battle of - Buena Vista; Capture of Vera Cruz; Cerro Gordo; Progress of - the Army; Occupation of Mexico; Treaty; California and its - Gold; Election of General Taylor, 725 - - XVII.--ZACHARY TAYLOR, PRESIDENT. 755 - - - BRITISH AMERICA, 757 - - I. CANADA. - - Discovery; Settlement; Capture of Quebec; Death of Champlain; - Religious Enterprises; War made by the Iroquois; Accessions to - the Colony; Progress of the Colony; Attempts of the English to - Conquer Canada; Condition of Canada in 1721 and 1722; General - Prosperity of the Colony; Refusal to join in the War of - American Independence; Consequences of American Independence - to Canada; Territorial Divisions and Constitution; Dissensions - after the close of the War of 1812; Disturbances and - Insurrections, 759 - - II. NOVA SCOTIA. - - Limits; Conquest by the English; Settlement; Annexation to the - British Crown; Policy of England in relation to the Country; - Situation of the English Settlers; English Treatment of the - Acadians; State of the Province during the Wars of the United - States; Results of the War of 1812, 781 - - III. NEW BRUNSWICK. - - Extent; Physical Aspect and Soil; Settlement and Progress; Signal - Calamity, 787 - - IV. PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND. - - Location, Surface, and Climate; Early Settlers; Change of - Possession; Plans of Colonization; Character of late - Governors; Inhabitants, 790 - - V. NEWFOUNDLAND. - - Location and Importance; Discovery and Settlement; French - Hostilities; Renewal of War; Change of Administration; Present - Condition, 793 - - VI. HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY. - - Extent; Discovery; Settlement; Contests with France; Present - State, 797 - - - RUSSIAN AMERICA, 800 - - MEXICO. - - Discovery; Condition, anterior to the Spanish Conquest; Invasion - by Cortez; Arrival of Cortez in the Mexican Capital; - Abdication of Montezuma; Retreat of Cortez, and Return; Fall - of the City and Empire; Fate of Cortez; Extent of New Spain; - Introduction of the Catholic Religion; Native Spanish - Population, under the Colonial Government; Classes of the - Inhabitants; Causes of the First Mexican Revolution; - Commencement of the Revolution; Continuation of the War by the - Patriot Chiefs; Decline of the Revolution; Invasion by Mina; - Revolution under Iturbide; Adoption of the Federal - Constitution; Prosperity of the years 1825 and 1826; Election - of President in 1828; Usurpation of Bustamente; Defence of the - Federal Constitution; Santa Anna's Proceedings; Establishment - of a Central Republic; Attempts against the Central - Government; Revolution of 1841; Overthrow of Santa Anna's - Government, 802 - - GUATEMALA. - - Locality; Extent; Physical Character; Discovery and Conquest; - Independence of the Country, 830 - - SOUTH AMERICA. - - I. NEW GRENADA. - - Extent and Physical Features; Revolution of 1811; Formation of a - Constitution; Liberation of Quito; Crisis of 1828; Separation - of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Equator; State of the - Government since the Separation, 833 - - II. VENEZUELA. - - Name, Physical Features, &c.; Discovery; State of the Country - under the Spanish Dominion; Termination of the Spanish - Dominion; Condition since, 837 - - III. EQUATOR. - - Name, Extent, and Physical Character; Classes of the Inhabitants; - Subversion of the Spanish Authority; Condition since the - Spanish Rule, 841 - - IV. PERU. - - Locality, Extent, and Physical Character; Condition at the time of - its Invasion by the Spaniards; Conquest by Pizarro; Condition - of the Country after the Conquest; Insurrection; Revolutionary - Movement; Declaration of Independence; Condition after the - Expulsion of the Spaniards, 845 - - V. BOLIVIA. - - Name, Extent, and Physical Character; Overthrow of the Spanish - Power; Proclamation of Independence; Choice of Rulers under - the New Constitution; Present Condition, 855 - - VI. CHILI. - - Extent, Physical Features, and Climate; Conquest by Almagro; - Revolution in the beginning of the Present Century; Final - Establishment of Independence; Subsequent Condition, 858 - - VII. BUENOS AYRES. - - Name, &c.; Inhabitants, or Classes of People; Discovery and - Settlement; First Insurrection against the Government of - Spain; Progress and Changes of the New Government; Present - Condition of the Government, 863 - - VIII. URUGUAY. - - Locality and Extent; Name and History; Constitution, 868 - - IX. BRAZIL. - - Situation, Extent, &c.; Discovery and Settlement; Policy of the - Portuguese Government; Removal of the Portuguese Court to - Brazil; Constitution and Government, 870 - - X. PARAGUAY. - - Situation, Extent, &c.; Insurrection and attempt at Revolution in - the latter part of the Eighteenth Century; Establishment of - Independence, and Despotic Government, 875 - - WEST INDIES. - - Situation, Extent, &c.; Inhabitants; Political Divisions, 879 - - I. BRITISH WEST INDIES. - - Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbadoes, Bahamas, St. Christopher, Bermudas, - and St. Vincent, 881 - - II. SPANISH WEST INDIES. - - Cuba and Porto Rico, 885 - - III. FRENCH WEST INDIES. - - Martinique and Guadaloupe, 887 - - IV. DUTCH WEST INDIES. - - Curacoa, St. Eustatius, St. Martin, and Saba, 888 - - V. DANISH WEST INDIES. - - St. Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas, 888 - - VI. INDEPENDENT ISLAND OF HAYTI. - - Formerly called St. Domingo and Hispaniola, 888 - - - APPENDIX. - - XVII. ZACHARY TAYLOR. (_Continued from page_ 756.) - - Proceedings in Congress; Death of Mr. Calhoun; Invasion of Cuba; - Convention with Great Britain; Death of Gen. Taylor, 902 - - XVIII. MILLARD FILLMORE, PRESIDENT. - - Assumes the Government; Compromise Bill; Adjournment of - Congress, 911 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE. - - Time stopping in his Course, &c. 13 - - Tailpiece--Discovery of Newfoundland, 18 - - Columbus and Cabot, 19 - - Northmen leaving Iceland, 21 - - Discovery of Labrador, 22 - - Incident in the Camp of the Northmen, 24 - - Columbus, 26 - - Columbus before Ferdinand and Isabella, 30 - - Columbus sets sail, 32 - - First Sight of Land, 36 - - Columbus and Natives of Cuba, 38 - - Columbus casting a Barrel into the Sea, 39 - - Tailpiece--Prairie Scene, 44 - - Tailpiece--Columbus at Hispaniola, 47 - - Early Settlements, 48 - - Early Settlers trading with the Natives, 50 - - Captain Smith saved from death, 55 - - Landing of the Pilgrims, 66 - - Visit of Samoset to the English, 67 - - Interview with Massasoit, 68 - - Boston founded, 73 - - Settlers emigrating to Connecticut, 76 - - Hooker addressing the Soldiers, 79 - - Gallup finds Oldham murdered, 80 - - Portsmouth founded, 84 - - Tailpiece--Indian Council, 95 - - Surrendering of New Amsterdam, 97 - - Charles II. signing Charter for Penn, 101 - - Tailpiece--The Maple, 103 - - Indian Wars, 104 - - Tailpiece--Indian War Dance, 108 - - Tailpiece--Savage Barbarities, 112 - - Smith selling Blue Beads to Powhatan, 115 - - Pocahontas disclosing a Plot, 118 - - Opecancanough borne to a Massacre, 121 - - Tailpiece--Ship before the wind, 124 - - New England Indian Wars, 125 - - Governor Winslow's Visit to Massasoit, 134 - - Governor Bradford and the Snake-skin, 143 - - Captain Atherton threatens Ninigret, 149 - - Captain Mason attacking the Pequod Fort, 156 - - Tailpiece--Camanche Wigwam, 160 - - Philip's War, 161 - - Flight of Philip from Mount Hope, 163 - - Captain Church and his Men hemmed in, 164 - - Attack on Brookfield, 166 - - Battle of Muddy Brook, 168 - - Swamp Fight, 172 - - Indian Stratagem, 176 - - Fight near Sudbury, 177 - - Indians attacked at Connecticut-river Falls, 180 - - Defence of Hadley, 182 - - Philip's Escape, 184 - - Death of Philip, 185 - - Capture of Anawon, 188 - - Burning of Schenectady, 191 - - Mrs. Dustan saving her Children, 196 - - Escape of Mrs. Dustan, 197 - - Tailpiece--Round Tower at Rhode Island, 199 - - Capture of Mr. Williams, 202 - - Reduction of Louisburg, 211 - - Tailpiece--Boston Harbor discovered, 213 - - Braddock's Defeat, 219 - - Battle of Lake George, 222 - - Destruction of Kittaning, 224 - - Destruction of the village of St. Francis, 230 - - View of Quebec, 231 - - Death of Wolfe, 235 - - Tailpiece--Peruvian Canoe, &c. 237 - - The Revolution, 238 - - Otis in the Council-chamber, 246 - - Procession at Boston, 249 - - Attack on the Governor's House, 250 - - Burning of the Effigy of Governor Colden, 251 - - Arrival of the First Man-of-war at Boston, 253 - - Boston Massacre, 255 - - Burning of the Gaspee, 257 - - Destruction of Tea, 259 - - Patrick Henry, 262 - - Tailpiece--Falls of St. Anthony, 265 - - Events of the Revolution, 266 - - Battle of Lexington, 268 - - Captain Wheeler and the British Officer, 269 - - Retreat of the British from Concord, 271 - - Tailpiece--Source of the Passaic, 273 - - President Langdon at Prayer, 276 - - Death of Pollard, 277 - - General Putnam, 278 - - Interview between Warren and Putnam, 279 - - Putnam saves the life of Major Small, 284 - - Death of Colonel Gardiner, 286 - - Tailpiece--View of Boston, 290 - - Messengers spreading news, &c. 291 - - Tailpiece--Penn laying out Philadelphia, 298 - - Evacuation of Boston, 299 - - House at Cambridge occupied by Washington, 300 - - Fortifying Dorchester Heights, 305 - - Putnam reading Declaration of Independence, 310 - - John Hancock, 317 - - Sergeant Jasper re-planting the Flag, 328 - - Tailpiece--The Cotton-plant, 332 - - Battle of Trenton, 347 - - Tailpiece--Cortez landing at St. Juan d'Ulloa, 352 - - General Wayne, 355 - - Marquis Lafayette, 356 - - Tailpiece--Franklin in Council, 359 - - Destruction of Gallies, 363 - - Burgoyne's Advance, 366 - - Burgoyne's Retreat, 372 - - Tailpiece--View on the Hudson, 377 - - American Commissioners and Louis XVI. 379 - - Tailpiece--The Genius of Liberty, &c. 390 - - The Sloop-of-war Vulture, 391 - - Arnold's Expedition through the Wilderness, 393 - - General Lincoln, 394 - - Death of General Wooster, 396 - - Arnold and the British Soldier, 397 - - General Arnold, 398 - - Major Andre, 401 - - Interview of Arnold and Wife, 409 - - Tailpiece--Capture of Major Andre, 414 - - Jasper on the Ramparts, 419 - - Death of De Kalb, 425 - - Charge of Colonel Washington, 428 - - Battle of Yorktown, 440 - - Washington taking leave of the Army, 444 - - Washington embarking at Whitehall, 446 - - Tailpiece--American Flag, 449 - - Naval Operations, 450 - - First Naval Engagement of the Revolution, 452 - - Silas Deane, 454 - - Randolph and Yarmouth, 463 - - Raleigh and Druid, 465 - - Jones setting fire to Ships at Whitehaven, 470 - - Paul Jones, 472 - - Le Bon Homme Richard and Serapis, 473 - - Sinking of the Bon Homme Richard, 479 - - Tailpiece--Ship on her Beam-ends, 487 - - Sir Henry Clinton, 494 - - Colonel Barre, 495 - - Lord Chatham, 500 - - Charles James Fox, 503 - - George Grenville, 506 - - Sir Guy Carlton, 511 - - Edmund Burke, 513 - - Tailpiece--Lugger near Shore, 519 - - Governments, 520 - - Franklin, 534 - - Tailpiece--Natural Bridge, 541 - - George Washington, 542 - - Inauguration of Washington, 547 - - John Adams, 571 - - Tailpiece--New York, from the East river, 589 - - Thomas Jefferson, 590 - - Tailpiece--Basket of Flowers, 610 - - James Madison, 611 - - Tippecanoe, 615 - - Constitution and Java, 629 - - Perry's Victory, 638 - - Battle of the Thames, 639 - - Creek Chiefs surrendering to Gen. Jackson, 641 - - Battle of New Orleans, 652 - - James Monroe, 656 - - Reception of Monroe, 658 - - Attack on Lieutenant Scott's Boats, 663 - - Taking the Fort at Pensacola, 665 - - Landing of Lafayette at New York, 668 - - Lafayette laying Corner-stone, &c. 669 - - Lafayette at Washington's Tomb, 670 - - John Q. Adams, 673 - - Removal of the Creek Indians, 676 - - Tailpiece--Agricultural Emblem, 682 - - Andrew Jackson, 683 - - Martin Van Buren, 701 - - Burning of the Caroline, 709 - - William Henry Harrison, 713 - - John Tyler, 715 - - James K. Polk, 725 - - Surprise of Captain Thornton and his Party, 732 - - Charge of Captain May, 736 - - American Army in Vera Cruz, 744 - - Colonel Harney at Cerro Gordo, 746 - - Battle of Churubusco, 748 - - Army crossing the National Bridge, 751 - - Zachary Taylor, 755 - - British America, 757 - - Tailpiece--Indians Hunting in Skins, 758 - - Champlain's Interview with the Algonquins, 760 - - Extermination of the Hurons, 764 - - Death of Wolfe, 771 - - Tailpiece--Tampico, 780 - - Nova Scotia, 781 - - Destruction of the Acadians, 785 - - Newfoundland, 793 - - Tailpiece--Vessels in the Offing, 796 - - Tailpiece--Icebergs, 799 - - Tailpiece--Winter in Lapland, 801 - - Mexico, 802 - - Marina acting as Interpreter, 805 - - Cortez burning his Ships, 806 - - Meeting of Cortez and Montezuma, 807 - - Montezuma on his Throne, 808 - - Death of Montezuma, 809 - - Noche Triste, 811 - - Texans flying to Arms, 827 - - Guatemala, 830 - - Alvarado marching on Guatemala, 832 - - New Grenada, 833 - - Venezuela, 837 - - Equator, 841 - - Tailpiece--Peruvian Peasants, 844 - - Peru, 845 - - Hualpa discovers the Mine of Potosi, 846 - - Manco Capac and his Wife, 847 - - Valverde addressing Atahualpa, 848 - - Pizarro in Cusco, 850 - - Bolivia, 855 - - Tailpiece--Mexican Women making Bread, 857 - - Chili, 858 - - Almagro marching against Chili, 859 - - Tailpiece--Araucanian Men and Women, 862 - - Buenos Ayres, 863 - - Uruguay, 868 - - Brazil, 870 - - Alvarez Cabral discovers Brazil, 872 - - Paraguay, 875 - - West Indies, 879 - - Millard Fillmore, 911 - -[Illustration] - - - - - INTRODUCTION - - -[Illustration: Time stopping in his course to read the Inscription -carved by the Muse of History.] - -If it be remarkable that the Western Continent should have remained -unknown for so many centuries to civilized man, it is, perhaps, still -more remarkable that since its discovery and settlement, it should -have become the theatre of so many signal transactions, and have -advanced so rapidly to its present civil, religious, and political -importance. The history of every portion of it is interesting and -instructive; but more especially that portion occupied by the people -of the United States. A great work is in progress throughout the -entire continent; but the importance of the American Republic, with -which our fortunes are more immediately connected, is becoming -apparent with each revolving year. While, therefore, we propose to -make an historical survey of the several countries both of North and -South America, we shall dwell with greater particularity upon the -events which have signalized our own republican America. If not from -her present population, which, though increasing by a wonderful -progression, is still, in point of numbers, inferior to many other -nations; yet, from her wealth, her enterprise, her commercial and -political relations, she is entitled to rank among the most powerful -and influential nations on the globe. The eyes of the civilized world -are upon her; and with wonder, if not with jealousy, do they mark her -rapid and surprising advancement. - -The _history_ of such a people must be full of interest. By what means -has her national elevation been maintained? But a little more than two -centuries have elapsed, since the first settlers planted themselves at -Jamestown, in Virginia, and the Pilgrim Fathers landed on Plymouth -Rock. They were then a feeble band. Before them lay a howling -wilderness. An inhospitable and intractable race rose up to oppose and -harass them. The means of living were stinted and uncertain. Famine -pressed upon them, and weakened them. The winters were cold and -piercing. Their habitations were rude and unprotective. Disease added -its sufferings and sorrows, and death hurried many of the few to an -untimely grave. Yet, amidst accumulated calamity, they gathered -strength and courage. Accessions from the mother-country were made to -their numbers. Other and distant stations were occupied. The forest -fell before them. Towns and villages rose in the wilderness, and -solitary places became glad. Savage tribes--after years of terror, -massacre, and bloodshed--retired, leaving the colonists to the -peaceful occupancy of the land, in all its length and breadth. - -But they were still a dependant people--subject to the laws, -exactions, and oppressions of a proud and arbitrary foreign -government. That government, jealous of their growing importance, -adopted measures to check their aspirations, and to extend and -perpetuate the prerogatives of the crown. But it was impossible that a -people, sprung from the loins of fathers whose courage and enterprise -had been matured by years of conflict, should be either crushed, or -long thwarted in their plans. Oppressions served rather to strengthen -them; threats prompted to resolution, and served to inspire -confidence. And, at length, they arose to the assertion and -maintenance of their rights. They entered the field; and for years, -with all the fortunes of war apparently against them, they grappled -successfully with the colossal power of the British empire--thwarted -her counsels--conquered her armies--established their independence. - -But a little more than seventy years has America been free from the -British yoke; yet, in that brief period, her advancement has -outstripped all the predictions of the most sanguine statesmen. With -but three millions of people, she entered the Revolutionary contest; -she now numbers more than twenty millions. Instead of thirteen -colonies, she embraces thirty free and independent states. Meanwhile, -she has continued to gather national strength and national importance. -Her wealth is rolling up, while her moral power is becoming the -admiration of the world. - -These attainments, too, she has made amid convulsions and revolutions, -which have shaken the proudest empires, and spread desolation over -some of the fairest portions of the globe. On every side are the -evidences of her advancement. Genius and industry are creating and -rolling forward with amazing power and rapidity the means of national -wealth and aggrandizement. An enterprising, ardent, restless -population are spreading over our western wilds, and our cities are -now the creations almost of a day. - -But by what means has this national elevation and prosperity been -attained? Shall we ascribe them to the wise, sagacious, and patriotic -men, who guided our councils and led our armies? Shall we offer our -homage and gratitude to WASHINGTON, FRANKLIN, ADAMS, OTIS, HENRY, -JEFFERSON, and a multitude of others, who periled fortune, liberty, -life itself, to achieve our independence, and lay the foundation of -our country's glory? - -Let us do them honor; and a nation's honor and gratitude will be -accorded to them, so long as the recorded history of their noble -achievements shall last. - - Theirs is no vulgar sepulchre: green sods - Are all their monument; and, yet, it tells - A nobler history than pillar'd pile, - Or the eternal pyramid. They need - No statue, nor inscription, to reveal - Their greatness. - -But, while merited honor is paid to the sages and heroes of the -Revolution, and to the Pilgrim Fathers of an earlier age, let not the -hand of Providence be overlooked or disregarded. - -On this point, the Puritans have left a noble example to their -posterity. The supplication of the smiles and blessings of a -superintending Providence preceded and accompanied all their plans and -all their enterprises. "God was their king; and they regarded him as -truly and literally so, as if he had dwelt in a visible palace in the -midst of their state. They were his devoted, resolute, humble -subjects; they undertook nothing which they did not beg of him to -prosper; they accomplished nothing without rendering to him the -praise; they suffered nothing without carrying up their sorrows to his -throne; they ate nothing which they did not implore him to bless." Nor -were the actors in the Revolutionary struggle insensible to the -necessity of the Divine blessing upon their counsels and efforts. -Washington, as well at the head of his army as in the retirement of -his closet, or amid some secluded spot in the field, looked up for the -blessing of the God of battles. That also was a beautiful recognition -of a superintending Providence, which Franklin made in the Convention, -which, subsequent to the Revolution, framed the Constitution. "I have -lived, sir, a long time," said he; "and the longer I live, the more -convincing proof I see of this truth, that _God governs in the affairs -of men_. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his -notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without his aid?" - -Let it be remembered by the American people--by men who fill her -councils--by historians who write her history--by the young, who are -coming up to the possession of the rich inheritance, that whatever human -agencies were employed in the discovery, settlement, independence, and -prosperity of these states, the "good hand of God has been over and -around us," and has given to us this goodly land, with its religious -institutions--its free government--its unwonted prosperity. - -Let not the historian, who writes--especially if he writes for the -_young_--be thought to travel out of his appropriate sphere, in an -effort to imbue the rising generation with somewhat of the religious -spirit of the fathers--to lead them to recognise the Divine government, -in respect to nations as well as individuals--to impress upon them that -sentiment of the "Father of his country," as just as impressive, viz: -"Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, -religion and morality are indispensable supports." - -"When the children of the Pilgrims forget that Being who was the -Pilgrims guide and deliverer"--should they ever be so faulty and -unfortunate--when the descendants of the Puritans cease to -acknowledge, and obey, and love that Being, for whose service the -Puritans forsook all that men chiefly love, enduring scorn and -reproach, exile and poverty, and finding at last a superabundant -reward; when the sons of a religious and holy ancestry fall away from -its high communion, and join themselves to the assemblies of the -profane, they have forfeited the dear blessings of their inheritance; -and they deserve to be cast out from this fair land, without even a -wilderness for their refuge. No! let us still keep the ark of God in -the midst of us; let us adopt the prayer of the wise monarch of -Israel: "The Lord our God be with us, as he was with our fathers; let -him not leave us nor forsake us; that he may incline our hearts unto -him, to walk in all his ways, and to keep his commandments and his -statutes and his judgments, which he commanded our fathers." - -Such a regard for God--his laws--his institutions, and his service, is -obligatory upon the present generation, aside from those blessings which -may be justly anticipated as the reward of such reverence and obedience. -It is due to the memory of the Pilgrim Fathers. Never can we so worthily -and appropriately honor them, as to cherish the pious sentiments which -they cherished, and perpetuate the civil and religious institutions -which they founded.--It is due to the generation of our Revolutionary -era, which, impressed with a sense of the value of the inheritance -transmitted to them, periled life and fortune that they might transmit -that inheritance in all its fullness and in all its richness to their -posterity. We are the children of patriot heroes, who prayed and then -fought, and fought and then prayed.--It is due to ourselves, as we would -secure the admiration and gratitude of the generations which are to -follow us.--It is due to those generations which, by the blessing of -God, are to spread over and occupy the vast territory which now -constitutes the American republic. - -Those generations! I see them rising and spreading abroad, as future -years roll on! What shall be their character--their regard for civil -and religious liberty--their peace, order, happiness, and prosperity, -may depend upon the example which we set, and the principles which we -inculcate. We are living and acting not only for the present, but for -the future. We are making impressions for all time to come. If, then, -our history for the future shall be as our history past--filled up -with divine blessings, and signal providential interpositions--if the -noble work begun, centuries since, is to go on--if the "fullest -liberty and the purest religion" are to prevail as time rolls on--if -this vast continent is to be inhabited by enlightened and happy -millions--we, who are now on the stage of action, must imitate the -example of that pilgrim band, which first landed on Plymouth Rock. - -Under the influence of such an example transmitted from generation to -generation, we may hope that our beloved country will ultimately -become, if she is not already, - - "The queen of the world, and the child of the skies." - -Impressed with the importance of such sentiments himself, the author -will make no apology for offering them as, in his own view, an -appropriate introduction to a work chiefly designed for the benefit of -the rising generation. - -[Illustration] - - - - - PART I. - - UNITED STATES. - - - - - I.--EARLY DISCOVERIES. - -[Illustration] - - I. NORTHMEN. Claims for the Northmen--Voyage of - Biarné--Leif--Thorwald--Thorfinn--Helge and Finnboge. - - II. COLUMBUS. Birth and Education of Columbus--Unsuccessful - application to several European Courts--Patronized by - Isabella--Sails from Palos--Early Discontent of his - crew--Expedients by which they are quieted--Discovery of - Land--First appearance of the Natives--Cuba and Hispaniola - discovered--Columbus sets sail on his return--Incidents of the - voyage--Marks of consideration bestowed upon him--Second - Voyage--Further Discoveries--Complaints against him--Third - Voyage--Discovery of the Continent--Persecuted by - Enemies--sent home in Chains--Kindness of Isabella--Fourth - Voyage--Return and Death. - - III. SEBASTIAN CABOT. Discovery of the North American Continent by - Sebastian Cabot. - - - - - I. NORTHMEN. - - -No event, in the history of modern ages, surpasses in interest the -discovery of the American Continent. It has scarcely any parallel, -indeed, in the annals of the world; whether we consider the difficulty -of the undertaking or the magnitude of its consequences. Without any -serious question, the honor of the discovery belongs solely to -CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. Mankind, hitherto, have so awarded it, and -posterity will doubtless confirm the judgment. As, however, a claim to -a prior discovery by the _Northmen_ has been brought forward in recent -times, it becomes the impartiality of history to notice it, and to -give such an account of the circumstances on which the claim is -founded, as they may appear to deserve. Whether or not, at the -distance of some four or five centuries, the trans-Atlantic continent -had been discovered by the Scandinavian voyagers, the merits of the -great Italian are far from being affected by the fact. - -[Illustration: Northmen leaving Iceland.] - -The prominent incidents in this alleged ante-Columbian discovery, it -seems, are given on the authority of certain Icelandic manuscripts, the -genuineness, and even the existence of which, have formerly been doubted -by many; but which, there is now reason to suppose, are entitled to -credence. The general story may be received as probable. In the details, -there is often something too vague, if not too extraordinary, to entitle -it to any historical importance. The adventurous spirit, and even the -naval skill of the Northmen, are not a matter of doubt with any who are -acquainted with the history of the times to which reference is here -made. The seas and the coasts of Europe were the scenes of their -exploits--their piracies, their battles, or their colonization. -According to the Icelandic statements, Eric the Red, in 986, emigrated -from Iceland to Greenland, and formed there a settlement. Among his -companions was Herjulf Bardson, who fixed his residence at a place which -was called after him, Herjulfsness. Herjulf had a son, whose name was -Biarné, who, with his father, was engaged in trading between Iceland and -Norway. Biarné was absent on a trading voyage, when his father -accompanied Eric, on the emigration of the latter to Greenland. The son -returning to Iceland in a few months, and finding that Herjulf was -absent, sailed in pursuit of him. In the course of the sail, having been -enveloped in the fogs, he was carried to some unknown distance; but -after the fogs were dispersed, land was seen. As, however, it did not -answer the description given respecting Greenland, the party did not -steer for it. During a sail of several days, they came in sight of land -at two different times in succession; and at last, tacking about, and -carried by brisk and favorable winds in a north-west direction, they -reached the coast of Greenland. This tradition of Biarné's voyage, -allowing it to be authentic, would seem to indicate that he was carried -far down on the coast of America, and passed on his return the shores of -_Newfoundland_ and _Labrador_. - -[Illustration: Discovery of Labrador.] - -In consequence of this adventure, and the interest which the account -of it excited, a voyage of exploration was projected, and at length -put into effect. It was conducted by Leif, a son of Eric the Red, an -adventurous rover, who selected a company as adventurous as himself, -among whom was a German named Tyrker. It was in the year 1000 that the -voyage was made. After finding a shore in a direction similar to that -in which Biarné took, they landed, calling the region _Helluland_, -which was most probably _Labrador_. It was an iceberg-lined shore, -without grass or verdure. From this spot they put out to sea, and, -steering south, they came to another coast, low like the first, but -covered with thick wood, except the portion immediately skirting the -sea, which consisted of white sand. It was probably _Nova Scotia_, -named by them, however, _Markland_, or _Woodland_. They pursued their -voyage for two days, under the favor of a north-east wind, when they -discovered land for the third time. Here they disembarked on a part of -the coast, which was sheltered by an island. The face of the country -was found to be undulating, covered with wood, and bearing a growth of -fine fruits and berries. Taking to their vessel again, they proceeded -west in search of a harbor, which they were so fortunate as to find. -It was at the mouth of a river proceeding from a lake. They first made -the river and then the lake; in the latter they cast anchor. In this -spot they erected huts in which to pass the winter. When thus -established, Leif made a division of his company into two parties, for -the purpose, on the one hand, of watching the settlement, and, on the -other, of exploring the country. - -In performing the latter service it happened, on one occasion, that the -German Tyrker, above named, failed to return at night. After much -anxiety and search, he was discovered, having found during his -wanderings a region which afforded an abundance of grapes. The country, -from this incident, was named _Vinland_ or _Wineland_. From the mention -which they made of the rising and the setting of the sun, at the -shortest day, it has been inferred that the island was _Nantucket_, and -the region called Vinland embraced the coast of _Massachusetts_ and -_Rhode Island_. They returned to Greenland the following season. - -Thorwald, a brother of Leif, next undertook to make a voyage, to the -newly discovered land beyond the ocean. This was in 1002. We need not -mention the particulars, but may state generally that the adventurers -continued in Vinland till the year 1004, and that the expedition -terminated unfortunately in the death of Thorwald. He was killed in a -skirmish with certain Esquimaux, with whom the party came in contact in -three several boats. Before breathing his last, he gave directions as to -the spot where they should inter him. The rest returned to Greenland. - -Following this adventure, the third son of Eric, named Thornstein, -embarked with his wife Gudrida, in search of the body of Thorwald. But -he never reached the country. He was eventually driven back to -Greenland, where he died. - -The next expedition seems to have been a project to colonize the -country. The vessels were three in number, on board of which one hundred -and forty men embarked, who took with them all kinds of live stock. The -leaders on this occasion were Thorfinn, who married the widow of -Thornstein, Biarné Grimolfson, and Thorhall Gamlason. The enterprise -appears to have been attended with a measure of success. They erected -their tents, and fortified them in the best manner they were able, as a -protection against the natives. An incident of some interest is -mentioned as having occurred in their trade with the latter. These were -eager for arms, but as they were not suffered to become an article of -barter, one of the natives seized an axe, and, in order to test its -efficacy, struck a companion with it, who was killed on the spot. The -affair shocked them exceedingly; but in the midst of the confusion, the -axe having been seized by one who appeared to be a chief, was critically -inspected for a while, and then violently cast into the sea. - -[Illustration: An Incident in the Camp of the Northmen.] - -The period of their continuance in Vinland was three years. They found -it a beautiful country, while residing in it. Thorfinn had a son born to -him, whom he named Snorre, the first child of European descent born on -this continent, the ancestor of many distinguished personages now -living. Among them is the noted sculptor Thorwaldsen. Thorfinn and a -part of his company returned at length to Iceland. The remainder still -continued in Vinland, where they were afterwards joined by an expedition -led by two brothers, Helge and Finnboge, from Greenland. But this latter -enterprise ended tragically, a large number of the colonists having been -killed in a quarrel, which a wicked female adventurer in the expedition -had excited. A few other voyages to Vinland, either accidental or -designed, were made by the Northmen during the eleventh and twelfth -centuries, some of them connected with attempts to propagate -Christianity among the natives, but no interesting results are spoken -of, and the whole project of colonizing the new region seems to have -been not only abandoned, but to have passed from the minds of men. On -the supposition that the records are true, which in general may be -admitted, the colony could not have had a long continuance, and it is -certain that no remains of it have ever appeared, unless some -questionable accounts of the Jesuists, or the more questionable -inscriptions on Dighton-rock. It was not until the era of Columbus that -the world was awakened to the enterprise, or even to the thought of -discovering land beyond the Western ocean. Whether he knew or did not -know, respecting the adventures of the Scandinavians in those northern -seas, it is hardly to be supposed that he could have the remotest -conception that the country they called Vinland was the same as the -Indies, which he proposed to reach by sailing due west. The honor, first -of his theory, and then of his achievement, is therefore, in no degree -diminished, by the facts above narrated, so far as they may be believed -to be facts. He after all stands prëeminent among men, as the discoverer -of the new world. It was certainly, at that period, new to European -knowledge and adventure. - - - - - II. COLUMBUS. - - -[Illustration: Columbus.] - -It is not ascertained in what year the birth of this illustrious -individual occurred. Some authorities have placed it in 1446, others -have removed it back eight or ten years farther. As he died in 1506, -and was said by Bernaldez, one of his cotemporaries and intimates, to -have departed "in a good old age of seventy, a little more or -less,"[1] it would seem, abating the vagueness of the expression, that -about 1436 was the period. The place of his birth also has been a -subject of controversy, but the evidence is decidedly in favor of -Genoa. His parentage was humble, though probably of honorable descent. -It is generally believed that his father exercised the craft of a -wool-carder or weaver. Christopher was the eldest of four children, -having two brothers, Bartholomew and Diego, and one sister, who was -obscurely connected in life. In his early youth he was instructed at -Pavia, a place then celebrated for education, and is said there to -have acquired that taste for mathematical studies in which he -afterwards excelled. Of geographical science he was particularly -enamored, as it became also to be the favorite study of an adventurous -age. It doubtless gave a direction, in some measure, to the course -which Columbus pursued in life. At the early age of fourteen years, he -began to follow the seas, and after continuing this profession for -more than sixteen years, he proceeded to Portugal, the country of -maritime enterprise at that era. Hither the adventurous spirits of -Europe repaired, where they sought their fortunes in this department -of business. Columbus mingled in the exciting scenes of the country -and the times. Sailing from thence, he continued to make voyages to -the various then known parts of the world, and while on shore, he -occupied his time in the construction and sale of maps and charts. -Thus furnished with all the nautical science of the times, and with a -large fund of experience, he was prepared to enter upon those -speculations, respecting the possibility of lands lying beyond the -western waters, the result of which, when put into practice, proved to -be so auspicious to the interests of mankind. What will not a single -thought, when pursued as it may be, sometimes effect! In our hero, it -brought to light the existence of a new world. His single object -appeared to be, to find the eastern shores of Asia, or some unknown -tract, by sailing due west. - -How far that idea was original with him, it is not very material to -ascertain. If not the first individual to conceive it, he was the -first to carry it into execution. That land existed beyond the -Atlantic, was a conjecture merely of the ancients. Seneca comes the -nearest to a direct intimation, though as a poetic fancy it claims no -serious consideration. As the idea is given by Frenau, he says: - - "The time shall come when numerous years are past, - The ocean shall dissolve the band of things, - And an extended region rise at last: - And Typhis shall disclose the mighty land, - Far, far away, where none have roamed before: - Nor shall the world's remotest region be - Gibraltar's rock, or Thule's savage shore," - -Ferdinand Columbus informs us, that his father's conviction of the -existence of land in the west was founded on--1, natural reason, or -the deductions of science; 2, authority of writers, amounting, -however, to vague surmises; 3, testimony of sea-faring persons, or -rather popular rumors of land, described in western voyages, embracing -such relics as appeared to be wafted from over the Atlantic to Europe. -What particular intimations he may have received, either from authors -or sailors, do not appear; since, in his voyage to Iceland, no mention -is made of his having learned the story of the Scandinavian voyages to -the northern portion of America. It is possible, however, that he may -have been informed of them; and the reason why no mention was made by -him was, as M. Humboldt conjectures, that he had no conception that -the land discovered by the Northmen had any connection with the region -of which he was in pursuit. The traditions which he may have met with, -and the speculations of the times, were realized in his view. So -strong was the conviction which had been wrought in his mind, from -whatever cause, he was willing to jeopard life and fortune to put it -to the test of experiment. - -With this grand object before him, he first submitted his theory of a -western route to the Indies, to John the Second, king of Portugal. He -met with no countenance from this quarter. His project, in its -vastness, was in advance of the comprehension of the age. John was not -unwilling clandestinely to avail himself of information communicated -to him by Columbus, but he would enter into no stipulation to aid him -in the enterprise. Leaving the court of Lisbon in disgust, in the -latter part of 1484, Columbus repaired to the Spanish sovereigns, -Ferdinand and Isabella. The time of the application was peculiarly -unfavorable, as the nation was then in the midst of the Moorish war, -and needed for its prosecution all the pecuniary resources of the -state. The persons of influence also in the court, were destitute of -those enlarged views, which are essential to a just appreciation of -the scheme that fired the great mind of Columbus. With these causes of -discouragement, and the submission of his proposal on the part of the -sovereigns to a council chiefly of ecclesiastics, he had little reason -to expect a favorable issue. After waiting years in the most agitating -suspense and doubt (for the council would come to no decision), he was -preparing to abandon the suit. Pressing the court for a definite -answer at that juncture, they at last gave him to understand, that his -scheme was "vain, impracticable, and resting on grounds too weak to -merit the support of the government." In deep despondency he quitted -the court, and took his way to the south, as if in desperation, to -seek other patronage in other quarters. - -From the period of his application to the Spanish court, to that at -which we are now arrived in his history, it would seem that he made -several attempts to interest other distinguished personages in his -scheme, particularly the citizens of his native Genoa; but the early -authorities so disagree among themselves, that the chronology of his -movements, previously to his first voyage, cannot be determined with -precision. It is certain, however, that while in the act of leaving -Spain, probably for the court of the French king, from whom he had -received a letter of encouragement, he was purposely detained by a -friend, Juan Perez, (who had formerly been a confessor of Isabella,) -for the purpose of trying the effect of another application to the -Spanish sovereigns. This measure, seconded by the influence of several -distinguished individuals, and occurring just at the triumphant -termination of the Moorish war, had well nigh proved successful at -once; but Columbus was again doomed to disappointment. The single -obstacle in the way now, was not the disinclination of Ferdinand and -Isabella, but what were deemed the extravagant demands of Columbus -himself. He would not consent to engage in the undertaking, except on -the condition that he and his heirs should receive the title of -admiral and viceroy over all lands discovered by him, with one-tenth -of the profits. This demand was the means of breaking up the -negotiations, and that at the moment when he seemed to be on the point -of realizing the visions which he had fondly indulged, through long -years of vexation, trouble, and disappointment. That he would consent -to dash those bright visions, rather than surrender one of the rewards -due to his service, is, in the language of our Prescott, "the most -remarkable exhibition in his whole life, of that proud, unyielding -spirit which sustained him through so many years of trial, and enabled -him to achieve his great enterprise, in the face of every obstacle -which man and nature had opposed to it." - -[Illustration: Columbus before Ferdinand and Isabella.] - -Columbus again having turned his back from the scene of the -negotiations, had proceeded only a few leagues distant, when he was -recalled by the royal message. The queen in the meanwhile had yielded -to the dictates of her own noble and generous nature, having been -convinced of the importance of the enterprise, by the powerful -representations of the friends of our hero. She said at once in -answer, "I will assume the undertaking for my own crown of Castile, -and will pledge my private jewels to raise the necessary funds, if the -means in the treasury should be found inadequate." The money, however, -was furnished by the receiver of the revenues of Arragon, and -subsequently refunded at the instance of Ferdinand.[2] The conditions -on which Columbus had insisted, in the event of discovery, were -finally granted. He was constituted by the united sovereigns, their -admiral, viceroy, and governor-general, of all such countries as he -should discover in the Western ocean. He was to be entitled to -one-tenth of the products and profits, within the limits of his -discoveries. These, with other privileges of a like kind, not -necessary to name here, were settled on him and his heirs for ever. -Thus possessing the royal sanction, Columbus immediately entered upon -the arrangements required to prosecute the voyage. Isabella urged it -forward to the extent of her power. Delay, however, unavoidably -occurred, on account of the opposition or indifference of the local -magistrates and the people where the equipment was to be made. This -obstacle was at length removed, by stern edicts on the part of the -government and by the energy of Columbus. The fleet consisted of three -vessels, one furnished by himself, through the assistance of his -friends, and was to sail from the little port of Palos in Andalusia. -Two of the vessels were caravels--that is, light vessels without -decks--the other was of a larger burden, though not amounting even to -an hundred tons. How such craft could survive the waves and storms of -the Atlantic, is one of the marvelous circumstances of the -undertaking. The number of men received on board amounted to one -hundred and twenty. The preparations having been finished, the -undaunted navigator set sail on the morning of the 3d of August, 1492, -having first with his whole crew partaken of the sacrament. - -[Illustration: Columbus sets sail.] - -He soon directed his course to the Canary islands, in consequence of the -condition of one of the vessels, called the Pinta, whose rudder had been -found to be unfit for service. This, after a detention of more than -three weeks, was repaired, and they then, on the 6th of September, -proceeded on their voyage. On the fourth day, land ceased to be in -sight, and now the fearful reality of their condition pressed upon the -minds of the sailors with overpowering weight. They had been pressed -into the service, and from the beginning were averse to the enterprise. -Columbus had reason, therefore, to expect the open manifestation of -discontent, if not insubordination and mutiny. The first exhibition of -their feelings, upon losing sight of land, was that of alarm and terror. -Many of them shed tears, and broke out into loud lamentations--all -before them seemed to be mystery, danger, and death. It was by no means -easy to quell their fears, and it required all the address of the -admiral to effect it. Their minds were, in a degree, soothed for that -time by the promises of land and riches, which he addressed to their -wants or their cupidity. Every unusual incident, however, on the -voyage, was calculated to awaken their gloomy and distressing -apprehensions, such as the sight of a part of a mast, when they had -sailed some one hundred and fifty leagues, and the variation of the -needles. The former presented to their imagination the probable wreck of -their own frail barks. The variation of the needle created surprise even -in the mind of the admiral, but to his crew the circumstance seemed -perfectly terrific. They felt as if the very laws of nature were -undergoing a change, and the compass was about to lose its virtues and -its power, as a guide over the waste of waters. Columbus, however, by -ascribing the variation of the needle to the change of the polar-star -itself, satisfied the minds of his pilots, inasmuch as they entertained -a high opinion of his knowledge of astronomy. The distance at which they -were every day carried from their homes, was a source of accumulating -uneasiness. Every sort of superstitious fear was indulged in. One while, -the prevalence of winds from the east, excited their apprehensions that -a return to Spain was impracticable. At another time, the slight -south-west breezes and frequent calms, causing the ocean to seem like a -lake of dead water, made them feel that they were in strange regions, -where nature was out of course, and all was different from that to which -they had been accustomed. Here they thought they might be left to -perish, on stagnant and boundless waters. Now, they seemed to themselves -to be in danger of falling on concealed rocks and treacherous -quicksands--then, of being inextricably entangled in vast masses of -seaweed which lay in their path. Although Columbus had contrived to keep -his men ignorant of the real distance they had come, yet the length of -time could but tell them that they must be far, very far from country -and home, and that their ever going on to the west, would at length -place the east too remote from them to hope ever reaching it. They had -been occasionally cheered with what were deemed indications of their -proximity to land, such as the flying of birds about their fleet, the -patches of weeds and herbs covering the surface of the water, and a -certain cloudiness in the distant horizon, such as hangs over land; but -these had proved fallacious; and the higher hope was raised by such -appearances, the deeper was its fall when the appearances passed away. - -This state of things led to murmurs and discontent, and at one time, the -crew were on the point of combining in open and desperate rebellion. The -power which the great admiral possessed over the minds of men, was never -more signalized, than in putting down this spirit of insubordination and -mutiny. He was perfectly aware of their intentions, but preserved a -serene and steady countenance. He seemed intuitively to understand in -what way to address himself to the different portions of his company. -Some, he soothed with gentle words. Of others, he stimulated the pride -or avarice, by the offers of honors and rewards. The most refractory he -openly menaced with condign punishment, should they make the slightest -attempt at impeding the voyage. - -After the experience of long-continued calms, the wind sprang up in a -favorable direction, and they were enabled efficiently to prosecute -their voyage. This was on the 25th of September, and the vessels -sailing quite near to each other, a frequent interchange of -conversation took place on the subject most interesting to them--their -probable position as to land. In the midst of it, a shout from the -Pinta was heard on board the Santa Maria, the admiral's ship, "Land, -land!"--the signal pointing to the south-west. Columbus, who had found -cause on other occasions to dissent from the opinions of his men, gave -way, in this instance, to the joyful feelings which were at once -excited in their bosoms: but it proved, at length, that what appeared -to be land, was nothing more than an evening cloud of a peculiar kind. -Thus were their hopes dashed, and nothing remained for them but to -press onward. Fain would the crew have turned back upon their course, -but the commander was sternly resolute on realizing his magnificent -project, and pressed forward still deeper into mid-ocean. - -It is a necessary explanation of the character of this extraordinary -man, that he appeared all along to view himself under the immediate -guardianship of Heaven, in this solemn enterprise. He consequently -felt few or none of the misgivings which so strongly affected his -associates. For several days longer they continued on, till on the 1st -of October, they had advanced more than seven hundred leagues since -the Canary islands were left behind. Again the murmurs of the crew -were renewed, but, in this instance, became soon hushed by increasing -tokens of their nearness to land. Indeed, so sanguine were they on the -subject, that on the 7th of October, on board of the Nina, land was -again announced. But it proved a delusion, and all except Columbus -were ready to abandon hope. At the end of three days more, they saw -the sun, after renewed appearances betokening their neighborhood to -land, go down upon a shoreless horizon. At this time the turbulence of -the crew became clamorous--they insisted upon turning homeward, and -abandoning the voyage as a forlorn hope. The commander now, after -trying to pacify them by kind words and large promises, and trying in -vain, arose in the majesty of his undaunted heart, and gave them to -understand that all murmuring would be fruitless, and that, with God's -blessing, he would accomplish the purpose for which his sovereigns had -sent him on a voyage of discovery. Fortunately, at this juncture, when -the conduct of Columbus had become nearly desperate, the indications -of neighboring land could not be mistaken. Besides fresh weed, the -limb of a tree, a reed, and a small board, they picked up an -artificially carved staff. Soon despondency and rebellion gave way to -hope, and, throughout the day, every person on board of the little -fleet was on the watch for the long-wished-for land. - -[Illustration: First sight of land from Columbus' ship.] - -The following evening was a time of intense anxiety to Columbus. He -could but infer that he was near to the goal of his adventures and his -hopes. But was it so indeed? That was the question, and it must now be -soon decided. Would the night reveal it to him? Would its discoveries -settle for ever the truth of his theory, and bring to him the immortal -honor which he sought, as the end of all his toil and suffering? Taking -his station in a conspicuous part of his vessel, he maintained an -intense and unremitting watch. A few hours only had transpired, when -suddenly he thought he beheld a light glimmering at a great distance. -One and another was called to examine the appearance, in order to -confirm the commander in his impression, if indeed it was correct. They -gave their opinion in the affirmative. Soon, however, the light -disappeared, and few attached any importance to it, except Columbus. -They pursued their course until two in the morning, when from the Pinta, -which generally sailed ahead, the thundering signal was heard, the order -being that a gun should be fired as soon as land hove in sight. It was -indeed land at this time. It lay before them, now dimly seen, about two -leagues distant. The joy which Columbus and his crew felt at the sight, -surpasses the power of description. It is difficult, even for the -imagination, to conceive the emotions of such a man, in whose -temperament a wonderful enthusiasm and unbounded aspiration prevailed, -at the moment of so sublime a discovery. Utterance was given to his -intense feelings by tears, and prayers, and thanksgivings. - -It was on the morning of Friday, 12th of October, 1492, that Columbus -first saw the new world. A beautiful, fragrant, verdure-crowned island -lay before him, and evidently populous, for the inhabitants were seen -darting, in great numbers, through the woods to the shore. That -greenhouse appearance, which the regions within the tropics are known -generally to assume, together with the purity and blandness of the -atmosphere, struck the senses of the voyagers, as though it had been -Eden itself. They could give vent to their feelings only in tears of -gratitude--in prayers and praises to God, who had conducted them to -such happy destinies. Having made the necessary preparations, Columbus -landed with his crew on the delightful shore, in an ecstasy of joy and -devotion, taking possession of the whole region in the name of his -sovereigns, and calling the island _San Salvador_. It proved to be one -of what has since been known as the Bahama islands. - -The conduct and appearance of the natives were such as to show that -the Spaniards had no reason to fear their hostility or treachery. -Simple, harmless, naked, and unarmed, they seemed rather to be at the -mercy of their visitors. Equally timid and curious, they were at first -shy; but being encouraged to approach the strangers, they at length -became entirely familiar with them, and received presents with -expressions of the highest delight. The new comers to their shores -were thought to have dropped from the skies, and the articles bestowed -were received as celestial presents. All was a scene of wonder and -amazement indeed to both parties. - -As Columbus supposed himself to have landed on an island at the -extremity of India, he gave to the natives the general appellation of -Indians, by which, as a distinct race, they have ever since been known. - -[Illustration: Interview of Columbus with the Natives of Cuba.] - -After having noticed the features of the new-found island -sufficiently, and learned what he was able from the natives in respect -to other lands or islands, and particularly in respect to the gold -they might contain, he explored the archipelago around, touched at -several of the groups, and finally discovered the larger and more -distant islands of Cuba and Hispaniola. Many interesting adventures -occurred during his sojourn among these islands, in his intercourse -with the natives, upon which we cannot enlarge. Suffice it to say, -that he succeeded according to his wishes in conciliating the -affections of the people, and in the extent of his discoveries for the -first voyage, but found a less amount of gold than he expected, and -was unfortunate in the shipwreck of the Santa Maria, the principal -vessel. His trials, also, with several of his subordinates in office, -were severe; as, on more than one occasion, they proved unfaithful to -his interests and disobedient to his commands. - -[Illustration: Columbus casting a barrel into the sea.] - -It was on the 4th of January, 1493, that Columbus set sail for Spain. -He left a part of his men in the island of Hispaniola (Hayti, in the -language of the original inhabitants), to occupy a fort he had built -near a harbor, which he had named _La Navidad_. While coasting on the -eastern side of the island, he met the Pinta, which had for a time, -under its disaffected captain, deserted from him. Joined by this -vessel again, they proceeded homeward on their voyage; but they met -with tempests, which their frail barks were little able to encounter. -The Pinta, being separated from the Nina, was supposed to have been -lost; but this proved to have be a mistake, as she reached Spain -nearly at the same time with the other caravel. At the time of their -greatest extremity, when all hope of safety had departed, Columbus, -anxious that the knowledge of his discovery might be communicated to -the world, wrote a brief account of his voyage; and having properly -secured it in a barrel, committed the latter to the ocean, in the hope -that it might afterwards be found, should he and his crew never see -land again.[3] But they were mercifully preserved, as the storm at -length subsided, and, within a few days, they reached the island of -St. Mary's, one of the Azores. - -While he was at that island, where he had sought a refuge for his -wearied men and his own over-tasked body and mind, he encountered a -species of persecution most disgraceful to civilized society. It was -the result of the mean malignity of the Portuguese, who were piqued -that the honor of the discovery should not have been secured for -themselves, and was manifested by the imprisonment of a portion of his -crew, and other vexatious treatment. At length, regaining his men, he -set sail for home; but, meeting with tempestuous weather, he was -forced to take shelter in the Tagus. Here astonishment and envy seemed -to be equally excited by the knowledge of his discoveries; and, could -certain courtiers of the monarch have had their own way, the great -adventurer would have been stricken down by the hand of the assassin. -So black a deed of treacherous villany had been advised. The king, -however, treated him with generosity, and Columbus being dismissed -with safety, soon found himself entering the harbor of Palos, just -seven months and eleven days since his departure from that port. - -His arrival in Spain excited the most lively feelings of astonishment, -joy, and gratitude. The nation was swayed by one common sentiment of -admiration of the man and his exploits. Ferdinand and Isabella, who -seemed to derive so much glory from his success, most of all -participated in this sentiment. He was the universal theme, and most -amply was he indemnified by the honors now bestowed upon him, and the -enthusiasm with which he was every where welcomed, for all the neglect -and contumely he had previously suffered, as a supposed insane or -fanatical projector. His progress through Spain was like the triumphal -march of a conqueror. But it is impossible, within the limited compass -of this narrative, to present any thing like an adequate idea of the -sensation which was produced throughout the nation and Europe at -large, by the events that had thus transpired, or to enumerate the -hundredth part of the marks of consideration, which "the observed of -all observers" received from prince and peasant--from the learned and -ignorant. The government confirmed anew to him all the dignities, -privileges, and emoluments for which he had before stipulated, and -others were added to them. But to Columbus, the most satisfactory -consideration accorded to him by his sovereigns at this time, was the -request to attempt a second voyage of discovery. For this, the -preparations were on a scale commensurate to the object in view. - -The complement of the fleet amounted to fifteen hundred souls. Among -these were many who enlisted from love of adventure or glory, including -several persons of rank, hidalgos, and members of the royal household. -The squadron consisted of seventeen vessels, three of which were of one -hundred tons burden each. With a navy of this size, so strongly -contrasting with that of his former voyage, he took his departure from -the Bay of Cadiz on the 25th of September, 1493. He sailed on a course -somewhat south of west, instead of due west as before, and after being -upon the sea one month and seven days, he came to a lofty island, to -which he gave the name of Dominica, from having discovered it on Sunday. -The liveliest joy was felt by the numerous company, and devout thanks -were returned to God for their prosperous voyage. - -Sad reverses, however, awaited the great commander during this voyage -of discovery. The garrison which he had left on the island of -Hispaniola had disappeared, and the natives seemed less favorably -disposed towards the white man than at first--a change which probably -accounts for the fate of the garrison. Columbus, indeed, added other -islands to the list of those before known, planted stations here and -there on the principal island above named, and showed his usual -unequaled energy and skill in the conduct of the expedition. But, as -he could not be every where at once, his absence from a place was the -sure signal of misrule and insubordination among that class of -adventurers who had never been accustomed to subjection or labor. His -cautious and conciliating policy in the treatment of the natives was -abandoned, where he could not be present to enforce it, and, the -consequence was, that they were aroused to resentment, on account of -the injuries inflicted upon them. The treatment of the female natives, -on the part of the colonists, was of that scandalous character -calculated to produce continual broils and collisions. Eventually, a -fierce warlike spirit was excited among portions of this naturally -gentle and timid people; but they proved to be unequal to the -civilized man, with the superior arms and discipline of the latter, in -hostile encounter, and were driven before him as the leaves of autumn -before a storm. There was such a war of extermination, that, in less -than four years after the Spaniards had set foot on the island of -Hispaniola, one-third of its population, amounting probably to -several hundred thousand, was destroyed. - -Complaints were made by the colonists against the administration of -Columbus, so that eventually he felt the necessity of returning home -to vindicate his proceedings. Ferdinand and Isabella, however, took no -part with the malcontents against him. They treated him with marked -distinction; but it was evident that with the novelty of his -discoveries, the enthusiasm of the nation had passed away. It was -generally felt to be a losing concern. The actual returns of gold and -other products of the new world were so scanty, as to bear no -proportion to the outlays. - -A third expedition was projected, and after various hindrances, arising -from the difficulty of meeting the expense, and the apathy of the -public, Columbus took his departure from the port of St. Lucas, May 30, -1498. Proceeding in a still more southerly direction than before, on the -1st of August following, he succeeded in reaching _terra firma_. He thus -entitled himself to the glory of discovering the great southern -continent, for which he had before prepared the way. - -It is not necessary to detail the events of this expedition, except to -say, that it proved a source of untold evil and suffering to the -veteran navigator. After his arrival at Hispaniola, he was involved in -inextricable difficulties with the colonists, the final result of -which was, that he was sent home in chains. This shocking indignity -was the unauthorized act of a commissioner, named Boadilla, sent out -by the government to adjust the differences that had taken place. The -king and queen of Spain thus became unwittingly the cause of his -disgrace. This was too much for the kind and generous feelings of the -queen in particular. Columbus was soothed by the assurances of her -sympathy and sorrow for his trials. "When he beheld the emotion of his -royal mistress, and listened to her consolatory language, it was too -much for his loyal and generous heart; and, throwing himself on his -knees, he gave vent to his feelings, and sobbed aloud."[4] As an -indication of the continued confidence of the king and queen in his -fidelity, wisdom, and nautical skill, they proposed to him a fourth -voyage. To this he assented, with some reluctance at first; but, -cheered by their assurances, he quitted the port of Cadiz on the 9th -of March, 1502, with a small squadron of four caravels. This was his -last voyage, and more disastrous than any which preceded it. Among -other misfortunes, he was wrecked on the island of Jamaica, where he -was permitted to linger more than a year, through the malice of -Ovando, the new governor of St. Domingo. On his return, the 7th of -November, 1504, after a most perilous and tedious voyage, he was -destined to feel the heaviest stroke of all, in the death of his most -constant and liberal supporter, the queen; and, with her death, to -fail of that public justice which he had looked for as the crown of -all his labors, hardships, and sacrifices. The king, always wary and -distrustful, though he treated Columbus with high public -consideration, seems to have regarded him "in the unwelcome light of a -creditor, whose demands were never to be disavowed, and too large to -be satisfied." The great discoverer lived only a year and a half after -his return; and, though poorly compensated by the king in his last -days, he bore his trials with patience, and died on the 5th of May, -1506, in the most Christian spirit of resignation. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, by Wm. H. Prescott. - -[2] History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus, by -Washington Irving. - -[3] It gives an interesting view of the depth of Columbus' solicitude -and grief, as well as of the peculiar spirit by which he was actuated in -his great enterprise, to learn the following from his own pen, in a -letter to his sovereign: "I could have supported this evil fortune with -less grief, had my person alone been in jeopardy, since I am debtor for -my life to the Supreme Creator, and have at other times been within a -step of death. But it was a cause of infinite sorrow and trouble to -think, that after having been illuminated from on high with faith and -certainty to undertake this enterprise; after having victoriously -achieved it, and when on the point of convincing my opponents and -securing to your highness great glory and vast increase of dominion, it -should please the Divine Majesty to defeat all by my death. It would -have been more supportable also, had I not been accompanied by others, -who had been drawn on by my persuasions, and who in their distress -cursed not only the hour of their coming, but the fear inspired by my -words, which prevented their turning back as they had at various times -determined. Above all, my grief was doubled when I thought of my two -sons, whom I had left in school at Cordova, destitute in a strange land, -without any testimony of the services rendered by their father, which, -if known, might have inclined your highness to befriend them. And -although, on the one hand, I was comforted by a faith, that the Deity -would not permit a work of such great exaltation to his church, wrought -through so many troubles and contradictions, to remain imperfect; yet, -on the other hand, I reflected on my sins, for which he might intend, as -a punishment, that I should be deprived of the glory which would redound -to me in this world." It is ever to be kept in mind, that Columbus had -the most exalted ideas of the effect of his discoveries on the extension -of Christianity. Connected with this pious motive, was the questionable -one of consecrating the wealth hence to be derived to the rescue of the -holy sepulchre, a project which he had contemplated. This faith or -enthusiasm runs through the whole tissue of his strange and chequered -life. - -[4] Prescott's History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. - - - - - III. SEBASTIAN CABOT. - - -Although the evidence of history establishes the claim of Columbus, as -the first discoverer of the new world, including in that term the West -Indian archipelago, yet there were other meritorious voyagers, who -extended the knowledge of these new regions, thus laid open to mankind. -Others there were, who, stimulated by his success, and following his -steps, enlarged the boundaries of geographical science even beyond the -actual discoveries of Columbus. Among these voyagers was the admirable -Sebastian Cabot, whose merits have never been fully acknowledged as they -deserved to be, having been overlooked, in a measure, through the -greater admiration bestowed on his predecessor. He belonged to a family -distinguished for their spirit of adventure, as his father before him -was an eminent navigator, and he was associated with two brothers, -apparently possessing the same love of a sea-faring life. The father of -Sebastian was an Italian, but the son was born in Bristol, England, in -1477. The family was fitted out with five ships, for the purpose of -discovery, by the English government, who granted a patent, under date -of March 6th, 1496, to John Cabot, the father, as leader of the -expedition. He was, however, rather the overseer or adviser of the -concern, than the leader. The real conductor of it was Sebastian, who, -through his modesty, failed to secure for himself that consideration -from the world which was his due. - -His object, like that of Columbus, was to find a passage to India; but -not in the direction which the latter took. The idea which possessed the -mind of Cabot was, that India might be reached by sailing _north-west_. -He left Bristol in the spring of 1497, and on the 24th of June, in -pursuing his course, he came unexpectedly, and to his disappointment, in -sight of land, and was thus impeded as to his progress in that -direction. It was the North American continent which he had approached. -The land seen was the coast of Labrador, as also an island that -received the name of St. John's island, from the day on which it was -discovered. Cabot has recorded, in all simplicity, how the affair -happened. He supposed himself to be on the direct route to India, "but, -after certayne dayes," said he, "I found that the land ranne towards the -north, which was to mee a great displeasure." St. John's island he -describes as "full of white bears, and stagges far greater than the -English." From this point he steered his course towards the bay since -called Hudson's bay; but, after several days' sailing, he yielded to the -discontent of the crew, and returned to England. - -Cabot conducted a second expedition, which sailed from Bristol in -1498. He reached Labrador again, where he left a portion of his crew, -in order to commence a colony, while he proceeded on his voyage. But -success did not reward his attempt, and, on his return to Labrador, he -found the colonists, from the sufferings they had experienced in that -cold and sterile region, clamorous for a return. He accordingly -submitted to their demands, and, laying his course to the south as far -as the Cape of Florida, he rëcrossed the ocean. The notes which he -took of his voyage have unhappily been lost. - -In 1517 he was again employed, in an expedition from England; but though -he penetrated to about the sixty-seventh degree of north latitude, and -entered Hudson's bay, giving names to various places in the vicinity, he -was compelled to return, through the cowardice of an officer high in -command, Sir Thomas Pert, and the disaffection of the crew. They had not -the spirit to encounter the rigor and privations of the climate. - -Notwithstanding these and his subsequent services for his country, he -was suffered in the end to fall into poverty and neglect. His life was -filled with adventures and changes. For several years he was employed -in the service of the king of Spain, and during one of the expeditions -on which he was sent from that country, he made the important -discovery of the Rio de la Plata. He occasionally returned to -England, and at length made it his resting-place. Gloom overshadowed -his latter days. His pension, at the accession of Mary, was suspended -for two years, and, though restored, it was diminished the one-half. -He survived to a great age, being over eighty years, dying as is -supposed in London, but _when_ no record shows. Not the slightest -memorial points out the place of his sepulture. - -It is quite certain that the date of Cabot's discovery of the Western -continent is more than one year anterior to that of Columbus, the -latter having reached the southern portion of it August 1st, 1498, -while Cabot reached the northern portion June 24th, 1497. Amerigo -Vespucci, who has carried away the honor of giving name to the -continent, did not reach it until nearly two years after the English -adventurer. But Columbus, in his first voyage, having ascertained the -existence of regions beyond the Atlantic, became in effect the -earliest and real discoverer. Except for his sublime theory and -adventurous experiment, the age, probably, would not have furnished a -Sebastian Cabot or an Amerigo Vespucci. - -[Illustration] - - - - - II.--EARLY SETTLEMENTS. - - -[Illustration] - - - - - I. VIRGINIA, OR SOUTHERN COLONY. - - - UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA--Expeditions of Sir Humphrey - Gilbert--Sir Walter Raleigh--Sir Richard Grenville--Sir John - White-First permanent settlement at Jamestown--Colonists early - in want--Dissensions in their Councils--Hostility of the - Indians--Capture of Captain Smith--Generous conduct of - Pocahontas--Gloomy condition of the Colony--Timely arrival of - assistance--Returning prosperity--Establishment of a Provisional - government--Introduction of Negro Slavery--Cruel Massacre of the - Colonists. - -When the new world, as America has since been familiarly called, was -opened to the enterprise and cupidity of Europeans, it became an -object to effect settlements in it from time to time. Accordingly, -during a period of more than one hundred years from the discovery of -San Salvador by Columbus, attempts were made for this purpose, either -by adventurers in search of other discoveries, or by expeditions -fitted out to occupy regions already known. So far, however, as the -northern portion of the continent was concerned, these attempts proved -entirely without success. There was no want of excitement and effort -at this remarkable era, on the part of _individuals_. The strange -story of the voyages of Columbus awakened the spirit of adventure in -Europe, as it was never felt before. Vessel after vessel, and fleet -after fleet, were despatched to the new-discovered continent, but the -object in view was rather to find gold than a home; and even where the -latter was sought, the preparations were either inadequate, or the -undertaking was indifferently contrived and managed. Sebastian Cabot, -who discovered Newfoundland; James Cartier, who first entered the Gulf -of St. Lawrence; Ferdinand de Soto, who first ascertained the -existence of the Mississippi; Sir Walter Raleigh, among the earliest -adventurers to Virginia, and Bartholomew Gosnold, to whom Cape Cod was -first known, and all of whom attempted settlements for a longer or -shorter period, were unsuccessful, and disappointed in the end. The -English were not thoroughly engaged in the business of colonizing -America, until the latter part of the sixteenth century, when several -successive attempts were made to settle Virginia. The first expedition -was conducted by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who failed in his object, -having never reached Virginia; and being shipwrecked, perished with -all his crew on the return voyage to England. In 1584, the enterprise -was confided to the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh, who, in the spring -of that year, despatched two small barks, under the command severally -of Amidas and Barlow. After going much farther south than was -necessary, and experiencing the sickness incident to the season, they -proceeded northerly till they made a harbor, taking possession of the -adjoining land, "for the queen's most excellent majestie," and in a -short time afterward came to the island of Roanoke. Nothing was -effected by this voyage, except a little trafficking with the natives, -and the favorable account which was given of the country, upon the -return of the expedition. In the third expedition, which was conducted -by Sir Richard Grenville, under Sir Walter, in 1585, a company was -landed on Roanoke, consisting of one hundred and eight persons, who, -upon the return of the ship, were left to settle the country. But -being reduced to extremities for want of sustenance, and by the -hostility of the Indians, they all returned to England the next year -with Sir Francis Drake. In the mean while, 1585, Sir Walter Raleigh -and his associates made a voyage to Virginia, taking supplies for the -colony; but after spending some time in the country, and not finding -the colonists, they returned to England. - -[Illustration: Early Settlers trading with the Natives.] - -In the earlier attempts at settlement, after the spirit of conquest and -adventure had been somewhat satiated, the object in view, so far as the -English were engaged in it, was the acquisition of tributary provinces, -and the wealth which they would bring to the parent states. In this line -of policy, England but followed the example of Spain and Portugal, yet -with far less energy, and with no manner of success. The signal failures -that were experienced turned attention, at length, to more sober and -rational projects--to regular colonization and commerce. But the -success, even here, was quite indifferent for several years. Mercenary -views obtained the precedence. That moral heroism, which submits to any -extremity of toil and self-denial for the objects of religious faith, -could not be summoned to the support of these merely secular adventures. -So far as colonization was calculated upon as a source of wealth -directly, it did not feel the influence of a self-sustaining motive. It -needed, as will soon be seen, other views of colonization, to render the -scheme completely successful, in regions remote from tropical riches and -luxuries. What more might have been done to insure success, had the -kings and princes of Europe been at leisure to prosecute the object with -the means in their power, is not now to be ascertained. It is clear, -from the history of the times, that they could ill afford the necessary -leisure, in consequence of the multiplicity and weight of their own -individual concerns. Wars, negociations, schemes of policy, and the -adjustment of ecclesiastical relations, occupied the rulers of England -and France, as also Germany and nearly all the continent, almost -exclusively through the sixteenth century. Of that which was achieved in -the way of discovery and temporary settlement, in the northern portion -of the American continent, much was left to individual enterprise and -resources; and the universal failure of permanent colonization was -almost the unavoidable result, connected, indeed, with the mercenary -motive and bad management with which it was prosecuted. - -The first settlement of a permanent character, effected by the English -in North America, was at _Jamestown_, in Virginia, in 1607. To that -portion of the continent, as has been just detailed, more numerous and -vigorous efforts at settlement had been directed than to any other on -the coast, and with what results has also appeared. No one can read -the account of these early and unfortunate attempts to settle our -country, without deeply lamenting the fate of those brave adventurers -who were engaged in them. In the Virginia enterprise, religion and its -blessings were not the direct moving influences on the minds of the -adventurers; but they were a gallant and public spirited class of the -English people, and many of them of the better orders of society. - -Their failure, however, did not check the spirit of enterprise; a -settlement was determined on, and it was providentially effected. -Under the sanction of a grant from King James, of the southern equal -half of the territory lying between the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth -degrees of latitude, an association was constituted, called the London -Company, who undertook the colonization of their portion of the -country. This was called the _Southern Colony_. The expedition -consisted of three small vessels, under the command of Captain -Christopher Newport, a man of great nautical experience. Neither they -who were designed for the magistracy, nor the code of laws, could be -known until the arrival of the fleet in Virginia, when the sealed -orders, committed to the commander, might be broken. It would seem, -from the early accounts, that a portion of the emigrants were but -little influenced by the considerations of religion or propriety, from -the disorders that occurred during the voyage; but their pious -preacher, Mr. Hunt, at length, "with the water of patience and his -godly exhortations (but chiefly by his true-devoted examples) quenched -these flames of envy and dissension." - -In searching for Roanoke, they were driven by a storm to a different -part of the coast; the first land they made being a cape, which they -called Cape Henry. Thus discovering and sailing up the Chesapeake bay, -they came, at length, to a place suited to their purpose. Here they -commenced in earnest their great work of settlement, calling the place -_Jamestown_, in honor of King James. According to directions, the box -containing the orders was opened, and the names of Bartholomew -Gosnold, John Smith, Edward Wingfield, Christopher Newport, John -Radcliffe, John Martin, and George Kendall, were found as constituting -the council. These were to choose a president from among themselves, -for a year, who, with the council, should conduct and govern the -colony. Mr. Wingfield was elected president, while one of the most -distinguished of them, Captain John Smith, on account of suspicions -entertained respecting his ambitious views, was excluded, for a time, -from the council. The plan of government was, that matters of moment -were to be examined by a jury, but determined by the major part of the -council, in which the president had two votes. - -While erecting accommodations for themselves, and during the absence of -a portion of the men on discoveries in the country, they were molested -by the savages, with some small loss, and were in danger of total -extirpation, "had it not chanced that a crosse-barre, shot from the -ships, stroke down a bough from a tree amongst them (the savages), that -caused them to retire." These, it seems, on other occasions, after -troubling the planters, "by the nimbleness of their heeles, escaped." -What with labor by day, and watching by night--with felling trees, and -planting the ground--with resisting hostile attacks, rëloading ships, -and effecting governmental business--the settlers found their hands and -their hearts fully, and often painfully, occupied. Several weeks were -spent in this manner, and after adjusting their disputes, and receiving -Smith into the council, with a handsome remuneration for the wrong he -had received, they all partook of the Holy Communion, the savages at the -same time desiring peace with them. On the 15th of June, 1607, Captain -Newport returned to England with the intelligence of their success, -leaving in Virginia one hundred emigrants. - -The departure of Newport was the signal for want, and an increase of -their difficulties. While the vessels were with them, provisions, at -some rate, were to be had; but after they left, "there remained -neither taverne, beere-house, nor place of reliefe, but the common -kettell. Had we beene as free from all shine as gluttony and -drunkenness, we might have been cannonized for saints--we might truly -call it (the damaged grain) so much bran than corne, our drink was -water, our lodgings castles in the air: with this lodging and diet, -our extreme toil, in bearing and planting pallisadoes, so strained and -bruised us, and our continual labor, in the extremity of the heat, had -so weakened us, as were cause sufficient to have made us miserable in -our native country, or any other place in the world."[5] This was -truly a hard lot--through the summer they lived on the products of the -sea. During that time, they buried fifty of their number. At the -point, however, of their greatest scarcity, they were happily supplied -with fruit and provisions by the Indians. - -Their difficulties were greatly increased by the perverseness or -incapacity of several of their council. In this body, changes and -deposals took place from time to time, until the management of every -thing abroad, fell into the hands of Captain Smith. Of this -extraordinary man, much might be related, were there space; but we can -pursue only the course of events as they occurred in the settlement of -this country. In the mean while, by his energy and example in labor, -"himselfe alwayes bearing the greatest taske for his own share," he -set the men effectually to work in providing for themselves -comfortable lodgings. This done, the necessity of procuring a more -permanent supply of provisions, and of receiving the friendship of the -natives, or subjecting them to the power of the colonists, engaged him -for a period in the most daring projects. In this, he passed through a -wonderful vicissitude of fortune--the colony in the mean while -sustaining a precarious existence, by means of the dissensions that -prevailed, the hostility of the Indians, and the sickness that wasted -the whites. On one occasion, while exploring the country, after he -left his boat, and was proceeding in company with two Englishmen, and -a savage for his guide, he was beset with two hundred savages. The -Englishmen were killed; the savage he tied to his arm with his garter, -using him as a buckler. Smith was soon wounded and taken prisoner; but -not until he had killed three of the Indians. The fear inspired by his -bravery checked their advance, till he sunk to the middle in a miry -spot which was in his way, as he retreated backward. Even then they -dared not come near him, till, being nearly dead with cold, he threw -away his arms. Upon being taken, he presented to their king a round -ivory compass, which was the means of saving him from instant death. -Just as they were preparing to pierce him with their arrows, the -chief, lifting the compass, they all laid down their bows and arrows, -at the same time releasing him from his pitiable situation. - -[Illustration: Smith saved from Death.] - -At length he was brought to Powhatan, their emperor. It soon became -evident that they were preparing to put him to death after their -peculiarly fantastic and barbarous ceremonies. A long consultation was -held, and the conclusion was, "two great stones were brought before -Powhatan, then as many as could lay hands on him dragged him to them, -and thereon laid his head; and being ready with their clubs to beate -out his brains, _Pocahontas_, the king's dearest daughter, when no -entreaty could prevail, got his head into her armes, and laid her owne -upon his, to save him from death: whereat the emperor was contented he -should live." - -Friendship with the whites soon followed this event. Smith was taken -to Jamestown by his guides, and contracts were made with the Indians -by means of presents, which secured a portion of their territory to -the English. Every few days, Pocahontas with her attendants brought to -Captain Smith provisions in such quantity as to save the lives of the -colonists. - -This condition of things could not always last: the support thus -received could be but precarious at the best; and it happened favorably -that, for a period, the spirits and courage of the small band of -emigrants were sustained by the arrival of two ships from England, laden -with supplies, and bringing a complement of men. They arrived indeed at -different times, having been separated by stormy weather. In consequence -of these arrivals, and one other before the end of the year 1608, the -number of colonists amounted to nearly three hundred. - -In 1609, a new charter was granted to the London company, with enlarged -privileges, as well as more definite limits, and with the addition of -five hundred adventurers. Sir Thomas West, Lord De la War, was now -appointed governor for life; Sir Thomas Gates, his lieutenant; Sir -George Somers, admiral; and other high officers were appointed for life. -By the new charter, the right of absolute property was vested in the -company; the crown to receive one-fifth of all ore of gold and silver -found there for all manner of services. The governor, though unable -himself immediately to leave England, lost no time in fitting out a -fleet for Virginia. Of the nine ships constituting the expedition, eight -arrived in season at Jamestown. The other, having Sir Thomas, the -admiral, on board, was wrecked on the Bermudas; and it was not until -they could fit up craft to convey them to Virginia, that they reached -Jamestown, which was in the spring of the following year. This disaster -and delay seemed to be highly providential in the end, as the colonists -were rëunited with one hundred and fifty men, and a full supply of -provisions, at a time when they had been reduced to the greatest -extremities. Captain Smith, disabled by a severe accidental wound, had -returned to England. In consequence of his departure, the settlement had -been thrown into great confusion. Complaints, disputes, and -insubordination ensued; the savages became hostile, and often imbrued -their hands in the blood of the whites; and finally, starvation followed -in the train of the other calamities. Roots, herbs, acorns, walnuts, -starch, the skins of horses, and even human flesh, were devoured in -order to support life. In a few days more, had not relief been brought -to them, the whole colony would probably have perished. - -On the arrival of Sir Thomas, the affairs of the settlement seemed so -desperate, that it was determined to return with the miserable remnant -to England. In putting the plan into execution, and just as they were -leaving the mouth of the river, the long-boat of Lord De la War was -descried. As he had three ships well furnished with provisions, the -colonists were persuaded to return, and renew their efforts to settle -the country. This was on the 9th of June, 1610, and proved to be the -crisis of the colony. It was now, in the providence of God, destined -to live. Improvements began to be made--forts were erected--and the -former idleness and misrule of the people in a great measure -disappeared. In the spring of the succeeding year, however, the health -of Lord De la War became seriously affected, and he consequently -returned to England. The administration was then committed to Sir -Thomas Dale for a short period. He acquitted himself well in it, -though he had some difficulty with the colonists, who had not all been -reduced to the requisite order and submission. The government passed -into the hands of Sir Thomas Gates, upon his arrival at Jamestown, in -August, 1611. He came over with a fleet of six ships, and three -hundred men, bringing with him kine and other cattle, munitions of -war, and a large supply of provisions. - -Being thus strengthened, the English extended their domain from time -to time. In the course of the present year, they built a town, which -they called Henrico, in honor of Prince Henry, and in the subsequent -year, they seized a place called Apamatuck, on account of some injury -they had received from its inhabitants. Here they built a town, which -they called the _New Bermudas_. About this period, a Captain Argal, -sailing up the Patawomeakee, secured Pocahontas by stratagem; the -consequence of which was, her acquaintance with an English gentleman, -named John Rolfe, and her marriage to him, together with peace between -the whites and Powhatan. - -The plan of providing for the colony was now changed. Instead of -feeding out of the common store, and laboring jointly together, the -people were allowed to hold each a lot of his own, with a sufficient -time to cultivate it. This change produced the most beneficial -results, as it prevented the idleness and inefficiency which are apt -to attend a common-stock social establishment, and multiplied, in a -ten-fold degree, the amount of their provisions. The experiment having -been so propitious, the original plan of a community of labor and -supply was finally abandoned. The government of the colony at this -time was again in the hands of Sir Thomas Dale; the former governor, -Sir Thomas Gates, having returned to England in the spring of 1614. -Governor Dale continued about two years, superintending satisfactorily -the affairs of the colony, and, having chosen Captain George Yeardley -to be deputy-governor, he returned to England, accompanied by -Pocahontas and her husband. Pocahontas became a Christian and a -mother; and it may be added, that her descendants, in a subsequent -age, inherited her lands in Virginia, and that some of the first -families of that state trace from her their lineage. - -Yeardley applied himself to the cultivation of tobacco, and was highly -successful in an attack on the savages, who refused to pay their annual -tribute of corn. He continued in the colony about a year, when, by an -appointment made in England, the government devolved on Captain Argal, -before named. Argal found Jamestown in a bad condition; the dwellings, -which were slight structures, had mostly disappeared, and the public -works neglected or in decay, and "the colonie dispersed all about, -planting _Tobacco_." A reformation to some extent was effected. At this -period, 1617, more colonists arrived; but it would seem, from a remark -in a narrative of that date, that the number of the higher classes of -society exceeded their wants; "for, in Virginia, a plaine souldier, that -can use a pickaxe and spade, is better than five knights, although they -were knights that could break a lance; for men of great place, not -inured to those encounters, when they finde things not suitable, grow -many times so discontented, they forget themselves, and oft become so -carelesse, that a discontented melancholy brings them to much sorrow, -and to others, much miserie." When it was ascertained that great -multitudes were preparing, in England, to be sent, the colonists, in a -communication to the council, entreated that provisions might be -forwarded as well as people, and gave the company to understand, "what -they did suffer for want of skilful husbandmen and meanes to set their -plough on worke, having as good land as any man can desire." - -In the year 1619, the settlements of Virginia were favored with the -establishment of a provincial legislature, which was constituted of -delegates chosen by themselves, as they were divided into eleven -corporations. The first meeting of the legislature was on the 19th of -June, having been convoked by the governor-general of the colony. This -was a great and desirable change from the sort of vassalage in which -they had previously lived. This general assembly debated and decided -all matters that were deemed essential to the welfare of the colony. A -great addition was made to the number of the colonists the two -following years, among whom were one hundred and fifty young women, of -good character, designed as the future wives of the colonists. During -the summer of 1620, a Dutch armed ship arrived at the colony, and sold -them twenty negroes, at which period the system of slave holding, with -its attendant crimes and evils, commenced in this country. - -The year 1621 was rendered memorable by the arrival of Sir Francis -Wyatt, who brought with him, from the London company, a more perfect -constitution and form of government, than the colony had previously -enjoyed, although the general representative character of its -government had been established in 1619. The following year was -rendered still more memorable by the massacre of a large number of -whites, through the treachery of the Indians. The instigator and -executor of this tragedy was the successor of Powhatan, named -Opecancanough. He had enlisted the savages in all the vicinity in the -infernal plot. The colonists, in the security of friendship and good -understanding, which had existed between them and that people, were -wholly off their guard, and unprepared for the blow. It was inflicted -simultaneously, at a time agreed upon, and three hundred and -forty-seven men, women, and children, were at once butchered, in -several and separate places. It had been universal, but for the -providence of God. A converted Indian, coming to the knowledge of the -plot the night before its execution, disclosed it to the whites in -season to save the greater number of settlements. The Indians, in -their turn, now suffered the vengeance of the colonists, who felt -authorized to procure the means of future security against similar -acts of treachery. The emigrations had been so numerous, through the -few preceding years, that the colonists, at this time, amounted to -several thousands. Thus the people, with various fortune, and after -incredible hardships, had placed their colony on a firm basis, having -learned many useful lessons from their own errors, imprudence, or -sufferings. And such was the beginning of the American republic in its -southern portion, nearly two hundred and fifty years ago. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[5] Smith's History of Virginia. - - - - - II. NEW ENGLAND, OR NORTHERN SETTLEMENTS. - - - PLYMOUTH--Massachusetts--Connecticut--New Haven--New - Hampshire--Rhode Island--Maine--Vermont--Character of the - Early Settlers. - -The settlement of _New England_ commenced at Plymouth in 1620. This -part of the continent between Penobscot and Cape Cod, had been -carefully explored in 1614, by Captain Smith. He says, respecting it: -"Of all the foure parts of the world I have yet seen not inhabited, -could I have but means to transport a colony, I would rather live here -than any where; and if it did not maintaine itselfe, were we but once -indifferently well fitted, let us starve." Such was the opinion early -formed of the desirableness of this region for colonization. Charles, -Prince of Wales, was pleased to call it New England, on account of the -favorable impression he received respecting it, from Smith's chart and -description. This country was settled by a class of people very -different, in many respects, from that which emigrated to the southern -colony. The latter, for the most part, as has been seen, were mere -adventurers, having in view the improvement of their secular -interests, or the _eclat_ of successful enterprise. The colonists of -New England sought chiefly the boon of religious freedom for -themselves and their descendants, and through it the advancement of -the Christian church in the world--a boon of which they had been -deprived in their native land. The ground of this disfranchisement, -was their non-conformity to the established English church, or -separation from it. Having, while members of that church, devised and -sought a greater purity in its worship without success, they at length -separated themselves from it, and formed a distinct worshiping -community. For thus professing to follow the _pure_ word of God, in -opposition to traditions and human devices, they were in derision -termed _Puritans_. In the progress of their religious views, and of -the persecuting spirit of the government, they passed from mere -puritanism, or efforts at greater purity in worship and in manners, -to non-conformity, and from non-conformity to dissent. From -difficulties in regard to the ritual of the church, they proceeded to -doctrines. The Puritans and the universities denied a portion of the -Apostles' Creed, so called: "advocated the sanctity of the Sabbath and -the opinions of Calvin; his institutions being read in their schools, -while the Episcopal party took the opposite side, and espoused the -system of Arminius." Both under Elizabeth and James, conformity was -insisted on. The latter declared, "I will have one doctrine, one -discipline, one religion, in substance and ceremony. I will make them -conform, or I will hurry them out of the land, or else worse." And he -did hurry out of the land many of those who had become obnoxious to -him; while the others were more cruelly hindered from leaving the -country, to suffer from contempt, poverty, or a lingering death in -imprisonment. Their attempts to escape were frequently frustrated, and -it was not without great vexation and loss, that portions of this -persecuted people exiled themselves from their native country. Their -first place of refuge was Holland, where religious toleration had been -established by law. The leader of the emigrants, on this occasion, was -the able and pious Mr. John Robinson, who has since been considered as -the father of that portion of the Puritans who were the founders of -New England. They successively left England, as many as found it in -their power, in the year 1606, and the two following years. Their -first place of residence was Amsterdam; but in 1609 they removed to -Leyden, with a view to avoid some difficulties that were felt or -foreseen in the former place. Here they were received with kindness, -and continued several years in a flourishing condition, under the -faithful labors of their pastor. In the mean while, notwithstanding -their general prospects, there were causes in operation which rendered -a change of location, in their case, extremely desirable. These were -the unhealthiness of the low countries where they lived; the hard -labors to which they were subjected; the dissipated manners of the -Hollanders, especially their lax observance of the Lord's day; the -apprehension of war at the conclusion of the truce between Spain and -Holland, which was then near at hand; the fear lest their young men -would enter into the military and naval service; the tendency of their -little community to become absorbed and lost in a foreign nation; the -natural and pious desire of perpetuating a church, which they believed -to be constituted after the simple and pure model of the primitive -church of Christ, and a commendable zeal to propagate the Gospel in -the regions of the new world.[6] - -In this situation, they turned their attention towards America. Here -they hoped to engage in their original occupation of agriculture, and -not merely to enjoy toleration, but to form a society founded on their -favorite plan of ecclesiastical order. With this object in view, they -first applied to the Virginia company for a patent, who zealously -espoused their cause, but who were unable to obtain from the king a -toleration, under his seal, in religious liberty, though he promised -to wink at their heresy, provided they should conduct themselves -peaceably. The company granted them permission to make a settlement -near the mouth of the Hudson river. They had previously, in the want -of adequate capital of their own for the founding of a plantation, -been enabled to interest several London merchants in their scheme. -These agreed to advance the necessary sums, to be rëpaid out of the -avails of their industry. In this way, the emigrants were enabled to -purchase the Speedwell, a ship of sixty tons, and to hire in England -the Mayflower, a ship of one hundred and eighty tons, for the intended -expedition. The Mayflower alone came, as the smaller vessel proved to -be in a leaky condition, and, after two several trials, she was -dismissed, as unfit for the service. The Mayflower took her departure -on the 6th of September, and, after a boisterous passage, they -discovered the land of Cape Cod on the 9th of November, at the break -of day. The number of pilgrims, who had embarked, was one hundred and -one, not all who had proposed to come; for the disasters that attended -their setting out, had "winowed their number of the cowardly and the -lukewarm." Their pastor, Mr. Robinson, did not leave Leyden, according -to an original agreement, that only a part of their company should go -to America to make provision for the rest. - -The pilgrim voyagers found themselves on a bleak and inhospitable coast, -and much farther to the northward than they intended to go. In agreement -with their wishes, an attempt was made, by the master of the ship, to -proceed to the Hudson. But either finding, or affecting to believe the -passage to be dangerous, he readily seized on the fears which had been -excited, probably by himself, to return to the cape, with a view to make -a landing there. It afterwards appeared that he had been bribed by the -Dutch, who intended to keep possession of the Hudson river, to carry the -adventurers quite to the northward of their place of destination. They -arrived in Cape Cod harbor on the 11th of November, "and, being brought -safe to land, they fell upon their knees, and blessed the God of heaven, -who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them -from many perils and miseries." At this time, "it was thought meet for -their more orderly carrying on their affairs, and accordingly by mutual -consent they entered into a solemn combination, as a body politic, to -submit to such government and governors, laws and ordinances, as should -by general consent from time to time be made choice of and assented -unto."[7] Forty-one persons signed this compact. It contained the -essential principles of a free government, such as have since been -embodied in the institutions of republican America. John Carver was -immediately chosen their governor, "a man godly and well-approved among -them." - -Severe were the trials which awaited this small and lone band of -pilgrims. The necessity of selecting a more commodious place for -living was obvious, and, in the efforts which were made for this -purpose, several of them well nigh perished. The excursions of an -adventurous band of men, on several occasions, were extremely -hazardous; and, though generally at the places where they landed, no -Indians were found, yet, in one instance, they came in contact with -the latter, and a hostile collision took place between them. By the -kind providence of God, however, they were preserved. During one of -their excursions into the country, they found a quantity of corn, -which they took, with the intention of remunerating the owners, which -intention they were afterwards happily enabled to fulfil. This was a -providential discovery, which supplied their present wants, and served -as seed for a future harvest. An entire month was occupied with these -explorations. At last, they found a tract where they concluded to -consummate their enterprise. Having sounded the harbor in front, they -ascertained it to be fit for shipping. Going on shore, they explored -the adjacent land, where they saw various corn-fields and brooks. They -then returned to the ship, with the agreeable intelligence that they -had found a place convenient for settlement. This was on Monday, the -11th of December, answering to the 22nd day, new style, the day now -celebrated in commemoration of the landing of the pilgrims at -_Plymouth_. The company had kept the Christian Sabbath, the day -before, on an island in the harbor. The ship arrived at the -newly-discovered port on the 16th. Several days were spent in -disembarking, and it was not until the 25th that they began to build -the first house. This was a structure for common use, to receive them -and their goods. The undertaking, however, was preceded by united -prayer for Divine guidance. The building having been completed, they -began to erect "some cottages for habitation, as time would admit, and -also consulted of laws and order, both for their civil and military -government, as the necessity of their present condition did require. -But that which was sad and lamentable, in two or three months half -their company died, especially in January and February, being the -depth of winter, wanting houses and other comforts, being infected -with the scurvy and other diseases, which their long voyage and their -incommodate condition brought upon them."[8] Their reduction, by -sickness, would have rendered them an easy prey to the Indians; but -the providence of God had so ordered it, that but few of this fierce -people existed, at that period, in the neighborhood of the settlers, -and those few were kept back from inflicting any injury, by the dread -which had almost supernaturally, so to speak, been inspired in their -hearts. The paucity of the Indians has been accounted for, from a -wasting sickness, of an extraordinary character, which had visited the -region some few years before. - -[Illustration: Landing of the Pilgrims.] - -Some time in March of 1621, an agreeable and unexpected occurrence took -place at the rendezvous of the whites. It was a visit of an Indian -sagamore, named Samoset, with professions of friendship for them, and -satisfaction at their arrival in the country. His kind greeting to them -was, "Welcome, Englishmen! Welcome, Englishmen!" He spoke in broken -English, which he had learned from English fishermen on the eastern -coast. This was an event of great consequence to the settlers, as they -learned from him many things in respect to the region around, and the -Indians that inhabited it. He came to the English settlement again, with -some other natives, and advised the emigrants of the coming of the great -sachem, named Massasoit. In a short time this chief made his appearance, -in company with his principal associates, particularly an Indian named -Squanto, who proved to be of signal service to the whites. He had -learned the English language, in consequence of having been carried to -England by an English adventurer. Mutual fear and distrust took place -between the parties, as Massasoit came in sight on the hill which -overlooked the place. After they each had taken proper precautions -against surprise, through the agency of Squanto they came together, and -the result of the interview was a league of peace, which was kept -inviolate more than fifty years. - -[Illustration: Visit of Samoset to the English.] - -The visit was not much prolonged. "Samoset and Squanto stayed all -night with us, and the king and all his men lay all night in the wood, -not above half an English mile from us, and all their wives and women -with them. They said that within eight or nine days they would come -and set corn on the other side of the brook, and dwell there all -summer, which is hard by us. That night we kept good watch, but there -was no appearance of danger."[9] The plantation at Plymouth enjoyed -the benefit of Squanto's presence with them, after the departure of -the others. He was a native or resident of the place, and almost the -only one that was left; and being acquainted with every part of it, -his information was made highly useful to the colonists. They learned -from him the method of cultivating corn, and where to take their fish, -and procure their commodities. He continued among them until the day -of his death. In the spring of 1621, Mr. Carver was confirmed as -governor for the succeeding year, but his death occurred soon -afterwards. Mr. William Bradford was chosen his successor, and Mr. -Israel Allerton his assistant. The intercourse of the colonists with -the Indians continued to be of a friendly character, the former -having, during the summer, made several excursions into the country -around, particularly one to Shawmut (Boston), where they had an -interview with Obbatinnua, one of the parties to the submission signed -a short time before at Plymouth. He renewed his submission, receiving, -at the same time, a promise of defence against his enemies. - -[Illustration: Interview with Massasoit.] - -The small number of the colonists was increased before the end of the -year by an accession of thirty-five persons, among whom was a very -active and pious agent, Mr. Robert Cushman. He became eminently useful -to the plantation. Upon the departure of the ship conveying this -latter company, the colony received a threatening token from the -Narraganset tribe of Indians--a circumstance which induced them to -fortify their little settlement as well as they were able, and to keep -a constant guard by day and by night. Happily, no attempts at that -time were made to disturb their peace. This event occurred in the year -1622. In the following year, a vigorous and successful attempt, under -the brave Captain Miles Standish, was made to defeat a conspiracy -formed by the Massachusetts tribe, with several others, against a -recent English settlement at Wessagusset (Weymouth). This settlement -had been formed under Mr. Thos. Weston on his own account, and -consisted of sixty men. The slaughter of several of the conspirators -so terrified the Indian tribes concerned in the conspiracy, that they -fled from their homes into swamps and desert places, where many of -them perished. This generous service, on the part of the Plymouth -colony, towards a neighboring plantation, redounded greatly to their -credit, especially as the latter were merely a company of -adventurers, and had been guilty of injustice towards the Indians. - -The present year proved to be a year of suffering, in consequence of -the scarcity of food. The following affecting account is given by -Bradford: "But by the time our corn is planted, our victuals are -spent, not knowing at night where to have a bit in the morning; we -have neither bread nor corn for three or four months together, yet -bear our wants with cheerfulness, and rest on Providence. Having but -one boat left, we divide the men into several companies, six or seven -in each, who take their turns to go out with a net, and fish, and -return not till they get some, though they be five or six days out; -knowing there is nothing at home, and to return empty would be a great -discouragement. When they stay long, or get but little, the rest go a -digging shellfish, and thus we live the summer; only sending one or -two to range the woods for deer, they get now and then one, which we -divide among the company; and in the winter are helped with fowl and -ground-nuts."[10] It is recorded that, after a drought of six weeks, -the government set apart a solemn day of humiliation and prayer, which -was almost immediately followed by a copious supply of rain. In the -language of the chronicles of the times, it is thus spoken of: "Though -in the morning, when we assembled together, the heavens were as clear, -and the drought as like to continue as it ever was, yet (our exercise -continuing some eight or nine hours) before our departure, the weather -was overcast, the clouds gathered together on all sides, and, in the -morning, distilled such soft, sweet, and moderate showers of rain, -continuing some fourteen days, and mixed with such seasonable weather, -as it was hard to say, whether our withered corn or drooping -affections were most quickened or revived, such was the bounty and -goodness of our God." Soon after, in grateful acknowledgment of the -blessing, a day of public thanksgiving was observed. This, by a -judicious historian, (Thomas Robbins, D. D.) is believed to be the -origin of the annual thanksgiving of New England. - -Towards the close of the summer, two ships arrived at Plymouth, -bringing sixty emigrants, some of them the wives and children of such -as were already in the colony. Those who came in the first three -ships--the Mayflower, the Fortune, and the Ann--are distinctively -called the old comers, or the _forefathers_. In 1624, Plymouth -contained thirty-two dwellings and about one hundred and eighty -inhabitants. Bradford was rëelected governor, and four assistants to -him were also chosen. To each person and his family an acre of land -was given in perpetuity. The first neat cattle in New England were -brought over this year by Edward Winslow. The colonists had at that -time no small trouble with several of the new comers, particularly -with one John Lyford, a minister, and another by the name of Oldham, -who were disposed to act in opposition to the laws and order of the -colony. The persons above mentioned, however, soon perished, Oldham -having first become apparently a penitent. - -The congregation of the Puritans at Leyden was broken up on the death -of their pastor, Mr. Robinson, in 1627. They desired to remove to New -England, but only a part of them were enabled to come. The others -settled in Amsterdam. Mr. Robinson had hoped to emigrate, but the -expense of the undertaking could not well be met, and his death now -preventing, only his wife and children came with the portion of the -congregation that crossed the water. His place in the colony was -supplied by Mr. William Brewster, a ruling elder in the church, and a -man every way qualified as a spiritual guide of the people. - -The foundation of the colony of MASSACHUSETTS was laid in the year -1628. It was styled the _Colony of Massachusetts bay_, the territory -of which had been purchased by the Plymouth company--by Sir Henry -Roswell, Sir John Young, and several others. The patent included all -that part of New England lying between three miles to the northward -of Merrimack river, and three miles to the southward of Charles river, -extending in length from the Atlantic ocean to the South sea. The -leader of the expedition was Mr. John Endicot, whose character may be -summed up by saying, that he was a fit person to found that noble -commonwealth. He came with one hundred emigrants, and was appointed -governor of the colony. Mr. White, an eminent minister, was one of the -company. Three years previously, a small company of adventurers had -emigrated to a place in the Massachusetts bay, afterwards called Mount -Wollaston, after the name of their leader; but, having no religious -object in view, they fell into shameful irregularities. Upon the -arrival of Endicot, however, a check was put on these proceedings, and -their leader, Morton, was finally sent to England. These pious -non-conformists under Endicot, like the Plymouth colonists, sought a -refuge from oppression in their religious concerns, and desired to -build up a community on the true principles of Christianity. They -located themselves at Numkeag, (Salem,) where the first permanent town -in Massachusetts was constituted. In the following year, they were -joined by about two hundred others from England, making in the whole -three hundred; of which number one hundred removed the same year, and -settled themselves, with the consent of Governor Endicot, at Mishawam, -now Charlestown. At this period, on the petition of the Massachusetts -company, King Charles by charter confirmed the patent of the -Massachusetts colony. By this instrument, they were empowered to elect -a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assistants, out of the -freemen of said company, by the greater part of the company. The first -governor, under this renewed charter, was Matthew Cradock. The company -being desirous of establishing their plantation in the order of the -Gospel, engaged two eminent divines, Mr. Higginson and Mr. Skelton, to -go out for the spiritual service of the colony. Soon after their -arrival at Salem, they were placed over the church there with all due -solemnity, the one as teacher, the other as pastor. These excellent -men, however, lived but a short period, sharing largely, as they did, -in the sickness and suffering that diminished the strength and -shortened the lives of a large number of their people. - -[Illustration: Boston founded.] - -Among the many persons of distinction who left England the ensuing -year, on account of the stringent measures of the government in regard -to affairs both of church and state, are found the names of Isaac -Johnson, John Winthrop, Thomas Dudley, and Sir Richard Saltonstall. -These gentlemen, by their persuasions, were the means of having the -charter and government of the company transferred to New England. They -left with fifteen hundred other persons, in a fleet of seventeen sail, -Winthrop having been chosen governor under the new order of things. -They arrived in safety, eleven ships at one time, and six at another; -and before the conclusion of the season, commenced settlements in -several places; which, at present, constitute some of the fairest -towns of New England. Governor Winthrop, and a portion of the company, -laid the foundation of Boston. Several most highly esteemed ministers -accompanied the expedition just spoken of; Mr. Wilson, Mr. Warham, and -others. These were placed over the several churches that soon began to -be formed in this vicinity. The first general court of Massachusetts, -was held in Boston this year, on the 19th of October, at which time -many of the planters attended, and were made freemen of the colony. -The winters of 1630 and 1631, were very fatal to the Massachusetts -colony. Frost and sickness carried off a number, and famine at length -threatened the suffering survivors. They were, however, providentially -relieved by the arrival of a ship from England with provisions, the -day previously to a public fast, which had been appointed on account -of the alarming state of things. This circumstance turned the intended -fast into a general thanksgiving. The colony continued to increase by -fresh accessions of emigrants till the year 1640, up to which time, it -is computed that four thousand families had arrived in New England. -From this small beginning have arisen the population, power, wealth, -piety, and freedom of the New England states. - -In the year 1633, the Plymouth colony suffered from a pestilential -disease, which not only thinned their number, but, extending to the -neighboring territory, swept off many of the Indians. In the same -year, arrived those lights of the New England church, Mr. John Cotton, -Mr. Thomas Hooker, and Mr. Samuel Stone, and that model of a -magistrate, Mr. William Collier, whose services, to the Plymouth -colony, were so considerable. Generally, the emigrants of this period -were actuated by the same spirit of opposition to tyranny in church -and state, and of love to the institutions of Christianity, which had -characterized their predecessors. The men placed at the head of the -new colonies were, universally, men of sterling worth of character. - -The first settlers of CONNECTICUT came from the eastern shore of -Massachusetts. They were a portion of the emigrants who constituted -the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts bay. The emigration from -England continuing to be large, and likely to increase from year to -year, more room was wanted, and especially locations where the soil -was rich and could be easily cultivated, became an object of desire. -This consideration, and, probably, others pertaining to their -tranquillity and increase as churches, had influence on the resolution -to seat themselves again in the wilderness. It had happened, as early -as the year 1631, that their attention was directed to the beautiful -and rich tract of land, on the Connecticut river, by Wahcuimacut, a -sachem living upon the river. He made a journey to Plymouth and -Boston, with a view to enlist the governors of those colonies in the -project of making settlements in his country. The proposition was not -formally accepted, but the governor of Plymouth was sufficiently -interested in it to make a voyage to the coast, in which excursion he -discovered the river and the adjacent territory; thus precluding the -title of the Dutch to any part of it, as they had neither -"trading-house, nor any pretence to a foot of land there."[11] The -subject of settling Connecticut was not lost sight of during one or -two subsequent years; but, occasionally, vessels were sent from -Plymouth to the river, for the purposes of trade, and, in one -instance, several men, from Dorchester, traveled through the -wilderness thither for the same object, as also to view the country. - -[Illustration: The Settlers emigrating to Connecticut.] - -In 1633, when the Plymouth colony had determined to commence the work -of settlement, they commissioned William Holmes, and a chosen company -with him, to proceed to Connecticut. They took with them the frame of -a house, which they set up in Windsor. They achieved their object, -notwithstanding the threatened opposition of the Dutch at Hartford, -where the latter, after learning that the Plymouth people intended to -settle on the river, had erected a slight fort. The Plymouth people, -also, were successful in defending their trading-house subsequently, -both against the Dutch and the Indians. The Dutch erected a -trading-house at Hartford the same year, the house at Windsor having -preceded it, perhaps, by a few months. The actual settlement of the -region, however, was deferred for a time, from the fact of divided -opinions on the subject in the Massachusetts court. No vote could be -obtained in favor of the project. In the mean time, individuals were -determined to prosecute the enterprise, and a number of the people of -Watertown came, in 1634, to Connecticut. They erected a few huts at -Pyquag (Wethersfield), in which they contrived to pass the winter. In -the spring of 1635, the general court of Massachusetts bay assented to -the plan of emigration to Connecticut, and, accordingly, preparations -were made in several places. The Watertown people gradually removed, -and added to their settlement at Wethersfield. Mr. Warham, one of the -ministers of Dorchester, accompanied by a great part of the church, -settled at Mattaneang (Windsor). A company from Newtown began a -plantation, between those two settlements, at Suchiang (Hartford). In -the course of the year, a large body of settlers, sixty in number, -came together--men, women, and children, with their horses, cattle, -and swine. It being somewhat late in the season, and their journey -proving to be long and difficult, winter came upon them before they -were prepared. They were but indifferently sheltered, and their food -was scanty--a large portion of their furniture and provisions, having -been put on board of several small vessels, never reached them. The -vessels were lost, and some lives with them. A part of their domestic -animals they were obliged to leave on the other side of the river. -Famine and its fearful effects were now to be encountered. It was -impossible for all to stay where they were. Some, attempted to return -to the east through the wilderness; others, went down to the mouth of -the river, in order to meet their provisions, and, being disappointed, -were obliged, finally, to embark on board of a vessel for Boston. In -both instances they suffered greatly, but were providentially -preserved to arrive at their former home. The portion of the settlers -who remained were subjected to much distress. The resources of hunting -and food from the Indians being exhausted, they had recourse to -acorns, malt, and grains for subsistence. Large numbers of their -cattle perished. Their condition was indeed most trying and perilous, -in their solitude and separation from others, at the mercy alike of -the elements of nature, and the power of savage foes. But their God, -in whom they trusted, carried them through in safety. - -The Connecticut planters held courts of their own, though they were -settled under the general government of the Massachusetts. These -courts consisted of two principal men from each town, joined sometimes -by committees of three additional persons, as occasion might require. -The first court was held at Hartford, April 26th, 1636. At this season -of the year, both those who had left Connecticut in the winter and -many others proceeded to take up their residence on the river. At -length, about the beginning of June, a company of an hundred men, -women, and children, under Messrs. Hooker and Stone, took their -departure from Cambridge, and traveled to Hartford through the -pathless wilderness that lay between the two places. Over mountains, -through ravines, swamps, thickets, and rivers, they made their way, -submitting to incredible fatigue and many privations. These trials, to -a portion of the new comers, must have been peculiarly severe, as they -were a class of society who, having enjoyed all the comforts and -elegancies of life, knew little of hardship and danger. - -The year preceding, a fort was erected at the mouth of the river, -called Saybrook fort, in honor of Lords Say and Brooks, to whom, with -several others, a commission had been given to begin a plantation at -Connecticut. This was effected under the auspices of John Winthrop, a -son of the governor of Massachusetts. Winthrop's commission interfered -with the settlement commenced by the Massachusetts colonists, but the -latter were left in the quiet enjoyment of their possessions. The -number of persons in the three towns of Hartford, Windsor, and -Wethersfield, was about eight hundred at the close of the year 1636. - -The succeeding year was signalized for the critical condition of the -settlement. There was a great want of provisions and of the implements -of husbandry, and every article bore a high price. The year was also -filled with the incidents of warfare. In the feebleness of its -infancy, the little colony was called to contend with one of the most -warlike tribes of Indians that ever inhabited New England. And never -were heroism and fortitude displayed in a more marked degree, or -animated by a loftier spirit of patriotism and piety. The particulars -need not be here rehearsed. Suffice it to say, they completely -triumphed over their savage foe, the Pequots, under their brave -leader, Captain John Mason. They went forth to battle, under the -sanction and rites of religion, to save themselves, their wives, and -children, and the Church of Christ in the wilderness, from utter -extinction. The holy ardor of Hooker, in his incomparable address to -the soldiers, filled their minds with an unwavering confidence in God. -Seventy-seven brave men saved Connecticut, and destroyed the most -terrible Indian nation in New England. - -[Illustration: Hooker addressing the Soldiers.] - -This necessity of warfare they would gladly have avoided, for the -condition of the settlement required all their energies and efforts at -home. They could neither hunt, fish, nor cultivate their fields, nor -travel the shortest distance, while an insidious and cruel foe was -hovering around them. They felt that he must be crippled or destroyed, -or that their entire settlement would be cut off by piecemeal. The -natives embraced every opportunity of committing depredations on the -lives and property of the whites. A picture of the kind of life which -was passed in those times of savage treachery and English daring, is -given in the following detail of incidents, which occurred on the -water immediately previous to the Pequot war: - -[Illustration: Gallop finds Oldham murdered.] - -"John Oldham, who had been fairly trading at Connecticut, was murdered -near Block island. He had with him only two boys and two Narraganset -Indians. These were taken and carried off. One John Gallop, as he was -going from Connecticut to Boston, discovered Mr. Oldham's vessel full -of Indians, and he saw a canoe full of Indians on board, go from her -laden with goods. Suspecting that they had murdered Mr. Oldham, he -hailed them, but received no answer. Gallop was a bold man, and though -he had with him but one man and two boys, he immediately bore down -upon them, and fired duck-shot so thick among them, that he soon -cleared the deck. The Indians all got under the hatches. He then stood -off; and, running down upon her quarter with a brisk gale, nearly -overset them, and so frighted the Indians, that six of them leaped -into the sea, and were drowned. He then steered off again; and, -running down upon her a second time, bored her with his anchor, and -raked her fore and aft with his shot. But the Indians kept themselves -so close, he got loose from her; and, running down a third time upon -the vessel, he gave her such a shock, that five more leaped overboard, -and perished, as the former had done. He then boarded the vessel, and -took two of the Indians, and bound them. Two or three others, armed -with swords, in a little room below, could not be driven from their -retreat. Mr. Oldham's corse was found on board, the head split and -the body mangled in a barbarous manner. He was a Dorchester man, one -of Mr. Warham's congregation. In these circumstances, Gallop, fearing -that the Indians whom he had taken might get loose, especially if they -were kept together, and having no place where he could keep them -apart, threw one of them overboard. Gallop and his company then, as -decently as circumstances would permit, put the corse into the sea. -They stripped the vessel, and took the rigging and the goods which had -not been carried off on board their own. She was taken in tow, with a -view to carry her in; but the night coming on and the wind rising, -Gallop was obliged to let her go adrift, and she was lost." - -At the termination of the Pequot war, there was a great scarcity of -provisions in Connecticut, and fearful apprehensions were felt on the -part of the settlers. With all their efforts, they had not been able -to raise a sufficiency of provisions, and these became at length very -costly. Corn rose to the extraordinary price of twelve shillings by -the bushel. The debt contracted by the war was paid with difficulty. -Nothing saved the colony from a famine but a providential supply of -corn, which they were enabled to purchase from the natives, at an -Indian settlement called Pocomptock (Deerfield). - -The first constitution of Connecticut was adopted January 15, 1639, by -the free planters of the three towns of Windsor, Hartford, and -Wethersfield, who convened at Hartford for the purpose. It was an -admirably contrived instrument, providing for the freedom and -liberties of themselves and their posterity. Some fifty years ago, -Doctor Trumbull remarked, respecting it, that it was "one of the most -free and happy institutions of civil government which has ever been -formed. The formation of it at so early a period, when the light of -liberty was wholly darkened in most parts of the earth, and the rights -of men so little understood in others, does great honor to their -ability, integrity, and love to mankind. To posterity, indeed, it -exhibited a most benevolent regard. It has continued with little -alteration to the present time." - -The NEW HAVEN colony was settled in the spirit that influenced the -comers to the other parts of New England, and eminently so. The -establishment of the Church of God on its true basis, and the -enjoyment of civil and religious liberty, was the object of the -emigrants; and they proceeded to secure the fair inheritance by the -wisest counsels and the most efficient action. The company who first -constituted the settlement, was a rare assemblage of choice spirits. -Among them were John Davenport, a distinguished minister in London, -and Theophilus Eaton and Edward Hopkins, wealthy merchants of the same -city, and eminent for their abilities and integrity. They with their -associates arrived at Boston in the summer of 1637, and would have -been gladly retained in the Massachusetts colony, had they consented. -Strong inducements were held out to them to fix their residence there, -but they wanted more room than they could find in the vicinity of -Boston for themselves and the large number of friends whom they -expected to follow them. Their principal reason, however, for -migrating elsewhere, as suggested by the historian of Connecticut, was -probably "the desire of being at the head of a new government, -modeled, both in civil and religious matters, agreeably to their own -apprehensions. It had been an observation of Mr. Davenport, that -whenever a reformation had been effected in the church, in any part of -the world, it had rested where it had been left by the reformers: it -could not be advanced another step. He was embarked in a design of -forming a civil and religious constitution, as near as possible to -scripture precept and example." Their strict views, it seems, could -not be fully met elsewhere. - -Mr. Davenport and his company, on the 30th of March, 1638, sailed from -Boston to Quinnipiac (New Haven), and arrived at the desired spot at -about the middle of April. A portion of their company, with Eaton at -their head, had made a journey to Connecticut during the preceding -autumn, to explore the lands and harbors on the sea-coast; and having -fixed upon Quinnipiac as the best place for a settlement, erected a hut -there, in which a few men passed the winter. The first Sabbath which Mr. -Davenport spent in the wilderness, was on the 18th of April, 1638, when -he preached a discourse on the _Temptations of the Wilderness_. In a -short time, at the close of a day of fasting and prayer, they entered -into what they called a plantation covenant, in which they solemnly -engaged, in their civil ordinances as well as religion, they would be -governed by the rules of scripture. At different times, and in separate -contracts, they purchased their lands of the Indians, by the payment of -such articles as were satisfactory to the latter. As the New Haven -adventurers were the most opulent company which came into New England, -they were disposed and able to lay the foundation of a first-rate -colony--the proofs of which are visible, in part, in the elegant city -which became its capital. The foundations of the civil and religious -polity of the colony were laid on the 4th of June, 1639, with every due -solemnity. The act was not consummated until the 25th of October of the -same year, as a term of trial was required for the seven men who were to -constitute the seven pillars of the church. The number of subscribers to -the compact, on the 4th of June, was sixty-three; to which there were -soon after added about fifty other names. This colony enjoyed great -comparative order and tranquillity, as well from the extreme care with -which it was constituted at the beginning, the superior wealth and -character of its founders, and their wise and prudent intercourse with -their neighbors, the Indians. - -The New Haven colony was distinguished among the sister-colonies for its -zeal in behalf of education, for its great strictness in the -administration of the laws, for its scrupulous justice towards the -Indians, and for the absence of a frivolous or extravagant legislation, -which in some instances had been thought to characterize the other -colonies.[12] The colony, however, was not exempt from occasional -providential calamities, particularly in its commercial pursuits. For a -period, the colonists did not succeed in their principal secular object. -Their plans may not have been the most judicious; but their greatest -misfortune in this concern was the loss of a large ship, which contained -a valuable cargo of about five thousand pounds. The ship, with its -precious burden, and more precious navigators, was never heard of more -after it left the harbor. Several other settlements in the vicinity were -nearly coëval with that of New Haven. Milford and Guilford were settled -in 1639, as also Stratford and Fairfield the same year; Stamford in -1641, and soon after the town of Brandford. - -[Illustration: Portsmouth founded.] - -A settlement, at an early period, was made in NEW HAMPSHIRE, but it -did not, until some time afterwards, constitute a distinct colony. In -the spring of the year 1623, two members of the council of Plymouth -(Gorges and Mason) having obtained a grant of a tract of country, sent -over a few persons for the purpose of establishing a colony and -fishing at the river Piscataqua. This was the beginning of the town of -Portsmouth; but, for several years, together with the town of Dover, -which had a fish-house erected about the same time, it was a small and -scarcely permanent settlement. In 1629, some of the settlers about the -Massachusetts bay, purchased a tract of country of the Indians, with a -view to unite with the settlement at Piscataqua. After this purchase, -the latter settlement was favored with a small increase; but no other -settlements were made till the year 1638, when the towns of Exeter and -Hampton commenced. Exeter was settled by people chiefly from Boston, -who had been regularly dismissed from their church relations, and were -constituted at once into a church in their new locality. Like the -settlers of the other New England colonies, those of New Hampshire -were desirous of enjoying the ministrations and ordinances of the -Gospel, and were able to obtain excellent ministers. - -These several plantations continued, for many years, to live on good -terms with the natives, and were generally well supplied with -provisions, in consequence of their advantages for fishery. They -constituted distinct civil communities, after the most perfect model of -freedom, but were unable to preserve their peculiar organization, on -account of the intrusion of disaffected individuals, from the colonies -of Massachusetts and Plymouth, and the constant influx of other -emigrants. They were too weak thus to stand alone, and, after suitable -negociations on the subject, they came under the jurisdiction of -Massachusetts, in 1641, on the condition of enjoying equal privileges -with the people of that colony, and having a court of justice maintained -among themselves. This union continued nearly forty years, and was -followed by the greater increase and security of the colony.[13] - -The rise of the colony of RHODE ISLAND commenced in the expulsion of -Roger Williams from Massachusetts. He was a minister of the Gospel at -Salem; but, holding tenets that were obnoxious to the people there, and -being unwilling to renounce them, after friendly remonstrance and -dealing, he was ordered to quit the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. He -accordingly took his exile thence, and traveling, with his few -followers, as far as the present town of Rehoboth, he sat down there; -but, being within the jurisdiction of Plymouth, Governor Winslow, out of -courtesy to the government of Massachusetts, desired Mr. Williams to -leave that place. The latter, then crossing the Pawtucket river, came to -the spot which, in acknowledgment of God's merciful providence to him in -his distress, he called 'Providence.' He purchased the lands of his -plantation of the Indian owners, became the father of the colony, and, -for a period, appeared to have combined, in his person, the principal -powers of government. Times of scarcity occurred in the Providence -plantation, as in most of the other colonies in North America, and the -followers of Mr. Williams were saved from famine only by the products of -their forests and rivers. No personal resentment seems to have arisen -between Mr. Williams and Governor Winthrop, from the proceedings which -led to the founding of the new settlement. All the several colonies -remained at peace, and cultivated friendship with each other. - -The religious difficulties in Massachusetts, arising out of the case -of the fanatical Mrs. Hutchinson, were the occasion of the origin of -the Rhode Island plantation, south of Providence. Several gentlemen -differed in principle from the prevailing belief of the churches, and -chose to leave the colony. Among them were William Coddington, John -Clark, and others, who came to Providence in search of a place where -they might enjoy their own sentiments unmolested. Through the -assistance of Mr. Williams, they purchased Aquetnec of the Indian -sachems. The adventurers, eighteen in number, incorporated themselves -into a body politic, and chose Mr. Coddington to be their judge, or -chief magistrate. The character of the climate and soil, soon brought -many adventurers to their settlement. The territory was RHODE ISLAND, -according to its subsequent name. The two settlements of Mr. Williams -and Mr. Coddington, being destitute of any charter from the -mother-country, the former went to England with a view to procure one. -He succeeded in the object, and returned with a liberal charter of -incorporation of Providence and Rhode Island plantations. - -The district, now state, of MAINE, though the first permanent -settlement commenced in 1630, was for a long time in an unhappy -condition, from the number and hostility of the Indians within its -borders. The early settlers, after the death of their proprietary, Sir -Fernando Gorges, formed some kind of voluntary compacts, and chose -their own rulers; but the difficulties under which they labored -induced them, in 1650, to unite with the government of Massachusetts, -and to become an integral part of that colony. Their civil and -religious institutions generally resembled those of the other colonies -of New England. In the first settlements, churches were early -established, which enjoyed the labors of some of the worthiest -ministers of their time.[14] - -A project of great importance was consummated, in 1643, in the _union_ -formed by the New England colonists. It had been proposed, by the -colonies of Connecticut and New Haven, as early as 1638, but was not -brought to a conclusion until five years after. The confederacy -consisted of Massachusetts, New Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. -The plan of it evidently reminds one of the great confederacy, -afterwards formed between the thirteen United States, with similar -provisions and principles. It was a powerful means of defence, and of -the subsequent strength and prosperity of the colonies. It maintained -their internal peace, awed the savage tribes, and caused their -neighbors, the Dutch, and the French in Canada, to respect them. By -the articles of confederation, they entered into a firm and perpetual -league of friendship and amity, for offence and defence, mutual advice -and assistance upon all just occasions, both for preserving and -propagating the truth and liberties of the Gospel, and for their own -mutual safety and welfare. Each colony was to continue its separate -organization, as to courts and laws, but to be considered as one, in -regard to their public transactions. This union subsisted, with some -alterations, more than forty years, and was dissolved when the -charters of all the colonies were rescinded by James II. It was known -under the style of _The United Colonies of New England_. - -The state of VERMONT was not settled until long after the other New -England states. It was as late as the year 1724, before any settlement -was made in that territory. This was on a spot, within the present -town of Brattleborough, where, at the same time, during a severe -Indian war, the government of Massachusetts had erected a fort. It was -then supposed that the settlement was within the limits of that state, -but it afterwards appeared not to be the case. Subsequently it was -believed that the territory belonged to New Hampshire. Grants were -accordingly made from time to time, by the latter colony, of tracts -within the territory of Vermont. As it was the scene of warfare, -during the middle part of the century, the country became well known -to many individuals, and not a few openings were made in the -wilderness, towards the cessation of hostilities, on the northern -borders. During the revolutionary war, the Green-mountain Boys, as -they were familiarly called, distinguished themselves by their -bravery, and rendered important service to the cause. In 1777, the -inhabitants constituted themselves an independent state. As Vermont -was settled mostly by emigrants from Connecticut, the character of the -people was similar to that of the inhabitants of the latter state, and -of New England in general. They were careful to establish their civil -and religious institutions in accordance with those of the -sister-states, and have been highly distinguished by their stability -in the principles and usages of the fathers. - -The _character_ of the early settlers of New England deserves a -distinct notice, beyond that which has incidentally appeared in -narrating the history of their achievements. A brief sketch can only -be presented, and scarcely commensurate with the importance of the -topic; but it is all that the limits of this work will admit. The -greatness of the results, though affected extensively by the direct -providence of God, manifests the peculiarity of the dispositions and -motives of the agents who were concerned in producing them. - -The planters of New England were men of whom their descendants need -not be ashamed. So far as the pride of ancestry may be lawfully -indulged, New Englanders, of the present race, may indulge it to the -full, in view of the character and deeds of their forefathers. They -were _inferior_ men in _no sense of the word_, however apt we may be -to connect the idea of adventurers with that of a roving, restless, -dissipated, loose-living class of men, loving savage nature, or -freedom from the restraints of civilized life. They became -adventurers, not from love of adventure, but from high and noble -impulses--the impulses of religion. To advance that precious interest -was, indeed, their commanding object. This was indicated by their -circumstances and manner of life in Holland before they removed -thence, and by the desire they felt to leave that country. Could their -favorite views, in respect to religion, have been carried out there, -they would, probably, never have come to this western wilderness. -Their declarations and professions, through their leading men, also -show that the establishment and enjoyment of a free Gospel was their -great object. Their laws and institutions, moreover, evince that this -was their principal concern, in connection with the diffusion of -education and knowledge. These all had reference, more or less -directly, to the moral and religious welfare of the community. The -cause of God and righteousness was guarded by the wisest and most -decided legal provisions. The concurrent declarations of all the early -writers among them, likewise indicate the spirit and purposes which -distinguished the fathers of New England above, perhaps, all other -settlers of new countries, in proposing and carrying forward the -interests of religion. Indeed, no object but religion and its -enjoyment, could have borne them through their almost unprecedented -trials and privations. To these they voluntarily submitted, on account -of their religion. They were not otherwise compelled to leave their -native land and the homes of their childhood--the seats of ease and -plenty. To hardships, of any kind, many of them had never been exposed -before; but the love of God's word, and freedom of worship, according -to the light of their own minds, were motives, with them, sufficient -to brave every peril and earthly woe. - -They were not inferior men, in respect to their _civil standing in the -community_. They did not proceed, generally, from the lower orders of -society--the poorer artisans and the laborers. They belonged, mostly, -to the middle and respectable ranks of English society. A few were -classed with the higher orders, but not to the same extent as was the -fact with the settlers of Virginia, if we may judge from the list of -names and titles of several emigrants of the different colonies. In -respect to a worldly, chivalrous bearing and spirit of adventure, New -England and Virginia differed--the latter were eminent in this -respect, but never were men more truly brave than the fathers of New -England; in moral courage, they were unrivalled. Like other -adventurers, they manifested their undaunted spirit in relinquishing -their comfortable homes, in braving the dangers of the deep, in -encountering the horrors of a wilderness, in incurring the risk of -famine and pestilence, and in frequently combatting a fierce savage -foe. There were as extraordinary traits of martial heroism displayed -among the pilgrims of New England, when called forth by the necessity -of circumstances, as can be found in the history of any of the -American colonists, though this was not a characteristic in which they -gloried. The exploits of Miles Standish, of Plymouth, and John Mason, -of Connecticut, might be ranked among the most striking exhibitions -of courage on record. Of Standish, it is remarked, by an old -historian, that "he was allied to the noble house of Standish, in -Lancashire, and inherited some of the virtues of that honorable -family, as well as the name." But the high bearing and courage of the -planters was eminently of a moral kind. Unlike their Virginian -neighbors, they suffered no misrule in their settlements. If any -threatened for a time, they promptly put it down. Their courage was -seen in resisting evil among themselves. They feared not to put their -laws into execution. They were characterized by a healthful, vigorous -public spirit, consenting to sacrifice their own individual interest -for the general good. They thus manifested a noble nature, the product -of principle, if not of birth. - -The fathers of New England were not _ignorant_ men, and unversed in the -concerns of the world. Their clergymen and leading men in civil life, -were among the ripe scholars of the age. They had been educated at the -English universities, and numbers of them had occupied important -stations in church and state. As authors and men of influence, in their -native land, they could not have sunk their high character by -emigration; and though in a wilderness, and under the pressure of mighty -cares, they could not so advantageously pursue their studies as in the -shades of academic retirement, they still did not neglect to add to -their intellectual stores. In several instances, they brought large and -valuable libraries with them. The writings of Colton, Hooker, Davenport, -Winthrop, Bradford, Prince, and others, show that they were eminently -men of mind and masters of language--that they were well versed in the -science and literature which adorned the age; and their universal -learning, sanctified by grace, we know, was devoted to the most noble -and beneficent purposes. There were among the merchants and men of -business, who had figured in the world's affairs before they came to -these solitudes--men of large experience and cultivated taste, not -wanting in any accomplishment deemed essential in refined and honorable -society. The mass of the people, who came over to this country as its -settlers, must evidently, from the nature of the case, have been of that -thinking, intellectual, practical class, who understood their rights and -duties as human beings, as also the principles of government; and could -not, therefore, with their good sense and honesty, submit to the -exactions and wrongs of tyranny. This, of all others, is the most -valuable body of the community. - -The estimate which the fathers placed upon education, is seen in the -immediate establishment of literary institutions, both of the higher -and lower grades. Scarcely had the venerable men felled the trees of -the forest, than they erected the common school-house, the academy, -and the college. In the midst of their untold personal pressing cares -and troubles, they exercised a far-reaching sagacity and benevolent -regard towards the common good, and towards posterity, in laying -broadly the foundations of order, intelligence, and virtue. They -conceived the highest idea of the importance of sound education to -their rising republic. They wisely judged that solid learning and true -religion were the firmest pillars of the commonwealth and of the -church. Within ten years from the settlement of Massachusetts, a -college, with good endowments, was founded for the use of the colony. - -The planters of New England were not _poor_ men--needy adventurers. -Had they been such, whence could the funds have been derived that were -necessary to sustain the enterprise? It is evident that large sums of -money were expended in the transportation of themselves, their cattle, -and their effects to this country, and in their various removals when -here, as well as in the continued sustentation of their families in -times of scarcity and famine. These we know, from their history, were -of frequent occurrence. Governors Winthrop, Haynes, Eaton, and -Hopkins, were men of wealth; so also were Mr. Johnson, Mr. Colton, and -Mr. Hooker--the last two uncommonly rich for ministers. Mr. Johnson -was reputed to be the wealthiest of all the original emigrants. The -mass of the early comers must also have possessed no inconsiderable -means, to enable them to bear the heavy expenses of their voyage and -settlement. With such a basis of property, it is not a matter of -surprise that, notwithstanding the drain and exhaustion of the few -first years, they should have increased greatly in their worldly -substance in the end, inasmuch as they settled on a virgin soil, -possessed abundance of land, and carried on a lucrative trade in the -products of the country. Their habits of sobriety and industry were -essentially favorable to their advancement in wealth. - -The New England planters were not _wanting in any moral virtues_, -_piety_, _wisdom_, _or magnanimity_. There never lived on earth, if we -may credit history, a more disinterested, upright, conscientious, -prudent, and holy body of men. Their souls were imbued with the -loftiest principles of patriotism and piety. They gave undoubted -proofs of the possession of this spirit in their exertions, toils, and -sacrifices for the best welfare of their descendants and the cause of -Christianity--in their spirituality, prayerfulness, purity, and -well-ordered lives. They wished, above all things, to serve God and to -do good--to transmit to posterity a pure church and free form of -government. They received the Word of God as their sole guide in -religious concerns and moral conduct--they regulated their individual -life, their families, their local societies, their churches, and their -state, by its rules, so far as the latter could be consistently -applied. They were sound in the faith, receiving the doctrines of -grace as the real system of divine truth--were strict in preserving -the order and carrying out the discipline of the churches--and were -rigid in the administration of law and justice. Their zeal and -liberality in supporting the institutions of the Gospel among -themselves, and in efforts to Christianize the Indians, were marked -traits in their character. They considered it one of the great objects -of their mission to this continent, to become the means of the -salvation of its aboriginal inhabitants, and thus to extend Christ's -kingdom in the world. In a most commendable degree, they carried their -religion into the various every-day concerns of life, and consulted, -especially on every occasion of interest and importance, the -particular guidance and blessing of God. - -Such was the character of New England's fathers: they were not perfect -men; they did not claim for themselves the attributes of perfection; -neither can others, their warmest panegyrists, claim it for them with -any consistency. They had their errors--the errors of the age. All -darkness had not passed away from their understandings, nor all -obliquity from their hearts. There was an austerity, a preciseness in -some points, an unaccommodating temper, which perhaps is not well suited -to all times, or every state of society, but which better agreed with -their circumstances as the founders of a nation, and as an example for -others to follow. In the natural course of imitation from age to age, -there will be apt to be a feebler resemblance of the original; so that -where the conduct in the beginning was over-strict, in the lapse of -years it will be apt to fall quite too far below the true standard of -virtue. The founders of a nation, if they fail at all in firmness of -temper or rigidness of discipline, will be very apt to bring on the -sooner a dissolute state of the body politic. Our fathers, on this -account, were not so much at fault as many suppose. They were fitted, by -the guidance and grace of God, for the times in which they lived--for -the work which they were called to perform. If some few spots or shades -could have been effaced from their characters, they would have been -still more fitting instruments of good to the Church and to posterity; -but as the case is, no other founders of an empire probably ever -possessed so large a portion of wisdom and goodness. - -In respect to charges made against the fathers of New England, -pertaining to superstition, enthusiasm, injustice towards the Indians, -treatment of supposed witches, bigotry, persecution, and the -incorporation of church and state, they are capable of a satisfactory -refutation in all the material points, and have often received that -refutation. While something, however, is to be laid to human -imperfection in their case, yet, even in these matters, more is due to -the grace of God, which preserved them so comparatively free from -evils to which their natural dispositions, or their circumstances, -might be supposed to lead them. - -It was indeed a new order of things which was introduced by the -pilgrim fathers, in their removal to America. The Mayflower came to -these shores freighted with great moral principles, as well as with a -precious cargo of godly men and women. Of those principles, some were -the following, viz: The right of private judgment in the examination -of divine truth, is to be held sacred--Conscience, enlightened by the -Word of God, is a sufficient guide as to truth and duty--a majority -governs in church and state--universal education is the basis of free -government--the observation of the Sabbath is a moral virtue, and -essential to the safety of a people. From these principles, others -have been deduced; or to them others, of scarcely less importance, -have been added in more recent times. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] Holmes' Annals. - -[7] New England Memorial, by Nathaniel Morton. - -[8] New England Memorial. - -[9] New England's Memorial--Appendix. - -[10] Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrims. - -[11] Trumbull's History of Connecticut. - -[12] Bacon's Historical Discourses. - -[13] T. Robbins. - -[14] T. Robbins. - - - - - III. MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN SETTLEMENTS.[15] - - - NEW YORK--New Jersey--Delaware--Maryland--North Carolina--South - Carolina--Georgia--Pennsylvania. - -The settlement of the state of NEW YORK commenced in 1613, so far as -the erection of a fort, near the present city of Albany, and a few -trading-houses on the island of Manhattan (New York), may be said to -constitute a settlement. The Dutch founded their claim to the soil -from the discovery of the Hudson by an Englishman of that name, who -was then in the employ of the Dutch; but the British king disputed the -claim, from the fact of the previous discovery of the country by the -Cabots. The Dutch were forced, for a short time, to yield to the -demands of the English; but, the colony having increased in the course -of a year, the English were required, in their turn, to yield their -authority to the original occupants. For a series of years, the latter -continued in peaceful possession, and, by characteristic toil and -perseverance, secured the blessings of a growing settlement. - -The territory on both sides of the Hudson, occupied by the settlers, -was called New Netherlands. In defence of their colony, in 1623, they -built several forts, one on the east side of Delaware bay, which they -named Nassau, and another, one hundred and fifty miles up the river, -which they called Aurania. At the mouth of the river they built a -town, to which they gave the name of New Amsterdam, afterwards New -York. Near fort Nassau, the Swedes had a settlement, and, from the -interfering claims of the two people, quarrels arose, which in a few -years ended in the subjugation of the Swedes. In consequence of the -Dutch claims so far to the eastward, difficulties frequently arose -between them and the Connecticut and New Haven colonies; but these -never amounted to another rupture, and the Dutch were occasionally -assisted in the Indian warfare by their more courageous neighbors. - -At the ascension of Charles II. to the British throne, the province of -New Netherlands passed into the hands of the English. As the king, by a -charter, had conveyed the whole territory to his brother, the Duke of -York and Albany, he undertook to effect his object by force, and -accordingly despatched an armament, under the command of Colonel -Nichols, who was also appointed governor of the province. The exhibition -of force was the means of effecting a treaty of capitulation on the part -of Stuyvesant the Dutch governor. From this time, New Amsterdam and the -whole conquered province received the name of New York, the original -settlers choosing, for the most part, to remain, and being permitted to -adopt many of their own forms of government. - -[Illustration: The Dutch Governor surrendering New Amsterdam.] - -NEW JERSEY was settled by the Dutch, not long after they had fixed -themselves on the Hudson river. The Danes, also, commenced a -settlement at a place to which they gave the name Bergen. This was -about the year 1624. In 1626, a company of Swedes and Finns purchased -land on both sides of Delaware river, and commenced a settlement on -the western bank. The Dutch, however, considering themselves as the -original settlers, laid claim to the country. They had built a fort, -as early as 1623, on the east bank of the South river, as the Delaware -was then called. It was not until the year 1640, that the English made -any attempt to colonize the territory in question, and then they were -resisted and expelled by the Swedes and Dutch. A few years afterwards, -however, the Duke of York granted New Jersey to John, Lord Berkley, -and Sir George Carteret, the territory receiving that name in -compliment to Sir George, who had been governor of the island of -Jersey in the English channel. Carteret soon after arrived at -Elizabethtown, which he made the seat of government. - -The state of DELAWARE was originally settled by the Dutch and Swedes, -the former as early as 1629, having purchased a tract of land near -Cape Henlopen. The enterprise of planting a colony, on the Delaware, -was entrusted to an experienced navigator, De Vriez; and, in 1630, an -association was formed for this purpose, in pursuance of which, a -settlement was made, the next spring, on the west side of the river, -at a place since called Lewiston. The Swedes, also, made considerable -settlements on the same side of the river; but, whether these preceded -that of the Dutch, is considered doubtful, the more recent authorities -leaning rather to the Dutch claim. The Swedes, however, whatever their -pretensions may have been, were conquered by the Dutch, in whose -possession the country remained until the surrender of New York, in -1664. It was immediately after taken possession of, for the Duke of -York, by Sir Robert Carr. A portion of its subsequent history is -included in that of Pennsylvania, as Delaware had not even an -assembly, separate from that of Pennsylvania, for several years. - -Settlements commenced in MARYLAND as early as 1634. Two or three years -previously, Lord Baltimore had visited the colony of Virginia, and, -observing that the Virginians had formed no settlement to the northward -of the river Potomac, he determined to procure a grant of territory in -that region; but he died before the necessary authority by charter, -which Charles had promised, could be given him. The patent, however, was -filled up for his son, Cornelius Calvert, who had then become Lord -Baltimore. The king gave to the new province the name of Maryland, in -honor of his queen, Henrietta Maria. It was originally included in the -patent of the south Virginia company, a circumstance which gave rise, -for a time, to disputes and difficulties between these communities. Lord -Baltimore pursued a wise course in forming his colony. He established a -basis of security to property and of freedom to religion, bestowing, in -absolute fee, fifty acres of land on every emigrant, and allowing -toleration to the various sects of the Christian faith. George Calvert, -the brother of the governor, arrived with the first colony, consisting -of about two hundred Roman Catholics, from England. Calvert, by kindness -and liberality, obtained possession of an Indian town of importance, to -which he gave the name of St. Mary's. Lord Baltimore was constituted the -proprietor of the province; and he and his descendants, with some years -of interruption, continued to enjoy the rights of jurisdiction and -property until the time of the Revolution. Then the people, having -adopted a constitution, refused to admit the claims of the -representatives of Lord Baltimore. - -The charter, embracing what is now NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA, and -GEORGIA, was granted by Charles II., in 1662, to Edward, Earl of -Clarendon; George, Duke of Albemarle; William, Lord Craven, and several -others. This country was called Florida, and claimed by the Spaniards. -The claim, nevertheless, was supposed to be relinquished by the -stipulations of a treaty between Great Britain and Spain, in 1667. The -previous efforts to colonize this portion of the American continent had -been unsuccessful, and grants that had been given to different -individuals were now pronounced by the privy council to be null and -void. A government was organized over the few settlers that were -scattered in different parts, Mr. Drummond having been appointed -governor. The settlers on Albemarle sound were allowed, on certain -conditions, to retain their lands. The proprietors of the Carolinas did -not make serious effort towards adding to the number of the colonists -until 1667. Two ships carried out a number of adventurers, with -provisions, arms, and utensils, necessary for building and cultivation. -Sayle was appointed governor in 1669. In what place he first landed is -uncertain; but not being pleased with his situation, he moved to the -southward, and took possession of a neck of land between Ashley and -Cooper rivers. Here he laid out a town, which, in honor of the British -king, he called Charleston. This was the origin of South Carolina, as -distinguished from North Carolina. The distance between Albemarle and -the new location, induced the proprietors to establish two separate -governments, the settlements on the sound constituting North Carolina. -The early existence of the northern colony is said to have been marked, -in a sad degree, by confusion and misrule, owing mainly to the -exceptionable nature of its fundamental constitutions. - -GEORGIA, though the last of the English colonies established in North -America, may be mentioned here, since it was included in the original -grant with the Carolinas. The charter of Georgia, as a district, was -granted in 1732, and embraced the country on the south of the Carolinas, -between the rivers Savannah and Altamaha, and extended westward from the -heads of these rivers to the South sea. It was given to twenty-one -persons, who were wealthy and influential individuals, as trustees, who -were incorporated for the purpose of settling and establishing the -colony. In pursuance of this design, in 1733, James Oglethorpe embarked -for the province, with one hundred and sixteen persons destined for -settlement. He selected the present site of Savannah, as the most -desirable spot for this object. Here he built a fort, and put the colony -in a proper state of defence, not neglecting, in the mean time, to -cultivate friendly relations with the Indians. Though the objects of the -settlement of Georgia were in a great measure benevolent--as they -contemplated, among other things, an asylum for the poor and wretched in -England and Ireland--yet the hopes of prosperity, entertained by the -trustees, were not a little disappointed. The expenditures necessary for -the support of the colony, became, at length, very onerous. The colony, -also, was disturbed by the hostility of the Spaniards on the south, and -nothing, under Divine Providence, but the wise counsels and determined -valor of General Oglethorpe, saved it from destruction in the early part -of its existence. - -[Illustration: Charles II. signing the Charter of Pennsylvania.] - -The tract of country west of the Delaware was, in 1681, granted to -William Penn, son of the distinguished Admiral Penn, as a reward for -the services of his father. The boundaries of the tract are definitely -given us in the charter, but are too minute to be here specified. The -whole region was afterwards called PENNSYLVANIA, constituting a state -of very large and regular dimensions. The origin of the name is -beautifully and ingeniously accounted for, in a letter written by -William Penn: "This day (January 5, 1681)," says he, "after many -waitings, watchings, solicitings, and disputes in the council, my -country was confirmed to me under the great seal of England, with -large powers and privileges, by the name of Pennsylvania; a name the -king would give it in honor of my father. I chose New Wales, being a -hilly country; and when the secretary, a Welshman, refused to call it -New Wales, I proposed Sylvania, and they added Penn to it, though I -much opposed it, and went to the king to have it struck out. He said -'twas past, and he would take it upon him; nor could twenty guineas -move the under secretary to vary the name; for I feared it would be -looked on as a vanity in me, and not as a respect in the king to my -father, as it really was. Thou mayst communicate my grant to friends, -and expect shortly my proposals. 'Tis a dear and just thing, and my -God, that has given it to me through many difficulties, will, I -believe, bless and make it the seed of a nation. I shall have a tender -care to the government, that it be well laid at first." And it was -_well laid_. The territory was peaceably, and by fair purchase, -procured of the natives, and though difficulties occasionally existed -in the government, which gave the proprietor considerable concern, yet -the colony enjoyed a career of prosperity for several successive -years. The effects of his magnanimity and justice were especially -visible in the early history of the colony. - -Such, as briefly reviewed, is the history of the original settlements -of the _old thirteen United States_. The character of the settlers, as -well as their circumstances, were various. They were from different -nations in the old world, though the great majority were of direct -English descent. But amidst the variety, there is a degree of -uniformity, a similar basis of institutions and principles has -obtained, and they have admirably coalesced in forming and sustaining -one and a general government, amid their several distinct state -organizations--a government admirable for its simplicity, freedom, -exact equipoise, and liberal compromises. The number of states is now -more than doubled, and ere long will probably be three-fold. Through -the Divine blessing, let it be perpetual! - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[15] Except Virginia. - - - - - III.--INDIANS, THEIR TRIBES AND WARS. - - -[Illustration] - - - - - I. INDIAN TRIBES. - - - GENERAL DIVISION--Tribes in the Central and Southern parts of New - England--Tribes in the Northern parts--East of Lake Erie and - south of Lake Ontario--Southern tribes. - -At the period of the settlement of the English colonies in America, -savage tribes of Indians were scattered over the country. In many -respects, they possessed a similar character, usages, and -institutions--a bond of affinity running through their several -communities and tribes. As a race of men, they were distinct from all -the races found in the old world. Their history was unknown, and to -us, in these times, dates no farther back than to the period of -European discovery here. They had, indeed, their traditions; but -these, like the traditions of all other nations, are no farther -entitled to credit than they are confirmed by appearance or probable -conjecture. If the hypothesis be correct of the Asiatic origin of the -Aborigines of America, by the way of Bherings straits, there would -seem to be a probability in the general account given of their -migration towards the east, and of their conquest of a more civilized -race, then occupying the country. Such a race seems to have been once -in existence, judging from the monuments and relics that have been -occasionally found among us. They were called the Allegewi, and their -more rude conquerors styled themselves the Lenape and the Mengwe, or -the Iroquois. These seem chiefly to have divided the country between -them, after they had expelled the Allegewi. The general name of the -Delawares has since been given to the former, and their language, -called by the French, the _Algonquin_. The Iroquois inhabited more the -upper parts of the country, along the lakes and the St. Lawrence. The -Lenape, or Delawares, extended themselves to the south and east. - -When our fathers came to these shores, they found here the descendants -of these savage conquerors. They were entirely uncivilized, having, -probably, undergone no process of civilization, from the time of the -migration of their ancestors to the Mississippi and the Atlantic -slope. As distributed through the various parts of the thirteen -original states, they may be mentioned, as to their confederacies or -tribes, in the following order: - -In the central and southern parts of New England there were five -principal tribes: the Wampanoags or Pokanokets, the Pawtuckets, the -Massachusetts, the Narragansets, and the Pequods. The Pokanokets were -the first known to the English settlers. The territory inhabited by -this tribe, was that which now constitutes the south-eastern part of -Massachusetts and the eastern portion of Rhode Island. To the chief of -this tribe, who was Massasoit, at the time of the English emigration, -other smaller tribes were subject, dwelling principally on the -adjacent islands. His residence, as also afterwards that of Philip his -son, was at Montaup, now Mount Hope, in Bristol, Rhode Island. - -The tribe of Pawtuckets occupied the land upon the Merrimack near its -mouth, as their principal seat, though they extended themselves south -until they came in contact with the Massachusetts. - -The Massachusetts were found about the bay which bears the name of the -tribe. They were bounded by the Pawtuckets on the north, and the -Pokanokets on the south. Their head sachem held under his rule several -smaller tribes, some of which were known by the name of the -Neponsetts, the Nashuas, and the Pocumtucks. The acknowledged -sovereign of the confederacy, at the time of the English settlement, -was the widow of a powerful chief, styled sometimes the -"Massachusett's queen." They were situated in a delightful region, -where now stands the metropolis of New England, with its cluster of -noble towns in the vicinity. - -The tribe of the Narragansets held their chief seat on the island of -the Canonicut, in the bay called after their name. Here, also, their -grand sachem resided. They extended west of the Pawcatuck river, where -they came into the neighborhood of the Pequods. The Pokanokets -bordered them on the east. They occupied a beautiful country, and -happily adapted to their mode of life, which was fishing and hunting. -Their disposition was more mild and peaceable than usually appeared in -the Indian character. When the English arrived in that region, they -found there Canonicus, the grand sachem of the tribe, who proved a -benefactor of Rhode Island. - -The tribe of Pequods were seated in the eastern part of Connecticut, -having the Narragansets on their eastern border. They were a fierce -and warlike race. Their grand sachem, Sassacus, resided on the heights -of Groton, near the river called by their name, now the Thames. -Sassacus held the Mohegans subject to his authority. These were a -tribe occupying the place where Norwich now stands. Uncas, the leader -of the latter, joined the whites in their war with the Pequods. These -several tribes, at the period referred to, were singularly diminished -in number and power, on account of a wasting sickness, which had been -sent among them a few years before. - -In the northern portion of New England, roved the Indians whose -general name was that of Tarenteens, or Abenakis. They inhabited the -coast of Maine throughout, and extended into New Hampshire. Their -character was ferocious, and the settlers suffered severely from their -wars, murders, and depredations. Stealing in, at the dead of night, -upon the villages or dwellings, they burned and plundered, -indiscriminately, whatever came in their way--butchering men, women, -and children, without mercy. - -The five tribes, or nations, that spread out east of Lake Erie, and -south of Lake Ontario, were the Iroquois, or Mengwe, who had become thus -divided, in consequence of being pressed by the Hurons, and one or two -other tribes, inhabiting the St. Lawrence. They were called the Senecas, -Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mohawks. They at length became a -powerful race in their new abodes, and not only overcame the Hurons, but -made war upon the Delawares, and were objects of dread far and near. The -most warlike community of the whole was said to be the Mohawks. Their -power and exactions reached east and south, to a great distance. - -The Indians, in the southerly portion of the country, were of course -earlier known to the English, than those already mentioned--this was -true of the tribes at least that inhabited Virginia, of which there -were more than forty in number, in 1607. The nucleus of an entire -confederacy, inhabiting the territory from the sea-coast to the falls -of the rivers, was the Powhatan nation. This confederacy included no -less than thirty tribes, and the number of warriors was estimated at -eight thousand. The chief of the same name, who figures so much in the -history of Virginia, was the great sachem of the confederacy. The seat -of the hereditary dominions was near the present site of the city of -Richmond. Here the noble Pocahontas was born, and passed her early, -uncultivated life. - -The Indians who dwelt on the highlands, between the falls of the rivers -and the mountains, were divided into two confederacies, not long after -the arrival of the English. One division consisted of the Monahoaks, in -the eight tribes, on the north. The other consisted of the Monacans, in -five tribes, stretching on the south into Carolina. The latter went -under the name of Tuscaroras, and connected with the Iroquois. - -Of the Indians in the southern extremity of the country, the principal -confederacies were the Creeks, whose locality was mostly in -Georgia--the Cherokees, who inhabited the mountainous back -country--and the Choctaws and Chickasaws, who dwelt in the region -between the mountains and the Mississippi. Two or three other tribes -occupied particular localities, which need not be indicated.[16] - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[16] Mrs. Willard's Republic of America. - - - - - II. ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. - - - VARIOUS SPECULATIONS ON THE SUBJECT--Opinions of Voltaire--Of Rev. - Thomas Thorowgood--Dr. Boudinot--Roger - Williams--Hubbard--Thomas Morton--John Josselin--Cotton - Mather--Dr. Mitchell--Dr. Swinton. - -Although not in precise accordance with the plan of this work, yet, on -account of the interest which attaches to the subject, we devote a few -pages to an exposition of the various theories advanced in relation to -the _origin_ of the Indian tribes existing at the time the English -settled the country. These theories have been various, according to -the whims or predilections of the authors. Some have seen in them an -original species of the human race, unconnected with any of the -nations or tribes of the old world. Others have fancied their -resemblance to this or the other people, ancient or modern, of the -eastern continent--as Hebrews, Trojans, Tartars, and the like. - -Voltaire, and other skeptical writers, have accounted for their origin, -according to the first-named theory. They have considered the Indian -placed in America by the hand of the Creator, or by nature--just as the -buffalo, or the tortoise, or any other animal, was placed there--or just -as trees and other products of vegetation, that are indigenous to the -soil. Thus they make no account of the apparent scriptural doctrine of -the unity of the human race--the common descent from Adam. - -The identity of the Indian with the Hebrew or the Israelite has been -conjectured by many. Rev. Thomas Thorowgood, an author of the -seventeenth century, held that opinion, and endeavored to prove that -the Indians were the Jews, who had been lost in the world for the -space of near two thousand years. Adair, who claims to have resided -forty years among the southern Indians, published a large quarto upon -their origin, history, &c. He endeavors to prove their identity with -the Jews, by showing the similarity of their customs, usages, and -language to those of the latter. The author of the Star in the West, -Dr. Boudinot, has followed the same thing, and thinks assuredly that -the Indians are the long-lost ten tribes of Israel. - -Roger Williams, at one time, expressed the same opinion. He writes, in -a letter to friends in Salem, that the Indians did not come into -America from the north-east, as some had imagined, for the following -reasons: 1, Their ancestors affirm that they came from the south-west, -and return thence when they die; 2, Because they separate their women, -in a little wigwam by themselves, at _certain seasons_; and 3, Beside -their god Kuttand, to the south-west, they hold that Nanawitnawit (a -God overhead) made the heavens and the earth; and he avers, also, that -he (the writer) had found "some taste of affinity with the Hebrew." - -The similarity of practices, or even of a number of terms in a -language, can, however, be no conclusive proof of sameness of origin. -It may be merely accidental, or in respect to customs more -particularly, may be owing to similarity of circumstances. "Who will -pretend that different people, when placed under similar -circumstances, will not have similar wants, and hence similar actions? -that like wants will not prompt like exertions? and like causes -produce not like effects?" The slight resemblances existing, or -fancied to exist, between the Indians and the Israelites, may be owing -to a cause like the one pointed out. As to the language of the -Indians, Mr. William Wood, an old writer, says: "Some have thought -that they might be of the dispersed Jews, because some of their words -be near unto the Hebrew; but, by the same rule, they may conclude them -to be of the gleanings of all nations, because they have words after -the Greek, Latin, French, and other tongues." - -Hubbard, an American historian, who wrote about 1680, has this among -other passages on the subject: "If any observation be made of their -manners and dispositions, it is easier to say from what nations they -did not, than from whom they did derive their original. Doubtless -their conjecture, who fancy them to be descended from the ten tribes -of the Israelites, carried captive by the Salamaneser and Esarhaddon, -hath the least show of reason of any other, there being no footsteps -to be observed of their propinquity to them more than to any other of -the tribes of the earth, either as to their language or manners." - -Thomas Morton, an early New England historian, refers their origin to -the scattered Trojans, observing, "for after that Brutus, who was the -fourth from Æneas, left Latium, upon the conflict held with the -Latins, where, although he gave them a great overthrow to the -slaughter of their grand captain, and many others of the heroes of -Latium, yet he held it more safely to depart unto some other place and -people, than by staying to run the hazard of an unquiet life or -doubtful conquest; which, as history maketh mention, he performed. -This people was dispersed there is no question, but the people that -lived with him, by reason of their conversation with the Grecians and -Latins, had a mixed language that participated of both." Morton -maintains the great similarity of the languages of the Indians to the -Greek and Roman, as an instance of which, he fancied he heard among -their words Pasco-pan, and hence thinks without doubt their ancestors -were acquainted with the god _Pan_! - -A writer, Mr. John Josselin, who resided some time in New England, -towards the middle part of the seventeenth century, pronounces the -speech of the Mohawks to be a dialect of the Tartars. He says "the -north-east people of America, that is, New England, &c., are judged to -be Tartars, called Samoades, being alike in complexion, shape, habit -and manners." - -That the Indians were Scythians, is an opinion expressed in a decided -manner by Cotton Mather. He was confirmed in it, on meeting with this -passage of Julius Cæsar: "Difficilis invenire quam interficere," -rendered by him, "It is harder to find them than to foil them." Cæsar -was speaking of the Scythians, and the aptness of the language, as -expressing one peculiarity of the Indians in their warfare--their -sudden attacks and retreats--is noticeable. - -Dr. S. L. Mitchell, of New York, a voluminous writer in his day, thought -that he had settled the question of the origin of the Indians. They -came, in his opinion, from the north-east of Asia, and that is now, -perhaps, the more common belief. He thinks that they possessed -originally the same color, as that of the north-eastern nations of Asia. - -Dr. Swinton, author of many parts of the Universal History, after -stating the different opinions of various authors, who have advocated -in favor of "the dispersed people," the Phoenicians and other eastern -nations, observes, "that, therefore, the Americans in general were -descended from a people who inhabited a country not so far distant -from them as Egypt and Phoenicia, one will, as we apprehend, readily -admit. Now, no country can be pitched upon so proper and convenient -for this purpose, as the north-eastern part of Asia, particularly -Great Tartary, Siberia, and more especially the peninsula of -Kamschatka. That probably was the tract through which many Tartarian -colonies passed into America, and peopled the most considerable part -of the new world."[17] - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[17] Book of the Indians. - - - - - III. VIRGINIA INDIAN WARS. - - - EARLY troubles of the English with the Indians--Power and cruelty - of Powhatan--His apparent friendship for the - Colonists--Treacherous conduct--Kindness of - Pocahontas--Inhuman conduct of Lord De la War--Captivity of - Pocahontas--Cruel Massacre of the - Whites--Opecancanough--Troubles with Totopotomoi--Anecdote of - Jack-of-the-feather. - -The intercourse of the colonists in VIRGINIA with the Indians, was not -altogether such as to secure their friendship. Difficulties arose, -which were settled only by a resort to wars and massacres. The earlier -colonists either returned to their native land, were destroyed by -famine, or were cut off by violence. The whole scheme of colonizing -was, at first, a series of mismanagement or misfortune. The earliest -attempt at settlement, under the Captains Amidas and Barlow, in 1684, -was abortive. It is related that the English, after landing on an -island, called by the Indians Wokokon, saw none of the natives until -the third day, when three were observed in a canoe. One of them came -on shore, and the English went to him. He was not at all intimidated, -but spoke much to them, and then went fearlessly on board the vessels. -The whites, after making him some presents, received some food in -return. Wingina, chief of the Indians in that place, never had much -faith in the good intentions of the English, and to him was mainly -attributed the breaking up of the colony. They were disposed to return -home, having made no serious attempt at settlement. - -The next colony which proceeded to Virginia was conducted by Sir -Richard Grenville, in 1685. He had the imprudence to commit an outrage -upon the natives, which occasioned at length the breaking up of the -colony of one hundred and eight men whom he left behind him. He burned -an Indian town, in revenge of a petty theft, which some native -committed upon him. Ralf Lane, who was governor, became justly -chargeable with very reprehensible conduct. He put to death some of -the natives on the most frivolous charges, and it is no wonder that -the animosity of the Indians was aroused, and that the small band of -adventurers were so discomfited as to seek a return to England. - -No attempt to settle Virginia had succeeded up to the year 1607. The -ill-advised schemes of the company or their controversies, and the -suspicions and hatred of the Indians, had defeated every enterprise -hitherto. But one man, Captain Smith, by his sagacity and heroism, at -length accomplished the object. Of his adventures, no particular account -needs to be given here, as these have been narrated in another part of -this work. But his connection with Powhatan affords the occasion of -bringing the latter more especially into view in this place. This chief -is described as being tall and well-proportioned, wearing an aspect of -sadness--exceedingly vigorous, and possessing a body fitted to endure -great hardships. At the time of the settlement of Jamestown, he was -about sixty years of age, and rendered the more majestic by the grayness -of his hair. He inspired the awe of beholders as he was seated on his -wooden form, and adorned with his robe of racoon skins, and his -headdress of various feathers having the appearance of a crown. He -governed many nations, and many of them by the right of conquest. The -place of his residence, at first, was at Powhatan, near the falls of -James river; but, afterwards, when he had extended his conquests north, -it was at a place called Werowocomoco. His dominion included the country -upon James river, from its mouth to the falls, and all its tributary -streams. This was the boundary of his country southerly, and thus across -the territory, "nearly as high as the falls of all the great rivers over -the Potowmack, even to Patuxet in Maryland." - -[Illustration: SMITH SELLING BLUE BEADS TO POWHATAN.] - -He usually kept a guard, consisting of forty or fifty of his bravest -men, especially when he slept, but this number was four-fold after the -arrival of the English. His wives were numerous, and taken or -dismissed at his pleasure. When he slept, one sat at his head and -another at his feet. His places for temporary residence, or at certain -seasons of the year, were numerous. At these places he had victuals -provided against his coming, in spacious wigwams thirty or forty yards -in extent. His manner of attack upon his neighbors, was stealthy and -fiercely cruel. An instance is given, in his surprisal, on one -occasion, of the people of Payankatank, who were his neighbors and -subjects. To effect his barbarous purpose, he sent several of his men -to lodge with them the night on which he designed an attack; then, -secretly surrounding them in their wigwams, commenced a horrid -massacre. Many of the men were killed, their scalps taken, and the -women and children made prisoners. The scalps were exhibited upon a -line between two trees as a trophy, and the chief of Payankatank and -his wife Powhatan became servants to the emperor. - -Through Captain Smith's address, this prince was now brought completely -into the English interest; although eventually, through the imprudent -conduct of Newport, who soon after arrived from England, he was induced -to practice deception upon his new friends, in the way of trade. Smith, -however, in his turn, took advantage of the emperor, to the no great -credit of his moral principles. The revenge was complete, as the -following example shows; Smith gained his end fully, by pretending to -set a great value on a few blue beads, which he had exposed to Powhatan -as if by accident, and which he professed to be very unwilling to part -with, as they were worn, according to his account, only by great kings. -This fired the emperor with the wish to secure them, at whatever -sacrifice on his part. In the infatuation produced, he parted with two -or three hundred bushels of corn, for a pound or two of beads. Thus the -intercourse of the whites with these simple children of nature, in the -early period of our history, was not always marked with that delicate -regard of right and veracity, with which every transaction of this -nature should be attended. The consequences very naturally appeared in -the many plots and counter-plots which were contrived to embarrass one -another, or to effect unlawful objects. - -On one occasion Powhatan became offended with Smith, because he could -not procure swords from him in the manner in which he procured them from -Newport. When the latter was about leaving the country, Powhatan sent -him twenty turkeys, for which he demanded and obtained twenty swords in -return. He supposed that he could do the same with Smith, but was -disappointed; and, accordingly he ordered his men to seize the English -wherever they could find them. The consequence was, that many of the -latter, in the vicinity of the forts, were robbed of their swords. These -depredations were continued until Smith surprised a number of the -Indians, from whom he learned that Powhatan was endeavoring to get all -the arms in his power, with a view to massacre the whites. When the -chief found that his plot was discovered, he sent Pocahontas, his -daughter, with gifts, in order to apologize for his conduct, and -pretended that the mischief was done by some of his chiefs. He directed -her to use her influence in effecting the release of his men, in which -she succeeded, and thus the parties became at peace again. - -The friendship which Powhatan manifested towards the English at any -time, was short-lived, and seems not to have been at all sincere. -Constant deceptions were practised by him to gain his ends; and, so long -as he lived, difficulties existed between him and the English. The noble -Pocahontas was a sort of mediator between them, and often brought -important intelligence, as seasonable aid, to the latter. On one -occasion, after a long conference, in regard to a trade in provisions, -in which deceptions were employed on both sides, and in which Powhatan -endeavored to persuade Captain Smith and his men to treat with him in a -friendly manner, and to throw aside their arms, Smith was about to -resort to force in order to effect his object. Powhatan, however, -succeeded in escaping from the conference, and in conveying his women, -children, and effects into the woods. Even then he attempted to allure -Smith into his presence unarmed, if possible, by sending him a present. -Finding, at last, all artifices without effect, Powhatan resolved to -fall upon the English in their cabins on the following night. But here -Pocahontas interposed her kind offices, and was the means, most -probably, of saving the life of Smith and his attendants. She came -alone, in a dark night, through the woods, and apprised Smith of her -father's design. For such a favor, Smith offered her whatever articles -she would please to accept; but she declined taking any thing, and, with -tears in her eyes, remarked, that if her father should see her with any -thing, he would suspect what she had done, and instantly kill her. She -then retired as she came, through the dismal forest. - -[Illustration: Pocahontas coming in the night to tell Smith of the -intended Massacre.] - -After Smith's final departure from Virginia, the emperor's animosity -against the whites was confirmed, as the English successor in the -government, Lord De la War, was much less cautious and moderate in his -measures with the Indians, severe as Smith's treatment of them was at -times. The new governor, finding Powhatan not disposed to yield to his -demands, proceeded to an act of horrid barbarity. Having got into his -power an Indian prisoner, his lordship caused his right hand to be -cut off. In this shocking condition he sent the poor creature to -Powhatan. At the same time he gave the sachem to understand, that he -would serve all the Indians in that manner, if they refused obedience -any longer, and that he would destroy all the corn, which was then -near to the harvest. Powhatan, consequently, could not but feel the -most burning indignation against the Englishman. - -Two years after Smith left Virginia, that is, in 1611, Captain Argal -treacherously took the king's daughter prisoner, with a view to -prevent him from doing injury to the English, as also to extort a -large ransom from him, and such terms of peace as they should -prescribe. On being informed of the captivity of Pocahontas, connected -with the demand that he should restore to the English their men, guns, -and tools, taken at different times by the Indians, the stern and wary -chief became greatly embarrassed, and knew not what to do. They did -not hear from him until at the expiration of three months, when he -complied with their demand only in part. This did not satisfy Argal; -the demand in full was reiterated; but Powhatan was again, for a long -time, silent. The result was, that, in a year or two, Sir Thomas Dale -took Pocahontas to the residence of her father, in hopes to effect an -exchange, and bring about a peace. Powhatan was absent from home, and -the party met with no kindly reception from the Indians, who seemed to -take the presence of the English in dudgeon. The latter burned many of -their Indian habitations, and gave out threats of other vengeance. -This had the effect of inducing some of the Indians to come and make -peace, as they called it. Pocahontas had then an opportunity of seeing -two of her brothers, which gave her unbounded joy. After the marriage -of this excellent Indian woman to Mr. Rolfe, the whites experienced -less trouble from Powhatan; though it is believed that they were never -entirely exempt from the effects of his policy or his power. - -The successors of Powhatan were, first, Opitchapan, and, next, -Opecancanough, both brothers of the emperor. Such was the law of the -succession. The first-named chief seems never to have been noted for -any distinguishing quality, but is spoken of as being feeble and -decrepid. He compared unfavorably with his brother, who, in the -council and in the field, was the most conspicuous personage among the -Powhatans. He had, during the life-time of the late emperor, procured -from the free tribe of the Chickahominies the title of their king. - -It was Opecancanough who figured so disastrously in the great massacre -of the whites, on the 22d March, 1622, which has been narrated in -another place. It was kept a profound secret during four years, and -burst upon the settlement like a bolt from heaven. In the vengeance, -with which the English followed this act of treachery and blood, it was -for some time supposed that Opecancanough was among the killed; but if -history does not misguide us, the same sachem, twenty-two years -afterwards, executed a still greater massacre upon the English. It is -not known how long he had been plotting the extirpation of the whites, -but in 1644, all the Indians over the space of country six hundred miles -in extent, were joined in the enterprise. The governor and council had -appointed a fast-day to be kept through the country upon Good-Friday for -the success of the king. On the day before the intended fast, -Opecancanough, borne in a litter, led his warriors forward, and -commenced the work of death. He was supposed to be near one hundred -years old at this time. The massacre commenced in the out-parts of the -circumjacent country, and continued two days. The Indians fell suddenly -upon the inhabitants, and killed all indiscriminately, to the number of -three hundred. Their progress was checked by the arrival of Sir William -Berkley, at the head of an armed force. - -[Illustration: Opecancanough borne in a litter to the Massacre of the -Whites.] - -Subsequently to this massacre (the date has not been ascertained), -this bloody chief was taken prisoner. Sir William intended to send him -as a present to the king of England. He was, however, prevented from -doing it, by the assassination of Opecancanough. The soldier who was -appointed to guard him, fired upon him, and inflicted a mortal wound, -it having been, as was supposed, an act of private revenge. Just -before the old chief expired, hearing a great noise and crowd around -him, he ordered an attendant to lift up his eye-lids, as from age and -fatigue the elasticity of his muscles was in a great degree impaired, -when he discovered a multitude pressing around him, to gratify the -morbid desire of beholding a dying sachem. Aroused with indignation, -and little fearing death, he seemed to disregard the crowd; but -raising himself from the ground in the spirit of his wonted authority, -commanded that the governor should be called to him. When the latter -came, the chief uttered in his hearing the impassioned remark: "Had it -been my fortune to have taken Sir William Berkley prisoner, I would -not meanly have exposed him as a show to my people," and soon after -expired. An Indian, whom they afterwards had seized as prisoner, -confessed that they attempted this destruction of the English, -because they saw the latter "took up all their lands from them, and -would drive them out of the country, and they took this season, for -that they understood that they were at war in England, and began to go -to war among themselves." These intrusions upon the Indian territory -were, however, conformable to the grants of the proprietors, the -Indians. Opecancanough could hardly have expected an entire conquest, -as his people had already begun to melt away, and the villages of the -English planters were springing up over an extent of country of over -five hundred miles, with a comparatively large population. - -Nickotawance succeeded Opecancanough as a tributary to the English. In -1648, he came to Jamestown in company with several other chiefs, and -brought a number of beaver-skins to be sent to the English king. He -delivered a prolonged address, which he concluded with the protestation, -"that the sun and moon should first lose their glorious lights and -shining, before he or his people should ever more wrong the English." - -The successor of this chief is supposed to have been Totopotomoi, as -he was king of Pamunkey in 1656. In that year, a body of western or -inland Indians, to the number of six or seven hundred, came down from -the mountainous country, and took possession of the territory about -the falls of James river. This fact coming to the knowledge of the -legislature of Virginia, which was then in session, it was resolved to -dislodge the Indians from their new location, as their situation and -proximity were considered dangerous to the whites. The war seems not -to have been attended with any success on the part of the colony. The -English leader, with one hundred men, and Totopotomoi with one hundred -of his warriors, suffered extremely in an engagement. It appears, -however, that a peace was not long after concluded with the Indians. - -A renowned warrior, Nemattanow, not having been mentioned in the proper -order of time, may be introduced here. He was supposed to have had an -agency in bringing about the great massacre of 1622. He was, however, -an object of jealousy to Opecancanough, the leader in that tragedy, on -account of his popularity among his countrymen. He is said to have been -an eccentric and vain person, being wont "to dress himself up in a -strange attire and barbaric fashion with feathers," on which account he -obtained the name of Jack-of-the-feather. As he had been engaged in many -fights with the English, and, though particularly exposed, had never -received a wound, he was considered by the Indians to be invulnerable. -The cause and manner of his fate were the following: "Only about -fourteen days before the massacre, Jack-of-the-feather went to the house -of one Morgan, where he saw many such articles exhibited as were -calculated to excite admiration in such people. Jack, perhaps, had not -the means to purchase, but it seems he was resolved some how or other to -possess them. He therefore told Morgan that if he would take his -commodities to Pamunkey, the Indians would give him a great price for -them. Not in the least mistrusting the design of Nemattanow, the simple -Englishman set out for Pamunkey, in company with this Indian. This was -the last the English ever heard of Morgan. However strange it may seem, -Jack's ill-directing fate sent him to the same place again; and, what -was still more strange, he had the cap of the murdered Morgan upon his -head. Morgan's servants asked him where their master was, who very -deliberately answered that he was dead. This satisfied them that he had -murdered him. They therefore seized him, in order to take him before a -magistrate at Berkley; but he made a good deal of resistance, which -caused one of the captors to shoot him down. The singular part of the -tragedy is yet to be related. Though mortally wounded, Nemattanow was -not killed outright, and his captors, which were two stout young men, -got him into a boat to proceed to Mr. Thorp's, the magistrate. As they -were going, the warrior became satisfied that he must die, and with the -most extraordinary earnestness, besought that two things might be -granted him. One was, that it should never be told to his countrymen -that he was killed by a bullet; and the other, that he should be buried -among the English, so that it should never be discovered that he had -died, or was subject to death like other men. Such was the pride and -vanity exhibited by an Indian at his death."[18] - -From the preceding brief notices of the hostile bearing of the savage -tribes towards the early Southern planters, it will be apparent that -the colonization of that portion of America was no easy matter. The -jealousy of the Indians towards their new neighbors was soon excited; -nor did the conduct of the colonists serve to allay, but rather to -increase it. The cruelty and vindictiveness of the Indians cannot be -justified; but in their circumstances may be found, perhaps, some -small apology. This was their country: they were proprietors of the -soil. Here they lived: here were their altars: here their fathers' -sepulchres; and they regarded them with the veneration and love of -which they were capable. Who can blame them? Who censure those -feelings--that patriotism--that love of liberty, which, when found -among civilized nations, are highly extolled? Among the Indian chiefs, -there were men of no small sagacity; who, foreseeing the consequences -to themselves and people of the thrift and extension of the -English--can it be deemed strange that their anticipations were most -sad? or that they should adopt every expedient which seemed likely to -avert calamities to them most fearful? - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: N.E. INDIAN WARS.] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[18] Book of the Indians. - - - - - IV. PLYMOUTH COLONY AND THE INDIANS. - - - EARLY Rencontre at Plymouth--Friendly intercourse established by - means of Samoset--Kindness of Squanto--Intercourse with - Massasoit--Contemplated Massacre defeated--Jealousy of - Caunbitant--Notice of Hobomok. - -In the early period of the settlements of New England, the -difficulties with the Indians were of less frequent occurrence, than -those which took place in the Virginia colony. The providence of God -had prepared the way for the pilgrims to enter upon their wilderness -inheritance. The power of the Indians had been weakened by sickness, -or their dispositions softened, perhaps, in some cases, by their -adversities. There were instances, certainly, of singular friendship -toward the whites, on the part of these children of nature, as was -manifested in Samoset, Massasoit, and others. But the character, -objects, and policy of the pilgrims will account, in part, for the -comparative freedom from Indian hostility which marked the early era -of their settlement in this land. As they came to enjoy and -disseminate their religion, they had no motive to irritate or disturb -the aboriginal inhabitants. Wealth was not sought from them, nor any -greater portion of the soil than would suffice for their wants, at the -same time leaving to the Indian behind the boundless wilderness, which -alone he cared for. They would have reclaimed him from heathenism, and -taught him religion, science, and the arts of civilised life, had he -been pleased to learn them. This was attempted, in some instances, but -the success, though a matter of gratitude, was not at any time very -considerable. The policy of the fathers was to cultivate peace with -all the Indian tribes; and during many years, so far as the settlement -of the eastern shore was concerned, the object generally was effected. -Still occasionally difficulties would occur, and at length, under a -new set of chiefs, the notes of savage warfare rung loud and long over -the hills and vales of New England. But we will here speak more -particularly of the earliest colony, Plymouth. - -The first encounter had with the Indians, preceded the disembarkation -of the company of adventurers. It was a select party of some fifteen -or sixteen, who had landed with a view to explore the country. -Overtaken by night, they set their watch, hoping doubtless to pass the -night unmolested; but about midnight they heard a hideous cry. The cry -then ceased, and it was then supposed that it had been the noise only -of wolves and foxes. About five o'clock, however, they again heard a -sudden and strange noise, which they knew to be the same voices, -though they varied their notes. One of the company being abroad, came -running in, and cried, "They are men, Indians! Indians!" and with this -announcement came a shower of arrows. The whites ran out with all -speed to recover their arms. The cry of the enemy was terrific, -especially when they perceived what the whites were about to do. Their -arms being secured, the Indians were ready to make an assault. One, -who appeared to be the leader of the latter, a stout athletic man, -stood behind a tree within a musket-shot, and there let his arrows fly -at the English. Three several shots were poured in upon him without -touching him--at length, one seemed to take effect, as he bounded off, -and his company with him, yelling most hideously. It is not known that -any blood was shed in this encounter, though the probability is, that -the chief was wounded. Of the arrows that were left on the field, -several were picked up, and sent as a curiosity to friends in England. -Some of them were ingeniously headed with brass, some with harts' -horn, and some with the claws of eagles. - -An intercourse of an agreeable character between the pilgrims and the -natives soon commenced, by means of _Samoset_, whose manner of -introducing himself to the settlement has been mentioned in another -portion of this work. The hospitality with which he was treated, secured -his friendship and confidence, and he communicated to the settlers, in -answer to their inquiries, whatever information he possessed respecting -the Indians and the country. He is described by an early historian as -having been a tall, strait man, the hair of his head black, long behind, -and short before, none at all on his face. He ate and drank freely of -that which was offered him; and, although they wished his absence at -night, yet he was unwilling to leave, and they could not do otherwise -than keep and watch him. This visit of the kind Samoset was an augury of -good to the colony. It seemed purely a providential event. - -The visit continued only until the next morning, but was repeated in the -course of a day or two. His return then brought to the acquaintance of -the colony other Indians who accompanied him. They were some of -Massasoit's men, whose object was to trade with the English. As Samoset -was charged not to let any who came with him bring their arms, these, -therefore, left their bows and arrows at a distance from the place. They -were entertained in a fitting manner; they ate liberally of the English -victuals, and appeared very friendly; "sang and danced after their -manner like antics." They were dismissed as soon as it could be done -conveniently, without effecting any trade. Samoset, either being sick, -or feigning himself so, would not depart, and contrived to continue -several days longer. In this visit, some stolen articles were returned -by the Indians, through Samoset's influence. - -At the next visit he made, he was accompanied by Squanto, as once -before related. The latter was said to be the only native of Patuxet -(the Indian name of Plymouth) living there at that period. His -captivity and residence in England had prepared him, by understanding -the English language, to render service to the colony. Squanto, it -appears, was the only person that escaped the great sickness at -Patuxet. The extent of its ravages, as near as can be judged, was from -Narraganset bay to Kennebec, or, perhaps, Penobscot, and is supposed -to have commenced about 1617, and its continuance between two and -three years, as it was nearly abated in 1619. According to the account -of the Indians, it was a terrific scene, the deaths occurring with -such frequency, that the living were not able to bury the dead. In the -language of an author of the time, "they died in heaps as they laid in -their houses, and the living, that were able to shift for themselves, -would runne away, and would let them dy, and let their carcasses ly -above the ground without buriall. For in a place where many inhabited, -there had been but one (referring to Squanto) left alive to tell what -became of the rest." When the pilgrims arrived in this country, their -bones were thick upon the ground in many places. Squanto, with another -Indian and several Englishmen, was employed, on one occasion, to go in -search of an English boy, who had been lost in the woods. Having been -informed of some Indians that the boy was at Nauset, they proceeded in -a vessel to that place, joined also by Iyanough, the sachem of -Cummaquid, and two of his men. Aspinet, the chief at Nauset, being -informed by Squanto that his English friends had come for the boy, he -came with a great train, and brought the boy with him, one carrying -him through the water. Not less than an hundred Indians appeared on -this occasion, half of whom attending the boy to the boat, the rest -standing aloof, with their bows and arrows, looking on. The child was -delivered up in a formal manner, covered with beads, and Aspinet -embraced the opportunity of making peace with the English, the latter -giving him a knife, as also one to the kind Indian who first -entertained the lost boy, and brought him to Nauset. - -Squanto had shown his early attachment to the English, in his conduct -towards Captain Dermer, who visited the country the year before the -pilgrims arrived here. When the Indians would have killed him on some -occasion, Squanto successfully pleaded in his behalf. They had in view -the avenging of some murders, which a foreigner, an Englishman, had a -while before inflicted on their people. These two Indians, Samoset and -Squanto, remained with the English, instructing them how to live in -their country. Squanto became an important personage in the Indian -politics. He was in the main friendly to the English; but his devices -to enhance himself in the eyes of his new friends, or to make himself -great in the eyes of his countrymen, were not always wise, and were -not, unfrequently, mischievous. In 1622 he forfeited his life by -plotting to destroy that of Massasoit. On that occasion, the latter -went to Plymouth, burning with rage against Squanto, but the governor -succeeded in quieting him for that time. Soon after, he sent a -messenger to entreat the governor's consent to his being put to death; -but the latter would not be persuaded to yield to his request. Squanto -denied all knowledge of the plot. The English, however, seemed well -satisfied that Squanto had laid this shallow scheme to set them -against Massasoit, thinking they would destroy him, by which means he -expected to become chief sachem himself; and this seems the more -probable, as Massasoit was, for some time, irreconcilable, because -they withheld Squanto from him. When the English understood his -object, they assured the Indians that they did not concur in the plot, -and that they would do no injury to them, unless the Indians began -with the whites. Squanto was sharply reproved by the governor, but he -was so necessary to the welfare of the colony, in respect to its -intercourse with the Indians, that he was retained there. - -The following instance is related of his manoeuvres to possess his -countrymen with great fear of the English: He told them that the -English kept the plague buried in one of their store-houses, and that -they could send it at any time to any place, to destroy whatever -persons or people they would, though they themselves stirred not out -of doors. This piece of information was of course calculated to -inspire them with great terror. Some sagacious Indians at length -discovered the trick, by inquiring of the English respecting it. - -Squanto died during an expedition or trading voyage, which was -undertaken among the Indians of Cape Cod, to buy corn in a time of -scarcity. He was pilot on this occasion. He was seized with sickness in -the midst of the undertaking, his disorder being a fever, and he -bleeding much at the nose, which the Indians reckon a fatal symptom, the -disease soon overpowered him. He desired the governor would pray for -him, that he might go to the Englishman's God. He bequeathed his effects -to sundry of his English friends, as remembrances of his affection. - -"Thus died the famous Squanto, or Tisquantum, in December, 1622. To -him the pilgrims were greatly indebted, although he often, through -extreme folly and short-sightedness, gave them, as well as himself and -others, a great deal of trouble." - -One of the most interesting personages of Indian history is Massasoit, -already spoken of incidentally. His visit to the pilgrims had been -previously announced through Samoset and Squanto. He was chief of the -Wampanoags, and resided at a place called Pokanet by the Indians, -which is now included in the town of Bristol, Rhode Island. He was a -friend to the English, and persevered in his friendship to the last. -His renown was more in peace than in war, and is for that reason more -precious in the memory of the wise and virtuous. - -"It has often been thought strange that so mild a sachem as Massasoit -should have possessed so great a country, and our wonder has been -increased, when we consider that Indian possessions are generally -obtained by prowess and great personal courage. We know of none who -could boast of such extensive dominions, where all were contented to -consider themselves his friends and children. Powhatan, Pontiac, Little -Turtle, Tecumseh, and many more that we could name, have swayed numerous -tribes; but theirs was a temporary union in an emergency of war. That -Massasoit should be able to hold so many tribes together, without -constant war, required qualities belonging only to a few. That he was -not a warrior, no one will allow, when the testimony of Annawon is so -direct to the point; for that great chief gave Captain Church an account -of what mighty success he had formerly in the wars against many nations -of Indians, when he served Asuhmequin (Massasoit), Philip's father." - -The limits of his country cannot be exactly pointed out, as -occasionally the Nipmucks, or inland Indians, owned his sway, and at -other times that of the Narraganset sachem. He possessed at least Cape -Cod, and all that part of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, between -Massachusetts and Narraganset bays, extending into the interior to -some distance between Pawtucket and Charles rivers. The distance is -not accurately known. This chief had several places of residence, but -the favorite one would appear to have been Mount Hope. It has always -been deemed a picturesque and beautiful locality. The Indian name, -Pokanoket, signifies the wood or land on the other side of the water. -There was a place in Middleborough, and another in Raynham, where -Massasoit spent some parts of the year, probably the summer. - -It was of course in Massasoit's country that the pilgrim fathers had -arrived. With their object, and the nature of their movement, he -could not be supposed to be acquainted. These points he made some -attempts to ascertain, by sending occasionally some of his men to the -settlement at Plymouth. It was in this way that his introduction to -the English was brought about, the visit of Samoset and Squanto being -the preparation for the event. It was on the 22d of March, 1621, that -the great sagamore, with Quadequina, his brother, made his appearance -before them. Much caution was observed by each party in respect to the -meeting, as they were uncertain of one another's views. But presents -were made to the Indians, and much good will was expressed. The -following description of the scene has been given: "As Massasoit -proceeded to meet the English, they met him with six soldiers, who -saluted each other. Several of his men were with him, but all left -their bows and arrows behind. They were conducted to a new house which -was partly finished, and a green rug was spread on the floor, and -several cushions for Massasoit and his chiefs to sit down upon. Then -came the English governor, followed by a drummer and trumpeter, and a -few soldiers, and, after kissing one another, all sat down. Some -strong water being brought, the governor drank to Massasoit, who in -his turn drank a great draught, that made him sweat all the while -after. They now proceeded to make a treaty, which stipulated that -neither Massasoit nor any of his people should do hurt to the English, -and that if they did, they should be given up to be punished by them; -and that if the English did any harm to him or any of his people, they -(the English) would do the like to them." Massasoit is represented as -having trembled much on the occasion, through his fear of the English. -This was his first visit to the infant colony, and its consequences -seem to have been of the most propitious character. He ever afterwards -treated the English with kindness, and the compact was followed by a -long period of peace. - -The only exception to his feelings of friendship for the new comers, -arose from the affair of Squanto, as has been already detailed. -Massasoit could not but feel aggrieved; but a sort of necessity seemed -to be laid upon them to secure the good offices of Squanto, and they -could not know, perhaps, how far he was implicated in wrong. Indeed, -it is stated that at one time they were about to deliver up Squanto to -Massasoit's men, but that the latter, in their impatience at the -delay, went off in a rage. - -Sometime during the next summer, Massasoit was visited by several of the -English, among whom were Mr. Edward Winslow, Mr. Stephen Hopkins, and -Squanto, their interpreter. The object they had in view was to ascertain -his place of residence, in the event of having to call on him for -assistance, to cement and continue their begun friendship, and -particularly to induce him to restrain his men in regard to their visits -to the colony, as it was a time of scarcity, and they could not afford -to support such vagabonds. They took presents with them, in order to -render their visit agreeable to the sagamore, and such was the effect -produced. Massasoit was absent at the time, but, being immediately sent -for, he soon returned to meet his guests. The report of their guns, upon -hearing he was on the way, frightened the Indian women and children to -such a degree, that they all fled; but their salutation in the same -manner to Massasoit as he drew near, very greatly elated him. He -welcomed his guests with kindness, and took them into his house; but -they had sorry accommodations and scanty fare. Except tobacco for -smoking, their entertainment for the first night was only a supperless -bed, as he had no victuals to give them. Their bed, if it might be so -called, consisted only of planks, raised a foot from the ground, with a -thin mat upon them, with a mixed company to occupy it, so that they were -"worse weary of" their "lodgings, than of" their "journey." After -fasting two nights and one day, they partook of a scanty, but "timely" -meal of boiled fish. In the language of the times, it is related: "Very -importunate was he to have us stay with them longer. But we desired to -keep the Sabbath at home, and feared we should either be light-headed -for the want of sleep--for what with bad lodging, the savages' barbarous -singing (for they used to sing themselves to sleep), lice, and fleas, -within doors, and musketoes without, we could hardly sleep all the time -of our being there--we much fearing that if we should stay any longer, -we should not be able to recover home for want of strength. So that on -Friday morning, before the sun rising, we took our leave and departed, -Massasoit being both grieved and ashamed that he could no better -entertain us." - -[Illustration: Governor Winslow's visit to Massasoit during his -sickness.] - -A sickness with which this sachem was seized, in 1623, occasioned -another visit on the part of Mr. Winslow. He had been sent for by the -chief to visit him in his distress, accompanied by "one Master John -Hampden," then on a visit to the colony, and he took with him medicines -and cordials, such as were deemed necessary. As it was a custom, among -the Indians, for all the friends of a chief to attend on such occasions, -Mr. Winslow found on his arrival that the house was filled with people. -They were noisily engaged in practicing their charms or powows, and all -was confusion and uproar--a poor sedative, surely, for a sick man. To -keep heat in him, some half dozen women were busily employed in chafing -his arms, legs, and thighs. When they had made an end of their -incantations, the chief was told that his friends, the English, were -come to see him. Unable to see, but learning who it was, he desired to -speak with Mr. Winslow. The interview was touching in no small degree, -and especially as Massasoit said: "O, Winsow, I shall never see thee -again." Like other Indians, he could not articulate the liquid _l._ By -Winslow's kind exertions, however, his sickness began to abate, and the -sachem finally recovered, contrary to the expectations of himself and -all his friends. - -For this attention of the whites, he ever felt grateful, viewing it as -the means of his recovery. He gave a striking proof of his -appreciation of the favor shown him, even before the departure of -Winslow, by informing Hobomok of a plot laid by some of his -subordinate chiefs for the purpose of destroying the two English -plantations. This he charged him to make known to the English, which -was done. Massasoit mentioned, at the same time, that he had been -urged to join in it, or give his consent to the plan; but that he had -steadily opposed it. The evils which that plot brought upon its -authors, will be seen in another place. - -Massasoit manifested a great desire for the welfare of his people, as -appeared from his inducing Mr. Winslow to go among them, in the midst -of a prevailing sickness, and administer to them the medicines and -cordials which had proved so efficacious in his own case. This, his -paternal regard for his people, raised him still higher in the -estimation of the English. Many Indians, before Mr. Winslow left, came -to see their chief; some probably from a distance of an hundred miles. - -A war, which commenced in 1632, between Massasoit and Canonicus, the -sachem of the Narragansets, was speedily terminated by the -interference of the English in behalf of their benefactor. Captain -Miles Standish led the force, and accomplished the object with little -bloodshed, although the Indians expected a serious contest. - -Massasoit showed his kind feeling towards Mr. Williams, in giving up -the lands in dispute between him and the Narraganset sachem, since Mr. -Williams had bought and paid for all he possessed of the latter. His -title was precarious so long as Massasoit laid claim to the territory, -as it would then be considered as being within the jurisdiction of -Plymouth. The land thus given up, included that which is the island -called Rhode Island, Prudence island, and perhaps some others, -together with Providence. Agreeably to Massasoit's advice, in regard -to the Indian plot for the massacre of the whites, already referred -to, that a bold stroke should be struck, and the heads of the plot -destroyed, the daring Standish, with a party of only eight men, went -into the hostile country to effect the object. The party intended -secresy, but the Indians in some way obtained knowledge of it, or -mistrusted Standish's design. Accordingly, they began to prepare for -the conflict. One of them, Pecksuot, a man of great courage, called a -_paniese_, told Hobomok, _he understood the captain was there to kill -him and the rest of the Indians there_. "Tell him," said Pecksuot, "we -know it, but fear him not, neither will we shun him." By their conduct -before the English, in sharpening their knives and in their insulting -gestures and speeches, they showed how little apprehension they -entertained, especially as the English were so inconsiderable in -number. Pecksuot even told Standish, that though he were a great -captain, yet he was but a little man, and that he himself, though he -was no sachem, yet was a man of great strength and courage. Standish -little heeded what was said, but watched his opportunity, as the -parties were in a house together. After considerable manoeuvring, he -could get advantage over but a few of the Indians. At length, having -got Pecksuot and Wittuwamat, a bloody Massachusetts' chief, both -together, with another man and a youth, brother to Wittuwamat, and -like him in character; and having about as many of his own company in -the same room, he gave the word to his men to commence the work. The -door was at once made fast, and Standish himself began the terrible -contest. Snatching from Pecksuot his own knife from his neck, though -with a desperate struggle, he pierced with it the athletic Indian, and -brought him to the floor. The rest killed Wittuwamat and the other -man, and took the youth, whom the captain caused to be hanged. After -this, other encounters were had with the scattered Indians, and some -three more were also killed. - -In justice to the savages, it is worthy of remark, that they were -provoked to the conspiracy for which they were so severely dealt with, -by the unauthorized aggressions of Weston's men, a colony of sixty -Englishmen, who had come over a year or two before, under the -direction of Thomas Weston. He was at first a friend of the pilgrims, -but became at length their traducer. This company, after living upon -the ill-supplied settlers at Plymouth through the winter of 1621-22, -had made at Weymouth an inexpedient settlement. The pilgrims -prosecuted this bloody enterprise, under the excitement produced by -the horrible intelligence from Virginia of the great Indian massacre -in that colony. In view of this bloody tale, we cannot but regret the -necessity which our fathers felt for engaging in such a work; and we -cannot but be touched with the piety and humanity of the godly Mr. -Robinson, the father of the Plymouth church, in consequence of the -present affair, that "it would have been happy if they had converted -some before they had killed any." - -Between the years 1649 and 1657, Massasoit sold to the English, at -different times, various tracts of land for a valuable consideration. -Indeed, being entirely subservient to the English, he claimed to hold -little or nothing of his own at length, and ceased to act in his own -name. He therefore scarcely appears in the records of the colony, during -the three or four last years of his life. He died, it is believed, in -1662, his son Alexander dying also the same year. Another son, the -celebrated Philip, succeeded him. Even Massasoit could be guilty of an -Indian trick, as the following instance, related by Governor Winthrop, -evinces: Mr. Winslow, on returning from a trading voyage southward, left -his vessel, and, traveling by land, called on his old friend Massasoit, -who agreed to accompany him during the remainder of the journey. While -they were on the way, Massasoit sent on one of his men forward to -Plymouth, for the purpose of surprising the people, by the announcement -of Winslow's death. As the declaration was believed at Plymouth, from -the manner in which the account was given, it produced unmingled grief -at the settlement. But shortly, what was their astonishment at seeing -him alive, in company with his Indian friend. When it was known that the -sachem had caused the sad news to be conveyed to them, they demanded the -reason of his conduct in practising such a deception. He gave as a -reply, that he might be more welcome when he did return, and that such -things were customary with his people. - -Of Caunbitant, as one of the Indian chiefs in that region, something -deserves to be said. He was one of the most renowned captains within the -dominions of Massasoit. The place of his residence was Mettapoiset, in -the present town of Swansey. He ever looked upon the English with a -jealous eye, considering them as enemies and intruders on the soil, and -his plans appeared to be shaped for the destruction of the strangers, as -soon as he could find a fitting occasion. In the summer of 1621, he was -supposed to be in the interests of the Narragansets, and plotting with -them to overthrow Massasoit. He had much also to say against the -English, and the peace concluded between Nauset, Cummaquid, and the -latter. Against Squanto and Hobomok he indulged a deadly enmity. -Discovering, on one occasion, the house where Squanto was, he set a -guard around it, and secured him. Hobomok, seeing that Squanto was -taken, and Caunbitant holding a knife to his throat, being a strong man -broke away from them, and came to Plymouth, with the news of Squanto's -probable death. Upon this, the people sent an expedition of fourteen -men, under Standish, to rectify matters. After much toil, this small -handful of men arrived at the place where they expected to find -Caunbitant. They beset the house, and demanded of the chief if he were -there. The savages seemed to be struck dumb with fear. Upon being -assured that they sought only Caunbitant, and that every Indian was safe -who would be still, they at length, though a few of them endeavored to -escape, told the assailants that Caunbitant was returned home with his -whole train, and that Squanto was yet living, and in the town. The -attack being made in the night, carried terror to the hearts of the -Indians, as in the affray a couple of guns were discharged, some of them -never having heard the report of fire-arms before. While the English -were searching the house, Hobomok got on the top of it, and called -Squanto and another Indian, Tokamahamon, whom they sought. They both -appeared in a short time, together with several others, some armed and -others naked. The captured wigwam was held until daylight, when the -prisoners were released, and the little army marched into the town of -the Namaskets. Here it seems Squanto had a house to which they went, and -where they took breakfast. The issue of the whole was, the giving out of -a decree from the court that they held, in which they warned Caunbitant -of the consequences of offering violence to Tisquantum, Hobomok, or any -of Massasoit's subjects. Caunbitant seemed from this time to lay aside -his enmity to the English, or at least his open opposition, as on the -13th of September following he went to Plymouth, and signed a treaty of -amity, together with others. The English nevertheless always doubted his -sincerity. - -What became of this sachem is not known to history. His name appears -no more on record after 1623, and it is supposed that he either fled -his country, or died about that time. - -Hobomok, already spoken of occasionally in the story of others, -deserves a more particular notice. He was a notable warrior, who came -to Plymouth about the end of July, 1621, and remained with the English -to the close of his life. He was the principal means of the lasting -friendship of Massasoit, which he took much pains to promote. Esteemed -by his own countrymen for his prowess and valor, he was extremely -serviceable to the colonists, by teaching them how to cultivate the -fruits and grains peculiar to the country. The latter had no reason to -apprehend treachery on his part, as Hobomok was a favorite of -Massasoit, and one of his principal captains, and was entirely in -their interest. The following incident strengthened them in their -opinion: The Massachusetts Indians had, for some time, been inviting -the settlers into their country to trade for furs. When in March, -1622, they began to make ready for the voyage, Hobomok told the people -that he feared the Massachusetts were joined in confederacy with the -Narragansets, and that they therefore would seize upon this occasion -to cut off Captain Standish and his company abroad; and also, in the -mean while, it was to be feared that the Narragansets would attack the -town at home, giving reasons for his apprehensions, declaring also -that Tisquantum was in the confederacy. He intimated that the latter -would use many persuasions to draw the people from their shallops, -that the Indians might take advantage of their situation. - -They, however, proceeded on their voyage, but had not reached a great -distance before a false messenger came running into Plymouth, apparently -in great agitation. He informed them that Caunbitant, with many of the -Narragansets, and he believed Massasoit with them, were on their way in -order to cut off the English. The story was unhesitatingly believed, and -their instant purpose was to bring back Captain Standish, who had just -left in the boat with Hobomok. The discharge of a cannon from the town -brought the company back. They had no sooner arrived than Hobomok -assured them there was no truth in the report, and said it was a plot -of Squanto's, who was then in one of the boats. He knew that as to -Massasoit, that chief would not engage in such an enterprise without -consulting him. Although there was reason to believe this, or at least -to confide in the sincerity of Hobomok, yet, as related in another -place, the English saw fit to connive at Squanto's practices. "Hobomok -was greatly beloved by Massasoit, notwithstanding he became a professed -Christian, and Massasoit was always opposed to the English religion -himself. He was the pilot of the English when they visited Massasoit in -his sickness, whom before their arrival they considered dead, which -caused great manifestations of grief in Hobomok. He often exclaimed, as -they were on the way, 'My loving sachem! my loving sachem! many have I -known, but never any like thee.' Then turning to Mr. Winslow, said: -'While you live, you will never see his like among the Indians, that he -was no liar, nor bloody and cruel, like other Indians. In anger and -passion, he was soon reclaimed, easy to be reconciled towards such as -had offended him; that his reason was such as to cause him to receive -advice of mean men; and that he governed his people better with few -blows than others did with many.' In the division of the land at -Plymouth, among the inhabitants, Hobomok received a lot as his share, on -which he resided after the English manner, and died a Christian among -them. The year of his death does not appear, but was previous to -1642."[19] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[19] Book of the Indians. - - - - - V. ENGLISH AND NARRAGANSETS. - - - TERRITORY OF THE NARRAGANSETS--Canonicus their sachem--His mode of - challenging the English to War--Union proposed between the - Pequods and Narragansets--How defeated--Haughty bearing of - Miantonimoh--Accused of a conspiracy against the - English--Accusations repelled--Peace concluded between him and - Massachusetts--War between Uncas and Miantonimoh--The latter - captured and delivered to the English--How disposed - of--Troubles with the Narragansets under Ninigret--Expedition - against him--Issue of it. - -The Narragansets were considered a great nation among the Indians. The -territory of their sachem extended about thirty or forty miles from -Sekunk river and Narraganset bay, including Rhode Island and other -islands in that bay. Pawcatuck river separated it from the Pequods. -Under the rule of Canonicus, in 1642, this nation was at the height of -its greatness, and was supposed to embrace a population of thirty -thousand inhabitants. He was sachem of the tribe at the time of the -landing of the fathers on the shores of New England, and continued in -this capacity to the time of his death, in 1647. He died, it is -believed, at a very advanced age. At the period of the settlement of -Plymouth, the Wampanoags were in great fear of the Narragansets, and -at one time war actually existed. During its continuance, Massasoit -fled before Canonicus, and sought the protection of the English. - -The Narragansets, at an early period, were not disinclined to seek a -quarrel with the English. In view of the weakness of the latter, they -began to utter threats, although the summer preceding they had desired -and obtained peace. They deemed it a favorable opportunity for their -purpose, as the English had just received an addition to their -numbers, but not to their arms or provisions--a circumstance of which -the Indians were advised. Their desire, or intention, was definitely -made known by the following significant circumstance: In February, -1622, Canonicus sent a man, accompanied by one Tokamahamon, a -friendly Indian, into Plymouth, bringing with him a bundle of arrows, -bound with a rattle-snake's skin, and, leaving them there, immediately -left the place. When Squanto was made acquainted with the incident, he -informed the English that it was a challenge for war. The governor -(Bradford) taking the rattle-snake's skin, and filling it with powder -and shot, returned it to Canonicus. At the same time, he instructed -the messenger to bid him defiance, and dare him to the combat. This -had the desired effect upon the Indian sachem. He refused to receive -the skin, as also the other chiefs, until it was at last returned to -Plymouth. Canonicus was evidently awed by the hostile bearing and -threat of the English. - -[Illustration: Governor Bradford and the Snake-skin.] - -Not long after this affair, the Pequods proposed to the Narragansets -to join them in rooting out the English: on the ground that if the -Pequods were once destroyed, the ruin of the Narragansets was sure to -follow. The English would want their lands. They were spreading fast. -But a timely combination would save both tribes and their -inheritance. On these politic representations, the historian Hubbard -cleverly remarks that, "Machiavel himself, if he had sat in council -with them, could not have insinuated stronger reasons to have -persuaded them to a peace." It is said that the Narragansets felt the -force of them, and were almost persuaded to accede to the proposal, -and to join with the others against the English; but when they -considered what an advantage they had put in their hands, by the power -and favor of the English, to take full revenge of all their former -injuries upon their inveterate enemies, the thought of that was so -sweet, that it decided their hesitating minds. - -The governor of Massachusetts, in order to prevent a union between -these savage nations, and to strengthen the bands of peace between the -Narraganset Indians and the colony, sent for Miantonimoh, who was -their sachem in connection with Canonicus, inviting him to come to -Boston. Upon this, Miantonimoh, together with two of the sons of -Canonicus, another sachem, and a number of their men, went to Boston, -and entered into a treaty to the following effect: That there should -be a firm peace between them and the English and their posterity--that -neither party should make peace with the Pequods without the consent -of the other--that they should not harbor the Pequods--and that they -should return all fugitive servants, and deliver over to the English, -or put to death, all murderers. The English were to give them notice -when they went out against the Pequods, and they were to furnish them -with guides. It was also stipulated that a free trade should be -maintained between the parties. - -These articles were indifferently well observed by the Narragansets -till their enemies, the Pequods, were totally subdued; but after that -event, they began to grow insolent and treacherous, especially -Miantonimoh himself. The English seem always to have been more -favorably disposed towards other tribes than to the Narragansets, as -appears from the interest they took in the wars between them and their -enemies. As long as the other tribes succeeded against them, the -English took no part in the contests; but whenever the Narragansets -prevailed, they were ready to intercede. - -After the period of the Pequod war, in 1637, the Narragansets were the -most numerous and powerful of the Indian tribes in this part of the -country. Conscious of their power, and discontented that the whole -sovereignty over the rest of the Indians was not adjudged to belong to -them, or envious that Uncas, the chief sachem of the Mohegans, had -gained the favor of the English more than themselves, they constantly -sought occasions of disagreement with the Mohegans. This was in -contravention of an agreement made between the English and the -Narragansets, in the year 1637, when they had helped to destroy the -Pequods, and also the triple league between the English, Mohegans, and -Narragansets, entered into at Hartford in 1638. The Narragansets -seemed to owe a special spite against Uncas and the Mohegans, from the -time of the distribution of the Pequods after the termination of the -war. They had probably expected the whole management of that affair -for themselves. They therefore found occasions of quarrel with Uncas, -and were hardly kept from making open war with him, when they saw all -other attempts to destroy him by treachery, poison, and sorcery had -failed. The Mohegans, though a less numerous and powerful people than -the Narragansets, were yet more warlike in character and more politic -in their intercourse with the whites. - -The disposition of Miantonimoh was haughty and aspiring, and he seemed -to infuse the same spirit into the minds of his people. He possessed a -fine figure, was tall of stature, and was a master of cunning and -subtlely. It was strongly suspected that, in the year 1642, he had -contrived to draw all the Indians throughout the country into a -general conspiracy against the English. Letters from Connecticut, -received at Boston, had announced the existence of such a conspiracy, -and even the details of it were given. The time appointed for the -assault was said to be after harvest--the manner, to be by several -companies entering into the houses of the principal men, professedly -for the purposes of trade, and then to kill them there; one company -seizing their arms, and others being at hand to prosecute the -massacre. It was urged on the part of Connecticut, that war should be -begun with them, and that if Massachusetts would send one hundred and -twenty men to Saybrook, at the mouth of the river, they would meet -them with a proportionable number. Though there was a probability in -the stories afloat, respecting the Narragansets, yet the general court -of Massachusetts did not think the information to be a sufficient -ground for commencing a war. The court, however, ordered that the -Indians within their jurisdiction should be disarmed, and to this they -willingly assented. The sachem of the Narragansets was, moreover, sent -for to Boston, and, by his readiness to appear, confirmed the English -in the opinion that nothing had as yet occurred which could be -construed into a justifiable cause of war. The sachem's quarrel with -the Mohegans would very naturally render them a subject of such a -report, whether there was a foundation for it or not. - -Miantonimoh very consistently urged before the court, that his -accusers should be confronted to him, and their allegations sifted, so -that the truth might be ascertained--that if they could not prove -their charges, they might receive the punishment which was their due, -and which would have been inflicted on himself if found guilty, that -is, death--and that as the English must have believed the report, -because they ordered the disarming of the Indians, so equity required -that they who accused him, should be punished according to the offence -charged upon his own person. He, moreover, engaged to prove that the -report was raised by Uncas himself, or some of his people. On the part -of English, the disarming of the Indians was excused on the ground -that Englishmen's houses had been robbed in several instances by the -Indians, which was a consideration that somewhat satisfied the chief. -The Connecticut people yielded, though with reluctance, to the -decision of the Massachusetts court. - -They spent two days in making a treaty of peace, the delay being -occasioned by the difficulty of obtaining Miantonimoh's consent to a -portion of the stipulations. It was, however, effected to the -satisfaction of the English. Indian hostages were given for its -performance, and, excepting a company stationed in the Mohegan country -for the protection of Uncas, the whites laid aside warlike preparations. - -In the year 1643, Miantonimoh invaded the Mohegans with nine hundred -of his warriors; Uncas met him at the head of five hundred of his men, -on a large plain; both prepared for action, and advanced within -bow-shot. Before the conflict commenced, Uncas advanced singly, and -thus addressed his antagonist: "You have a number of men with you, and -so have I with me. It is a pity that such brave warriors should be -killed in a private quarrel between us. Come like a man, as you -profess to be, and let us fight it out. If you kill me, my men shall -be yours; but if I kill you, your men shall be mine." Miantonimoh -replied: "My men came to fight, and they shall fight." Uncas had -before told his men, that if his enemy should refuse to fight with him -personally, he would fall down, and then they were to discharge their -missiles on the Narragansets, and fall upon them as fast as they -could. This was accordingly done. Uncas instantly fell upon the -ground, and his men poured a shower of arrows upon Miantonimoh's army, -and with a horrible yell advanced rapidly upon them, and put them to -flight. Uncas and his men pressed on, driving them down ledges of -rock, and scattering them in every direction. Miantonimoh was -overtaken and seized by Uncas, who, by a shout, called back his -furious warriors. About thirty Narragansets were slain, among whom -were several noted chiefs. Finding himself in the hands of his -implacable enemy, Miantonimoh remained silent, nor could Uncas, by any -art, force him to break his sullen mood. "Had you taken me," said the -conqueror, "I should have asked you for my life." No reply was made by -the indignant chief, and he submitted without a murmur to his -humiliating condition. He was afterwards conducted to Hartford, by his -conqueror, and delivered to the English, by whom he was held in duress -until his fate should be determined by the commissioners of the -colonies. After an examination of his case, the commissioners -resolved, "that as it was evident that Uncas could not be safe while -Miantonimoh lived, but either by secret treachery or open force his -life would be constantly in danger, he might justly put such a false -and blood-thirsty enemy to death; but this was to be done out of the -English jurisdiction, and without cruelty or torture." Miantonimoh was -delivered to Uncas, and by a number of his trusty men was marched to -the spot where he was captured, attended by two Englishmen to see that -no torture was inflicted, and the moment he arrived at the fatal -place, one of Uncas' men came up behind, and with his hatchet split -the skull of the unfortunate chief. The body was buried on the spot, -and a heap of stones piled upon the grave. The place since that time -has been known by the name of _Sachem's plain_, and is situated in the -town of Norwich, in Connecticut.[20] - -The Narragansets, as was to be expected, ever afterwards bore an -implacable malice against Uncas and all the Mohegans, and also for their -sakes secretly against the English, so far as they dared to discover it. -But the death of Miantonimoh, and the preparation for the invasion of -the Narraganset country by the English which had been made, put an end -to hostilities for a period in the eastern part of Connecticut. - -In continuing the Narraganset history, _Ninigret_ now properly comes -into view. As already mentioned, he was sachem of the Nianticks, a -tribe of the Narragansets. In 1644, the Narragansets and Ninigret's -men united against the Mohegans, and for some time obliged Uncas to -confine himself and men to his fort. The Indians, however, afraid of -the English, abandoned the siege, and came in to Boston to sue for -peace. This was granted; but a short time after, it became necessary -to again terrify them. With twenty men, Captain Atherton marched to -the wigwam of Ninigret, entering which, he seized the chief, and -threatened his life. This step had the desired effect. The Indians -begged for life, and promised submission. - -[Illustration: Captain Atherton in the Wigwam of Ninigret.] - -Some time after this occurrence, Ninigret again grew troublesome, and -again had to be quieted by an armed force sent against him. In the -panic with which he was affected, he submitted to the demands that -were laid upon him. Ninigret passed the winter of 1652-53 among the -Dutch of New York. This circumstance awakened the suspicions of the -English, especially as hostile feelings existed at that time between -the Dutch and English. The report from several sagamores was, that the -Dutch governor had attempted to hire them to cut off the English. The -consequence was, a special meeting of the English commissioners of the -several New England colonies, to consult in reference to this subject. -Their object was to ascertain the truth of the rumor, that the -Narragansets had leagued with the Dutch, to break up the English -settlements. Several of the chiefs of the Narragansets were -accordingly questioned by a letter, through an agent living at the -Narraganset, in regard to this plot; but their answers were altogether -exculpatory. As to any positive testimony that Ninigret was plotting -against the English, there appears to be none. - -In the year 1652, a war having commenced between England and Holland, -it was apprehended that hostilities would take place between the -colonies of the two nations in America. A threatening attitude was -indeed held for some time by the Dutch of New Netherlands, and forces -were raised by the four New England colonies; but no collision -occurred. In the event of hostilities, it was believed that the -sachem, Ninigret, would lead the Narragansets to the aid of the Dutch, -and that he had held a conference with them at Manhattan, in the -winter of 1652. Whether that was the case or not, he refused for some -time after to treat with the English for a continuance of the peace. -Under these threatening appearances, the commissioners of the colonies -met, and resolved to raise two hundred and seventy infantry, and forty -cavalry, for the purpose of chastising Ninigret's haughtiness, and -bringing the Narragansets to terms. The forces were duly apportioned -among the colonies. Massachusetts had been at first reluctant, but -finally assented to the measure. The commissioners nominated Major -Gibbons, Major Denison, or Captain Atherton, to the chief command; -leaving it, in complaisance, to the general court of Massachusetts to -appoint which one of the three they should please. But, rejecting -these, who were men of known courage and enterprise, they appointed -Major Simon Willard. The commissioners instructed him to proceed, with -such troops as should be found at the place of general rendezvous, by -the 13th of October, directly to Ninigret's quarters, and demand of -him the Pequods who had been put under him, and the tribute which was -due. If Ninigret should not deliver them, and pay the tribute, he was -required to take them by force. He was instructed to demand of the -sachem a cessation from all further hostilities against the Long -Island Indians. Receiving these and some other instructions, he -proceeded into the Narraganset country. When he arrived at the place -of rendezvous, he found that Ninigret had fled into a swamp about -fifteen miles distant. The latter had left his country, corn, and -wigwams, without defence, and they might have been laid waste without -danger or loss. He, however, returned without ever advancing from his -head-quarters, or doing the enemy the least damage. About a hundred -Pequods took this opportunity to renounce the government of Ninigret, -and come off with the English army, putting themselves under the -control of the whites. - -The commissioners in favor of the expedition, were dissatisfied with -the conduct of Major Willard, and charged him with having neglected a -fair opportunity of chastising the Indians, by the destruction of -their dwellings, and their fields of corn. He, however, pleaded in -excuse, that his instructions were equivocal, and the season for -marching unfavorable. By many people in Connecticut and New Haven, it -was believed that the commander was secretly instructed by the -government of Massachusetts to avoid depredations on the property of -the Indians, and thereby prevent a war, which the latter colony -considered to be of doubtful policy. However this may be, it is -certain that Major Willard received no censure from the Massachusetts -court, and no one doubted his firmness as an officer. - -After the return of the English troops from the Narraganset country, -Ninigret assumed his former spirit of defiance, and continued the war -against the Indians upon Long Island. Both the Indians and the English -there were soon thrown into great distress. It became apparent that -these Indians could not hold out much longer, but that they must -submit themselves and their country to the Narragansets, unless they -should receive speedy aid. In consequence of this state of things, and -as these Indians were in alliance with the colonies, measures were -taken to aid them against Ninigret. An armed vessel was stationed off -Montauk to watch his movements, and forces were held in readiness at -Saybrook and New London, to move on the shortest notice, should the -hostile chief again attempt to invade the island. Hostilities, -however, continued some time, and the tribes in various directions -exhibited a strange, changeable conduct. Uncas, in this exigency, was -so pressed by the Narragansets, that Connecticut was obliged to send -men to his fortress to assist in defending himself against them. The -Narragansets, in several instances, threatened and plundered the -inhabitants of Connecticut. - -In 1657, some mischief was done at Farmington, in which the Norwootuck -and Pocomotuck Indians were supposed to be accomplices. Even the -Mohegans under Uncas also partook of the hostile spirit, and an -assault was made by them upon the Podunk Indians at Windsor. At length -the Long Island Indians turned against their friends on the island, -and Major Mason was ordered with a force for the protection of the -English in that quarter. At last the war, and the difficulties in -regard to the Narragansets, having ceased for a period, the English -were once more left to pursue the arts of peace, and consummate their -labors for colonizing the country.[21] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[20] Hoyt's Antiquarian Researches. - -[21] Book of the Indians. - - - - - VI. PEQUOD WAR. - - - TERRITORY OF THE PEQUODS--Their Character--Sassacus--His hatred of - the English--Cruelties practised towards them--War declared by - Connecticut--Expedition of Captain Mason--Surprise and - destruction of the fort--Further prosecution of the war--Happy - consequences resulting from it. - -The Pequods are supposed to have emigrated from the interior parts of -the country, towards the sea-shore of Connecticut. They inhabited more -or less of the territory now constituting that state, as well as a -part of Rhode Island, and New York as far west as the Hudson river. At -what time this emigration took place, is not known. Being a fierce, -cruel, and warlike people, they made all the other tribes stand in awe -of them, though they were fewer in number than their neighbors, the -Narragansets. The principal seat of the Pequod sagamores was near the -mouth of the Pequod river, now the Thames, where New London is built. -There was said to be one principal sagamore, or sachem, over the rest. -He who sustained this distinction, at the time of the English -settlements in Connecticut, was Sassacus. His name alone was a terror -to all the neighboring tribes of Indians. At the height of his power, -he had twenty sachems under him. - -Sassacus ever regarded the English with feelings of jealousy and -hatred. As he considered them, intruders on his domains, he was -determined to expel them, if possible. Fired with rage, he breathed -nothing but war and revenge. The utmost effort and art were employed -by him to produce a combination of Indian power against them. The -Narragansets, as related in another place, barely escaped the snare. -But though unable to effect any extensive union, Sassacus was firm in -himself, and inspired all the Indians under his influence with the -resentment that burned in his own bosom. - -Finding war with this powerful and exasperated chief unavoidable, the -Connecticut people prepared for it with such means and resources as -they could command. A court was summoned to meet at Hartford on the 1st -day of May, 1637, at which it was resolved, that an offensive war should -be immediately commenced against the Pequods. Ninety men were ordered to -be raised from the three towns on Connecticut river, and Captain John -Mason was appointed to command an expedition into the heart of the -Pequod country. At the same time, the report of the slaughter and horrid -cruelties, committed by this savage tribe against the people of -Connecticut, roused the other colonies to exertions against the common -enemy. Massachusetts resolved to send two hundred men, and Plymouth -forty, to assist the sister-colony in prosecuting the war. Captains -Stoughton, Trask, and Patrick, were appointed their commanders. - -The troops embarked at Hartford on the 10th of May, and sailed down -the river to Saybrook. They consisted of ninety Englishmen, and about -seventy Mohegans and river Indians. While at Saybrook, forty of the -Indians under Mason, being out at some distance from the place, fell -in with about forty of the enemy, killed seven and captured one, who -was brought to the fort, and executed by the English. Here the little -army was joined by Captain Underhill with nineteen men, who had some -months before been sent by the governor of Massachusetts to strengthen -the garrison at Saybrook. This accession to his forces permitted Mason -to send back twenty of his original number for the protection of the -infant settlements on the river, which were peculiarly exposed at this -crisis. The whole force, including the Indians, was embodied and -directed by Mason. After remaining several days at Saybrook to -complete his arrangements, he sailed, with his Connecticut forces, for -Narraganset bay, where he arrived on the 19th of May. At this place, -two hundred of Miantonimoh's warriors were engaged to accompany the -English forces on the expedition. Information was now received from -Captain Patrick, that he had arrived at Providence with forty -Massachusetts' men, under orders to join the troops of Connecticut. -For various reasons, but chiefly from an apprehension that the Pequods -might gain intelligence of the expedition, Mason commenced his march, -without waiting for Patrick's company, and soon reached Nehantick, the -seat of the Narraganset sachems. Here he was joined by an additional -company of Indians--the whole army, including the English, amounting -to more than five hundred. - -Here they staid over night, and learning that the Pequods held two -forts, one at Mystic river and the other about three miles west of -that, they resolved, contrary to their original plan of attacking both -together, to make a united attack on the Mystic fort, and accordingly -commenced their march. After a march of twelve miles, through forests -and over hills and morasses, Mason reached the Pawcatuck. The day was -very hot, and the men, through the great heat and a scarcity of -provisions, began to faint. Here he halted for some time, and -refreshed the troops. In the meanwhile, the Indians, who had -previously boasted how they would fight, when they learned that the -forts were to be actually attacked, and the dreaded Sassacus to be -met, were overcome by their fears, and many of them returned home to -Narraganset. But the intrepid Mason, resolving to advance, despatched -a faithful Indian to reconnoitre the fort, who soon returned with -information that the Pequods were unapprised of their danger, and -appeared to be resting in entire security. The march was immediately -rëcommenced towards Mystic river, and on the night of the 26th, the -whole body encamped about three miles from the fort. - -"The important crisis was now come when the very existence of -Connecticut, under Providence, was to be determined by the sword in a -single action, by the good conduct of less than eighty men." They -proved themselves, as the event shows, worthy of the occasion, and -properly conscious of the interest at stake. To God they looked for -aid and courage, at an hour when the decision was to be made, whether -all that they held dear in life should be secured, or wrenched from -them for ever. - -[Illustration: Captain Mason and his Party attacking the Pequod Fort -in the Swamp.] - -Two hours before day, the troops were in motion for the assault. At this -juncture, Mason's Indians entirely lost their resolution, and began to -fall back. The captain bid them not to fly, but to surround the fort at -any distance they pleased, and there remain witnesses of the courage of -the English. Without delay, the fort was approached on two opposite -sides, the Pequods having just before been aroused from sleep by the cry -of one of their number, "Owanux, Owanux!"--Englishmen, Englishmen! He -had, at that instant, been awakened by the barking of a dog. While the -Pequods were rallying, Mason's troops advanced, and poured in a fire -through the openings of the palisades, and wheeling off to a side -barricaded only with brush, rushed into the fort, sword in hand. -Notwithstanding the suddenness of the attack, and their great confusion, -the enemy made a desperate resistance. Concealing themselves in and -behind their wigwams, they maintained their ground stoutly against the -English, who, advancing in different directions, cut down every Indian -they met. But the victory was not certain--it had not been achieved. -Mason felt it to be an awful moment. Happily it occurred to him to burn -the Indian wigwams. The shout was immediately uttered, "We must burn -them!" It was done. In a few moments the mats, with which their -dwellings were covered, were in a blaze, and the flames spread in every -direction. As the fire increased, the English retired without the fort, -and environed it on every side. The Indians now recovering courage, -formed another circle exterior to that of the English. - -The amazed Pequods, driven from their covert by fire, climbed the -palisades, and presenting themselves in full view, more than one -hundred were shot down. Others, sallying forth from their burning -cells, were shot, or cut in pieces with the sword. In the mean time, -many perished in the flames within the fort. The battle, in this -locality, continued about an hour, and the scene of terror and blood -is hardly to be described. Seventy wigwams were consumed, and between -five and six hundred of the enemy, of all descriptions, strewed the -ground, or were involved in the burning pile. This victory was -achieved with the loss only of two men killed and twenty wounded. - -In the course of the attack, in the interior of the fort, Captain -Mason's life was in immediate danger. As he was entering a wigwam to -procure a firebrand, a Pequod, perceiving him, drew his arrow to the -head, with a view to pierce the captain's body. At this critical -moment, a resolute sergeant entering in, rescued his commander from -imminent peril by cutting the bow-string with his cutlass. - -Although the result of the engagement was the complete overthrow of the -Pequod camp, yet the situation of the Connecticut army was extremely -dangerous and distressing. Two of their troops were killed, and at least -one-fourth wounded; the remainder were faint with fatigue and want of -food; they were in the midst of an enemy's country, many miles from -their vessels, and their ammunition was nearly expended. The principal -fortress of their enemy was but three miles distant, where there was a -fresh army, which they knew would be filled with rage, on learning the -fate of their comrades. In this perilous condition, while they were -consulting on the course to be pursued, their vessels, as if guided by -the visible hand of Providence, appeared in sight, steering with a fair -wind into the harbor. The little band, however, were not permitted to -reach Pequod harbor without additional fighting. For no sooner had the -vessels been discovered, than three hundred Indians came from the other -fort, and were disposed to attack Captain Mason's party. He, however, so -disposed of his few available men, assisted by the Indians with him, who -carried the wounded English, that the Pequods were prevented from coming -so near as to do any mischief. But the balls of the English muskets took -effect on several of their number; and though, when the enemy came in -sight of the demolished fort, they raved, and tore their hair from their -heads, and rushed forward with the utmost fury to demolish the English, -they were taught to repent their rashness. Finding all attempts in vain, -to break in upon the little army, they left the victors to pursue the -remainder of their way to Pequod harbor unmolested. They entered it with -their colors flying, and were received on board the vessels with every -demonstration of joy and gratitude. - -The troops employed on this expedition, reached their homes in about -three weeks from the time they embarked at Hartford. They were -received with the greatest exultation. Benisons were poured forth on -them from all lips. But to God, especially, as the helper of his -people in their fearful trial, did the anthem of praise ascend from -the domestic altar and the solemn assembly. - -The Pequods, on the departure of Captain Mason, burned their wigwams, -destroyed their principal fort, and were with difficulty restrained -from putting their own chief, Sassacus, to death, as they looked upon -him as the author of their calamity. They scattered themselves -throughout the country, Sassacus, Mononotto, and seventy or eighty of -their chief counsellors and warriors, taking their route over Hudson -river. In the mean time, Massachusetts, hearing of the success of -Mason, despatched a body of one hundred and twenty men under Captain -Stoughton, to follow up the victory. Arriving in the enemy's country, -the Massachusetts army, finding a body of that tribe in a swamp, made -an assault upon them, with the aid of the Narragansets. Some -twenty-eight were killed and a larger number taken prisoners. - -The court at Connecticut ordered that forty men should be raised -forthwith, for the further prosecution of the war, under the same -commander. These troops formed a junction with the party under command -of Stoughton at Pequod, and the conclusion was immediately to march in -pursuit of Sassacus. They proceeded on their way as far as Quinnipiac -(New Haven), where, after staying several days, they received -intelligence that the enemy was at a considerable distance, in a great -swamp to the westward. Here the Indians were met, and an engagement -took place, under circumstances of great difficulty to the English, -many of whom were nearly mired, but it was nevertheless attended with -success. The fighting was of a most desperate character, the -assailants finding it nearly impossible to master or dislodge the foe. -Under the cover of a fog, after having been watched through the night, -Sassacus and sixty or seventy of his bravest warriors broke through -the English ranks, and escaped. About twenty Indians were killed, and -one hundred and eighty were taken prisoners. The Pequods, who remained -in the territory, amounting to some two hundred, besides women and -children, were at length divided among the Narragansets and Mohegans, -and the nation became extinct. - -The character of this war, from the boldness and vigor with which it -had been prosecuted, seemed to belong to the age of romance. It is -replete with thrilling incident and daring adventure. Yet the sober, -religious spirit and convictions of duty, which accompanied the -pilgrims to battle, turn its chivalrous aspect into the features of -stern reality and unavoidable necessity. It involved the fate of an -infant republic and the interests of posterity. The conquest of the -Pequods, while it was so fatal to one party, was productive of the -most happy consequences to the other. It struck the Indians throughout -New England with such a salutary terror, that they were contented to -remain at peace nearly forty years. - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration: PHILIP'S WAR] - - - - - VII. PHILIP'S WAR. - - - CAUSES of Philip's War--Character of Philip--General spirit of - hostility among the Indians--Outbreak at Swansey--Expedition - under General Savage--Expedition under Captain - Church--Perilous situation of this latter party--Timely - arrival of Captain Hutchinson--Second expedition of Captain - Church--Critical situation of Philip--Effects his - escape--Annoys the back settlements of - Massachusetts--Treachery of the Nipmucks--Attack on - Brookfield--Bloody affair at Muddy Brook--Attack on - Springfield--Attack on Hatfield--Outrages at - Northampton--Large force raised by Massachusetts, Plymouth, - and Connecticut, against the Narragansets--Philip's fortress - at Kingston, Rhode Island--Destruction of it--Lancaster - destroyed--Other towns burned--Fatal affair at Pawtuxet river, - Rhode Island--Stratagem of Cape Cod Indians--Attacks on - Rehoboth, Chelmsford, Sudbury, &c.--Expedition of Connecticut - troops--Conanchet captured--Long Meadow - attacked--Hadley--Fortunes of Philip on the wane--Successful - expedition against the Indians at Connecticut river - falls--Attack on Hatfield--On Hadley--Remarkable interposition - of a stranger at Hadley, supposed to be Goffe--Decline of - Philip's power--Pursued by Captain Church--Death of - Philip--Disastrous effects of the war--Philip's - warriors--Annawon--Reflections. - -To communities and nations, crises arrive, in which, through danger and -sufferings, they are either overcome and extirpated, or spring forward -to an improved condition after the first hurtful effect of the trial is -passed away. The war with Philip constituted such a crisis to the New -England colonies. Their danger was imminent--their sufferings were -fearful, and the immediate consequences were lamentation, and weakness, -and indebtedness. But their recuperative energies soon rëappeared, and a -wide door thus became open to extended settlement and population. - -The causes of the war lay partly in the condition of the colonies, and -partly in the character of Philip. The English settlements were -extending far into the wilderness, the home of the Indian, and were -rapidly increasing in strength. The natives viewed them as intruders, -and considered the probability that, at no distant day, they would be -dispossessed of the heritage of their fathers. They were jealous of -the designs of the English, and impatient under the encroachments -already made. They viewed themselves as the proper lords of the -forest, and they now saw that their hunting grounds were abridged, and -the wild animals on which they depended for subsistence, were -disappearing, as the white man felled the trees, and cultivated the -soil, and reared his dwellings. - -In view of this progress of the whites, nothing seemed to remain to -the native savage but to be forced from his loved haunts, and to lose -his cherished possessions, or to arouse, and by a desperate effort of -strength and valor to regain all that he once owned. - -The individual among the Indians whose foresight most clearly -discerned the state of things, and whose spirit was equal to the -emergency of attempting to resist it, was _Pometacom._ He was styled -_Philip_ by the English, a nickname given him on account of his -ambitious and haughty temper, and by this name he is chiefly known in -history. He was the sachem of the Wampanoags, residing at Mount Hope, -a younger son of the famous Massasoit, the friend of the whites. - -Philip had not spared any pains for a long time to effect a conspiracy, -and to unite the Indians in a general war against the colonists; but it -happened that before his plan was matured, his intentions, and those of -the Indians generally, were revealed to the English. The Indian who -betrayed him was Sausaman, one of Eliot's converts. For this he was -murdered by Philip's men; three of whom were seized, tried, and -executed. This was the signal for blood. The first attack of the Indians -was upon Swansey, several of whose inhabitants were killed. - -[Illustration: Flight of Philip from Mount Hope.] - -Philip soon after suddenly left his place of residence and his -territory to the English. The occasion of his precipitate retreat, was -the following: Additional assistance being needed, the authorities of -Boston sent out Major General Savage from that place, with sixty horse -and as many foot. They scoured the country on the march to Mount Hope, -where Philip and his wife were supposed to be at that time. They came -into his neighborhood unawares, so that he was forced to rise from -dinner, and he and all with him fled farther up into the country. They -pursued him as far as they could go for swamps; and killed fifteen or -sixteen in that expedition. - -[Illustration: Captain Church and his men hemmed in by Indians.] - -At the solicitation of Benjamin Church, a company of thirty-six men -were put under him and Captain Fuller, who on the 8th of July marched -down into Pocasset Neck. This force, small as it was, afterwards -divided--Church taking nineteen men, and Fuller the remaining -seventeen. The party under Church proceeded into a point of land -called Punkateeset, now the southerly extremity of Tiverton, where -they were attacked by a body of three hundred Indians. After a few -moments' fight, the English retreated to the sea-shore, and thus saved -themselves from destruction; for Church perceived that it was the -intention of the Indians to surround them. They could expect little -more than to perish, but they knew they were in a situation to sell -their lives at the dearest rate. Thus hemmed in, Church had a double -duty to perform--that of preserving the spirit of his followers, -several of whom viewed their situation as desperate, and erecting -piles of stone to defend them. - -As boats had been appointed to attend upon the English in this -expedition, the heroic party looked for relief from this quarter; but -though the boats appeared, they were kept off by the fire of the -Indians, and Church, in a moment of vexation, bid them be gone. The -Indians, now encouraged, fired thicker and faster than before. The -situation of the English was now most forlorn, although as yet, -providentially, not one of them had been wounded. Night was coming on, -their ammunition nearly spent, and the Indians had possessed -themselves of a stone house that overlooked them; but, just in season -to save them, a sloop was discovered bearing down towards the shore. -It was commanded by a resolute man, Captain Golding, who effected the -embarkation of the company, taking only two at a time in a canoe. -During all this time, the Indians plied their fire-arms; and Church, -who was the last to embark, narrowly escaped the balls of the enemy, -one grazing the hair of his head, and another lodging in a stake, -which happened to stand just before the centre of his breast. The band -under Captain Fuller met with a similar fortune, but escaped by -getting possession of an old house, close upon the water's edge, and -were early taken off by boats. He had two of his party wounded. - -Church soon after joined a body of English forces, and again -penetrated Pocasset, and renewed his skirmishes with the enemy. The -main body of the English, not long after, arrived at the place; on -which, Philip retired into the recesses of a large swamp. Here his -situation, for a time, was exceedingly critical; but at length he -contrived to elude his besiegers; and, effecting his escape, fled to -the Nipmucks, by whom he was readily received. - -Soon after the war began, an effort had been made by the governor of -Massachusetts to dissuade the Nipmucks from espousing the cause of -Philip. But at the time, not agreeing among themselves, they would -only consent to meet the English commissioners at a place three miles -from Brookfield on a specified day. The English authorities deputed -Captains Hutchinson and Wheeler to proceed to the appointed place. -They took with them twenty mounted men, and three Christian Indians as -guides and interpreters. On reaching the place agreed upon, no Indians -were to be seen; upon this, the party proceeded still further; when, -on reaching a narrow defile, they were suddenly attacked. Eight men -were killed outright, and three mortally wounded; among the latter, -was Captain Hutchinson. With the above loss, a retreat was effected; -and, under the guidance of the three Christian Indians, the remnant -made their way to Brookfield. - -[Illustration: Attack on Brookfield.] - -They were, however, immediately followed by the Indian foe. Luckily, -there was barely time to alarm the inhabitants, who, to the number of -seventy or eighty, flocked into a garrison-house. It was slightly -fortified about the exterior side, by a few logs hastily thrown up, -and in the interior by a few feather beds suspended to deaden the -force of the bullets. The house was soon surrounded by the enemy, and -shot poured upon it in all directions. But the fire of the besieged -kept the Indians from a very near approach. By persevering exertions, -the English were enabled to maintain themselves, until a force under -Major Willard came to their relief. He was in the vicinity of -Lancaster with forty-eight dragoons, when he learned the critical -condition of Brookfield. With a forced march of thirty miles, he -reached the place the following night. - -At the very time Major Willard arrived at Brookfield, the Indians were -contriving some machinery to set the garrison on fire. They first -endeavored to effect their purpose by fire-arrows, and rags dipped in -brimstone tied to long poles spliced together. But this method was -without effect, while it exposed them to the deadly fire of those within -the building. They next filled a cart with hemp, flax, and other -combustible materials; and this, after they set it on fire, they thrust -backward with their long poles. But no sooner had the flame began to -take effect, than it was extinguished by an unexpected shower of rain. - -Major Willard soon left the region of Brookfield, and marched the -principal part of his forces to Hadley, for the protection of the -settlements in that quarter. When he had completed his business, he -returned to Boston, leaving Lathrop and Beers at Hadley. A -considerable number of christianized Indians, belonging to the -neighborhood of Hadley, occupied a small fort about a mile above -Hatfield. On the occurrence of the difficulties in that region, these, -as all other Indians, were watched and suspected of conniving with -Philip. To put their fidelity to a test, Captains Lathrop and Beers, -with a force of one hundred and eighty men, ordered these Indians to -surrender their arms. They hesitated to do so then, but promised a -speedy compliance. Yet, on the following night, August 25th, they left -their fort, and fled up the river towards Deerfield to join Philip. -The English captains commenced a pursuit early the next morning, and -came up with them at a swamp, opposite to the present town of -Sunderland, where a warm contest ensued. The Indians fought bravely, -but were finally routed, with a loss of twenty-six of their number. -The whites lost ten men. The Indians, who escaped, joined Philip's -forces, and Lathrop and Beers returned to their station in Hadley. - -[Illustration: Battle of Muddy Brook.] - -Near the middle of September, Captain Lathrop was sent from Hadley, with -eighty-eight men, to bring away some corn, grain, and other valuable -articles from Deerfield. It was at that very time that the company under -Captain Mosely, then quartered at Deerfield, intended to pursue the -enemy. But upon the 10th of the month, "that most fatal day, the saddest -that ever befel New England," Lathrop's company was attacked by the -Indians, who had selected a place very advantageous to their purpose, -knowing that the English with their teams would pass the road at the -spot. The place was at the village now called Muddy Brook, in the -southerly part of Deerfield, where the road crossed a small stream (as -it now does), bordered by a narrow morass. Here the Indians, in great -force, had planted themselves in ambuscade; and no sooner had Lathrop -arrived at the spot, than the Indians poured a heavy and destructive -fire upon the columns, and then rushed furiously to close engagement. -The English ranks were broken, and the scattered troops were every where -attacked. Those who survived, after the first onset, met the foe -individually, and endeavored to sell their lives as dearly as possible. -Seeking the covert of a tree, each one selected an object of attack, and -the awful conflict now became a trial of skill in sharp shooting, on the -issues of which life or death was suspended. But the overwhelming -superiority of the Indians, as to numbers, left no room for hope on the -part of the English. They were cut down every instant from behind their -retreats, until nearly the whole number were destroyed. The dead, the -dying, the wounded, strewed the ground in every direction. Out of nearly -one hundred, including the teamsters, only seven or eight escaped from -the bloody spot. The wounded were indiscriminately massacred. This -company consisted of choice young men, "the very flower of Essex county, -none of whom were ashamed to speak with the enemy in the gate." Eighteen -of the men belonged to Deerfield. - -Captain Mosely, being only four or five miles distant, heard the sound -of musketry, and reasonably concluded what was the cause of the -report. By a rapid march for the relief of Lathrop, he arrived at the -close of the struggle, when he found the Indians stripping and -mangling the dead. At once he rushed on in compact order, and broke -through the enemy, charging back and forth, and cutting down all -within range of his shot. After several hours of gallant fighting, he -compelled the Indians to flee into the more distant parts of the -forest. His loss amounted to two killed and eleven wounded. - -Until this period, the Indians near Springfield remained friendly, and -refused the appeals of Philip, to cöoperate with him against the white -population. But now that he held the northern towns, they were closely -watched by the English, who supposed that the Indians might take sides -with him, as his cause seemed likely to prevail. The suspicions -entertained concerning them were confirmed. On the night of the 4th of -October, they admitted about three hundred of Philip's men into their -fort, which was situated at a place called Longhill, about a mile -below the village of Springfield, and a plan was concerted for the -destruction of the place. The plot, however, was revealed by an Indian -at Windsor, and the inhabitants of Springfield had time barely to -escape into their garrisons. Here they resisted the attacks of the -Indians until they received relief from abroad. The unfortified -houses, thirty-two in number, together with twenty-five barns, were -burned by the savages. The people were reduced to great distress, and -had very inadequate means of support through the ensuing winter. - -The confidence of Philip and his Indians was now greatly increased by -their successes. The next blow which they aimed, was at the -head-quarters of the whites, hoping to destroy Hatfield, Hadley, and -Northampton, as they had Springfield. But by the providence of God, -and the good conduct of the whites, they were effectually foiled. At -this time, Captain Appleton, with one company, lay at Hadley, and -Captains Mosely and Poole, with two companies, at Hatfield, and Major -Treat was just returned to Northampton for the security of that -settlement. Against such commanders, it was in vain for the untutored -Indian to contend in regular battle. Philip's men, however, made a -bold attempt, and seven or eight hundred strong fell upon Hatfield, on -the 19th of October, attacking it on all sides at once. They had -previously cut off several parties, which were scouring the woods in -the vicinity. While Poole bravely defended one extremity, Mosely, with -no less vigor, protected the centre, and Appleton, coming on with his -troops, maintained the other extremity. After a severe struggle, the -Indians were repulsed at every point. - -After leaving the western frontier of Massachusetts, Philip was known -next to be in the country of his allies, the Narragansets. They had -not heartily engaged in the war; but their inclination to do so was -not doubted, and it was the design of Philip to incite them to -activity. An army of fifteen hundred English was therefore raised by -the three colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut, for -the purpose of breaking down the power of Philip among the -Narragansets. It was believed that the next spring, that nation would -come with all their power upon the whites. Conanchet, their sachem, in -violation of the treaty, had not only received Philip's warriors, but -aided their operations against the English. These were the grounds of -the great expedition against the Narragansets, in the winter of 1675. - -Philip had strongly fortified himself in South Kingston, Rhode Island, -on an elevated portion of an immense swamp. Here his men had erected -about five hundred wigwams, of a superior construction, in which was -deposited an abundant store of provisions. Baskets and tubs of corn -(hollow trees cut off about the length of a barrel), were piled one -upon another, about the inside of the dwellings, which rendered them -bullet-proof. Here about three thousand persons, as is supposed, had -taken up their residence for the winter, among whom were Philip's best -warriors. - -[Illustration: THE SWAMP FIGHT.] - -The forces destined to the attack of this great rendezvous of Philip -and his men, were under command of Governor Winslow, of Plymouth. By -reasons of a great body of snow, and the prevalence of intense cold, -much time was consumed in reaching the fort. On the 19th of December, -they arrived before it; and, by reason of a want of provisions, found -an immediate attack indispensable. No Englishman, however, was -acquainted with its situation, and, but for an Indian, who betrayed -his countrymen, there is little probability that the assailants could -have effected any thing against it. The hour of their arrival was one -o'clock on that short day of the year. There was but one point where -the place could be assailed with the least probability of success, and -this was fortified by a kind of blockhouse, directly in front of the -entrance, and had also flankers to cover a cross-fire. The place was -protected by high palisades, and an immense hedge of fallen trees -surrounding it on all sides. Between the fort and the main land was a -body of water, which could be crossed only on a large tree lying over -it. Such was the formidable aspect of the place--such the difficulty -of gaining access to the interior of it. - -On coming to the spot, the English soldiers, attempting to pass upon -the tree in single file, the only possible mode, were instantly swept -off by the fire of the enemy. Still, others, led by their captains, -supplied the places of the slain. These also met the same fearful -fire, with the same fatal effect. The attempts were repeated, until -six captains and a large number of men had fallen. And now was a -partial, but momentary, recoil from the face of death. - -At length, however, Captain Mosely got within the fort, with a small -band of men. Then commenced a terrible struggle, at fearful odds. -While these were contending hand to hand with the Indians, the cry was -heard, "They run! they run!" and immediately a considerable body of -their fellow-soldiers rushed in. The slaughter of the foe became -immense, as the assailants were insufficient in strength to drive them -from the main breast-work. Captain Church, who was acting as aid to -Winslow, at the head of a volunteer party, about this time dashed -through the fort, and reached the swamp in the rear, where he poured a -destructive fire on the rear of a party of the enemy. Thus attacked in -different directions, the warriors were at length compelled to -relinquish their ground, and flee into the wilderness. - -The Indian cabins, (contrary to the advice of some of the officers, who -thought it best that the wearied and wounded soldiers should rest there -for a time,) "were now set on fire; in a few moments every thing in the -interior of the fort was involved in a blaze; and a scene of horror was -now exhibited. Several hundred of the Indians strewed the ground on all -sides: about three hundred miserable women and children with lamentable -shrieks were running in every direction to escape the flames, in which -many of the wounded, as well as the helpless old men, were seen broiling -and roasting, and adding to the terrors of the scene by their agonizing -yells. The most callous heart must have been melted to pity at so awful -a spectacle. By information afterwards obtained from a Narraganset -chief, it was ascertained that they lost about seven hundred warriors at -the fort, and three hundred who died of their wounds. After the -destruction of the place, Winslow, about sunset, commenced his march for -Pettyquamscott, in a snow storm, carrying most of his dead and wounded, -where he arrived a little after midnight. Several wounded, probably not -mortally, were overcome with cold, and died on their march; and the next -day thirty-four were buried in one grave. Many were severely frozen, and -about four hundred so disabled that they were unfit for duty. The whole -number killed and wounded, was about two hundred." The sufferings of the -English, after the fight, were well pronounced to be almost without a -parallel in history. - -The spirit of Philip animated the Indians even where he was not -present, for he was now by some supposed to be beyond the frontier. On -the 19th of February, they surprised Lancaster with complete success, -falling upon it with a force of several hundred warriors. It contained -at that time fifty families, of whom forty-two persons were killed and -captured. Most of the buildings were set on fire. Among the captives -were Mrs. Rowlandson and her children, the family of the minister of -that place, who were afterwards happily redeemed. The town was saved -from entire ruin by the arrival of Captain Wadsworth with forty men -from Marlborough. - -Not far from this time a fatal affair occurred at Pawtuxet river, in -Rhode Island. Captain Pierce, of Scituate, with fifty men, and twenty -Cape Cod Indians, having passed the river, unexpectedly met with a -large body of Indians. Perceiving that their numbers rendered an -attack upon them hopeless, he fell back, and took a position so as to -be sheltered by the bank. In this situation, the company was not long -secure. Part of the Indians crossed the river, and attacked them from -the opposite bank, while the remainder encircled them on the side of -the river, where they had sought protection, and poured in upon them a -most destructive fire. Hemmed in so effectually, there was no -possibility of escape, and nothing was left them but to sell their -lives as dearly as possible. This was accordingly done, and before the -unfortunate men were nearly all cut off, more than a hundred of the -enemy are said to have fallen by the desperate valor of the English. - -The Christian Cape Cod Indians showed their faithfulness and courage -in this melancholy affair, as also their dexterity and foresight. Four -of them effected their escape, and one of these aided the escape of -the only Englishman that survived the encounter. One of them, whose -name was Amos, after Captain Pierce was disabled by a wound, would not -leave him, so long as there was a prospect of rendering him service, -but loaded and fired his piece several times. At length, to save -himself, he adroitly adopted the plan of painting his face black, as -he perceived the enemy had done to their faces. In this disguise he -ran among them, and pretended to join them in the fight; but watching -his opportunity, he soon escaped into the woods. Of another it is -reported, that being pursued by one of the enemy, he sought the -shelter of a large rock. While in that situation, he perceived that -his foe lay ready with his gun on the opposite side, to fire upon him -as soon as he stirred. A stratagem only saved his life. Raising -carefully his hat upon a pole, he seemed to the person lying in wait, -to have exposed himself to a shot. A ball was instantly sent through -the hat, but one was returned in earnest against the head of the -enemy. Thus the Christian Indian, through his address, found the means -of escape from his singular peril. A similar subtle device was used by -another of these Indians, who was pursued as he attempted to cross -the river. Hiding himself behind a mass of earth turned up with the -roots of a tree, he was watched by the enemy, in the expectation that -he would soon be obliged to change his position. But, instead of doing -this, the Cape Cod Indian, perforating his breastwork, made a -convenient loophole, and shot his enemy before he had time to notice -the artifice. The fourth Cape Cod Indian who escaped, effected his -object by affecting to be in pursuit of an Englishman with his -upraised hatchet. This ingenious feint, of course, was the means of -saving the white man at the same time. - -[Illustration: Indian Stratagem.] - -The work of destruction continued among the towns of New England at -this period. To a greater or less extent Rehoboth and Providence -suffered--also, Plymouth, Chelmsford, and Andover--either men were -killed, or dwelling-houses and barns were burned. But the most signal -disaster, at this time, fell upon the English in the vicinity of -Sudbury. On the morning of the 20th of April, the largest body of -Indians which had at any time appeared, attacked the place, and, -before a force could be brought against them, set fire to several -buildings, which were consumed. The inhabitants rallied, and bravely -defended their homes; and, being soon joined by some soldiers from -Watertown, they forced the Indians to retreat without effecting -further mischief against the town that day. On hearing the news of the -attack on Sudbury, some of the people of Concord flew for its -protection. As they approached a garrison-house, a few Indians were -discovered, and a pursuit was given them. The flight of the latter -proved to be only a decoy, and the Concord people, eleven in number, -found themselves ambushed on every side. Fighting with the utmost -desperation, they were all cut off except one. The Indians, who -remained in the adjoining woods for further depredations, found -another opportunity to glut their vengeance against the whites. -Captain Wadsworth, hearing of the transactions at Sudbury, marched -with several men, joined by Captain Brocklebank and ten others, -towards the place. At a mile and a half from the town, five hundred -Indians lay in ambush behind the hills. When Wadsworth arrived at the -spot, the Indians sent out a few of their party, who crossed the track -of the English, and, being discovered by the latter, affected to fly -through fear. Wadsworth, with great want of caution, immediately -commenced a pursuit, and was consequently drawn into the ambush. The -Indians began the attack with great boldness. For some time, the -English maintained good order, and retreated with small loss to an -adjacent hill. After fighting four hours, and losing many men, the -Indians became doubly enraged, and resolved to try the effect of -another stratagem. In this they completely succeeded. They immediately -set the woods on fire to the windward of the English, which, owing to -the wind, and the dryness of grass and other combustibles, spread with -great and fatal rapidity. The English were driven, by the fury of the -flames, from their favorable position, and were thus exposed to the -tomahawks of the Indians. Nearly all the English fell--some accounts -say that they sold their lives, to the last man. - -[Illustration: Fight near Sudbury.] - -Several towns in the colony of Plymouth, as Scituate, Bridgewater, -Middleborough, and Plymouth, were in turn attacked and injured, though -not many of their inhabitants were destroyed. They probably betook -themselves to the fortified houses, which now became common in the -exposed villages. - -Connecticut, not being exposed to the incursions of the natives, sent -out several volunteer companies in aid of her sister colonies, in -addition to the troops required as her quota in the present war. These -volunteer forces were raised principally from New London, Norwich, and -Stonington, joined by a body of friendly Indians. On the 27th of -March, a body of these troops, under Captains Dennison and Avery, -penetrated the country of the hostile Narragansets. In the course of -their excursion, they struck the trail of a large body of Indians, and -commenced pursuit. The latter, upon the approach of the English, -scattered in all directions. It proved to be a force commanded by -Conanchet. He took a route by himself and, being swift of foot, hoped -to outstrip his pursuers. In crossing a river, however, he -accidentally plunged under water, and wet his gun. On this occurrence, -he was soon overtaken by a fast-running Pequod, to whom he surrendered -himself at once. A young Englishman, coming up, began to put various -questions to the chief, who, little liking to be catechised in that -manner, replied to him, with a look of contempt: "You much child--no -understand matters of war; let your captain come: him I will answer." -Conanchet was conveyed to Stonington, and, after a sort of trial, was -condemned to be shot by the Mohegan and Pequod sachems. The -alternative of life was, however, presented to him, if he would make -peace with the English. The chieftain indignantly refused it, and gave -utterance to the feelings of his untamed spirit, when his sentence was -pronounced, in the sentiment, that "he liked it well that he should -die before his heart was soft, or he had said any thing unworthy of -himself." Conanchet was the son of the famous Miantonimoh, who was put -to death by Uncas, as related in another portion of this work.[22] - -When success no longer attended Philip in Massachusetts, those of his -allies whom he had seduced into this war began to accuse him as the -author of all their calamities. Many of the tribes, therefore, -scattered themselves in different directions. The Deerfield Indians -were among the first who abandoned his cause, and many of the Nipmucks -and Narragansets soon followed their example. Still, Philip, though he -had not been much seen during the winter--and it is doubtful, even, -where he had spent the most of it--had no intention of abating his -efforts against the English. In the month of May, 1676, he was found -at the head of a powerful force, in the northern part of -Massachusetts, extending many miles on its frontier from east to west. -Considerable numbers of his people were also still in and about -Narraganset, ravaging and annoying the adjacent English settlements. - -Large bodies of the Indians, about this time, anxious to secure the -advantages of fishing in Connecticut river, took up positions at the -falls, between the present towns of Gill and Montague. This was in the -vicinity of the line of country occupied by Philip's forces. They felt -the more secure here, as the English forces at Hadley and the adjacent -towns were not at this time at all numerous. Two captive lads, who had -escaped from the Indians, informed the English of their situation, and -the little pains they had taken to guard themselves. The intelligence -thus brought induced the people of Hatfield, Hadley, and Northampton, -to raise a force, for the purpose of attacking the enemy at so -favorable a point. About one hundred and sixty troops were raised, and -placed under the command of Captain Turner. They marched silently in -the dead of the night, and came upon the Indians a little before the -dawn of day, whom they found almost in a dead sleep, and without any -scouts abroad, or watching around their wigwams at home. - -[Illustration: Indians attacked at Connecticut River Falls.] - -When the Indians were first awakened by the thunder of their guns, -they cried out, "Mohawks! Mohawks!" as if their own native enemies had -been upon them; but the dawning of the light soon rectified their -error, though it could not prevent their danger. The loss of the -Indians was great: one hundred men were left dead on the ground, and -one hundred and forty were seen to pass down the cataract, but one of -whom escaped drowning. - -The march of the English forces back was, however, attended with no -small disaster. The Indians, learning the inconsiderable numbers that -had attacked them, rallied in their turn, and hung upon the rear of the -English. Their captain, just then enfeebled by sickness, was unable to -arrange or conduct his forces as they should have been; and the -consequence was a degree of confusion, and their separation into small -parties. In this manner, they suffered the loss of thirty-eight men, -though the Indians paid dearly for it by the loss of more than a hundred -of their warriors on the way. Captain Turner perished in the expedition. - -By the destruction at the falls, Philip's forces were seriously -diminished; yet his spirit continued unsubdued and undaunted, and he -was resolved to retort upon the English the injuries he had sustained. -Accordingly, on the 30th of May, six hundred of his warriors appeared -at Hatfield, and rushed suddenly into the town. They immediately set -fire to twelve unfortified buildings, and attacked several palisaded -dwelling-houses. These were bravely defended by the people. In the -midst of the fight, as the inhabitants were attacked, whether in their -dwellings or at their labors, a party of twenty-five resolute young -men crossed the river from Hadley, and came with such animation upon -the Indians, and with so deadly a fire, that the latter were driven -back. Eventually, the whole body of the enemy was obliged to return, -without effecting, as was intended, the complete destruction of the -place. They, however, drove off a large number of sheep and cattle. - -Massachusetts and Connecticut now increased their forces in this -quarter, as it appeared that the foe was determined on devastating -the settlements upon the river. Hadley became next the object of -attack, in which about seven hundred Indians were engaged. The assault -was made on the 12th of June, the Indians having laid an ambuscade at -the southern extremity, and advanced the main body towards the other -the preceding night. Though the Indians exhibited their usual -fierceness, they were met and repulsed at the palisades. Renewing -their attacks upon other points, they seemed resolved to carry the -place. Still, they were held in check until assistance arrived from -Northampton, when the foe was driven into the woods. - -[Illustration: Defence of Hadley.] - -It was during this attack, as is supposed, that the assistance was -afforded to the whites which has generally been ascribed to Goffe, one -of the fugitive judges from England, which at the time was believed to -have been rendered by the guardian angel of the place. In the midst of -the confusion and distress of the battle, a gray-headed, -venerable-looking man, whose costume differed from that of the -inhabitants, appeared, and assumed the direction of the defence. He -arrayed the people in the best manner, showing that he well understood -military tactics, led in the battle, and, by his exhortations and -efforts, rendered essential aid on the occasion. After the departure -of the Indians, he was not observed, and nothing was heard of him -afterwards. As it is known that, at that time, Goffe and Whalley were -concealed in the house of Mr. Russel in Hadley, it is inferred that -one of these men, Goffe (for Whalley was superanuated) left his -concealment, in the danger which existed, and put forth the effort -here recorded, in order to save the town. - -Philip was now secure in no place, but his haughty spirit was untamed -by adversity. Although meeting with constant losses, and among them -some of his most experienced warriors, he, nevertheless, seemed as -hostile and determined as ever. In August, the intrepid Church made a -descent upon his head-quarters, at Matapoiset, where he killed and -took prisoners about one hundred and thirty of his men. Even Philip -escaped with difficulty. So great was his precipitation, that he was -obliged to leave his wampum behind, which, with his wife and son, fell -into the hands of the victors. That son, it was afterwards -ascertained, was sold into slavery, as it was also the mournful fact, -with a number of Philip's captured followers. Philip, as stated above, -escaped with difficulty. The particulars, as related by Church, are as -follow: Church's guide had brought him to a place where a large tree, -which the enemy had fallen across a river, lay. Church had come to the -top end of the tree when he happened to spy an Indian upon the stump -of it, on the other side of the stream. He immediately leveled his gun -against the Indian, and had doubtless despatched him, had not one of -his own Indians called hastily to him not to fire, for he believed it -was one of his own men. Hearing this, in all probability the Indian -upon the stump looked about, and Church's Indian, then seeing his -face, perceived his mistake, for he knew him to be Philip. Church's -Indian then fired himself, but it was too late. Philip immediately -threw himself off the stump, leaped down a bank on the other side of -the river, and was out of sight. Church at once gave chase for him, -but was unable to discover his course, and only took some of his -friends and followers, as has been related. - -[Illustration: Philip's Escape.] - -But from this time, Philip was too closely watched and hotly pursued -to escape destruction. His end was rapidly drawing near, his followers -mostly deserted him, and he was driven from place to place, until he -found himself in his ancient seat near Pokanoket. The immediate -occasion of his death is thus narrated: He having put to death one of -his own men, for advising him to make peace, this man's brother, whose -name was Alderman, fearing the same fate, deserted him, and gave -Captain Church an account of his situation, and offered to lead him to -his camp. Early on Saturday morning, 12th August, Church came to the -swamp where Philip was encamped, and, before he was discovered, had -placed a guard about it so as to encompass it, except at a small -place. He then ordered Captain Golding to rush into the swamp, and -fall upon Philip in his camp, which he immediately did, but was -discovered as he approached, and, as usual, Philip was the first to -fly. Having but just awaked from sleep, and having put on part of his -clothes, he fled with all his might. Coming directly upon an -Englishman and Indian, who composed a part of the ambush at the edge -of the swamp, the Englishman's gun missed fire, but Alderman, the -Indian, whose gun was loaded with two balls, sent one through his -heart and another not above two inches from it. "He fell upon his face -in the mud and water, with his gun under him." - -[Illustration: Death of Philip.] - -This important news was immediately communicated to Captain Church, by -the man who performed the exploit; but the captain suffered nothing to -be said concerning it, as he wished to dislodge the enemy from his -retreat. Philip's great captain, Annawon, had, however, led out about -sixty of his followers from their dangerous situation, and, when the -English scoured the swamp, they found not many Indians left. These were -killed and captured. After the affair was over, Church communicated to -his troops the gratifying intelligence of Philip's death, upon which the -whole army gave three loud huzzas. Philip's body was drawn from the spot -where he fell, the head taken off, and the body left unburied, to be -devoured by wild beasts. With the great chief fell five of his most -trusty followers; one of whom was his chief captain's son, and the -Indian who fired the first gun in this bloody war. Thus fell this -chieftain, who, though an untutored savage, was doubtless a great -man--considered in reference to his intellectual resources and the -influence he wielded among his compatriots. Had his lot fallen among a -civilized race, and fighting as he did for his native country, he had -been as illustrious as any hero of any age or clime. - -Philip's war proved a most serious concern to the infant colonies. It -cost them half a million of dollars, and the lives of above six -hundred inhabitants, who were either killed in battle, or otherwise -destroyed by the enemy. Thirteen towns and six hundred houses were -burned, and there was scarcely a family in the United Colonies that -had not occasion to mourn the death of a relative. Dr. Trumbull thinks -the loss exceeds the common estimate. He concludes that about one -fencible man in eleven was killed, and every eleventh family burned -out. But the war was still more disastrous to the Indians. Great -numbers of them fell in battle; their lodges were destroyed, and, -indeed, their country conquered. Scarcely a hundred warriors remained -of the great leading tribe of the Narragansets.[23] - -Of Philip's warriors, several were remarkable men.--Among these were -Nanunteno, or Cononchet; Annawon, Quinnapin, Tuspaquin, and Tatoson. -We can briefly notice but one--the mighty Annawon. We have seen that -at the time of Philip's death, he escaped with a number of his men. -The place of his retreat was not long after disclosed by an Indian and -his daughter, who had been captured. It was in a swamp in the -south-east part of Rehoboth. Captain Church, upon this information, -adopted a most daring stratagem to secure Annawon. At the head of a -small party, conducted by his informers, Church cautiously approached -in the evening the edge of a rocky precipice, under which the chief -was encamped, and critically examined the position. The Indians, their -arms, their employments, (for they were preparing for a meal,) and -other defences, were all noticed by Captain Church; and particularly -the fact, that Annawon and his son were reposing near the arms. As he -learned from his guide that no one was allowed to go out or come into -the camp, except by the precipice, he determined to seek his object in -that direction. The Indian and his daughter, according to a concerted -plan, with baskets upon their backs, as if bringing in provisions, -preceded Church and his men, by their shadows concealing the latter, -and descended the rock. In this way, although with great difficulty, -they all reached the bottom without alarming the Indians. It happened, -singularly enough, that their descent was accomplished without -discovery, on account of the noise made by the pounding of a mortar; a -squaw being engaged in that work in preparing green dried corn for -their supper. Under favor of the noise thus made, the rustling sound -proceeding from their leaps from crag to crag was not noticed. Church, -with his hatchet in his hand, stepped over the young man's head to the -arms. The young Annawon threw his blanket suddenly over his head, and -shrunk up in a heap. The old chief started upon end, and cried out -_Howah!_ meaning Welcome! Finding that there was no escape, he -resigned himself to his fate, and fell back on his couch; while his -captors secured the rest of the company. English and Indian amicably -ate their supper together, and Church afterwards laid down to rest, as -he had not slept during the thirty-six previous hours; but his mind -was too full of cares to admit of repose, and after lying a short -time, he got up. On one occasion, during the night, he felt -suspicious of Annawon's intentions, as the latter, after attempting -in vain to sleep, arose, and left the spot a short time. Returning -with something in his hands, (Church having in the mean time prepared -himself for the worst,) he placed it on the ground, and, falling on -his knees before his captor, said: "Great Captain, you have killed -Philip and conquered his country, for I believe that I and my company -are the last that war against the English. I suppose the war is ended -by your means." His pack consisted of presents, being principally -several belts of wampum, curiously wrought, and a red cloth blanket, -the royal dress of Philip. These he gave to Church, expressing his -gratification in having an opportunity of delivering them to him. - -[Illustration: Capture of Annawon.] - -The remainder of the night they spent in discourse, in which Annawon -gave an account of his success and exploits in former wars with the -Indians when he served Asuhmequin, Philip's father. Annawon, it is -said, had confessed that he had put to death several of the captive -English, and could not deny but that some of them had been tortured. -Under these circumstances, and considering the exasperation which the -English naturally felt, it was hardly to be expected that mercy should -be shown him. Church, however, did not intend that he should be put to -death, and had earnestly entreated for him; but in his absence from -Plymouth, not long after, the old chief was executed. - -It is not uncommon with historians and others, to denounce and -execrate the conduct of Philip and his warriors, as wanton and savage. -They were doubtless cruel--they were savage. The writer would not -become their panegyrist. But let it be remembered, that if they cannot -be exculpated, there are mitigating circumstances which should always -be mentioned in connection with their most inhuman barbarities. The -influences of Christianity never bore upon them. They inflicted no -greater tortures upon the English than they often inflicted upon other -prisoners of their own complexion. But in addition, they were fighting -for their own country. They were patriots--and they saw in the -progress and prosperity of the English, the downfall of Indian -power--the annihilation of Indian title. They were fathers, husbands, -and full well did they know that soon their family relations would be -broken up--and the inheritance of their children for ever fail. Who -can blame them for wishing to perpetuate their hold on their native -hunting grounds--or leaving to their posterity an inheritance dear to -them as ours is to us?--We cannot justify their treachery--their -indiscriminate and wholesale butcheries--but surely we may admire -their bravery--their endurance--their patriotism. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[22] Hoyt's Antiquarian Researches. - -[23] Book of the Indians. - - - - - VIII. WAR OF WILLIAM III. - - - COMBINATION of French and Indians against the Americans--Burning - of Schenectady--Cause of it--Horrors attending it--Attack upon - Salmon Falls--Upon Casco--Results of Expeditions fitted out by - New York and New England--Reduction of Port Royal--Atrocities - which marked the war--Attack on Haverhill, Mass.--Heroic - Conduct of Mrs. Dustan--Peace. - -During the three wars of King William, Queen Anne, and George II., the -sufferings of the northern colonies were severe and protracted, or -were intermitted only at short intervals. The hostility of the Indians -was kept alive, and often kindled into a fresh flame, through the -agency of European settlers on their northern border. These took up -the quarrel of France and England, and sought occasions to molest the -subjects of the English sovereign in America. - -In _King William's War_, the French combined with the Indians in -bringing fire and sword upon the inhabitants of New England and New -York. A connected account need not be given of the disastrous -occurrences that took place, during this sanguinary war; but only -particular instances of hostilities, and their effects, will be -narrated in this portion of the present work. - -We commence with the attack on _Schenectady_. This was made in pursuance -of a plan adopted by Count Frontenac, then the governor of Canada, in -revenging on the English colonies the treatment which King James had -received from the English government, and which had inflamed the -resentment of Frontenac's master, Louis XIV. The governor fitted out -three expeditions against the American colonies in the midst of winter, -of which one was against New York. The attack on Schenectady was the -fruit of this expedition. It was made by a party, consisting of about -two hundred French and, perhaps, fifty Caughnewaga Indians, under the -command of two French officers, Maulet and St. Helene, in 1689-90. - -[Illustration: Burning of Schenectady.] - -Schenectady was then in the form of an oblong square, having a gate at -each extremity. But as one of the gates only could be found, they all -entered at that one. The gate was not only open, but was also unguarded. -Although the town was impaled, and might have been protected, no one -deemed it necessary to close the gate at night, presuming that the -severity of the season was a sufficient security. The enemy divided -themselves into several parties, and waylaid every portal, and then -raised the war-whoop. It was between eleven and twelve o'clock on -Saturday night, the 8th of February, when the fearful tragedy commenced. -Maulet attacked a garrison, where the only resistance of any account was -made. He soon forced the gate, and all the English were slaughtered, and -the garrison burned. One of the French officers was wounded, in forcing -a house, and thereby wholly disabled; but St. Helene having come to his -assistance, the house was taken and all who had shut themselves in it -were put to the sword. Nothing was now to be seen but massacre and -pillage on every side. The most shocking barbarities were committed on -the inhabitants. "Sixty-three houses and the church were immediately in -a blaze. _Enciente_ women, in their expiring agonies, saw their infants -cast into the flames, being first delivered by the knife of the midnight -assassin. Sixty-three persons were murdered and twenty-seven were -carried into captivity." - -A few persons were enabled to escape, but being without sufficient -clothing, they lost their limbs from the severity of the cold, as they -traveled towards Albany. - -About noon, the next day, the enemy left the desolated place, taking -such plunder as they could carry with them, and destroying the -remainder. It was designed, it seems, to spare the minister of the -place, as Maulet wanted him as his own prisoner; but he was found -among the mangled dead, and his papers burned. The houses of two or -three individuals were spared, for particular reasons, while the rest -were consigned to the flames. - -Owing to the state of the traveling, news of the massacre did not reach -the great Mohawk castle, seventeen miles distant, until at the -expiration of two days. On the reception of the news, a party commenced -a pursuit of the foe. After a tedious route, they fell upon their rear, -killed and took twenty-five of them, and effected some other damage. - -The second party of French and Indians was sent against the delightful -settlement at _Salmon Falls_, on the Piscataqua. At Three Rivers, -Frontenac had fitted out an expedition of fifty-two men and -twenty-five Indians. They had an officer at their head in whom the -greatest confidence could be reposed--Sieur Hertel. In his small band -he had three sons and two nephews. After a long and rugged march, -Hertel reached the place on the 27th of March, 1690. His spies having -reconnoitered it, he divided his men into three companies, the largest -portion of which he led himself. The attack was made at the break of -day. The English made a stout resistance, but were unable to withstand -the well-directed fire of the assailants. Thirty of the bravest of -the inhabitants were cut to pieces; the remainder, amounting to -fifty-four, were made prisoners. The English had twenty-seven houses -reduced to ashes, and two thousand domestic animals perished in the -barns that had been burned. - -The third party, which was fitted out from Quebec by the directions of -Frontenac, made an attack upon _Casco_, in Maine. This was commanded -by M. de Portneuf. Hertel, on his return to Canada, met with this -expedition, and, joining it with the force under his command, came -back to the scene of warfare in which he had been so unhappily -successful. As the hostile company marched through the country of the -Abenakis, numbers of them joined it. Portneuf, with his forces thus -augmented, came into the neighborhood of Casco, according to the -French account, on the 25th of May, 1690. On the following night, -having prepared an ambush, he succeeded in taking and killing an -Englishman who fell into it. Upon this occurrence, the Indians raised -the war-whoop, and about fifty English soldiers, leaving the garrison -to learn the occasion of it, had nearly reached the ambush, when they -were fired upon. Before they could make resistance, they were fallen -upon by the French and Indians, who, with their swords and tomahawks, -made such a slaughter, that but four of them escaped, and those with -severe wounds. "The English, seeing now that they must stand a siege, -abandoned four garrisons, and all retired into one which was provided -with cannon. Before these were abandoned, an attack was made upon one -of them, in which the French were repulsed with the loss of one Indian -killed, and one Frenchman wounded. Portneuf began now to doubt of his -ability to take Casco, fearing the issue; for his commission only -ordered him to lay waste the English settlements, and not to attempt -fortified places. But, in this dilemma, Hertel and Hopehood (a -celebrated chief of the tribe of the Kennebecks), arrived. It was now -determined to press the siege. In the deserted forts they found all -the necessary tools for carrying on the work, and they began a mine -within fifty feet of the fort, under a steep bank, which entirely -protected them from its guns. The English became discouraged, and, on -the 28th of May, surrendered themselves prisoners of war. There were -seventy men, and probably a much greater number of women and children; -all of whom, except Captain Davis, who commanded the garrison, and -three or four others, were given up to the Indians, who murdered most -of them in their most cruel manner; and, if the accounts be true, -Hopehood excelled all other savages in acts of cruelty." - -These barbarous transactions, producing alike terror and indignation, -aroused New England and New York to attempt a formidable demonstration -against the enemy. The general court of Massachusetts sent letters of -request to the several executives of the provinces, pursuant to which -they convened at New York, May 1st, 1691. Two important measures were -adopted, as the result of the deliberations, on this -occasion--Connecticut sent General Winthrop, with troops, to march -through Albany, there to receive supplies, and to be joined by a body of -men from New York. The expedition was to proceed up Lake Champlain, and -was destined for the destruction of Montreal. There was a failure, -however, of the supplies, and thus the project was defeated. -Massachusetts sent forth a fleet of thirty-four sail, under Sir William -Phipps. He proceeded to Port Royal, took it, reduced Acadia, and thence -sailed up the St. Lawrence, with the design of capturing Quebec. The -troops landed, with some difficulty, and the place was boldly summoned -to surrender. A proud defiance was returned by Frontenac. The position -of the latter happened to be strengthened, just at this time, by a -rëinforcement from Montreal. Phipps, learning this, and finding also -that the party of Winthrop, which he expected from Montreal, had failed, -gave up the attempt, and returned to Boston, with the loss of several -vessels and a considerable number of troops. A part of his fleet had -been wrecked by a storm. - -During the progress of King William's War, the atrocities committed upon -the colonists, by the French and Indians, were equal to any recorded in -the annals of the most barbarous age. Connected with these, were -instances of heroic valor on the part of the sufferers, which are not -surpassed by any on the historic page. A specimen will here be related: -On the 15th of March, 1697, the last year of King William's War, an -attack was suddenly made on _Haverhill_, in Massachusetts, by a party of -about twenty Indians. It was a rapid, but fatal onset, and a fitting -_finale_ of so dreadful a ten years' war. Eight houses were destroyed, -twenty-seven persons killed, and thirteen carried away prisoners. One of -these houses belonged to a Mr. Dustan, in the skirts of the town. Mr. -Dustan was engaged in work at some distance from home, but, by some -means, he learned what was passing at the place. - -Before the Indians had reached his house, he had arrived there, and -been able to make some arrangements for the removal of his wife and -children. The latter he bid to run. His wife, who had but only a few -days before become the mother of an infant, was in no condition to -leave her bed. He undertook, however, to remove her, but it was too -late. The Indians were rushing on. No time could be lost; and Mr. -Dustan turned with despair from the mother of his children, to the -children themselves. It became necessary at once to hasten their -flight--they were seven in number, besides the infant left with its -mother, the eldest being seventeen years, and the youngest two years -old. The Indians were upon them, and what could the agonized father -do? With his gun he mounted his horse, and riding in the direction of -his children, overtook them only about forty rods from the house. His -first intention was to take up the child that he could least spare, -and escape with that. But, alas! that point he was unable to -decide--they were all equally dear to him. He, therefore, determined -to resist the enemy, who was on a pursuit, and, if possible, save all. -Facing the savages, he fired, and they returned the fire. The -Indians, however, did not choose to follow up the pursuit, either from -fear of the resolute father, who continued to fire as he retreated, or -from an apprehension of arousing the neighboring English, before they -could finish their depredations in the town, and hence this part of -the family soon effected their escape. - -[Illustration: Mr. Dustan saving his children.] - -We now return to the house. There was living in it a nurse, Mrs. Neff, -who heroically shared the fate of her mistress, when escape was in her -power. The Indians entered the house, and, having ordered the sick -woman to rise and sit quietly in the corner of the fire-place, they -commenced the pillage of the dwelling, and concluded by setting it on -fire. At the approach of night, Mrs. Dustan was forced to march into -the wilderness, and seek repose upon the hard, cold ground. Mrs. Neff, -in attempting to elude the Indians with the infant, was intercepted. -The babe was taken from her, and its brains beat out against a -neighboring tree. The captives, when collected, amounted to thirteen -in number. That same day they were marched twelve miles before -encamping, although it was nearly night before they set out. -Succeeding this, for several days, they were obliged to keep up with -their savage comrades, over an extent of country of not less than one -hundred and forty or fifty miles. Mrs. Dustan, feeble as she had been, -wonderfully supported the fatigue incident to her situation. - -[Illustration: Escape of Mrs. Dustan.] - -After this, the Indians, according to their custom, divided their -prisoners. Mrs. Dustan, Mrs. Neff, and a captive lad from Worcester, -fell to the share of an Indian family consisting of twelve persons. -These now took charge of the captives, and appear to have treated them -with no unkindness, save that of forcing them to extend their journey -still farther towards an Indian settlement. They, however, gave the -prisoners to understand that there was one ceremony to which they must -submit, after they had arrived at their place of destination, and that -was to run the gauntlet between two files of Indians. This announcement -filled Mrs. Dustan and her two companions with so much dread, that they -mutually decided to attempt an escape. Accordingly, after obtaining -information from the Indians themselves, as to the way of killing and -scalping their enemies, who gave the information without suspecting -their object, they laid their plans for taking the lives of the savages. -One night, "when the Indians were in the most sound sleep, these three -captives arose, and, softly arming themselves with the tomahawks of -their masters, allotted the number each should kill; and so truly did -they direct their blows, that but two, a boy and a woman, made their -escape, the latter having been seriously wounded. Having finished their -fearful work, they hastily left the place. As the scene of the exploit -was a small island, in the mouth of a stream that falls into the -Merrimack, they made use of a boat of the Indians to effect their -escape; the others being scuttled to prevent the use of them in pursuit, -should the Indians be near; and thus, with what provisions and arms the -Indian camp afforded, they embarked, and slowly took the course of the -river for their homes, which they reached without accident." - -The whole country was startled at the relation of the heroic deed, the -truth of which was never questioned. The palpable proofs of their feat -they brought with them, and the general court of Massachusetts gave -them fifty pounds as a reward, and they received from individuals -likewise substantial tokens, expressing the admiration in which the -exploit was held. The governor of Maryland, hearing of the -transaction, sent them also a generous present. - -This is a case where individuals may, perhaps, differ in opinion as to -the strict moral propriety of the deed. The necessity of such an act, -for relief from suffering, may be estimated differently, according to -the different theories which men have adopted. Yet it seems to have -been generally, if not universally approved by those who lived -contemporaneously with the transaction; and who, from the stern -integrity of their character, and from their acquaintance with the -circumstances of the country, were peculiarly well fitted to judge. - -Such were some of the striking events during the period of King -William's War; a war which continued nearly ten years, and brought -incalculable distress upon the colonies. The peace of Ryswick, in -1697, put an end to it; but this peace proved to be of short duration. - -[Illustration] - - - - - IX. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. - - - PRINCIPAL Scenes of this War in America--Attack upon - Deerfield--Captivity and Sufferings of Rev. Mr. - Williams--Other Disasters of the War--Peace--Death of Queen - Anne--Accession of George I.--Continued Sufferings of the - Colonies of Massachusetts and New Hampshire--Peace concluded - with the Indians at Boston. - -King William having deceased in 1702, Queen Anne was seated on the -British throne, and war soon began again to rage throughout Europe. -England and France, including Spain also, drew the sword, to settle -some unadjusted claims between them, and the contest of the parent -countries, as usual, soon involved their American colonies. The states -of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, became the principal scenes of the -war in America, the colony of New York being secured from aggression -through the neutrality of the Five Nations on her borders. The war, -which lasted more than ten years, is generally denominated _Queen -Anne's War_, and was attended with the usual barbarous and distressing -results incident to savage warfare. - -The drama opened at _Deerfield_, on the Connecticut river, on the 19th -of February, 1704. The preliminaries to it had occurred a little -before in the destruction of several small settlements from Casco to -Wells in Maine, and the killing and capture of one hundred and thirty -people in the aggregate. This was in contravention to the solemn -assurance given by the eastern Indians, of peace with New England. As -Deerfield was a frontier town, the enemy had watched it for the -purpose of capture from an early period. Indeed, it had been -constantly exposed to inroads, during King William's War, but had -resolutely maintained its ground, and increased in size and -population, especially from the termination of that war. It was -palisaded, though imperfectly; several detached houses were protected -by slight fortifications, and twenty soldiers had been placed within -it. They had, however, been quartered about in different houses, and, -forgetting their duty as soldiers, were surprised with the rest of -the inhabitants. There was a great depth of snow upon the ground, a -circumstance which gave the enemy an easy entrance over the pickets. -The commander of the French was Hertel de Rouville. - -The assailants, in approaching the place, used every precaution to -avoid disturbing the soldiery or the inhabitants by noise in walking -over the crusted snow, stopping occasionally, that the sound of their -feet might appear like the fitful gusts of the wind. But the -precaution was unnecessary, for the guard within the fort had retired, -and fallen asleep. None, of all who were in the village, awaked, -except to be put immediately into the sleep of death; to be doomed to -a a horrible captivity, or to effect a difficult and hazardous escape -into the adjacent woods amidst the snows of winter. The houses were -assaulted by parties detached in different directions; the doors were -broken open, the astonished people dragged from their beds, and -pillage and personal violence in all its forms ensued. They who -attempted resistance, were felled by the tomahawk or musket. - -[Illustration: Capture of Mr. Williams.] - -Some of the separate features of this work of destruction and scene of -agony, deserve particular notice, and will ever call up the painful -sympathies of the reader of history. The minister of the place, the -Rev. John Williams, who subsequently wrote a narrative of the affair, -and of his own captivity, was a conspicuous actor and sufferer in the -sad tragedy. Early in the assault, which was not long before the break -of day, about twenty Indians attacked his house. Instantly leaping -from his bed, he ran towards the door, and perceived a party making -their entrance into the house. He called to awaken two soldiers who -were sleeping in the chamber, and had only returned to the bedside for -his arms, when the enemy rushed into the room. Upon this, as he says, -"I reached my hands up to the bed-tester for my pistol, uttering a -short petition to God, expecting a present passage through the _valley -of the shadow of death_." He levelled it at the breast of the foremost -Indian, but it missed fire: he was immediately seized by three -Indians, who secured his pistol, and, binding him fast, kept him -naked in the cold, nearly the space of an hour. One of these captors -was a leader or captain, who soon met the fate he merited. Says Mr. -Williams, "the judgment of God did not long slumber, for by sun-rising -he received a mortal shot from my next neighbor's house." This house -was not a garrison, but being defended by seven resolute men, and as -many resolute women, withstood the efforts of three hundred French and -Indians. They attacked it repeatedly, and tried various methods to set -it on fire, but without success; in the mean while suffering from the -fire which was poured upon them from the windows and loop-holes of the -building. The enemy gave up the attempt in despair. Mrs. Williams -having been confined but a few weeks previously, was feeble--a -circumstance which rendered her case hopeless; but her agony was -intensely increased by witnessing the murder of two of her little -ones, who were dragged to the door, and butchered, as was also a black -woman belonging to the family. Rifling the house with the utmost -rudeness, the enemy seized Mrs. Williams, ill as she was, and five -remaining children, with a view to carry them into captivity. - -While these transactions were in progress, a lodger in the house, -Captain Stoddard, seized his cloak, and leaped from a chamber window. He -escaped across Deerfield river, and finding it necessary to secure his -feet from injury, he tore the cloak into pieces, and wrapped them up in -it, and was thus enabled, though in great exhaustion, to reach Hatfield. -An assault was made upon the house of Captain John Sheldon, but the door -was so strong and so firmly bolted, that the enemy found it difficult to -break or penetrate it. Their only resort, therefore, was to perforate it -with their tomahawks. Through the aperture thus made, they thrust a -musket, fired, and killed Mrs. Sheldon, a ball striking her as she was -rising from her bed in an adjoining room. The mark of the ball was long -to be seen in a timber near the bed, the house having been carefully -preserved, bearing upon the front door the marks of the Indian hatchet. -In the mean time, the son and son's wife of Captain Sheldon, sprang from -a chamber window at the east end of the building; but unfortunately for -the lady, her ankle became sprained by the fall, and being unable to -walk, she was seized by the Indians. The husband escaped into the -adjoining forest, and reached Hatfield. The enemy at length gaining -possession of the house, reserved it on account of its size as a dépôt -for the prisoners taken in the village. - -At the expiration of about two hours, the enemy having collected the -prisoners, and plundered and set fire to the buildings, took up their -march from the place. Forty-seven persons had been put to death, -including those killed in making the defence. "We were carried over -the river to the foot of the mountain, about a mile from my house," -says Mr. Williams, "where we found a great number of our Christian -neighbors--men, women, and children--to the number of one hundred, -nineteen of whom were afterwards murdered in the way, and two starved -to death near Coos in a time of great scarcity and famine the savages -underwent there. When we came to the foot of the mountain, they took -away our shoes, and gave us Indian shoes, to prepare us for our -journey." - -At this spot, a portion of the enemy was overtaken by a party of the -English, consisting of the few who had escaped, together with the men -who had defended the two houses, and a small number from Hatfield, and a -brisk fight ensued. The little band, however, was in danger of being -surrounded by the main body of the enemy's troops, as they came into the -action, and, accordingly, they were compelled to retreat. They left nine -of their number slain. The attack on the enemy, under such -circumstances, indicated the resolute and sympathizing spirit of the -people, but it had well nigh proved fatal to the prisoners. Rouville, -fearing, at one time, a defeat, had ordered the latter to be put to -death, but, providentially, the bearer of the message was killed before -he executed his orders. They were, nevertheless, held in readiness to be -sacrificed in the event of disasters happening to the enemy. - -Soon after the termination of the skirmish, Rouville commenced his -march for Canada. Three hundred miles of a trackless wilderness were -to be traversed, and that too at a very inclement season of the year. -The prospects of the captives were gloomy beyond description. Many -were women, at that time under circumstances requiring the most tender -treatment. Some were young children, not sufficiently strong to endure -the fatigues of traveling. Infants there were, who must be carried in -their parents' arms, or left behind to be butchered by the savage or -frozen on the snow; and, of the adult males, several were suffering -from severe wounds. - -The first day's journey was but four miles, and was signalized by the -murder of an infant. The Indians, however, seemed disposed generally -to favor the captives, by carrying on their backs such children as -were incapable of traveling. From mercenary motives, they wished to -keep all alive that they could, as the captives would bring a price, -or be serviceable to them in some way, in Canada. It was no sentiment -of compassion that moved them; for, as soon as their patience failed -them, the miserable captive, whether man, woman, or child, was knocked -on the head. At night, they encamped in a meadow, in what is now -Greenfield, where they cleared away the snow, spread boughs of trees, -and made slight cabins of brush, for the accommodation of the -prisoners. The strongest of the latter were bound after the Indian -manner that night, and every subsequent night, in order to prevent -escape. In the very first night, one man broke away and escaped, and, -at the same time, Mr. Williams, who was considered the principal of -the captives, was informed by the commander-in-chief, that if any more -attempted to escape, the rest should be put to death. - -In the second day's march occurred the death of Mrs. Williams. In the -course of the route, it became necessary to cross Creek river, at the -upper part of Deerfield meadow. From some change of conductors, Mr. -Williams, who had before been forbidden to speak to his -fellow-captives, was now permitted to do it, and even to assist his -distressed wife, who had begun to be exhausted. But it was their last -meeting, and most affecting was the scene. She very calmly told him -that her strength was fast failing, and that he would soon lose her. -At the same time, she did not utter the language of discouragement or -of complaint, in view of the hardness of her fortune. When the company -halted, Mr. Williams' former conductor resumed his place, and ordered -him into the front, and his wife was obliged to travel unaided. They -had now arrived at the margin of Green river. This they passed by -wading through the water, which was about two feet in depth, and -running with great rapidity. They now came to a steep mountain, which -it was necessary to ascend. The narrative of Mr. Williams says, here: -"No sooner had I overcome the difficulty of that ascent, but I was -permitted to sit down, and to be unburthened of my pack. I sat -pitying those who were behind, and entreated my master to let me go -down and help my wife, but he refused. I asked each of the prisoners, -as they passed by me, after her, and heard that, passing through the -above said river, she fell down, and was plunged all over in the -water; after which, she traveled not far; for, at the foot of the -mountain, the cruel and blood-thirsty savage who took her, slew her -with his hatchet, at one stroke." The same day, a young woman and -child were killed and scalped. - -After some days, they reached the mouth of White river, where Rouville -divided his force into several parties, who took different routes to the -St. Lawrence. Mr. Williams belonged to a party which reached the Indian -village St. Francis, on the St. Lawrence, by the way of Lake Champlain. -After a short residence at that village, he was sent to Montreal, where -he was treated with kindness by the governor, Vaudreuil. - -In the year 1706, fifty-seven of these captives were conveyed to -Boston in a flag-ship, among whom were Mr. Williams and all his -remaining children (two having been ransomed and sent home before), -except his daughter Eunice, whom, notwithstanding all his exertions, -he was never able to redeem, and whom, at the tender age of ten years, -he was obliged to leave among the Indians. As she grew up under Indian -influence, having no other home, and no other friends who could -counsel and guide her, she adopted the manners and customs of the -Indians, settled with them in a domestic state, and, by her husband, -had several children. She became also, it is said, a Catholic, and -ever afterwards firmly attached to that religion. This, perhaps, is -scarcely a matter of surprise, as the sentiment was, the more easily -instilled into her mind, from her age and the circumstances in which -she was placed. Some time after the war, she visited her relations at -Deerfield, in company with her husband. She was habited in the Indian -costume, and, strange as it may seem, though every persuasive was used -to induce her to abandon the savages, and to remain among her -connections, all was in vain. She continued to lead the life of a -savage, and, though she repeated her visits to her friends in New -England, she uniformly persisted in wearing her blanket and counting -her beads. Two of the children of Mr. Williams, after their return, -became worthy and respectable ministers; one at Waltham, the other at -Long Meadow, in Springfield. - -The captive Mr. Williams, upon his return to the colony, was desired, -by the remnant of his Deerfield friends, to resume the duties of his -pastoral office in that place. He complied with their request, and, -having rëmarried, reared another family of children, and died in 1729. - -During Queen Anne's War, no other single tragedy occurred like that of -Deerfield; but, at all times, the enemy were prowling about the -frontier settlements, watching, in concealment, for an opportunity to -strike a sudden blow, and, having done irreparable mischief, to escape -with safety. The women and children retired into garrisons; the men -left their fields uncultivated, or labored with arms at their sides, -and having sentinels posted at every point whence an attack could be -apprehended. Yet, notwithstanding these precautions, the Indians were -often successful, killing sometimes an individual, sometimes a whole -family, sometimes a band of laborers, ten or twelve in number; and, so -alert were they in their movements, that but few of them fell into the -hands of the whites. - -Queen Anne died in 1714, and George I., of the house of Brunswick, -ascended the throne of England. During the reign of the latter, a -state of warfare existed between the enemy and the colony of -Massachusetts and New Hampshire for several years, distressing to the -former, but attended by few signal conflicts, disasters, or victories. -At length, however, it was discovered that the Indians, although -instigated still by the French, were not averse to peace. Accordingly, -towards the latter part of the year 1725, a treaty was concluded at -Boston, and the next spring was ratified at Falmouth. A period of -tranquillity succeeded this event in the northern colonies. - - - - - X. WAR OF GEORGE II. - - - WAR between England and France, 1744--French take Canso--Effect of - this Declaration of War upon the Indians--Attack upon Great - Meadows (now Putney)--Also, upon Ashuelot (now - Keene)--Expedition against Louisburg--Particulars of - it--Surrender of it--Continuance of the War--Various places - assaulted--Savage Barbarities following the surrender of Fort - Massachusetts--Peace declared. - -The attempts to maintain peace with the Indians were successful -through a number of years. The most happy expedient which the English -adopted for that purpose, was the erection of _trading-houses_, where -goods were furnished by government to be exchanged for furs, which the -Indians brought to them. This had the effect of conciliating the -Indians, and, as it stimulated their industry, it was more serviceable -to them than direct gifts. In the course of time, however, they began -to be restive. Their intercourse with the whites, for trading -purposes, renewed reminiscences of the attacks and cruelties committed -upon the exterior settlements. The Indians were wont to boast of their -feats, and of the tortures inflicted upon the captured English; in -some instances, the friends of those with whom they were now holding -intercourse. They were disposed frequently, when provoked or -intoxicated, to threaten to come again, with the war-whoop and the -tomahawk. Hence, individual acts of violence occasionally took place, -at or near the trading-towns, and it was evident that, whenever war -between the English and French should commence, there would be a -reiteration of the former scenes and acts of atrocity. - -The day of blood at length arrived. It was in the year 1744, that -England and France again commenced hostilities. The intelligence no -sooner crossed the Atlantic, than the frontiers of the colonies became -the area of the conflict, and the blood-thirsty savage took up his -hatchet, with the intention of giving vent to his long pent-up -vengeance. George II. had been on the throne several years. - -Before the proclamation of war was known at Boston, the French governor -of Cape Breton sent a party to take Canso, which was effected, and the -captives were conveyed to Louisburg. The proclamation of war seems to -have had a singular effect on the Indians, who had manifested a degree -of attachment to the whites. It awakened the naturally ferocious -feelings of the savage--feelings that had been for some time suspended; -and, forgetting the many ties of acquaintance and friendly intercourse, -he easily fell back upon those habits of carnage and plunder, in which -he was originally nurtured. The effect of the proclamation of war, on -all the other Indians, was to have been expected, as gratifying their -long-indulged desires of mingling in the scenes of murder and pillage. -It was an unhappy circumstance, in regard to the Indians who had been -indulged with so intimate an intercourse with the whites, that they were -perfectly acquainted with all the routes from Canada to the various -English settlements, thus serving as guides for others, or facilitating -their predatory irruptions. - -With a wise foresight, upon the first intimation of war, several new -forts were ordered to be built in exposed parts of the country, the -western regiments of militia in Massachusetts were called on for their -quotas of men to defend the frontiers in that quarter, and scouting -parties were employed in various places for the purpose of discovering -the incursions of the enemy, and ferreting out their trails. But -happily, during the first year, they remained quiet, or were secretly -making their preparations for the part they intended hereafter to enact. - -The Indians commenced operations in July, 1745, at the _Great Meadow_, -now Putney, on the Connecticut, and a few days after at upper Ashuelot -(Keene), killing at each place an individual. Somewhat later in the -year, the Great Meadow was the scene of another attack, with a small -loss to the whites, as also to the Indians. The vigilance of the -colonists, however, was so unceasing, that but little opportunity at -this time was afforded for the gratification of their malignity. - -The eyes of the New England colonists were now fixed on one great -enterprise, the reduction of _Louisburg_, on the island of Cape -Breton, a place of incredible strength, which had been twenty-five -years in building. Accordingly, four thousand troops from the several -colonies, as far as Pennsylvania, were raised, the command of which -was assigned to William Pepperell. On the 4th of April, 1745, the -expedition had arrived at Canso. Here they were detained three weeks -on account of the ice. At length Commodore Warren, according to orders -from England, arrived at Canso in a ship of sixty guns, with three -other ships of forty guns each. After a consultation with Pepperell, -the commodore proceeded to cruise before Louisburg. Soon after, the -general sailed with the whole fleet. On the 30th of April, landing his -troops, he invested the city. A portion of the troops on the -north-east part of the harbor, meeting with the warehouses containing -the naval stores, set them on fire. The smoke, driven by the wind into -the grand battery, so terrified the French, that they abandoned it. -After spiking the guns, they returned to the city. Colonel Vaughan, -who conducted the first column, took possession of the deserted -battery. With extreme difficulty, cannon were drawn up for fourteen -nights successively, from the landing-place, through a morass to the -camp. It was done by men with straps over their shoulders, and sinking -to their knees in the mud; a service which oxen or horses on such -ground could not have performed. The cannon of the forsaken battery -were drilled, and turned with good effect on the city. - -On the 7th of May, a summons was sent to the commanding officer of -Louisburg, but he refused to surrender the place. The efforts of the -assailants were then renewed, and put forth to the utmost, both by the -commodore's fleet and the land forces. Their efforts were at length -crowned with success. Discouraged by the whole aspect of affairs, -Duchambon, the French commander, felt under the necessity of -surrendering; and, accordingly, on the 16th of June, articles of -capitulation were signed. - -[Illustration: Reduction of Louisburg.] - -This expedition, and its success, are one of the most striking events -in American warfare. It established the New England character for a -daring and enterprising spirit, and it became equally the boast and -the fear of Britain. The daring and the prowess that effected such an -achievement, might one day be arrayed against the integrity of the -British empire in America. Pious people considered that this victory -was wrought out by a special guiding and cöoperating Providence. - -After the loss of Louisburg, the conflicts on the borders became more -frequent and fatal. The enemy was exasperated, and determined to give -the colonists no rest. Various places on the Connecticut were -accordingly attacked, but chiefly settlements in New Hampshire, the -results of which were very distressing to individual families. -Charlestown, Keene, New Hopkinton, Contoocook, Rochester, and many other -places whose situations exposed them to the enemy were attacked, and a -greater or less number of individuals were killed, wounded, or captured. - -One attack may be stated in detail; it followed the surrender of Fort -Massachusetts to Vaudreuil's French and Indian forces, an honourable -capitulation, which took place in the summer of 1746, the fort having -defended itself as long as its ammunition lasted. The narrative is -given in the language of another: "Immediately after the surrender of -Fort Massachusetts, about fifty of Vaudreuil's Indians passed Hoosack -mountain, for the purpose of making depredations at Deerfield, about -forty miles eastward. Arriving near the village on Sunday, they -reconnoitered the north meadow, for the purpose of selecting a place -of attack upon the people, as they should commence their labor the -next morning. Not finding a point of attack suited to their design, -which seems to have been rather to capture than to secure scalps, they -proceeded about two miles south, to a place called the _Bars_, where -were a couple of houses, owned by the families of Arnsden and Allen, -but now deserted; and early in the morning formed an ambuscade on the -margin of a meadow, under the cover of a thicket of alders, near which -was a quantity of mown hay. The laborers of the two families, -accompanied by several children, then residing in Deerfield village, -proceeded to their work in the early part of the day, and commenced -their business very near the Indians, who now considered their prey as -certain. But a little before they commenced their attack, Mr. Eleazer -Hawks, one of the neighboring inhabitants, went out for fowling; and, -approaching near the ambuscade, was shot down and scalped. Alarmed at -the fire, the persons fled down a creek towards a mill, fiercely -pursued by the Indians. Simeon Arnsden, a lad, was seized, killed and -scalped; Samuel Allen, John Sadler, and Adonijah Gillet, made a stand -under the bank of Deerfield river, near the mouth of the mill creek, -whence they opened a fire on the Indians. Soon overpowered, Allen and -Gillet fell; but Sadler escaped to an island, and thence across the -river, under a shower of balls. In the mean time, others, making for -the road leading to the town, were closely pursued, and Oliver -Arnsden, after a vigorous struggle for his life, was barbarously -butchered. Eunice, a daughter, and two sons of Allen (Samuel and -Caleb) were in the field; Eunice was knocked down by a tomahawk, and -her skull fractured, but, in the hurry, was left unscalped. Samuel was -made prisoner, and Caleb effected his escape by running through a -piece of corn, though the Indians passed very near him. -Notwithstanding the severity of her wounds, Eunice recovered, and -lived to an advanced age."[24] - -Although the war between England and France was terminated by the -treaty of peace at Aix-la-Chapelle, on the 18th of October, 1743, yet -tranquillity did not immediately follow. The frontiers continued to be -ravaged, and the comfort and progress of the settlers were seriously -interrupted, for a time, beyond the general pacification. The basis of -the peace, as settled at Aix-la-Chapelle, was the mutual restoration -of all places taken during the war: Louisburg, the pride and glory of -the war, reverted to the French, to the grief and mortification of New -England. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[24] Hoyt. - - - - - XI. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. - - - DECLARATION of War between England and France--Causes of the - War--Mode of conducting it--Various Expeditions planned--Nova - Scotia taken from the French--General Braddock's signal - defeat--Failure of Expeditions against Niagara and Fort - Frontenac--Expedition against Crown Point--Battle of Lake - George--Campaign of 1756--Inefficiency of Lord Loudon--Loss of - Fort Oswego--Indian Atrocities in Pennsylvania--Campaign of - 1757--Massacre at Fort William Henry--Campaign of - 1758--Capture of Louisburg--Unsuccessful Expedition against - Ticonderoga--Capture of Fort Frontenac--Fort du Quesne - taken--Campaign of 1759--Ticonderoga and Crown Point - taken--Niagara Captured--Siege and Capture of Quebec--Death of - Wolfe and Montcalm--Final Surrender of the French Possessions - in Canada to the English--Peace of Paris. - -After a few years of peace, during which the colonies had somewhat -repaired their wasted strength and resources, a declaration of war was -made between Great Britain and France in the summer of 1756. There had -been an actual state of warfare for two previous years, causing no -small grief and annoyance to the colonies, who had fondly hoped longer -to enjoy the blessings of tranquillity, and prosecute their schemes of -improvement. An invaluable blessing, however, ultimately flowed from -the renewed conflict of arms--as, from this time, that federation took -place among the separated provinces, which was consummated afterwards -in their independence as a nation. The prosecution of a common object, -such as was presented in the French and Indian War, naturally -concentrated and united their energies, and evolved, at length, the -idea of a more perfect political association. - -The _causes_ of the war grew out of the encroachments of the French -upon the frontier of the English colonies in America. Such, at least, -was the allegation on the part of England. France had established -settlements on the St. Lawrence, and at the mouth of the Mississippi, -and commenced the gigantic plan of uniting these points by a chain of -forts, extending across the continent, and designed to confine the -English colonists to the eastern slope of the Alleghanies. The French -possessed considerable military strength in their northern colonies. -They had strongly fortified Quebec and Montreal, and, at other points, -the frontiers were defended by Louisburg, Cape Breton, and the forts -of Lake Champlain, Niagara, Crown Point, Frontenac, and Ticonderoga. -And they had, also, a fort of some strength at Du Quesne, now the spot -on which Pittsburg is built. - -The establishment of French posts on the Ohio, and the attack on -Colonel Washington, were declared, by the British government, as the -commencement of hostilities. The French, however, allege the intrusion -of the Ohio Company upon their territory, as the immediate cause of -the war. General Braddock, at the head of fifteen hundred troops, had -been despatched to America. On his arrival in Virginia, he requested a -convention of colonial governors to meet him there, to confer on the -plan of the ensuing campaign. They accordingly met, and three -expeditions were resolved upon--one against Du Quesne, to be conducted -by General Braddock; one against forts Niagara and Frontenac, to be -commanded by Governor Shirley; and one against Crown Point, to be led -by General Johnson. The last-named expedition was a measure proposed -by Massachusetts, and was to be executed by troops raised in New -England and New York. In the mean time, a fourth expedition, which had -been previously concerted, was carried on against the French forts in -Nova Scotia. This province, it seems, after its cession to the -English, by the treaty of Utrecht, was still retained, in part, by the -French, as its boundaries were not defined. They had built forts on a -portion of it which the English claimed. To gain possession of these, -was the object of the expedition. About two thousand militia, under -Monckton and Winslow, embarked at Boston, on the 20th of May, 1755; -and, having been joined by three hundred regulars, when they had -arrived at Chignecto, on the Bay of Fundy, they proceeded against -Beau Sejour, now the principal post of the French in that country. - -This place they invested and took possession of, after a bombardment -of a few days. Other forts were afterwards attacked and taken, and the -whole province was secured to the British, according to their idea of -its proper boundaries. - -The military operations at the South, during this time, proved to be -disastrous in the extreme. One of the most signal defeats took place -in Virginia, that the annals of American history have recorded. It had -been a total loss of a large army (large for the colonial warfare), -but for the prudence and valor of our youthful Fabius, George -Washington. He saved a portion of it, while the whole was exposed to -utter annihilation, through the pride and ill-calculating policy of -its leader. General Braddock was not wanting in valor, or in the -knowledge of European tactics; but he little understood the proper -mode of meeting Indian warfare, and had the greater misfortune of -unwillingness to receive advice from subordinates in office. - -The object of the expedition under Braddock, was the reduction of Fort -du Quesne. At the head of two thousand men, he commenced his march; -but, as it was deemed an object of great importance to reach the fort -before it could be rëinforced, he marched forward with twelve hundred -men, selected from the different corps, with ten pieces of cannon, and -the necessary ammunition and provisions. The remainder of the army was -left under the command of Colonel Dunbar, to follow with the heavy -artillery, by moderate and easy marches. - -Washington, who was his aid, and well acquainted with the -peculiarities of Indian warfare, foresaw the danger which was -impending, and ventured to suggest the propriety of employing a body -of Indians, who had offered their services. These, had the commander -seen fit to accept the advice, would have proved serviceable to him as -scouting and advanced parties. Or had he, as was also suggested to -him, as a matter of safety, placed the provincial troops in his army -in front, he would have avoided the danger. These troops, consisting -of independent and ranging companies, accustomed to such services, -would have scoured the woods and morasses, and guarded against an -ambuscade. Despising the enemy, undervaluing the colonial troops, and -confiding only in his own valor and the splendid array of his -well-drilled British regulars, he fearlessly pursued his way. The -natural and necessary impediments were many, and he did not reach the -Monongahela until the 8th of July. The next day he expected to invest -the fort, and in the morning he made a disposition of his forces, in -accordance with that expectation. His van, consisting of three hundred -British regulars, was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Gage, and he -followed, at some distance, with the artillery and main body of his -men, divided into small columns. - -"Washington had the day before rëjoined the army, from which he had -been a short time detained by severe illness. It was noon on the 9th -of July, when, from the height above the right bank of the -Monongahela, he looked upon the ascending army, which, ten miles from -Fort Du Quesne, had just crossed the stream for the second time. Every -thing looked more bright and beautiful than aught he had ever -witnessed before. The companies in their crimson uniform, with -burnished arms and floating banners, were marching gayly to cheerful -music as they entered the forest." - -But soon and suddenly, how changed the scene! How many exulting -soldiers that entered the forest, were destined never to emerge from -it, into the light of day! How many hearts that were throbbing with -hope at the prospect of an easy victory, were to be hushed for ever! -Heedless of danger, Braddock pressed forward, the distance of seven -miles only still intervening between his army and the contemplated -place of action. Suddenly, in an open wood, thick set with high grass, -there burst upon them the Indian war-whoop and a fierce fire from an -unseen enemy on every side. A momentary confusion and panic -ensued--many fell, and, the ranks being broken, there was danger of an -ignominious flight. None could at first tell who might be or where -lurked the foe that was dealing death at so fearful a rate. Braddock, -however, rallied his forces, but mistakingly deemed it necessary to -fight, even under these circumstances, according to European tactics, -and to preserve a regular order of battle. Thus he kept his soldiers -in compact masses, as fair marks for the Indian bullet or arrow, -without the possibility of effectually meeting the foe. At this -critical moment, personal valor was of no avail. Discipline and art, -combined action, and orderly movement, brought not the enemy where he -could be foiled. There was, indeed, a momentary suspension of the -fight, resulting from the fall of the commanding officer of the foe, -but the attack was quickly renewed with increased fury--the van fell -back on the main army, and the whole body was again thrown into -confusion. Had an instant retreat, or a rapid charge without -observance of orderly military movements been commanded, the result -might have been very different. But Braddock, too ignorant of the -right course, or too bigoted to the European method of battle, refused -to adopt either expedient. Continually fired upon, and losing his -brave men by scores, he still made efforts to form his broken and -wasting troops on the very spot where they were first attacked, thus -bringing the living to supply the places of the dead, and offering -needlessly, and without any countervailing advantage, successive -holocausts to the demon of battle. - -The enemy was small in numbers, and hardly calculated on the -possibility of defeating the English army. Annoyance and delay, seemed -to be all that they expected to accomplish; but permitted securely, in -the two ravines on each side of the road where they were concealed, to -fire upon the English, they could but triumph. The Indians, taking -leisurely aim at the officers, swept them from the field, and all but -Washington were either killed or wounded. He, as aid to Braddock, was -peculiarly exposed, as he rode over every part of the field to carry -the general's orders. Indeed, the sharp-shooters endeavored to take -him off, as well as the rest, but he was providentially preserved. No -instrument of death might be wielded with effect upon him. The -superstitious Indians were struck by the phenomenon of his escape, and -concluded that he was not to be killed. One of them afterwards averred -that he shot at him seventeen times in succession, and was forced to -yield to the conviction that he was invulnerable. At the close of the -battle, four bullets were found in his coat, and it was known that two -horses had been killed under him. - -[Illustration: Braddock's Defeat.] - -After an action of three hours, General Braddock, who had fearlessly -breasted the vollies of the enemy, and had lost successively three -horses from under him, received a mortal wound. His troops no longer -maintained their position, but fled in terror and dismay. The -provincials remained last on the field, and effected an orderly -retreat, protecting, at the same time, the regulars in their flight. -The defeat was most signal, and the loss of life appalling. The proud -army, at the close of the contest, counted but one-half of its entire -number. Sixty-four officers were killed and wounded. The remains of -the English forces sought their companions under Dunbar, forty miles -distant. Braddock could proceed no farther, and there expired. The -army, with Dunbar for its leader, was soon after marched to -Philadelphia, where it found its winter-quarters. Thus, in the fatal -results of that expedition, the whole frontier of Virginia was left -exposed to the French and Indians. - -Of the enterprise against _Niagara_ and _Fort Frontenac_, it may -suffice to say, that it utterly failed. We proceed, therefore, to that -against _Crown Point_, the rendezvous for which was at Albany. On the -last of June (1755), four thousand troops arrived at Albany, under the -command of General William Johnson and General Lyman. Here the sachem -Hendrick joined them with a body of his Mohawks. As a portion of the -troops, together with the artillery, batteaux, provisions, and other -necessaries for the attempt on Crown Point, could not be immediately -got ready, General Lyman advanced with the main body, and erected Fort -Edward, on the Hudson, for the security of the apparatus above named, -which was to be forwarded by Johnson. - -Towards the end of August, General Johnson moved his forces forward -more northerly, and pitched his camp at the south end of Lake George. -Here he learned that two thousand French and Indians, under the -command of Baron Dieskau, had landed at South bay, now Whitehall, and -were marching toward Fort Edward for the purpose of destroying the -English transports and munitions of war. It was resolved the next -morning, in a council of war, to send out a large detachment of men to -intercept Dieskau's army on its way. To perform this service, Colonel -Ephraim Williams, of Deerfield, was appointed, at the head of twelve -hundred troops, two hundred of whom were Indians. Dieskau, who was an -able commander, had made an advantageous disposition to receive the -English. While he kept the main body of his regulars with him in the -center, he ordered the Canadians and Indians to advance on the right -and left in the woods, with a view to surround their opponents. When -the American troops had arrived considerably within the ambuscade, the -Mohawk sachem, Hendrick, who had been sent out too late with his band, -was hailed by a hostile Indian, and instantly there commenced a sharp -fire. This brought on the action sooner than was intended by Dieskau, -who had ordered his flanking parties to reserve their fire till the -firing should proceed from the center. It was his design to let the -English troops get completely inclosed before the firing commenced, in -which case there would have been an entire defeat of the English. The -discharge of arms necessarily became general, after the flanking -parties had begun; but the advantage was altogether on the side of the -ambuscaders. The provincials fought bravely, but finding that they -were in danger of being hemmed in from every quarter, they were -obliged to retreat. The loss of the Americans was considerable. -Colonel Williams was killed. Hendrick and a number of his Indians, who -fought with great intrepidity, were left dead on the field. The -retreating troops joined the main body, and waited the approach of -their now exulting assailants.[25] - -It was nearly noon when the enemy appeared in sight of Johnson's army. -The battle of _Lake George_, which was the consequence of their meeting, -occurred on the 8th of September. The American army was encamped on the -banks of that lake, and covered each side of a low thick morass. To form -a sort of breastwork, trees had been felled, and this was his only cover -against an attack. It happened most favorably that, two days before, -General Johnson had received several cannon from Fort Edward. The enemy -marched up in front of the breastwork within the distance of one hundred -and fifty yards. Soon the grand and central attack was commenced, while -the English flanks were beset by the Canadians and Indians. The distant -platoon fire of the French did but little execution; and the English, -summoning resolution, entered with increased spirit upon the defence of -their position. Working their artillery with vigor, they compelled the -Indians and Canadian militia to flee into the swamps. Dieskau, under -these circumstances, was forced to order a retreat. It was not effected -with much success, as his troops were thrown into irrecoverable -disorder, and their flight was hastened by a party pursuing them from -the English camp. The baron met the frequent fate of war--he received -his death-wound from a soldier, who, meeting him alone, mistook a -movement on the part of the general, which was intended as propitiatory, -for an attempt at self-defence, and discharged his piece at him. He was -feeling for his watch to give to the soldier. His wound proved fatal, -but not until he had reached England. - -[Illustration: Battle of Lake George.] - -When the baron's army halted, after its retreat or flight, it happened, -just as they were about to take refreshment, that two hundred men of -the New Hampshire forces, which had been detached from Fort Edward to -the aid of the main body, fell upon the French, and put many of them to -the sword. Their dead bodies were thrown into a small lake, which, from -this circumstance, was afterwards called "the bloody pond." - -The spirits of the colonists, which had been so depressed by -Braddock's defeat, were greatly revived, but the issue of the battle -of Lake George was not otherwise beneficial. The success was by no -means followed up according to the expectations of the country. No -further effort at this time was made to reduce Crown Point; but the -remainder of the campaign was employed by Johnson only in -strengthening the works at Fort Edward, and erecting on the site of -the battle a fort, which he called William Henry. - -Johnson, in his official letter respecting the engagement, makes no -mention of General Lyman, although the latter held the command most of -the day, as Johnson was wounded early in the action. This was an -instance of ingratitude and selfishness highly unbecoming a soldier, -especially as the consideration bestowed on himself was a baronetcy -and five thousand pounds sterling. - -The campaign of 1756, the year in which the public declaration of war -was made, makes but an indifferent figure in American history. -Expeditions against Niagara, Crown Point, Fort Du Quesne, and other -places, were projected; but they severally failed. On the other hand, -before the close of the summer, the Marquis de Montcalm, an efficient -officer, who succeeded Dieskau, with a large force of regulars, -Canadians, and Indians, took the important fort of Oswego, on the -south side of Lake Ontario, which gave him the command of the lakes -Ontario and Erie, and of the entire country of the Five Nations. -Sixteen hundred men were taken prisoners; Colonel Mercer, the -commanding officer, was killed, and the loss in cannon, mortars, -batteaux, and other military resources, was great. - -[Illustration: Destruction of Kittaning.] - -During this unfortunate year, a single military adventure on the -confines of Pennsylvania, shows that the colonists were not insensible -to the Indian depredations, and to the duty of attempting to repress -them. Fort Granby, in that state, was surprised by a party of French -and Indians, who made the garrison prisoners. Departing, in this -instance, from their usual custom of killing and scalping the -captives, they loaded them with flour, and thus drove them into the -wilderness. In another quarter, the Indians on the Ohio barbarously -killed, in their incursions, above a thousand inhabitants of the -western frontiers. To avenge this outrageous conduct, Colonel -Armstrong, with a party of two hundred and eighty provincials, marched -from Fort Shirley, on the Juniata river, about one hundred and fifty -miles west of Philadelphia, to Kittaning, an Indian town, the -rendezvous of these murdering savages, and destroyed it. An Indian -chief, called Captain Jacobs, defended himself through loop-holes of -his log cabin. As the Indians refused the quarter which was offered -them, Colonel Armstrong gave orders to set their houses on fire. This -was at once executed, and many of the Indians perished by the flames -and suffocation. Numbers were shot in attempting to reach the river. -Jacobs, his squaw, and a boy called the king's son, were fired upon as -they were attempting to escape out of the window, and were all killed -and scalped. It is computed that between thirty and forty Indians were -destroyed in this attack. Eleven English prisoners were also released. - -On this occasion, a Captain Mercer was wounded, and conveyed away by -his ensign and eleven men. He afterwards returned safe with -twenty-three men, and four released prisoners. He is believed to be -the distinguished General Mercer of the United States army, who died -of wounds received in the battle of Princeton in 1776.[26] - -The campaign of the succeeding year, 1757, is chiefly memorable in our -annals for the dreadful massacre of the English at Fort William Henry, -on the 9th of August, and which deserves a particular recital. Fort -William Henry was commanded at this time by Colonel Monroe, a British -officer. Being vigorously pressed, and unable to obtain assistance -from General Webb, who was at Fort Edward with the main army, and -having burst many of his guns and mortars, and expended most of his -ammunition, he had no alternative but to surrender. By the -capitulation which was signed, the troops were allowed to retain their -arms, and as a protection against the Indians, were to receive an -escort for their march to Fort Edward. Soon after, a detachment of the -French army took possession of the fort. At the same time, the -Indians, impatient for plunder and blood, rushed over the parapets, -and were ready for operations. Colonel Monroe, perceiving their -object, and dreading to remain within the camp exposed to their -cupidity and vengeance, gave orders for marching about midnight. -Preparations accordingly were made, but it was found that a large body -of Indians was on the road with a view to intercept his march. -Safety, therefore, did not permit them to leave the camp. - -Early in the morning they began their march, but their situation was -worse now than it had been before, with the savages threatening and -prowling around them. Armed with tomahawks or other instruments of -death, they filled the woods, and commenced their work of plunder and -butchery upon the retreating British. Monroe complained to the French -commander, and demanded the promised escort. This was not furnished, -probably, as the French themselves feared the Indians; but the British -were advised to yield to the former their private property, as the -means of appeasing the foe, and saving life. This was very generally -done, but it produced no effect, except to increase their rapacity. -Whatever was withheld, they seized, and many were stripped almost -entirely of their clothing, and some even to nudity. They rushed upon -the sick and wounded, whom they killed and scalped; the negroes, -mulattoes, and friendly Indians, were then dragged from the ranks, and -shared the same fate. The English troops, under these circumstances, -did as they could, until they reached a French guard on the way. They -were followed by the insulting, robbing, and murdering savages. "The -women accompanying the troops, unable to resist, were seized, their -throats cut, their bodies ripped open, and their bowels torn out, and -thrown in their faces; the children were taken by the heels, and their -brains dashed out against the rocks and trees; and it is stated that -many of the savages drank the heart's blood of their victims, as it -flowed reeking from the horrid wounds." - -General Webb, on receiving intelligence of the capitulation, ordered -five hundred men to meet the captured troops, and conduct them to his -camp; but, to his surprise, instead of meeting the escort, he found -the captives flying, through the woods singly, or in small groups, -some distracted, and many bleeding with dreadful wounds, faint, and in -a state of exhaustion. The whole number massacred and carried off, -was probably not far from three hundred. - -The ill successes and losses of several campaigns now roused the -people, both in the parent-country and in the provinces, to the -consideration of more vigorous measures, under more able men. -Accordingly, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, the greatest statesman of -modern ages, was brought forward at the present crisis, and infused -his own ardent and decisive spirit into the national counsels. He -sympathized with his trans-Atlantic brethren, and assured them, in a -circular which he addressed to the governors of the provinces, that an -effectual force should be sent against the French the next year, to -operate both by sea and land. In connection with such a force, they -were expected to raise their full quotas of troops, according to the -number of the inhabitants. Animated by the favorable change in the -parent-country, the government of Massachusetts voted seven thousand -men, Connecticut five thousand, and New Hampshire three thousand, and -the troops were ready for service in the early part of the year -(1758). An armament of twelve thousand troops having been sent out -from England, commanded by General Amherst, and the British forces -already in America, added to the number of soldiers raised by the -colonies, constituted an army far greater than had been before seen on -this side of the ocean. - -The expeditions proposed for the year were three--the first against -_Louisburg_, the second against _Ticonderoga_, and _Crown Point_, and -the third against _Fort Du Quesne_. The feelings of resentment against -the enemy were strong, and the colonists engaged heartily in the -movements; for Canada was filled, so to speak, "with prisoners and -scalps, private plunder, and public stores and provisions, which our -people, as beasts of burden, had conveyed to them." The enterprise -against Louisburg was conducted by the land and naval commanders, -Amherst and Boscawen, with twenty ships of the line, and fourteen -thousand men. As the British minister had in view the absolute -extinction of the French power in America, it was of the highest -importance to take Louisburg, as a key to the possession of the -capital of Canada. - -The armament arrived before the place on the 2d of June. The commander -of the garrison, the Chevalier de Drucourt, was an officer of experience -and courage. His force, however, was not large, consisting of -twenty-five hundred regulars, and six hundred militia. But the harbor -was so strongly secured, that it was found necessary to land the English -forces at some distance from the town. The landing was effected with -difficulty, though with little loss. General James Wolfe, who then -commenced his distinguished military career, was detached with two -thousand men to seize a post occupied by the enemy at the Light-house -point, from which the ships in the harbor and the fortifications in the -town might be greatly harassed. The post was abandoned on the approach -of Wolfe, and very strong batteries were erected there. Approaches were -also made on the opposite side of the town, and the siege was urged with -skill and vigor. The cannonade kept up against the town and the ships in -the harbor was so effective, that there seemed to be little prospect of -defending the place, and the government offered to capitulate Louisburg, -with all its artillery, (two hundred and twenty-one pieces of cannon and -eighteen mortars,) and a very large quantity of stores and ammunition; -as also the Island Royal, St. John's, and their dependencies, were -surrendered to the English. The speedy result was also the entire -possession of the island of Cape Breton. The loss to the garrison was -upwards of fifteen hundred men--to the assailants, about four hundred -killed and wounded. In England, the trophies of the victory were -publicly exhibited, and the event was religiously noticed in all the -churches. In New England the joy was great, and the victory there also -commemorated with public thanksgivings.[27] - -Of the second expedition, under General Abercrombie, against -Ticonderoga, it may suffice to say, that, notwithstanding its -strength, numbering fifteen thousand troops, with a formidable train -of artillery and the usual appliances, it utterly failed, through the -unskilfulness and rashness of Abercrombie himself. Fort Frontenac, -however, on the return of the army from their dépôt, was besieged and -captured. The success of this last enterprise prepared the way for the -reduction of Fort Du Quesne, the third object of the campaign of 1758. -This expedition was entrusted to General Forbes. The fort, however, -was found to have been abandoned by the French and Indians. It was now -taken possession of by the English, who named it Pittsburg, in -compliment to the British minister. Upon this event, the Indian tribes -on the Ohio submitted to the English. The gloom which spread over the -colonies by the defeat at Ticonderoga, was, in a measure, dissipated -by the successes of Amherst and Forbes. - -For the campaign of 1759, three expeditions were proposed--one against -_Ticonderoga_ and _Crown Point_, to be conducted by Amherst--a second -against _Niagara_, under Prideaux--and a third against _Quebec_, to be -conducted by General Wolfe. - -On the 22d of July, Amherst, in accordance with the above plan, -invested _Ticonderoga_ with twelve thousand provincials and regulars, -and soon succeeded in capturing that important fortress. Following -this, the village of St. Francis, situated at the mouth of the river -of that name was destroyed. - -[Illustration: Destruction of the village of St. Francis.] - -It had been the resort of Indian robbers and murderers, where were -deposited the scalps and plundered goods of hundreds of hapless -Englishmen. It was taken and destroyed by a party under Major Rogers, -after a series of adventures and hair-breadth escapes, which have more -the appearance of romance than reality. There was a general -conflagration of the cabins, and out of three hundred inhabitants, two -hundred were killed, twenty women and children captured, and five -English prisoners in the village set free. - -The army destined against _Niagara_, was composed principally of -provincials, rëinforced by a strong body of friendly Indians. It was -placed under the command of General Prideaux, who commenced the siege -of the place on the 6th of July. While directing the operations of the -place, he was killed by the bursting of a shell. The command of the -army then fell upon Sir William Johnson, who prosecuted the enterprise -with judgment and vigor. The French, alarmed at the prospect of losing -a post which formed the communication between Canada and Louisiana, in -the mean while, made a strenuous effort to raise the siege, by -collecting a large body of troops from several neighboring garrisons. -These were brought, on the morning of the 24th, in battle array -against the besiegers, ushered in by the horrible sound of the Indian -war-whoop. The French charged with great impetuosity, but the English -maintained their ground, and eventually repulsed them with signal -slaughter. The fate of Niagara was now decided. The next day a -capitulation was signed, and this portion of the country fell into the -hands of the English. - -The grand enterprise for the reduction of _Quebec_ was entrusted, as -already noticed, to the gallant and accomplished Wolfe, who sailed -from Halifax early in the season, and near the last of June landed the -whole army on the island of Orleans, a few miles below Quebec. Here -the sight presented to him of the formidable position and works of the -enemy by no means served to encourage expectations of success. But his -resolution and desire of victory overcame every other sentiment. - -[Illustration: Quebec.] - -"The city of Quebec rose before him upon the north side of the St. -Lawrence; its upper town and strong fortifications situated on a rock, -whose bold and steep front continued far westward parallel with the -river, its base near the shore; thus presenting a wall which it seemed -impossible to scale. From the north-west came down the St. Charles, -entering the St. Lawrence just below the town, its banks high and -uneven, and cut by deep ravines; while armed vessels were borne upon -its waters, and floating batteries obstructed its entrance. A few -miles below, the Montmorenci leaped down the cataract into the St. -Lawrence; and strongly posted along the sloping banks of that river, -and between these two tributaries, the French army, commanded by -Montcalm, displayed its formidable lines." - -We necessarily pass over several ineffectual attempts of Wolfe to draw -Montcalm from his strong intrenchments into a general engagement, during -which, and in consequence of excitement under their repeated failure, he -fell sick. When, however, he had so far recovered as to assume the -command, a plan was proposed to him by his generals for getting -possession of the heights in the rear of the city, where it was but -slightly fortified. Could the steep acclivity of rocks be surmounted, -they would be able to reach the level plain above, called the Heights of -Abraham. The plan was altogether congenial to the feelings of the -commander-in-chief, and was put into execution with judgment and vigor. - -In pursuance of this plan, Wolfe broke up his camp at Montmorenci, near -the falls of that name, and returned to the island of Orleans, where he -first disembarked. From that spot he determined to push his daring -enterprise. Embarking himself and army on board of the fleet, he -directed Admiral Holmes to sail up the river several miles higher than -the intended point of debarkation, making occasional demonstrations of a -design to land troops. That being accomplished, during the night a -strong detachment in flat-bottomed boats fell down with the tide, to a -point about a mile above the city. The shelving beach, the high -precipitous banks, and the only path by which the place could be scaled, -being defended by a captain's guard and a battery of four guns, all -rendered the landing and ascent of the heights, on the part of the -English, a work of amazing difficulty; yet it was effected, Wolfe -himself being one of the first who leaped on shore. - -The whole plan had well nigh been defeated at the water's edge, for -one of the sentinels hailed. But being answered by a captain in -Frazier's regiment, who fully understood the French language, and had -been expressly instructed for the purpose, the latter was suffered to -pass. The sentinel, from the answers given, (for the English were -twice interrogated,) concluded at once that this was a French convoy -of provisions, which was expected to pass down the river to Quebec. -This the English had learned from some deserters. Escaping this -difficulty, they commenced their arduous and perilous task. The -Highlanders and light infantry, under the command of General Howe, led -the way up the fearful precipice, which was one hundred and fifty or -two hundred feet high, an almost perpendicular ascent. They clambered -up by the aid of the projection of rocks, and the limbs of trees and -shrubs growing on the cliffs. They first drove away the guard, and -seized the battery. The rest of the troops pressed on in the difficult -and confined path, and, by day-break, the whole army was planted -firmly on the plains of Abraham. - -Montcalm, taken by surprise at this unexpected scaling of the heights, -was forced to abandon his strong position, and come to an engagement. -For this purpose, he crossed the St. Charles, and drew up his army in -battle array. This being perceived by Wolfe, a corresponding movement -was made on the part of the English, and the disposition of the troops -was such as to meet the masterly arrangements of Montcalm. The battle -was commenced by the French, a portion of whose army, consisting of -fifteen hundred Indians and Canadians, who were excellent marksmen, -advanced in front for this purpose. Screened by surrounding thickets, -they aimed with fatal effect at many of the British officers, but this -lasted only a short time. The main body of the French now advancing, -the principal struggle came on in all its fury. The English, reserving -their fire until within forty yards of the enemy's line, then made -terrible havoc among them by a general discharge. This fire was -vigorously maintained until the French yielded to it. General Wolfe -exposed himself in front of his battalion, as also did Montcalm before -his, and both officers paid the price of their bravery. They were in -the sections of the two armies, where the battle was most severe, and -both fell mortally wounded, not far from the same time. There was -another striking coincidence--they who succeeded them in command in -either army, also fell wounded--the Frenchman mortally. When Wolfe -fell, he was pressing on at the head of his grenadiers with fixed -bayonets. It was the third time that he had received a wound; a ball -had now pierced his breast. The respective armies continued in their -strife, as if nothing had happened. After Wolfe and Monckton had been -laid aside, Townsend assumed the command, and the British grenadiers -pressed on with their bayonets. The center of the French army was soon -broken by the brisk advance of General Murray. The Highlanders with -their broad-swords completed the confusion of the enemy, driving them -with great slaughter in different directions. A portion of the French -army fled into Quebec. The enemy was signally defeated, having lost a -thousand men, besides an equal number of prisoners. The loss of the -English, in killed and wounded, was less than six hundred. - -The necessary preparations were now made by Townsend for the siege of -the city; but at the expiration of five days, it was surrendered to -the English fleet and army. The capital of Canada, at the time of its -capitulation, contained about ten thousand inhabitants, and thus -having passed under the dominion of Great Britain, was protected by a -garrison of five thousand men, under the command of General Murray. - -Wolfe died of his wounds on the field of battle. He manifested "the -ruling passion strong in death." As a touching incident in the annals -of warfare, scarcely any thing can equal it, unless it may be that -which also marked the death of his opponent. He was removed into the -rear almost against his consent, that he might be attended to; but -while others were expressing their sympathy in his behalf, he was -watching the terrific contest with intense anxiety. At length, he -could no longer sustain himself, but, faint with the loss of blood, -he leaned on the shoulder of an officer, who kneeled down to support -him. The agony of death was now upon him. A cry was heard, "They fly, -they fly!" "Who fly?" asked the expiring hero. "The French!" replied -his supporter. "Then I die happy!" he said. - -[Illustration: Death of Wolfe.] - -Montcalm, too, died in a few hours after, having been first conveyed -into the city. On being told that his wound was mortal, he expressed -his satisfaction at the fact. When further informed that he could -survive but a few hours, he replied, "So much the better: I shall not -live to see the surrender of Quebec." - -The French continued in possession of Canada for a time, -notwithstanding the capture of Quebec. Indeed, a second, and more -mortal struggle, was soon to be again witnessed on the Heights of -Abraham. The main body of the French army, which, after its defeat, -retired to Montreal, and which was still formidable, had been -rëinforced by six thousand Canadian militia and a body of Indians. -With these forces, M. de Levi, the successor of Montcalm, appeared -before Quebec, with the design of besieging the fortress. Murray, -whose force had been reduced by the severities of the winter, the want -of proper food, from five thousand to three thousand, left his works, -and met the French near Sillery, and a severe action took place, in -which the advantage was on the side of the French, the English being -obliged to retire within the fortress. The loss on both sides was very -great, being nearly one thousand each; but the battle was productive -of no special results. Levi found it impossible to reduce the place; -and the English, receiving rëinforcements after being closely invested -for a time, it was concluded by the French commander to abandon the -project, and he accordingly returned to Montreal. - -As it seemed necessary to try the fortune of another campaign against -the enemy, since, notwithstanding the capture of the French posts in -1759, the province still held out against the British arms, General -Amherst had made arrangements for assembling before Montreal all the -British troops from Lake Ontario, Lake Champlain, and Quebec. The -several armies were early in motion, and so accurately had their -operations been concerted, that Amherst and Murray reached the -vicinity of Montreal on the same day; when Haviland, who commanded a -small force from Crown Point, joined them: the next day, Vaudreuil, -the governor, finding further resistance vain, demanded a -capitulation; and on the 18th of September, 1760, the whole French -possessions in Canada, were surrendered to the British power. - -The war still continued in Europe, and a few provincial troops were -raised in 1761 and 1762; but New England remained exempted from all -border hostilities. On the 10th of February, 1763, a general peace was -signed at Paris, and soon after ratified by Great Britain and France. -This was an era of joy to the colonies. They had experienced no such -relief since the commencement of King William's War, in 1689. A few -short intervals of peace had indeed been enjoyed, but during nearly -eighty years, they were generally doomed in every exposed point to -pillage, captivity, and slaughter. Relieved from their miseries and -dangers, they reoccupied their plantations, and new ones were -commenced, and population began to spread with rapidity. - -It may be added, and it is due to the colonist to add, that they were -not unmindful of their obligations to that Being by whose fostering -care they had been preserved during so many and so severe trials and -privations. They had put their trust in Him, and he had saved them -from the hands of their foes. Many had indeed fallen--many had -suffered; but now, relieved from foreign invasion and savage butchery, -they united in giving God thanks on a day set apart for the purpose, -and went on their way rejoicing. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[25] Holmes' Annals. - -[26] Holmes. - -[27] Holmes. - - - - - IV.--REVOLUTION. - - -[Illustration: THE REVOLUTION] - - - - - I. CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. - - - OBJECTS proposed in the Settlement of America--Forms of Government - conducive to Independence--Influence of Expenses--Colonies obliged - to defend themselves, and to defray the Expense of their own Wars - and those of the Mother-country--British system of Taxation - commenced--Writs of Assistance--Stamp Act--Formidable Opposition to - it--Non-importation Act--Arrival of British forces--Boston - Massacre--Destruction of the Gaspee--Destruction of Tea--Boston Port - Bill--Arrival of General Gage--His obnoxious Measures--Meeting of - Congress--Preparations for War--Obstinacy of the King and - Parliament--Crisis arrives--Determination of the Colonists. - -The Revolution of America was an extraordinary event; and at the time -of its occurrence was unlooked for, both by the government and nation -of Great Britain. That the colonies had long been dissatisfied with -the measures adopted towards them by the parent-country, and that this -dissatisfaction was gradually increasing, was well known; but the -statesmen on the other side designed, and doubtless supposed, that -they should be able to secure the submission of the colonies to -whatever line of policy they might please to adopt. - -But they little understood the American character. Had they reflected -upon the circumstances in which the colonies originated, and their -steady progress in wealth and population, they might well have -anticipated the final result. Certain it was, that oppressive and -coercive measures would only tend to weaken their affection for the -parent-country. Kindness and conciliation might have preserved the -bond of union--indeed, it was possible to have confirmed the colonies -in their regard for the land of their birth; but the line of policy -which could alone have effected that object, was overlooked or -disregarded by British statesmen; and through their infatuated -counsels, they hastened the very event which they so much deplored. - -Let us advert to some of the remote and proximate causes, which -brought about this Revolution: - - * * * * * - -1. Objects proposed by the colonies in their settlement of America.-- - -At the era of the Revolution, thirteen colonies had been planted. -These were Virginia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode -Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, North -and South Carolina, and Georgia. Virginia, the first, was settled in -1607, and Georgia, the last, in 1732. Different objects were proposed -in the establishment of the different colonies. The leading object of -some was pecuniary profit. They were induced, either by associated or -individual proprietors, who themselves remained in England, to come to -America, with the hope of profitable returns for the advance of their -capital. But the more northern colonies came on their own concern, at -their own expense, and with reference to the enjoyment of freedom and -peace in religion, which they could not find at home. - -Now, was it to be expected that those who had left home, and all its -endearments, for the sake of enjoying a larger liberty, would consent -to have that liberty abridged, especially after having tasted its -blessings for years? If the Pilgrim Fathers had such notions themselves, -was it to be supposed that their children would cherish less manly and -patriotic sentiments? The spirit of liberty does not easily die, where -there is aliment to keep it alive. The blood of freemen, or those who -aspire to freedom, instead of becoming weaker, as it flows down in -successive generations, usually becomes more pure and more excitable. -This was verified in the history of the colonies, anterior to the -Revolution. They were men of whom the principles of liberty had taken -strong hold. Their distance from the mother-country--her neglect of -them--the exercise of civil and religious freedom for a number of -years--all served to excite and strengthen a desire for independence. -Such an event was the natural result of the principles with which the -colonies began their career. It was the natural result of the physical -courage and strength acquired in felling forests, resisting savages, and -in carrying out those plans and enterprises in which a young, ardent, -and ambitious people are likely to engage. - -2. Their forms of government were conducive to independence. - -In the settlement of the colonies, three forms of government were -established. These were usually denominated Charter, Proprietary, and -Royal governments. The difference arose from the different -circumstances under which the colonies were settled, as well as the -different objects of the first emigrants. The Charter governments were -confined to New England. The Proprietary governments were those of -Maryland, Pennsylvania, the Carolinas, and the Jerseys. The others -were royal governments, or those which were immediately under the -British crown.[28] - -As early as 1619, only twelve years from its settlement, a provincial -legislature, in which the colonists were represented, was introduced -into Virginia. In Plymouth and in Massachusetts, the colonies -organized their body, politic and social, upon principles of perfect -equality. And, as the Puritans spread themselves over New England, -they gave to the distinct communities which they established, -constitutions still more democratic. In January, 1639, three years -from the commencement of the Connecticut colony, the planters on -Connecticut river convened at Hartford, and formed a system of -government which continued, with scarcely any alterations, to the year -1818. Of this system, Dr. Trumbull observes: "With such wisdom did our -venerable ancestors provide for the freedom and liberties of -themselves and their posterity. Thus happily did they guard against -every encroachment on the rights of the subject. This, probably, is -one of the most free and happy constitutions of civil government ever -formed. The formation of it, at so early a period, when the light of -liberty was wholly darkened in most parts of the world, and the rights -of man were so little understood in others, does great honor to their -ability, integrity, and love of freedom." - -In Maryland and Pennsylvania, the first assemblies established a -popular representation, and in all their political regulations -proceeded upon broad views of civil freedom. The same remark, says Mr. -Walsh, may be extended to the Carolinas and New York. - -The very first principles, then, of the colonists in relation to -government were anti-monarchical. In their incipient colonial state, -they had the feelings of freemen; and all their institutions, as far -as they were allowed to carry them, spoke of liberty and equality. - -This spirit was never lost to the colonies. In the variety of fortune -which they subsequently encountered--in every change of monarch -abroad--in every shift of rulers at home--through royal smiles and -royal frowns--in times of war and in times of peace--their love of -liberty continued unabated, and even increased. Thus early began -those sentiments of freedom and independence which, uniting in their -course with other streams, ended at length in a deep, broad, -irresistible current against British oppression. - -3. Influence of the expenses incurred by the colonies in their -settlements, and in their several wars and those of the mother-country. - -"All the thirteen colonies," says Mr. Walsh, "with the exception of -Georgia, were established, and had attained to considerable strength, -without the _slightest aid_ from the treasury of the mother-country." - -Neither the crown nor the parliament paid a dollar towards purchasing -the soil of the Indians--the original masters of that soil. These -purchases were made by the colonists themselves. The settlement of the -province of Massachusetts Bay alone cost two hundred thousand pounds--an -enormous sum at the era at which it was effected. Lord Baltimore -expended forty thousand pounds in his establishment of the colony of -Maryland. On that of Virginia, immense wealth was lavished by the first -settlers. The first planters of Connecticut consumed great estates in -purchasing lands of the Indians and in making settlements. - -In like manner, when assailed by fierce and warlike tribes, the -mother-country furnished no aid whatever--neither troops nor money. -She erected no fortifications; entered into no negotiations, and -manifested no sympathy, or even interest, in the fate of her -offspring. Some of the most considerable Indian wars in which the -colonies were involved, were the immediate result of the rashness and -cupidity of the royal governors. That, for instance, which is styled -'King William's War'--memorable in the annals of New Hampshire -particularly--was owing to a wanton predatory expedition of Andros, in -1688, against the possessions of a French individual, situate between -Penobscot and Nova Scotia. - -The testimony of Lord Brougham on this subject is worthy of special -notice. In his work on 'Colonial Policy,' he observes: - -"The old colonies of North America, besides defraying the whole -expenses of their internal administration, were enabled from their -situation to render very active assistance to the mother-country upon -several occasions, not peculiarly interesting to themselves. They -uniformly asserted, that they _would_ never refuse contributions, even -for purposes strictly imperial, provided these were constitutionally -demanded. Nor did they stop at mere professions of zeal. - -"The whole expense of civil government in the British North American -colonies, previous to the Revolution, did not amount to eighty -thousand pounds sterling, which was paid by the produce of their -taxes. The military establishments, the garrisons and the forts in the -old colonies, cost the mother-country nothing." - -From the foregoing facts, nothing is clearer than that the colonies were -obliged, from their earliest existence, to take care of themselves. At -first, Great Britain thought little of them, and cared, if possible, -still less. They were obliged to repel hostile tribes without aid, and -defend themselves against the aggressions of more civilized powers. And, -moreover, they were compelled to carry on not only their own wars, but -those of the mother-country, and then pay the expenses. - -It may well be asked, what was the natural and almost necessary -consequence of such treatment? Keep a child in leading-strings, and it -will be long ere it walks. Teach him to walk early, and he will soon -decline your aid. Let a father send forth his son to take care of -himself, and perchance the next he hears of him, he will learn that -his fortune is made, and no longer will he wish for parental -assistance; and fortunate will it be if the son, under a sense of -former parental indifference and unkindness, does not, at length, feel -a correspondent alienation from the parent. - -But whether these illustrations are apposite or not, certain it is, -that the colonists at length learned the important fact, that they -could take care of themselves. To this they had been driven. The next -natural feeling to this superiority over the difficulties and trials -which they encountered in their early settlement of the country, was a -willingness, and even _wish_, to be independent of the parent by whom -they had been so unkindly neglected. Great Britain might, therefore, -thank herself for the spirit of independence which at length appeared -among the colonies; her line of policy engendered and matured it. - -4. Measures of oppression. - -"Within little more than a generation from the commencement of the -plantations," says Mr. Walsh, "the royal government began those formal -inquiries into their population and manufactures, which were so often -renewed, until the period of our revolution." The object or occasion -of these inquiries was twofold--a jealousy, lest the colonies should -grow too fast; and, secondly, a desire to monopolize, for the benefit -of Great Britain, all their trade, and the proceeds of their -manufacturing industry. - -The various acts of monopoly which passed parliament during a series of -years, it is not necessary to particularize. They uniformly bore heavily -on the commercial and manufacturing enterprise of the colonies, and were -designed "to keep them in a firmer dependence upon England"--"to render -them more beneficial and advantageous"--"to employ and increase the -English shipping"--"to make a vent for English manufactures." - -After the peace of 1763, a still more grinding policy was proposed--that -of _taxing_ the colonies, with the avowed purpose of drawing a revenue -into the royal exchequer, and on the plausible, yet unwarrantable -ground, that Great Britain had contracted a debt in their defence. - -Hitherto, when money was wanted in the colonies, the parliament of -England had been content to ask for it by a formal requisition upon -the _colonial legislatures_, and they had supplied it with a willing -hand. But now, it was thought that a shorter method of obtaining it -might be resorted to with better effect. - -Before proceeding to notice the measures adopted with reference to the -foregoing object, it is necessary to advert to what were denominated -_writs of assistance_, which were orders issued by the superior court -of the province, requiring the sheriffs and other civil officers to -assist the person to whom it was granted, in breaking open and -searching every place, even private dwellings, if suspected of -containing prohibited goods. - -The first application for a writ of this kind was made by the deputy -collector at Salem in November, 1760. Doubts being expressed by the -court as to the legality of the writ, or the power of the court to -grant it, the application was deferred to the next term, when the -question was to be argued. - -At the appointed time, Mr. Gridley, a distinguished lawyer, appeared -for the crown; Mr. Thatcher and Mr. Otis for the merchants. The trial -took place in the council chamber of the old Town-house in Boston. The -judges were five in number, including Lieutenant-Governor Hutchinson, -who presided as chief justice; and the room was filled with all the -officers of government and the principal citizens, to hear the -arguments in a cause that inspired the deepest solicitude. The case -was opened by Mr. Gridley, who argued it with much learning, -ingenuity, and dignity; making all his reason depend upon this -consideration, "That the parliament of Great Britain was the sovereign -legislator of the British empire." He was followed by Mr. Thatcher on -the opposite side, whose reasoning was ingenious and able, delivered -in a tone of great mildness and moderation. "But," in the language of -President Adams, "Otis was a flame of fire; with a promptitude of -classical allusion, a depth of research, a rapid summary of historical -events and dates, a profusion of legal authorities, a prophetic glance -into futurity, and a rapid torrent of impetuous eloquence, he hurried -away all before him." - -"I will to my dying day," said Otis, among other things--"I will to my -dying day oppose, with all the power and faculties God has given me, -all such instruments of slavery on the one hand and villany on the -other. It appears to me the worst instrument of arbitrary power, the -most destructive of English liberty, and the fundamental principles of -law, that was ever found in an English law-book." - -[Illustration: Otis in the Council chamber.] - -The occasion was intensely exciting--the liberties of the people were in -danger--their dwellings, those sanctuaries where every man should feel -himself safe, and his effects--all were in jeopardy. And the vast throng -gathered on the occasion so thought--especially as their excited -feelings became more intense under the thrilling appeals of the eloquent -Otis. "Every man of an immensely crowded audience," says President -Adams, "appeared to me to go away, as I did, ready to take arms against -writs of assistance. _Then and there was the first scene of the first -act of opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great Britain._" - -The court postponed a decision of the question until the following term; -and in the mean time wrote to Great Britain for information on the -subject. Writs were afterwards granted, but were extremely unpopular. In -Connecticut writs of assistance, it is said, were never granted. - -The next measure of oppression was the passage of the famous _stamp -act_. Such a project had been suggested during the administrations of -Lord Walpole and Mr. Pitt; but they were too sagacious to venture upon -a measure at once so odious and unjust. Said Walpole, "I will leave -the taxation of America to some of my successors, who may have more -_courage_ than I have." And said Pitt, "I will never burn my fingers -with an American stamp act." To the successor of Mr. Pitt, Lord -Grenville, was reserved the honor, or rather the infamy, of such a -project. - -When the bill was ushered into the House of Commons, petitions from -Virginia, Connecticut, and South Carolina, in every way respectful, -but in tone firm and decided, were offered in opposition to it. But -the house refused even to receive them, on the ground that the _right_ -of parliament to tax the colonies was denied; and, secondly, that it -was contrary to a rule of the house "_to receive any petition against -a money-bill_." - -The debate therefore proceeded. The chief advocates of the bill were -the prime minister and Charles Townshend. In the opposition were Mr. -Pitt--who, however, was absent by reason of sickness--General Conway, -Alderman Beckford, Colonel Barre, Mr. Jackson, Sir William Meredith, -&c. Conway and Beckford opposed the bill on the ground of its -_injustice_; Colonel Barre and others on the ground of its -_inexpediency_. The purpose of the minister, however, was fixed; and, -rallying his surprised and half-hesitating troops, he took the -question--a large majority expressed in favor of the bill--two hundred -and fifty for, and fifty against it. On its coming into the House of -Lords, it received the entire concurrence of that body, and on the 22d -of March obtained the royal assent. - -This act, so celebrated in the annals of American history, both as an -act of flagrant injustice, on the part of the British parliament, and -one of the _proximate causes_ of the Revolution, consisted of fifty-five -specific duties, laid on as many different species of instruments, in -which paper was used; such as notes, bonds, mortgages, deeds, university -degrees, licenses, advertisements in newspapers, and even almanacs; -varying from _one half-penny_ up to _six pounds_. As an illustration of -the heavy burdens designed to be put upon the colonies by this act, it -may be stated, that previous to the passage of the act, a ream of common -printed bailbonds cost fifteen pounds--_stamped_, one hundred. A ream of -_stamped_ policies of insurance amounted to one hundred and ninety -pounds--of common ones, without stamps, twenty. A piece of paper, or -parchment, used as a diploma, or certificate of a degree taken in any -university, academy, or college, was taxed _two pounds_. For a piece of -paper for a license for retailing spirituous liquors, _twenty shillings_ -were demanded. For one for a license for selling wine only, _four -pounds_; for wine and spirituous liquors, _three pounds_. For letters of -probate, administration, or guardianship, _ten shillings_. For a common -deed, conveying not exceeding one hundred acres of land, _one shilling -and sixpence_. For a newspaper, containing half a sheet or less, _one -half-penny_; one sheet, _one penny_. Pamphlets, _one shilling_ per -sheet. Advertisements, _two shillings_ each. Almanacs, _fourpence_. - -This act was ordered to take effect on the following 1st of November. -Meanwhile, the people in various parts of the country were anxious to -express their detestation of the measure, which the lapse of a few -months was to bring into operation. One day in the month of August, the -effigy of Andrew Oliver, the proposed distributor of stamps in -Massachusetts, was found hanging on a tree, afterwards well known by the -name of _Liberty-tree_, in the main street of Boston. At night it was -taken down, and carried on a bier amidst the acclamations of an immense -collection of people through the court-house, down King street, to a -small brick building, supposed to have been erected for the reception of -the detested stamps. This building being soon levelled with the ground, -the rioters next attacked Mr. Oliver's house; and having broken the -windows, entered it, and destroyed part of the furniture. - -[Illustration: Procession with an Effigy and Stamp-master at Boston.] - -The house of Benjamin Hallowell, jun., comptroller of the customs, was -next entered; and, elevated and emboldened by liquors found in his -cellar, the mob, with inflamed rage, directed their course to the -house of Lieutenant-Governor Hutchinson, who, after vainly attempting -resistance, was constrained to depart, to save his life. By four in -the morning, one of the best houses in the province was completely in -ruins, nothing remaining but the bare walls and floors. The plate, -family pictures, most of the furniture, the wearing apparel, about -nine hundred pounds sterling, and the manuscripts and books which Mr. -Hutchinson had been thirty years collecting, besides many public -papers in his custody, were either carried off or destroyed. The whole -damage was estimated at two thousand five hundred pounds. - -[Illustration: Attack, on the Governor's House.] - -On the arrival of the 1st of November, on which the stamp act was to -go into effect, the day was ushered in at Boston by the tolling of the -bells; many shops and stores were shut, and effigies of the authors -and friends of that act were carried about the streets, and afterwards -torn in pieces by the populace. - -Nor was Massachusetts alone; the obnoxious act received similar -treatment in the other colonies. On the 24th of August, a gazette was -published at Providence, with _vox Populi, vox Dei_, for a motto; -effigies were exhibited, and in the evening cut down and burned. In -Portsmouth, New Castle, and other places, the bells were tolled to -denote the decease of Liberty. In Connecticut, Mr. Ingersoll, the -stamp-master, was compelled to resign. The spirit manifested in New -York produced a similar resignation. Offended with the conduct of -Lieutenant-Governor Colden, in relation to the stamp act, many of the -inhabitants assembled one evening, and breaking open his coach-house, -took out his coach, which, with his effigy, they burned, amid the -acclamations of several thousand spectators. - -[Illustration: Burning of the Coach and Effigy of Governor Colden.] - -In Philadelphia, on the appearance of the ships having the stamps on -board, all the ships in the harbor hoisted their colors half-mast high; -the bells were muffled, and continued to toll till evening. Similar -demonstrations of dissatisfaction were made in numerous other places. - -The opposition to the stamp act was so universal and so formidable, as -to prevent all hope of its successful operation; had this measure been -persisted in, the Revolution in America would doubtless have dated at -an earlier day. - -Fortunately for the American colonies, the administration of Lord -Grenville terminated in July, 1765--that minister being succeeded by -the Marquis of Rockingham, while the Duke of Grafton and General -Conway were made secretaries of state. - -To this new ministry it early became apparent that, in respect to the -colonies, a crisis was now at hand; either existing measures must be -relaxed, or a resort must be had to arms. The former being deemed the -wiser plan, a repeal of the stamp act was moved in parliament, and, on -the 18th of March, passed the House by a majority of two hundred and -seventy-five to one hundred and sixty-seven. In the House of Lords, -the majority was one hundred and five to seventy-one. - -In America, the intelligence of the repeal was received with -acclamations of the most sincere and heart-felt gratitude, by all -classes of people. Public thanksgivings were offered up in all the -churches. The resolutions, which had been passed on the subject of -importations, were rescinded, and their trade with the mother-country -was immediately renewed with increased vigor. The home-spun dresses -were given to the poor, and once more the colonists appeared clad in -the produce of British looms. - -In July, 1766, the Marquis of Rockingham retired from the cabinet, and -a new ministry was formed under the direction of William Pitt--the -Duke of Grafton being placed at the head of the treasury, and Charles -Townshend made chancellor of the exchequer. In May, 1767, the latter -revived the scheme of taxing America, proposing to impose duties on -glass, paper, tea, &c., imported into the colonies. The bill passed -both houses without much opposition, the Earl of Chatham being -confined at that time by sickness. - -The news of this measure, on reaching America, produced the greatest -possible excitement. Counter-measures were immediately proposed. -Resort was had, as at a former day, to non-importation, the effects of -which had been so severely felt by the traders in England, under the -stamp act. Boston, as before, took the lead. At a town-meeting, held -in October, it was voted that measures should be immediately taken to -promote the establishment of domestic manufactories, by encouraging -the consumption of all articles of American manufacture. They also -agreed to purchase no articles of foreign growth or manufacture, but -such as were absolutely indispensable. New York and Philadelphia soon -followed the example of Boston; and, in a short time, the merchants -themselves entered into associations to import nothing from Great -Britain but articles that necessity required. - -Several events, about this time, served to increase the excitement of -the colonies, especially in Boston. Among these may be mentioned the -arrival, at the latter place, of a man-of-war and transports, from -Halifax, with nine hundred troops on board. - -[Illustration: Arrival of the first Man-of-war at Boston.] - -Such a proceeding, on the part of the British ministry, was eminently -calculated to excite the jealousy and indignation of the colonists. -They felt disgusted and injured; and the more so, from the haughty and -imperious bearing of the officers and troops. In a few weeks, this -force was augmented by the arrival of several more transports from -Cork, with the sixty-fourth and sixty-fifth regiments, under Colonels -Mackay and Pomeroy. - -Another measure, adopted about this time by the British ministry, and -one which perhaps struck more vitally at the liberty of the colonists -than any which preceded, was an order to the provincial governors to -procure information touching all treasons, &c., and to transmit the -same, with the names of the suspected persons, to England, in order -that they might be ordered thither for trial. The design of it was to -terrify the patriotic party into submission; but well might it have -been foreseen that such an offensive measure would only serve to rouse -opposition, and confirm the whole civilized world in the righteousness -of the common cause. - -Parliament again convened, January 9, 1770, soon after which (28th) -the Duke of Grafton resigned his office of first lord of the treasury. -Lord Chatham, having recovered from his late illness, had now returned -to parliament, and, with his wonted vigor, attacked the system and -measures of the administration. - -Lord North, chancellor of the exchequer, succeeded the Duke of -Grafton; "and from this time commences an administration which forms a -momentous era in the history of Great Britain. During his -administration, which lasted to the close of the Revolution, Great -Britain lost more territory and accumulated more debt than at any -former period of her history." - -The first measure of North's administration was in part -conciliatory--being a motion to repeal the port duties of 1767, with -the exception of the duty on tea. This his lordship, in spite of the -friends of the colonies, determined to retain. - -To this partial repeal, Governor Pownall strongly objected. It would -produce nothing but civil discord and interminable contention. Repeal -all, or none. Why retain this single duty, as a pepper-corn rent, to -show the tenor by which the colonists hold their rights, and, by so -doing, jeopardize his majesty's entire interest in the American -colonies? "I have lived in America," said he; "I know the character of -the people. Depend upon it, with their views, they will never solicit -the favor of this house; never more will they wish to bring before -parliament the grievances under which they conceive themselves to -labor." - -While high and angry debate was thus in progress on the other side of -the water, on this side, events were transpiring which were giving -increasing irritation to already excited feelings, and adding to the -force of the gathering storm. Collisions and quarrels, between the -soldiers quartered in Boston and the citizens, were not unfrequent; and -at length, on the evening of the 5th of March, 1770, resulted in an -effusion of blood, called, by way of eminence, "The Boston Massacre." - -[Illustration: Boston Massacre.] - -Three men were killed and two mortally wounded, who died soon after. -Mutual exasperations preceded. Neither citizens nor soldiers were exempt -from the charge of insult and provocation. But a sentinel, who had been -brought to the ground by a blow, on rising, fired, as did, at the same -time, a sergeant and six men who were with him. Their fire resulted as -already stated. Great excitement followed. The murderers were arrested. -Captain Preston, to whose company the soldiers belonged, and who was -present, was also arrested, and committed to prison. - -The following morning the authorities of Boston, urged on by an -exasperated people, required the troops to be withdrawn from the town. -The lieutenant-governor, for a time, resisted the demand; but on -learning that no other course would satisfy or restrain the people, he -expressed his willingness that they should be withdrawn to the castle, -which was accordingly done. - -The funeral of the victims was attended with extraordinary pomp. Most of -the shops were closed, all the bells of the town tolled on the occasion, -and the corpses were followed to the grave by an immense concourse of -people, arranged six abreast, the procession being closed by a long -train of carriages, belonging to the principal gentry of the town. -Captain Preston and the party of soldiers were afterwards tried. The -captain and six of the men were acquitted, and two were brought in -guilty of manslaughter; a result which reflected great honor on John -Adams and Josiah Quincy, the counsel for the prisoners, and on the jury. - -The month of June, '72, furnished a new source of disquietude and -animosity. On the 9th of that month, the Providence packet, while -sailing into the harbor of Newport, was required, by his majesty's -revenue-cutter, the Gaspee, Lieutenant Doddington, to lower her -colors. This the captain of the packet deemed repugnant to his -patriotic feelings, and the Gaspee fired at the packet, to bring her -to; the American, however, still persisted in holding on her course, -and, by keeping in shoal water, dexterously contrived to run the -schooner aground in the chase. As the tide was upon the ebb, the -Gaspee was set fast for the night, and afforded a tempting opportunity -for retaliation; and a number of fishermen, aided and encouraged by -some of the most respectable inhabitants of Providence, being -determined to rid themselves of so uncivil an inspector, in the middle -of the night manned several boats, and boarded the Gaspee. The -lieutenant was wounded in the affray; but, with every thing belonging -to him, he was carefully conveyed on shore, as were all his crew. The -vessel, with her stores, was then burned; and the party returned -unmolested to their homes. When the governor became acquainted with -this event, he offered a reward of five hundred pounds for the -discovery of the offenders. - -[Illustration: Burning of the Gaspee.] - -Another fruitful source of mutual ill-feeling between the British -ministry and the colonists was the determination of the former to -introduce _tea_ into America, and to impose a tax thereon, in -opposition to the wishes of the latter. Accordingly, cargoes of tea -were sent to New York, Philadelphia, Charleston, and Boston. The fate -of these cargoes, thus sent, was different. Those destined for New -York and Philadelphia, were sent back by the inhabitants. The citizens -of Charleston unloaded the cargo sent thither, and stored it in -cellars, where it perished. - -On the arrival of the vessel with the tea, in the harbor of Boston, a -meeting of the citizens was immediately called. "The hour of -destruction," it was said, "or of manly opposition, had now come:" and -all who were friends to their country were invited to attend, "to make -an united and successful resistance to this last and worst measure of -administration." A great number of people assembled, from the adjoining -towns, as well as from the capital, in the celebrated Faneuil Hall, but -the meeting was soon adjourned to one of the largest churches in town. -Here it was voted, that they would use all lawful means to prevent its -being landed, and to have it returned immediately to England. - -On the following day, when the citizens assembled to receive the final -answer of the factors, as to the course they would pursue in disposing -of the tea, a communication was made to the meeting, in which the -factors informed them that they must decline sending back the tea; but -were ready to have it stored, and remain, until they could hear from -the company in England. The citizens continued dissatisfied with the -conduct and proposal of the consignees, and again ordered a watch to -guard the vessels. It was also again voted, that whoever should import -tea into the province, should be considered an enemy to the country. - -When it was found that nothing could be effected in a regular way, the -meeting was broken up, and a number of men, in disguise, proceeded, -late in the evening, to the vessels, then lying at the wharf, which -had the tea on board; and, in a short time, every chest was taken out, -and the contents thrown into the sea; but no injury was done to any -other part of the cargoes. - -The inhabitants of the town, generally, had no knowledge of the event -until the next day. It is supposed the number concerned in the affair -was about fifty; but who they were no one pretended to know. A few of -them became known in after years, when it was no longer liable to -involve them in trouble. - -When intelligence of the destruction of the tea reached Great Britain, -and the determined spirit manifested in the colonies, in opposition to -all revenue laws, was made known to the ministers, a majority at once -resolved on more energetic measures, and found themselves supported -by parliament in their plans of coercion, regardless alike of the -great principles of the constitution, and of the permanent peace and -prosperity of the kingdom. Lord North, it is said, declared "that he -would not listen to any complaints or petitions from America, till -_she was at his feet_." - -[Illustration: Destruction of Tea.] - -In a few days, a bill was introduced "for the immediate removal of the -officers concerned in the collection of customs from Boston, and to -discontinue the landing and discharging, lading and shipping goods, -wares, and merchandise, at Boston, or within the harbor thereof." The -bill, also, levied a fine upon the town, as a compensation to the East -India Company for the destruction of their teas, and was to continue in -force during the pleasure of the king. The opposition to this measure -was very slight, and it was carried, in both Houses, without a division. - -The 1st of June was fixed for the Boston port-bill to go into operation, -and the blockade was consequently to commence on that day. On the 13th -of May, at a meeting of the inhabitants of Boston, it was resolved to -invite the other colonies to unite in refusing all importations from -Great Britain, and to withhold all commercial intercourse with her. To -secure their cöoperation, a special messenger was dispatched to New -York, Philadelphia, and other places; in every place he was received -with great cordiality, and resolutions were immediately adopted, -corresponding to the wishes of the people of Boston. - -Such was the state of affairs in the colonies generally, in May, when -General Gage arrived in Boston, as the successor to Governor -Hutchinson, who had been rëcalled. At a former period, he had been, -for several years, commander-in-chief of the British military forces -in America. Notwithstanding the prejudices of the people to the -appointment of a military man, he was received with due honor, and -even great ceremony, by the council and citizens, all of whom -expressed a hope that his administration would conduce to the peace -and welfare of the province. - -A short time, however, served to develope the character of General Gage, -and his servility to an arbitrary ministry in the mother-country. He -threatened to remove the general assembly to Salem--gave his negative to -thirteen of the council chosen by the assembly--refused to appoint a day -for special prayer, at the request of that body--and, finally, sent a -proclamation, by his secretary, to dissolve them. - -At this period of increasing turmoil and agitation, the second general -congress assembled (September 5, 1774), at Philadelphia, in which all -the colonies were represented, excepting Georgia. Peyton Randolph, of -Virginia, was elected president, and Charles Thompson, of -Philadelphia, secretary. - -The most eminent men of the various colonies were now, for the first -time, brought together. They were known to each other by fame, but -they were, personally, strangers. The meeting was solemn. The object -which had called them together, was of incalculable magnitude. The -liberties of no less than three millions of people, with that of all -their posterity, were staked on the wisdom and energy of their -councils. No wonder, then, at the long and deep silence, which is said -to have followed upon their organization; at the anxiety with which -the members looked round upon each other; and at the reluctance which -every individual felt to open a business so fearfully momentous. In -the midst of this deep and death-like silence, and just when it was -becoming painfully embarrassing, Mr. Henry arose slowly, as if borne -down by the weight of the subject. "After faltering, according to his -habit, through a most expressive exordium, in which he merely echoed -back the consciousness of every other heart, in deploring his -inability to do justice to the occasion, he launched gradually into a -recital of the colonial wrongs. Rising, as he advanced, with the -grandeur of his subject, and glowing, at length, with all the majesty -of the occasion, his speech seemed more than that of mortal man. Mr. -Henry was followed by Mr. Richard Henry Lee, in a speech scarcely less -powerful, and still more replete with classic eloquence. One spirit of -ardent love of liberty pervaded every breast, and produced a -unanimity, as advantageous to the cause they advocated, as it was -unexpected and appalling to their adversaries."[29] - -The congress proceeded with great deliberation; its debates were held -with closed doors, and the honor of each member was solemnly engaged not -to disclose any of the discussions, till such disclosure was declared -advisable by the majority. On the 14th of October, a series of -resolutions, regarding the rights and grievances of the colonies, was -passed and promulgated. They were couched in strong and undisguised -language, and set forth to the world what were considered, by this noble -body of men, to be the rights and privileges of the people of America, -in defence of which they were ready to peril life, liberty, and fortune. - -"A majority of the members of this congress," says Mr. Pitkin, "had -little doubt, that the measures taken by them, if supported by the -American people, would produce a redress of grievances. - -"Richard Henry Lee said to Mr. Adams: 'We shall undoubtedly carry all -our points. You will be completely relieved; all the offensive acts -will be repealed, the army and fleet will be rëcalled, and Britain -will give up her foolish projects.' - -[Illustration: Patrick Henry.] - -"George Washington was of opinion that, with the aid of both the -non-importation and non-exportation system, America would prevail. -Patrick Henry concurred in opinion with Mr. Adams, that the contest -must ultimately be decided by force. The proceedings of congress met -with the almost unanimous approbation of the people of America. The -non-importation agreement, entered into by their delegates, was -adopted as their own. Committees of vigilance were appointed in all -the towns and districts, and the names of those who disregarded it, -were published as the enemies of public liberty." - -Before the close of the year, the busy note of preparation resounded -through almost every colony. The Massachusetts committee were -indefatigable in providing for the most vigorous defence in the spring. -They had procured all sorts of military supplies for the service of -twelve thousand men, and had engaged the assistance of the three -neighboring provinces of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. - -While the notes of warlike preparation were thus sounding louder and -louder through the country, the British parliament assembled on the -other side of the waters. In January, 1775, Lord Chatham having taken -his seat, moved "That an humble address be presented his majesty, most -humbly to advise and beseech his majesty, that, in order to open the -way towards our happy settlement of the dangerous troubles in America, -by beginning to allay ferments and soften animosities there; and above -all, for preventing, in the mean time, any sudden and fatal -catastrophe at Boston, now suffering under daily irritation of an army -before their eyes, posted in their town; it may graciously please his -majesty, that immediate orders may be dispatched to General Gage, for -removing his majesty's forces from the town of Boston, as soon as the -season and other circumstances, indispensable to the safety and -accommodation of the said troops, may render the same practicable." - -Notwithstanding this motion was persuasively urged by Lord Chatham, -and ably supported by Lord Camden, Lord Shelburne, and the Marquis of -Rockingham, it was rejected by a large majority. - -Immediately following its rejection, the minister proposed, in the House -of Commons, a joint address to the king, on American affairs. In this -address, which was carried by large majorities, parliament declared that -Massachusetts was in a state of rebellion; and that this colony had been -supported by unlawful combinations, and engagements entered into by -several of the other colonies, to the great injury and oppression of his -majesty's subjects in Great Britain. Assuring his majesty of their -determination never to relinquish the sovereign authority of the king -and parliament over the colonies, they requested him to take the most -effectual measures to enforce obedience to that authority, and promised -him their support, at the hazard of their lives and property. Opposition -to the address was made in both houses, but in vain. The king, in his -answer, declared his firm determination, in compliance with their -request, to enforce obedience to the laws and authority of the supreme -legislature of the empire. His answer was followed by a message -requesting an increase of his forces by sea and land. - -Thus the determination of king and parliament was formed. Left of God -to follow the counsels of a proud, overbearing, and obstinate -ministry, they had now made declarations and taken positions, from -which there was no retreat but by concessions, which were not to be -expected. In due time, "the news"--and, such intelligence had not -before been borne across the waters of the Atlantic--so exciting--so -appalling--so maddening--"the news arrived of the king's speech at the -opening of parliament; of the resolutions adopted by that body; and, -finally, of the act by which the inhabitants of Massachusetts were -proclaimed rebels. All the province flew to arms; indignation became -fury,--obstinacy, desperation. - -"'We must look back no more!' said the colonies--'we must conquer or -die! We are placed between altars smoking with the most grateful -incense of glory and gratitude, on the one part, and blocks and -dungeons on the other. Let each then rise, and gird himself for the -combat. The dearest interests of this world command it; our most holy -religion enjoins it; that God, who eternally rewards the virtuous and -punishes the wicked, ordains it. Let us accept these happy auguries; -for already the mercenary satellites, sent by wicked ministers to -reduce this innocent people to extremity, are imprisoned within the -walls of a single city, where hunger emaciates them, rage devours -them, death consumes them. Let us banish every fear, every alarm; -fortune smiles upon the efforts of the brave!' By similar discourses, -they excited one another, and prepared themselves for defence. 'The -fatal moment is arrived! the signal of civil war is given!'"[30] - -Thus was the way prepared for a contest which king and parliament might, -at one time, have easily avoided. Had they listened to the warning voice -of Chatham, descending to his grave, or had they regarded the dictates -of common political wisdom, America might have been retained, and with -all her loyalty and affection, as a dependency. But God designed a -better portion for her; and hence he allowed the monarch and the -statesmen of England to adopt measures the most impolitic and -oppressive--the result of which was--as we shall see--the independence -of America, and the loss to the British crown of its brightest jewel. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[28] Pitkin. - -[29] Wirt's Life of Henry. - -[30] Botta's History. - - - - - II. EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION. - - -[Illustration: EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION] - - - - - I:--BATTLE OF LEXINGTON - - - CAUSE or Occasion of the Battle--British Detachment proceeds - towards Concord--Reaches Lexington--First Blood shed--Hancock - and Adams--Captain Wheeler and the British Officer--Stores - destroyed--The British harassed by the Americans--Retreat from - Concord--Effect of this affair upon the Country--Proceedings - of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress. - -The immediate cause of the battle, or, more properly, rencontre at -Lexington, was an attempt of a detachment of British troops to execute -an order of General Gage to destroy certain military stores, which the -provincials had collected at Concord, a town situated some eighteen -miles from Boston. In anticipation of an approaching contest, the -provincial assembly of Massachusetts had passed a resolution for the -purchase of all the gunpowder that could be found, and of every sort -of arms and ammunition requisite for an army of fifteen thousand men. -As these objects abounded principally in Boston, the inhabitants -employed all their address to procure and transport them to places of -safety in the country. Cannon-balls and other instruments of war were -therefore collected and transported in carts, apparently loaded with -manure; powder in the baskets and panniers of those who came from -Boston market, and cartridges were concealed even in candle-boxes. By -these means, and through other channels, a considerable quantity of -arms and ammunition had been collected at Concord. - -Excited by the loyalists, General Gage resolved to send a few -companies to Concord, for the purpose already stated. It was said, -also, that he had it in view, by this sudden expedition, to get -possession of _John Hancock_ and _Samuel Adams_, two of the most -ardent patriot chiefs, and the principal directors of the provincial -congress, then assembled in the town of Concord. - -In pursuance of the above purpose, on the evening of the 18th of April, -several British officers dispersed themselves here and there upon the -road and passages, to intercept the couriers that might have been -dispatched to give notice of the movements of the troops. The governor -gave orders that no person should be allowed to leave the city; -nevertheless, Dr. Warren, one of the most active patriots, had timely -intimation of the scheme, and immediately dispatched confidential -messengers; some of whom found the roads interdicted by the officers who -guarded them; but others made their way unperceived to Lexington, a town -upon the road leading to Concord. The intelligence was soon divulged; -the people flocked together; the bells in all parts were rung to give -the alarm; and the continual firing of cannon spread the agitation -through all the neighboring country. In the midst of this tumultuous -scene, at eleven in the evening, a strong detachment of grenadiers and -of light infantry was embarked at Boston, to land at a place called -Phipps' Farm, whence they marched to Concord. - -The British troops were under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Smith -and Major Pitcairn, who led the van-guard. The militia of Lexington, -as the intelligence of the movement of this detachment was uncertain, -had separated in the course of the night. Finally, at five in the -morning of the 19th, advice was received of the near approach of the -royal troops. The provincials that happened to be near, assembled--to -the number, however, of only seventy. The English appeared; and Major -Pitcairn, galloping up to them, in a loud voice cried, "Disperse, -rebels! lay down your arms, and disperse!" - -The provincials did not obey; upon which, advancing nearer, he -discharged a pistol, and, brandishing his sword, ordered his soldiers -to fire. Eight Americans were killed, three or four of them by the -first fire of the British; the others, after they had left the parade. -Several were also wounded. A handsome monument has been erected to the -memory of the killed, on the green where the first of them fell. - -[Illustration: Battle of Lexington.] - -Meanwhile, Hancock and Adams retired from danger; and it is related -that, while on the march, the latter, enraptured with joy, exclaimed, -"Oh, what an ever-glorious morning is this!"--considering this first -effusion of blood as the prelude of events which must secure the -happiness of his country. The soldiers advanced towards Concord, where -the inhabitants assembled; but seeing the numbers of the enemy, they -fell back, and posted themselves on a bridge, north of the town. The -light infantry assailed them with fury, routed them, and occupied the -bridge, while the others entered Concord, and proceeded to the -execution of their orders. They disabled two twenty-four pounders, -threw five hundred pounds of ball into the river and wells, and broke -in pieces about sixty barrels of flour. - -[Illustration: Captain Wheeler and the British Officer.] - -During the search of the British for military stores, a British officer -demanded entrance into the barn of Captain Wheeler. This was readily -granted. In it was stored a large quantity of provincial flour. The -officer expressed his pleasure at the discovery. But Captain Wheeler, -with much affected simplicity, said to him, putting his hand on a -barrel, "This is my flour. I am a miller, sir; yonder stands my mill; I -get my living by it. In the winter, I grind a great deal of grain, and -get it ready for market in the spring. This," (pointing to one barrel,) -"is the flour of wheat; this," (pointing to another,) "is the flour of -corn; this is the flour of rye; this," (putting his hand on his own -cask,) "is _my_ flour; this is _my_ wheat; this is _my_ rye; this is -_mine._" "Well," said the officer, "we do not injure _private_ -property," and withdrew, leaving this important depository untouched. - -The militia being rëinforced, Major Buttrick, of Concord, who had -gallantly offered to command them, advanced towards the bridge; but, -not knowing of the transaction at Lexington, ordered the men not to -give the first fire, that the provincials might not be the aggressors. -As he advanced, the light infantry retired to the Concord side of the -river, and began to pull up the bridge; and on his nearer approach, -they fired, and killed a captain and one of the privates. The -provincials returned the fire; a skirmish ensued, and the regulars -were forced to retreat, with some loss. They were soon joined by the -main body, which now retreated with precipitancy. Meanwhile, the -people of the adjacent country flocked in, and attacked them in every -direction. Some fired from behind stone walls and other coverts; while -others pressed on their rear during their retreat to Lexington. - -General Gage, apprehensive for the fate of the English, had dispatched -nine hundred men and two field-pieces, under command of Lord Percy. -This corps arrived very opportunely at Lexington, at the moment when -the royal troops entered the town from the other side, pursued with -fury by the provincial militia. - -It appears highly probable that, without this rëinforcement, they would -have all been cut to pieces or made prisoners; their strength was -exhausted, as well as their ammunition. After making a considerable halt -at Lexington, they renewed their march towards Boston, the number of the -provincials increasing, although the rear-guard of the English was less -molested, on account of the two field-pieces, which repressed the -impetuosity of the Americans. But the flanks of the columns remained -exposed to a destructive fire, from every point adapted to serve as -coverts. The royalists were also annoyed by the heat, which was -excessive, and by a violent wind, which blew a thick dust in their eyes. -Finally, after a march of incredible fatigue, and considerable loss of -men, the English, overwhelmed with lassitude, arrived at sunset in -Charlestown. Independently of the combat they had sustained, the -distance they had that day traveled was above five-and-thirty miles. The -day following, they crossed over to Boston.[31] - -[Illustration: Retreat of the British from Concord.] - -The rencontre at Lexington was, in itself, an inconsiderable affair. -But, in its relation and influence, its importance can scarcely be -estimated. It was the first outbreak of indignant feeling, which, for -months and years, had been acquiring strength, but which, until now, -had been suppressed. It was a solution of the problem, whether the -wrongs of America could be redressed without a resort to arms. It -developed the spirit and determination, as well of the king and -parliament, as of the Americans themselves. It shut the door for -further negotiation; it cut off hope for the colonies, but through an -appeal to arms. In fact, it was a signal for war--_it was war itself_. - -The affair had two results. The _first_ was to demonstrate how false -and ridiculous were the vaunts of those Gascons who, within parliament -as well as without, had spoken in such unworthy terms of American -courage; from this moment, the English nation, and especially its -soldiers, persuaded themselves that the struggle would be far more -severe and sanguinary than had been at first believed. The _second_ -effect of the combat was, greatly to increase the confidence of the -colonists, and their resolution to defend their rights. It should be -added, also, that the reports of the cruelties of the British troops -produced an incredible excitement in the minds of the inhabitants, -which was still further increased by the public honors which were paid -to those who had fallen in the opening contest. Their eulogies were -pronounced, and they were styled martyrs of liberty, while their -families were the objects of unusual veneration. They were cited as -the models to be imitated in the approaching conflict. - -The provincial congress of Massachusetts was in session at Watertown, -ten miles distant from Boston. On receiving intelligence of the -battle, it took immediate measures to raise thirteen thousand and six -hundred men, and chose for their general Colonel Ward, an officer of -much reputation. This militia was designed to form the contingent of -Massachusetts; the provinces of New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode -Island were invited to furnish theirs, in order to complete an army of -thirty thousand men, to be commanded by General John Thomas, an -officer of great experience. Connecticut dispatched, immediately, a -considerable corps, under the command of Colonel Putnam, an old -officer, who, in the two late wars, had often given proof of courage -and intelligence. The other provinces were not slow in causing their -standards to move; and, in a short time, an army of thirty thousand -men was found assembled under the walls of Boston. So great and so -universal was the ardor produced among the inhabitants by the battle -of Lexington, that the American generals were obliged to send back to -their homes many thousand volunteers. Putnam took his station at -Cambridge, and Thomas at Roxbury, upon the right wing of the army, to -cut off entirely the communication of the garrison, by the isthmus, -with the adjacent country. Thus, in a few days after the affair of -Lexington, the capital of the province of Massachusetts was closely -besieged; thus a multitude assembled in haste, of men, declared rebels -and mean-spirited cowards, held in strict confinement, not daring to -sally forth even to procure food, many thousands of veteran troops, -commanded by an able general, and combating under the royal standard. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[31] Botta's War of the Independence. - - - - - II. BATTLE OF BUNKER'S HILL. - - - AMERICAN Patriotism--American and British Forces--Fortification of - Bunker's hill--Attacked by British Ships--Asa Pollard, the - first Martyr--Preparations of the British--Warren--Prescott's - Injunction to his Troops--British repulsed with terrible - slaughter--Second Attack--Charlestown set on fire at the same - time--Second Repulse--Putnam and Major Small--Death of Colonel - Gardiner--Thrilling Incident--Third Advance of the - British--Death of Major Pitcairn--Americans in want of - Ammunition--Retreat--Death of Warren--Respective - Losses--Results of the Battle. - -Boston, which for a considerable time had been the point of greatest -interest in the American colonies, was not less so immediately following -the battle of Lexington. That engagement served to quicken the already -excited pulse of thousands. The fires of patriotism burned brighter. -Sires and sons, mothers and daughters, rejoiced that the crisis had -come, and were ready to make every needful sacrifice for their country's -good. In a few weeks, the metropolis of the province of Massachusetts -was environed by an American army, fifteen thousand strong--ten thousand -of which was furnished by Massachusetts, and three thousand by -Connecticut; the rest were supplied by the other New England colonies. -Of these troops, General Ward was commander-in-chief. His head-quarters -were at Cambridge. The right-wing was stationed at Roxbury, the left at -Medford and Chelsea. - -Towards the end of May, a considerable rëinforcement arrived at Boston -from England, which, with the garrison, formed an army of from ten to -twelve thousand men--all veteran troops. At the head of this -rëinforcement were three distinguished and practical generals--Howe, -Clinton, and Burgoyne. - -The difference in numbers was on the side of the Americans--not so, -however, their military science, arms, or ammunition. They had, in -all, but sixteen field-pieces, six of which, at the very utmost, were -in a condition for service. Their brass pieces, which were few, were -of the smallest caliber. They had, however, some heavy iron cannon, -with three or four mortars and howitzers, and some scanty provision of -balls and bombs. But of powder, they were almost totally destitute. - -The situation of the English was now daily becoming more perplexing -and critical, and the necessity was increasingly apparent, if they -intended to retain their position, of fortifying certain points in the -neighborhood. The two regarded of greatest importance were the heights -of Dorchester and Charlestown. The former presenting superior -inducements, it was determined to occupy and fortify that first, and, -afterwards, the latter. - -The Americans having learned the intentions of the British general, it -became a serious question what course was most prudent for them to -adopt. For a time, a difference of opinion prevailed among the -American patriots; but, at length, the committee of safety recommended -to the council of war to occupy and fortify Bunker's hill at once, and -Dorchester heights (now South Boston), as early after as practicable. - -In conformity with this suggestion, on the following day (16th June), -General Ward issued orders to Colonel Prescott to proceed to -Charlestown, and occupy and fortify Bunker's hill. - -The troops detached for this service, amounted to about one thousand -men. They were ordered to take provisions but for a single day. In the -early part of the evening of the 16th, they were mustered on Cambridge -common, near the colleges. They were commended to the protection and -guidance of Almighty God, in a prayer by President Langdon; after which, -led by the valiant Prescott, attired in a _calico frock_, and himself -preceded by two sergeants with dark lanterns, and accompanied by Colonel -Gridley and Judge Winthrop of Cambridge, they took their destined path. - -Having reached the ground, a question arose which of the two hills was -intended as Bunker's hill. The northern eminence was more generally -spoken of under that name, while the southern, commonly called Breed's -hill, was evidently the one best fitted for the purpose. After long -deliberation, it was decided to construct the principal work on -Breed's hill, and to erect an additional and subsidiary one on -Bunker's hill. Accordingly, Captain Gridley proceeded to lay out the -principal work. Midnight arrived, however, before a spade entered the -ground; there remained therefore less than four hours before -day-light, when the operations would, of course, be seen by the -British. The men, however, now began, and they _worked_. - -[Illustration: President Langdon at Prayer.] - -Meanwhile, a strong guard, under Captain Manners, was stationed on the -Charlestown shore, to watch the enemy. The day had been fair, and it -was a clear, star-light night. Colonel Prescott, accompanied by Major -Brooks, went down twice to the shore to reconnoitre, and distinctly -heard the British sentries relieving guard, and uttering, as they -walked their rounds, the customary, but, in this instance deceptive, -cry, "All's well!"[32] - -The night, on the part of the patriot band, was one of sleepless -vigilance and incessant toil. Shovels, pickaxes, and spades, were in -incessant motion; and, by four o'clock in the morning, they had thrown -up a redoubt, eight rods square and four feet high. At this time, the -captain of a British ship, called the _Lively_, discovered the work, and -opened a fire upon it. The alarm was given to the British in Boston, and -to the men-of-war in the river, and a heavy cannonade was commenced. The -fire from a battery of six guns, on Copp's hill, proved most annoying; -but the Americans, regardless of bombs and balls, continued their labors -with unshaken constancy. The first martyr who had the honor of shedding -his blood, on that ever-memorable hill, was a private soldier by the -name of _Asa Pollard_, of Billerica, and the shot which killed him was -the only one which took fatal effect during the forenoon. - -[Illustration: Death of Pollard.] - -While various movements were in progress, the Americans in the -neighborhood of the redoubt were by no means idle. About two hundred -yards in the rear of the breastwork was a stone fence surmounted with -rails. In front of this, another fence was constructed, and the space -between the two filled with hay, which happened to be on the field. A -subsidiary work was also hastily thrown up on Bunker's hill, properly -so called, by General Putnam. - -[Illustration: General Putnam.] - -From the moment the British discovered the operations of the -Americans, they well knew the importance of dislodging them from their -position. They had expected to attain this object by a cannonade from -their batteries and ships of war; but it was soon apparent that other -and more effective measures would be necessary. Accordingly, after -mature consultation in a council of war, summoned by General Gage, it -was resolved to transport a competent force across the river, and -attack the works in front. - -It was "a day without clouds," and intensely hot. Between mid-day and -one o'clock, twenty-eight barges were seen moving from the end of Long -wharf towards Morton's point. On board of these were four battalions -of infantry and ten of grenadiers. They had six pieces of artillery, -one of which was placed in each of the six leading boats. - -About two o'clock, a second detachment left Winnisimmett ferry, and -joined the first at Morton's point. These were soon after followed by -rëinforcements, which landed at Madlin's ship-yard, now the navy-yard -near the east end of Breed's hill. These several detachments, -amounting to about four thousand men, were under command of General -Howe, subordinate to whom were General Pigot, and Colonels Nesbit, -Abercrombie, and Clark. - -[Illustration: Interview between Putnam and Warren.] - -A short time before the action commenced, a horseman was perceived -advancing rapidly from Charlestown, towards the American redoubt. It -proved to be General Warren, the president of the provincial congress. -"Ah!" said Putnam, as the former came up, "is it you, General? I am -glad to see you, and yet I regret your presence. Your life is too -precious to be thus exposed; but since you are here, let me receive -your orders." "No," replied the gallant soldier; "I give no orders! I -come as a volunteer; and now say where I can be the most useful." -"Go, then," said Putnam, "to the redoubt; you will there be less -exposed." "Tell me," rejoined Warren, "where will be the point of -greatest danger." "The redoubt will be the enemy's first and principal -object," said Putnam; "if we can defend that, the day is ours." Warren -passed on, and, as he passed, the troops recognised him, and loud and -long were their acclamations. Every bosom felt the impulse of his -presence. At the redoubt, Prescott received him, and begged him to -receive the command. "Give me a musket," said Warren; "to-day I take a -lesson from the veteran soldier in the art of war." Warren could not -content himself away from the dangers which were thickening around the -patriotic cause. The day previous, he had presided in the congress in -session at Watertown, and had spent the entire night in transacting -business growing out of his official station. On reaching Cambridge, -early in the morning, he received intelligence of the expected battle. -He attended a meeting of the committee of safety, of which he was -chairman. Here he made known his intention of taking part in the -approaching contest. "Your ardent temper," said Gerry, "will carry you -forward in the midst of peril, and you will probably fall." "I know -that I may fall," replied Warren, "but I should die with shame, were I -to remain at home in safety, while my friends and fellow-citizens are -shedding their blood, and hazarding their lives in the cause." The -honor of Warren is greatly enhanced by the consideration that he was -originally opposed to the plan of fortifying the heights of -Charlestown, but no sooner had the council of war decided upon that -measure, than he gave it his hearty cöoperation. And here we see this -brave and patriotic man in the field of battle, and in the midst of -danger, having adopted the beautiful sentiment of the Roman poet, - - "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." - -The action opened at about three o'clock in the afternoon, at which -time a general discharge of artillery was ordered along the whole -British line. At the same time, the troops advanced in two divisions. -General Howe led the right towards the rail-fence; General Pigot with -the left end towards the redoubt. - -The march of the British troops was slow, but steady. They wore the -aspect of strong confidence and strong determination. Meanwhile, the -American drums beat to arms. Quitting his intrenchment, where he was -still at work on Bunker's hill, Putnam led his equally determined, but -far less disciplined, troops into action. Said this veteran general, -in his usual pointed and laconic style, "Fellow-soldiers! powder is -scarce, and must not be wasted. Reserve your fire till you see the -whites of their eyes. Then take aim at the officers." - -This injunction, however, having been disobeyed by a few of the more -restless and impetuous, Prescott, proceeding along the lines, said, in -a tone of thunder: "The next man that fires before the order is given, -shall be instantly shot." It was apparently cruel thus to require -troops, whose bosoms were now glowing with burning zeal, to withhold -their fire, while the enemy was pouring in his at every step of his -progress. It was, however, a wise delay. At length, the British had -advanced within eight rods of the redoubt. "Now, men," said Prescott, -"now is your time! Make ready! Take aim! Fire!" - -And such a deadly fire, perhaps, was never before made; and, when the -smoke rolled off, such a sight was perhaps never before seen. The -hill-side was covered with the slain. The ranks of the British were -broken, and confusion appeared on every side. The British officers -attempted to rally their troops. In this, they succeeded so far as to -induce them to fire; but, evidently appalled at the fearful and -unexpected carnage, they turned, and fled down the hill. - -"Following this repulse, there was an ominous pause," says a writer, -"like the lull that sometimes interrupts the wildest tempest, only -broken by the occasional discharge of artillery from the ships and -batteries." It was not, however, of long duration. A second attack was -decided upon, and orders issued again to advance. Meanwhile, a deep -silence brooded over the American lines, all being intent upon the -devastation which had been made, and watching for the future movements -of the enemy which had been so signally repulsed. Their success had -greatly exceeded their own expectations, and served to inspire them with -still more confidence in a second rencontre which they might now -momently expect. In the first attack, they had been directed to reserve -their fire until the enemy had approached within eight rods; now they -must wait until the enemy should approach within six rods. - -While the British troops were advancing, suddenly a new spectacle burst -upon the eyes of the tens of thousands who were looking on from every -neighboring eminence, which greatly added to the sublimity of the scene. - -Annoyed in his first attack upon the American redoubt, by the fire of -a detachment stationed at Charlestown, General Howe had given -directions to fire that town, both by way of revenging the injury he -had sustained, and, also, the more to distract the Americans during -his second attack, to which he was now advancing. In furtherance of -this object, a large quantity of combustibles had been conveyed from -Boston, and a detachment of marines, from the Somerset, been landed to -set them on fire. The work of conflagration was now commenced. Dense -and dark clouds of smoke rose over the town, and at length enveloped -the whole peninsula; through this smoke, columns of flame shot up, and -flashed in every direction. The fire spread with fearful rapidity from -house to house, and from street to street. At length, the flames -reached the church, and, climbing its lofty steeple, converted it into -a blazing pyramid. The beams, supporting the bell, were burned in -sunder, upon which it fell, and while falling, its pealing sounds were -distinctly heard by hundreds, uniting with crackling flames and -crashing edifices in enhancing the dreadful magnificence of the day. - -It was in the midst of a scene of desolation like this--by which -property to the amount of one hundred and twenty thousand pounds -sterling was destroyed, six hundred buildings consumed, and two -thousand people rendered houseless--the two opposing forces were -preparing for another sanguinary rencontre. The British general was -leading on his troops, as cool and undisturbed as if they had met with -no repulse. They opened their fire by platoons, and apparently at -random, yet not entirely without effect. Colonels Nixon and Brewer -were borne wounded from the works. A ball through his shoulder -rendered Colonel Backminster a cripple for life. Major Moore received -a shot through the thigh; soon after which, a second ball pierced his -body, which subsequently proved mortal. - -The Americans had been charged to reserve their fire till the enemy were -within six rods. The success which had attended their former delay, now -enabled them the more cheerfully to yield obedience to orders, a -compliance with which had, in the first instance, seemed nearly -impossible. At length, the enemy reached the prescribed distance, when -the anticipated words, "Make ready! Take aim! Fire!" were heard in a -voice like thunder--and, in an instant, hundreds of men, including a -surprising number of principal officers, were seen prostrated in the -dust. The fire proved even more destructive than in the first attack. -General Howe was left nearly alone, almost every officer of his staff -being either killed or wounded. So sweeping had been the destruction, -that the ranks were fatally broken, and a second time orders were issued -for the British army to make good their retreat. - -An interesting incident is related, as having occurred immediately -following the fire of the Americans. Among the British officers who -escaped the terrible destruction, was Major Small; but, so fatal had -been the fire, that scarcely was there a man left near him. -Consequently, his superior dress rendered him a more conspicuous object. -Several riflemen had marked him--had indeed raised their guns, and were -in the act of levelling them, when Putnam recognised Major Small, and -perceived the imminent danger he was in. A moment longer, and his early -friend, with whom he had served in the French war, and for whom he -cherished an unfeigned regard, would be in the agonies of death. He -sprang upon the parapet, and rushed immediately before the levelled -rifles, exclaiming: "My gallant comrades! spare, spare that officer! we -are friends; we are brothers. Do you not remember how we rushed into -each others' arms, at the meeting for the exchange of prisoners?" The -appeal, it needs scarcely be added, was successful. Every rifle was -instantly lowered; every bosom glowed with the generous emotions which -filled that of the high-souled Putnam; nor was one feeling of regret -indulged, as the gallant British officer retired unharmed. - -[Illustration: Putnam saves the life of Major Small.] - -Although repulsed in a second attack, and with losses as signal as -unexpected, Howe immediately decided upon renewing the contest. Upon -the issue of that day, and the results of this single conflict, he -well knew, might hang the fortunes of the British cause in America. If -successful, the patriots would become disheartened; if defeated, they -would take courage, and continue the controversy with greater -animation. With more wisdom, he decided to concentrate his whole force -upon the redoubt--and, that his troops might act with greater energy, -he directed them to lay aside their cumbersome knapsacks, and, in -imitation of the Americans, to reserve their fire, or, if -circumstances allowed, to rely upon the bayonet. - -Meanwhile, the situation of the Americans had become critical and -alarming. They had, indeed, lost comparatively few of their number; -but it was discovered, we might almost say to their dismay, that their -ammunition was nearly exhausted. They had little prospect of any -further supply; they had few, if any bayonets, and, as to -rëinforcements, though extremely desirable, and now necessary, they -could indulge only slight hopes. They were, however, cheered by the -prospect of a rëinforcement of three hundred men at this critical -juncture. The regiment of Colonel Gardiner, stationed at Charlestown, -although they had received no orders to that effect, that gallant -officer volunteered to bring to their assistance. Most unfortunately, -however, just as he was descending to the lines, a musket-ball struck -him, which soon after proved mortal. In consequence of this untoward -event, his regiment became disordered, and but a single company that -marched from Charlestown, under command of Captain Harris, -participated in the action. It was, however, and well does it attest -their patriotic courage, the very last to leave the field. - -The history of the American war furnishes many an incident of -thrilling interest, and many an instance of heroic bravery and -devotion to the cause of liberty: the last moments of Colonel Gardiner -may be ranked among the number. On receiving his wound, he was borne -from the field by some of his men; when his son, a youth of only -nineteen, and a second lieutenant in Trevett's artillery company, -rushed forward to his father's aid. On beholding him, said the father: -"Think not of me, my son. I am well. Go to your duty!" And the son -obeyed, and hastened to his post, while the father was borne from the -field to die. Is it a matter of marvel that people should succeed in a -struggle where such lofty patriotism fired their bosoms, and, in -pursuing which, some of the tenderest and strongest ties of our nature -were sacrificed for their country's good? - -[Illustration: Death of Colonel Gardiner.] - -The British troops, as we said, were again advancing. Without -bayonets, with a few charges of powder remaining, the Americans waited -in silence to receive them as they were able. Stones and the stocks of -their muskets supplied the place of powder and ball. Richardson, a -private in the Royal Irish regiment, was the first to mount the -parapet; but he fell the next moment. Nearly at the same time, Major -Pitcairn, whose insolence and inhumanity at Lexington will not soon be -forgotten, appeared upon the parapet, and, as if actuated by a -similar spirit now as then, he exultingly exclaimed: "The day is -ours!" But here he met a deserved fate; for, while the words still -lingered on his lies, a bullet from a musket, fired by a colored man -named Salem, pierced his body, and he fell and expired. - -While these events were occurring in one quarter, the enemy were more -successful in another, the south-east corner of the redoubt. Here a tree -had been left standing, and by means of this, General Pigot succeeded in -mounting the works; his men followed him; and here, for a brief space, -the contest was spirited and sanguinary. Several American officers -suffered severely. Colonel Bridge was twice wounded by a broad-sword. -Major Gridley received a ball through the leg, and was borne from the -field. Lieutenant Prescott, nephew to the colonel, had his arm so -broken, as to hang useless by his side; but, nothing deterred by his -wound, he continued to load his musket, and was in the act of pointing -his gun through the sally-port at the enemy, when he was cut in sunder -by a cannon-ball. But now, the sacrifice of life which was being offered -upon the shrine of liberty, was accomplishing no good. The Americans -could no longer contend with hope, as their ammunition was fairly -expended. Prescott was reluctant to yield; but it was wise--it was best. -An honorable retreat was still practicable, and he chose this -alternative. The Americans retired in order from the hill. - -A retreat bore more heavily upon one patriotic spirit than, if possible, -upon all others--that one was Warren's. He lingered to the very latest -moment--beyond the moment of safety. Nor had he quitted the works, or -proceeded but a few rods, when the British were in full possession. -Major Small, the British officer whose life Putnam had saved only a few -hours before, saw him--surmised his reluctance--perceived his -danger--and would have saved him. Addressing him by name, he besought -him to surrender, as the only means of security; at the same time -ordering his men to suspend their firing. Warren, it is supposed, heard -the voice of Small; but whether he would have taken advantage of the -proffered safety, cannot be known. He turned his head towards the sound, -and at that instant a ball sunk deep in his forehead, and produced -instant death. - -The day following, the body of this patriot, statesman, and hero, was -discovered and identified by Isaac Winslow, (then a youth, afterwards -general,) and by several others, who were familiar with his person. The -bullet which terminated his life was extracted by Mr. Savage, an officer -in the custom-house. Subsequently, he carried it to England; but, years -afterwards, it was presented at London to Rev. Mr. Montague, of Dedham, -Mass., in whose family it still remains. The remains of Warren were -buried on the spot where he fell; but the following year they were -temporarily removed to a tomb in the Tremont cemetery. They now repose -in the family vault, under St. Paul's church, Boston. - -The loss of Warren was among the saddest and bitterest incidents of -the day. Few had such aspirations after liberty--few so well -understood the true interests of the country, or were better able to -suggest measures calculated to secure the triumph of her cause. To the -British, the intelligence of his fall was as grateful (considering him -in the light of an enemy) as it was unexpected. It is recorded that -when on the following morning the news of the event was brought to -General Howe, who remained on the field during the night, he would -scarcely credit it; and when, at length, it was verified, he declared -that "his death was a full offset for the loss of five hundred men." - -The battle of Bunker's hill, which we have thus described as minutely -as our limits will allow, was of about two hours' continuance, having -commenced at three o'clock. The Americans engaged were estimated at -about three thousand five hundred. The number killed and missing was -one hundred and fifteen; three hundred and five were wounded, and -thirty taken prisoners. Of the several regiments, Prescott's suffered -the most severely, losing forty-two killed and twenty-eight wounded. -Several officers were killed--Colonel Gardiner, Lieutenant-Colonel -Parker, Major Moore, and Major Maclary. - -The British force engaged in this battle was four thousand. Their loss -General Gage, in his official account, acknowledged to be one thousand -and fifty-four--two hundred and twenty-six killed; eight hundred and -twenty-eight wounded, including nineteen officers killed and -twenty-eight wounded. Their loss, according to the official account of -the action by the Massachusetts congress, was fifteen hundred. - -Charlestown was entirely destroyed. On the retreat of the Americans, -the British took possession of Bunker's hill, from which they kept up -a fire of artillery during the night. The Americans occupied Prospect -and Winter hills. - -It was a bold attempt on the part of General Howe to carry the -American redoubt by an attack in _front_; in consequence of this, his -troops were exposed to the direct and galling fire of men who were -each able to take deliberate aim. A censure was indeed cast upon him -for so doing; but a too vain confidence in the bravery and discipline -of his soldiers, and an equally mistaken estimate of American valor, -led him to reject a plan proposed by General Clinton, and the adoption -of one which, had it succeeded, would have secured more honor, but -which obviously was so hazardous and doubtful in its issue, as might -well have gained for the other the preference. - -The night of the 17th of June was one of more sadness to the British -than to the Americans, notwithstanding that the latter had been driven -from their position, and the colors of the former were waving over -Bunker's hill. To the British belonged the field--to the Americans, -_in effect_, the victory. What the former had gained, was of no use to -them, as their forces were not sufficiently numerous to hold -possession of so extended a line. Their loss in numbers was grievous; -but this was small in comparison to the mortification experienced in -view of their repeated repulses. Nor was that mortification lessened -when it became known that the retreat of the Americans was caused by a -want of ammunition. Had the _materiel_ of battle not failed, who can -say that the Americans would not have maintained their position?[33] - -Such an issue, however, might have drawn after it consequences which, -in the sequel, would have been disastrous to the patriotic cause. A -vain confidence might have been engendered, leading to the neglect of -needful, and even essential preparation, to cope with a foe more -formidable at that era, than any other on the globe. It was well -doubtless, and Providence in kindness so ordered, it, that ammunition -should fail. God gave to the Americans just that success which was -calculated to animate and encourage them: and permitted them to suffer -just in that way, and to that extent, as to teach them humility, and -to trust in Him. Theirs was a just and glorious cause. It was the -cause of liberty and of God. It was right that they should succeed; -but it was equally befitting that they should feel and acknowledge -that their success was from the God of their fathers. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[32] Sparks' Life of Warren. - -[33] Sparks' Life of Warren. - - - - - III. WASHINGTON, COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. - - - EFFECTS of the Battle of Bunker hill--Meeting of - Congress--Appointment of a Commander-in-Chief - proposed--Difficulties in regard to a Selection--Claims of - Individuals--Interview between John and Samuel Adams--Speech - of the former--Washington Nominated--Unanimously - Confirmed--Manifesto of Congress--Public Fast. - -If, previous to the battle of Bunker's hill, doubts existed in the minds -of any, whether the contest between Great Britain and America would be -settled without a struggle, the sanguinary scene on that hill must have -dispelled them. Both parties had received a wound not likely soon to be -healed. If the British had won the field, they had gained but little, if -any, honor--and in the repulse, which the Americans had met with, while -they had lost no honor, they had acquired self-confidence, and added to -their already high-wrought valor and determination. - -[Illustration: Messengers spreading news of the Battle of Bunker's -hill.] - -"The battle was fought on Saturday afternoon. Before Sunday night, the -intelligence was spread more than a hundred miles distant from the scene -of action. All were roused to the highest pitch of resentment, and set -about preparing themselves for a long and bloody struggle. Companies -were raised and equipped with the utmost dispatch; all hopes of -reconciliation were lost. Squads of armed men flocked to head-quarters, -some of them having traveled eighty miles in twenty-four hours." - -While events of so much importance were occurring in and around -Boston, the more immediate theatre of the war, the second general -congress were in session in Philadelphia, in deep consultation as to -measures which the cause and exigencies of the country required. - -Their session had commenced on the 10th day of May preceding. Various -matters of interest engaged their attention, and required all their -wisdom and firmness. As the war had commenced, it was essential to -keep up the zeal of the people--to prevent revolt to the royal -standard--to introduce discipline into an army which had been -collected in haste--to provide for the growing expenses of a war, the -end of which could not be predicted--to prevent, in the conduct of the -war, the revival of jealousies which had existed between the different -colonies--and, finally, to place the army in the hands of some -commander-in-chief, in whom the country could confide, and whose -commands the army would cheerfully obey. - -The importance of this last duty magnified, the more it was -contemplated--and difficulties presented themselves which occasioned -no small anxiety and embarrassment. A mistake here might prove fatal -to the liberties of the country, for an indefinite period to come. - -Upon whom, then, should their choice fall? Gates and Lee were held in -high estimation as military men. The first, for his experience; the -second, because to experience he joined a very active genius. But they -were both born in England, and, in case of misfortune, it would be -difficult, however upright and faithful they might have been, to -persuade the people that they had not been guilty of treason, or at -least of negligence in the accomplishment of their duties. Besides, -Lee had an impetuosity of temper, which, in some hour of excitement, -might spur him to the adoption of measures inconsistent with the -safety of the army, and prejudicial to the interests of the patriot -cause. There were also Ward and Putnam, who were already in the field, -and who had demonstrated the most signal valor and ability in all the -actions which had taken place in the vicinity of Boston. Putnam had -seen much service, and, for energy and promptitude, had few equals; -but he had declared himself too openly in favor of independence; this, -congress devoutly wished to procure, but withal in a propitious time. -As to General Ward, New England, it was well known, entertained an -exalted opinion of him, and many were strongly wishing and -anticipating that the lot would fall on him. He had served in the -French war, in which he had acquired an honorable distinction. In -addition, he was both a scholar and a gentleman, and the army itself -was uncommonly prepossessed in his favor. But besides that he also had -openly expressed himself in favor of independence, it was well known -that the provinces of the middle, and more so of the south, were in a -measure jealous of New England, in which the physical force of the -country confessedly predominated, and they would naturally be -reluctant to have the cause of America confided to the hands of an -individual who might allow himself to be influenced by certain local -prepossessions, at a time in which all desires and all interests ought -to be common. Nor was it a small desideratum with some of the sages of -that era, that the commander-in-chief should himself possess an estate -of such value as to offer a guaranty of his fidelity, and elevate him -above the sordid and selfish motives of personal gain. - -Surrounded by such difficulties, and embarrassed by such opposite -considerations, what was to be done? One point was clear,--_union must -be preserved_, at any sacrifice. Union was strength. If in harmonious -concert the colonies could not proceed, their doom was sealed. The -country, and the whole country, must come in. The pulsation must beat -through all hearts. The cause was one, and how many soever bore a part -in sustaining and defending it, they must act as impelled but by one -motive--and using but a single arm. - -To the final question, it had been foreseen for some time, the -congress must come. Out of doors, the subject had been considered and -debated, but, as yet, no settled opinion had been formed, and no -decisive action had been had. - -In this anxious and inquiring period, the Father of mercies--that -Almighty Being by whose care the colonies had been planted, and -hitherto sustained--whose blessing was daily sought by thousands of -families, morning and evening--whose guidance the public councils, -whether provincial or continental, were never ashamed to implore--that -good and gracious Benefactor was not slow in pointing to the man who -should lead the armies of his American Israel! - -One morning, the elder President Adams was walking in Congress hall, -apparently absorbed in thought, when Samuel Adams, a kinsman and a -member of congress, approaching him, inquired the subject of his deep -cogitation. "The army," he replied; "I am determined what to do about -the army at Cambridge." "What is that?" asked his kinsman. "I am -determined to enter on a full detail of the state of the colonies, -before the house this morning. My object will be to induce congress to -name a day for adopting the army, as the legal army of the United -Colonies of North America; and, having done this, I shall offer a few -hints on my election of a commander-in-chief." "I like your plan, -Cousin John," said Samuel Adams; "but on whom have you fixed as this -commander?" "George Washington, of Virginia, a member of this house." -"That will never do, never, never." "It _must_ do," said John Adams, -"and for these reasons: the southern and middle states are loath to -enter heartily into the cause, and their arguments are potent; they -see that New England holds the physical power in her hands, and they -fear the result. A New England army, a New England commander, with -New England perseverance, all united, appal them. For this cause, they -hang back. The only way to allay their fears, and silence their -complaints, is by appointing a southern chief over the army. This -policy will blend us in one mass, and that mass will be resistless." - -Mr. Adams now went in, and, taking the floor, put forth his strength -in the delineations he had prepared, all aiming at the adoption of the -army. _He_ was ready to own the army, appoint a commander, and vote -supplies. His speech was patriotic, eloquent, and thrilling; but some -doubted, some objected, some feared. To all these doubts and -hesitations, he replied: "Gentlemen, if this congress do not adopt -this army, before ten moons have set, New England will have a congress -of her own, which _will_ adopt it, and she will undertake the struggle -_alone_--with a strong arm and a clear conscience." This had the -desired effect, and they agreed to appoint a day. - -The day was fixed, and came, and the army was adopted. And now -followed the question as to a commander. Mr. Adams again rose. He -proceeded to a minute delineation of the character of General Ward, -according to him merits and honors, which then belonged to no one -else; but, at the end of this eulogy, he said: "This is not the man I -have chosen." The peculiar situation of the colonies required another -and a different man--and one from a different quarter. These -qualifications were now set forth in strong, bold, and eloquent terms; -and, in the sequel, he said: "Gentlemen, I know these qualifications -are high, but we all know they are needful at this crisis, in this -chief. Does any one say that they are not to be obtained in the -country? I reply, they are; they reside in one of our own body, and he -is the person whom I now nominate: GEORGE WASHINGTON, of Virginia." - -At the moment, Washington was intently gazing, as were others, upon -Mr. Adams, wrought up by an eager curiosity for the annunciation of -the name. Without a _suspicion_ that it would be his own, as it -transpired from the lips of the speaker, he sprang from his seat, and -rushed from the hall. - -Samuel Adams, already in the secret, immediately moved an adjournment -of the house, in order that the members might have time to deliberate -on a nomination so unexpected and so surprising. - -On the 15th of June, two days only before the battle of Bunker's hill, -congress convened in the hall to decide the important question. As -individuals, they had given to the subject a deep and solemn -deliberation, commensurate with its vital importance to the country. -Until the annunciation of Washington's name by John Adams, probably no -one had even thought of him--but _now_, but one sentiment prevailed. -He was _the_ man, and their ballots _unanimously_ confirmed the -choice. The delegates of Massachusetts had other predilections; but, -nobly relinquishing sectional claims, and even partialities, they -united with the others, and rendered the choice unanimous. That was a -happy day--that a fortunate selection for America. And who can doubt -that the God by whose providence nations rise and fall, guided that -choice, with the same benign influence which was exerted upon the -prophet in a prior age of the world, when from among his brethren he -selected David as the successor of Saul? - -In a few days, following the appointment of Washington, congress -published a _manifesto_, setting forth to the world the causes which -had led them to take up arms. After enumerating these causes, in a -tone of manly assurance, and yet of humble dependence upon Almighty -God, they said: - -"Our cause is just--our union is perfect--our internal resources are -great--and, if necessary, foreign assistance is undoubtedly attainable. -We gratefully acknowledge, as signal instances of Divine favor towards -us, that His providence would not permit us to be called into this -severe controversy, until we were grown to our present strength, had -been previously exercised in warlike operations, and possessed of the -means of defending ourselves. With hearts, fortified with these -animating reflections, we must most solemnly, before God and the world, -declare, that, exerting the utmost energy of those powers, which the -beneficent Creator hath graciously bestowed upon us, the arms we have -been compelled by our enemies to assume, we will, in defiance of every -hazard, with unabating firmness and perseverance, employ for the -preservation of our liberties; being, with one mind, resolved to die -freemen, rather than to live slaves." Finally, they added: "With an -humble confidence in the mercies of the supreme and impartial Judge and -Ruler of the universe, we most devoutly implore His divine goodness, to -protect us happily through this great conflict, to dispose our -adversaries to reconciliation on reasonable terms, and thereby relieve -the empire from the calamities of civil war." - -The above manifesto was sent into every part of the country, and read -from the pulpits by the ministers of religion, with suitable -exhortations. In the camps of Boston, it was read with particular -solemnity. Major-General Putnam assembled his division, upon the heights -of Prospect hill, to hear it. It was followed by a prayer, analogous to -the occasion; the general having given the signal, all the troops cried, -three times, _amen_! and, at the same instant, the artillery of the fort -fired a general salute; the colors, recently sent to General Putnam, -were seen waving with the usual motto "_An appeal to Heaven_;" and this -other, "_Qui transulit sustinet_." The same ceremony was observed in the -other divisions. The joy and enthusiasm were universal. - -It may be added, in this connexion, as an evidence of the piety of our -fathers--of the belief of a superintending providence, which -characterized that generation, that congress recommended a public fast -to be observed in all the colonies, on the 20th of July. The soldiers, -they recommended to be "humane and merciful;" and all classes of -citizens, "to humble themselves, to fast, to pray, and to implore the -Divine assistance, in this day of trouble and of peril." - -Congress, in a body, attended divine services on that day, in one of -the churches of Philadelphia. Just as they were about to enter the -temple, important intelligence was received from Georgia. It was, that -that province, which had hitherto held itself aloof from the common -cause, had joined the confederation, and had appointed five delegates -for its representation in Congress. While humbling themselves, God was -blessing and exalting them. No news scarcely could have occasioned -more joy; and this was heightened, in consideration of the moment at -which the government and people were apprised of it. - -[Illustration] - - -[Illustration] - - - - - IV. EVACUATION OF BOSTON. - - - GENERAL OFFICERS appointed--Washington repairs to Cambridge--State - of the Army--Great want of Gunpowder--Sickness in the - Camp--Dorchester heights fortified--Proposal of the British - General to attack the American Intrenchments--Alters his plan, - and evacuates Boston--Embarkation of the British--Washington - enters the city. - -Having elected a commander-in-chief, congress proceeded to the -selection of other experienced officers.--Artimas Ward, Charles Lee, -and Philip Schuyler, were appointed major-generals, and Horatio Gates -adjutant-general. These appointments were followed, a few days after, -by that of eight brigadier-generals: Seth Pomeroy, William Heath, and -John Thomas, of Massachusetts; Richard Montgomery, of New York; David -Wooster and Joseph Spencer, of Connecticut; John Sullivan, of New -Hampshire; and Nathaniel Greene, of Rhode Island. - -In July, Washington, accompanied by General Lee, repaired to the camp -near Boston; receiving, on his journey thither, the highest honors -from the most distinguished citizens. On making a review of the army, -soon after his arrival, he found an immense multitude, of whom only -fourteen thousand five hundred were in a condition fit for service. -But even these, in respect to uniform, equipment, and discipline, -exhibited a variety most disheartening and painful to a commander. As -to discipline, it scarcely existed. The subordinate officers were -without emulation; and the privates, having been unaccustomed to the -rules and regulations of a camp, were impatient of all subordination. - -[Illustration: House at Cambridge where Washington resided.] - -Fortunately, the newly-appointed generals soon arrived, and with great -alacrity betook themselves to the task of reform. General Gates, who -was versed in the details of military organization, exerted a powerful -influence in this salutary work. In a short period, the camp presented -an improved aspect. The soldiers became accustomed to obedience; -regulations were observed; each began to know his duty; and, at -length, instead of a mass of irregular militia, the camp presented the -spectacle of a properly-disciplined army. It was divided into three -corps: the right, under the command of Ward, occupied Roxbury; the -left, conducted by Lee, defended Prospect hill; and the center, which -comprehended a select corps, destined for reserve, was stationed at -Cambridge, where Washington himself had established his -head-quarters. The circumvallation was fortified by so great a number -of redoubts, and supplied with so formidable an artillery, that it had -become impossible for the besieged to assault Cambridge, and spread -themselves in the open country. It was believed, also, that they had -lost a great many men, as well upon the field of battle as in -consequence of wounds and disease. - -Another material deficiency was the want of gunpowder. In the -depositories at Roxbury, Cambridge, and other places, there were found -to be only ninety-six barrels; the magazines of Massachusetts -contained but thirty-six more; and, after adding to this quantity all -that New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut could furnish, the -amount fell short of ten thousand pounds, which allowed only nine -charges to a man. In this scarcity and danger, the army remained more -than fifteen days; during which time, had the English attacked them, -they might easily have forced the lines, and raised the siege. At -length, by the exertions of the committee of New Jersey, a few tons of -powder arrived at the camp, which supplied for the moment the -necessities of the army, and averted the evils that were feared. - -The providing of gunpowder had now become an important, and even an -essential consideration. Accordingly, it was recommended, by a -resolution of congress, that all the colonies should put themselves, -in a state of defence, and provide themselves with the greatest -possible number of men, of arms, and of munitions; and, especially, -that they should make diligent search for saltpetre and sulphur. An -exact scrutiny was therefore commenced, in the cellars and in the -stables, in pursuit of materials so essential to modern war. In every -part, manufactories of gunpowder and foundries of cannon, were seen -rising; every place resounded with the preparations of war. The -provincial assemblies and conventions seconded admirably the -operations of congress; and the people obeyed, with incredible -promptitude, the orders of these various authorities. In addition to -these measures, several fast-sailing vessels were despatched to the -coast of Guinea, where they procured immense quantities, having -purchased it of European ships, employed in the trade. The assembly of -Massachusetts even prohibited the use of powder in shooting at game, -or its expenditure in public rejoicing. - -In the autumn of 1775, General Gage obtained leave to repair to -England; or, according to some authorities, was rëcalled by the king. -During his administration, he had rendered himself odious to the -Americans, and now they heard of his retirement without regret. He was -succeeded in command by General William Howe, a gentleman much -esteemed for his talents, and, withal, less vindictive in his temper. - -Towards the close of the year, Washington was environed with -difficulties. Great responsibilities were resting upon him, with which -his means were far from being commensurate. The organization of the -army, notwithstanding his greatest efforts, was very imperfect. The -ardor of the troops, having little excitement beyond an occasional -skirmish, was evidently abating. In not a few instances, a spirit of -rapacity had been manifested, by portions of the troops, and -depredations were made upon private as well as public property. -Several generals, dissatisfied with the promotions made by congress, -resigned their commissions, and returned home. Sickness, especially -the dysentery, appeared in the camp, and proved a distressing -visitant. The cold weather set in, and occasioned great suffering to -the soldiers, who were destitute of barracks and other conveniences. - -While these and other troubles were in a degree disturbing the calmness -of Washington, other considerations did not serve to allay his anxiety. -"He knew that congress anxiously contemplated more decisive steps, and -that the country looked for events of greater magnitude. The public was -ignorant of his actual situation, and conceived his means, for offensive -operations, to be much greater than they were; and they expected from -him the capture or expulsion of the British army, in Boston. He felt -the importance of securing the confidence of his countrymen, by some -brilliant action, and was fully sensible that his own reputation was -liable to suffer, if he confined himself solely to measures of defence." -To publish to his anxious country the state of his army, would be to -acquaint the enemy with his weakness, and to hazard his destruction. The -firmness and patriotism of General Washington were displayed, in making -the good of his country an object of higher consideration, than the -applause of those who were incapable of forming a correct opinion of the -propriety of his measures. On this, and on many other occasions during -the war, he withstood the voice of the populace, rejected the entreaties -of the sanguine, and refused to adopt the plans of the rash, that he -might ultimately secure the great object of contention. While he -resolutely rejected every measure which, in his calm and deliberate -judgment he did not approve, he daily pondered the practicability of a -successful attack upon Boston. As a preparatory step, he took possession -of Plowed hill, Cobble hill, and Lechmere's point, and erected -fortifications upon them. These posts brought him within half a mile of -the enemy's works on Bunker's hill, and, by his artillery, he drove the -British floating-batteries from their stations in Charles' river. He -erected floating-batteries to watch the movements of his enemy, and to -aid in any offensive operations that circumstances might warrant. In -these circumstances, he took the opinion of his general officers, -respecting an attack upon Boston; but they unanimously gave their -opinion in opposition to the measure, and this opinion was immediately -communicated to congress. Congress appeared, however, to favor the -attempt; and, that an apprehension of danger to the town of Boston might -not have an undue influence upon the operations of the army, resolved, -'That if General Washington and his council of war should be of opinion -that a successful attack might be made on the troops in Boston, he -should make it in any manner he might think it expedient, -notwithstanding the town and the property therein might thereby be -destroyed.'[34] - -Towards the close of February, the stock of powder having been -considerably increased, and the regular army, which amounted to fourteen -thousand men, being rëinforced by six thousand of the militia of -Massachusetts, Washington himself was disposed to carry the war against -the British into Boston; but his general officers dissenting, he -reluctantly acquiesced, and turned his attention to the taking -possession of Dorchester heights, by which he would be able to command -the city. - -The announcement of this intention, diffused joy throughout the -American army, and each one prepared himself to obey the summons in -case his service was required. The night of the 4th of March, was -selected for the enterprise, in hope that a recollection of the tragic -scenes of the 5th of March, 1770, would rouse the spirit of the -soldiers to a degree commensurate with the daring exploit proposed. - -Accordingly, on the evening of the 4th, the necessary arrangements -having been made, the Americans proceeded in profound silence towards -the peninsula of Dorchester. The obscurity of the night was -propitious, and the wind favorable, since it could not bear to the -enemy the little noise which it was impossible to avoid. The frost had -rendered the roads easy. The batteries of Phipps' farm, and those of -Roxbury, incessantly fulminated with a stupendous roar. - -Eight hundred men composed the van-guard; it was followed by -carriages, filled with utensils of intrenchment, and twelve hundred -pioneers led by General Thomas. In the rear-guard were three hundred -carts of fascines, of gabions, and bundles of hay, destined to cover -the flank of the troops, in the passage of the isthmus of Dorchester, -which, being very low, was exposed to be raked on both sides by the -artillery of the English vessels. - -"All succeeded perfectly; the Americans arrived upon the heights, not -only without being molested, but even without being perceived by the -enemy. - -[Illustration: Fortifying Dorchester heights.] - -"They set themselves to work with an activity so prodigious, that by -ten o'clock at night, they had already constructed two forts, in -condition to shelter them from small arms and grape-shot; one upon the -height nearest to the city, and the other upon that which looks -towards Castle island. The day appeared, but it prevented not the -provincials from continuing their works, without any movement being -made on the part of the garrison. When the latter discovered these -deeds of the Americans, nothing could exceed their astonishment. Their -only alternative, it was at once apparent, was either to dislodge the -Americans, or abandon the town. - -"The first intention of Howe was to attempt the former, and -preparations were made accordingly; but he was compelled to defer the -attack till the following morning. During the night a storm arose, and -when the day dawned, the sea was still excessively agitated. A violent -rain came to increase the obstacles; the English general kept himself -quiet. But the Americans made proper use of this delay; they erected a -third redoubt, and completed the other works. Colonel Mifflin had -prepared a great number of hogsheads full of stones and sand, in order -to roll them upon the enemy when he should march up to the assault, to -break his ranks, and throw him into a confusion that might smooth the -way to his defeat." - -On more mature reflection, General Howe was convinced of the impolicy -of attempting to dislodge the Americans. If success should crown such -an enterprise, it would, indeed, be highly auspicious to the British -cause, but a failure would be fatal. The other alternative, therefore, -was the only choice left. - -Having taken this resolution, General Howe notified the selectmen of -Boston, that the city being no longer of any use to the king, he was -resolved to abandon it; but, if opposed, he should fire it, and for this -purpose ample materials had been provided. To these conditions it -appears, from what followed, that Washington consented; but the articles -of the truce were never written. The Americans remained quiet spectators -of the retreat of the English. But the city presented a melancholy -spectacle; notwithstanding the orders of General Howe, all was havoc and -confusion. Fifteen hundred loyalists, with their families and their most -valuable effects, hastened, with infinite dejection of mind, to abandon -a residence which had been so dear to them, and where they had so long -enjoyed felicity. The fathers carrying burdens, and the mothers their -children, went weeping towards the ships; the last salutations, the -farewell embraces of those who departed and of those who remained; the -sick, the wounded, the aged, the infants, would have moved with -compassion the witnesses of their distress, if the care of their own -safety had not absorbed the attention of all. - -"The carts and beasts of burden were become the occasion of sharp -disputes between the inhabitants, who had retained them, and the -soldiers, who wished to employ them. The disorder was also increased -by the animosity that prevailed between the soldiers of the garrison -and those of the fleet; they reproached each other mutually, as the -authors of their common misfortune. With one accord, however, they -complained of the coldness and ingratitude of their country, which -seemed to have abandoned, or rather forgotten them upon these distant -shores, a prey to so much misery, and to so many dangers. For, since -the month of October, General Howe had not received from England any -order or intelligence whatever, which testified that the government -still existed, and had not lost sight of the army of Boston. - -"Meanwhile, a desperate band of soldiers and sailors took advantage of -the confusion to force doors, and pillage the houses and shops. They -destroyed what they could not carry away. The entire city was devoted -to devastation, and it was feared every moment that the flames would -break out to consummate its destruction. - -"The 15th of March, General Howe issued a proclamation, forbidding any -inhabitant to go out of his house before eleven o'clock in the -morning, in order not to disturb the embarkation of the troops, which -was to have taken place on that day. But an east wind prevented their -departure. Meanwhile, the Americans had constructed a redoubt upon the -point of Nook's hill, on the peninsula of Dorchester; and having -furnished it with artillery, they entirely commanded the isthmus of -Boston, and all the southern part of the town. It was even to be -feared that they would occupy Noddle's island, and establish -batteries, which, sweeping the surface of the water across the harbor, -would have entirely interdicted the passage to the ships, and reduced -the garrison to the necessity of yielding at discretion. All delay -became dangerous; consequently, the British troops and the loyalists -began to embark the 17th of March, at four in the morning, and by ten, -all were on board. - -"The vessels were overladen with men and baggage; provisions were -scanty, confusion was every where. The rear-guard was scarcely out of -the city, when Washington entered it on the other side, with colors -displayed, drums beating, and all the forms of victory and triumph. He -was received by the inhabitants with every demonstration of gratitude -and respect due to a deliverer. Their joy broke forth with the more -vivacity, as their sufferings had been long and cruel. For more than -sixteen months they had endured hunger, thirst, cold, and the outrages -of an insolent soldiery, who deemed them rebels. The most necessary -articles of food were risen to exorbitant prices. - -"Horse flesh was not refused by those who could procure it. For want of -fuel, the pews and benches of churches were taken up for this purpose; -the counters and partitions of warehouses were applied to the same uses, -and even houses, not inhabited, were demolished for the sake of the -wood. The English left a great quantity of artillery and munitions. Two -hundred and fifty pieces of cannon, of different caliber, were found in -Boston, in Castle island, and in the intrenchments of Bunker's hill, and -the Neck. The English had attempted, but with little success, in their -haste, to destroy or to spike these last pieces; others had been thrown -into the sea, but they were recovered. There were found besides, four -mortars, a considerable quantity of coal, of wheat, and of other grains, -and one hundred and fifty horses."[35] - -Dr. Thatcher in his 'Military Journal,' thus describes a visit which -he made to the Old South church, a few days after the evacuation: - -"March 23d.--I went to view the Old South church, a spacious brick -building, near the centre of the town. It had been for more than a -century consecrated to the service of religion, and many eminent divines -have in its pulpit labored in teaching the ways of righteousness and -truth. But, during the late siege, the inside of it was entirely -destroyed by the British, and the sacred building occupied as a riding -school for Burgoyne's regiment of dragoons. The pulpit and pews were -removed, the floor covered with earth, and used for the purpose of -training and exercising their horses. A beautiful pew, ornamented with -carved work and silk furniture, was demolished; and by order of an -officer, the carved work, it is said, was used as a fence for a hog-sty. -The North church, a very valuable building, was entirely demolished, and -consumed for fuel. Thus are our houses, devoted to religious worship, -profaned and destroyed by the subjects of his royal majesty. His -excellency, the commander-in-chief, has been received by the inhabitants -with every mark of respect and gratitude; and a public dinner has been -provided for him. He requested the Rev. Dr. Elliot, at the renewal of -his customary Thursday lecture, to preach a thanksgiving sermon, adapted -to the joyful occasion. Accordingly, on the 28th, this pious divine -preached an appropriate discourse from Isaiah xxxiii. 20, in presence of -his excellency and a respectable audience." - -The recovery of Boston was an important event, and as such was hailed -with joyful triumph throughout the colonies. A golden medal, -commemorative of the occasion, was struck by order of congress, and a -vote of thanks was passed to Washington and the army "for their wise -and spirited conduct in the siege and acquisition of Boston." - - -[Illustration: DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE - -General Putnam reading the Declaration to the Connecticut Troops.] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[34] Hinton. - -[35] Botta's History of the American War. - - - - - V. INDEPENDENCE DECLARED. - - - INDEPENDENCE begun to be contemplated--Causes which increased a - desire for such an event--Question of a Declaration of - Independence enters the Colonial Assemblies--Introduced to - Congress by Richard Henry Lee--Debated--State of Parties in - respect to it--Measures adopted to secure a favorable - vote--Question taken--Declaration adopted--Signed--The great - Act of the Revolution--Influence of it immediately - perceived--Character and merits of the Signers of that - Instrument--The 4th of July, a time-honored and glorious - day!--How it should be celebrated. - -For some time previous to the winter of 1775-6, the ultimate -separation of the colonies from Great Britain must have occurred to -the leading men of America as a possible event. But the people at -large had, at that time, not only not contemplated such an event, but -would have been startled by the proposal. The proceedings of the -British parliament, however, at length became so unjust, and even -monstrous, as to array most of the Americans against the -parent-country, and to excite a wish in the bosoms of thousands that -the colonies were free from her dominion. - -The news of the battle of Bunker's hill not only roused to indignation -the king and his ministers, but convinced them that "a flock of -Yankees" were not so despisable objects as they had supposed; and that -if the arms of the Americans were not so brightly burnished as those -of his majesty's disciplined troops, nevertheless, in the firm hands -and under the practised eye of "country boors," they could make sad -havoc among them. - -A large augmentation of the forces in America, contrary to all previous -opinion, was now deemed essential. Accordingly, an act was introduced -into parliament, authorizing the employment of sixteen thousand German -troops, which, with the British regiments in, and about to be sent to -America, would constitute a force of nearly fifty thousand men. The -minority in parliament reprobated the employment of mercenary troops, in -strong and unmeasured terms. But little did the friends of America in -parliament feel, in view of such a step, compared with the Americans -themselves. "Arm foreigners against us!" they exclaimed; "let us treat -the English themselves as foreigners. Better for us to be eternally -separated from them, than to be exposed to such cruelty." But the -indignation of the Americans was, if possible, still more increased by -another act of parliament, passed at the same session, viz: "prohibiting -all _trade_ and _commerce_ with the colonies; and authorizing the -_capture_ and _condemnation_, not only of all American vessels with -their cargoes, but all other vessels _found trading_, in any port or -place in the colonies, as if the same were the vessels and effects of -_open enemies_; and the vessels and property thus taken were vested in -the captors, and the crews were to be treated, not as prisoners, but as -_slaves_." By another clause, British subjects were authorized to compel -men taken on board of American vessels, whether crews or _other -persons_, to fight against _their own countrymen_! - -By such measures, cruel and impolitic, did the British authorities -_compel_ the Americans, not only to take up arms against the -mother-country, but to desire a lasting separation from her. - -Thus the leaven commenced, and by degrees diffused itself through the -mass. Shortly after, the gazettes began to speak out. These were -followed by the issue of several pamphlets; among which, that entitled -_Common Sense_, by Thomas Paine, "produced a wonderful effect in the -different colonies in favor of independence." Influential individuals -in every colony urged it as a step absolutely necessary, to preserve -the rights and liberties, as well as to secure the happiness and -prosperity of America. Reconciliation, they said, on any terms -compatible with the preservation and security of these great and -important objects, was now impossible. These sentiments were -disseminated among the people by distinguished individuals, in a -variety of ways. The chief justice of South Carolina, William Henry -Dayton, appointed under the new form of government, just adopted, in -his charge to the grand jurors, in April, after justifying the -proceedings of that colony, in forming a new government, on the -principles of the revolution in England, in 1688, thus concludes: "The -Almighty created America to be independent of Great Britain: let us -beware of the impiety of being backward to act as instruments in the -Almighty's hand, now extended to accomplish his purpose; and by the -completion of which alone, America, in the nature of human affairs, -can be secure against the crafty and insidious designs of her enemies, -who think her power and prosperity already far too great. In a word, -our piety and political safety are so blended, that to refuse our -labors in this divine work, is to refuse to be a great, a free, a -pious, and a happy people." This was bold language for one so -prominent to utter. In the view of royalists, it was treasonable; but -in the estimation of the true friends of American liberty, if bold, it -was just and patriotic. - -At length, the question of independence entered some of the colonial -assemblies and conventions, and expressions in favor of such a measure -were made. North Carolina, it is believed, has the honor of taking the -lead, as a _province_, having by her convention, as early as April -22d, empowered their delegates in congress, "to concur with those in -the other colonies in declaring independency."[36] - -On the 15th of May the convention of Virginia went still further, and -unanimously _instructed_ their delegates in the general congress, "to -propose to that respectable body, to declare the united colonies free -and independent states, absolved from all allegiance or dependence -upon the crown or parliament of Great Britain; and to give the -_assent_ of that colony to such declaration." During the same month, -Massachusetts and Rhode Island virtually adopted similar resolutions. -In short, public sentiment appeared to be setting strongly in favor of -action, on this great and momentous question. - -Meanwhile, congress were not idle or uninterested spectators of -events. They had been watching with no small solicitude the "signs of -the times." Personally, they had counted the cost. Most of the members -had come to the conclusion that rather than be slaves, as they had -been, they would sacrifice fortune and life itself. These, therefore, -they were willing to peril, by any act or declaration which might seem -to contribute to their country's cause. - -But a sacred regard to that cause, required the utmost prudence. -Premature action might injure a cause which they wished, above all -others, to benefit. The popular feelings must have become duly -interested--the popular will must _precede_ and _direct_. - -At length, the propitious time was believed to have arrived, and in -humble dependence upon the guidance and protection of Almighty God, it -was determined to go forward with this great and solemn work. - -On the 7th of June, therefore, the great question of independence was -brought directly before congress, by Richard Henry Lee, one of the -delegates from Virginia. He submitted a resolution, declaring "that -the united colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent states; -that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and -that all political connection between them and Great Britain is, and -ought to be, dissolved." The resolution was postponed until the next -day, and every member enjoined to attend, to take the same into -consideration. On the 8th, it was debated in committee of the whole. - -No question of greater magnitude was ever presented to the -consideration of a deliberative body, or debated with more eloquence, -energy, and ability. Every member seemed duly impressed with the -important bearing that their decision would have upon the future -destiny of the country. - -Mr. Lee, the mover, and Mr. John Adams were particularly distinguished -in supporting, and Mr. John Dickinson in opposing the resolution. On the -10th, it was adopted in committee, by a bare majority of the colonies. -The delegates from Pennsylvania and Maryland, were instructed to oppose -it; and the delegates from some of the other colonies were without -special instructions on the subject. To give time for greater unanimity, -the resolution was postponed in the house, until the first of July. In -the mean time, a committee, consisting of Mr. Jefferson, John Adams, Dr. -Franklin, Mr. Sherman, and R. R. Livingston, was appointed to prepare a -declaration of independence. During this interval, measures were taken -to procure the assent of all the colonies.[37] - -A portion of the colonies had not given specific instructions to their -delegates, while others had, and in opposition to the measure. On a -question of such magnitude, it was deemed of the utmost importance that -entire unanimity, if possible, should be had. The delegates of New York -dispatched an express to the convention of that colony, then in session, -for advice; but the convention, not considering themselves or their -delegates authorized to declare the colony independent, recommended that -the people, who were then about to elect new members to the convention, -should give instructions on the subject. June 15th, New Hampshire -instructed her delegates to join the other colonies on this question. On -the 14th, Connecticut gave similar instructions. New Jersey followed on -the 21st. Pennsylvania, the same month, removed restrictions which in -the previous November, had been laid upon their delegates, and now -authorized them to unite in the measure. Maryland had also instructed -her delegates to vote against independence; but on the 28th of June, -following the example of Pennsylvania, the members of this convention -rëcalled their former instructions, and empowered their delegates to -concur. These new instructions were immediately dispatched by express to -Philadelphia, and, on 1st of July, were laid before congress. - -On the same day, the resolution of Mr. Lee, relating to independence, -was resumed in that body, referred to a committee of the whole, and -was assented to by all the colonies, except Pennsylvania and Delaware. - -The delegates from the former, then present, were seven, and four -voted against it. The number present from Delaware, was only -two--Thomas McKean and George Read--and they were divided; McKean in -favor, and Read against the resolution. Being reported to the house, -at the request of a colony, the proposition was postponed until the -next day, when it passed, and was entered on the journals. The -declaration of independence was reported by the special committee on -the 28th of June, and on the 4th of July, came before congress for -final decision, and received the vote of every colony. - -Two of the members from Pennsylvania, Morris and Dickinson, were -absent; of the five who were present, Franklin, Wilson, and Morton, -were in favor, and Willing and Humphrey against. Mr. McKean, to secure -the vote of Delaware, sent an express for Mr. Rodney, the other -delegate from that colony; who, although at the distance of eighty -miles from Philadelphia, arrived in time on the 4th to unite with him -in the vote, and thus complete the union of the colonies on this -momentous question. The committee appointed to prepare a declaration -of independence, selected Mr. Adams and Mr. Jefferson a sub-committee; -and the original draft was made by Mr. Jefferson. - -This draft, without any amendment by the committee, was reported to -congress, and after undergoing several amendments, received their -sanction. - -It now only remained to affix their signatures to the declaration, and -to publish it to the world, and their duty, in respect to this -important measure, was done. Having been engrossed on parchment, it -was brought out, and laid on the table. This was on the 2d of August. -Meanwhile, some who had voted for the declaration, had left congress, -and others had taken their places. The latter signed the instrument. - -John Hancock, as president of the congress, led the way. Taking a pen, -he recorded his name. He wrote with great power, and on the original -parchment, no signature is so bold and full-faced as his. The others -followed by states--fifty-six in number. - -The declaration of independence, was the great act of the Revolution. -It was the hinge on which turned the important events which followed. -Yet, at the period the plan was brought forward, it appeared to many -to partake of the wildness and extravagance of some measure of the -knight of la Mancha. At that day, the colonies were few and feeble. -They had no political character--no bond of union but common -sufferings, common necessities, and common danger. The inhabitants did -not exceed three millions--they had no veteran army--no arsenals but -barns--no munitions of war--few fortifications--no public treasury, no -power to lay taxes, and no credit on which to obtain a loan. - -[Illustration: John Hancock.] - -No wonder that the hearts of some trembled. No wonder that many -doubted the expediency of such a bold and adventurous step. Who was -the nation with which the colonies had to contend?--the mistress of -the world--a nation whose navy far exceeded that of any other nation -on the globe. Her armies were numerous and veteran--her officers were -skilful and practised--her statesmen subtle and sagacious, and were -now fired with indignation. - -All these circumstances were well known to the patriots who composed -the congress of '76. They were aware that they put in peril life, -liberty, and country. - -Yet, they well knew the importance of the measure proposed, and not -only its importance, but its necessity. The country needed some great -object distinctly before them. The colonies required a bond of -union--a common cause--one expressed--recorded--recognised--some one -great plan, the object of which they could pledge their lives, -fortunes, and sacred honor, to secure. That plan was independence. - -The influence of the declaration was immediately perceived--it roused -the nation to a higher tone of feeling, and gave impulse and -concentration to the national energies. It helped on the tide of -Revolution, and mightily aided in driving back the waves of British -oppression. But the full influence of that measure is not yet felt--is -not yet seen. That belongs to distant time. Some day, hereafter, it -will stand out in the great picture of human liberty, in all its -grandeur and importance. More will be thought of it than of the -splendid and long-lauded achievements of Marathon and Salamis--of -Waterloo and Trafalgar! - -Nor can we yet estimate the greatness of the _men_. We are still too -near them. But they are rising higher and higher, every year that -passes. As we retire into the distance from the date and scene of -their actions, their magnitude and worth acquire their true and proper -dimensions. In stern and self-denying virtue, they will compare with -Regulus, and in a pure and lofty patriotism, will be placed on the -same roll with William Tell and Robert the Bruce. - -The signers of the declaration of American independence, and their -compatriots in toil, and trial, and blood, will never be forgotten. They -_need_ no monument, but they _deserve_ one; and, for myself, I wish -there was one--a _Revolutionary monument_--erected by the nation--worthy -of the empire whose liberties, civil and religious, they secured--one -which should stand--if God pleased--through all time, to serve as a -consecrated offering to their patriotism, and the evidence of their -imperishable glory:--a monument to which we might conduct our sons in -future days; and, as they pondered the deeply engraved names of these -heroes and martyrs to liberty--we, the fathers, might say, "_Look upon -your ancestry, and scorn to be slaves_!" - -What a day is the 4th of July, as it yearly recurs! The cannon on that -day thunders from our hills--but it speaks of liberty. The bell from -every spire sends forth its peal, but in sounds which impart a joyous -impulse to the blood of the sire, and awaken a thrill of delight in -the bosom of the stripling. - -No other nation ever celebrated such a day. Days of joy and jubilee -they have had; but they were days which, while they removed one -usurper from the throne, made way for another; or celebrated some -ambitious hero's victories, achieved at the expense of slaughtered -thousands. Is it the spirit of an unholy triumph, which prompts the -Americans to dwell with delight upon the day? Patriotic sympathy would -hail with joy such a day, for any nation on the globe. And such a day, -we trust, will come for all; when the sun of liberty, which warms and -refreshes us, will fill with joy even the vassals of the Russian -autocrat, and spread his heart-cheering beams over the tyrannized -millions of the misnamed "celestial empire." - -It has sometimes been cast upon us as a reproach, that we exalt the -day too much. Exalt it too much! It has indeed sometimes been abused. -The spirit of liberty has grown wanton, and excess has sullied the -irreproachable propriety, which should ever characterize the -demonstrations of joy on such a day as this. But those days are -chiefly passed. No--whence the charge of exalting the day too -highly?--Not by those who have tasted the sweets of American liberty, -nor by those who have drawn long and deep draughts from the refreshing -fountains of western freedom. Oh, no--not by such; but by the -hirelings of some eastern usurper--by the myrmidons of crowned heads, -who hate a day which speaks so loudly of rational liberty to the rest -of the world in bondage. - -What monarch in Europe would think his throne safe, were his subjects -to witness an American celebration of the 4th of July? It would open -visions before them upon which they would gaze with intense emotions. -It would excite pantings after liberty, which, if unresisted, would -convulse every nation, and demolish every despotic throne. What would -the Russian serf say, were he to look in upon the smiling faces which -course the streets of a New England village, on a bright and balmy 4th -of July? What would the subjects of Algerine or Turkish despotism say? - -Yet we exalt the day too much! But for that day, what would have been -our present condition? Where would have been that constitution, under -which our political voyage of more than sixty years has been made with -so much prosperity to the nation? Where were that enterprise which has -levelled our forests, and spread a smiling and happy population over our -western wilds? Where that inventive genius, which, in its creations, has -rivalled, and in some respects excelled, the inventions of Europe? Look -at our ships--our manufactures--our printing establishments--our -cities--our canals--our railroads--our thousand and ten thousand sources -of wealth and happiness--where had these been, but for the 4th of July, -1776, connected as it was, and must ever be, with the achievement of our -national independence? Would Great Britain have suffered these? Would -she have seen such thrift--such expansion--such accumulation of national -power, and not have repressed it--when she could not bear, without -passing prohibitory laws, that our forefather's should make a hat to -cover their heads--or manufacture a sheet of paper on which to write a -letter to a friend! Had the mother-country had her will, where had been -the genius of Fulton, Whitney, and Clinton? On the other side of the -waters--not on this. Our halls of legislature would have failed in the -manly eloquence of rival orators, and our temples of worship would have -been devoted to God _and_ the aggrandizement of a phalanx of spiritual -lords. - -Said a patriarch and apostle of liberty, just after the vote on the -question of independence had been taken--"Let the day be commemorated as -the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God. Let it be -solemnized with pomp, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one -end of the continent to the other, from this time forward for ever." - -The patriarch uttered noble and patriotic sentiments. Be the day -remembered now and for ever. Remember it, _fathers_, as connected with -the civil and religious blessings, which have been your portion in -your earthly pilgrimage. Remember it, _mothers_, for it has made you -the wives and companions of freemen. Remember it _sons_ and -_daughters_, as the birth-day of liberty, but for which you might be -shedding your blood in the service of a tyrant, or staining your -virtue in the embraces of a bachanalian. - -Be it remembered--and as it recurs--and may it recur with every year -while time shall last--first and foremost let the tribute of a devout -homage ascend to the GOD of our fathers--to HIM, who imparted wisdom -to their counsel and success to their arms--who, when darkness -encircled them, dispelled it--when stores failed, supplied them--who -was a pillar of cloud by day, and a pillar of fire by night--to Him be -glory for a land like that which the patriarch saw from Pisgah--and -whose hills are like those of Lebanon and Carmel. - -The day is becoming a _religious festival_. This is right. Let the -sanctuary be opened, and homage be offered there. Let our -Sabbath-schools assemble, and fill our groves with divine song. But -never should we dispense with other innocent demonstrations of joy. -Let the cannon thunder from our hills--let the bells peal through our -villages and through our vallies. In every appropriate way, let the -future generations celebrate that glad era in our history when British -cohorts were obliged to retire, and "God save the king" on the rolling -drum, died upon our shores. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[36] It has long been claimed that the first declaration of -independence was made by the people in Charlotte town, Mecklenburg -county, North Carolina, in May, 1775. All doubt on this subject is now -dispelled, and the honor of such declaration must be accorded to them. -In a letter from Mr. Bancroft, American minister at London, to -Governor Swain, of North Carolina, dated London, July 4th, 1848, he -says: "You may be sure that I have spared no pains to discover in the -British state paper office a copy of the resolves of the committee of -Mecklenburg, and _with entire success_. The first account of 'the -extraordinary resolves of the people in Charlotte town, Mecklenburg -county,' was sent over to England by Sir James Wright, then governor -of Georgia, (to whom they had found their way) in a letter of the 20th -of June, 1775. The newspaper thus transmitted is still preserved, and -is the number 498 of the South Carolina Gazette and County Journal, -Tuesday, June 13, 1775."--"It is identically the same with the paper -which you enclosed to me."--The letter of Sir James Wright, referred -to by Mr. Bancroft, closes as follows: "By the enclosed paper, your -lordship will see the extraordinary resolves of the people of -Charlotte town, in Mecklenburg county: I should not be surprised if -the same should be done every where else" - -[37] Pitkin. - - - - - VI. ATTACK ON SULLIVAN'S ISLAND. - - - INVASION of Southern Colonies proposed--Expedition - dispatched--Charleston its first Object--Proceedings of its - Citizens--Sullivan's island Fortified--Arrival of General - Lee--His opinion of Fort Moultrie--British Fleet - arrives--Preliminary movements--Fort Moultrie - attacked--Remarkable Defence of it--Action described--Heroic - conduct of Sergeant Jasper--British repulsed--Respective - losses--Liberal conduct of Governor Rutledge--Mrs. - Elliot--Death of Jasper. - -The successful defence of Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan's island, is -justly considered one of the noblest achievements recorded in the -annals of the Revolution. - -The reduction of the southern colonies to obedience, was deemed a -measure of prime importance by the British government, nor was it -considered a project of difficult achievement. Hitherto the principal -theatre of the war had been in the north; and, hence, it was -calculated that preparations for the defence of the southern colonies -had been so much neglected, that little more than a demonstration in -that quarter would be necessary to bring the people to terms. - -Early in 1776, an expedition having the above object in view was -devised, the command of which was entrusted to Sir Peter Parker and -Earl Cornwallis. Accordingly, on the 3d of May, Admiral Parker, with -twenty sail, arrived at Cape Fear, with Generals Cornwallis, Vaughan, -and several others. - -General Clinton was expected from New York, with another considerable -corps, to cöoperate in the attack. With his troops he had arrived at the -point of destination, even anterior to the naval armament; and, being -the senior general, on the junction of the forces, assumed the command. -The immediate object was the reduction and possession of Charleston, the -capital of South Carolina; on the fall of which, the subjugation of that -and the other southern provinces would be an easy achievement. - -The meditated invasion was not unknown to the Carolinians, who, being -a high-minded and chivalrous people, determined that if their capital -fell, it should be at an expense of a treasure of British blood. - -With great activity and energy, therefore, they betook themselves to the -fortification of every assailable point. With patriotic -disinterestedness, the citizens demolished their valuable store-houses -on the wharves to supply materials for defence. Streets were barricaded, -and intrenchments erected along the shore. Even windows were stripped of -their weights, to supply the demand for bullets. The inhabitants -generally came to the work of defence, and scarcely a man on the ground -could be discovered without a spade, a pickaxe, or other implement of -work. Even the blacks from the city, and for miles in the country, were -employed, and seemed animated with the enthusiasm and zeal of their -masters. The commanding general was Major-general Lee, who, having been -appointed by congress to the command of the southern forces, and -possessing the entire confidence of the troops and of the people, was -enabled to carry to completion the various works of defence, which his -knowledge and skill had decided to be important. Governor Rutledge, also -a man of great influence in the province, cöoperated with General Lee, -in all his measures of defence, and by his example and exhortations -essentially contributed to the happy results which followed. - -At the distance of six miles from the point of land formed by the -confluence of the two rivers, Ashley and Cooper, and on which -Charleston is built, lies _Sullivan's island_. It commands the channel -which leads to the port. The due fortification of this point was a -matter of great moment. The outline of a fort had already been marked -out, to complete which, Colonel William Moultrie, a singularly brave -and accomplished officer, was dispatched early in March. Palmetto -trees, which from their soft and spongy texture, were admirably -calculated to deprive a ball of its impetus without causing splinters, -had been cut in the forest, and the logs in huge rafts lay moored to -the beach. "Ignorant of gunnery, but confident in their own resources, -and nerved with resolute courage, Moultrie and his coadjutors, hardy -sons of the soil, heaved those huge logs from the water, and began the -work. A square pen was built, with bastions from each angle, capable -of covering a thousand men. The logs were laid in two parallel rows, -and sixteen feet apart; bound together with cross-timbers dove-tailed -and bolted into logs, and the wide space filled with sand. When -completed, it presented the appearance of a solid wall, sixteen feet -wide; but its strength was yet to be tested. Behind this, Moultrie -placed four hundred and thirty-five men, and thirty-one cannon, some -of them twenty-sixes, some eighteens, and the rest of smaller -caliber--throwing in all five hundred and thirteen pounds. - -"It was at this juncture that Lee arrived from the north, and took -command of the troops. When his eye, accustomed to the scientific -structures of Europe, fell on this rudely-built affair, he smiled in -derision, calling it a '_slaughter-pen_,' and requested Governor -Rutledge to have it immediately evacuated. But that noble patriot was -made of sterner stuff, and replied, 'that while a soldier remained -alive, he would never give his sanction to such an order.'" - -The naval force of the British, consisted of the Bristol and -Experiment, of fifty guns; four frigates, the Active, the Acteon, the -Solebay, and the Syren, of twenty-eight; the Sphynx, of twenty, the -Friendship, of twenty-two, two smaller vessels of eight, and the -Thunder, a bomb-ketch. On reaching the bar, at the entrance of the -channels of Charleston, it was found that the fifty-gun ships could -not pass without being lightened. The removal and rëplacement of their -guns was attended with incredible labor; and although thus lightened, -they struck, and for a time were in danger of bilging. - -Meanwhile, General Clinton issued his proclamation, which he -dispatched to the city with a flag, demanding the citizens to lay down -their arms, and to return to their allegiance, on pain of an immediate -attack, and an utter overthrow. To this demand, not even the civility -of a reply was accorded, and the threatened attack, on the morning of -the 28th of June, was commenced. - -To the citizens of Charleston those were anxious hours. There was -hope, but more of fear. They filled the wharves, the roofs, and the -steeples--in short, every eminence was black with spectators, gazing -on the exciting scene and the approaching conflict. - -It was a calm, bright, beautiful day. The wind being fair, the British -fleet came steadily, proudly, towards the "slaughter-pen," and one -after another took the positions assigned them. The Americans watched -them with intense interest--"Moultrie's eye flashed with delight." -Every gun was loaded--every one was manned--and all were now anxiously -waiting the order to fire. At length, a portion of the fleet had -reached point-blank-shot distance, when Moultrie, who, like Prescott -at the battle of Bunker's hill, had restrained his anxiously-waiting -men, now gave the word of command "_Fire!_"--And they did fire--and -"the shores shook with the tremendous explosion." - -The fleet continued to advance, a little abreast of the fort, when -letting go their anchors, and clewing up their sails, they opened upon -the fort. More than a hundred cannon!--their blaze, their smoke, their -roar--all in the same instant--it was a terrible commencement--the -stoutest heart palpitated! every one unconsciously held his breath! - -"The battle had now fairly commenced, and the guns were worked with -fearful rapidity. It was one constant peal of thunder, and to the -spectators in Charleston, that low spot, across the bay, looked like a -volcano breaking forth from the sea. Lee stood on Haddrell's point, -watching the effect of the first fire. When the smoke lifted, like the -folds of a vast curtain, he expected to see that 'slaughter-pen' in -fragments; but there still floated the flag of freedom, and beneath it -beat brave hearts, to whom that awful cannonade was but 'a symphony to -the grand march of independence.' When the fight had fairly begun, -they thought no more of those heavy guns than they did of their -rifles. Their coats were hastily flung one side, and their hats with -them--and in their shirt-sleeves, with handkerchiefs about their -heads, they toiled away under the sweltering sun with the coolness and -courage of old soldiers. The fire from those nine vessels, with their -cannon all trained upon that pile of logs, was terrific, and it -trembled like a frightened thing under the shock; but the good -palmettoes closed silently over the balls, as they buried themselves -in the timber and sand, and the work went bravely on. Thus, hour after -hour, did it blaze, and flame, and thunder there on the sea, while the -shots of the Americans told with murderous effect. At every discharge, -those vessels shook as if smitten by a rock--the planks were ripped -up, the splinters hurled through the air, and the decks strewed with -mangled forms. Amid the smoke, bombs were seen traversing the air, and -dropping, in an incessant shower, within the fort--but a morass in the -middle swallowed them up as fast as they fell. At length, riddled -through and through, her beds of mortar broken up, the bomb-vessel -ceased firing. Leaving the smaller vessels, as unworthy of his -attention, Moultrie trained his guns upon the larger ones, and 'Look -to the Commodore! look to the fifty-gun ship!' passed along the lines, -and they _did_ look to the Commodore in good earnest, sweeping her -decks at every discharge with such fatal fire, that at one time there -was scarcely a man left upon the quarter-deck. The Experiment, too, -came in for her share of consideration--her decks were slippery with -blood, and nearly a hundred of her men were borne below, either killed -or wounded. Nor were the enemy idle, but rained back a perfect tempest -of balls; but that brave garrison had got used to the music of cannon, -and the men, begrimed with powder and smoke, shot with the precision -and steadiness they would have done in firing at a target. As a heavy -ball, in full sweep, touched the top of the works, it took one of the -coats, lying upon the logs, and lodged it in a tree. 'See that coat! -see that coat!' burst in a laugh on every side, as if it had been a -mere plaything that had whistled past their heads. Moultrie, after a -while, took out his pipe, and lighting it, leaned against the logs, -and smoked away with his officers, as if they were out there sunning -themselves, instead of standing within the blaze, and smoke, and -uproar of nearly two hundred cannon. Now and then he would take the -pipe from his mouth to shout '_fire!_' or give some order, and then -commence puffing and talking--thus presenting a strange mixture of the -droll and heroic. The hearts of the spectators in the distance, many -of whom had husbands and brothers in the fight, were far more agitated -than they against whom that fearful iron storm was hailing. - -"After the fight had continued for several hours, Lee, seeing that the -'slaughter pen' held out so well, passed over to it in a boat, and -remained for a short time. Accustomed as he was to battle, and to the -disciplined valor of European troops, he still was struck with -astonishment at the scene that presented itself as he approached. -There stood Moultrie, quietly smoking his pipe, while the heavy and -rapid explosions kept up a deafening roar; and there, stooping over -their pieces, were those raw gunners firing with the deadly precision -of practised artillerists. Amazed to find an English fleet, carrying -two hundred and sixty guns, kept at bay by thirty cannon and four -hundred men, he left the fort to its brave commander, and returned to -his old station."[38] - -Among the Americans, who were that day in the "slaughter-pen," and who -were dealing death and destruction without stint, was a Sergeant -Jasper, whose name has since been given to one of the counties in -Georgia, for this and other heroic deeds. In the warmest of the -contest, the flag-staff of the fort was shot away by a cannon-ball, -and fell to the outside of the ramparts on the beach. The spectators -at Charleston saw it fall, and supposing that the fort had yielded, -were filled with consternation and dismay. In the surrender of the -fort, they read the destiny of themselves and city. But what was their -joy to perceive that columns of smoke, from the fort, still continued -to roll up--the blaze and thunder of its cannon continued to be seen -and heard; and presently the folds of the flag again fluttered in the -breeze. Sergeant Jasper was the hero of the occasion. He had witnessed -the fall of the flag--and he saw it "stretched in dishonor on the -sand." It was a perilous attempt, but he did not hesitate. Leaping the -ramparts, he proceeded, amidst a shower of balls, the entire length of -the fort, and, picking up the flag, tied it to a post, and rëplaced it -on a parapet, and there, too, he himself supported it till another -flag-staff could be procured. Here, once more, it proudly waved--amid -the shouts and congratulations of the now still more courageous in the -fort, and to the joy of still more distant and equally anxious -spectators of the scene. - -[Illustration: Sergeant Jasper replanting the Flag at Fort Moultrie.] - -About this time, another circumstance sent a momentary panic through -the stern hearts of the defenders of the fort. The ammunition was -failing, and a large force, which had effected a landing, was in rapid -march to storm the works. Moultrie instantly dispatched Marion to a -sloop-of-war for a supply, and another message to Governor Rutledge at -Charleston. Both were successful--both in season. Said the governor, -in a note accompanying five hundred pounds of powder, "Do not make too -free with your cannon--_cool, and do mischief_." - -With this fresh supply of ammunition, the fire, which had been -relaxed, was redoubled. The British were astounded. They had -congratulated themselves, upon the partial suspension of firing, that -the fort was about to yield. But the new fury of the firing, on the -part of the Americans, soon served to convince them of their error. -They also redoubled their efforts, and, for a time, the contest was -more terrible than ever. "Once," it is said, "the broadsides of four -vessels exploded together, and when the balls struck the fort, it -trembled in every timber and throughout its entire extent, and shook -as if about to fall in pieces." - -The day was now wearing away, and still the contest was undecided. The -British, reluctant to relinquish an object which in the morning they -imagined so easily won, still continued the heavy cannonade; while the -Americans, gathering strength and courage by what they had already -accomplished, stood firm and undaunted. At length, the sun went down -behind the distant shore, and darkness threw its ample folds on every -object of nature. But now, through the darkness, flames shot forth and -thunders rolled, presenting a scene of solemn and indescribable -grandeur. The inhabitants of Charleston still lingered on their -watchtowers, gazing out through the gloom towards the spot where the -battle was still raging in its fiercest intensity. - -But they were not destined to hope and pray in vain. At about half-past -nine, the fire from the English fleet suddenly ceased. They had fought -long--fought with all the ardor and enthusiasm of friends to their king -and his cause. But they had fought in vain. Victory decided for -Moultrie and his patriot band, and it only remained for the English to -withdraw, as well as they were able, their ships, which had been nearly -disabled, and their crews, which had been dreadfully reduced. - -"The loss of the Americans, in this gallant action," says the writer -whom we have already quoted, "was slight, amounting to only thirty-six, -both killed and wounded, while that of the British, according to their -own accounts, was a hundred and sixty. Double the number would probably -be nearer the truth. The commander had his arm carried away. One is -surprised that so few of the garrison were killed, when it is remembered -that nearly ten thousand shots and shells were fired by the enemy that -day. The Acteon, during the action, went aground, and the next morning a -few shots were fired at her, when a party was sent to take possession of -her. The crew, however, setting fire to her, pushed off. When the -Americans got on board, they turned two or three of the guns on the -fugitives, but, finding the flames approaching the magazine, abandoned -the vessel. For a short time, she stood a noble spectacle, with her tall -masts wreathed in flame, and black hull crackling and blazing below. But -when the fire reached the powder, there suddenly shot up a huge column -of smoke, spreading like a tree at the top, under the pressure of the -atmosphere--and then the ill-fated vessel lifted heavily from the water, -and fell back in fragments, with an explosion that was heard for miles -around." - -A few days following the battle, the fort was visited by Governor -Rutledge and many of the distinguished ladies and gentlemen of -Charleston. They came to see the old "slaughter-pen," which had so -nobly withstood the attack under such long-practiced and accomplished -officers as Parker, Clinton, and Cornwallis. Ample praises were -bestowed upon the "rough-and-ready" soldiers, while mutual -congratulations were exchanged with Moultrie and his brave associates -in command. Nor was the gallant Jasper forgotten. Taking from his -side his sword, Governor Rutledge buckled it on the daring soldier, as -a reward for his noble exploit. Following this, the accomplished Mrs. -Elliot presented a pair of elegant colors to the regiment under -Moultrie and Motte, with the following brief, but beautiful address: -"The gallant behavior in defence of liberty and your country, entitle -you to the highest honor; accept, then, two standards, as a reward -justly due to your regiment; and I make not the least doubt, under -Heaven's protection, you will stand by them as long as they can wave -in the air of liberty." - -The colors thus presented to Colonel Moultrie were, at a subsequent -date, carried by him to _Savannah_, and were displayed during the -assault against that place. Two officers were killed, while attempting -to place them upon the enemy's parapet at the Spring-hill redoubt. -Just before the retreat, Jasper, while endeavoring to rëplace them -upon the works, received a mortal wound. When a retreat was ordered, -he recollected the honorable condition upon which the donor presented -them to his regiment, and among the last acts of his life, he -succeeded in bringing them off. - -To Major Horry, who called to see him a little while before his death, -he said: "Major, I have got my furlough. That sword was presented to -me by Governor Rutledge, for my services in defence of Fort Moultrie; -give it to my father, and tell him I have worn it with honor. If he -should weep, tell him his son died in hope of a better life. Tell Mrs. -Elliot that I lost my life supporting the colors which she presented -to our regiment." - -Such was the affair at Fort Moultrie--such the patriotic and -chivalrous conduct of men fighting for their altars, their homes, -their wives, their children. Was it strange that, in a good cause, -Heaven should smile on such high and heroic conduct? Was it strange -that a people, so intent on the enjoyment of their just rights, should -accomplish their object? - -This repulse of the British, it may be added, was unexpected to them; -and the more so, as they well knew that no systematic measure of -defence had been adopted at the South. The contest had hitherto been -in a different quarter, and no intimations had transpired of a -contemplated change. In addition to this, the British were profoundly -ignorant of the true southern character. They had learned some lessons -in regard to the "Yankees;" and, especially, that if they were made of -"stuff," it was "stern stuff;" but they had yet to learn, that the -same kind of ore abounded south of the Potomac. The old -"slaughter-pen" on Sullivan's Island, _enlightened_ them, and -_impressed_ them as to the fact so fully, that the influence of the -lesson lasted for two years and a half--that being the respite of the -Southern states from the calamities of war, consequent upon the -repulse of the British at Fort Moultrie. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[38] Headley's Washington and his Generals. - - - - - VII. MILITARY REVERSES--LOSS OF NEW YORK. - - - BRITISH take possession of Staten Island--Strongly - rëinforced--State of the American Army--Occupation of New York - and Brooklyn--Battle of Brooklyn--Americans repulsed--Long - Island abandoned--Remarkable retreat--Gloomy state of the - American Army--Washington retreats to Harlem--Movements of the - British--Washington retires to White Plains--Loss of Fort - Washington--American Army pursued--Retreats successively to - Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton--Thence to the Pennsylvania - side of the Delaware--British go into Winter-quarters between - the Delaware and Hackensack--Capture of General Lee--Prevalent - Spirit of Despondency. - -From the commencement of hostilities to the evacuation of Boston by the -British, the cause of the Americans had appeared to be specially favored -by Heaven. In their several engagements, if they had not achieved -decided victories, the _effect_ of them was such as to inspire -confidence, to diffuse through the colonies an unabated ardor, and the -most lively anticipations of ultimate and not far-distant triumph. A -season of sad reverse, and consequent dejection, however, was appointed -for them, perhaps to teach them more entire dependence upon Divine -Providence, and to enhance the value of a final conquest, when it should -arrive, and which, though distant, was still in reserve for them. - -On the retirement of the British fleet from Boston, Washington was -left to conjecture its destination. Apprehending, however, a hostile -attempt upon New York, he had, before their departure, detached a -considerable force for the protection of that important post. The main -army soon followed, and, on the 14th of April, entered the city. -Measures were immediately adopted to place it in a state of defence. - -Contrary to the expectations of Washington, the British fleet, on -leaving the waters of Boston, directed its course to Halifax, at which -place rëinforcements from England were expected by Sir William Howe. -Disappointed, however, in this latter respect, and finding provisions -for his troops scarce, he resolved on sailing for New York. - -On the 2d of July, he took possession of Staten Island. The -inhabitants of the island received the English general with great -demonstrations of joy. The soldiers being quartered about in the -villages, found, in abundance, the refreshments of which they were in -the greatest need. Here General Howe was visited by Governor Tryon, -who gave him precise information with respect to the state of the -province, as also with regard to the forces and preparations of the -enemy. Many inhabitants of New Jersey came to offer themselves to be -enrolled for the royal service; even those of Staten Island were -forward to enlist under the English standard; every thing announced -that the army had only to show itself in the provinces to be assured -of a prompt victory. Admiral Howe, after touching at Halifax, where he -found dispatches from his brother, who urged him to come and join him -at New York, made sail again immediately, and landed, without -accident, at Staten Island, the 12th of July. General Clinton arrived -about the same time, with the troops he rëconducted from the -unfortunate expedition against Charleston. Commodore Hotham also -appeared, with the rëinforcements under his escort; so that in a short -time the army amounted to about twenty-four thousand men--English, -Hessians, and Waldekers. Several regiments of Hessian infantry were -expected to arrive shortly, when the army would be carried to the -number of thirty-five thousand combatants, of the best troops of -Europe. America had never seen such a display of forces.[39] - -The Americans, on their part, meanwhile, had made every effort in their -power to resist the danger to their cause, menaced by so formidable a -force. The militia of the neighboring provinces, and a few regular -regiments from Maryland, from Pennsylvania, and New England, had been -called in, by which several augmentations the American force had been -nominally raised to twenty-seven thousand. One-fourth part of these, -however, were disabled by sickness, and nearly an equal number were -destitute of arms, leaving but about fourteen thousand and five hundred -effective men. Among so heterogeneous a force, collected in a time of -danger and excitement, there existed little opportunity to introduce -order and discipline. To the discerning eye of Washington, grounds of -serious apprehension existed; but, nevertheless, with his usual calmness -and energy, he adopted every measure within his means to sustain his -position, and inspire his soldiers with hope and confidence. In his -energetic proclamations addressed to the army, he exhorted them "to -animate and encourage each other, and show the whole world that a -freeman, contending for liberty on his own ground, is superior to any -slavish mercenary on earth." - -As Washington was necessarily ignorant by what route the British would -choose to approach the city, he was reluctantly compelled to divide -his forces. A part were stationed in the city, a part at Brooklyn, -Long Island, and detachments at various other assailable points. - -Thus the armies, more numerous than had hitherto been collected, were -fairly arranged, and every succeeding day was bringing nearer a -contest which might decide the fate of the new republic. - -At length, from various indications, the American general was -convinced that the first attack would be upon the forces at Brooklyn. -Accordingly, he rëinforced that point, by a detachment of six -regiments, and placed General Putnam in command. - -"On the 22d of August, the British forces were landed on the opposite -side of Long Island. The two armies were now about four miles asunder, -and were separated by a range of hills, over which passed three main -roads. Various circumstances led General Putnam to suspect that the -enemy intended to approach him by the road leading to his right, which -he therefore guarded with most care. - -"Very early in the morning of the 26th, his suspicions were -strengthened by the approach upon that road, of a column of British -troops, and upon the center road, of a column of Hessians. To oppose -these, the American troops were mostly drawn from the camp, and in the -engagements which took place, evinced considerable bravery. - -"These movements of the enemy were but feints to divert the attention -of Putnam from the road which led to his left, along which General -Clinton was silently advancing with the main body of the British army. -The report of cannon in that direction, gave the first intimation of -the danger which was approaching. The Americans endeavored to escape -it, by returning with the utmost celerity to their camp. They were not -able to arrive there in time, but were intercepted by General Clinton, -who drove them back upon the Hessians. - -"Attacked thus in front and rear, they fought a succession of -skirmishes, in the course of which many were killed, many were made -prisoners; and several parties, seeing favorable opportunities, forced -their way through the enemy, and regained the camp. A bold and -vigorous charge, made by the American general, Lord Sterling, at the -head of a Maryland regiment, enabled a large body to escape in this -manner. This regiment, fighting with desperate bravery, kept a force -greatly superior engaged, until their comrades had passed by, when the -few who survived, ceasing to resist, surrendered to the enemy. - -"The loss of the Americans in killed, wounded, and taken prisoners, -considerably exceeded a thousand. Among the latter, were Generals -Sullivan, Sterling, and Woodhull. The total loss of the enemy was less -than four hundred."[40] - -In the height of the engagement, Washington crossed over to Brooklyn, -and seeing some of his best troops slaughtered or taken, he uttered, it -is said, an exclamation of anguish. He could, if he saw fit, draw out of -their encampment all the troops, and send them to succor the corps that -were engaged with the enemy; he might also call over all the forces he -had in New York, and order them to take part in the battle. But all -these rëinforcements would by no means have sufficed to render his army -equal to that of the English. Victory having already declared in their -favor, the courage with which it inspired them, and the superiority of -their discipline, cut off all hope of being able to restore the battle. -If Washington had engaged all his troops in the action, it is probable -that the entire army would have been destroyed on this fatal day, and -America reduced to subjection. Great praise, therefore, is due to him -for not having allowed himself, in so grave circumstances, to be -transported into an inconsiderate resolution, and for having preserved -himself and his army for a happier future. - -The English were so elated with victory, that eager to profit by their -advantages, they would fain have immediately assaulted the American -camp. But their general manifested more prudence; whether he believed -the intrenchments of the enemy stronger than they really were, or -whether he considered himself already sure of entering New York, -without encountering new perils, he repressed the ardor of his troops. -Afterwards, encamping, in front of the enemy's lines, in the night of -the 28th, he broke ground within six hundred paces of a bastion upon -the left. His intention was to approach by means of trenches, and to -wait till the fleet could cöoperate with the troops. - -The situation of the Americans in their camp became extremely -critical. They had, in front, an enemy superior in number, and who -could attack them at any moment with a new advantage. Their -intrenchments were of little moment, and the English, pushing their -works with ardor, had every possibility of success in their favor.[41] - -Added to these unfavorable circumstances, the arms and ammunition of -the soldiers had suffered from a powerful and long-continued rain. -Besides, they were worn out with fatigue, and discouraged by defeat. -Thus environed with difficulty and danger, a council of war decided -that to evacuate their position, and retire to New York, was the part -of wisdom and safety. - -The accomplishment of this project, however, was a movement attended -with difficulty, but was effected with great skill and judgment, and -with complete success. The commencement of the retreat was appointed -for eight o'clock on the night of the 29th; but a strong north-east -wind and a rapid tide, caused a delay of several hours. In this -extremity, Heaven remarkably favored the fugitive army. A south-east -wind springing up at eleven, essentially facilitated its passage from -the island to the city; and a thick fog hanging over Long Island from -about two in the morning, concealed its movements from the enemy, who -were so near, that the sound of their pickaxes and shovels was heard. -In about half an hour after, the fog cleared away, and the enemy were -seen taking possession of the American lines. General Washington, as -far as possible, inspected every thing. From the commencement of the -action on the morning of the 27th, until the troops were safely across -the East river, he never closed his eyes, and was almost constantly on -horseback. His wisdom and vigilance, with the interposing favor of -Divine Providence, saved the army from destruction.[42] - -The defeat experienced by the Americans at Brooklyn, spread a deep -gloom through the army; and excited, on that account, no little -anxiety in the bosom of Washington. It was the first serious loss -which they had sustained--the first reverse which essentially shook -their confidence and weakened their courage. - -To Washington and his officers, the great defect in the American army -was apparent. It was twofold--first, the employment of by far too large -a proportion of militia, and secondly, the utter impracticability of -introducing among them that discipline and subordination which could -place them on equal footing with the practised and veteran troops of -the enemy. At length, convinced of the justness of the views of -Washington on these points, congress decided that a regular army should -be formed, in which the soldiers should be enlisted to serve during the -present war; and that it should consist of eighty-eight battalions, to -be raised in all the provinces, according to their respective abilities. -A bounty of twenty dollars, and a grant of land, were offered. At a -subsequent date, soldiers were allowed to enlist for three years; in -which case, however, they were not entitled to the grant of land. Had -congress, at an earlier day, taken this measure to furnish an adequate -army for Washington, both he and the country might have been saved great -anxiety, and a succession of mortifying defeats. And but for the -adoption of the above resolution, it is scarcely possible to predict -what would have been the ultimate fate of the new republic. - -Fortunate would it have been for the Americans, had their ill-fortune -terminated in the defeat experienced on Long Island. To other and not -much less mortifying reverses they were destined, ere the deepest -point of depression should be reached. - -It was the ardent wish of Washington to retain possession of New York; -but, finding, as he said, in a communication to congress, the militia -"dismayed and intractable," and "leaving the camp in some instances -almost by regiments, by half-ones, and by companies at a time;" he was -compelled to relinquish the place to his enemies, and to abandon, -which he still more regretted, all the heavy artillery, and a large -portion of the baggage, provisions, and military stores. On leaving -the city, the American army took post on Harlem heights. - -Here Washington had time to ponder upon his situation, and form his -plan. His army had become seriously reduced, and from the despondency -and dismay which were visible among them, it might become at anytime -still more reduced. On the other hand, the forces of the enemy were -numerous, and withal consisted of regular and well-disciplined -troops. It was futile, therefore, to attempt to maintain offensive -operations against them. Far better in his judgment to risk no general -engagement; but by retiring gradually before them, to lead them as far -as possible from their resources; and in the mean while to inspire his -own troops with courage, by engaging them in skirmishes, where success -was probable. Having adopted this cautious system, he prepared to put -it in practice. - -The British army did not long entertain its position on York Island. -The British frigates, having passed up the North river, under a fire -from Fort Washington and the post opposite to it on the Jersey shore, -General Howe embarked a great part of his army in flat-bottomed boats, -and passing through Hurl Gate into the sound, landed at Frog's neck. -The object of the British general was, either to force Washington out -of his present lines, or to inclose him in them. Aware of this design, -General Washington moved a part of his troops from York island to join -those at King's bridge, and detached some regiments to Westchester. A -council of war was now called, and the system of evacuation and -retreating was adopted, with the exception of Fort Washington, for the -defence of which nearly three thousand men were assigned. After a halt -of six days, the royal army advanced, not without considerable -opposition, along the coast of Long Island sound, by New Rochelle, to -White Plains, where the Americans took a strong position behind -intrenchments. This post was maintained for several days, till the -British, having received considerable rëinforcements, General -Washington withdrew to the heights of North Castle, about five miles -from White Plains, where, whether from the strength of his position, -or from the British general having other objects in view, no attempt -at attack was made. - -Immediately on leaving White Plains, General Howe directed his -attention to Fort Washington and Fort Lee, as their possession would -secure the navigation of the Hudson, and facilitate the invasion of -New Jersey. On the 15th of November, General Howe, being in readiness -for the assault, summoned the garrison to surrender. Colonel Magaw the -commanding officer, in spirited language, replied, that he should -defend his works to extremity. On the succeeding morning, the British -made the assault in four separate divisions; and, after a brave and -obstinate resistance, surmounted the outworks, and again summoned the -garrison to surrender. His ammunition being nearly expended, and his -force incompetent to repel the numbers which were ready on every side -to assail him, Colonel Magaw surrendered himself and his garrison, -consisting of two thousand men, prisoners of war. The enemy lost in -the assault nearly eight hundred men, mostly Germans. The conquest of -Fort Washington made the evacuation of Fort Lee necessary. Orders -were, therefore, issued to remove the ammunition and stores in it; -but, before much progress had been made in this business, Lord -Cornwallis crossed the Hudson, with a number of battalions, with the -intention to inclose the garrison between the Hackensack and North -rivers. This movement made a precipitate retreat indispensable, which -was happily effected with little loss of men; but the greater part of -the artillery, stores, and baggage, was left for the enemy. The loss -at Fort Washington was heavy. The regiments captured in it were some -of the best troops in the army. The tents, camp-kettles, and stores, -lost at this place and at Fort Lee, could not, during the campaign, be -rëplaced, and for the want of them the men suffered extremely. This -loss was unnecessarily sustained, as those posts ought, -unquestionably, to have been evacuated before General Howe was in a -situation to invest them; and this event was the more to be deplored, -as the American force was daily diminished by the expiration of the -soldiers' term of enlistment, and by the desertion of the militia. - -These successes encouraged the British to pursue the remaining American -force, with the prospect of annihilating it. General Washington, who had -taken post at Newark, on the south side of the Passaic, finding himself -unable to make any real opposition, withdrew from that place, as the -enemy crossed the Passaic, and retreated to Brunswick, on the Raritan; -and Lord Cornwallis, on the same day, entered Newark. The retreat was -still continued from Brunswick to Princeton; from Princeton to Trenton; -and from Trenton to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware. The pursuit -was urged with so much rapidity, that the rear of one army was often -within shot of the van of the other. - -The winter being now set in, the British army went into quarters, -between the Delaware and the Hackensack. Trenton, the most important -post and barrier, was occupied by a brigade of Hessians, under Colonel -Rawle. General Howe now issued a proclamation, in the name of his -brother and himself, in which pardon was offered to all persons who, -within the space of sixty days, should take the oath of allegiance, -and submit to the authority of the British government. The effects of -this proclamation were soon apparent. People from several quarters -availed themselves of it, and threw down their arms. No city or town, -indeed, in its corporate capacity, submitted to the British -government, but most of the families of fortune and influence -discovered an inclination to return to their allegiance. Many of the -yeomanry claimed the benefit of the commissioner's proclamation; and -the great body of them were too much taken up with the security of -their families and their property to make any exertion in the public -cause.[43] Another source of mortification to the Americans, was the -capture of General Lee, who had imprudently ventured to lodge at a -house three miles distant from his corps.[44] - -"This was the most gloomy period of the revolutionary war. It was the -crisis of the struggle of the United States for independence. The -American army, reduced in numbers, depressed by defeat, and exhausted -by fatigue, naked, barefoot, and destitute of tents, and even of -utensils with which to dress their scanty provisions, was fleeing -before a triumphant enemy, well-appointed and abundantly supplied. A -general spirit of despondency through New Jersey was the consequence -of this disastrous state of public affairs. But, in this worst of -times, congress stood unmoved; their measures exhibited no symptoms of -confusion or dismay; the public danger only roused them to more -vigorous exertions, that they might give a firmer tone to the public -mind, and animate the citizens of the United America to a manly -defence of their independence. Beneath this cloud of adversity, too, -General Washington shone with a brighter lustre than in the day of his -highest prosperity. Not dismayed by all the difficulties which -encompassed him, he accommodated his measures to his situation, and -still made the good of his country the object of his unwearied -pursuit. He ever wore the countenance of composure and confidence, and -inspired, by his own example, his little band with firmness to -struggle with adverse fortune."[45] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[39] Botta. - -[40] Hale's History of the United States. - -[41] Botta. - -[42] Holmes' Annals. - -[43] Nor was it only in New Jersey, and in the midst of the victorious -royal troops, that these abrupt changes of party were observed; the -inhabitants of Pennsylvania flocked, in like manner, to humble -themselves at the feet of the English commissioners, and to promise them -fealty and obedience. Among others, were Mr. Gallaway and Mr. Allen, -both of whom had been members of the continental congress. Their example -became pernicious, and the most prejudicial effects were to be -apprehended from it. Every day ushered in some new calamity; the cause -of America seemed hastening to irrecoverable ruin. The most ardent no -longer dissembled that the term of the war was at hand, and that the -hour was come in which the colonies were about to resume the yoke. - -[44] General Lee had been a British officer, and had engaged in the -American service before the acceptance of the resignation of his -commission. Sir William Howe, for this reason, pretended to view him -as a traitor, and at first refused to admit him on his parole, or to -consider him as a subject of exchange. Congress directed Washington to -propose to General Howe to give six Hessian officers in exchange for -him; but Howe still persisting in his refusal, Congress ordered that -Lieutenant-colonel Campbell and five Hessian officers should be -imprisoned, and treated as General Lee. This order was executed even -with more rigor than it prescribed. The lieutenant-colonel, being then -at Boston, was thrown into a dungeon destined for malefactors. -Washington blamed this excess; he knew that Lee was detained, but not -ill-treated. Lieutenant-colonel Campbell and the Hessians were not -liberated until General Howe had consented to consider Lee as a -prisoner of war. - -[45] Hinton. - - - - - VIII. RETURNING PROSPERITY. - - BATTLES OF TRENTON AND PRINCETON. - - - RELIANCE of the patriots for success upon God--Public Fast - recommended by Congress--Offensive Operations decided - upon--Battle of Trenton--Washington victorious--Battle of - Princeton--British repulsed--American Army at - Morristown--British at Brunswick--Prospects brightening. - -Irrespective of the special blessing of Heaven, the colonies of America -entered upon the revolutionary war with fearful chances against them. -That they well knew, and hence that blessing was more universally sought -than by any other people, in similar circumstances, since the founding -of empires. The cause was remembered by those who offered the incense of -prayer morning and evening on the family altar. Scarcely a Sabbath -occurred, on which the embassadors of God did not make public mention, -in their addresses to a Throne of grace, of the American cause; and -fervent supplications for Divine aid in supporting that cause, and, -carrying it to a prosperous issue, were to be heard in every church. Nor -were colonial assemblies--nor, after its organization, the continental -congress--backward in recognising the necessity of propitiating the -Divine favor. Not a single instance, it is believed, is on record, and -probably never occurred, in which a legislator in a provincial assembly -attached to the patriotic cause, or a member of congress, opposed the -adoption of any resolution which had for its object the humiliation of -the people in the season of national adversity, or the rendering of due -thanks to God in the day of prosperity. There were men concerned in -conducting the military operations of the Revolution, and in guiding the -counsels of the nation, who were far from being personally religious; -but such was the pervading influence of piety in the land, that they -would have manifested no open opposition, had they felt it; nor is it to -be credited, in the absence of positive evidence, that such feelings -ever existed. - -The reverses sustained by the Americans, detailed in the preceding -pages, were most sensibly felt in every portion of the land. -Notwithstanding the knowledge of the superiority of the British, in -regard to numerical force, but much more in respect to munitions of -war, and the disciplined character of their soldiery, the Americans -had cherished the expectation of success. Their confidence at the -commencement of the struggle had been raised, and strengthened by the -issue of the affairs at Lexington, and Bunker's hill, and the -evacuation of Boston. Success thus early was positively essential to -success in the sequel. Had they early met with reverses, such as were -experienced from the discomfiture at Brooklyn to the battle of -Trenton, it is doubtful whether that resolution would not have failed, -and with the failure of that, the contest have been relinquished. - -Those reverses, though painful and mortifying, were perhaps even -salutary. A firmer reliance upon Providence was felt to be needful, -and a holier tide of supplication ascended to the Arbiter of the fate -of nations. - -The connexion between an acknowledgment of God in his providence, and -his blessing on the common cause, was recognised by no body with more -readiness than by the continental congress. Although in May, 1776, that -body had recommended a public fast, in view of the gloomy reverses which -had attended the American arms, on the 11th of December, in a -resolution, which for the tone of its piety cannot be too much admired, -and which might serve as a model to future ages, they recommended the -observance of a day of fasting and humiliation: "Whereas the war in -which the United States are engaged with Great Britain, has not only -been prolonged, but is likely to be carried to the greatest extremity; -and whereas it becomes all public bodies, as well as private persons, to -reverence the providence of God, and look up to him as the Supreme -Disposer of all events, and the Arbiter of the fate of nations; -therefore _Resolved_, that it be recommended to all the United States, -as soon as possible, to appoint a day of solemn fasting and -humiliation; to implore of Almighty God the forgiveness of the many sins -prevailing among all ranks, and to beg the countenance and assistance of -his providence in the prosecution of the present just and necessary war. -The congress do also, in the most solemn manner, recommend to all the -members of the United States, and particularly the officers, civil and -military, under them, the exercise of repentance and reformation; and, -further, require of them the strict observation of the articles of war, -and particularly that part of the said articles which forbids profane -swearing and all immorality, of which all such officers are desired to -take notice."[46] - -We left Washington on the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware--his army -greatly reduced by the return of numbers to their homes, and depressed -by a long and disheartening retreat before an exulting foe. Nor would -the Americans have now been permitted to pause in safety, had the -British commander succeeded in procuring the means necessary to make -the passage of the river. Finding his efforts for this purpose, -however, fruitless, he began his preparations for retiring into -winter-quarters. The main body of the army was therefore cantoned -between the Delaware and the Hackensack: about four thousand men -occupied positions between Trenton and Mount Holly, and strong -detachments lay at Princeton, Brunswick, and Elizabethtown. The object -of this dispersion over so wide an extent of country, was to -intimidate the people, and thus prevent the possibility of recruiting -for the continental service; while in the spring these forces could be -immediately concentrated, and it was then proposed to put an easy -conclusion to all rebellious contumacy. - -The desperate condition of his country's fortunes now pressed with -saddening weight upon the mind of Washington, and he resolved, if -possible, to retrieve misfortune by some daring enterprise. To such an -enterprise he was the more inclined, since, with the exception of about -fifteen hundred effectives, his whole force would be entitled in a few -days to its discharge. Having formed his plan--an attack upon the -British posts on the Delaware--he proceeded to put it in execution. - -[Illustration: Battle of Trenton.] - -Early in the morning of the 26th of December, 1776, the main body of -the American army, twenty-four hundred strong, and headed by -Washington in person, crossed the river at M'Konkey's ferry, about -nine miles above Trenton. The night was tempestuous with rain and -sleet, and the river encumbered with quantities of floating ice, so -that the passage, although begun soon after midnight, was not fully -effected until three o'clock, and one hour more elapsed before the -march could be commenced. The Americans moved in two divisions along -the roads leading to the town, and their operations were so well -combined, and executed with such precision, that the two attacks on -the British outposts were made within three minutes of each other. -The pickets attempted resistance, but were almost immediately driven -in upon the main body, which was forming hurriedly in line. Colonel -Rawle, their commander, soon after fell, mortally wounded; the -confusion of the soldiery became irremediable; and, after a loss of -about twenty killed, one thousand men laid down their arms, and -surrendered their munitions and artillery. On the American side, the -loss in battle amounted to only two killed and four wounded; among the -latter, James Monroe, afterwards president of the United States. - -The other parts of this brilliant enterprise were not, however, executed -with the same success. General Irvine had been instructed to cross at -Trenton ferry, and, by securing a bridge below the town, to cut off the -enemy's march along the Bordentown road. Notwithstanding all his -exertions, it was found that the ice had rendered the passage -impracticable; and five hundred fugitives from the disastrous field of -Trenton were thus enabled to escape by a speedy and well-timed retreat. -General Cadwallader was to have crossed at Drink's ferry, and carried -the post at Mount Holly; but the same impediment prevented this movement -also, and he was compelled to return with a part of his infantry which -had effected the passage. Deprived of this important and expected -cöoperation, Washington had, nevertheless, achieved a most critical and -important triumph; he returned to his former position, charged with the -spoils and trophies of his foes; and from that moment, though reverses -frequently dimmed the brilliancy of the prospect, hope never again -deserted the cause of American independence. - -Having secured the Hessian prisoners on the Pennsylvania side of the -Delaware, Washington rëcrossed the river two days after the action, and -took possession of Trenton. Generals Mifflin and Cadwallader, who lay at -Bordentown and Crosswix with three thousand six hundred militia, were -ordered to march up in the night of the 1st of January, to join the -commander-in-chief, whose whole effective force, including this -accession, did not exceed five thousand men. The detachments of the -British army, which had been distributed over New Jersey, now assembled -at Princeton, and were joined by the army from Brunswick, under Lord -Cornwallis. From this position, the enemy advanced towards Trenton in -great force, on the morning of the 2d of January; and, after some slight -skirmishing with troops detached to harass and delay their march, the -van of their army reached Trenton about four in the afternoon. On their -approach, General Washington retired across the Assumpinck, a rivulet -that runs through the town; and by some field-pieces, posted on its -opposite banks, compelled them, after attempting to cross in several -places, to fall back out of the reach of his guns. The two armies, -kindling their fires, retained their positions on opposite sides of the -rivulet, and kept up a cannonade till night. - -The situation of the American general at this moment was extremely -critical. Nothing but a stream, fordable in many places, separated his -army from an enemy, in every respect his superior. If he remained in -his present position, he was certain of being attacked the next -morning, at the hazard of the entire destruction of his little army. -If he should retreat over the Delaware, the ice in that river not -being firm enough to admit a passage upon it, there was danger of -great loss--perhaps of a total defeat: the Jerseys would be in full -possession of the enemy; the public mind would be depressed; -recruiting would be discouraged; and Philadelphia would be within the -reach of General Howe. In this extremity, he boldly determined to -abandon the Delaware; and, by a circuitous march along the left flank -of the enemy, fall into their rear at Princeton, which was known to be -occupied by three British regiments.[47] - -About sunrise, at a short distance from the town, they encountered two -of these regiments, marching forward in order to cöoperate in the -expected battle, and a warm engagement immediately commenced. The -American general was well aware that the existence of his country hung -suspended in the scale of victory; and he exerted himself as one who -knew the importance of the object, and felt that success depended on -his efforts. Wherever the fire was hottest, or the press of battle -most fearful, Washington was sure to be found, guiding the thunders of -war, and animating all by his language and example. At length, the -British line was broken, and the two regiments separated. Colonel -Mawhood, with the division in the van, pushed rapidly forward for the -main army; while the fifty-fifth, cut off from this point of support, -fled in confusion across the fields to Brunswick. The Americans now -pressed the remaining regiment, which at first attempted a defence in -the college; but this was soon abandoned, and those who were not -captured, escaped only by precipitate flight. The British loss -amounted to one hundred killed and three hundred prisoners; the -conquerors had to lament the death of General Mercer, an experienced -officer, much respected by the commander-in-chief. - -"The battles of Trenton and Princeton, though similar in their -outlines, were very different in point of conception and execution. -The attack upon Trenton was a blow struck against an enemy in -position, which admitted, therefore, of every advantage of preparation -on the part of the assailants. The battle of Princeton belonged to a -higher and more elaborate order of tactics. The American forces were -already engaged with a superior army, commanded by an officer of -eminent reputation; and the change of plan was wholly contrived and -executed with the enemy in front. It was entirely due to the prompt -genius, and fertile resources of Washington, that his army was -extricated from so perilous an exposure, and enabled to attack the -enemy's rear with such advantage, as to leave it no choice but -surrender or flight. A military critic, contemplating these -inspirations with a soldier's eye, can easily appreciate the feelings -of the great Frederick, when he sent a sword to the American -commander, 'as a gift from the world's oldest general to its _best_.'" - -As a natural result of these unexpected manoeuvres, the British -officers were thrown into a state of uncertainty, which gave to their -subsequent operations an unusual character of timidity. The distant -roll of the American artillery at Princeton, first announced to Lord -Cornwallis the danger of his rear, and the escape of his active -adversary. Alarmed for the safety of his magazines, the British -commander instantly broke up from the Assumpinck, and commenced a -forced march upon New Brunswick; moving with such celerity as nearly -to overtake the American rear at Princeton. On the other hand, Sir -William Howe drew in all his forces, by concentration in the -neighborhood of Amboy and Brunswick, and abandoned all hope of -preventing the recruiting service by overawing the whole extent of the -country. Washington, finding the surprise of the stores impossible, -moved northward into the highlands of Jersey, in order to afford some -relief to the fatigues of his troops; for long and severe exposure to -the inclemencies of the winter, without the usual protections, had -produced sickness, and even complaint. It was finally considered -necessary to abandon offensive operations, and to put the army under -cover at Morristown. Among other prudent precautions adopted, during -this temporary respite, the commander-in-chief caused the whole army -to be innoculated; an operation then very uncommon in America, but -which enabled him thereafter to defy a disease, which had proved more -fatal than the sword of the enemy. - -The situation of American affairs--though far from brilliant--was much -improved by the late successes. The people of Jersey rose with fresh -spirit, and in a number of small skirmishes inflicted loss upon the -enemy, both in men and stores: new hope was made to animate the public -mind; while congress fanned the flame by judicious and well-timed -incitements to vigorous action. Washington was authorized to raise -sixteen regiments, and in further testimony of the public confidence, -he was invested for six months with almost dictatorial powers in the -conduct of the war. It was, however, found to be impossible to collect -a sufficient force for active operations upon any considerable scale -during the winter. All the hopes of the commander-in-chief were -therefore turned to the next campaign; and in the mean time an active -warfare was carried on with small posts and foraging parties, which -greatly annoyed the British army; while the frequent reports of fresh -successes excited the spirit of the American people. The most earnest -applications were made to the several states, for rëinforcements -enlisted upon longer terms; for, as Washington strongly observed, "to -the short engagements of our troops may be fairly and justly ascribed -almost every misfortune that we have experienced." These -representations produced at last their due impression; and the hope -was abandoned of defending the country by hasty assemblages of -militia, and of carrying on a protracted warfare upon the impulse and -mere foundation of disinterested patriotism. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[46] Journals of Congress. - -[47] Holmes' Annals. - - - - - IX. OCCUPATION OF PHILADELPHIA. - - - POSITION of the Armies--British remove to New York--Sail for the - Chesapeake--Advance towards Philadelphia--American Army also - move towards the same place--Meet at - Brandywine--Battle--Americans repulsed--British enter - Philadelphia--Congress retire to Lancaster--Battle of - Germantown--Americans retreat--Ineffectual attempts to force - the British to evacuate Philadelphia. - -During the winter of 1776-7, the American army encamped, as already -noticed, at Morristown. The royal army occupied Brunswick. Towards the -close of May, the former, which had been augmented by recruits to -almost ten thousand men, removed from Morristown to a fortified -position at Middlebrook. The British soon after left their encampment, -General Howe endeavoring, by various movements, to induce Washington -to quit his stronghold and meet him on equal ground. But the latter, -too prudent and sagacious to risk an engagement with a force so -decidedly superior, determined to remain in his present secure -position, until the designs of the British were more fully developed. - -At length, the British commander, wearied with an unprofitable contest -with an enemy which had the decided advantage as to position, and -satisfied that his adversary would, on no consideration, hazard a -general engagement, resolved to abandon New Jersey, and direct his -attention to the occupation of Philadelphia. - -In pursuance of this plan, the British forces fell back upon Amboy, -and soon after passed over to Staten Island. Leaving Sir Henry Clinton -in command at New York, General Howe, on the 26th of July, put out to -sea with sixteen thousand troops. His destination was carefully -concealed. Unfavorable winds delayed his voyage beyond his wishes; -but, on the 20th of August, he entered Chesapeake bay, and thus -rendered it certain that an attack upon Philadelphia was intended. On -the 25th, the troops were landed at Elk ferry, in Maryland, fifty -miles south of the city. - -Washington, penetrating the designs of his adversary, and yielding to -the wishes of a great portion of the people in that section of the -country, that a general engagement should be hazarded for the defence -of Philadelphia, moved with his army across the Delaware, and -hastening his march, passed through and took a position on the eastern -bank of Brandywine creek, with the hope of giving a check to the -advancing foe. The force of Washington, including irregulars, was now -about eleven thousand men. - -Meanwhile, the British army was advancing towards Philadelphia. "At -day-break, on the morning of the 11th, (Washington having crossed the -Brandywine, and taken position on a height behind that river,) it was -ascertained, that Sir William Howe in person had crossed the -Brandywine at the forks, and was rapidly marching down the north side -of the river to attack the American army. The commander-in-chief now -ordered General Sullivan to form the right wing to oppose the column -of Sir William. General Wayne was directed to remain at Chadd's ford -with the left wing, to dispute the passage of the river with -Knyphausen. General Green, with his division, was posted as a reserve -in the center, between Sullivan and Wayne, to rëinforce either, as -circumstances might require. General Sullivan marched up the river, -until he found favorable ground on which to form his men; his left was -near the Brandywine, and both flanks were covered with thick wood. At -half-past four o'clock, when his line was scarcely formed, the -British, under Lord Cornwallis, commenced a spirited attack. The -action was for some time severe; but the American right, which was not -properly in order when the assault began, at length gave way, and -exposed the flank of the troops, that maintained their ground, to a -destructive fire, and, continuing to break from the right, the whole -line finally gave way. As soon as the firing began, General -Washington, with General Greene's division, hastened towards the -scene of action, but, before his arrival, Sullivan was routed, and the -commander-in-chief could only check the pursuit of the enemy, and -cover the retreat of the beaten troops. During these transactions, -General Knyphausen assaulted the works erected for the defence of -Chadd's ford, and soon carried them. General Wayne, by this time -learning the fate of the other divisions, drew off his troops. General -Washington retreated with his whole force that night to Chester. The -American loss in this battle was about three hundred killed and six -hundred wounded. Four hundred were made prisoners, but these chiefly -of the wounded." Among the latter were two general officers; the -Marquis de la Fayette and General Woodford. Count Pulaski, a Polish -nobleman, fought also with the Americans in this battle. - -[Illustration: General Wayne.] - -"Perceiving that the enemy were moving into the Lancaster road towards -the city, General Washington took possession of ground near the Warren -tavern, on the left of the British, and twenty-three miles from -Philadelphia. The protection of his stores at Reading was one object -of this movement. The next morning, he was informed of the approach of -the British army. He immediately put his troops in motion to engage -the enemy. The advance of the two hostile armies met, and began to -skirmish, when a violent storm came on, which prevented a general -engagement, and rendered the retreat of the Americans absolutely -necessary. The inferiority of the muskets in the hands of the American -soldiery, which had been verified in every action, was strikingly -illustrated in this retreat. The gun-locks being badly made, and the -cartridge-boxes imperfectly constructed, this storm rendered most of -the arms unfit for use, and all the ammunition was damaged. The army -was, in consequence, extremely exposed, and their danger became the -greater, as many of the soldiers were destitute of bayonets. -Fortunately the tempest, which produced such serious mischief to the -Americans, prevented the pursuit of the British. Washington still -continued to make every effort to save the capitol; but Sir William -Howe, having secured the command of the Schuylkill, on the 23d of -September, crossed it with his whole army; on the 26th, he advanced to -Germantown, and, on the succeeding day, Lord Cornwallis, at the head -of a strong detachment, entered Philadelphia in triumph." Congress -removed from the city, and immediately rëassembled at Lancaster. -Fortunately, through the precautions of Washington, the military -stores and deposits at Philadelphia, had been removed up the Delaware, -and were thus prevented from falling into the hands of the enemy. - -[Illustration: Marquis de la Fayette.] - -Passing over some unimportant events, we arrive at the 4th of October, -on the morning of which day, the American army made a spirited attack -upon a strong body of British forces encamped at Germantown, a village -of a single street, beginning about five miles from Philadelphia, and -extending along the road about two miles more. Lord Cornwallis -occupied the city with another division, and a numerous detachment had -marched to Chester, as an escort for a convoy of provisions. A fair -opportunity for assailing the enemy in detail was thus offered to the -enterprise of the American commander, and he was not slow in -perceiving its advantages. He accordingly chose, for his point of -assault, the advanced camp at Germantown, and made masterly -arrangements for surrounding and destroying that exposed division of -the enemy, before rëinforcements could arrive from Philadelphia. - -Never was an attack more auspiciously begun, or the prospect of a -decisive victory, for a time, more flattering. But the British army, -at length, recovering from its first surprise, rallied the fugitives, -and prepared vigorously to assume the offensive. The fortunes of the -day, in consequence, changed, and Washington became convinced of the -necessity of withdrawing his troops from the contest. The disputed -town was therefore evacuated by the Americans. According to the -official returns of the English general, his loss in the battle of -Germantown scarcely exceeded five hundred men. On the side of the -Americans, two hundred were killed, more than five hundred wounded, -and four hundred made prisoners. Congress passed a resolution highly -commending the plan of the battle, and thanking the commander and the -army for their courage and conduct. - -The main object of the American commander was now to compel the -evacuation of Philadelphia, by cutting off the supplies of the British -army. The fleet was effectually prevented from cöoperation by the -obstructions fixed in the channel of the Delaware, and by two small -forts--one called Fort Mifflin, on Mud Island, near the confluence of -the Delaware and Schuylkill, and the other at Red Bank, on the -opposite Jersey shore. Strong parties of militia scoured the whole -country in the neighborhood of the city, for the purpose of enforcing -the resolution of congress, which subjected to martial law all persons -supplying provisions to the enemy. - -Sir William Howe soon felt the increasing difficulties of his -situation, and began to prepare his plans for their forcible removal. -Works were erected against Fort Mifflin, which produced severe -conflicts with Colonel Samuel Smith, who commanded the station. Lord -Howe came up the river, with his ships of war and transports, and -anchored from New Castle to Reedy Island; some frigates being -detached, in advance, to remove the _chevaux de frise_ that encumbered -the channel. Considerable difficulties were encountered in effecting -this object, so that the obstructions below Mud Island were not -cleared until the middle of October, while those, covered by the -American guns, were yet untouched. The capture of the forts was, -therefore, the next object, and it was accordingly attempted by a -combined attack on land and water. - -The importance to the British of effecting the reduction of these -forts, brought into requisition every possible means. On the other -hand, the most determined resistance was made for their defence; but, -at length, the Americans were obliged to yield them up to superior -force; in consequence of which, Sir William Howe was fully secured in -his conquest of Philadelphia, and in the possession of an -uninterrupted communication between his army and fleet. - -The occupation of Philadelphia by the British, was to them an important -movement. Washington deeply regretted the success of the enterprise by -which it fell into their hands; but he had no occasion to reproach -himself in view of the event. He had taken every precaution, and made -every effort to prevent the loss of so important a place. But the -benefits anticipated by the British, were scarcely realized. The -prospects of the Americans were, after all, growing brighter, and events -were hastening on, which were to make those prospects brighter still. - -[Illustration] - - - - - X. SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE. - - - BRITISH project for securing the command of the Hudson, between - New York and Albany--Intrusted to Generals Howe and - Burgoyne--The latter leaves Canada with a strong - Force--Invests and takes Crown Point and Ticonderoga--Affair - of Skenesborough--Fort Edward abandoned--Retreat of Americans - to Stillwater--Battle of Bennington--General Gates supersedes - General Schuyler--Critical condition of Burgoyne--Burgoyne - advances upon Saratoga--Battle of Saratoga--Battle of - Stillwater--Burgoyne retreats--Pursued by the - Americans--Capitulates--Public rejoicings. - -Events of deep interest transpiring in the north, must divert our -attention for a time, from the military operations of the middle states. - -At an earlier day, a scheme had been formed by the British ministers, -of opening a way to New York, by means of their army, which should -descend from the lakes to the banks of the Hudson, and unite in the -vicinity of Albany with the whole, or a part of that commanded by -General Howe, from the south. By means of such a manoeuvre, the -eastern and western provinces would be separated from each other; and -thus, being prevented from furnishing mutual succor, would become an -easy prey to the royal forces. - -Obstacles had prevented the execution of this plan in the latter part -of 1776, as originally intended, but now (the early part of 1777) it -was designed to be prosecuted with a vigor and resolution -corresponding to its importance. - -To General Burgoyne, an officer distinguished for his ability, and -possessed of a competent knowledge of the country, and, moreover, -animated with an ardent thirst for military glory, the expedition from -the north was confided; while General Howe was expected to lead up the -royal forces from the south. - -General Burgoyne arrived at Quebec in the beginning of May; and being -seconded by General Carleton, immediately prepared himself to push -forward the business of his mission. The regular force of General -Burgoyne consisted of upwards of seven thousand British and German -troops, exclusive of a corps of artillery of five hundred. Seven -hundred rangers, under Colonel St. Leger, were added, designed to make -an incursion into the country of the Mohawks, and to seize Fort -Stanwix, otherwise called Fort Schuyler. It was expected, also, that -two thousand Canadians, including hatchmen and other workmen, would -join the army. And, finally, one thousand Indians were induced to -unite in the expedition. A train of artillery seldom equalled, either -in numbers, or in the skill of those who managed it, also accompanied -the army. Able and experienced officers had been selected to direct -its movements. The principal were, Major-general Philips, of the -artillery, who had distinguished himself in the wars of Germany; the -Brigadier-generals Frazer, Powel, and Hamilton, with the Brunswick -Major-general Baron Reidesel, and Brigadier-general Specht. The whole -army shared in the ardor and hopes of its chiefs; not a doubt was -entertained of an approaching triumph, and the conquest of America. - -Thus prepared, General Burgoyne proceeded to encamp near the little -river Bouquet, upon the west bank of Lake Champlain, at no great -distance to the north of Crown Point. Here having addressed his army -in a speech calculated to excite their highest ardor, and issued a -proclamation warning the Americans against any attempt to resist his -progress, upon pain of savage fury, devastation, famine, and kindred -calamities--he moved upon Crown Point, whence soon after he proceeded -with all his force to invest Ticonderoga. - -This fortress at the time was under command of General St. Clair. -Believing his garrison, only three thousand men, one-third of which -were militia, inadequate to resist the attack of so formidable a force -as was making its approach, he ordered its evacuation and the retreat -of his army, having first burned or destroyed every thing which might -prove important to the invading foe. - -The night of the 5th of July was appointed for the evacuation. The -British army was near, and peculiar caution was to be observed, in -order to effect their retreat in safety. General St. Clair led the -van-guard, and Colonel Francis the rear. The soldiers had received -orders to proceed with silence. St. Clair drew out the van-guard at -two in the morning; Francis with the rear left at four. The baggage, -furniture, military stores, and provisions, had been embarked on board -of two hundred batteaux, and five armed gallies. The general -rendezvous was appointed at Skenesborough; the batteaux proceeding up -Wood creek, and the main army taking its route by way of Castleton. - -Under the animating prospect of affecting their retreat in safety, the -army and batteaux were proceeding on their respective routes, when -suddenly flames burst forth from a house which had taken fire on Mount -Independence, and discovered by their glare, to the surprise of the -royalists, the retreating patriots. - -Immediate orders were issued to the English to pursue. General Frazer, -at the head of a strong detachment of grenadiers and light troops, -proceeded by land along the right bank of Wood creek. General Reidesel -rapidly followed with his Germans, to aid him if required. General -Burgoyne embarked on board of several vessels, and gave chase by water. - -"By three in the afternoon, the van of the British squadron, composed -of gun-boats, came up with, and attacked the American gallies, near -Skenesborough falls. In the mean time, three regiments which had been -landed at South bay, ascended and passed a mountain with great -expedition, in order to turn the enemy above Wood creek, to destroy -his works at the falls of Skenesborough, and thus to cut off his -retreat to Fort Anne. But the Americans eluded this stroke by the -rapidity of their flight. The British frigates having joined the van, -the gallies, already hard pressed by the gun-boats, were completely -overpowered. Two of them surrendered, three were blown up. The -Americans now despaired; having set fire to their works, mills, and -batteaux, and otherwise destroyed what they were unable to burn, they -escaped as well as they could up Wood creek, without halting till they -reached Fort Anne. Their loss was considerable; for the batteaux they -burned were loaded with baggage, provisions, and munitions, as -necessary to their sustenance as to military operations. The corps -which had set out by land was in no better situation. The van-guard, -conducted by St. Clair, had arrived at Castleton, thirty miles distant -from Ticonderoga, and twelve from Skenesborough; the rear, commanded -by Colonels Francis and Warner, had rested the night of the 6th, at -Hubbardston, six miles below Castleton, towards Ticonderoga. - -[Illustration: Destruction of Gallies.] - -"At five o'clock in the morning of the 7th, the English column, under -General Frazer, made its appearance. The Americans were strongly posted, -and appeared disposed to defend themselves. Frazer, though inferior in -point of numbers, had great confidence in the valor of his troops. He -also expected every moment to be joined by General Reidesel; and being -apprehensive that the enemy might escape if he delayed, he ordered the -attack immediately. The battle was long and sanguinary. The Americans, -being commanded by valiant officers, behaved with great spirit and -firmness; but the English displayed an equal obstinacy. After several -shocks, with alternate success, the latter began to fall back in -disorder; but their leaders rallied them anew, and led them to a furious -charge with the bayonet; the Americans were shaken by its impetuosity. -At this critical moment, General Reidesel arrived at the head of his -column, composed of light troops and some grenadiers. He immediately -took part in the action. The Americans, overpowered by numbers, fled on -all sides, leaving their brave commander, with many other officers, and -upwards of two hundred soldiers, dead on the field. About the same -number, besides Colonel Hale, and seventeen officers of inferior rank, -were made prisoners. Above six hundred were supposed to be wounded; many -of whom, deprived of all succor, perished miserably in the woods. The -loss of the royal troops, in dead and wounded, amounted to about one -hundred and eighty."[48] - -Upon receiving intelligence of the foregoing disasters, St. Clair -proceeded by a circuitous route to Fort Edward, in order to strengthen -General Schuyler, in anticipation of an attack upon that fortress. -With the accessions thus made, the troops at Fort Edward amounted to -but little more than four thousand, including the militia. The losses -of the Americans had been great, and were severely felt. No less than -one hundred and twenty-eight pieces of artillery, besides a great -quantity of warlike stores--baggage, provisions, particularly -flour--had either fallen into the hands of the enemy, or had been -destroyed. Added to these losses, a general panic had seized upon the -inhabitants, especially on account of the Indians attached to the -British army, and against whose merciless and savage spirit there was -felt to be no security. - -While General Burgoyne was detained at Skenesborough, General -Schuyler was actively engaged in increasing his means of defence. -Trenches were opened, and the roads leading to the fort were in every -possible way obstructed. The militia from various quarters were -summoned to the American standard, and artillery and warlike stores -were forwarded from various points. - -At length, General Burgoyne moved towards Fort Edward; but such were -the obstacles which impeded his movements, that he did not reach the -banks of the Hudson, near Fort Edward, till the 30th of July. - -In the mean while, under a conviction that, after all the efforts made -to render that fort defensible, it could not be maintained against so -formidable a force as was approaching, General Schuyler abandoned it, -and returned lower down to Stillwater, where intrenchments were thrown -up. - -Unexpectedly, General Burgoyne now found himself nearly destitute of -provisions, and from the 30th of July to the 15th of August, the time -was spent in procuring the means of supporting the army, which were -obliged to be brought from Ticonderoga, at the expense of vast toil -and labor. This, it was afterwards alleged, was the great mistake of -General Burgoyne, that he suffered himself, after the occupation of -Skenesborough, and the discomfiture of the enemy's army, to have -attempted the reduction of Fort Edward. Had he then made his way -directly to Albany, he might have secured the possession of that -important place to himself, before the Americans could have rallied. - -While thus posted at Fort Edward, General Burgoyne received intelligence -that large stores of live cattle, corn, and other necessaries belonging -to the Americans, had been deposited at Bennington, a village situated -about twenty miles from the Hudson, in Vermont. Impelled by necessity, -as well as desirous of adding to his military fame, he resolved to -attempt their seizure, the accomplishment of which plan, he entrusted to -Colonel Baum, a German officer of great bravery, and well versed in this -sort of partisan war. - -[Illustration: BURGOYNE'S ADVANCE.] - -Accordingly, with a force of five hundred men and two light -field-pieces, Baum set forth, in proud anticipation of success. The -roads, however, were so heavy, that the detachment was fatally retarded. -The intelligence of their approach preceded them in time to allow -Colonel Stark--a brave, active man, who was in command at Bennington, -with a corps of New Hampshire militia--to assemble a considerable -rëinforcement of Green-mountain Boys from the neighboring towns. Before -Baum made his appearance, the number of Americans had swelled to about -two thousand. On learning the numbers of the enemy, Baum dispatched an -express to Colonel Breyman, who had been detached to support him if -necessary, to urge his march. In the mean while, Baum took post on the -banks of the Walloon creek, to await the arrival of his auxiliaries. - -Stark, however, was not disposed to accommodate his foe by any such -delay; but, taking up his line of march, on the morning of the 6th of -August, advanced towards the place of Baum's encampment. Dividing his -forces into several corps, he gave orders to attack the British on all -sides at once. On their approach, Baum strangely mistaking them for -loyalists coming to his aid, held still. Judge his surprise when they -poured in from all sides a deadly fire upon him! Rallying his men in -the best possible manner, for a time he made a brave resistance; but -before the impetuous charge of the Americans, the English were obliged -to yield. - -The fortune of the day had already been decided, when Colonel Breyman -appeared. He was, in fact, perfectly ignorant of the engagement, and -the fate of his pioneers. What was his consternation, on reaching the -intrenchments of Baum, to find, instead of friends ready to receive -him, the place in possession of an enemy ready to give him battle! -Perceiving his mistake, his troops, though greatly fatigued, were -ordered to the combat; and bravely for a time they fought, and not -without some prospect of success, a part of the Americans being -employed in pillaging. But the momentary advantage which he seemed to -have gained was soon lost; and, leaving all their baggage and one -thousand muskets in the hands of the conquerors, they made a rapid -retreat. The loss of the British in the two engagements, was about two -hundred killed, and five hundred wounded and prisoners. The loss of -the Americans did not much exceed one hundred. - -The exploit of Bennington redounded not only to the credit of General -Stark and his brave troops, but to the good of the country at large. -It roused the drooping spirits of the Americans, it inspired the -troops with confidence, and presented an earnest of still nobler -conquests. In consequence of this defeat, the situation of General -Burgoyne was still more perplexing. The hope of supplying his army -with provisions from the stores of Bennington, was annihilated, and to -other quarters he must look for supplies, without a considerable stock -of which, it would be presumption to attempt offensive operations. - -While these events were transpiring, congress appointed General Gates -to take command of the Northern army, in place of General Schuyler. -The latter was a soldier of great bravery, but was not universally -acceptable to the troops, especially to those from Massachusetts and -other provinces of New England. The former enjoyed a high military -reputation, and his appointment was hailed by the army with joy. Gates -made his appearance at Stillwater on the 21st of August, and took the -command. - -"Meanwhile," says Botta, "General Burgoyne continued in his camp, on -the left bank of the Hudson, where he used the most unremitting -industry and perseverance in bringing stores and provisions forward -from Fort George. Having at length, by strenuous efforts, obtained -about thirty days' provisions, he took a resolution of passing the -river with his army, in order to engage the enemy, and force a passage -to Albany. As a swell of water, occasioned by great rains, had carried -away his bridge of rafts, he threw another, of boats, over the river -at the same place. Towards the middle of September, he crossed with -his army to the right bank of the Hudson, and encamped on the heights -and in the plain of Saratoga, Gates being then in the neighborhood of -Stillwater, about three miles below. The two armies of course faced -each other, and a battle was expected soon to follow." - -On the morning of the 19th, it was reported by Colonel Colburn, who -was watching the enemy, that they were beginning to ascend the hill -towards the American left. General Gates sent Colonel Morgan to oppose -them, and the firing began about noon. The action extended, and, in -three hours, was general, and continued without interruption till -dark. The American troops engaged amounted to three thousand; the -British to three thousand five hundred. - -"For four hours," says General Wilkinson, "the battle fluctuated, like -the waves of a stormy sea, with alternate advantage, without one -moment's intermission. It was truly a gallant conflict, in which -death, by its familiarity, lost its terrors, and certainly a drawn -battle, as night alone terminated it." The British army kept -possession of the field; but they had nothing of which to boast. Their -loss was more than five hundred men, and, among others, Captain Jones, -of the artillery, an officer of great merit; the loss of the -Americans, in killed and wounded, was from three to four hundred; -among the former, were Colonels Adams and Colburn. - -From September 19th to October 7th, was devoted, by the English, to -strengthening their fortifications. The army of Gates, in the mean -while, was continually increasing, and, on a single occasion, was -added to by the arrival of General Lincoln with two thousand men, well -trained and disciplined, from the New England provinces. Attacks on -the British pickets took place almost every night. - -For some time, General Burgoyne had been daily and ardently waiting -for news from General Howe, as to the cöoperation he intended. On the -20th of September, he received a letter from that general, informing -him that, about the 20th of the month, he should attempt the -reduction of Fort Montgomery, situated on the right bank of the -Hudson, and near the Highlands. - -The situation of Burgoyne was now becoming so critical, that he -immediately despatched an express to General Howe, entreating him to -hasten his attack on the fort, if there was any prospect of delay, as he -was provided with necessaries for his army only to the 12th of October, -at which time he would be obliged to move from his present position. - -Near the 1st of October, General Burgoyne found it necessary to lessen -the rations of his soldiers--a measure to which they cheerfully -submitted. The 7th arrived, and no further tidings had reached him of -the movements of General Howe. - -In this situation, General Burgoyne resolved, as the last resort, to -make a bold and, if possible, a decisive attack. - -The battle occurred on the 7th, and a most severe and sanguinary contest -it proved; we have space only for the results. The loss of the British, -in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was about six hundred; that of the -Americans, three hundred and nineteen. Of the British, Brigadier-general -Frazer, a gallant officer, was mortally wounded, and Colonel Breyman -killed. General Arnold, of the Americans, was badly wounded, in the same -leg which had already been shattered under the walls of Quebec. - -Many pieces of artillery, all the baggage of the Germans, and many -warlike stores, fell into the hands of the republicans, who needed them -greatly. They were impatient for the return of day, to renew the battle. -But deplorable and perilous, beyond expression, was the situation of the -British troops; they bore it, however, with admirable temper and -firmness. It was evidently impossible to continue in their present -position, without submitting to a certainty of destruction on the -ensuing day. The Americans, invigorated and encouraged, would take -advantage of the access they had already opened to themselves on the -right, and of other untenable points, to carry every part of the camp, -and completely surround the British army. Burgoyne, therefore, -determined to operate a total change of ground. He executed this -movement with admirable order, and without any loss. The artillery, the -camp, and its appurtenances, were all removed, before morning, to the -heights above the hospital. The British army, in this position, had the -river in its rear, and its two wings displayed along the hills, upon the -right bank. The English expected to be attacked the following day. But -Gates would not expose to the risk of another battle, that victory of -which he was already certain. He intended that time, famine, and -necessity, should complete the work which his arms had so fortunately -commenced. There were frequent skirmishes, however, occurring in the -course of the day, but of little importance. Towards night, the -obsequies of General Frazer were celebrated in the British camp; a -ceremony mournful of itself, and rendered even terrible by the sense of -recent losses, of future dangers, and of regret for the deceased. The -darkness and silence of the night aided the effect of the blaze and roar -of the American artillery; while, at every moment, the balls spattered -the earth upon the face of the officiating chaplain.[49] - -[Illustration: BURGOYNE'S RETREAT] - -The situation of General Burgoyne, after the battle, was gloomy and -critical in the extreme. The fortunes of war were obviously against -him, and no safe alternative presented itself but in retreat. Orders -were accordingly issued for the army to return to Saratoga, six miles -up the river. "The retreat began at nine o'clock; but such was the -badness of the roads, rendered still more difficult by a heavy rain, -which fell that night, and such was the weakness of the teams, for -want of forage, that the English did not reach Saratoga till the -evening of the ensuing day; the soldiers were harassed with fatigue -and hunger. The hospital, with three hundred sick and wounded, and a -great number of wheel-carriages, were abandoned to the enemy. The -English, as they retired, burned the houses, and destroyed whatever -they could use no longer." - -From the moment that General Gates learned the movements of the enemy, -his plan was formed--to follow up his success by a vigorous pursuit, -pushing the contest until they should surrender their arms as a -conquered foe. - -Accordingly, putting his army in motion, as early as was practicable, -he followed. The only hope which now inspired Burgoyne was, that he -might effect a passage to Fort Edward, and in that fastness sustain -himself till succor could arrive from the south. But when the -intelligence arrived, as it did at the moment of his deepest -perplexity, that that fortress was in possession of the Americans, he -saw he must relinquish all hope of saving himself by his own efforts. - -The condition of the British army was indeed deplorable. "The troops, -worn down by a series of hard toil, incessant effort, and stubborn -action, abandoned by Indians and Canadians, the whole army reduced by -repeated and heavy losses of many of their best men and most -distinguished officers, from ten thousand combatants to less than five -thousand fighting men, of whom little more than three thousand were -English. In these circumstances, and in this state of weakness, -without a possibility of retreat, they were invested by an army of -four times their own number, whose position extended three parts in -four of a circle round them--who refused to fight from a knowledge of -their own condition--and who, from the nature of the ground, could not -be attacked in any part. In this helpless situation, obliged to be -constantly on their arms, while a continued cannonade pervaded all the -camp, and even rifle and grape-shot fell in every part of their lines, -the troops of Burgoyne retained their ordinary constancy, and, while -sinking under a hard necessity, they showed themselves worthy of a -better fate. Nor could they be reproached with any action or word, -which betrayed a want of temper or fortitude. - -"At length, no succor appearing, and no rational ground of hope of any -kind remaining, an exact account of the provisions was taken on the -morning of the thirteenth, when it was found that the whole stock -would afford no more than three days' bare subsistence for the army. -In such a state, it was alike impossible to advance or to remain as -they were; and the longer they delayed to take a definite resolution, -the more desperate became their situation. Burgoyne, therefore, -immediately called a council of war, at which not only the generals -and field-officers, but all the captains of companies were invited to -assist. While they deliberated, the bullets of the Americans whistled -around them, and frequently pierced even the tent, where the council -was convened. It was determined, unanimously, to open a treaty, and -enter into a convention with the American general." - -On the night of the 15th, the articles of capitulation were settled. -The morning of the 17th was appointed as the time on which they were -to be signed. - -That night (15th) intelligence, by a special messenger, reached the -English camp, that General Clinton had reduced Fort Montgomery, and was -then rapidly marching to their relief. This added to the suffering of -the conquered Burgoyne. Forthwith, he summoned a council of war, and to -his discredit--the only apology for which is to be found in the deep -mortification felt by a proud and ambitious soldier to -surrender--proposed to retreat, and once more try the fortunes of -combat, in the hope that Clinton might arrive in season to their relief. -But his officers, with stricter notions of propriety, were of the -opinion that, as their faith had been pledged, the honor of the English -character required a fulfillment of the articles of capitulation. - -Meanwhile, Gates, apprised of the nature of the intelligence -received, calmly waited for the arrival of the 17th, on the morning of -which he proceeded to form his troops in the order of battle; which -done, he dispatched a messenger to General Burgoyne, to inform him -that the appointed hour had arrived, and he must either sign the -articles, or prepare himself for battle. - -Deeply as the latter regretted submission, he was fully sensible that -circumstances demanded it, and therefore proceeded to sign the -articles, which, in substance, were as follows: - -"That the army should march out of the camp with all the honors of war -and its camp artillery, to a fixed place, where they were to deposit -their arms and leave the artillery; to be allowed a free embarkation -and passage to Europe, from Boston, upon condition of their not -serving again in America during the present war; the army not to be -separated, particularly the men from the officers; roll-calling, and -other duties of regularity, to be permitted; the officers to be -admitted on parole, and to wear their sidearms; all private property -to be retained, and the public delivered upon honor; no baggage to be -searched or molested; all persons, of whatever country, appertaining -to, or following the camp, to be fully comprehended in the terms of -capitulation, and the Canadians to be returned to their own country, -liable to its conditions." - -On the day on which the capitulation took place, the American army -numbered nearly fifteen thousand men, ten thousand of whom were regular -troops; the English troops amounted to five thousand seven hundred and -ninety-one, of whom two thousand four hundred and twelve were Germans, -and three thousand three hundred and seventy-nine were English. - -The munitions of war, which by the capitulation came into possession -of the Americans, were, besides being numerically great, exceedingly -valuable. They consisted of a fine train of brass artillery, amounting -to forty-two pieces, of different sorts and sizes, four thousand six -hundred muskets, and an immense quantity of bombs, balls, and other -implements of war. - -Such was the result of this expedition of the British, on the banks of -the Hudson. To the English, it was most unexpected and disastrous; to -the Americans, joyous and fortunate. It had been planned with ability, -and had General Howe fulfilled the part expected of him, the result -might have been reversed. But his failure to cöoperate, as contemplated -in the plan, left General Burgoyne but little chance of success. - -The victory won, General Gates forthwith dispatched Colonel Wilkinson -to convey the happy tidings to congress. On entering the hall of -session, he approached the speaker, and said: "The whole British army -has laid down arms at Saratoga; our own, full of vigor and courage, -expect your orders; it is for your wisdom to decide where the country -may still have need of their services." - -"To General Gates and his army, congress, by resolution, expressed their -thanks. To the former, in addition, they voted a gold medal, in -commemoration of the proud achievement. On one side of it, was the bust -of the general, with these words around: _Horatio Gates, Duci strenuo_; -and in the middle, _Comita Americana_. On the reverse, Burgoyne was -represented in the attitude of delivering his sword; and, in the back -ground, on the one side and on the other, were seen the two armies of -England and America. At the top were these words: _Salum regionum -septentrion_; and at the foot, _Hoste ad Saratogam in deditione -accepto_. Die XVII. Oct. MDCCLXXVII. It would be difficult to describe -the transports of joy which the news of this event excited among the -Americans. They began to flatter themselves with a still more happy -future; no one any longer entertained a doubt of independence. All -hoped, and not without reason, that a success of this kind would at -length determine France, and the other European powers that waited for -her example, to declare themselves in favor of America." - -To the American people at large, the news of the victory conveyed the -most heartfelt joy. The cloud, which had long rested upon their hopes, -seemed to be breaking away, and to presage the dawn of a day for which -for years they had prayed and struggled; but which, with all their -efforts, hopes, and prayers, had, until now, appeared distant and -doubtful. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[48] Botta. - -[49] General Frazer was wounded about four o'clock in the afternoon, -and died the following morning at eight. At six in the evening he was -buried--all the generals attending his funeral, and marching to an -eminence where his remains were deposited. The Americans, entirely -ignorant of the nature of the collection, directed their artillery -towards the British. Fortunately, no lives were lost, and no one was -wounded. General Gates, on learning the object of the assemblage, -expressed his deep regret at the firing. - - - - - XI. PROGRESS OF THE WAR. - - - STATE of affairs in England--Treaty with France--Movements in the - British Parliament--Overtures to Congress--Rejection of - them--Battle of Monmouth--Disastrous Retreat of General - Lee--Fortunate interposition of Washington--His rebuke of - Lee--Tremendous Battle--Sufferings of the Armies--Renewal of - the Contest--Midnight Retreat of the British army--Subsequent - Trial and Dismission of General Lee. - - 1. STATE OF AFFAIRS IN ENGLAND. - -The effect produced by the surrender of General Burgoyne, upon the -British cabinet and the nation at large, was as grievous and -depressing, as it had been joyous and animating to congress and the -American people. The most brilliant success had been anticipated by -the former; the most ignominious result had occurred. The pride of the -nation was humbled, and those who had disapproved of the war, were now -loud in their censures of ministers. - -Already had the war cost England twenty thousand men and thirty -millions of money. But more of both were now needed. Reluctant to ask -parliament for a fresh levy, the ministers, during the recess of that -body, near the beginning of the year 1778, dispatched agents into the -different provinces of the kingdom, to spur the inhabitants to enlist, -and to furnish voluntary contributions to carry on the war. - -The success of this plan was only partial--far less than anticipated, -or the exigencies of the case required. The citizens of Liverpool and -Manchester, however, responded to the call, and agreed to raise and -equip a regiment of one thousand each. Edinburgh and Glasgow followed -their example. London, as a city, peremptorily refused to raise -troops--but the friends of the government raised the sum of twenty -thousand pounds. - - - 2. TREATY WITH FRANCE. - -Not long after the declaration of independence, commissioners were -authorized to bring the subject of a recognition before the court of -Versailles, and to urge the measure by such considerations as existed -in the case. This they had done, and continued to do, so long as any -prospect of success existed. At length, despairing of obtaining their -object, they were about to abandon further effort, when the joyful -intimation was communicated to Dr. Franklin, that a treaty, involving -the desired recognition, had been determined upon by the king and his -ministers. On the 6th of February, 1778, this measure, most auspicious -to American interests, was concluded at Paris. It was signed on behalf -of the king by M. Gerard; and for the United States by Benjamin -Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee. The treaty stipulated--a thing -until then unheard of on the part of a king--that the essential and -express object of the alliance was to maintain effectually the -_liberty_, _sovereignty_, and _independence of the United States_. - -[Illustration: American Commissioners before the Court of Louis XVI.] - -On the 21st of March, the American commissioners were with great pomp -and ceremony, introduced by Count de Vergennes before the throne, -whereon was seated the king, Louis XVI., in the midst of the grandees of -his court. The honor was one which was conferred only when the king -gave audience to the ambassadors of sovereigns and independent states. - -On the 2d of May, the French frigate _La Sensible_, having on board -the important treaty, reached the American shores. Congress was -forthwith convened, and the treaty was ratified. The most heartfelt -joy pervaded the country. The army, drawn up in the order of battle, -received the intelligence with exultation not to be described. - - - 3. MOVEMENTS IN THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT. - -Before the treaty between France and the United States was made -public, the British ministry had knowledge of its existence. Justly -alarmed, they felt the necessity of adopting some measures by which to -bring the war to a close, without a collision with France. What those -measures should be, was a question on which a diversity of opinion -existed in the cabinet. It is asserted, that some of the members, in -secret session, proposed at once to acknowledge the independence of -the United States, and to conclude a treaty with them. But on the 19th -of February, Lord North introduced a resolution into parliament, -admitting that the parliament could not in future impose any tax or -duty on the colonies of North America, except such only as should be -deemed beneficial to commerce, and the product even of those to be -collected under the authority of the respective colonies, and to be -employed for their use and advantage. He proposed, besides, that five -commissioners should be appointed, empowered to adjust with any -assembly or individual whatsoever, the differences existing between -Great Britain and her colonies; it being understood, however, that the -compacts were not to take effect till ratified by the parliament. - -To the surprise and indignation of the friends of the war, the bill -passed; and, shortly after, the king appointed for commissioners the -Earl of Carlisle, William Eden, George Johnstone, and the -commander-in-chief of the English army in America. The three first -sailed from St. Helena for America on the 21st, on board the ship -Trident. - -In the beginning of June, the commissioners arrived, and on the 9th, -repaired to Philadelphia. Soon after, they made a communication to -congress, explanatory of their object, and requested the privilege of -opening a conference with that body, or with some of its members, -either at New York, or some other place which congress should please -to appoint. - -The serious consideration of congress was given to the overture, and -on the 17th of June, their answer was returned. In substance it was, -that they would be ready to enter upon the consideration of peace and -commerce, not inconsistent with treaties already subsisting, when the -king of Great Britain should demonstrate a sincere disposition for -that purpose; of which no other proof could be admitted but that of an -explicit acknowledgment of the independence of the United States, or -the withdrawal of his fleets and armies. - -Thus terminated the negotiation. America, steady to her purpose, would -not listen to any proposal which did not involve the recognition of her -independence. Great Britain was yet too proud to accede to such terms, -and consequently, the idea of accommodation was abandoned, and the most -vigorous measures were adopted to wage war against her ancient ally and -her disobedient child, whose fortunes had now become linked together. - -It may be added in this place, that, subsequent to the failure of the -commissioners in effecting the object of their mission, commenced a -system of intrigue with several distinguished persons, and especially -with members of congress, to whom one at least addressed confidential -letters, with the hope of winning them to the royal cause. Some of -these letters and propositions at length were made public. General -Reed, a member of congress, stated that a proposition had been made to -him by Johnstone, through a _lady_, that if he would promote the -rëunion of the two countries, he should have any office in the -colonies which he might name. His reply was worthy of a Christian and -a patriot: "_I am not worth purchasing; but such as I am, the king of -Great Britain is not rich enough to do it_." - - - 4. BATTLE OF MONMOUTH. - -During the winter of 1777-8, the British army had occupied -Philadelphia; the winter-quarters of the American army were at Valley -Forge. On the opening of the spring, in consequence of the alliance of -France and America, orders were issued to the British general to -evacuate Philadelphia, and concentrate the royal force in the city and -harbor of New York. In pursuance of this resolution, the royal army, -now under command of Sir Henry Clinton--General Howe having returned -to England--left Philadelphia, and on the 18th of June, passed the -Delaware into New Jersey. - -Washington immediately quitted his camp, and hung upon the British -army, watching a favorable opportunity to offer battle. On the 27th, -the British army encamped on some high grounds in the neighborhood of -Freehold court-house, in the county of Monmouth. - -On the morning of the 28th, General Lee was ordered to take command of -five thousand men, and commence the attack. - -At first, he declined the honor; but judging, on reflection, that such -a procedure would redound to his discredit, he now sought the command -at the hands of Lafayette, to whom, on his declining it, it had been -tendered. - -Lee immediately put his troops in motion for the plain of Monmouth, -some four or five miles distant. On approaching it, the British were -already in motion. The army was in advance of the baggage-train, which -covered miles in extent. The morning was clear, and the sun poured -down his heat so fervidly, as seemingly to cause all nature to faint. -Before noon, the mercury of the thermometer reached ninety-six. Man -and beast panted for breath. The sand-plain became parched as an -oven, and water was needed at almost every step. The sufferings of men -and horses early became nearly insupportable. - -Moreover, it was the _Sabbath_--that day when the hum of life is -ordinarily hushed, and when men are commonly with their families in -the house of God. We may pause, we trust, to say, that that Sabbath, -and the God of that Sabbath, would have been more honored--nor do we -believe that the patriot cause would have suffered in the sequel--had -Washington, instead of sending out a hostile corps--had he and his -troops spent it in paying divine honors to the God of our fathers. It -had been still better, could hostile armies have that day grounded -their arms, and of that plain made a sanctuary, and there, in the -exercise of that friendship and love which the gospel enjoins, -worshiped together at a common altar, and before a common Father. But -the latter was not to be expected--perhaps, not the former. Other -thoughts were occupying those bosoms, and a far different spectacle -was that day to be witnessed. Let us not judge severely. We will hope -that the honor of God did animate those sons of the Pilgrims. We know -that they were true patriots, and that they were fighting for their -altars and their firesides. Nor is it to be doubted that they would -have preferred the calm and delightful worship of God, with their -families, in the sanctuaries of their own quiet villages. But they -were summoned to the field of battle, and here, now, we find them soon -employed amid scenes of carnage and death. - -Wayne was that day in command under Lee. On seeing the British -train--horses and waggons, miles in extent--following the army in -advance, the former, with his detachment, hastened rapidly forward, -with the intent to cut off and capture the train. Meanwhile, Lee, with -the rest of his division, took a more circuitous route, designing to -attack the corps which had the train in charge. Most unexpectedly, -however, just as he was ready to commence the charge, intelligence was -received that the entire British army--which was on the retreat, but -which had had intimation of Lee's advance--had wheeled about, and were -in full march to protect its rear. - -Lee had reluctantly taken the command; he was in ill-humor, and, -moreover, was probably now appalled at the prospect before him. At all -adventures, greatly to his discredit, for as yet he had not commenced -action, he ordered a retreat. This movement fell upon Wayne like a -thunderbolt, who was himself compelled, by reason of it, to fall back, -at the hazard of his entire command. - -Washington was still at a distance with the remainder of the army; but -was rapidly approaching the theatre of the contest. The distant -cannonade impelled him forward. The troops, partaking of his own -enthusiasm, if not of his anxiety, laid aside knapsacks--coats--all -that encumbered, and amidst dust and heat pressed on to the encounter. -At this moment, a horseman was seen approaching from the immediate -battle-field. He pressed his horse, and made announcement to -Washington that Lee's division, in utter disorder, was in full -retreat. For a moment, the latter seemed petrified with astonishment; -and the next moment--for it seems he had for some reason -dismounted--vaulting upon his saddle, he sprang forward, and like a -winged arrow directed his way to the scene of confusion and flight. -The instant he was seen by the troops in retreat, "The brave -fellows"--we use the stirring language of Headley--"the brave fellows, -who had not been half beaten, sent up a shout that was heard the whole -length of the line, and '_Long live Washington!_' rent the air. -Flinging a hasty inquiry to Osgood, as to the reason, who replied, -'_Sir, we are fleeing from a shadow;_' he galloped to the rear, and, -reining up his horse beside Lee, bent on him a face of fearful -expression, and thundered in his ear, as he leaned over his -saddle-bow, '_Sir, I desire to know what is the reason, and whence -arises this disorder and confusion!_' It was not the words, but the -smothered tone of passion in which they were uttered, and the manner, -which was severe as a blow, that made this rebuke so terrible. -Wheeling his steed, he spurred up to Oswald's and Stewart's regiments, -saying, 'On you I depend to check this pursuit;' and riding along the -ranks, he roused their courage to the highest pitch by his stirring -appeals; while that glorious shout of '_Long live Washington!_' again -shook the field. The sudden gust of passion had swept by; but the -storm that ever slumbered in his bosom was now fairly up; and, -galloping about on his splendid charger, his tall and commanding form -towering above all about him, and his countenance lit up with -enthusiasm, he was the impersonation of all that is great and heroic -in man. In a moment, the aspect of the field was changed--the -retreating mass halted--officers were seen hurrying about in every -direction, their shouts and orders ringing above the roar of the -enemy's guns. The ranks opened--and, under the galling fire of the -British, wheeled, and formed in splendid order. Washington then rode -back to Lee, and, pointing to the firm front he had arrayed against -the enemy, exclaimed, 'Will you, sir, command in that place?' He -replied, 'Yes.'--'Well,' then said he, 'I expect you to check the -enemy immediately.' 'Your orders shall be obeyed,' replied the stung -commander, 'and I will not be the first to leave the field.' The -battle then opened with renewed fury, and Washington hurried back, to -bring his own division into the field." - -This took time, as the division was still at a distance. Meanwhile, -however, the retreat was partially staid. The troops once more -rallied. They stood--they fought--fought with unwonted desperation. -But the overpowering legions of the enemy pressed hard. Their shouts -were deafening--their cannonade appalling and destructive. Lee now -attempted to his utmost power to withstand the impetuous shock--but it -was entirely beyond the compass of his troops. They were again giving -way. A few moments longer, and all would be lost. At this critical -juncture, Hamilton appeared, seemingly sent as a messenger from -above--crossing the field--his charger covered with foam, and his -hair streaming in the wind--Hamilton appeared, and riding up to Lee, -said to him: "_My dear general, let us die here rather than retreat._" - -What would have been the effect of this soul-stirring and patriotic -address of Hamilton, had no succor been at hand, we pretend not to say. -They were words of comfort and assurance; and, if necessary to prevent a -dishonorable retreat, there doubtless Hamilton, and perhaps now Lee -himself, would have surrendered up life. But succor was at hand. -Washington with his division had arrived. No time was lost. He issued -his orders, and they were obeyed. Sterling, Knox, Wayne, brought up -their several commands, and soon the battle was raging, and the whole -plains shook under the clangor of arms and the thunder of artillery. For -a time, few such spectacles were seen during the Revolutionary war. The -heat of the day, we have already said, was intense. Water was not to be -had, or rather there was no time to quench parched lips, had there been -any. Their thirst added to the sufferings of the troops immeasurably. -The tongues of the soldiers became so inflamed and swollen, as not to be -retained in their mouths. Yet they fought, and fought with a desperation -increased by the very sufferings they endured. The British suffered from -the same causes, and fought with the same desperation. And for a time, -it was indeed doubtful whose cause would triumph. But the batteries of -Knox and Sterling, like volcanoes, hurled death and destruction on every -side; while the impetuous Wayne with his columns, torrent-like, spread -confusion and dismay in every step of their progress. There was a -concentration of effort--and that effort, doubtless the more earnest and -effective, for the reason of the previous unwarranted and pusillanimous -retreat. - -In turn, the British themselves now retreated, and encamped on the -spot which Lee's division had occupied in the morning. They had fought -with unwonted zeal. Officers and soldiers were exhausted. They coveted -rest. They needed repose. It was so with the Americans. "Even -Washington's powerful frame was overcome by the heat and toil he had -passed through; and as he stood begrimed with the dust and the smoke -of the battle, and wiped his brow, the perspiration fell in streams -from his horse, which looked as if it had been dragged through a muddy -stream, rather than rode by a living man." - -Yet, wearied as he was--wearied and worn down as were his officers and -men--Washington could not consent so to terminate the day. A further -duty remained ere he slept. That duty was to dislodge the enemy from -the position which he had taken. His officers--his army sympathized -with him; they were willing to put forth one more effort to secure all -that they had promised themselves, and which in the morning had seemed -so practicable. - -Two brigades were therefore ordered to attack the British at their -post--on the right and left. The battle was now renewed, and renewed -with all the spirit and determination of an earlier hour. It -continued, however, but for a brief period. The sun was fast -descending when the second battle began, and had set ere the several -corps had really attained their proposed positions. It was fortunate, -probably, that the contest was interrupted. Both armies had done -enough. Had Washington succeeded in dislodging the enemy, his troops -were too much spent to have followed up the victory. - -There they now paused. Darkness soon set in. Too much overcome even to -administer to the wants of nature, the troops of both armies flung -themselves upon the parched ground, and slept. They slept in sight of -each other, and they slept strong and deep. With the morning light, -Washington had decided to renew the battle. He, therefore, instead of -retiring to his marquee, wrapped himself in his cloak, and sunk upon -the earth in the midst of his soldiers. - -At the dawn of morning, Washington rose, and with his recruited -followers was about to follow up the advantages of the preceding day. -But the enemy had retired. Aware of the peril of his condition, the -British commander had roused his army at midnight, and ordered a -retreat. And so silently was that retreat effected, and so soundly had -the American army slept, officers and men, that no one of the thousands -which composed it, had any suspicion of the retreat, till the light of -day revealed it. Washington was indeed disappointed; but the departure -of the enemy, if it was not in all respects equal to a victory, gave -practical assurance that Washington had suffered no defeat. - -There were doubtless other engagements during the Revolutionary struggle -more brilliant, and of greater influence, as to the final result, than -the battle of Monmouth. But it is doubtful whether there was a single -other one in which there was a higher exhibition of firmness, or the -practice of greater self-denial, or the endurance of greater suffering. - -Never did commander appear more nobly than did Washington. But for his -presence at the critical moment--his quick perception of the danger, -and the means of averting it--his celerity in issuing his orders--his -manly but terrific rebuke of Lee--and perhaps more than all, his -undaunted bravery, and his firm stand when all were flying from a -pursuing foe--all would indeed have been lost. - -For twelve long hours were the respective armies that day engaged. -They numbered about twenty thousand men. They were on a plain where -little or no water could be obtained, and with a thermometer standing -the whole day at nearly one hundred degrees. Not a few died from -sun-stroke--and still more from excessive fatigue. The cry for -"_water! water!_" from the wounded and the dying, was sufficient to -overcome the stoutest heart. - -It is not necessary to dwell longer on the particulars of this -remarkable battle. The British troops, as already intimated, left -Washington in occupation of the field. On the following day, finding -his foe gone, he took up his line of march, and by easy stages moved -towards the Hudson. - -It does not belong to the plan of our work to pursue the history of -the difficulty which that day arose between Washington and Lee, -growing out of the retreat of the latter. That retreat was most -unexpected, dishonorable, and needless. So Washington evidently deemed -it, and this was the occasion of his severe rebuke of that officer in -the field. It has been said that Washington was profane. That he was -greatly excited, calm as he usually was, admits of no question. That -he was profane, is without proof. Weems says, as quoted by Headley, -that as he rode up, he exclaimed, "For God's sake! General Lee, what -is the cause of this ill-timed prudence?"--to which the latter -replied, "No man can boast a larger share of that rascally virtue than -your excellency." What reliance, if any, is to be placed upon the -above authority, the writer pretends not to say. To an inquiry once -made of Lafayette, at La Grange, by Dr. Sparks, what the precise -expression of Washington was, he replied, that although near him at -the moment, he could not have told an hour subsequently. He thought, -however, that it was not so much the expression itself, as the manner -in which it was uttered, that stung the retreating general. That -manner was terrible. The wrath of Washington was without disguise. - -But the results of the day served to meliorate the feelings of -Washington towards Lee, whatever opinion he might have continued to -entertain of his unworthy conduct. It is said that he rëinstated him -in his old command; and had Lee reciprocated the feelings and kindness -of Washington, the unpleasant occurrence might have passed, and have -been forgotten. But Lee was hot-tempered; and, under the smart of -rebuke, addressed a most ill-judged and "saucy" letter to Washington, -in which he demanded a trial by court-martial. Washington, in his -reply, accused Lee of a breach of orders, in not attacking the enemy; -and a breach of good behavior, unbecoming an officer of his rank, in -so hasty and cowardly a retreat. Lee rejoined, and in a manner -entirely in accordance with his previous communication. "You cannot," -he wrote, "afford me greater pleasure, sir, than in giving me an -opportunity of showing to America the efficiency of her respective -servants. I trust that the temporary power of office, and the trivial -dignity attending it, will not be able, by all the mists they can -raise, to effusate the bright rays of truth. In the mean time, your -excellency can have no objection to my retiring from the army." - -In whatever light Lee's previous conduct deserved to be regarded, no -doubt could exist as to the intended insult of Washington conveyed in -the above letter. Suffice it to say, that he was put under immediate -arrest; and in August was tried before a court-martial on three -separate charges, viz: "for disobeying orders, in not attacking the -enemy;" "for making an unnecessary and disorderly retreat;" and "for -disrespect to the commander-in-chief, in two letters." - -Of these charges, with a slight modification of one of them, he was -found guilty, and suspended from the army for twelve months. The -decision was most unexpected and distasteful, as might be supposed, to a -man of Lee's ardent and self-complacential feelings. Washington he never -forgave. Stung by the decision of the court-martial, against that -body--against congress itself--he launched his bitter invectives. At the -expiration of his suspension, and while congress was contemplating his -restoration, he addressed an insulting letter to that body, which -hastened his dismission. We add, only, that he retired to Virginia, -where on a farm he passed the residue of his days. - -[Illustration] - - - - - XII. TREACHERY OF ARNOLD. - - - THE Vulture in the Hudson--Midnight Adventure--Benedict - Arnold--Repairs to Cambridge--Expedition to Canada--Created a - Brigadier-general--Grounds of Complaint--Honorable Conduct in - Connecticut--Appointed to the command at Philadelphia--Charges - preferred against him--Reprimanded by Washington--Plots against - his Country--Correspondence with Sir H. Clinton--Appointed to - the command of West Point--Interview with Andre--Capture of - Andre--Arrival of Washington--Escape of Arnold--Developments of - Arnold's traitorous intentions--Trial and Condemnation of - Andre--Subsequent incidents in the life of Arnold. - -[Illustration: The Vulture.] - -On the night of the 21st of September, 1780, there was lying at anchor -on the Hudson, a few miles below West Point, a British sloop-of-war, -called the _Vulture_. A little before midnight, a boat, with muffled -oars, and rowed by two men, put off from the American shore, and -proceeded with great caution towards the sloop. In the stern of the boat -sat a third man, of more consequence than the oarsmen, and the leader of -the secret expedition. It was a tranquil night; the stars peered out -with unwonted lustre, and the waters moved slowly down the channel. -What object was proposed by this cautious midnight adventure? Was -intelligence sought from the enemy, or was it to be imparted to them? -Was it a patriotic or a traitorous expedition?--The sequel will tell. - -Among the brave and chivalrous men who early engaged in the defence of -American rights, was _Benedict Arnold_. On the occurrence of the -battle of Lexington, he was residing at New Haven, and was commandant -of a company of militia, called the Governor's Guards. - -On the arrival of the news of the above battle at New Haven, citizens -and soldiers, as if moved by a common impulse, assembled on the green. -Fired with indignation, as were others, Arnold proposed to head such -as would volunteer under him, and lead them to the more immediate -scene of action. - -Such was the dispatch of preparation, that the following day, at the -head of sixty volunteers, he was ready to march. - -After reaching Cambridge, for a time Arnold was employed in an -expedition against Ticonderoga. About the time of his return, congress -was contemplating a still more important and hazardous movement against -Canada, under General Schuyler. Believing that essential aid might be -rendered by the way of the Kennebec river, a detachment of troops was -made at Cambridge, the command of which was tendered to Arnold. - -The troops detached for this service amounted to eleven hundred -men--ten companies of musket-men from New England, and three companies -of rifle-men from Virginia and Pennsylvania. The field officers were -Colonel Arnold, Lieutenant-colonels Greene and Enos, and Majors -Bigelow and Meigs. The afterwards-celebrated Daniel Morgan commanded -the riflemen. On the 18th of September, the troops sailed from -Newburyport, and rendezvoused at Fort Western, on the Kennebec, -opposite the present town of Augusta. - -From this point they started, and their hardships and trials began. -No body of troops during the Revolutionary war, if indeed in the -annals of warfare, encountered greater obstacles, or endured more -suffering, than this. The distance traversed was about two hundred -miles, and nearly the whole of it was a howling wilderness. - -[Illustration: Arnold's Expedition through the Wilderness.] - -On the night of the 14th, Arnold with his men crossed the St. Lawrence; -and, ascending the same abrupt precipice which Wolfe had climbed before -him, formed his small corps on the heights, near the memorable Plains of -Abraham. But he soon discovered that neither the number nor condition of -his men would justify him in hazarding an action. Having spent a few -days on the heights, and summoned the town to surrender, without even a -response, he retired twenty miles above Quebec, to wait the arrival of -the troops which were to proceed by the western route, which were now -led by General Montgomery, who had succeeded General Schuyler, in -consequence of the illness of the latter. - -On the 1st of December, Montgomery joined Arnold; and on the morning -of the 31st occurred the memorable assault upon Quebec, in which the -gallant and lamented Montgomery fell. Arnold, not less bold and -intrepid, had his leg-bone severely fractured, and was obliged to be -carried from the ground. The issue was disastrous to the Americans, as -is well known; about sixty being killed, and between three and four -hundred taken prisoners. Notwithstanding his wound and the serious -diminution of his force, Arnold maintained a blockade of the city -during a long and severe Canadian winter. - -As a reward for his persevering efforts in conducting his troops -through the wilderness, and for his gallant conduct in the assault of -Quebec, congress promoted Arnold to the rank of brigadier-general. - -[Illustration: General Lincoln.] - -In February, 1777, congress appointed five additional major-generals. -According to the usual practice in reference to promotions, Arnold -would have been entitled to this honor; but those thus promoted were -all his juniors, and one of them, General Lincoln, was taken from the -militia. To a man like Arnold, ambitious of military glory, such a -neglect could not be otherwise than deeply wounding. In anticipation -of his mortified feelings, Washington addressed a kind and soothing -letter to him, virtually expressing his disapproval of the course of -procedure, and advising Arnold to demean himself with the magnanimity -of a soldier, in the hope that justice would still be done him, and -others, who were similarly neglected. - -Meanwhile, Washington addressed to friends in congress a letter of -inquiry on the subject. To this it was replied, that as each state -claimed a number of general officers, proportioned to the troops it -furnished, and as Connecticut already had two, there existed no -vacancy for another. There was at least plausibility in the reason, -but it seems not to have satisfied Washington; much less could it be -expected to satisfy so sensitive and ambitious a man as Arnold. This -disappointment was probably among the causes which soured the mind of -the latter, and laid the foundation of those corrodings of the heart, -which in after-times led to the utter ruin of his reputation, and came -near effecting the ruin of his country. - -But this was by no means the only ground of Arnold's complaint. -Construing the neglect of congress as an implied censure of his -military conduct in past times--and perhaps the inference was not -entirely without foundation--Arnold resolved to demand of congress an -examination into his conduct. With this object in view, he proceeded -to head-quarters, to solicit of Washington permission to proceed to -Philadelphia. - -Just at the time he was passing through Connecticut, a British force, -consisting of two thousand troops, under the infamous General Tryon, -had landed at Compo, between Fairfield and Norwalk, for the purpose of -penetrating to Danbury, to destroy some public stores, which the -Americans had lodged there. - -Arnold heard of this invasion; and, for the time, honorably foregoing -the object of his journey, and roused by that high military spirit -which in no small degree characterized him, he immediately turned his -course northward, for the purpose of aiding in repelling the foe. - -A militia force of five hundred had been hastily collected by Generals -Wooster and Silliman. These, together with about one hundred -continental troops, Arnold overtook near Reading, on their march -towards Danbury. At Bethel, information was obtained that the town had -been fired, and the public stores destroyed. The next morning, the -generals divided their forces--General Wooster, with two hundred men, -falling in the rear of the enemy, while Arnold and Silliman, with five -hundred (their original force having been augmented), by a rapid -movement, took post in their front at Ridgefield. - -[Illustration: Death of General Wooster.] - -About eleven o'clock, General Wooster overtook the enemy, and attacked -them with great gallantry. Riding to the front of his troops, with a -design of inspiring them with appropriate courage, he cried: "Come on, -my boys! never mind such random shot." But scarcely had he uttered -the words, when a fatal ball pierced his side, and this gallant -general fell. - -Meanwhile, Arnold having reached the north part of the long street at -Ridgefield, barricaded the road with carts, logs, hay, and earth, -presenting a formidable obstruction to the approaching enemy, and no -mean protection to the resisting force. - -[Illustration: Arnold and the British Soldier.] - -"At three o'clock the enemy appeared, marching in a solid column, and -they commenced a heavy fire as they advanced towards the breastwork: it -was briskly returned. For nearly a quarter of an hour, the action was -warm, and the Americans maintained their ground, by the aid of their -barricade, against four times their number, until the British column -began to extend itself, and to stretch around their flanks. This was a -signal for retreat. Arnold was the last man that remained behind. While -alone in this situation, a platoon of British troops, who had clambered -up the rocks on the left flank, discharged their muskets at him. His -horse dropped lifeless; and when it was perceived that the rider did -not fall, one of the soldiers rushed forward with a fixed bayonet, -intending to run him through. Arnold sat unmoved on his struggling -horse, watched the soldier's approach till he was near enough to make -sure his aim, then drew a pistol from his holsters, and shot him dead. -Seizing this critical opportunity, he sprang upon his feet, and escaped -unharmed. So remarkable an exhibition of cool and steady courage, in a -moment of extreme danger, has rarely been witnessed. - -"He rallied his men, and continued to annoy the enemy in their progress. -Being rëinforced the next day, he hung upon their flanks and rear -throughout the whole march to their ships, attacking them at every -assailable point. In a skirmish near Compo, just before the British -embarked, the horse which he rode was shot through the neck, and on all -occasions he exposed himself with his accustomed intrepidity." - -[Illustration: General Arnold.] - -The heroic conduct of Arnold--periling life as a volunteer, and while -smarting under a sense of wrong--was duly appreciated wherever the -exploit was told. Congress, sensible of the merit of the achievement, -immediately promoted him to the rank of major-general; but instead of -ante-dating his commission, that he might take rank with those who -had been raised above him, they left him still _subordinate_ to them. -This was unfortunate, and even inconsistent. Arnold felt the neglect -with still deeper sensibility, and saw in it, as he imagined, an -undeniable proof that the charge of ingratitude which he had brought -against his country was well founded. - -At length, his complaints were referred to the Board of War, and the -charges of his accusers were examined. The board reported that they -were satisfied with the character and conduct of General Arnold. This -report congress confirmed. Indeed, they went further, and presented -him with a horse properly caparisoned, in token of their approbation -of his gallant conduct in resisting the troops under General Tryon. -Had they added to this an equality of rank with the generals who had -been raised over him, Arnold would have been satisfied; but neglecting -this--and the cause was doubtless to be ascribed to the personal -influence of bitter enemies, who could not forget his arrogance and -presumption--he was chagrined, rather than flattered, by the tokens of -approbation he had received--and soured rather than pacified. - -Added to this, Arnold was mortified and exasperated that his accounts -were not fully and promptly allowed by a committee appointed to audit -them. This they could not justly do without much qualification. They -were numerous and large, many debts incurred were without authority, -and vouchers were wanting. The consequence was a general suspicion -that Arnold intended to enrich himself, or meet his private -extravagant expenditures at the public expense. - -Passing over several intervening events, especially the signal success -of General Gates in resisting the progress of General Burgoyne, during -which Arnold acted a part so heroic, as to be honored by Washington with -one of the three sets of epaulettes and sword-knots which had been -presented to him by a gentleman of France, we reach a signal event in -the life of this remarkable man--his appointment by Washington, in -consideration of his disabled condition, to the command of Philadelphia, -following the evacuation of that city by the British. The station was -honorable, and the duties, though delicate, were not severe. - -Several circumstances, about this time, served to weaken his -affections for the patriotic cause. One was the report of specific -charges against him by a committee of congress, for acts oppressive -and unworthy his rank and station, on which he was tried, and ordered -to be reprimanded by the commander-in-chief. - -In performing this duty, Washington exhibited as much mildness as the -case permitted. "Our profession," said he, "is the chastest of all. -The shadow of a fault tarnishes our most brilliant actions. The least -inadvertence may cause us to lose that public favor, which is so hard -to be gained. I reprimand you for having forgotten that, in proportion -as you had rendered your name formidable to our enemies, you should -have shown moderation towards our citizens. Exhibit again those -splendid qualities which have placed you in the rank of our most -distinguished generals. As far as it shall be in my power, I will -myself furnish you with opportunities for regaining the esteem which -you have formerly enjoyed." - -The decision of the court, and the reprimand of Washington, mild and -delicate as it was, fell heavy on the excitable spirit of Arnold. A -burning revenge rankled in his bosom, and from this time--if his -traitorous purposes had not before been formed--he sought -opportunities to gratify his malice, and at the same time the sordid -passion of avarice, which had long held sway in his bosom. - -Another circumstance, besides contributing to his expenses, operated -to separate his affections from the patriotic cause. He had married a -beautiful and accomplished lady, during his residence in Philadelphia, -a daughter of Mr. Edward Shippen, a family of distinguished rank; and -which, like others of a similar stamp in that city, was intimate with -Sir William Howe, Major Andre, and other British officers, during -their occupation of Philadelphia. This alliance brought Arnold, as a -matter of course, into associations with persons who were attached to -the royal cause, and who were ready to foster his prejudices, and -justify his complaints of ingratitude and persecution. - -At length, he matured a plan--confined for a time to his own -bosom--dark, base, and traitorous--as it were the offspring of the -nether world. - -To the accomplishment of this plan, it was necessary that he should be -appointed to the command of West Point, a fortress on the Hudson. With -consummate art, he accomplished his purpose; and, at the hands of -Washington, to whom he had been indebted more than to any other, for -standing by him as a shelter during his stormy life, he received the -appointment; soon after which, he repaired to the Highlands, and -established his head-quarters at Robinson's house, two or three miles -below West Point, on the opposite, or eastern bank of the river. - -[Illustration: Major Andre.] - -Previous to her marriage, Mrs. Arnold had been acquainted with Major -Andre, and had corresponded with him after that event, and after his -removal with the British forces to New York. Acquainted with this -correspondence, Arnold took the opportunity presented by it to -address, unknown to his wife, letters to Sir Henry Clinton, through -Andre, under the signature of _Gustavus_, and Andre replied under the -assumed name of _John Anderson_. This correspondence had been carried -on for months before Arnold's appointment to West Point. For a time, -Clinton was at a loss to imagine the real character behind the -curtain; but, at length, he became convinced that it could be no other -than Arnold himself. Hitherto, that general had treated _Gustavus_ -with cautious indifference, but no sooner was Arnold promoted to the -command of West Point, than Clinton was ready to enter into -negotiation with him to surrender that fortress into the hands of the -British, and almost at any price which Arnold might choose to name. - -The first plan devised for bringing about an interview between Arnold -and Andre failed, but a second proved more successful. The Vulture, a -sloop-of-war, with Colonel Robinson on board, came up the river about -the 16th of September. On their arrival at Teller's Point, Robinson, -who was a tory, and whose property had been confiscated by the state -of New York, addressed a letter to _General Putnam_, relating to the -recovery of his property, and forwarded it under cover of a letter to -Arnold by a flag-boat. Putnam was known not to be in that quarter, but -the letter to him served as a pretext to enable Robinson to -communicate a plan, by which an interview could be effected. - -Arnold, by means of consummate art and duplicity, had engaged a Mr. -Smith, a man of respectable standing, to go on board the Vulture, and -convey a gentleman there to the American shore, who would impart -intelligence to him of the greatest importance to the American cause. -Smith had been employed in procuring intelligence from time to time -from New York for Arnold's predecessor at West Point, and at length -consented to perform the service solicited by Arnold; and, that his -family might not be privy to the transaction, they were removed to -Fishkill, under pretence of a visit to some friends. - -Thus matters were arranged; and on the night of the 21st, Smith, with -two oarsmen, bribed to secresy by the promise of fifty pounds each, -left the American shore, and proceeded, as related in the commencement -of this account, to the Vulture. - -Andre was expecting Arnold himself. Not finding him on board, but -receiving a letter putting him on his guard, and inviting him to return -in the boat, for a time he hesitated. Robinson was still firmer in the -opinion that he should not go. But, at length, the adventurous spirit of -Andre decided the point; and having cautiously concealed his uniform in -a great-coat, he stepped on board the boat, which immediately proceeded -towards the American shore. They landed at the foot of a mountain, -called Long Clove, about six miles below Stony Point. - -Arnold was in the bushes, ready to receive the stranger. Smith had -expected to be present at the interview, and was not only -disappointed, but exasperated, in being refused. What a spot! what a -conference! what a deep and traitorous planning in midnight darkness! - -The interview was long, and the patience of Smith was exhausted, but -more his fears were roused. The night was far spent, and the dawning -of the day was at hand. He now made known his apprehensions to the -midnight traitors; but as they had not perfected their business, Smith -and his oarsmen were allowed to retire. - -No sooner were they gone, than Arnold proposed that Andre should -proceed with him to Smith's house, and leave the manner of his return -to future deliberation. This plan was replete with hazard; but no -alternative presenting itself, Andre reluctantly followed. Judge his -surprise, when, on approaching the American lines, a sentinel hailed -them, and demanded the countersign. Andre shuddered. Arnold gave the -sign, and they passed on. Andre was now, contrary to all his -determinations, within the American lines, on dangerous ground, where -his life and fortunes hung, as it were, upon the cast of a die. - -Arnold and Andre reached Smith's about the dawn of day. Soon after, the -latter made his appearance. An incident now occurred, which added to the -anxiety of Andre. The sound of cannon broke upon them, which, on -proceeding to a window overlooking the river, was ascertained to be from -the American shore; and from the movements of the Vulture soon after -down the stream, it was inferred that the fire was against her. So it -proved. Believing her to lie in the river for no good purpose, Colonel -Livingston had directed a fire to be opened upon her, which caused the -movement observed. Andre now felt the delicacy of his situation still -more, and the difficulty of his return to the sloop to be still greater. - -But the duties of his mission required attention, and to its -completion the plotters betook themselves. It was finally settled. The -British, on a given day, were to dispatch a fleet up the river with -the requisite troops: and Arnold, in order to render the seizure of -the fortress easy, was previously to withdraw the garrison, and -station them at different points in the neighborhood, in small -detachments. In consideration of the surrender, the traitor was to -receive a large amount of "British gold." - -Having completed these nefarious negotiations, the manner in which -Andre should return, next engrossed their deliberations. This was a -question of difficult solution. Andre insisted on being put on board -the Vulture; Smith was unwilling to run the hazard. Before the -question was decided, Arnold left for West Point, giving to Andre -passports accommodated to the manner in which it might finally be -decided that he should return. - -Andre spent the day in an upper room at Smith's--a long and anxious -day. Towards its close, he urged Smith to take him on board the -Vulture; but to his surprise and distress, the former peremptorily -refused, but offered to accompany him on horseback to some point of -safety. No other alternative presenting itself, Andre consented; and, -having changed his military coat for a citizen's dress, over which -throwing his great-coat, they departed. - -Between eight and nine o'clock, they were startled by the hail of a -sentinel, who ordered them to stop. "Who commands here?" inquired -Smith, dismounting, and approaching the sentinel. The commander, -Captain Boyd, being himself within hearing distance, approached, and -demanded who the stranger was, and whither bound. Smith, ignorant of -the real character of Andre, answered as Arnold had dictated; and, -moreover, added that he had a pass from the general. Boyd required a -sight of the pass, on perusing which, his curiosity was still more -excited, and he now in private questioned Smith with still greater -particularity. Smith explained the matter as well as he was able; and, -by several adroit fabrications, finally induced Boyd to consent to -their continuing their journey; not, however, until morning, for fear, -as he pretended, they might be waylaid by the Cow-boys.[50] Andre -would have purchased a release from tarrying in the neighborhood that -night at any price, had he had the means; but such an overture would -have been fraught with danger, and therefore, bending to necessity, -they repaired to one Miller's, where they passed the night--a night of -dread and fearful anticipation. - -At early dawn, in order to escape the further scrutiny of Boyd, they -were on their journey. At the distance of about a couple of miles from -Pine's bridge, they halted, took breakfast, and separated--Smith -setting out on his return, and Andre continuing his journey. Andre had -now nearly thirty miles to traverse ere he was on safe ground. He had -been recommended to proceed by the way of White Plains; but, on -crossing the above bridge, deeming the Tarrytown road more safe, he -took that, and for a time passed on without molestation. - -Two plundering parties were abroad that morning from the "neutral -ground;" one of which, consisting of John Paulding, Daniel Williams, -and Isaac Van Wart, had concealed themselves in some bushes near the -road which Andre was passing, watching there for some valuable prey. - -Andre approached the spot; upon which, Paulding rose, and presenting -his firelock to his breast, bid him stand. "Gentlemen," said Andre, "I -hope you belong to our party." "I asked him"--we follow the testimony -of Paulding on the trial of Smith--"what party? He said, 'The lower -party.' Upon that I told him I did. Then he said, 'I am a British -officer out of the country on particular business, and I hope you will -not detain me a minute;' and to show that he was a British officer, he -pulled out his watch. Upon which, I told him to dismount. He then -said, 'My God! I must do any thing to get along;' and seemed to make a -kind of laugh of it, and pulled out General Arnold's pass, which was -to John Anderson, to pass all guards to White Plains and below. Upon -that, he dismounted. Said he, 'Gentlemen, you had better let me go, or -you will bring yourselves into trouble, for your stopping me will -detain the general's business;' and said he was going to Dobb's ferry, -to meet a person there, and get intelligence for General Arnold. Upon -that, I told him I hoped he would not be offended, that we did not -mean to take any thing from him; and I told him there were many bad -people who were going along the road, and I did not know but perhaps -he might be one." - -Williams testified as follows: "We took him into the bushes, and ordered -him to pull off his clothes, which he did; but on searching him -narrowly, we could not find any sort of writings. We told him to pull -off his boots, which he seemed to be indifferent about; but we got one -boot off, and searched in that boot, and could find nothing. But we -found there were some papers in the bottom of his stocking next to his -foot; on which we made him pull his stocking off, and found three papers -wrapped up. Mr. Paulding looked at the contents, and said he was a spy. -We then made him pull off his other boot, and there we found three more -papers at the bottom of his foot within his stocking." - -After consultation, it was decided to take the prisoner to North -Castle, where Lieutenant-colonel Jameson commanded a detachment of -dragoons. Having surrendered him to Jameson, the latter for a time -hesitated what disposition to make of him. The papers found upon Andre -were important--in the hand-writing of Arnold, and endorsed by him. - -Most men would have suspected treason--nor would Arnold himself have -escaped suspicion. Yet Jameson, at length, decided to forward the papers -to Washington by express, and the prisoner to Arnold. These measures had -been taken, when Major Talmadge, next in command to Jameson, returned -from an excursion to White Plains. On learning the incidents of the day, -he expressed his surprise, and begged Jameson to dispatch a -counter-order, if possible, to bring back the prisoner and the papers. - -To the foregoing, Jameson finally consented, but the papers were left -to be conveyed to Washington. Andre was overtaken and brought back. -Talmadge, being a sagacious observer, marked Andre--his walk--his -military air--his dignified bearing--and decided that the prisoner was -no ordinary man. Shortly after, under escort of Talmadge, Andre was -removed to Lower Salem, to await the developments of time and the -orders of Washington. - -The morning after their arrival at Salem, Andre requested paper and -ink, and soon presented to Talmadge an open letter addressed to -Washington, with a request that he would himself read and forward it. - -This letter, couched in most respectful language, communicated to -Washington his name, and rank in the British army, and his object in -coming within the American lines. - -It so happened--a wonderful interposition of Divine Providence, who -can doubt?--it so happened, that on the very day that Andre wrote his -letter, Washington, on his return from Hartford, arrived at Fishkill, -eighteen miles from Arnold's head-quarters. Contrary to his previous -intentions, he was induced to remain there during the night. In the -morning, an express was dispatched early to give notice to General -Arnold, that the party would reach his quarters to breakfast. - -Washington and his suite followed soon after, and on coming to the -road which led off to Robinson's house--Arnold's residence--Washington -was proceeding towards the river. Being informed of his mistake, he -observed that as he must inspect the redoubts on this side the river, -he himself would forego Mrs. Arnold's breakfast, but his suite might -pass on, and enjoy it. They would not, however, leave their general; -and all, excepting his aids, who were sent forward to make his excuse, -proceeded towards the river. - -On learning that General Washington would not be there to breakfast, -General Arnold and family, with the aids, proceeded to the -breakfast-table. - -That was the last peaceful meal Arnold was to enjoy in this world--and -even the peace of that was invaded, before they were ready to leave -the table. A messenger entered with a letter from Jameson--the letter -which first announced the capture of Andre. - -It fell as a thunderbolt upon the traitor. Yet he so far concealed his -agitation before the aids, as to prevent serious suspicion that any -thing uncommon had occurred. A sudden emergency called him to West -Point, he said, and he begged to be excused. Having ordered a horse, he -requested Mrs. Arnold's presence in her chamber, and here in few words -informed her of the necessity of his fleeing for his life. He left her -fainting on the floor; and, mounting, put spurs to his horse, directing -his course to the river, on reaching which, he entered a boat, and -fabricating a story to his purpose, ordered the men to proceed to the -Vulture. The promise of reward gave impulse to their energies, and -Arnold was soon safely on board of the royal sloop. - -[Illustration: Interview of Arnold and his Wife.] - -Washington having completed his inspection of the redoubts, reached -Arnold's soon after his departure. Understanding that he had gone to -West Point, after a hasty breakfast, Washington and suite followed. But -what was his surprise to learn that Arnold had not been there. After a -cursory view of the fortress, the party returned to Arnold's. Meanwhile, -the messenger from Colonel Jameson, with Andre's papers, had arrived. - -Light was now shed upon the mystery. Arnold was a traitor, and had -fled to the enemy. Measures were immediately taken to secure the -fortress. An express was dispatched to Salem, with orders to have -Andre conveyed to Arnold's house. - -Let us hasten to the conclusion. On the 29th of September, Washington -ordered a Board of Inquiry, consisting of six major and eight -brigadier generals. After a full hearing of the facts, the Board -reported that Major Andre ought to be considered as a spy, and, -according to the laws and usages of nations, to suffer death. - -The decision, though just, was painful--painful to Washington--to the -Board--to the officers of the American army--but more painful, if -possible, to Sir Henry Clinton and the companions of Andre in arms. - -Efforts, and such as did honor to Clinton, were made to reverse the -doom of Andre. _Intimations_ were given from Washington, that upon one -condition--the surrender of Arnold--Andre might be released; but to -this, Clinton thought he could not in honor yield--while in the scale -of affection, Andre would have outweighed a thousand traitors like -Arnold. A deputation from Clinton repaired to Robinson's house under a -flag, to urge the release of Andre, but no change could be effected in -the mind of Washington. - -Sentence of execution issued, and five o'clock, of the 1st day of -October, was appointed for carrying it into effect. On the morning of -that day, Andre addressed a letter to Washington, requesting that he -might be allowed a soldier's death. - - "_Tappan_, 1_st October_, 1780. - -"SIR: Buoyed above the terror of death, by the consciousness of a life -devoted to honorable pursuits, and stained with no action that can -give me remorse, I trust that the request I make to your excellency, -at this serious period, and which is to soften my last moments, will -not be rejected. - -"Sympathy towards a soldier will surely induce your excellency, and a -military tribunal, to adapt the mode of my death to the feelings of a -man of honor. - -"Let me hope, sir, that if aught in my character impresses you with -esteem towards me--if aught in my misfortune marks me as the victim of -policy, and not of resentment--I shall experience the operations of -those feelings in your breast, by being informed that I am not to die -on a gibbet. - -"I have the honor to be your excellency's most obedient and most -humble servant, - - "JOHN ANDRE." - -To this request, Washington could not consistently accede, but to -avoid needless pain, he omitted to make a reply. - -The execution finally took place October 2d, at twelve o'clock--a -delay having been occasioned by pending negotiations, which could not -be terminated in season the previous day. - -Dr. Thatcher, in his 'Military Journal,' has given the closing -particulars of this tragic scene. It follows: - -"The principal guard-officer, who was constantly in the room with the -prisoner, relates, that when the hour of his execution was announced -to him in the morning, he received it without emotion; and while all -present were affected with silent gloom, he retained a firm -countenance, with calmness and composure of mind. Observing his -servant enter the room in tears, he exclaimed, 'Leave me till you can -show yourself more manly.' His breakfast being sent to him from the -table of General Washington, which had been done every day of his -confinement, he partook of it as usual; and having shaved and dressed -himself, he placed his hat on the table, and cheerfully said to the -guard-officers, 'I am ready at any moment, gentlemen, to wait on you.' -The fatal hour having arrived, a large detachment of troops was -paraded, and an immense concourse of people assembled; almost all our -general and field officers, excepting his excellency and his staff, -were present on horseback; melancholy and gloom pervaded all ranks; -the scene was affecting and awful. - -"I was so near during the solemn march to the fatal spot, as to observe -every movement, and participate in every emotion which the melancholy -scene was calculated to produce. Major Andre walked from the stone -house, in which he had been confined, between two of our subaltern -officers, arm in arm; the eyes of the immense multitude were fixed on -him, who, rising superior to the fear of death, appeared as if conscious -of the dignified deportment which he displayed. He betrayed no want of -fortitude, but retained a complacent smile on his countenance, and -politely bowed to several gentlemen whom he knew, which was respectfully -returned. It was his earnest desire to be shot, as being the mode of -death most conformable to the feelings of a military man, and he had -indulged the hope that his request would be granted. At the moment, -therefore, when suddenly he came in view of the gallows, he -involuntarily started backward, and made a pause. 'Why this emotion, -sir?' said an officer by his side. Instantly recovering his composure, -he said, 'I am reconciled to my death, but I detest the mode.' - -"While waiting, and standing near the gallows, I observed some degree -of trepidation; placing his foot on a stone, and rolling it over, and -choking in his throat, as if attempting to swallow. So soon, however, -as he perceived that things were in readiness, he stepped quickly into -the wagon, and at this moment he appeared to shrink; but instantly -elevating his head with firmness, he said, 'It will be but a momentary -pang;' and taking from his pocket two white handkerchiefs, the -provost-marshal with one loosely pinioned his arms, and with the -other, the victim, after taking off his hat and stock, bandaged his -own eyes with perfect firmness, which melted the hearts, and moistened -the cheeks, not only of his servant, but of the throng of spectators. -The rope being appended to the gallows, he slipped the noose over his -head, and adjusted it to his neck, without the assistance of the -executioner. Colonel Scammell now informed him that he had opportunity -to speak, if he desired it. He raised the handkerchief from his eyes, -and said: 'I pray you to bear me witness, that I meet my fate like a -brave man.' The wagon being now removed from under him, he was -suspended, and instantly expired." - -Thus was cut off in the morning of life a man full of promise and -expectation--one to whose personal attractions were added -accomplishments, rich, varied, and brilliant--destined, but for an -untimely sacrifice of himself, under the impulse of a forbidden -ambition, to have reached the goal of his wishes--honor and renown. His -death at the hands of the Americans, according to the usage of war, was -just; but to Arnold, the pioneer in the base transaction, the news of -his execution must, it would seem, have been as the bitterness of death. - -But no:--Arnold had no such feelings. Conscience was seared; the -generous sympathies of our nature were extinct; even the honor of a -soldier, dearer to him than life itself, had expired. The -long-cherished, deep-rooted, sordid passion of his -soul--_avarice_--alone lived; and now, while Andre, who might almost be -said to be the victim of that nether spirit, was mouldering in an -untimely and dishonored grave, he demanded his _pay_. What must -Clinton--the friend and patron of the high-souled and magnanimous -Andre--have felt when he told out to Arnold _six thousand three hundred -and fifteen pounds_, as the reward of his treachery! - -In addition to this pecuniary reward, Arnold received the commission -of brigadier-general in the British army. But, after his infamous -attack on New London, and his inhuman conduct to the brave Ledyard and -his garrison in Fort Trumbull, finding himself neglected by the -British officers, he obtained permission to retire to England, for -which he sailed in 1781 with his family. - -The life of Arnold was prolonged twenty years beyond this date. But -although the king and a few others in office felt compelled to notice -him for a time, yet they, at length, were willing to forget him, while -others despised and shunned him. Colonel Gardiner says, that when a -petition for a bill authorizing a negotiation of peace was presented -to the king, Arnold was standing near the throne. Lauderdale is -reported to have declared, on his return to the House of Commons, -that, however gracious the language he had heard from the throne, his -indignation could not but be highly excited at beholding, as he had -done, his majesty supported by a traitor. And on another occasion, -Lord Surrey, rising to speak in the House of Commons, and perceiving -Arnold in the gallery, immediately sat down, exclaiming: "I will not -speak while that man (pointing to him) is in the house." - -Not long after the war, Arnold removed to St. John's, in New -Brunswick, where he engaged for a time in the West India trade. -Subsequently, he returned to England, where he resided to the time of -his death, which occurred in London, June 14th, 1804. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[50] The term _Cow-boys_ was given to Americans attached to the -British cause, who resided within their lines, but who frequently -plundered the Americans on the other side of their cattle, which they -drove to New York. _Skinners_ were those who lived within the American -lines, and professed attachment to their cause; but they were even -more unprincipled than the former, often committing their depredations -on friends as well as foes. - - - - - XIII. CONCLUDING SCENES OF THE REVOLUTION. - - - THEATRE of War changed to the South--Siege of Savannah--Siege of - Charleston--Battle of Camden--Battle of - Cowpens--Retreat--Subsequent Movements--Battles of Guilford, - Kobkirk's hill, Ninety-Six, and Eutaw Springs--Battle of - Yorktown--Treaty of Peace--Cessation of Hostilities--Army - disbanded--Departure of the British Army--Final Interview - between Washington and his Officers--Resigns his - Commission--Retires to Mount Vernon. - -We must hasten to the closing scenes of the long and sanguinary -contest between Great Britain and America. - -The capture of Burgoyne, in 1777, was hailed, by a portion of the -American people, as indicative of a speedy termination of the war. -But, in these anticipations, they were destined to be disappointed. -For several years following, although the contest was still continued, -but little advance was made towards the termination. Battles were -indeed fought, naval engagements occurred, and predatory enterprises -were planned, and executed with various success; but neither power -could be said at any one period to be decidedly in the ascendant. In -1779, the theatre of war was changed from the northern to the southern -section of the confederacy. To this change, the British were invited -by the prospect of an easier victory. That portion of the country was -rendered weak by its scattered population, by the multitude of slaves, -and by the number of tories intermingled with the citizens. - -Partial success to the British arms was the consequence. Savannah was -taken possession of, which gave the enemy, for a time, the power in -Georgia. In like manner, Charleston fell into their hands, and with -it, a considerable portion of the state of South Carolina. In the -progress of this southern warfare, battles occurred at Camden--at the -Cowpens--at Guilford Court-house--and at Eutaw Springs. - - - 1. SIEGE OF SAVANNAH. - -In the autumn of 1778, Savannah fell into the hands of the British. At -that time, Colonel Campbell, with a force of two thousand men, was -dispatched by Governor Clinton from New York against that city. The -American garrison, under General Howe, consisting of but six hundred -continental troops and a small body of militia, was inadequate to -resist so formidable a force; and at the expiration of a spirited -action, in which the Americans suffered severely, the latter -surrendered, and with that surrender, the British took military -occupation of the capital itself. - -The succeeding year, D'Estaing, with a French fleet, destined to -cöoperate with the Americans for the recovery of Savannah, arrived on -the coast of Georgia. This intelligence having been communicated to -General Lincoln, who was in the vicinity of Charleston with a small -force, he immediately broke up his camp, and marched to assist in the -disembarkation of the French troops. - -Before the arrival of Lincoln, D'Estaing had sent a "haughty summons" -to Prevost, the English commander, to surrender. The safety of the -former depended upon rëinforcements, which he was daily expecting; -and, in order to attain a delay, he required twenty-four hours to -consider the question of a capitulation. Unfortunately, D'Estaing -acceded to this demand. This proved fatal to the expedition; for, -meanwhile, Prevost was not idle. He succeeded in mounting nearly one -hundred cannon, and, moreover, the expected rëinforcement arrived, -swelling his force to three thousand men; upon which, he replied to -the French commander, that he was resolved to hold out to the last. - -The original plan of attempting the place by storm was now prudently -abandoned, and the slow process of its reduction by siege was resolved -upon. The combined forces numbered between six and seven thousand men. -The siege was commenced. Trenches were opened, and, by the 4th of -September, a sap had been pushed to within three hundred yards of the -abbatis. In the course of a another month, batteries had been erected, -and other preparations were ready. - -On the evening of October 4th, the tragical scene commenced, and a -heavy cannonade was kept up during the night. In the morning, that -scene became terrific. Thirty-seven cannon and nine mortars were -opened upon the city, while sixteen heavy guns from the fleet added -their uproar to the thunder of the former. The response to these was -still louder and more appalling. Nearly one hundred guns, which had -been mounted by Prevost, as we have said, gave back their tremendous -explosions. Carcasses, filled with all manner of combustibles, were -hurled into the town, setting on fire the houses, and spreading -consternation among the inhabitants. Shells came down from the sky, -bursting like meteors, and scattering their death-dealing fragments in -every street and in the neighborhood of every dwelling. All that day, -and, indeed, for four succeeding days and nights, this mutual -tremendous firing was maintained. Savannah and its neighborhood became -covered with a dense, dark cloud of smoke, through which the rays of -the sun could scarcely penetrate by day, and which, as that set, -served as a pall to increase the gloom and darkness of the night. - -If the besiegers were steady to their purpose, the besieged were no -less resolute and successful in their resistance. Little or no -impression had hitherto been made upon the enemy's works, and how long -they would continue to hold out, the Americans had no means of -judging. They had reason, indeed, to believe that a reduction might at -no distant day be effected, as the supplies were cut off, and the -inhabitants must be suffering intensely. But D'Estaing began to fear -for the safety of his fleet, exposed, as it was, on an open coast. In -this posture, he proposed to Lincoln to attempt the place as -originally contemplated--by storm. This the latter deemed extremely -hazardous; but submitting to the higher authority of the count, an -assault was fixed for the 9th of October. - -At one o'clock of the morning of that day, the Americans were up, and -ready for the fearful contest. The French unwisely delayed for some -two or three hours; but at length, led on by D'Estaing and Lincoln, -the combined forces--the French in three columns and the Americans in -one--proceeded to the attack. - -Taking a position at the head of the first column, D'Estaing led them -forward to the very walls of the English works. It was a fatal -approach. Of a sudden, and when the French commander was -congratulating himself that he was taking the enemy by surprise, the -blaze of a hundred cannon filled him and his troops with amazement, -while the balls and grape-shot mowed down their ranks, as did the fire -of the Americans at Bunker's hill. Still, D'Estaing ordered the -remainder to advance, he himself heroically leading the way. But it -was only to death and defeat. Soon wounded, D'Estaing was borne from -the spot, while his brave troops remained to meet a still severer -destiny. They were mowed as grass by a new-ground scythe. The few who -survived, now made good their retreat to an adjoining wood, leaving -room for the second column, pressing forward, to supply their place. - -[Illustration: Jasper on the Ramparts.] - -These, passing over the fallen bodies of their brave companions, -succeeded in mounting the walls; and there they stood--and there, with -almost superhuman strength and determination, they fought. But it was -not even for such bravery and such perseverance to succeed. If the -struggle was now fearful, the carnage was still more so. One after -another, and by tens and twenties, they fell side by side, companions in -death of their brave precursors. A remnant only was left; and as that -remnant succeeded in securing a retreat, the third and last column of -the French troops came into action. A similar contest awaited them, -which they entered into with even greater ardor and more excited -passion; but it was followed by a similar, and perhaps still more fatal, -result. The chivalrous Laurens, at the head of the Americans, now made -his appearance; and directing his entire force against the Spring-hill -redoubt, attempted to scale its ramparts. But it was a vain attempt. The -parapets were too high to be reached, and the assailants fell as they -appeared, shot down with equal certainty and rapidity. Among the -Americans, at this memorable contest, was that Carolina regiment which, -at the siege of Fort Moultrie, had so distinguished itself, and which, -as a reward for its valor, Mrs. Elliott had presented two standards, as -we had occasion to notice, when describing the noble defence of the old -"slaughter pen." Nothing daunted by the fate of their companions, this -regiment pressed furiously forward; and now, for a brief period, was -witnessed a spectacle, which lighted up gladness in every eye: two -American standards--the very standards which we have named--were seen -waving on the English ramparts. And there, too, was the noble-hearted -Jasper himself, with those standards, which he loved better than life -itself. But it was a momentary floating to the breeze, and these -standards had for ever done their duty. They soon fell, and with them -fell the brave and patriotic Jasper. He grasped his standard as he fell -into the ditch, and there the flag covered him as a winding-sheet of -glory. He had told Mrs. Elliott that he would surrender his flag only -with his life, and he was true to his word. Jasper's -name--heroism--patriotism--will descend with the lapse of years; nor -will they be remembered but to be honored, while the records of American -valor shall have an existence. - -The issue may be told in few words. The Americans failed, and retired. -Many a noble heart had shed its blood; many an arm, which had that day - - Shed fast atonement for its first delay, - -was folded on the breast in death. And among those who fell nobly, -there was one--a high-souled Polander--the chivalric Pulaski--a -volunteer in the American service; he fell at the head of two hundred -horsemen, urging on their way amid fire and smoke, until a swivel-shot -struck the gallant soldier to the earth. - -The contest lasted a little more than an hour; and yet, in that brief -space, six hundred and thirty-seven French, and four hundred and fifty -Americans, were mangled--bleeding corpses on the ground--more than one -thousand! Rapid work! It should seem that Moloch might have been -satisfied with the victims offered on that day's altar. - -D'Estaing retired soon after with his fleet. He had gained no praise: -on the contrary, he was censured for his haste in demanding the -surrender of Savannah before the arrival of Lincoln; and then, by -allowing Prevost so long a time to deliberate, in truth giving him -ample opportunity to prepare for defence. The result was inglorious, -and served to perpetuate, and even strengthen, the cause of the -English at the South. - - - 2. SIEGE OF CHARLESTON. - -Charleston had long been an object of cupidity on the part of the -British. We have already had occasion to speak of an expedition under -Sir Peter Parker and Generals Cornwallis and Howe, destined against -that city, and the summary check they received at Fort Moultrie--that -"old slaughter-pen"--every one of whose garrison was a hero, and the -record of whose combined resistance can never be remembered but to the -honor and praise of American valor. That repulse was not forgotten by -the British, and, when next an attempt should be made, it was to be -expected that preparations would be commensurate with the magnitude -and difficulties of the enterprise. - -It proved so. In the spring following the siege of Savannah, General -Clinton left New York with ten thousand men, intent on the capture of -Charleston. Lincoln was still at the head of the American troops in the -South. But they were altogether inadequate to defend the city against so -numerous and formidable a force as now appeared against him. For his own -credit, as well as for the honor of the American arms, clearly he should -have avoided a collision. But, over-persuaded by Governor Rutledge and -other prominent citizens, and, moreover, reluctant to abandon a place -which contained large public stores, or seem to yield where there was -hope of success, he consented to remain, and accomplish whatever human -wisdom, combined with American valor, could do. - -On the 30th of March, General Clinton commenced the siege. He proceeded -with a caution, to be explained only by the lesson taught the British at -the siege of Fort Moultrie, and a determination not to be under the -necessity of meeting with another such disastrous result. In another -place, it should have been noted, that Fort Moultrie, in the present -invasion, made no resistance, the contest, it being intended, should be -on the mainland, and in the immediate vicinity of the city, where such -defences had been erected as the authorities were able to provide. - -On the 10th of April, the first parallel was completed, and Lincoln was -summoned to surrender. To this summons, he replied: "that he felt it to -be his duty, and it was also his instruction, to defend the place to the -last extremity." Ten days elapsed, during which a second parallel was -finished, and a second summons made and declined. A heavy and formidable -cannonade was now opened by Clinton, which was kept up, with scarcely -any remission, for several days. Meanwhile, Lincoln was almost -constantly on duty--straining every muscle to resist the steady, but -apparently fatal, advance of his foe. It is related of him, that "one -day he was ten hours in the saddle, without once dismounting--riding -hither and thither, with his great heart filled with anxious foreboding; -and, the last fortnight, he never took off his clothes to rest. Flinging -himself, in his uniform, on a couch, he would snatch a few moments' -repose, and then again be seen riding along the lines." - -Meanwhile, his defences became weakened, and his troops exhausted with -labor and fatigue. They had little time to sleep, and even the supply -of provisions was limited. Yet, Lincoln continued, day after day, to -inspire them with courage and hope. All that a brave commander could -do, he did--concealing the apprehensions which harrowed his inmost -soul, and for which there were reasons; all that men could do, his -noble few did--suffering privations seldom experienced during the -revolutionary contest. It was a brave defence! It was a long, -protracted, painful struggle! But it was in vain. At length, the -batteries of the enemy had reached within eighty yards of the American -defences, and preparations were making for a general storm. Thus -environed by a formidable force, both by sea and land, - - ----"Nec spes opis ulla dabatur"-- - -it was the dictate of humanity, both in respect to the inhabitants of -the city, and the brave, but exhausted, remnant of his devoted army, to -capitulate. Accordingly, overtures were made to General Clinton, which -were at length accepted. Charleston fell, and the entire army laid down -arms. By the terms of capitulation, the garrison were to march out, and -deposit their arms in front of the works; but, as a mark of humiliation, -the drums were not to beat an American march, nor their colors to be -displayed. This was severe; but the humiliation was remembered, when, -eighteen months afterwards, Lord Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, -and "waters of a full cup were wrung out" to him. - - - 3. BATTLE OF CAMDEN. - -The fall of Charleston opened the south to Cornwallis, nor was he slow -to take advantage of the opportunity of strengthening the royal cause. -Baron de Kalb had been sent from the main army to the assistance of -Lincoln; but the latter having surrendered before his arrival, the -former assumed the command of the forces opposed to Cornwallis. -Shortly after, however, Gates, the "hero of Saratoga," arrived, having -been appointed to occupy the place of General Lincoln. - -The reputation which Gates had acquired in his contest with Burgoyne, -had preceded him, and served to stay the despondency and gloom which -was extensively pervading the South. The militia responded to his -call, and came flocking to his standard. Thus rëinforced, he proceeded -towards Camden, the rendezvous of Lord Rawdon. But his haste was -ill-judged. Besides, by reason of a serious lack of provisions for his -troops, which he had neglected to provide, they were compelled to -subsist for several days on green apples, corn, and other vegetables; -their strength, also, was still more diminished for want of needful -rest. On reaching the vicinity of Rawdon, instead of an immediate -attack, before the latter could receive rëinforcements, and when he -was more on an equal footing with the enemy, he wasted several days in -skirmishes, which served to darken rather than brighten his chance of -success. In this interval, Cornwallis arrived with the troops under -his command, thus adding to the strength of the enemy, and greatly -increasing their confidence and courage. - -Indeed, Cornwallis was not slow in deciding to hazard an engagement, -although he knew that the contest would still be unequal. Gates had -superior numbers. But a retreat would be to abandon all that he had -gained in South Carolina and Georgia; and in effect would be the ruin -of the royal cause. - -The American army occupied a post at Rugely's mills. On the 11th of -August, at ten o'clock in the night, the English began their march. -Ignorant of this movement, Gates had put his army in motion at the same -time, and with similar intent. What was their mutual surprise, when at -two o'clock in the morning, the advanced-guard of the British suddenly -came in contact with the head column of the Americans! A brief skirmish -ensued--but soon ended, as if by mutual consent--neither commander being -willing to hazard a nocturnal rencounter. - -At a council of war summoned by Gates, the Baron de Kalb advised a -retreat to their former encampment, as in their present position they -were between two marshes, while at Rugely's mills they would have the -decided advantage as to position. In this, however, he was overruled by -Gates, who decided to wait the approach of the enemy where they were. - -We shall not enter into the details of this unfortunate battle. It was -sad and sanguinary. General Gates misjudged as to position; but still -greater was his error in attempting to change the order of battle -almost at the moment when the battle began. Of this latter mistake, -Cornwallis was not slow to take advantage, but at once ordered his -troops to charge. Unprepared for an attack so sudden and so furious, -the American column gave way--the Virginians actually betaking -themselves to flight. All was soon confusion and uproar. De Kalb threw -himself at the head of the regular troops, and, infusing into them the -fire and indignation which animated his own bosom, led them on. They -advanced firm--calm--determined. But the contest was now unequal. They -could not resist the impetuous torrent which came thundering upon -them. They could not save the battle. And at this time--their ranks -thinned--their path obstructed--the cavalry of Tarleton came bearing -down upon them with the impetuosity of a whirlwind. "Shot after shot -had struck the Baron de Kalb, and the blood was pouring from his side -in streams; yet, animated by that spirit which has made the hero in -every age, he rallied his men for a last charge, and led them at the -point of the bayonet on the dense ranks. Striking a bayonet from his -breast, and laying the grenadier that held it dead at his feet, he -pressed forward, and, in the very act of cheering on his men, fell -with the blood gushing from eleven wounds. His aids immediately -covered him with their bodies, exclaiming, 'Save the Baron de Kalb! -save the Baron de Kalb!'" - -[Illustration: Death of De Kalb.] - -But their efforts to save him were unavailing. He was taken prisoner, -and his troops fled. Gates, meanwhile, was pursuing his fugitive army. -Their arrest and recall were, however, beyond his power. The rout was -entire; the defeat complete; owing, as was thought by men of competent -judgment, to the mismanagement of Gates. - -De Kalb survived his wounds but a short time. He was able, however, to -dictate a brief letter to the patriotic band of soldiers at whose head -he had planted himself, and who nobly sustained him up to the moment -of his fall. He died in the cause of liberty--regretted by all who -knew his worth as a man and a soldier--and honored by congress, which -directed a monument to be erected to his memory at Annapolis. - -The battle at Camden was sanguinary, and had the effect to spread a -gloom over the face of American affairs. The loss of the patriots -exceeded six hundred in killed; the wounded and prisoners thirteen -hundred. The British stated their loss to be only three hundred in -killed and wounded. - -Cornwallis was the victor--but the British cause had now reached its -culminating point. Elated at their successes, the conquerors grew -insolent and rapacious; the Americans, resolute and determined. - - - 4. BATTLE OF COWPENS. - -Never did a service require an able and efficient commander more than -the American service at the South, following the disastrous defeat of -Gates at the battle of Camden. Fortunately, the precise man was found -in General Greene, "who, next to Washington, was the ablest commander -in the Revolutionary army"--an officer of large experience, and -distinguished for two qualities, which were more important, at this -juncture, than all others--"great caution and great rapidity." To -these were added a wonderful fortitude and as wonderful perseverance. - -On assuming the command, Greene found the army reduced to two thousand -men, of whom not more than eight hundred were fit for service. The -officers, however, had few equals--and no superiors. There were -Morgan, Lee, Marion, Sumpter, and Washington (Lieutenant-colonel), -men, whose heroic achievements have justly placed them high on the -rolls of military fame. Had the army borne any comparison to its -officers, either in point of numbers or in discipline, energy, and -enthusiasm, the royal cause, in the South, would have met a still -earlier doom than it did. But the army was not only greatly reduced -in numbers, but so destitute was it of arms, ammunition, food, and -clothing, that it seemed a matter of presumption to attempt entering -the list with Cornwallis, who, to a well-disciplined and powerful -army, added every desirable materiel of war. But it often occurred -during the Revolutionary struggle, that "the race was not to the -swift, nor the battle to the strong." - -The first measure adopted by Greene was unusual--he separated his -forces, small as they were, into several divisions, and stationed them -at different points. For this he has been censured, as contrary to -military rule; but the sequel proved the wisdom of the measure. It -served greatly to dismay Cornwallis, who scarcely knew in what -direction to proceed, or which one to attack--whether Morgan, Marion, -or Lee, who, with their respective detachments, were threatening him -from different points. - -At length, however, he decided to begin with Morgan, who was stationed -at Cowpens, with an available force of less than a thousand men. The -plan proposed by Cornwallis was, that Tarleton, with eleven hundred -men, should assail him in front, while he himself, with the main army, -would attempt to prevent his retreat. On the appearance of Tarleton, -Morgan retired; but being, at length, hotly pressed, a contest became -inevitable. The first onset of Tarleton was terrible--the Americans -gave way, and the victorious British were anticipating the utter rout -of their foes. But, at a critical moment of the action, Colonel -Washington, who had been watching the various movements of the -respective armies, gave orders to his bugler to sound a charge. It was -nobly done! Nothing could withstand the impetuosity, the fire, the -fury of the assailants. The infantry, which was pressing on to -victory, were, as in a moment, borne down, and scattered like chaff -before the whirlwind. Morgan had time to rally his repulsed force; -and, with such an example as had been set them, they now sped their -way to victory. It was a brief, but a stirring, sanguinary scene. -Tarleton lost of his eleven hundred, seven hundred--besides two -cannon, eight hundred muskets, and a hundred dragoons. - -[Illustration: Charge of Colonel Washington.] - -The battle over, Morgan hastily retired, in order to escape -Cornwallis, who was bearing down upon him. In this he was successful; -but it was only at the sacrifice of the baggage, and a large part of -the stores of the army. Cornwallis pursued a similar policy--never was -man more determined to make sure of the enemy than he was; and never -was man more determined to escape than Morgan. His object was to reach -the head-quarters of Greene; but, at the distance of fifty miles, it -was his good fortune to meet his general, who, with a small force, was -hastening to his assistance. - - - 5. RETREAT--SUBSEQUENT MOVEMENTS. - -Immediately following the battle of Cowpens, Greene directed his course -towards Guilford, which he had appointed as the rendezvous of his army. -This was a perilous undertaking; and the more so, as his route lay -across the Catawba, the Yadkin, and the Dan--each of which was liable -to be suddenly swelled, and thus prevent his passage; and at a time, -perhaps, when Cornwallis would be pressing upon him. Besides, the winter -was a most unpropitious season for such an enterprise. The soldiers were -poorly clad; many of them were barefoot; blankets were greatly needed, -and even provisions were scarce. But there was no safe alternative. -Greene's force was inadequate to maintain a position against so -formidable a force as Cornwallis had under his command. It was not -indeed certain that a retreat so distant, and so fraught with -difficulties, could be effected in safety. But it was decided to run the -hazard, and towards the accomplishment of his plans, Greene now put -forth all his energy and skill. - -We shall not follow him minutely in the various steps of his remarkable -and successful enterprise. Often did the English advance columns press -upon his rear; and so determined were the former--with such rapidity did -they urge their pursuit--that the fugitives were able in some instances -to rest but three hours out of the twenty-four, and to secure but one -meal a-day. Their fatigue--their deprivations--their sufferings, -penetrated the very heart of their sympathizing leader. His own anxiety -was deep and wasting; yet he had a smile and a word of encouragement as -he rode up, and hurried forward his exhausted columns. - -At length they approached the Dan; that passed, they were safe; but -this was the point of their greatest danger. Cornwallis was near at -hand, and, like Pharaoh of old, pressing upon the children of Israel -at the banks of the Red sea, was confident of their utter -extermination--he had resolved to overwhelm and annihilate the -American army on the banks of the Dan. - -They reached those banks. In the rear, covering their embarkation, -and, if possible, keeping in check the advance of the now infuriated -enemy, were stationed Lee's legion and Washington's horsemen. It was a -noble but perilous enterprise which they had undertaken. Had the -forces of Cornwallis reached them, it is impossible to conjecture the -issue. They had decided to succeed or perish. - -But about noon, a messenger made his appearance upon a swift charger, -making the joyful announcement that the army had safely made the -passage. The guard now themselves urged their way to the ferry. Greene -had not yet crossed. He had delayed through his anxiety for the safety -of Lee and Washington, and their brave comrades. Who can describe his -exultation as they came dashing on their proud steeds! That was a -moment of intense joy; but that joy reached its climax when all were -safely on the opposite shore, and the deep waters of the Dan were -rolling between his army and their pursuers. The last boat that left, -bore the intrepid Lee, and, as it grounded upon the opposite shore, -the British van had reached the banks. This was the climax of their -disappointment. At the end of a pursuit of two hundred and fifty -miles, and during which they had destroyed all their baggage to -accelerate their progress, it was their destiny to behold their prey -exulting beyond their reach. Of this retreat, it has been well -remarked, that "for the skill with which it was planned, the -resolution and energy with which it was carried through, and the -distance traveled, it stands alone in the annals of our country, and -will bear a comparison with the most renowned feats of ancient or -modern times. It covered Greene with more glory than a victory could -have done, and stamped him at once the great commander." - -Soon after the events now recited, the army of General Greene was -augmented by the arrival of rëinforcements from Virginia, to five -thousand five hundred men. Numerically, his force was larger than that -of Cornwallis, but most of the troops were for the first time in a -camp. Thus strengthened, Greene decided to hazard an engagement as -early as circumstances allowed. With this object in view, after giving -his troops some little opportunity to rest, he proceeded, and took -post at Guilford. - -Here, on the 15th of March, occurred the battle of _Guilford -Court-house_, which on the part of Greene had been so wisely planned as -must have issued in the utter discomfiture of Cornwallis, had all the -Americans behaved with their accustomed bravery. But, most -unfortunately, the terrible aspect of the British army, on its near -approach, spread consternation and dismay among the Carolina militia; -and, throwing down their guns, knapsacks, and canteens, they -precipitately left the scene of action. These were followed by a portion -of the Marylanders. It was impossible to rally them, or even to stay -their progress. But the Virginians fought nobly, as did the second -regiment of the Marylanders. Upon these and the continental troops, the -entire force of the battle fell. For a time, even with the loss of the -aid of those who so ignobly fled, victory seemed to decide for the -Americans. But at length Cornwallis, at a great sacrifice of men, -succeeded in getting the ascendancy, and no alternative was left to -Greene but to order a retreat, while it could safely be made. The loss -of the Americans was about four hundred, in killed and wounded; that of -the British reached nearly six hundred. The British claimed the victory, -but it was a victory which caused Fox to exclaim, when announced in the -British House of Commons, "_Another such will ruin the British army._" - -Following the battle above described, Cornwallis retreated to such a -distance from Greene, as to present little inducement to the latter to -follow, even had his force been able to cope with that under his -lordship's command. It remained, therefore, for him to adopt some new -plan, and to look in another direction for some field of usefulness to -his country's cause. After much consideration, he decided to lead back -his forces into South Carolina, and to fall on the line of the British -posts between Ninety-Six and Charleston. It was a bold, original, and -hazardous experiment; and the more so, as Cornwallis _might_ also -return, and press him with his superior force. But the decision was -made; and, taking up his line of march, in twelve days he reached -Camden, where Lord Rawdon was strongly intrenched. - -Taking a position on Hobkirk's hill, two miles north of Camden, Rawdon -in a few days drew out his forces, and appeared in battle array against -him. At the time the approach of the enemy was announced, the Americans -were deeply engaged in cooking food, of which, for twenty-four hours, -they had been destitute. For a moment, there was confusion; but, -abandoning their meal, as did Greene his coffee, they soon stood in -order of battle. The action opened with promise to the Americans. Greene -himself, at the head of a single regiment, fought as a common soldier. -His troops appeared firm, and even enthusiastic. Judge his surprise, -when, at this critical moment, he perceived the regiment of Gunby, the -one upon which, more perhaps than all others, he depended--the one which -at Guilford had displayed such bravery--that regiment was giving -way--was in the very act of retreating. Greene sped his charger among -them--headed them--rallied them; but it was too late: the battle was -lost. There was, indeed, more fighting, and every effort was made to -recover from the shock caused by the retreat of Gunby's veteran -regiment. But it was fruitless, and Greene retreated, in rather a -creditable manner, considering the circumstances. - -But the regiment, it is recorded--the cause of such deep mortification -and utter failure--was after all not to blame. At least, the apology -was made for them, that they mistook the order of Gunby, their leader, -who had directed them only to halt, for an order to retreat. In the -din of arms, his command was not understood, and the consequence was -the disastrous result we have named. - -The situation of Rawdon, notwithstanding his success, was critical; -Greene's was still more critical. For the first time, it is said, the -latter became vacillating and despondent. On the one hand, he was in -danger from Rawdon; and on the other, it was reported that Cornwallis -was marching rapidly against him. His army was -small--destitute--discouraged. But it was not Greene's nature long to -despond. He rose above the difficulties and perils of his position, and -decided to occupy the place which God and his country had assigned him. - -At this juncture, more certain intelligence was received that -Cornwallis was on his march to Virginia. This left him at liberty to -follow out his original plan. - -Meanwhile, Rawdon broke up his encampment at Camden, and moved towards -Fort Motte, against which Marion and Lee were pursuing a siege. Before -Rawdon could reach it, it had surrendered to the Americans. - -There remained now in the hands of the British but one fortress more -of importance. This was Ninety-Six, situated one hundred and -forty-seven miles north-west from Charleston, and garrisoned by five -hundred and sixty men. To the reduction of this, Greene turned his -attention. On the 22d of May, he appeared before it, and commenced a -siege. While successfully pursuing his design, and daily advancing -towards the consummation of his wishes, news arrived of the rapid -approach of Rawdon. Indeed, he appeared even earlier than had been -anticipated, and Greene had no alternative but to retreat. But, -listening to his army, who were intent on a demonstration against the -enemy, he consented thereto: but, although they made the assault with -admirable firmness, and even enthusiastic zeal, they failed, and -orders to retreat were given. - -Rawdon followed Greene some fifteen or twenty miles on his retreat; -when, returning to Ninety-Six, he ordered its evacuation, and himself -took up his march for Charleston. - -As the sickly season had now commenced, Greene withdrew his army to a -cool and salubrious position on the high hills of Santee. Here, having -remained until the 22d of August--his troops resting and recruiting, -as much they needed both--he broke up his encampment, and began his -march; and on the 7th of September, arrived within seven miles of -Eutaw Springs, where the British lay encamped in an open field, under -command of General Stewart. - -On the following day, putting his army in motion, he proceeded towards -the field, where occurred-- - - - 6. THE BATTLE OF EUTAW SPRINGS. - -Greene took the British commander somewhat by surprise, but he was not -slow to put his army in the order of battle. The Americans were the -first to commence the contest, and that commencement was auspicious. -The militia did themselves greater credit than on some former -occasions. Both armies were soon engaged; both contended with a -seriousness, a determination, a perseverance, commensurate with the -prize at stake. It is not necessary to descend to particulars. Each -cause was apparently more than once in the ascendant, but in the -sequel neither could claim a decided victory. Yet, the advantage -rested with Greene. The English had lost one-quarter of their number -in killed, and another quarter were made prisoners. Moreover, he had -driven them from the field; but he could not pursue them, on account -of his prisoners and wounded, and the exhausted state of his army. - -At the close of the contest, the belligerent armies united in burying -their dead. What a contrast to the spectacle which had been exhibited -a few hours before! - -The battle of Eutaw Springs was the last general engagement in the -South. Soon after, the British concentrated themselves at Charleston; -and here they were for months hemmed in, and watched by the faithful -and persevering Greene. But their situation, at length, became so -distressing, that they determined to evacuate the city. This was -carried into effect on the 13th of December, 1781. At three o'clock of -the same day, Greene entered in triumph, to the exultation of its -emancipated citizens, and with all the honors which a grateful people -could shed upon him. "_God bless you! God bless you!_" was uttered by -hundreds, as he passed along; nor was it a thoughtless, unmeaning -prayer, but the warm and ardent desire of warm and ardent hearts. -Greene merited it all: he loved his country with an affection which no -circumstances could weaken, and served her with a fidelity which no -temptation could interrupt. Truthfully, most truthfully, did -Washington say of him: "Could he but promote the interests of his -country in the character of a corporal, he would exchange, without a -murmur, his epaulettes for the knot." - - - 7. BATTLE OF YORKTOWN. - -The campaign for the year 1781, as arranged between Washington and the -Count de Rochambeau at Wethersfield, Connecticut, had for its object -the recovery of New York, still in possession of the British. A French -fleet, to arrive in August, was expected to cöoperate. In pursuance of -this plan, the allied forces were concentrated at Kingsbridge, fifteen -miles above New York. - -While these movements were in progress, it was unexpectedly announced -that the destination of the French fleet was the Chesapeake, instead -of New York; and here the Count de Grasse, at length, arrived with -twenty-eight ships of the line, several frigates, and three thousand -troops. - -This intelligence manifested the necessity of a change of purpose. -Without the cöoperation of a fleet, it would be impossible to succeed -in the reduction of New York. Besides, there now opened an equally, if -not a more important enterprise, in a different quarter. - -Lord Cornwallis, who had for some time conducted the military -operations of the British at the South, as we have had occasion to -notice, had concentrated his forces at Yorktown, in Virginia, which, -together with Gloucester Point, he had strongly fortified. His army -consisted of ten thousand effective men. - -Washington was not long in deciding the course which the interests of -his country required him to pursue. He was now ready to follow the -indications of Providence: and it was now apparent that a victory over -Cornwallis must necessarily forward the triumph of the patriot cause. -It was happily ordered that the French fleet should have the -Chesapeake for its destination. In that vicinity, the final conflict -was to be waged; there, the pride of Britain was to be humbled; -there, the last act in the drama was to transpire. - -Pursuant to his altered purposes, Washington put his army in motion, -and on the 25th of August, the passage of the Hudson was effected. - -It being a point of great moment to conceal the real object of this -movement, the march of the army was continued until the 31st, in such -a direction as to keep up fears for New York; and a considerable -degree of address was used to countenance the opinion that the real -design was against that place. The letters which had been intercepted -by Sir Henry Clinton favored this deception; and so strong was the -impression made, that after it became necessary for the combined army -to leave the route leading down the Hudson, he is stated to have -retained his fears for New York, and not to have suspected the real -object of his adversary, until he had approached the Delaware, and it -had become too late to obstruct the progress of the allied army -towards Virginia. He then resolved to make every exertion in his power -to relieve Lord Cornwallis, and, in the mean time, to act offensively -in the North. An expedition was planned against New London, in -Connecticut; and a strong detachment, under the command of General -Arnold, was embarked on board a fleet of transports, which landed -early in the morning of the 6th of September on both sides of the -harbor, about three miles from the town. The result of this -expedition--so infamous to Arnold--so inhuman--so contrary to all the -laws governing modern warfare--is too well known to need recital here. - -The progress of Washington could not consistently be arrested by such an -incursion, ready, as in other circumstances he would have been, to have -hastened to the defence of his fellow-citizens, against so vindictive a -monster as that traitor had shown himself to be. Momentous results were -now depending upon accelerated movements; and, accordingly, he urged his -troops forward to the extent of their power. - -Having made the necessary arrangements for the conveyance of his army -down the Chesapeake, Washington, accompanied by several distinguished -officers, French and American, hastened forward to Williamsburg, -where, in an interview with the Count de Grasse, a system of -operations for the contemplated siege was devised. - -On the 25th of September, the last division of the allied troops -arrived in James' river, and were disembarked at the landing near -Williamsburg. On the 30th, the combined armies, twelve thousand in -number, moved upon Yorktown and Gloucester, at which time the fleet of -Count de Grasse proceeded up York river, with the double object of -preventing the retreat of Cornwallis, and intercepting his supplies. - -The village of Yorktown lies on the south side of York river. Its -southern banks are high. In its waters a ship-of-the-line could ride -with safety. Gloucester Point projects far into the river on the -opposite shore. Both these posts were occupied by Cornwallis--the main -body of the army being at York, under the immediate command of his -lordship; Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton was stationed at Gloucester with -a detachment of about six hundred men. Every possible effort had been -made to fortify these posts. The interests involved were of -incalculable magnitude. A failure now, Cornwallis could not but -perceive, would put to hazard the royal cause. Every expedient, -therefore, was adopted, which was calculated to secure his success, -and give victory to the British arms. - -Washington was equally impressed with the greatness of the enterprise -in which he had embarked. The eyes of his countrymen were turned with -intense interest to the issues of the impending contest. Nor can it be -doubted that supplications went up from thousands of family altars, -and from private closets, that the God of the Pilgrim Fathers would -interpose for the salvation of a people, who, from their first landing -on these shores, had regarded his honor as their highest object, and -the enjoyment of rational liberty as their greatest privilege. - -The preparations having now been completed, Yorktown was invested, -upon which Cornwallis, abandoning all his advanced works, retired -behind his principal fortifications. The former were immediately -occupied by the besiegers. - -It is not important to detail the events of each succeeding day, as -this siege progressed. Washington, calm and collected, continued to -extend his batteries towards the principal works of the enemy. The -cannonade from the British line of defences was furious and incessant. -On the 16th, a fierce sortie was made by the British, an American -battery was stormed--the artillerists were overpowered, and seven -cannon spiked; but the Americans rallied, and succeeded in recovering -all that was lost. - -Finding his situation extremely critical, Cornwallis now decided on -abandoning his sick, together with his baggage, and, crossing to -Gloucester, to attempt an escape to New York. In pursuance of this -plan, boats, prepared under various pretexts, were held in readiness -to receive the troops at ten in the evening, and convey them over the -river. The arrangements were made with such secresy, that the first -embarkation arrived at the Point unperceived, and part of the troops -were landed, when a sudden and violent storm interrupted the execution -of this hazardous plan, and drove the boats down the river. The storm -continued till near daylight, when the boats returned. But the plan -was necessarily abandoned, and the boats were sent to bring back the -soldiers, who were rëlanded on the southern shore in the course of the -forenoon without much loss. - -On the morning of the 17th, several new batteries which had been -completed were opened, and a more appalling, and, if possible, -destructive fire, was commenced upon the British works. It could no -longer be withstood. Cornwallis became convinced of the folly of -protracting a contest which was only weakening his forces, and -sacrificing the lives of his troops. It was a most unwelcome and -humiliating necessity, but that necessity existed, and at ten o'clock he -ordered the British lines to beat a parley. This was immediately -followed by a proposed cessation of hostilities for twenty-four hours, -with reference to a settlement of terms of capitulation. Washington, in -his reply, expressed his desire to stay the effusion of blood, but not -one moment could he lose in fruitless negotiations. His lordship might -transmit his proposals, and two hours would be given to consider them. -These were transmitted, but they proved unsatisfactory. Washington now -himself dictated the terms; and they were the same as given to Lincoln -at the fall of Charleston. At the appointed time, the conquered army, -with colors cased, and drums silent, marched out, and laid down their -arms. Lincoln was appointed to receive the sword of Cornwallis--an honor -which he deserved--and a service doubtless the more grateful from the -circumstance that, eighteen months before, he had been compelled to -surrender his sword to an English commander. It was an imposing -spectacle. To the British, the more humiliating, as it cast a shade over -all their prospects of success in the land of rebellion--to the -Americans, the more grateful, as it was a presage of an end to their -toils and hardships. The conduct of Cornwallis, on the occasion of -surrender, was unbecoming the firm and high-minded officer. He was not -present, but appointed another to tender his sword in his place. There -are men who can participate in the honors of victory, and claim their -full portion--but who are too proud to share with their fellow-officers -and soldiers the mortification of defeat. Cornwallis was one. - -To Washington and his army the issue of this contest was most joyful; -and in token of that joy, orders were issued that all under arrest, -should forthwith be set at liberty. But this was not enough. A public -recognition of the Divine goodness seemed befitting; accordingly, in -his public orders, in terms most solemn and impressive, he directed -that divine service should be performed in the different brigades and -divisions. All the troops not on duty were recommended to be present, -and to assist in the solemn and grateful homage paid to the Benefactor -of the nation. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF YORKTOWN] - - - 8. TREATY OF PEACE. - -The first intelligence received in America from England, after the -news of the battle of Yorktown had reached that country, was different -in its tenor from what had been expected. The Americans regarded it as -the finishing stroke of the war, and anticipated a similar estimation -of the battle in England. But on the assembling of parliament in -November, 1781, the speech from the throne breathed a settled purpose -to continue the war; and the addresses from both houses, which were -carried by large majorities, echoed the sentiment. - -But when the first excitement had passed, and men began to contemplate -the posture of things with calm and enlightened reason, they saw the -folly of persisting in the contest. To conquer America by force, was -impracticable, and the further waste of treasure and blood, was both -impolitic and inhuman. - -Pursuant to these corrected views, on the 22d of February, 1782, General -Conway moved an address to the king, praying that the war on the -continent of North America might no longer be pursued, for the -impracticable purpose of reducing that country to obedience by force; -and expressing their hope, that the earnest desire and diligent exertion -to restore the public tranquillity, of which they had received his -majesty's most gracious assurances, might, by a happy reconciliation -with the revolted colonies, be forwarded and made effectual; to which -great end his majesty's faithful Commons would be ready to give their -utmost assistance. This motion being lost by a single vote only, was, -five days after, renewed by the same gentleman, in a form somewhat -different, and was carried; and an address, in pursuance of it, -presented to the king. Not yet satisfied with the triumph obtained over -the ministry, and considering the answer of the king not sufficiently -explicit, the House of Commons, on the 4th of March, on the motion of -General Conway, declared, that all those who should advise, or by any -means attempt, the further prosecution of offensive war in America, -should be considered as enemies to their king and country. In this state -of things, it was impossible for the ministry longer to continue in -power, and on the 19th, they relinquished their places. A new -administration was soon after formed--the Marquis of Rockingham was -placed at the head of the treasury, and the Earl of Shelburne and Mr. -Fox held the important places of secretaries. - -Measures were immediately adopted by the new ministry with a view to -peace. As the basis of peace, it was the wish of the Marquis of -Rockingham to offer America unlimited, unconditional independence. To -this, the Earl of Shelburne was opposed; and, moreover, it was one of -the last measures to which the king himself would give his assent. In -July, the Marquis of Rockingham died, and Lord Shelburne was appointed -first lord of the treasury. This produced an open rupture in the -cabinet, and the resignation of Lord John Cavendish, Mr. Fox, and -others; in consequence of which, William Pitt was made chancellor of -the exchequer, and Thomas Townshend and Lord Grantham, secretaries of -state. On the 11th of July, parliament adjourned. Among their last -acts, was one authorizing the king to conclude a peace or truce with -the Americans. - -On the 30th of November, 1782, a provisional treaty was agreed on at -Paris, by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and Henry Laurens, -on the part of America, and by Mr. Fitzherbert and Mr. Oswald, on the -part of Great Britain. - -It may be added, in this connection, that the definitive treaty of peace -was signed at Paris, on the 3d of September, by David Hartley, Esq., on -the part of his Britannic majesty, and by John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, -and John Adams, on the part of the United States. The provisions of the -treaty attest the zeal and ability of the American negotiation, as well -as the liberal feelings which actuated the British minority. The -independence of the United States was fully acknowledged. The right of -fishing on the banks of Newfoundland, and certain facilities in the -enjoyment of that right, were secured to them for ever. - - - 9. CESSATION OF HOSTILITIES. - -On the 18th of April, 1783, Gen. Washington announced the cessation of -hostilities between the two countries, in the following general order: - -"The commander-in-chief orders the cessation of hostilities between the -United States of America and the King of Great Britain, to be publicly -proclaimed to-morrow, at twelve o'clock, at the New Building; and the -proclamation, which will be communicated herewith, be read to-morrow -evening, at the head of every regiment and corps of the army; after -which, the chaplains, with the several brigades, will render thanks to -Almighty God for all his mercies, particularly for his overruling the -wrath of man to his own glory, and causing the rage of war to cease -among the nations."--It is worthy of notice that this order was read to -the army just eight years after the battle of Lexington. - - - 10. THE ARMY DISBANDED. - -On the 2d of November, Washington issued his farewell orders to the -army. In conclusion, he said: - -"Being now to conclude these his last public orders, to take his -ultimate leave, in a short time, of the military character, and to bid -adieu to the armies he has so long had the honor to command, he can -only again offer in their behalf his recommendations to their grateful -country, and his prayers to the God of armies. May ample justice be -done them here, and may the choicest of Heaven's favors, both here and -hereafter, attend those who, under the Divine auspices, have secured -innumerable blessings for others! With these wishes, and this -benediction, the commander-in-chief is about to retire from service. -The curtain of separation will soon be drawn, and the military scene -to him will be for ever closed." - -What more tender!--what more touching! While to Washington himself, and -to his army, it must have been most grateful that years of toil, -privation, and suffering were ended, and the glorious object for which -that toil, privation, and suffering had been endured, was achieved, the -hour of separation must have been most painful. They were to part to -meet no more. Well did his soldiers know that their brave and beloved -chief would bear them in his heart. But there were circumstances which, -at this final interview, bore heavily upon them. They were poor; and, in -rags and destitution, they were returning to their homes. Washington's -sympathies were enlisted for them; and while he could not justify the -course they had pursued--for they had passed resolutions in their -encampment reflecting on the justice of their country, and especially -upon congress, and had used terms of harshness and threatening--yet -Washington expressed his pity, and his ardent hope that ample justice -would be done them by a grateful country for the services they had -rendered, and for the toils and trials they had sustained. - -[Illustration: Washington taking leave of the Army--The Troops -defiling before him.] - -The parting moment now arrived. Column after column marched by him, -receiving as they passed his tender and affectionate salutation--the -several bands of music playing the mournful, yet, on this parting -occasion, appropriate dirge of "Roslin Castle." - - - 11. DEPARTURE OF THE BRITISH ARMY. - -The 25th of November had been fixed for the final retirement from the -American shores of the British officers and troops. The place of -departure was New York; and on that day they went on board the British -fleet--the American troops, under General Knox, at the same time -entering and taking possession of the city. - -Guards being posted for the security of the citizens, General -Washington, accompanied by Governor Clinton, and attended by many -civil and military officers, and a large number of respectable -inhabitants on horseback, made his public entry into the city. What a -triumph! What a glorious issue of the toils, anxieties, and hardships, -growing out of an eight years' contest! It was an occasion of joy, -such as the sun had not beamed upon since the day he was lighted up in -the firmament. Public dinners followed, and magnificent fireworks -attested the general joy. - - - 12. FINAL INTERVIEW OF WASHINGTON AND HIS OFFICERS. - -One other painful, yet pleasing scene, awaited the -commander-in-chief--the parting with the officers of the army, the -companions of his toils and triumph. The affecting interview took -place on the 4th of December. "At noon, the principal officers of the -army assembled at Francis's tavern; soon after which, their beloved -commander entered the room. His emotions were too strong to be -concealed. Filling a glass, he turned to them, and said: 'With a heart -full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you; I most devoutly -wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy, as your -former ones have been glorious and honorable.' Having drunk, he added: -'I cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged -if each of you will come and take me by the hand.' General Knox, being -nearest, turned to him. Washington, incapable of utterance, grasped -his hand, and embraced him. In the same affectionate manner, he took -leave of each succeeding officer. The tear of manly sensibility was in -every eye; and not a word was articulated to interrupt the dignified -silence and the tenderness of the scene. Leaving the room, he passed -through the corps of light infantry, and walked to Whitehall, where a -barge waited to convey him to Powles' Hook. The whole company followed -in mute and solemn procession, with dejected countenances, testifying -feelings of delicious melancholy, which no language can describe. -Having entered the barge, he turned to the company, and, waving his -hat, bade them a silent adieu. They paid him the same affectionate -compliment; and after the barge had left them, returned in the same -solemn manner to the place where they had assembled." - -[Illustration: Washington taking leave of his Officers, and embarking -at Whitehall.] - - - 13. WASHINGTON RESIGNS HIS COMMISSION. - -And there was still one further duty obligatory upon Washington--one -act more, and his earthly glory was consummated--to give back the -commission which for eight years he had held, and which, had he been -actuated by the ambition of Alexander, Cæsar, or Napoleon, he might -have employed to ascend a throne. To the fulfillment of this last and -highest duty he now addressed himself. Leaving New York, he repaired -to Annapolis, in Maryland, where congress was in session, and, on the -20th of December, informed that body of his intention, and requested a -day to be assigned for the performance of the duty. - -"To give the more dignity to the act, they determined that it should -be offered at a public audience on the following Tuesday at twelve -o'clock. - -"When the hour arrived for performing a ceremony so well calculated to -recall the various interesting scenes which had passed, since the -commission now to be returned was granted, the gallery was crowded -with spectators, and several persons of distinction were admitted on -the floor of congress. The members remained seated and covered. The -spectators were standing and uncovered. The general was introduced by -the secretary, and conducted to a chair. After a short pause, the -president informed him that 'The United States, in congress assembled, -were prepared to receive his communications.' With native dignity, -improved by the solemnity of the occasion, the general rose, and -delivered the following address: - -"'_Mr. President_: The great events on which my resignation depended, -having at length taken place, I have now the honor of offering my -sincere congratulations to congress, and of presenting myself before -them, to surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to -claim the indulgence of retiring from the service of my country. - -"'Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and -pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming a -respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I -accepted with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish -so arduous a task, which, however, was superseded by a confidence in -the rectitude of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the -union, and the patronage of Heaven. - -"'The successful termination of the war, has verified the most -sanguine expectations; and my gratitude for the interposition of -Providence, and the assistance I have received from my countrymen, -increases with every review of the momentous contest. - -"'While I repeat my obligations to the army in general, I should do -injustice to my own feelings not to acknowledge, in this place, the -peculiar services and distinguished merits of the gentlemen who have -been attached to my person during the war. It was impossible that the -choice of confidential officers to compose my family, should have been -more fortunate. Permit me, sir, to recommend, in particular, those who -have continued in the service to the present moment, as worthy of the -favorable notice and patronage of congress. - -"'I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last act of my -official life, by commending the interests of our dearest country to -the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence -of them to his holy keeping. - -"'Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great -theatre of action, and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this -august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my -commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life.'" - -Here, advancing to the chair, he delivered his commission to the -president, who in turn addressed him, and in conclusion said: - -"We join you in commending the interests of our dearest country to the -protection of Almighty God, beseeching him to dispose the hearts and -minds of its citizens to improve the opportunity afforded them of -becoming a happy and respectable nation. And for you, we address to him -our earnest prayers, that a life so beloved may be fostered with all his -care; that your days may be happy as they have been illustrious; and -that he will finally give you that reward which this world cannot give." - -The great act was now accomplished: Washington retired, greater, -nobler in the estimation of his countrymen than ever; and followed by -their love, esteem, and admiration, he once more took up his abode in -the quiet and peaceful shades of Mount Vernon, happier in the -consciousness of a disinterested patriotism, than if, as the reward of -his toils, he had attained the proudest diadem on earth. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: NAVAL OPERATIONS.] - - - - - XIV. NAVAL OPERATIONS. - - - STATE of Naval Affairs of the Colonies at the commencement of the - Revolution--First Naval Engagement--Measures adopted by Congress - to provide a Naval Armament--Naval Officers appointed--Vessels - built--Flag adopted--Success of American - Privateering--Distinguished Naval Officers--General character of - Naval Commanders--Particular Engagements--Randolph and - Yarmouth--Raleigh and Druid--Submarine Warfare--Le Bon Homme - Richard and Serapis--Trumbull and Watt--Alliance, Atalanta, and - Trepassey--Congress and Savage. - -Having given some account of the military land operations, during the -Revolutionary struggle, it belongs to this place to speak of the -operations of the American marine, during the same period. - -The colonies were poorly prepared, in respect to the organization of -an army, or the supply of munitions of war, at the commencement of the -contest. The preparations for the struggle on the ocean were, as might -be believed, still more limited. But few, even of the maritime -colonies, had turned their attention to a naval force as among the -means of defence. Indeed, although the storm had for some years been -gathering, and, to men of forecast, the day of open rupture was -likely to arrive, yet, at length, it broke upon the country suddenly. -Besides, maritime preparations for such a contest long beforehand -would have been difficult, if not impossible. Every measure having -such an object in view would have been regarded with jealousy, and -have brought down the wrath of the mother-country at a still earlier -period than it came. Moreover, the colonies had no general congress -till 1774, and when first convened, and until hostilities had actually -commenced, the object of that body was rather to obtain a redress of -grievances, and thus prevent war, than by strong and threatening -measures, to hasten an event which all regarded as a general calamity. -In addition to these considerations, in view of the magnitude and -power of the British navy, it was not probably seriously contemplated, -in case of hostilities, that the scene of successful action could be -on the ocean, but only on the land. - -No sooner, however, had the struggle actually commenced, than many of -the brave and enterprising commercial and sea-faring men, began to -look with wishful eyes towards an element which promised, if not honor -in competing with the navy of Great Britain, at least wealth by -cruising against her commerce. At this early period, the seamen of the -the colonies were at home on the deep. They were then, as now, bold, -hardy, and adventurous; and had orders of capture been issued at an -earlier day, it is probable that the commerce of England would have -suffered a signal interruption and loss. - -While the limits of this work forbid a _minute_ history of the rise, -progress, and success of the American navy, provincial and -continental, during the Revolutionary contest, such notices are -subjoined in relation thereto, as will give the reader an impression -of the efforts and prowess of the Americans, in despite of the -obstacles against which they had to contend. - -The news of the battle of Lexington reached Machias, in Maine, on -Saturday, the 9th of May, 1775, and there, as well as in other parts -of the country, roused the indignation of the inhabitants. At this -time, there was lying in that port a British armed schooner, called -the _Margaretta_, convoy to two sloops which were loading with lumber -in behalf of his majesty's government. Immediately a plan was devised -to seize the officers of the schooner, while in church the next day. -The scheme, however, failed; Captain Moore and his officers being -enabled to escape through the windows of the church, and effecting -their retreat to the schooner. Immediately she was got under way, and, -dropping down the river, cast anchor in the bay. - -The next morning possession was taken of one of the sloops, and with a -volunteer corps of thirty men on board, sail was made upon her, in -quest of the fugitive schooner. - -[Illustration: First Naval Engagement of the Revolution.] - -At this time, Captain Moore was ignorant of the commencement of -hostilities, and wishing therefore to avoid a collision, weighed -anchor on the appearance of the sloop, and stood out to sea. Chase was -given, and the sloop being the better sailer, at length came up with -the schooner. The latter was armed with four light guns, and fourteen -swivels. With these a fire was opened, and a man killed on board the -sloop. The latter returned the fire from a wall piece, which, besides -clearing the quarter-deck, killed the helmsman of the schooner. A -further short conflict ensued, when, by the broaching to of the -schooner, the vessels came in contact; upon which, the Americans -boarded her, and took her into port. Twenty men on both sides were -killed and wounded. Among the former was Captain Moore. Such was the -_first naval engagement in the war of the Revolution_. It was wholly a -private adventure--an enterprise on the part of a party banded -together in a moment of excitement, and successful with fearful -chances against them, only through their superior bravery. - -Before the subject of a naval armament was entertained by congress, -three of the colonies--Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and -Connecticut--had provided each two vessels, fitted, armed, and -equipped, without the orders or advice of congress. The precise time -when these vessels were ordered by these colonies cannot, perhaps, be -satisfactorily fixed at this distant period. - -Mr. Austin, in his life of the late vice-president Gerry, accords to -that gentleman the honor of having first made the proposal in the -provincial assembly of Massachusetts for appointing a committee to -prepare a law to encourage the fitting out of armed vessels, and to -establish a court for the trial and condemnation of prizes. "The law -reported by this committee," remarks the biographer, "was passed by -the provincial congress November 10th, 1775, and is the first actual -avowal of offensive hostility against the mother-country, which is to -be found in the annals of the Revolution. It is not the less worthy of -consideration as the first effort to establish an American naval -armament." - -It is certain, however, that previous to the above action of the -Massachusetts provincial assembly, but in no respect derogating from -her honor, congress had had the subject of armed vessels before them, -and had adopted resolutions ordering vessels of a certain description -to be provided. - -The following extracts from the journal of congress for 1775, exhibit -the first action of that body on the subject of a navy: Friday, -September 22, 1775, congress appointed a committee to take into -consideration the state of the trade of America. Thursday, October 5, -1775, Resolved, That a committee of three be appointed, to prepare a -plan for intercepting two vessels which are on their way to Canada, -laden with arms and powder; and that the committee proceed on this -business immediately. - -[Illustration: Silas Deane.] - -Pursuant to this resolve, the committee, consisting of Silas Deane, -John Langdon, and John Adams, reported that a letter be sent to -General Washington, advising him of the sailing of two brigs from -England to Quebec, with military stores; and authorizing him to -request of the council of Massachusetts any two armed vessels in their -service, and dispatch the same to intercept said brigs and cargoes. -Also, that the governors of Rhode Island and Connecticut be requested -to dispatch, the former one or both of the armed vessels belonging to -that colony, and the latter the largest vessel in the service of the -colony of Connecticut, on the same enterprise. This report was -accepted, and the resolution was adopted. - -The preceding measures in respect to a naval movement, were soon -followed by others on a more enlarged scale, and looking still further -into the future. Several vessels were ordered, by sundry resolves, to -be fitted out at the expense of congress--and among them was one able -to carry fourteen guns, one twenty, and a third not to exceed -thirty-six guns. In November, privateering was authorized, and rules -adopted for the navy. In the following month, a resolve was adopted -for the building of thirteen ships--five of thirty-two guns, five of -twenty-eight, and three of twenty-four. - -Thus it appears that in 1775, congress authorized a regular marine, -consisting of seventeen cruisers, varying in force from ten to -thirty-six guns. These vessels were to be built in the four colonies -of New England, in New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The following -is a list of their names and respective rates, as well as of the -colony where each was to be built, viz: - - WASHINGTON, 32 guns Pennsylvania. - RALEIGH, 32 ---- New Hampshire. - HANCOCK, 32 ---- Massachusetts. - RANDOLPH, 32 ---- Pennsylvania. - WARREN, 32 ---- Rhode Island. - MARYLAND, 28 ---- Virginia. - TRUMBULL, 28 ---- Connecticut - EFFINGHAM, 28 ---- Pennsylvania. - CONGRESS, 28 ---- New York. - PROVIDENCE, 28 ---- Rhode Island. - BOSTON, 24 ---- Massachusetts. - MONTGOMERY, 24 ---- New York. - DELAWARE, 24 ---- Pennsylvania. - -Such was the commencement of the American navy. - -Ezekiel Hopkins was placed at the head of the navy, with the title of -"commander-in-chief," thus giving him, in respect to the navy, a rank -corresponding to the rank of Washington in the army. Among the seamen, -his usual appellation was "commodore;" but not unfrequently he was -styled "admiral." His pay was one hundred and twenty-five dollars -a-month. Other officers for the navy were appointed from time to time, -as the exigencies of the service required. Originally, congress left -the rank of the several officers to be regulated by those who were -actually in command; but this gave rise to discontent and dispute; -whereupon, in 1776, congress decided the rank of the several captains. -They ranked as follows: - - 1. James Nicholson, - 2. John Manly, - 3. Hector McNiel, - 4. Dudley Saltonstall, - 5. Nicholas Biddle, - 6. Thomas Thompson, - 7. John Barry, - 8. Thomas Read, - 9. Thomas Grennall, - 10. Charles Alexander, - 11. Lambert Wickes, - 12. Abraham Whipple, - 13. John B. Hopkins, - 14. John Hodge, - 15. William Hallock, - 16. Hoysted Hacker, - 17. Isaiah Robinson, - 18. John Paul Jones, - 19. James Josiah, - 20. Elisha Hinman, - 21. Joseph Olney, - 22. James Robinson, - 23. John Young, - 24. Elisha Warner. - -The arrangement of rank of inferior officers was assigned to the -marine committee. - -Commodore Hopkins continued to act as commander-in-chief till January -2d, 1777, when, by a vote of congress, he was dismissed from the -service, for not performing the duties on which he had been sent with -a fleet to the South. From this date, Captain Nicholson became the -senior officer of the navy, though only with the rank of captain. - -The foregoing general view of the proceedings of congress in relation -to the provision and equipment of a naval armament for the -Revolutionary contest, must suffice. Had their various resolutions -been fully carried into effect, more important results might have been -expected from this source of opposition to Great Britain. But the want -of funds, but much more the want of materials for the final equipment -of vessels which had been launched--such as guns, anchors, rigging, -&c.--in some instances retarded, and in others prevented the -completion of vessels which had been ordered, and which the exigencies -of the country so much required. - -By the act of October, 1775, thirteen frigates were ordered to be -built. Of these, the Raleigh was laid down in New Hampshire, and in -sixty days was launched. But the want of materials for equipment for -some time delayed her completion. - -The Hancock and Boston were built in Massachusetts, and entered the -service. - -The Warren and Providence were constructed in Rhode Island, but were -the most indifferent of the thirteen. - -The Congress and Montgomery, ordered to be built in New York, never -reached the mouth of the Hudson, being obliged to be burned in 1777, -to prevent their falling into the hands of the British. - -The Maryland, constructed in Virginia, was completed, and took her -place in the service. - -The Randolph, the Washington, the Delaware, and the Effingham were -allotted to Pennsylvania. The first of these was launched in 1776, and -sailed on her first cruise early in 1777. The Delaware was equipped, -but is supposed to have fallen into the hands of the British at the -time they took possession of Philadelphia. The Washington and the -Effingham were burned by the British in 1778. - -"Thus, of the thirteen vessels from which so much was expected, but -six got to sea at all in the service in which they were built. To -these were added, in the course of the war, a few other frigates, some -permanently and some only for single cruises. Of the former class, -were the Deane, (Hague,) Alliance, Confederacy, and Queen of France. -It is believed that these four ships, added to the thirteen ordered by -the law of 1775, and the Alfred and Columbus, will comprise all the -frigate-built vessels that properly belonged to the marine of the -country during the war of the Revolution. The French vessels that -composed most of the squadron of Paul Jones were lent for the -occasion, and we hear no more of the Pallas after the cruise had -ended. She reverted to her original owners." - -During the progress of the war, quite a number of sloops of war and -other vessels were employed by congress, and some by the commissioners -in France. But a complete catalogue of these, it is now impossible to -give. - -At the commencement of the Revolution, the flag used on board of some -ships, bore a device, representing a pine-tree with a rattle-snake -coiled at the root, and ready to strike, with the appropriate motto, -"_Don't tread on me._" Some privateers showed flags with devices upon -them after the fancy of their captains or owners; others adopted the -arms of the colony from which they sailed, or by whose authority they -cruised. In 1777, congress adopted the present national colors. - -Many of the officers of the navy were high-spirited and intelligent -men. Not a few of the commanders of privateers--and the ocean soon -swarmed with them--were distinguished for their nautical skill, and -were possessed of as noble and generous impulses as ever actuated the -human bosom. None at the present day can adequately realize the -obstacles which, at that early period, were to be overcome. Vessels of -war were not in existence; even vessels originally adapted for -cruising were not numerous. Besides, not only was the government poor, -but the fortunes of individuals bore no comparison to some at the -present day. And, moreover, the principal theatre of the war was -designed from the beginning to be on the land. But the maritime spirit -was by no means to be restrained. A writer somewhere remarks, that the -conflict between Great Britain and her oppressed and despised colonies -had not continued a twelvemonth, when the coasts of the former country -were harassed and agitated by the audacity and enterprise of the -American cruisers. Insurance in England rose to an unprecedented -height. Ship-owners were afraid to trust their vessels abroad; and few -indeed did venture, unless they were protected by a convoy. England -was made to feel, few and ill-equipped as were the American vessels, -compared with her numerous and well-furnished navy, that a nation -thoroughly imbued with the love of maritime adventure, was not to be -despised, though she were distant and poor. - -It is remarked by Mr. Hinton that, "in the course of three years, the -Americans had taken more than double the number of their own guns from -the enemy, besides a great number of merchantmen of value. More than -eight hundred guns had been taken from the enemy during this time by the -marine which congress had fitted out; while that of Massachusetts and of -the other states were equally successful. The vessels taken by the -public and private armed vessels, from the battle of Lexington to the -17th of March, 1776, when the British evacuated Boston, amounted to -thirty-four, of considerable size and value, with excellent cargoes. The -tonnage of these captured vessels amounted to three thousand six hundred -and forty-five tons. In 1776, the British vessels captured by the -private armed vessels alone, amounted to the great number of three -hundred and forty-two, of which forty-four were rëtaken, eighteen -released, and five burned. In the following year, 1777, the success of -our privateers was still greater. Vessels were captured to the amount of -four hundred and twenty-one. The success continued without any great -diminution until 1780. At this time, the British merchants made so -strong an appeal to their government, that they provided a convoy for -every fleet of merchant vessels to every part of the globe. Out of the -fleet sailing from England to the West Indies, consisting of two hundred -in number, in the year 1777, one hundred and thirty-seven were taken by -our privateers; and from a fleet from Ireland to the West Indies of -sixty sail, thirty-five were taken. Taking the years 1775, 6, 7, 8, and -9, say for the first year, thirty-four; second, three hundred and -forty-two; third, four hundred and twenty-one; and for the fourth, which -has not been accurately given, I believe, in any work, say, and this -within bounds, two hundred; and, for the fifth, the same, two hundred; -and allowing but one hundred for the balance of the time during the war, -will make twelve hundred and ninety-seven, without including those -taken by public vessels from 1776 to the close of the war; and this -latter number, if it could be precisely given, would add greatly to the -list of captures." - -The naval names, that have descended to us from this war with the -greatest reputation, are those of Manly, Mugford, Jones, Barry, Barney, -Waters, Young, Tucker, Talbot, Nicholson, Williams, Biddle, Hopkins, -Robinson, Wickes, Rathburne, and Hacket. Besides these, there were many -others, either in the service of one of the state sovereignties, at that -time, or of congress, who were equally worthy of notice, but who have -been neglected, because they were only commanders of privateers. - -It cannot be doubted that, considering the great number of privateers -that swarmed upon the ocean during the war, there were sometimes -cruelties practiced, and scenes enacted, disgraceful to the -perpetrators. The contrary was not to be expected. But generally, the -commanders of these privateers were men of principle and humanity. -Indeed, instances of the most magnanimous conduct among them might be -given. In several cases of capture, when they understood that the -owners were friendly to the cause of America, both the vessel and the -crew were suffered to depart without losing a particle of property. -And still further, the officers of vessels, captured by privateers, as -well as by public armed ships, were never deprived of their baggage, -and often not of their _adventures_, when they had any. - -From the preceding account of the capture of British vessels, during -the Revolution, by American privateers and regular ships of war, it -can easily be credited that the ocean must have been the scene of many -thrilling and adventurous exploits. The American seamen were fired -with a patriotism, not less pure and impulsive than the soldiers on -the land. But the story of their bravery, the hardships they endured, -the zeal and courage with which they fought, unlike that of their -compatriots, were left in a great measure unrecorded; or, if noticed -in the papers of the day, were told without those circumstantial -details, from which the chief interest of a naval engagement often -arises. Some privateersmen probably had not the ability to draw up -such accounts, and others who had, not being obliged to report to the -government an account of their engagements, lacked the inclination, -amid the stirring scenes in which they were engaged. Hence, but few -well-authenticated and circumstantial accounts of the operations of -this species of force have descended to the present time. - -The records of engagements by the regular marine are more abundant, -but far from being as copious and circumstantial as those of the -American navy, during the late war with Great Britain. Enough of -interest, however, exists and more than sufficient for the space which -we can allow to the subject. Indeed, we must leave unnoticed several -as full of interest and as evincive of prowess, as those which find a -place in this volume. - - - 1. RANDOLPH AND YARMOUTH - -The Randolph, a frigate of thirty-two guns, was launched at -Philadelphia in 1776, and sailed on her first cruise in 1777, being -one of the first, if not the very first, of the new vessels built -under the resolution of congress of October, 1775, that proceeded to -sea. She was commanded by Nicholas Biddle, a man combining all the -distinguishing qualifications of a great naval commander. - -After having been at sea a few days, a defect in his masts, and a -disposition to mutiny discovered in his crew, induced him to put into -Charleston. On again sailing, he soon fell in with and captured four -Jamaica-men, one of which, the True-Briton, had an armament of -twenty-guns. With these prizes, he returned to Charleston. The -citizens of that place, pleased with the character and enterprise of -Captain Biddle, placed four small vessels of their own under his care; -with these and the Randolph he proceeded to sea, in search of several -British vessels which had been seen cruising off Charleston for some -time. No traces of them, however, were discovered. - -Nothing more was heard from this squadron for some time. But, at -length, intelligence was received of the most distressing nature. It -was contained in a letter of Captain Vincent, of his Britannic -majesty's ship Yarmouth, sixty-four, dated March 17th, 1778. - -On the 7th of that month, the Yarmouth, while cruising to the east of -Barbadoes, discovered six sail bearing south-east, and standing on a -wind. On getting nearer, they were discovered to be two ships, three -brigs, and a schooner. At nine o'clock P. M., the Yarmouth succeeded -in ranging up on the weather-quarter of the largest and leading -vessel--the ship, next in size, being astern to leeward. Here, -displaying her colors, the Yarmouth ordered the Randolph (for so she -proved to be) to show her ensign. At this moment the American flag was -run up, and a whole broadside poured in upon the Yarmouth. A spirited -action immediately ensued, and for twenty minutes was maintained by -both ships with great energy--when on a sudden the Randolph blew up. -So near were the ships at the time, that portions of the flying wreck -struck the Yarmouth, and even the American ensign fell upon her -forecastle. It was rolled up, and not even singed. - -Immediately following this catastrophe, the Yarmouth went in pursuit of -the other vessels, which, meanwhile, were attempting to escape. But he -was unable to come up with them, his own sails having been so injured -during the short action had with the Randolph. The chase, therefore, was -relinquished, and the Yarmouth continued to cruise in the neighborhood. -She was still ignorant of the name of the ill-fated vessel, which she -had engaged, nor was there now any prospect of her ever learning it. - -But at length, on the 12th, while passing near to the theatre of the -engagement, signals of distress were discovered proceeding from persons -at a short distance. On reaching them, they proved to be four men, on a -piece of wreck. On being taken on board of the Yarmouth, they reported -themselves as having belonged to the Randolph, thirty-two, Captain -Biddle, blown up in an action with an English frigate on the night of -the 7th. They had been floating on the wreck on which they were -discovered, without sustenance, since the time of explosion. - -[Illustration: The Randolph and Yarmouth.] - -These men reported, that, soon after the action commenced, Captain -Biddle was severely wounded in the thigh. Being taken below, and -seated in a chair, the surgeon was proceeding to examine his wound, -when the explosion occurred, by which the vessel was blown into -fragments, and the whole crew, officers and men, with the exception of -the four named, were in a moment killed. The Yarmouth, in the brief -time the action lasted, lost five killed and twelve wounded. - -What would have been the result, had not this catastrophe occurred, no -one can say. Captain Biddle was fighting at fearful odds. But he was -young, ardent, ambitious; and, while we can scarcely refrain from -thinking him presumptuous, it is quite apparent, from his actually -entering the lists, that he contemplated a victory over his powerful -antagonist as an achievement quite possible. He was only twenty-seven -years of age. His untimely fate caused a deep sensation in all -quarters; the navy was felt to have lost a true friend, and the -country a zealous patriot. - - - 2. RALEIGH AND DRUID. - -Under the law of 1775, the Raleigh was constructed in New Hampshire. -She was a fine twelve-pounder frigate, commanded by Captain Thompson. -In the latter part of August, 1777, for the first time, she went to -sea. She was accompanied by the Alfred, twenty-four, Captain Hinman. -Both vessels were bound to France for military stores. - -During the first few days, while running off the coast, they captured -several small vessels; and, on the 2d of September, fell in with and -captured a scow, called the Nancy, belonging to the outward-bound -windward fleet. Learning the direction of this fleet, which was in the -advance of the Nancy, Captain Thompson went in chase. On the 3d, the -convoy of the fleet was descried. It consisted of the Camel, Druid, -Weasel, and Grasshopper, which had under their protection sixty -merchantmen. At sunset, Captain Thompson spoke the Alfred, and -signified his intention of running in among the fleet, and, if -possible, engaging the commodore. - -By means of the officers of the Nancy, he had obtained the signals of -the fleet, and by means of these he was able to pass for one of the -convoy. The Alfred proving unable to carry the requisite sail, Captain -Thompson left her, and passed on into the midst of the fleet. His guns -being housed and his ports lowered, she showed no signs of preparation -for an attack. Added to this, making use of the commodore's signals, -he was able to give several of the merchantmen direction how to steer. -Thus he avoided suspicion, and was able to run the Raleigh alongside -of the vessel of war, and "when within pistol-shot, she hauled up her -courses, run out her guns, set her ensign, and commanded the enemy to -strike." This was a bold movement. Taken by surprise, the British -commander was at an utter loss how to act. The confusion was general. -The sails got aback. Taking advantage of the perturbation on board the -Druid, (for so she proved,) Captain Thompson poured in upon her a -broadside. This was followed by a second, third--twelve broadsides in -twenty minutes, scarcely receiving a shot in return. - -[Illustration: The Raleigh and Druid.] - -While thus engaged, a sudden and violent squall came on, which, in a -measure, slackened the engagement, and rendered the aim uncertain. As -the squall ceased, it was discovered that the convoy had scattered in -all directions, and were doing their utmost to escape. The other armed -vessels now hastened to the assistance of their crippled companion. -Yet the Raleigh continued to deal out her thunder, nor did she haul -off until the other vessels were almost within gun-shot of her. Thus -compelled, she ran to leeward, and joined the Alfred. Hoping, however, -that the commodore might be induced to renew the engagement, she -shortened sail, thus giving her antagonist an opportunity to restore -his wounded honor; but, instead of this, he hauled in among his -convoy. For several following days the American ships continued to -follow the fleet, but they were not so fortunate as to receive the -respects of any of the vessels of war. - -The Druid, which was of twenty guns, was so much disabled as to be -obliged immediately to return to England. Her loss was six killed and -twenty-six wounded; among the latter, was her commander, Captain -Carteret. Five of the wounded subsequently died. The Raleigh had three -men killed and wounded. - - - 3. SUB-MARINE WARFARE - -During the year 1777, David Bushnell, a native of Connecticut, made -several attempts to blow up the ships of the enemy by means of -_torpedoes_. This mode of warfare had employed his thoughts during his -collegiate course, so that on graduating in 1775, his plans were in a -good degree matured. An account of some of his early plans he gave to -the world himself. The following is a description of his celebrated -torpedo: "It bore a resemblance to two upper tortoise shells of equal -sizes, placed in contact, leaving, at that part which represents the -head of the animal, a flue or opening sufficiently capacious to -contain the operator, and air to support him thirty minutes. At the -bottom, opposite to the entrance, was placed a quantity of lead for -ballast. The operator sat upright, and held an oar for rowing forward -or backward, and was furnished with a rudder for steering. An aperture -at the bottom with its valves admitted water for the purpose of -descending, and two brass forcing-pumps served to eject the water -within, when necessary for ascending. The vessel was made completely -water-tight, furnished with glass windows for the admission of light, -with ventilators and air-pipes, and was so ballasted with lead fixed -on the bottom as to render it solid, and obviate all danger of -oversetting. Behind the sub-marine vessel was a place above the rudder -for carrying a large powder magazine; this was made of two pieces of -oak timber, large enough, when hollowed out, to contain one hundred -and fifty pounds of powder, with the apparatus used for firing it, and -was secured in its place by a screw turned by the operator. It was -lighter than water, so that he might rise against the object to which -it was intended to be fastened. - -"Within the magazine was an apparatus constructed to run any proposed -period under twelve hours; when it had run out its time, it unpinioned -a strong lock, resembling a gun-lock, which gave fire to the powder. -This apparatus was so pinioned, that it could not possibly move, -until, by casting off the magazine from the vessel, it was set in -motion. The skillful operator could swim so low on the surface of the -water, as to approach very near the ship in the night, without fear of -being discovered, and might, if he chose, approach the stem or stern -above water, with very little danger. He could sink very quickly, keep -at any necessary depth, and row a great distance in any direction he -desired, without coming to the surface. When he rose to the top, he -could soon obtain a fresh supply of air, and, if necessary, descend -again and pursue his course." - -With a torpedo of the above construction, Bushnell made an experiment -on the Eagle, a sixty-gun ship, then lying in the harbor of New York, -and under command of Lord Howe. A sergeant of one of the Connecticut -regiments conducted the operation. General Putnam, standing on the -wharf, was a witness of the proceeding. - -The sergeant, having under cover of night proceeded to the ship, -attempted to fasten the torpedo to her bottom by means of a screw. But -in this he failed, striking, as he supposed, a bar or bolt of iron, -which resisted the screw. In attempting to move to another place, he -passed from under the ship, and soon rose to the surface. By this -time, daylight had so far advanced as to make any further experiments -hazardous. He therefore concluded to return to New York. On passing -Governor's island, supposing himself discovered by the British -stationed there, he cast off his magazine, and proceeded without it. -The internal apparatus was set to run one hour; at the expiration of -which, it blew up, in a tremendous explosion, throwing a vast column -of water to a great height, to the no small wonder of the enemy. - -This experiment was followed in the course of the year by an attempt -from a whaling-boat against the frigate Cerebus, off New London. The -expedient adopted in this case was to draw a machine, loaded with -powder, against her side by means of a line, to be exploded by a -gun-lock. But failing to attach itself as intended, against the -frigate, it became attached to a schooner, at anchor astern of the -frigate, which, on exploding, it demolished. - -In a letter addressed to Sir Peter Parker, by Commodore Simmons, at the -time of the explosion on board the Cerebus, he gave an account of this -singular disaster. Being at anchor to the westward of the town with a -schooner which he had taken, about eleven o'clock in the evening he -discovered a line towing astern from the bows. He believed some person -had been veered away by it, and immediately began to haul in. A sailor -belonging to the schooner taking it for a fishing-line, laid hold of it, -and drew it in about fifteen fathoms. It was buoyed up by small pieces -tied to it at regular distances. At the end of the rope a machine was -fastened, too heavy for one man to pull up, for it exceeded one hundred -pounds in weight. The other people of the schooner coming to his -assistance, they drew it upon deck. While the men, to gratify their -curiosity, were examining the machine, it exploded, blew the vessel into -pieces, and set her on fire. Three men were killed, and a fourth blown -into the water, very much injured. On subsequent examination, the other -part of the line was discovered buoyed up in the same manner; this the -commodore ordered to be instantly cut away, for fear (as he termed it) -of hauling up another of the "_infernals_!" - -The above mode of warfare cannot but be considered too shocking and -inhuman to be encouraged by civilized nations, and we do not regret -that the experiment of Bushnell, and the more recent experiments of -Fulton, failed. But it is said that the failure of his efforts cast a -deep and permanent gloom over the mind of Bushnell. - - - 4. LE BON HOMME RICHARD AND SERAPIS. - -On the 10th of April, 1778, the celebrated John Paul Jones sailed on a -cruise from France, having the Ranger placed under his command by the -American commissioners, Franklin, Deane, and Lee. In consideration of -his previous valuable services, he was allowed to cruise wherever he -pleased. Accordingly, he directed his course along the British coast, -and for a time kept the people of the maritime part of Scotland, and -part of England, in a state of great alarm and excitement. - -Among his exploits on this cruise, previous to that in which he -engaged the Serapis, his descent upon Whitehaven was of the boldest -character. Two forts, with thirty pieces of cannon, guarded this port, -in which, at the time, were a hundred vessels at anchor. - -"Two parties landed in the night; the forts were seized and the guns -spiked; the few look-outs that were in the works being confined. In -effecting this duty, Captain Jones was foremost in person; for, having -once sailed out of that port, he was familiar with the situation of the -place. An accident, common to both the parties into which the expedition -had been divided, came near defeating the enterprise in the outset. They -had brought candles in lanterns, for the double purpose of lights and -torches, and, now that they were about to be used as the latter, it was -found that they were all consumed. As the day was appearing, the party -under Mr. Wallingford, one of the lieutenants, took to its boat without -effecting any thing, while Captain Jones sent to a detached building, -and obtained a candle. He boarded a large ship, kindled a fire in her -steerage, and by placing a barrel of tar over the spot, soon had the -vessel in flames. This ship lay in the midst of more than a hundred -others, high and dry, the tide being out; Captain Jones took to his -boats, and pulled towards his ship. Some guns were fired on the retiring -boats without effect; but the people of the place succeeded in -extinguishing the flames before the mischief became very extensive." - -[Illustration: Jones setting Fire to the Ships at Whitehaven.] - -During this cruise, another bold enterprise was undertaken. This was an -attempt to seize the Earl of Selkirk, who had a seat on St. Mary's Isle, -near the point, where the Dee flows into the channel. Jones was well -acquainted with the place, his father having been gardener to the earl, -but he was not himself immediately engaged in the attempt, that being -entrusted to a subordinate officer. The party landed, demanded and took -possession of the house, but, to their great disappointment, the duke -himself was absent. One unauthorized act of the party, Captain Jones -condemned, viz: the seizure of about one hundred pounds value of plate. -This, however, he afterwards purchased of the crew, and returned to -Lady Selkirk, with a letter expressive of his regrets at the occurrence. - -He next steered towards the coast of Ireland, where he encountered the -Drake, twenty, a ship which he had a sincere desire to meet. On -approaching the Ranger, the Drake hailed, and received the name of her -antagonist, by way of challenge, with a request to come on. As the two -ships were standing on in this manner, the Drake a little to leeward -and astern, the Ranger put her helm up, a manoeuvre that the enemy -imitated, and the former gave the first broadside. The wind admitted -of but few changes, but the battle was fought running fire, under easy -canvas. It lasted an hour and four minutes, when the Drake called for -quarter, her ensign being already cut down. - -The English ship was much cut up, both in her hull and aloft, and -Captain Jones computed her loss at about forty men. Her captain and -lieutenant were both desperately wounded, and died shortly after the -engagement. The Ranger suffered much less, having Lieutenant -Wallingford and one man killed, and six wounded. The Drake was not -only a heavier ship, but she had a much stronger crew than her -antagonist. She had also two guns the most. - -With this prize, Jones returned to Brest, where for a time he remained -in hope of receiving a more important command, and which had brought -him to Europe. - -After many delays, the king of France purchased for him the Duras, an -old Indiaman, which name Jones exchanged for Le Bon Homme Richard.[51] -To this were, added by order of the French ministry, the Pallas, -Cerf, and Vengeance, and, by Dr. Franklin, commissioner, the Alliance, -thirty-two, then in France. The Cerf and Alliance were the only -vessels of the squadron fitted for war. - -[Illustration: Paul Jones.] - -With this squadron, Commodore Jones, on the 19th of June, 1779, sailed -from the anchorage under the Isle of Groix, off l'Orient, bound -southward; but, finding it necessary to return, he left the anchorage -a second time, on the 14th of August. About the 23d of September, he -fell in with a fleet of merchantmen, of more than forty sail, under -convoy of the Serapis, forty-four, Captain Richard Pearson, and the -Countess of Seaborough, twenty-two. - -The Serapis was a new ship, mounting on her lower gun-deck, twenty -eighteen-pound guns, on her upper gun deck, twenty nine-pound guns, -and on her quarter-deck and forecastle, ten six-pound guns; making an -armament of fifty guns in the whole. Her crew consisted of three -hundred and twenty men. The Bon Homme Richard was a single-decked -ship, with six old eighteen-pounders mounted in the gun-room below, -and twenty-eight twelve-pounders on her main or proper gun-deck, with -eight nines on her quarter-deck forecastle, and six in the gangways, -making in all a mixed, or rather light amount of forty-two guns. Her -crew consisted of three hundred and eighty men, of whom one hundred -and thirty-seven were marines or soldiers. - -Our narrative will be confined to the action between the Richard and -the Serapis, which proved one of the most terrible and hotly-contested -engagements recorded in the annals of naval warfare. - -[Illustration: Le Bon Homme Richard and Serapis.] - -About half-past seven in the evening, the Richard came up with the -Serapis. Captain Pearson hailed. The answer of Commodore Jones was -designedly equivocal, and, in a moment after, both ships delivered their -entire broadsides. A sad and destructive catastrophe befel the Richard. -Two of her eighteen guns burst, blowing up the deck above, and killing -or wounding a large proportion of the people stationed below. This -disaster caused all the heavy guns to be deserted, the men having no -longer sufficient confidence in them to use them. The loss of these -reduced the Richard one-third below that of her rival; in short, it -became a contest between a twelve-pounder and an eighteen pounder, a -species of contest in which it has been said the former has never been -known to prevail. Captain Jones, however, more than most men, was fitted -for desperate circumstances, and in a moment determined to make up in -rëdoubled activity what was wanting in power of metal. - -Nearly an hour was consumed in different manoeuvres--shifting, -firing--each endeavoring to obtain the advantage of position; till, at -length, the vessels came close together, but not in a manner which -permitted either party to board. The firing ceased for a few minutes. -Captain Pearson, imagining the enemy had surrendered, demanded, "Have -you struck your colors?" "I have not yet begun to fight!" vociferated -the intrepid Jones. - -The ships again separated, and the firing was renewed. Again they fell -upon each other, and in the moment of collision, Captain Jones, with his -own hands, lashed the enemy's head-gear to his mizen-mast. This brought -them more entirely side by side, and it being desirable on the part of -Captain Jones to retain the enemy in that position, additional lashings -were employed to effect that object. This was a disappointment to -Captain Pearson, but he determined to be first in boarding, and now made -a vigorous attempt with that object in view, but was repulsed. - -"All this time, the battle raged. The lower ports of the Serapis -having been closed, as the vessels swung, to prevent boarding, they -were now blown off, in order to allow the guns to be run out; and -cases actually occurred in which the rammers had to be thrust into the -ports of the opposite ship, in order to be entered into the muzzles of -their proper guns. It is evident that such a conflict must have been -of short duration. In effect, the heavy metal of the Serapis, in one -or two discharges, cleared all before it, and the main guns of the -Richard were in a great measure abandoned. Most of the people went on -the upper deck, and a great number collected on the forecastle, where -they were safe from the fire of the enemy, continuing to fight by -throwing grenades and using muskets. - -"In this stage of the combat, the Serapis was tearing her antagonist to -pieces below, almost without resistance from her enemy's batteries, only -two guns on the quarter-deck, and three or four of the twelves, being -worked at all. To the former, by shifting a gun from the larboard side, -Commodore Jones succeeded in adding a third, all of which were used with -effect, under his immediate inspection, to the close of the action. He -could not muster force enough to get over a second gun. But the combat -would now have soon terminated, had it not been for the courage and -activity of the people aloft. Strong parties had been placed in the -tops; at the end of a short contest, the Americans had driven every man -belonging to the enemy below; after which, they kept up so animated a -fire, on the quarter-deck of the Serapis in particular, as to drive -nearly every man off it, that was not shot down. - -"Thus, while the English had the battle nearly all to themselves -below, their enemies had the control above the upper-deck. Having -cleared the tops of the Serapis, some American seamen lay out on the -Richard's main-yard, and began to throw hand-grenades upon the two -upper-decks of the English ship; the men on the forecastle of their -own vessel seconding these efforts, by casting the same combustibles -through the ports of the Serapis. At length, one man in particular -became so hardy, as to take his post on the extreme end of the yard, -whence, provided with a bucket filled with combustibles and a match, -he dropped the grenades with so much precision, that one passed -through the main-hatchway. The powder-boys of the Serapis, had got -more cartridges up than were wanted, and, in their hurry, they had -carelessly laid a row of them on the main-deck, in a line with the -guns. The grenade just mentioned, set fire to some loose powder that -was lying near, and the flash passed from cartridge to cartridge -beginning abreast the main-mast, and running quite aft. - -"The effect of this explosion was awful. More than twenty men were -instantly killed, many of them being left with nothing on them but the -collars and wristbands of their shirts, and the waistbands of their -duck trowsers; while the official returns of the ship, a week after -the action, show that there were no less than thirty-eight wounded on -board still alive, who had been injured in this manner, and of whom -thirty were said to have been then in great danger. Captain Pearson -describes this explosion as having destroyed nearly all the men at the -five or six aftermost guns. On the whole, nearly sixty must have been -disabled by this sudden blow. - -"The advantage thus obtained by the coolness and intrepidity of the -topmen, in a great measure restored the chances of the combat; and, by -lessening the fire of the enemy, enabled Commodore Jones to increase -his. In the same degree that it encouraged the crew of the Richard, it -diminished the hopes of the people of the Serapis. One of the guns, -under the immediate inspection of Commodore Jones, had been pointed -some time against the main-mast of his enemy, while the two others had -seconded the fire of the tops, with grape and cannister. Kept below -decks by this double attack, where a scene of frightful horror was -present in the agonies of the wounded, and the effects of the -explosion, the spirits of the English began to droop, and there was a -moment when a trifle would have induced them to submit. From this -despondency, they were temporarily raised, by one of those -unlooked-for events that ever accompany the vicissitudes of battle. - -"After exchanging an ineffective and distant broadside with the -Scarborough, the Alliance kept standing off and on, to leeward of the -two principal ships, out of the direction of their shot, when, about -half-past eight, she appeared crossing the stern of the Serapis and the -bow of the Richard, firing at such a distance as to render it impossible -to say which vessel would suffer the most. As soon as she had drawn out -of the range of her own guns, her helm was put up, and she ran down -nearly a mile to leeward, hovering about, until the firing had ceased -between the Pallas and Scarborough, when she came within hail, and spoke -both of these vessels. Captain Cottineau, of the Pallas, earnestly -entreated Captain Landais to take possession of his prize, and allow him -to go to the assistance of the Richard, or to stretch up to windward in -the Alliance himself, and succor the commodore."[52] - -At length, Captain Landais determined to go to the assistance of the -Richard, but on reaching the scene of engagement, he opened a fire -which did as much damage to friend as foe. He was hailed, and informed -that he was firing into the wrong ship. At the time, it was supposed -to be a mistake; but afterwards it was more than conjectured to have -been a wanton and cruel act of revenge on the part of Landais, who had -for some time exhibited strong feelings of hostility to Captain Jones, -and had neglected on several occasions to follow out his orders. - -"Let the injuries have been received," continues Mr. Cooper, "from -what quarter they might, soon after the Alliance had run to leeward, -an alarm was spread in the Richard that the ship was sinking. Both -vessels had been on fire several times, and some difficulty had been -experienced in extinguishing the flames; but here was a new enemy to -contend with, and as the information came from the carpenter, whose -duty it was to sound the pump-wells, it produced a great deal of -consternation. The Richard had more than a hundred English prisoners -on board, and the master-at-arms, in the hurry of the moment, let them -all up below, in order to save their lives. In the confusion of such a -scene at night, the master of a letter-of-marque, that had been taken -off the north of Scotland, passed through a port of the Richard into -one of the Serapis, when he reported to Captain Pearson, that a few -minutes would probably decide the battle in his favor, or carry his -enemy down, he himself having been liberated in order to save his -life. Just at this instant, the gunner, who had little to occupy him -at his quarters, came on deck, and not perceiving Commodore Jones, or -Mr. Dale, both of whom were occupied with the liberated prisoners, and -believing the master, the only other superior he had in the ship, to -be dead, he ran up the poop to haul down the colors. Fortunately, the -flag-staff had been shot away, and, the ensign already hanging in the -water, he had no other means of letting his intention to submit be -known than by calling out for quarters. Captain Pearson now hailed to -inquire if the Richard demanded quarter, and was answered by Commodore -Jones himself in the negative. It is probable that the reply was not -heard, or if heard, supposed to come from an unauthorized source; for -encouraged by what he learned from the escaped prisoner, by the cry, -and by the confusion that prevailed in the Richard, the English -captain directed his boarders to be called away, and, as soon as -mustered, they were ordered to take possession of the prize. Some of -the men actually got on the gunwale of the latter ship, but finding -boarders ready to repel boarders, they made a precipitate retreat. All -this time the topmen were not idle, and the enemy were soon driven -below again with loss. - -"In the mean while, Mr. Dale, who no longer had a gun that could be -fought, mustered the prisoners at the pumps, turning their -consternation to account, and probably keeping the Richard afloat by -the very blunder that had come so near losing her. The ships were now -on fire again, and both parties, with the exception of a few guns on -each side, ceased fighting, in order to subdue this dangerous enemy. -In the course of the combat, the Serapis is said to have been set on -fire no less than twelve times, while towards its close, as will be -seen in the sequel, the Richard was burning all the while. - -"As soon as order was restored in the Richard, after the call for -quarter, her chances for success began to increase, while the English, -driven under cover almost to a man, appear to have lost, in a great -degree, the hope of victory. Their fire materially slackened, while the -Richard again brought a few more guns to bear; the main-mast of the -Serapis began to totter, and her resistance, in general, to lessen. -About an hour after the explosion, or between three hours and three -hours and a half after the first gun was fired, and between two hours -and two hours and a half after the ships were lashed together, Captain -Pearson hauled down the colors of the Serapis with his own hands, the -men refusing to expose themselves to the fire of the Richard's tops." - -[Illustration: Sinking of the Bon Homme Richard.] - -Thus ended a conflict as murderous and sanguinary as the annals of -naval warfare have recorded. Each ship lost about one hundred and -fifty men, or nearly one-half of the whole number engaged. - -At the time of the surrender, the Richard was on fire, and apparently -sinking. So imminent was the danger, that the powder was hastily -removed from the magazine, and placed on the deck, to prevent -explosion. Men from the other ships were sent on board, and the pumps -were kept in motion, and water raised and dashed around until ten -o'clock the next day, before the fire was got under. An examination of -the ship followed, the result of which was, that it was necessary to -abandon her. The wounded were consequently ordered to be removed, and -on the following day, about ten o'clock, this gallant ship settled -slowly into the sea. - -The squadron now left the scene of mortal combat, with the Serapis and -Scarborough, the latter having struck to the Pallas. The former having -lost her main-mast, jury masts were obliged to be rigged; after driving -about in the rough sea until the 6th of October, the squadron and prizes -entered the Texel, the port to which they had been ordered to repair. - - - 5. AMERICAN FRIGATE TRUMBULL AND ENGLISH SHIP WATT. - -The action between these two vessels, next to that of the Richard and -Serapis, is supposed to have been the most severe during the war of -the Revolution. - -The Trumbull, of thirty-two guns, was commanded by Captain James -Nicholson, a spirited and skillful officer. During a cruise in June, -1780, a large ship was perceived bearing down upon the Trumbull's -quarter. At half-past eleven, she hauled a point more to stern of her. -The Trumbull now made sail, hauling upon a wind towards her, upon -which she came down upon the Trumbull's beams. The latter then took in -all her small sails, hauled her courses up, hove the main-topsail to -the mast, cleared for action, end waited the approach of the enemy. - -After several manoeuvres on the part of each vessel, Captain Nicholson -discovered that his adversary had thirteen ports on each side, and -eight or ten on her quarter-deck and forecastle, and of course mounted -thirty-six guns. At twelve, the Trumbull, finding her great -superiority as to sailing, and having gotten to windward, determined -to avail herself of the advantage to commence the engagement. - -The stranger, observing the design of Captain Nicholson, fired three -shots, and hoisted British colors as a challenge. The Trumbull wore -after her, hoisting British colors, with an intention of getting -alongside. A private signal was made in turn by the British ship, -which not being answered she opened a broadside at a hundred yards -distance. The Trumbull, upon this, run up the continental colors, and -returned the fire. - -Such was the commencement of an action of three hours' continuance. -There was bravery, determination, on both sides. During the greater -part of the action, the vessels were not fifty yards apart, and at one -time, they were nearly enlocked. - -Twice was the Trumbull set on fire by means of wads from the other -vessel. Her masts and rigging were greatly injured. Observing, at -length, that her masts were in imminent danger of going by the board, -the first lieutenant informed Captain Nicholson of the danger, and -begged him to abandon further attempt to take the enemy's ship, as -without masts they should be at his mercy. - -It was with great reluctance that Captain Nicholson adopted the course -suggested. He was confident that with one half-hour more, he should -have been able to have achieved the victory. But yielding to stern -necessity, and the dictates of humanity, he gave up the contest. He -lost his main and mizen-top-mast, when only musket-shot distant from -the other vessel. At length, only her fore-mast was left, and that was -badly wounded and sprung. She had eight men killed, and twenty-one -wounded, nine of whom died after the action. Her crew consisted of one -hundred and ninety-nine men. The English ship proved to be the Watt, -letter-of-marque. She had upwards of ninety men killed and wounded. -Not less than one hundred balls struck her hull. - - - 6. ALLIANCE, ATALANTA, AND TREPASSEY. - -In February, 1781, Captain Barry, of the frigate Alliance, of -thirty-two guns, sailed from Boston for l'Orient, having on board -Colonel Lawrence, destined to France on an important embassy to the -French court. Having landed Mr. Lawrence, he sailed on a cruise. - -On the 28th of May, two sail were discovered on the weather-bow of the -Alliance, standing towards her. After having approached sufficiently -near to be discovered by Captain Barry, they hauled to wind, and stood -on the same course with the Alliance. On the 29th, at day-break, the -wind lulled. At sunrise, the Alliance displayed the American colors, -and preparations were made for action. The men look their stations. - -The vessels with which the Alliance was now to contend were a ship and a -brig, displaying English colors--the Atalanta, Captain Edwards, carrying -twenty guns and one hundred and thirty men, and the Trepassey, of -fourteen guns and eighty men, under command of Captain Smith. - -The advantage was, both as to men and guns, on the side of the -British; but more than this, as the Alliance must necessarily engage -both at the same time. But Captain Barry, no way daunted, determined -to do his duty as an officer and a patriot. He, therefore, summoned -them to strike their colors. To such a summons they had, of course, no -inclination to accede, and the engagement opened with a spirit -corresponding to the interest at stake. Unfortunately for the -Alliance, a perfect calm prevailed--and on the bosom of the water she -lay, in respect to motion, as a thing devoid of life. The opposing -vessels had sweeps, and were therefore able to choose their positions. -And the most advantageous positions they did choose--they lay on the -quarters, and athwart the stern of the Alliance. Consequently, but few -of her guns could be brought to bear. - -Added to these untoward circumstances, there soon occurred, on board -the Alliance, a still greater misfortune. A grape-shot struck the -shoulder of Captain Barry, inflicting a severe and dangerous wound. -But he neither heeded its pain nor its danger, but continued on the -quarter-deck, marking the progress of the action, and giving his -orders as occasion required. At length, however, by reason of loss of -blood, he was obliged to be borne below. At this time, the American -flag was shot away, and fell. There was a momentary pause on board the -Alliance, which the enemy construing into a surrender, they filled the -air with loud rejoicings. - -But they mistook. The flag had been shot down, not hauled down. The -supposed pause was only the needful interval occupied in rëloading. -The colors were soon rëinstalled, and again floated as proudly as -before; and a full broadside from the Alliance showed to her foes how -the interval had been occupied. That broadside rëcalled them to their -quarters. Fortunately, about this time, a welcome breeze, though still -light, sprung up. The sails of the Alliance, which had scarcely served -any purpose during the engagement, and seemed destined to acquire no -honor in the coming victory--the sails were no longer idle. They soon -brought the vessel into a more favorable position. This circumstance -added to the confidence and rëdoubled the efforts of the seamen. -Broadside followed broadside in quick succession, and did all -desirable execution. At three o'clock in the afternoon the action -terminated: the Alliance was the victor. - -On being ushered into the presence of Barry, Captain Edwards presented -his sword; which, however, the former declined taking, observing, -"that he richly merited it, and that his king ought to give him a -better ship." - -The importance of firmness and perseverance, in a commander, was well -illustrated during the above engagement. Soon after Barry received his -wound, and had been obliged to go below, one of his lieutenants, -disheartened by the misfortune which had befallen his commander, and -appalled by the fearful devastation which seemed to be making by the -enemy with the ship's spars and rigging, repaired to him, and proposed -that the colors should be struck. - -Barry started. The colors be struck! no such thought had entered his -mind. The colors be struck! "No!" said he; "if the ship can't be fought -without me, carry me at once on deck." The lieutenant, if ashamed, was -also rëanimated. He repaired on deck, went round among the crew, and -made known Barry's courage and determination. There was but one response -among the brave tars. They decided to "stick to him manfully." And they -did. From that moment "the ship _was fought_"--and fought without the -presence of Barry. But no sooner was his wound dressed, than he insisted -on being aided in ascending to the deck; before reaching it, however, -the enemy had struck. Brave seamen! brave commander! - -The Alliance had eleven killed during the action, and twenty-one -wounded. Among the latter, were several officers. She had suffered -terribly in her spars and rigging. The loss of the enemy was eleven -killed and thirty wounded. - - - 7. CONGRESS AND SAVAGE. - -The Savage was a British sloop, carrying twenty guns and about one -hundred and fifty men. In September, 1781, while on a cruise along the -Southern coast of the United States, she entered the Potomac, and -plundered the estate of Washington, then in another quarter, -commanding the American army. It was an expedition unworthy a -high-minded and honorable officer, and a well-merited rebuke was soon -after meted out to him. - -On leaving the Potomac, the Savage fell in with the American privateer -Congress, Captain Geddes, off Charleston. The vessels were of the same -force. On board the Congress, at the time, was Major McLane, a -distinguished American officer, who with a part of his command had -volunteered to serve as marines. As the crew of the Savage were all -seamen, she had decidedly the advantage, in respect to the Congress, -whose crew, in part, were landsmen, unacquainted with marine warfare. - -The vessels were now within cannon distance. The Congress commenced by -firing her bow-chasers. This was at half-past ten in the morning. At -eleven, they had approximated so near each other, that the landsmen -employed their musketry, and with effect. A sharp and destructive -cannonade followed on both sides. - -At the commencement of the engagement, the advantage lay with the -Savage. Her position being on the Congress' bows, was favorable for -raking. But a closer engagement followed, and the tide turned in favor -of the privateer. So well did she manoeuvre, so promptly, so -dextrously, that she soon disabled her enemy. At the expiration of an -hour, the braces and bowlines of the Savage were shot away. Not a rope -was left by which to trim the sails. The musketry of the Americans had -cleared her decks. In this situation, it was deemed impossible that -she could much longer continue the contest. Indeed, she was already -nearly a wreck--her sails, rigging, and yards were so shattered as to -forbid her changing her position, but with the greatest difficulty. -She would not, however, surrender, but rëcommenced a vigorous -cannonade. Again her quarter-deck and forecastle were cleared by the -fatal musketry of the American landsmen. Three guns on her main deck -were rendered useless. The vessels were now so near each other, that -the fire from the guns scorched the men opposed to them in the other. -At length, the mizen-mast of the Savage was shot away. At this -instant, the boatswain of the Savage appeared forward, with his hat -off, calling for quarter. But it was half an hour before the crew of -the Congress could board her, by reason of the loss of their boats. -But, on reaching her, she was found to be scarcely more than a wreck. -Her decks were covered with blood, and killed and wounded men. - -The Congress had thirty men killed and wounded. The Savage had -twenty-three killed and thirty-one wounded. Among the latter, was her -commander, Captain Sterling. - -The marine service often furnished examples of great heroism and most -patriotic endurance. Such an instance occurred on board the Congress. -After the action terminated, Major McLane went forward to ascertain -what had become of his sergeant, Thomas. He found the poor fellow -lying on his back in the netting, near the foot of the bowsprit, with -his musket loaded, but both legs broken. "Poor fellow!" thought the -major, as he beheld him; "poor fellow!" But the _poor fellow_ began -huzzaing lustily for the victory achieved; and followed his exulting -and even vociferous huzzas by a corresponding exclamation addressed to -his major: "Well, major, if they have broken my legs, my hands and my -heart are still whole." - -Sergeant Thomas was terribly wounded, but the kind-hearted major did -not neglect him. The best care was taken of him; ultimately, he -recovered; and, nothing deterred by the painful experience he had had -of the sometimes ill-fortune of war, he entered on board the Hyder -Ali, commanded by Captain Barney. - -It is ever delightful to record instances of high-minded and magnanimous -conduct on the part of victors towards the vanquished. This engagement -furnishes one most honorable to the American character. The officers and -crew of the Savage were treated with the greatest kindness and -attention. Major McLane even accompanied Captain Sterling into -Pennsylvania, to secure him from insult, his treatment of American -prisoners having rendered him highly obnoxious to the patriots. - -Such is a brief account of some of the exploits of the American marine -during the war of the Revolution. There were others perhaps equally -honorable to the skill and enterprise of our naval officers, but which -our limits forbid us to notice. On the breaking out of the war, the -country was poorly prepared to enter the lists with the mistress of -the ocean. Indeed, it was not until 1776, that the forbearing policy -of congress was abandoned, and the nautical enterprise of the country -was let loose upon British commerce. From that time, however, American -valor was exhibited in its true and persevering spirit, and -contributed, as far as it had scope, in inducing the mother-country to -acknowledge the independence of her wayward child--which she did on -the 20th of January, 1783. - -Upon this most desirable event, orders of recall were issued to all -naval commanders; and the commissions of privateers and letters of -marque were annulled. On the 11th of April following, a proclamation -from the proper authorities announced the cessation of hostilities. -From this time, as the glad intelligence spread, the helms of our -warlike ships were turned towards our home ports, leaving the -merchantmen again to the peaceful possession of that element, which -for years they had traversed, if at all, at the greatest hazard. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[51] Jones was an ardent man, and bore disappointment and delay with -no good grace. Chance one day threw into his hands an old almanac, -containing _Poor Richard's Maxims_, by Dr. Franklin. In that curious -assemblage of useful instructions, a man is advised, "if he wishes to -have any business faithfully and expeditiously performed, to go and do -it himself--otherwise, to send." Jones was immediately struck, upon -reading this maxim, with the impropriety of his past conduct, in only -sending letters and messages to court, when he ought to have gone in -person. He instantly set out, and, by dint of personal representation, -procured the immediate equipment of the squadron, which afterwards -spread terror along the Eastern coasts of England, and with which he -so gloriously captured the Serapis, and the British ships of war -returning from the Baltic. In gratitude to Dr. Franklin's maxim, he -named the principal ship of his squadron after the name of the -pretended almanac-maker, _Le Bon Homme Richard_, the Good Man Richard. - -[52] Cooper's Naval History. - - - - - XV. EMINENT FOREIGNERS, - - CONNECTED WITH THE REVOLUTION. - - - George III. King of England--General Burgoyne--Sir Henry - Clinton--Colonel Barre--Charles Townshend--Lord - Cornwallis--William Pitt--Marquis of Bute--George Grenville--Duke - of Grafton--Lord North--Colonel Tarleton--Sir Peter Parker--Sir - William Meadows--Sir Guy Carlton--General Gage--Marquis of - Rockingham--Edmund Burke--Kosciusko--Count Pulaski--Baron de - Kalb--Baron Steuben--Count Rochambeau--Count D'Estaing. - -In the preceding pages, we have had occasion to trace the causes and -events of that struggle which resulted in the independence of the -United States; and, in so doing, incidental mention has been made of -some of the leading men of England, who figured in the cabinet, in the -field, and on the ocean; with the part they acted either in favor of, -or in opposition to the grand object of the colonies in their contest -with the mother-country. Judging from his own early desires, the -author persuades himself that he will be conferring a favor upon his -readers by giving some brief sketches, in this place, of those -distinguished men, and of others, who contributed to retard or -accelerate the final result. Such notices of the most prominent, we -proceed to give, beginning with the monarch, the great fountain of -power and law, then on the throne of Great Britain. - - - GEORGE III. - -George III. was born in 1738, and succeeded to the throne on the death -of his grandfather, George II., October 25, 1760, about the time the -troubles with America began. At this period, principally through the -lofty spirit and political sagacity of Pitt, afterwards Earl of -Chatham, who was, and for some time had been, at the head of the -administration, the affairs of the nation were in a most prosperous -state. The army and navy were highly efficient, and flushed with -recent conquests; the revenue flourished; commerce was increasing; the -people were loyal; and, perhaps, no prince had ascended the throne of -his ancestors with more flattering prospects than George the Third. - -Soon after ascending the throne, the king evinced a determination to -procure a general peace. In this measure he differed from his great -minister, Pitt, who, on that account, retired from office, October 5, -1761. Peace, however, contrary to the wishes and designs of the king -could not be obtained on a just basis, and the war proceeded. - -In May, 1762, Lord Bute, a particular favorite of the king, who had -contrived to gain a remarkable ascendancy over him, succeeded the Duke -of Newcastle, as first lord of the treasury. Preliminaries of peace -between England, France, and Spain, were signed on the 3d of November, -and the definite treaty followed, February 10th, 1763. The people, -however, were by no means pacifically inclined, or contented with the -political ascendancy of Lord Bute, whose administration was attacked -with unsparing severity by several popular writers, particularly by the -celebrated John Wilkes, in his periodical paper, called the North -Briton. The arrest of Wilkes, and the seizure of his papers under a -general warrant, issued by the secretary of state for the home -department, increased the indignation and clamors of the people; Lord -Bute was execrated throughout the country, and the king himself became -exceedingly unpopular. The removal of the favorite, and the appointment -of George Grenville to the head of the treasury, having failed to allay -the national irritation, Pitt, it is asserted, was at length summoned to -court, and requested to make arrangements for forming a new ministry; -but he presumed, it is added, to dictate such arrogant terms, that, -rather than submit to them, the king said he would place the crown on -Pitt's head, and submit his own neck to the axe. - -In 1764, the king suggested to Grenville the taxation of America, as a -grand financial measure for relieving the mother-country from the heavy -war expenses, which, it was unjustly claimed, had chiefly been incurred -for the security of the colonies. The minister was startled, and raised -objections to the proposal, which, however, were overruled by the king, -who plainly told him that, if he were afraid to adopt such a measure, -others might easily be found who possessed more political courage. At -length, Grenville reluctantly brought the subject before parliament; -and, in spite of a violent opposition, the stamp act, so important in -its consequences, was passed in the following year. The most alarming -irritation prevailed among the colonists of America. - -The Rockingham party, which now came into power, procured the repeal -of the stamp act; but, notwithstanding this and some other popular -measures of the new cabinet, it was dissolved in the summer of 1766. -The Duke of Grafton succeeded Lord Rockingham, as first lord of the -treasury, and Pitt (then Earl of Chatham) took office as lord privy -seal. In the following year, Charles Townshend, chancellor of the -exchequer, proposed the taxation of certain articles imported by the -American colonists; and, early in 1768, Lord Chatham retired in deep -disgust from the administration, which, during the preceding autumn, -had been weakened by the succession of Lord North to Charles -Townshend, as chancellor of the exchequer. Some other official changes -took place; one of the most important of which, perhaps, was the -appointment of Lord Hillsborough to the new colonial secretaryship. - -The aspect of affairs in America grew more serious every hour: the -deputies of Massachusetts declared taxation by the British parliament -to be illegal; a scheme for a general congress of the different states -was proposed, and an open rupture with the mother-country was -evidently approaching. Blind to the consequences of their fatal -policy, the king and his ministers, however, persisted in those -measures, with regard to the trans-Atlantic colonies, which eventually -produced a dismemberment of the empire. - -In January, 1770, the Duke of Grafton resigned all his employments; -but, unfortunately for America, he was succeeded by Lord North, who -increased rather than alleviated the national calamities, and was -decidedly with the king in his determination never to yield to the -demands of the colonists, but to coerce them to submission, however -unjustly, by the arm of power. - -In 1782, Lord North was compelled to resign, and the Rockingham party, -friendly to the independence of America, came into office; but the new -administration soon afterwards broke up, on account of the sudden -death of the premier. Lord Shelburne was now placed at the head of the -treasury, and Pitt, son of the great Earl of Chatham, became -chancellor of the exchequer. - -In 1783, a general peace was concluded, and the United States procured a -formal acknowledgment of their independence. When Adams, the first -American envoy, attended at the levee, the king, to whom he was -personally disagreeable, received him with dignified composure, and -said, "I was the last man in England to acknowledge the independence of -America, but having done so, I shall also be the last to violate it." -This was highly honorable to the king. America was a jewel in the -British crown which was increasing in lustre, to part with which was -truly painful to royal ambition. Nor did George III. consent to any acts -which tended to this relinquishment, only as he was compelled to it by -the ill success of his armies in America, and the clamorous demands for -peace by his subjects at home. But having, at length, parted with this -jewel, and having acknowledged the independence of America, he nobly -declared his intention to live in peace with this newborn empire. - - - JOHN BURGOYNE. - -General Burgoyne was the natural son of Lord Bingley. At an early age -he entered the army; and while quartered with his regiment at Preston, -married Lady Charlotte Stanley, whose father, the Earl of Derby, was -so incensed at the match, that he threatened utterly to discard her; -but a reconciliation at length took place, and the earl allowed her -three hundred pounds a-year during his life, and, by his will, -bequeathed her a legacy of twenty-five thousand pounds. The influence -of the family to which Burgoyne had thus become allied, tended -materially to accelerate his professional advance. In 1762, he acted -as brigadier-general of the British forces which were sent out for the -defence of Portugal against France and Spain. - -In 1775, he was appointed to a command in America; whence he returned -in the following year, and held a long conference with the king on -colonial affairs. Resuming his post in 1777, he addressed a -proclamation to the native Indians, in which he invited them to his -standard, but deprecated, with due severity, the cruel practice of -scalping. The pompous turgidity of style, in which this address was -couched, excited the ridicule of the Americans, and procured for -General Burgoyne the soubriquet of "_Chrononhotonthologos_." His first -operations were successful: he dislodged the enemy from Ticonderoga -and Mount Independence, and took a large number of cannon, all their -armed vessels and batteries, as well as a considerable part of their -baggage, ammunition, provisions, and military stores. But his -subsequent career was truly disastrous; his troops suffered much from -bad roads, inclement weather, and a scarcity of provisions; the -Indians, who had previously assisted him, deserted; and the Americans, -under General Gates, surrounded him with a superior force, to which, -although victorious in two engagements, he was, at length, compelled -to capitulate at Saratoga, with the whole of his army. This event, -which rendered him equally odious to ministers and the people, was, -for some time, the leading topic of the press; and numberless lampoons -appeared, in which the general's conduct was most severely satirized. -The punsters of the day, taking advantage of the American general's -name, amused themselves unmercifully at Burgoyne's expense; but of all -their effusions, which, for the most part, were virulent rather than -pointed, the following harmless epigram, poor as it is, appears to -have been one of the best: - - "Burgoyne, unconscious of impending fates, - Could cut his way through woods, but not through GATES." - -In May, 1778, he returned to England, on his parole, but the king -refused to see him. Burgoyne solicited a court-martial, but in vain. -In 1779, he was dismissed the service for refusing to return to -America. Three years after, however, he was restored to his rank in -the army, appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland, and sworn in one of -the privy-council of that kingdom. He died suddenly of a fit of the -gout, at his house in Hertford street, on the 4th of August, 1792; and -his remains were interred in the cloisters of Westminster abbey. - -It would, perhaps, be rash to pronounce a positive opinion of the merits -of Burgoyne, as a commander. He boldly courted a scrutiny into the -causes which led to his surrender at Saratoga, which ministers refused, -because, as it has been insinuated, such a proceeding might expose the -absurd imprudence and inefficiency of their own measures with regard to -the American war. Prior to the capitulation, his military career, as -well in America as Portugal, had been rather brilliant; his misfortune -was precisely that which befel Cornwallis; but, unlike the latter, -Burgoyne was not allowed an opportunity of redeeming his reputation. - -In parliament, he was a frequent and fluent, but neither a sound nor -an impressive speaker. While in employment, he appears to have been a -staunch advocate for the American war; which, however, he severely -reprobated, from the time that he ceased to hold a command. He was a -writer, chiefly dramatic, of considerable merit. - - - SIR HENRY CLINTON. - -This distinguished general was a grandson of the Earl of Clinton, and -was born about the year 1738. After having received a liberal education, -he entered the army, and served for some time in Hanover. In the early -part of the revolutionary struggle he came to America, and was present -at the battle of Bunker's hill; from which time to the close of the -American war, he continued to aid the British cause. In 1777, he was -made a Knight of the Bath, and in January, 1778, commander-in-chief of -the British forces in America. On his return to England, a pamphlet war -took place between him and Cornwallis, as to the surrender of the -latter, the entire blame of which each party attributed to the other. In -1793, he obtained the governorship of Gibraltar, in possession of which -he died on the 23d of December, 1795. - -[Illustration: Sir Henry Clinton.] - -The merits of Sir Henry Clinton, as a commander, have been variously -estimated; and, as is usually the case, the truth seems to be -intermediate between the panegyric of his friends and the censure of -his enemies. That he was endowed with bravery, and possessed a -considerable share of military skill, cannot, in fairness, be denied; -but he was decidedly unequal to the great difficulties of his -situation and unfit to contend against so lofty a genius as -Washington, supported by a people resolved on obtaining their -independence, and fighting on their native soil. - - - ISAAC BARRE. - -[Illustration: Colonel Barre.] - -Colonel Barre was born in Ireland, about the year 1726. He served at -Quebec, under Wolfe, in the picture of whose death, by Benjamin West, -his figure is conspicuous. The Earl of Shelburne procured him a seat -in parliament, where, acting in opposition to government, he was not -only deprived of his offices of adjutant-general and governor of -Stirling castle, which he had received as a reward for his services in -America, but dismissed from the service. During the Rockingham -administration, he was compensated for the loss which he had -sustained, by being voted a pension of three thousand two hundred -pounds per annum; which he subsequently relinquished, pursuant to an -arrangement with Pitt, on obtaining a lucrative, but not distinguished -office. He usually took office when his party predominated; and was, -in the course of his career, a privy counsellor, vice treasurer of -Ireland, paymaster of the forces, and treasurer of the navy. His best -speeches were delivered during North's administration, on the American -war, to which he appears to have been inflexibly opposed. His oratory -was powerful, but coarse; his manner, rugged; his countenance, stern; -and his stature, athletic. He was suspected, but apparently without -reason, of having assisted in writing the letters of Junius. For the -last twenty years of his life, he was afflicted with blindness, which, -however, he is said to have borne with cheerful resignation. His death -took place on the 20th of July, 1792. - - - CHARLES TOWNSHEND. - -Charles Townshend, son of Viscount Townshend, was born 1725. From his -youth, he was distinguished for great quickness of conception and -extraordinary curiosity. In 1747, he went into parliament, and -continued a member till he died. He held various offices in the -government. In 1765, he was paymaster general, and chancellor of the -exchequer; and a lord of the treasury in August, 1766, from which -period he remained in office until his decease, which took place on -the 4th of September, 1767. - -In person, Charles Townshend was tall and beautifully proportioned; -his countenance was manly, handsome, expressive, and prepossessing. He -was much beloved in private life, and enjoyed an unusual share of -domestic happiness. - -Burke, in his speech on American taxation, thus admirably depicted the -general character of Charles Townshend: "Before this splendid orb -(alluding to the great Lord Chatham) had entirely set, and while the -western horizon was in a blaze with his descending glory, on the -opposite quarter of the heavens arose another luminary, and for his -hour he became lord of the ascendant. This light, too, is passed, and -set for ever! I speak of Charles Townshend, officially the rëproducer -of this fatal scheme (American taxation); whom I cannot even now -remember, without some degree of sensibility. In truth, he was the -delight and ornament of this house, and the charm of every private -society which he honored with his presence. Perhaps there never arose -in this country, nor in any country, a man of more pointed and -finished wit, and (where his passions were not concerned) of a more -refined, exquisite, and penetrating judgment. If he had not so great a -stock, as some have had who flourished formerly, of knowledge long -treasured up, he knew better by far, than any man I ever was -acquainted with, how to bring together, within a short time, all that -was necessary to establish, to illustrate, and to decorate that side -of the question he supported. He stated his matter skillfully and -powerfully; he particularly excelled in a most luminous explanation -and display of his subject." - - - CHARLES CORNWALLIS, MARQUIS. - -Lord Cornwallis, eldest son of the fifth lord, and first Earl -Cornwallis, was born 1738. At the age of twenty, he entered the army, -and obtained a captaincy. In 1762, on the death of his brother, he -took his seat in the house of lords. In 1770, he and three other young -peers, having protested, with Lord Camden, against the taxation of -America, Mansfield, the chief justice, is said to have sneeringly -observed, "Poor Camden could only get four boys to join him!" - -Although he had opposed the measures of the government with regard to -the disaffected colonies, yet when hostilities commenced, he did not -scruple to accept of active employment against the Americans. His -history, during the war, will be found in the preceding pages. He was -a proud man, and most humiliating was it when he was obliged to -surrender to Washington at Yorktown. - -But his failure in America did not impair his reputation. On his return -to England, he was made governor of the Tower. In 1786, he was sent to -Calcutta, as governor-general and commander-in-chief. Having -terminated, successfully, a war in that country, he returned to England. -In 1799, he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Soon after the expiration -of his vice-regency, he was sent to France as plenipotentiary for Great -Britain, in which capacity he signed the treaty of Amiens. In 1804, he -succeeded the Marquis Wellesley, as governor-general of India. On his -arrival at Calcutta, he proceeded, by water, to take the command in the -upper provinces. The confinement of the boat, the want of exercise, and -the heat of the weather, had a most serious effect on his health. -Feeling, soon after he had landed, that his dissolution was at hand, he -prepared some valuable instructions for his successor; and the last -hours of his life were passed in taking measures to lessen the -difficulties which his decease would produce. He expired at Ghazepoore, -in Benares, on the 5th of October, 1805. - -Lord Cornwallis was not endowed with any brilliancy of talent. He had to -contend with no difficulties, on his entrance into life: high birth -procured him a military station, which his connexions enabled him to -retain, after he had committed an error, or, at least, met with a -mischance, that would have utterly ruined a less influential commander. -Although ambitious, he appears to have possessed but little ardor. He -manifested no extraordinary spirit of enterprise; he hazarded no untried -manoeuvres; and yet, few of his contemporaries passed through life with -more personal credit or public advantage. He had the wisdom never to -depute to others what he could perform himself. His perseverance, -alacrity, and caution, procured him success as a general, while his -strong common sense rendered him eminent as a governor. He always -evinced a most anxious desire to promote the welfare of those who were -placed under his administration; Ireland and Hindostan still venerate -his memory. His honor was unimpeachable; his manners, devoid of -ostentation; and his private character, altogether amiable. - -Napoleon Buonaparte, in his conversations with Barry O'Meara, declared -that Lord Cornwallis, by his integrity, fidelity, frankness, and the -nobility of his sentiments, was the first who had impressed upon him a -favorable opinion of Englishmen. "I do not believe," said the -ex-emperor, "that he was a man of first-rate abilities; but he had -talent, great probity, sincerity, and never broke his word. Something -having prevented him from attending at the Hôtel de Dieu, to sign the -treaty of Amiens, pursuant to appointment, he sent word to the French -ministers that they might consider it completed, and that he would -certainly execute it the next morning. During the night, he received -instructions to object to some of the articles; disregarding which, he -signed the treaty as it stood, observing that his government, if -dissatisfied, might refuse to ratify it, but that, having once pledged -his word, he felt bound to abide by it. There was a man of honor!" -added Napoleon; "a true Englishman." - - - LORD CHATHAM. - -William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, was born November 15, 1708. His father -was Robert Pitt, of Boconnock, in the county of Cornwall. He received -his education at Trinity college, Cambridge. He took a seat in -parliament as early as 1735, as a member for Old Sarum. His exalted -talents, his lofty spirit, and commanding eloquence, soon rendered him -singularly conspicuous. Under George II., in 1757, he became premier -of that celebrated war administration, which raised England to a proud -prëeminence over the other nations of Europe. His energy was -unbounded. "It must be done," was the reply he often made, when told -that his orders could not be executed. After which, no excuse was -admitted. Under his auspices, England triumphed in every quarter of -the globe. In America, the French lost Quebec; in Africa, their chief -settlements fell; in the East Indies, their power was abridged; in -Europe, their armies suffered defeat; while their navy was nearly -annihilated, and their commerce almost reduced to ruin. - -On the accession of George the Third, Pitt, who felt strongly -impressed with the policy of declaring war against Spain, was thwarted -in his wishes by the influence of Lord Bute; and, disdaining to be -nominally at the head of a cabinet which he could not direct, he -resigned his office in October, 1761. - -[Illustration: Lord Chatham.] - -In 1764, he greatly distinguished himself by his opposition to general -warrants, which, with all his accustomed energy and eloquence, he -stigmatized as being atrociously illegal. A search for papers, or a -seizure of the person, without some specific charge, was, he contended, -repugnant to every principle of true liberty. "By the British -constitution," said he, "every man's house is his castle! not that it is -surrounded by walls and battlements; it may be a straw-built shed; every -wind of heaven may whistle round it; all the elements of nature may -enter it; but _the king cannot; the king dare not_." - -He invariably opposed, with the whole force of his eloquence, the -measures which led to the American war: and long after his retirement -from office, he exerted himself most zealously to bring about a -reconciliation between the mother-country and her colonies; But when -the Duke of Portland, in 1778, moved an address to the crown, on the -necessity of acknowledging the independence of America, Lord Chatham, -although he had but just left a sick bed, opposed the motion with all -the ardent eloquence of his younger days. "My lords," said he, "I -lament that my infirmities have so long prevented my attendance here, -at so awful a crisis. I have made an effort almost beyond my strength -to come down to the house on this day, (_and perhaps it will be the -last time I shall be able to enter its walls_,) to express my -indignation at an idea which has gone forth of yielding up America. My -lords: I rejoice that the grave has not yet closed upon me; that I am -still alive to lift up my voice against the dismemberment of this -ancient and most noble monarchy. Pressed down, as I am, by the hand of -infirmity, I am little able to assist my country in this most perilous -conjuncture; but, my lords, while I have sense and memory, I will -never consent to deprive the royal offspring of the house of Brunswick -of their fairest inheritance." - -The Duke of Richmond having replied to this speech, Lord Chatham -attempted to rise again, but fainted, and fell into the arms of those -who were near him. The house instantly adjourned, and the earl was -conveyed home in a state of exhaustion, from which he never recovered. -His death took place at Hayes, early in the following month, namely, -on the 11th of May, 1778. The House of Commons voted the departed -patriot, who had thus died gloriously at his post, a public funeral, -and a monument in Westminster abbey at the national expense. An income -of four thousand pounds per annum was annexed to the earldom of -Chatham, and the sum of twenty thousand pounds cheerfully granted to -liquidate his debts: for, instead of profiting by his public -employments, he had wasted his property in sustaining their dignity, -and died in embarrassed circumstances. - -In figure, Lord Chatham was eminently dignified and commanding. "There -was a grandeur in his personal appearance," says a writer, who speaks -of him when in his decline, "which produced awe and mute attention; -and, though bowed by infirmity and age, his mind shone through the -ruins of his body, armed his eye with lightning, and clothed his lips -with thunder." Bodily pain never subdued the lofty daring, or the -extraordinary activity of his mind. He even used his crutch as a -figure of rhetoric. "You talk, my lords," said he, on one occasion, -"of conquering America--of your numerous friends there--and your -powerful forces to disperse her army. I might as well talk of driving -them before me with this crutch." - - - CHARLES JAMES FOX. - -Charles James Fox was the third son of Henry Fox, Lord Holland, and -was born January 24th, 1749. His mother was a daughter of the Duke of -Richmond, and his sister the wife of Lord Cornwallis. Lord Holland -made it a rule, in the tuition of his children, to follow and -regulate, but not to restrain nature. This indulgence was a sad error, -as it always is on the part of parents. On arriving to maturity, -Charles used to boast that he was, when young, never thwarted in any -thing. Two instances are related of this indulgence of the father, -before the son was six years old. One day, standing by his father, -while he was winding up a watch--"I have a great mind to break that -watch, papa," said the boy. "No, Charles; that would be foolish." -"Indeed, papa," said he, "I _must_ do it." "Nay," answered the father, -"if you have such a violent inclination, I won't baulk it." Upon -which, he delivered the watch into the hands of the youngster, who -instantly dashed it on the floor. - -At another time, while Lord Holland was secretary of state, having -just finished a long dispatch which he was going to send, Mr. -Charles, who stood near him, with his hand on the inkstand, said, -"Papa, I have a good mind to throw this ink over the paper." "Do, my -dear," said the secretary, "if it will give you any pleasure." The -young gentleman immediately threw on the ink, and his father sat down -very composedly to write the dispatch over again. - -Such a course of education, we should anticipate, would work the moral -ruin of a child. Its baleful influence was seen in after years, in -gambling, horse-racing, drinking, and kindred vices, carried to a -fearful extent on the part of this son, whose training was so -inauspiciously begun and persevered in. - -[Illustration: Fox.] - -But, despite of these most degrading and ruinous practices, Fox proved -to be one of the most accomplished and effective orators, and perhaps -we may add, statesman of his times. He was the rival of Pitt; and, -though not so finished in his elocution, he not unfrequently equalled -him in the effect produced. - -By what means he attained to such eminence, it scarcely appears; for -the younger part of his life seems to have been so exclusively devoted -to his pleasures, as scarcely to have time left for the cultivation of -his intellect. His genius, however, was brilliant; and from his -earliest years he was in the society of men distinguished for their -cultivated intellect, and the eminent part they took in the -government of the country. It is related of Fox, that he would not -unfrequently spend the entire night at his favorite amusement, -gambling, and thence proceed to the House of Commons, when he would -electrify the whole assembly with some cogent and brilliant speech. - -Fox was a firm, steadfast friend to the Americans and their -independence. At the time the measures which led to the American war -had come to a crisis, a formidable party existed in England, opposed -to the unjust and illiberal policy of the government. To this party, -Fox united himself; and, from his conspicuous talents, soon acquired -the authority of a leader. In 1773, he opposed the Boston port bill, -and apologized for the conduct of the colonies. In his speech on that -occasion, he arraigned the measures of the ministers in bold and -energetic language, and explained the principles of the constitution -with masculine eloquence. The session of 1775, opened with a speech -from the king, declaring the necessity of _coercion_. On this -occasion, Fox poured forth a torrent of his powerful eloquence. In -that plain, forcible language, which formed one of the many -excellencies of his speeches, he showed what ought to have been done, -what ministers had promised to do, and what they had not done. He -affirmed that Lord Chatham, the king of Prussia--nay, even Alexander -the Great--never gained more in one campaign than Lord North had lost. - -When the news of the disastrous defeat of Burgoyne reached England, Fox -loudly insisted upon an inquiry into the causes of his failure. And in -like manner, when the fate of Cornwallis' army at Yorktown was made -known, the oppositionists were loud in their denunciations of the -proceedings of ministers in regard to the war. Mr. Fox designed to make -a motion for an investigation into the conduct of Lord Sandwich, who was -at the head of the admiralty. But he was, for a time, too much -indisposed to make the attempt. It was on this occasion, that Burke is -reported to have said, "that if Fox died, it would be no bad use of his -skin, if, like John Ziska's, it should be converted into a drum, and -used for the purpose of sounding an alarm to the people of England." - -The death of Mr. Fox occurred 13th of August, 1806. - -Walpole thus compares the two great orators of England: "Mr. Fox, as a -speaker, might be compared to the rough, but masterly specimen of the -sculptor's art; Mr. Pitt, to the exquisitely finished statue. The former -would need a polish to render him perfect; the latter possessed, in a -transcendent degree, every requisite of an accomplished orator. The -force of Mr. Fox's reasoning flashed like lightning upon the mind of the -hearer: the thunder of Mr. Pitt's eloquence gave irresistible effect to -his powerful and convincing arguments." - -The sympathy and support of such men as Fox, during our Revolutionary -struggle, served to sustain and animate our patriotic fathers. They -felt that while they were in the field, engaged in defeating the -armies of England, they had friends in the House of Commons, who were -making every possible effort to defeat the impolitic and oppressive -measures of the king and his ministers. - - - JOHN STUART. - -John Stuart, Marquis of Bute, was born in 1715. In the ninth year of -his age, he succeeded his father as Marquis of Bute. On the accession -of George the Third, the highest dignities in the state were supposed -to be within the grasp of Lord Bute; but, however he might have swayed -the king's mind in private, he took no public part in the direction of -public affairs until 1761, when he accepted the secretaryship resigned -in that year by Lord Holderness. At length, he became prime minister; -and, immediately on coming into power, determined, if possible, to -effect a peace, which had for some time been negotiating. He -accomplished his object, but his success rendered him exceedingly -unpopular. He was accused, by some weak-minded persons, of having been -bribed by the enemies of his country; and it was added, that the -princess dowager had shared with him in the price at which peace had -been purchased by the French government. - -He quitted office in April, 1763, but continued to exert a powerful -influence over the mind of the king, especially in relation to -America. Several measures, the object of which was to humble the -colonies, and continue them in subjection to the crown, are said to -have been suggested by this nobleman. He died in 1792. - - - GEORGE GRENVILLE. - -[Illustration: Grenville.] - -George Grenville was born 1712. In 1741, he was returned to parliament -for the town of Buckingham, for which place he served during the -remainder of his life. He held several important offices. In April, -1763, he became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the -exchequer. He resigned his office in July, 1765, and died in November, -1770. During his premiership, the project of imposing internal taxes -in America was carried into effect. The project was first named to -him by the king, and urged upon him. At first, the minister was -opposed to the idea, but after having adopted it as a measure of his -administration, which he was compelled to do by royal authority, he -urged and supported it by all the means in his power. - - - DUKE OF GRAFTON. - -Henry Augustus Fitzroy, Duke of Grafton, was born 1735. He was -educated at Cambridge, where he was notoriously profligate. In July, -1766, the Rockingham administration was dissolved, and the Duke of -Grafton was made first lord commissioner of the treasury, which office -he held until January, 1770. He has received an unenviable notoriety -from the strictures of Junius. His administration was composed of men -of different political principles and parties. Junius, in a letter -addressed to the duke, thus narrates, and severely animadverts upon, -the circumstances of his grace's appointment to the premiership: "The -spirit of the favorite (Lord Bute) had some apparent influence upon -every administration; and every set of ministers preserved an -appearance of duration as long as they submitted to that influence; -but there were certain services to be performed for the favorite's -security, or to gratify his resentments, which your predecessors in -office had the wisdom, or the virtue, not to undertake. A submissive -administration was, at last, gradually collected from the deserters of -all parties, interests, and connexions; and nothing remained but to -find a leader for these gallant, well-disciplined troops. Stand forth, -my lord, for thou art the man! Lord Bute found no resource of -dependence or security in the proud, imposing superiority of Lord -Chatham's abilities; the shrewd, inflexible judgment of Mr. Grenville; -nor in the mild, but determined integrity of Lord Rockingham. His -views and situation required a creature void of all these properties; -and he was forced to go through all his division, resolution, -composition, and refinement of political chemistry, before he happily -arrived at the _caput mortuum_ of vitriol in your grace. Flat and -insipid in your retired state, but brought into action, you become -vitriol again. Such are the extremes of alternate indolence or fury, -which have governed your whole administration!" - - - FREDERICK NORTH, EARL OF GUILFORD. - -This nobleman, better known as Lord North, was the minister of George -III., under whose administration England lost her American colonies. -He succeeded Charles Townshend, as chancellor of the exchequer; and, -in 1770, the Duke of Grafton, as first lord of the treasury, and -continued in that high, but laborious office, till the conclusion of -the war. As a public character, Lord North was a flowing and -persuasive orator, well skilled in argumentation, and master of great -presence and coolness of mind; and, in private life, he was very -amiable, cheerful, and jocose in conversation, the friend of learned -men, and correct in conduct. In his policy towards America, he was -stern and uncompromising. On first coming into power, he was inclined -to be conciliatory; but soon he adopted restrictive and oppressive -measures, more so than his predecessors, and, at length, declared that -he would omit no means but that he would bring America in humility at -his feet. The faithful warnings of Pitt, Burke, Fox, and others, had -no restraining influence, and the consequence was, that America was -lost to the British crown. Lord North, in the latter years of his -life, was afflicted with blindness. He died July, 1792, aged sixty. - - - BARRASTRE TARLETON. - -Colonel Tarleton was born in Liverpool, on the 21st of August, 1754, and -at first commenced studying law, but, on the breaking out of war in -America, he entered the army, and, having arrived in that country, he -was permitted to raise a body of troops called the "British Legion," -which he commanded in several successful excursions against the enemy. -Such was the daring intrepidity, energy, and skill, with which he -conducted his corps, that he may be said to have greatly accelerated, if -not secured, some of the most important victories under Lord Cornwallis. -On his return to England, he was made a colonel, and became so popular -that, in 1790, he was returned, free of expense, as a member for -Liverpool, which he represented in three subsequent parliaments. - -In 1818, previously to which he had been raised to the rank of -general, he was created a baronet, and, on the coronation of George -the Fourth, was made a K. C. B. He was one of the bravest officers of -his time, and is described as having been to the British, in the -American war, what Arnold, in his early career, was to the Americans. - - - SIR PETER PARKER. - -Sir Peter Parker, son of Rear-admiral Christopher Parker, was born in -1723, and entered the navy under the auspices of his father. Having -served with great reputation on several occasions, in 1775 he hoisted -his broad pendant on board the Bristol, of fifty guns, in which he -proceeded, with a squadron under his command, to the American station. -On account of bad weather and other impediments, he did not reach Cape -Fear until May, 1776. In the following month, he made an unsuccessful -attack on Charleston, in South Carolina. Shortly afterwards, he joined -Lord Howe, the commander-in-chief, at New York, whence he was -dispatched, with the Asia, Renown, and Preston, to distract the -attention of the enemy, while the army attacked the lines on Long -Island. Towards the close of the same year, he proceeded, in command -of a small squadron, to make an attempt on Rhode Island, of which he -obtained possession without loss. He was now advanced to the rank of -rear-admiral of the blue; and, a few months after, appointed to the -chief command on the Jamaica station, where he served with signal -success until 1782, in which year he returned with a convoy to -England. Before his death, which occurred in 1811, he became admiral -of the blue and admiral of the white. - - - SIR WILLIAM MEADOWS. - -Sir William Meadows was born in 1738. In 1775, he repaired with his -regiment to America, where he distinguished himself, particularly at -the battle of Brandywine, during which he was wounded. - -In 1792, he served under Cornwallis in India. On returning to England, -he was appointed governor of the Isle of Wight, and, afterwards, -governor of Hull. He died at Bath, 1813. - -As a military man, he was highly distinguished. He was invariably -cheerful, during an engagement; and his troops, by whom he was much -beloved, are said, on more than one occasion, to have mounted the -breach, laughing at their general's last joke. His hilarity scarcely -ever deserted him; one day, while on a reconnoitering party, he -observed a twenty-four-pound shot strike the ground, on his right, in -such a direction that, had he proceeded, it would, in all probability, -have destroyed him; he, therefore, stopped his horse, and, as the ball -dashed across the road in front of him, gracefully took off his hat, -and said: "I beg, sir, that you will continue your promenade; I never -take the precedence of any gentleman of your family." - - - GENERAL GAGE. - -General Thomas Gage, second son of Viscount Gage, was born about the -year 1721, and entered the army at an early age. Having served with -considerable credit, he was commissioned as lieutenant-general; soon -after which, (April, 1774,) he was appointed to succeed Mr. -Hutchinson, as governor of Massachusetts Bay. In May, he sailed for -Boston with four regiments, where, contrary to his expectations, he -was received with great ceremony and outward respect. - -About this time, serious troubles of the colonies with England began. -General Gage took strong and decided measures, and hastened, rather -than retarded, an open contest. By his order it was that the military -stores at Concord were destroyed, which led to the skirmish at -Lexington, and which opened the war. - -On the 10th of October, 1775, he resigned his command to Sir William -Howe, and departed for England. At the time of his death, which took -place on the 2d of April, 1788, he was a general in the army. His -talents for command are said to have been respectable. - - - SIR GUY CARLTON. - -[Illustration: Sir Guy Carlton.] - -Guy Carlton, Lord Dorchester, was born in Ireland, in 1722. In 1748, -he became lieutenant-colonel. In 1758, he served at the siege of -Louisburg under Amherst, and the following year under Wolfe, at the -siege of Quebec. Ultimately he became governor of Quebec, and, during -his administration, defeated the American flotilla under Arnold. In -1790, having been created Baron Dorchester, he was appointed governor -of all the British possessions, except Newfoundland, in North America. -The close of his life was passed in retirement. He died in 1808. As a -soldier, Lord Dorchester appears to have deservedly obtained a high -reputation for courage and skill. - - - MARQUIS OF ROCKINGHAM. - -Charles Watson Wentworth, Marquis of Rockingham, was born 1730. In 1763, -disgusted with the proceedings of Lord Bute, then the reigning favorite -at court, he resigned the situation of a lord of the bed-chamber, which -he had for some time before held, and also his lord-lieutenancy of -Yorkshire. Two years had scarcely elapsed, however, when the whole -system of government having undergone a change, he was appointed, in -July, 1765, first lord of the treasury, in the room of George Grenville. -He seems to have brought to his exalted station an anxious desire to -advance the prosperity of his country; and had his talents been equal to -his good intentions, his administration might have proved fortunate. But -the crisis in which he took office was important and even dangerous, and -he had to struggle against the intrigues of an opposition, powerful both -in numbers and talent. He soon became convinced of the impracticability -of remaining at the helm of affairs, and resigned the premiership on the -1st of August, 1766. - -During the long administration of Lord North, the marquis was -considered, in the House of Lords, as the head of the aristocratic part -of the opposition; but his conduct was entirely free from that political -rancor which has too often disgraced the parliamentary behavior of the -greatest statesmen in England. At length, Lord North felt compelled to -succumb beneath the force and continued attacks of his powerful rival, -Fox; and George the Third offered the premiership to Lord Shelburne, -who, however, declared that, in his judgment, no one was so well fitted -to take the lead in administration as the Marquis of Rockingham. -Accordingly, in March, 1782, the marquis was again elevated to the -chief direction of affairs, having for his principal colleagues, the -Earl of Shelburne and Mr. Fox. The ministry thus formed, seemed likely -to be permanent; for it united much of the wealth and talent of the -country. The hopes of the nation were, however, doomed to be miserably -disappointed. On the 1st of July, the marquis was seized with a violent -spasmodic affection, and almost instantly expired. He had long -anticipated his approaching death, and is said to have expressed but one -motive for wishing a continuance of life, which was, that he might see -his country extricated from her troubles. - - - EDMUND BURKE. - -[Illustration: Edmund Burke.] - -The history of this distinguished statesman and eloquent orator is -exceedingly interesting, but it belongs to these pages to notice him -only as he was a friend to American rights, and often lifted up his -voice in parliament in defence of them. He was born in Dublin, 1730. -His father was a respectable attorney. Burke received his education -at Trinity college; on the completion of which, he studied law, but -devoted himself chiefly to literature. He conducted Dodley's -celebrated Annual Register for many years. In 1765, he entered into -public life, being made private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham -at the time that nobleman was called to the head of the treasury. Soon -after, he was elected to parliament. In 1766, he took a prominent part -in a debate relative to the affairs of America, and often, afterwards, -raised his voice in opposition to the arbitrary measures of the -government. For a time, the affairs of America are said to have -engrossed almost all his attention. - -During one of the debates on American affairs, a member from Hull, by -the name of Hartley, after having driven four-fifths of a very full -house from the benches, by an unusually dull speech, at length requested -that the riot act might be read, for the purpose of elucidating one of -his propositions. Burke, who was impatient to address the house himself, -immediately started up, and exclaimed: "The riot act! My dearest friend, -why, in the name of every thing sacred, have the riot act read? The mob, -you see, is already dispersed!" Peals of laughter followed the utterance -of this comic appeal, which Lord North frequently declared to be one of -the happiest instances of wit he ever heard.[53] - -Burke died in 1797. Unlike many of the statesmen of his day, "his -character, in private life, was almost unimpeachable." As a public -speaker, his manner was bold and forcible; his delivery, vehement and -unembarrassed; but, though easy, he was inelegant. His head -continually oscillated, and his gesticulations were frequently -violent. To the last hour of his life, his pronunciation was -Hibernian. Although a great orator, he was not a skillful debater. Few -men ever possessed greater strength of imagination, or a more -admirable choice of words. His mind was richly stored, and he had the -most perfect mastery over its treasures. Johnson said he was not only -the first man in the House of Commons, but the first man every where; -and, on being asked if he did not think Burke resembled Cicero, -replied, "No, sir; Cicero resembled Burke." - - - THADDEUS KOSCIUSKO. - -Thaddeus Kosciusko, a Polish officer in the American revolutionary -war, was born in Lithuania, in 1756, of an ancient and noble family, -and educated at the military school at Warsaw. He afterwards studied -in France. He came to America, recommended, by Franklin, to General -Washington, by whom he was appointed his aid. He was also appointed -his engineer, with the rank of colonel, in October 1776. At the -unsuccessful siege of Ninety-Six, in 1781, he very judiciously -directed the operations. It was, in 1774, that he left this country, -and, in 1786, he returned to Poland. In 1789, the diet gave him the -appointment of major-general. In the campaign of 1792, he -distinguished himself against the Russians. In 1794, the Poles again -took arms, and were headed by Kosciusko; but, after several splendid -battles, he was taken and thrown into prison by Catharine, but was -released by Paul I. When the emperor presented him with his own sword, -he declined it, saying: "I no longer need a sword, since I have no -longer a country." Never afterwards did he wear a sword. In August, -1797, he visited America, and was received with honor. For his -revolutionary services, he received a pension. In 1798, he went to -France. Having purchased an estate near Fontainebleau, he lived there -till 1814. In 1816, he settled at Soleure, in Switzerland. In 1817, he -abolished slavery on his estate in Poland. He died at Soleure, in -consequence of a fall with his horse from a precipice near Vevay, -October 16, 1817, aged sixty-one. He was never married. - - - COUNT PULASKI. - -Count Pulaski was a Polander by birth, who, with a few men, in 1771, -carried off King Stanislaus from the middle of his capital, though -surrounded with a numerous body of guards and a Russian army. The king -soon escaped, and declared Pulaski an outlaw. After his arrival in -this country, he offered his services to congress, and was honored -with the rank of brigadier-general. He discovered the greatest -intrepidity in an engagement with a party of the British near -Charleston, in May, 1779. In the assault upon Savannah, October 9th, -by General Lincoln and Count D'Estaing, Pulaski was wounded, at the -head of two hundred horsemen, as he was galloping into the town, with -the intention of charging in the rear. He died on the 11th, and -congress resolved that a monument should be erected to his memory. - - - BARON DE KALB. - -Baron de Kalb was a native of Germany, but had been long employed in -the service of France, previous to the commencement of the American -revolution. He arrived in this country in 1777; and being an officer -of great experience, he early received from congress the commission of -major-general. In the battle near Camden, August, 1780, he fell, after -receiving eleven wounds, in his vigorous exertions to prevent the -defeat of the Americans. He died August 19th, aged forty-seven, having -served three years with high reputation. His last moments were spent -in dictating a letter, which expressed his warm affection for the men -and officers of his division, and his admiration of their firmness and -courage in withstanding a superior force. An ornamental tree was -planted at the head of his grave in the neighborhood of Camden, and -congress resolved that a monument should be erected to his memory at -Annapolis, with a very honorable inscription. - - - BARON STEUBEN. - -Frederick William, Baron de Steuben, was a Prussian officer, -aid-de-camp to Frederick the Great, and lieutenant-general in the army -of that distinguished commander. He arrived in America in 1777; soon -after which, he was made inspector-general, with the rank of -major-general. He established a uniform system of manoeuvres; and, by -his skill and persevering industry, effected, during the continuance -of the troops at Valley Forge, a most decided improvement in all ranks -of the army. He was a volunteer in the action at Monmouth, and -commanded in the trenches at Yorktown on the day which concluded the -struggle with Great Britain. He died at Steubenville, New York, -November 28th, 1794, aged sixty-one years. - -"When the army was disbanded, and the old soldiers shook hands in -farewell, Lieutenant-colonel Cochran, a Green-mountain veteran, said: -'For myself, I could stand it; but my wife and daughters are in the -garret of that wretched tavern, and I have no means of removing them,' -'Come,' said the baron, 'I will pay my respects to Mrs. C. and her -daughters.' And when he left them, their countenances were brightened; -for he gave them all he had to give. This was at Newburg. On the wharf, -he saw a poor wounded black man, who wanted a dollar to pay for his -passage home. Of whom the baron borrowed the dollar, it is not known; -but he soon returned; when the negro hailed the sloop, and cried: 'God -bless you, master baron!' The state of New Jersey gave him a small farm. -New York gave him sixteen thousand acres in Oneida county; a pension of -twenty-five hundred dollars was also given him. He built him a log -house at Steubenville, gave a tenth-part of his land to his aids and -servants, and parceled out the rest to twenty or thirty tenants. His -library was his chief solace. Having but little exercise, he died of -apoplexy. Agreeably to his request, he was wrapped in his cloak, and -buried in a plain coffin, without a stone. He was a believer in Jesus -Christ, and a member of the Reformed Dutch Church, New York." - - - COUNT ROCHAMBEAU. - -Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, Comte de Rochambeau, marshal of -France, was born at Vendome in 1725. At the age of sixteen he entered -the army, and served in Germany, under Marshal Broglio. In 1746, he -became aid to Louis Philip, Duke of Orleans. In 1780, having been made -lieutenant-general, he was sent with an army of six thousand men to -the assistance of the United States of America. On reaching the place -of his destination, he landed in Rhode Island, and soon after acted in -concert with Washington, first against Clinton in New York, and then -against Cornwallis, rendering important services at the siege of -Yorktown, which were rewarded by a present of two cannon taken from -Lord Cornwallis. After the Revolution, Rochambeau was raised to the -rank of a marshal by Louis XVI., and received the command of the army -of the north. He was soon superseded by more active officers, and -being calumniated by the popular journalists, he addressed to the -legislative assembly a vindication of his conduct. A decree of -approbation was consequently passed in May, 1792, and he retired to -his estate near Vendome, with a determination to interfere no more -with public affairs. He was subsequently arrested, and narrowly -escaped suffering death under the tyranny of Robespiere. In 1803, he -was presented to Buonaparte, who in the following year gave him a -pension and the cross of grand officer of the legion of honor. His -death took place in 1809.--_Encyclopedia Americana_. - - - COUNT D'ESTAING. - -Charles Henry, Count d'Estaing, admiral and lieutenant-general of the -armies of France, before the Revolution, was a native of Ravel, in -Auvergne, and was descended from an ancient family in that province. -Count d'Estaing commenced his career by serving in the East Indies, -under Lally, when he was taken prisoner, and sent home on his parole. -Having engaged in hostilities again before he was regularly exchanged, -he was taken a second time, and imprisoned at Portsmouth. During the -American war, he was employed as vice-admiral. - -At the capture of the isle of Grenada, he distinguished himself; but on -every occasion he showed more courage than conduct or professional -skill. He promoted the Revolution, and in 1789, he was appointed a -commander of the National Guards at Versailles. In 1791, he addressed to -the national assembly a letter full of protestations of attachment to -the constitution, on the occasion of the approaching trial of the king. -He suffered under the guillotine in 1793, as a counter-revolutionist, at -the age of sixty-five. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[53] Hartley was considered a tedious speaker on account of his -prolixity. But he was a friend to America, and often told the ministers -some very unwelcome truths. The following good story is told of him: One -afternoon, Jenkinson, the first Lord Liverpool, left the house when the -member from Hull rose to speak; and presuming that the honorable -gentleman would, as usual, deliver a very long, dull speech, he walked -home, mounted his horse, and rode to his country-house, where he dined; -and, after strolling for some time about his grounds, returned at a -gentle pace to town. On his arrival at home, he sent a messenger to the -house to ascertain what had been done, and how soon the division might -be expected to take place. The reply he received was, that Mr. Hartley -had not yet done speaking; and when Jenkinson, at length, thought it -advisable, in order to be in time for voting, to go down to Westminster, -he found the long-winded orator still on his legs! - - - - - V. FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. - - -[Illustration: GOVERNMENTS] - - ORIGINAL Governments of the Colonies--Union between them--Plan - proposed by Dr. Franklin--First Congress--Congress of - '74--Confederation--Defects of it--Convention of States proposed - by Virginia--Commissioners from five States meet at - Annapolis--Powers too limited to act--Recommend a General - Convention of States--Delegates appointed--Convention meets at - Philadelphia--Decides to form a new Constitution--Draft - prepared--Discussed--Adopted--Speech of Dr. Franklin--Constitution - signed--Adopted by the several States--Amendments--States admitted - since the adoption--Remarks on the Constitution. - -The several colonies established in America had governments which varied -according as they were charter, proprietary, or royal, which were the -three forms of government existing in America prior to the Revolution. -In certain particulars, they differed from each other as classes, and -the classes differed as individuals. But for a series of years there -existed no general political association, or bond of union among them. -As early, however, as 1643, the New England colonies, Massachusetts, -Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, entered into a perpetual alliance, -offensive and defensive, for mutual protection against the claims of -their Dutch neighbors, and the assaults of their Indian foes. By the -articles of this confederation, the jurisdiction of each colony within -its own borders was to be exclusive; on the occurrence of war, each one -was to furnish its quota of men and provisions, according to its -population; and two commissioners from each colony were to hold an -annual meeting to decide on all matters of general interest. With some -alterations, this confederacy existed more than forty years; it was -dissolved only in 1686, when the charters of the New England colonies -were vacated by a commissioner from James II. This union was productive -of many advantages to the colonies. Besides preserving a mutual good -understanding among them, and thus preventing encroachments upon one -another's rights, assistance was rendered in their wars with the -Indians; without which, it is probable that the more feeble would have -been broken up. - -In 1754, an attempt at union was made on a more extensive scale. The -plan originated in a call from the lords commissioners for trade and -the plantations, and consisted of deputies from the New England -provinces, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The congress met at -Albany. The object proposed by the commissioners was to consider the -best means of defence in case of a war with France, and particularly -to form an alliance with the Six Nations. Governor Shirley, of -Massachusetts, availing himself of the occasion, proposed to the -several governors that the delegates should be instructed on the -subject of a _general union_ or _confederation_. This meeting with -general approbation, the delegates were so instructed. A plan of -union, prepared by Dr. Franklin, was discussed, and substantially -adopted--the delegates from Connecticut dissenting.[54] But it -received the approbation neither of the colonies nor of the king's -council; not by the first, because it was supposed to give too much -power to the president-general, who was to be the king's -representative; nor by the latter, because too much power was supposed -to be given to the representatives of the people. - -The foregoing plan having failed, no other attempt at union was made -for several years. At length, in 1765, in consequence of the passing -of the stamp act by parliament, and other grievances, the assembly of -Massachusetts in June of that year adopted the following resolution: -"That it is highly expedient there should be a meeting, as soon as may -be, of committees from the houses of representatives or burgesses, in -the several colonies, to consult on the present circumstances of the -colonies, and the difficulties to which they are and must be reduced, -and to consider of a general congress, to be held at New York, the -first Tuesday of October. A letter was prepared, to be sent to the -several speakers, and a committee was chosen for Massachusetts." - -In consequence of the proceedings under this recommendation, "on the -7th of October, a congress, consisting of twenty-eight delegates from -the assemblies of Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Providence -Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the -Delaware counties, Maryland, and South Carolina, convened in the city -of New York, and Timothy Ruggles, of Massachusetts, was chosen -president. The first measure of the congress was a declaration of the -rights and grievances of the colonists. They were declared to be -entitled to all the rights and liberties of natural-born subjects -within the kingdom of Great Britain; among the most essential of which -are, the exclusive power to tax themselves, and the privileges of a -trial by jury. The grievance chiefly complained of was the act -granting certain stamp duties and other duties in the British -colonies, which, by taxing the colonies without their consent, and by -extending the jurisdiction of courts of admiralty, was declared to -have a direct tendency to subvert their rights and liberties. A -petition to the king, and a memorial to each house of parliament, -were also agreed on; and it was recommended to the several colonies to -appoint special agents, who should unite their utmost endeavors in -soliciting redress of grievances. The assemblies of Virginia, North -Carolina, and Georgia, were prevented, by their governors, from -sending representatives to the congress; but they forwarded petitions -to England, similar to those appointed by that body."[55] - -In 1774, the grievances of the colonies still continuing, and having -been increased by the open assertion of Great Britain of the justice of -her pretensions, another congress was assembled at Philadelphia, which -consisted of delegates from eleven colonies. In this congress, each -colony had one vote. Their principal acts consisted of a declaration of -rights, and in spirited addresses to the people of British America and -Great Britain, together with a recommendation to the colonies to adopt -resolutions of non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption. - -The resolutions of this congress received the general sanction of the -provincial congress and of the colonial assemblies. Their power was -merely advisory; "yet their recommendations," says Dr. Holmes, "were -more generally and more effectually carried into execution by the -colonies than the laws of the best-regulated state." - -But the dissuasive measures adopted by this congress having no effect on -the king and his ministers, another congress followed in 1775, "whose -pacific efforts to bring about a change in the views of the other party -being equally unavailing, and the commencement of actual hostilities -having, at length, put an end to all hope of reconciliation, the -congress finding, moreover, that the popular voice began to call for an -entire and perpetual dissolution of the political ties which had -connected them with Great Britain, proceeded on the memorable 4th of -July, 1776, to declare the thirteen colonies _independent states_. - -"During the discussions of this solemn act, a committee, consisting -of a member from each colony, had been appointed to prepare and digest -a form of confederation for the future management of the common -interest, which had, hitherto, been left to the discretion of -congress, guided by the exigencies of the contest, and by the known -intentions, or occasional instructions of the colonial legislatures. - -"It appears that as early as the 21st of July, 1775, a plan, entitled -'Articles of Confederation and _perpetual_ union of the Colonies,' had -been sketched by Dr. Franklin, the plan being on that day submitted by -him to congress; and though not copied into their journals, remaining -on their files in his hand-writing. But, notwithstanding the term -'perpetual,' observed in the title, the articles provided expressly -for the event of a return of the colonies to a connection with Great -Britain. - -"This sketch became a basis for the plan reported by the committee on -the 12th of July, now also remaining on the files of congress, in the -hand-writing of Mr. Dickinson. The plan, though dated after the -Declaration of Independence, was probably drawn up before that event; -since the name of colonies, not states, is used throughout the -draught. The plan reported was debated and amended from time to time, -till the 17th of November, 1777, when it was agreed to by congress, -and proposed to the legislatures of the states, with an explanatory -and recommendatory letter. The ratifications of these, by their -delegates in congress, duly authorized, took place at successive -dates; but were not completed till the 1st of March, 1781; when -Maryland, who had made it a prërequisite that the vacant lands -acquired from the British crown should be a common fund, yielded to -the persuasion that a final and formal establishment of the federal -union and government would make a favorable impression, not only on -other foreign nations, but on Great Britain herself."[56] - -Under this confederation, the country went through the war. Fortunate -it was, however, that the war terminated when it did, as the "rope of -sand," as the confederation was called, would probably have served as -a bond of union but a few years longer. Indeed, it had received the -cordial approbation of none of the colonies--while some of them had, -at length, acceded to it rather from necessity than choice. - -"The principal difficulties which embarrassed the progress and -retarded the completion of the plan of confederation," says Mr. -Madison, "may be traced to--first, the natural repugnance of the -parties to a relinquishment of power; secondly, a natural jealousy of -its abuse in other than hands their own; thirdly, the rule of suffrage -among parties whose inequality in size did not correspond with that of -their wealth, or of their military or free population; fourthly, the -selection and definition of the powers, at once necessary to the -federal head, and safe to the several members. - -"To these sources of difficulty, incident to the formation of all such -confederacies, were added two others, one of a temporary, the other of -a permanent nature. The first, was the case of the crown-lands, so -called, because they had been held by the British crown; and being -ungranted to individuals, when its authority ceased, were considered -by the states within whose charters or asserted limits they lay, as -devolving on them; while it was contended by the others, that, being -wrested from the dethroned authority by the equal exertions of all, -they resulted of right and in equity to the benefit of all. The lands, -being of vast extent, and of growing value, were the occasion of much -discussion and heart-burning, and proved the most obstinate of the -impediments to an earlier consummation of the plan of the federal -government. The state of Maryland, the last that acceded to it, firmly -withheld her assent, till the 1st of March, 1781; and then yielded -only in the hope that, by giving a stable and authoritative character -to the confederation, a successful termination of the contest might -be accelerated. The dispute was happily compromised, by successive -surrenders of portions of the territory by the states having exclusive -claims to it, and acceptances of them by congress. - -"The other source of dissatisfaction was the peculiar situation of -some of the states, which, having no convenient ports for foreign -commerce, were subject to be taxed by their neighbors, through whose -ports their commerce was carried on. New Jersey, placed between -Philadelphia and New York, was likened to a cask tapped at both ends; -and North Carolina, between Virginia and South Carolina, to a patient -bleeding at both arms. The Articles of Confederation provided no -remedy for the complaint; which produced a strong protest on the part -of New Jersey, and never ceased to be a source of discord, until the -new constitution superseded the old. - -"But the radical infirmity of the Articles of Confederation was the -dependence of congress on the voluntary and simultaneous compliance with -its requisitions by so many independent communities, each consulting, -more or less, its particular interests and convenience, and distrusting -the compliance of the others. While the paper emissions of congress -continued to circulate, they were employed as a sinew of war, like gold -and silver. When that ceased to be the case, and the fatal defect of the -political system was felt in its alarming force, the war was merely kept -alive, and brought to a successful conclusion, by such foreign aids and -temporary expedients as could be applied; a hope prevailing with many, -and a wish with all, that a state of peace, and the sources of -prosperity opened by it, would give to the confederacy, in practice, the -efficiency which had been inferred in theory." - -The close of the war brought no adequate relief. The wealth of the -country was exhausted. Congress had no funds, and no means of raising -money for the discharge of arrears of pay due to the soldiers of the -Revolution, but by an appeal to the legislative assemblies of the -several states. Even for their own maintenance, they were dependent -upon the assemblies. The legislatures themselves often knew not what -to do. - -"The distress of the inhabitants was continually on the increase; and -in Massachusetts, where it was most felt, an insurrection of a serious -character was the consequence. Near the close of the year 1786, the -populace assembled, to the number of two thousand, in the -north-western part of the state, and, choosing Daniel Shays their -leader, demanded that the collection of debts should be suspended, and -that the legislature should authorize the emission of paper money for -general circulation. Two bodies of militia, drawn from those parts -where dissatisfaction did not prevail, were immediately dispatched -against them, one under command of General Lincoln, the other of -General Shepard. The disaffected were dispersed with less difficulty -than had been apprehended, and, abandoning their seditious purposes, -adopted the proffered indemnity of the government. - -"The time, at length, came, when the public mind gave tokens of being -prepared for a change in the constitution of the general -government--an occurrence, the necessity of which had long been -foreseen by Washington and most of the distinguished patriots of that -period. Evil had accumulated upon evil, till the mass became too -oppressive to be endured, and the voice of the nation cried out for -relief. The first decisive measures proceeded from the merchants, who -came forward almost simultaneously in all parts of the country, with -representations of the utter prostration of the mercantile interests, -and petitions for a speedy and efficient remedy. It was shown, that -the advantages of this most important source of national prosperity -were flowing into the hands of foreigners, and that the native -merchants were suffering for the want of a just protection and a -uniform system of trade. The wise and reflecting were convinced that -some decided efforts were necessary to strengthen the general -government, or that a dissolution of the union, and perhaps a -devastating anarchy, would be inevitable."[57] - -The first step, which led to the convention of 1787, was taken by -Virginia, in a proposition of her legislature, in January, 1786, for a -convention of delegates to establish such a system of commercial -relations as would promote general harmony and prosperity. The above -proposal was cordially approved by Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, -and New York, and delegates were accordingly appointed by them, in -addition to Virginia. These convened at Annapolis, September, 1786; -but they had scarcely entered into a discussion of topics, which -naturally forced themselves into view, before they discovered the -powers with which they were intrusted to be so limited, as to tie up -their hands from effecting any purpose that could be of essential -utility. On this account, as well as from the circumstance that so few -states were represented, they wisely declined deciding on any -important measures in reference to the particular subject for which -they had come together. This convention is memorable, however, as -having been the prelude to the one which followed. Before the -commissioners adjourned, a report was agreed upon, in which the -necessity of a revision and reform of the articles of the old federal -compact was strongly urged, and which contained a recommendation to -all the state legislatures "for the appointment of deputies, to meet -at Philadelphia, with more ample powers and instructions." This report -was sent to congress, as well as to the several states. - -In the appointment of delegates, agreeably to the foregoing -recommendation, Virginia took the lead. February, 1787, the subject -claimed the attention of congress, and the following preamble and -resolution were adopted: - -"Whereas, there is provision, in the articles of confederation and -perpetual union, for making alterations therein, by the assent of a -congress of the United States, and of the legislatures of the several -states; and whereas experience hath evinced that there are defects in -the present confederation, as a means to remedy which, several of the -states, and particularly the state of New York, by express instruction -to their delegates in congress, have suggested a convention for the -purpose expressed in the following resolution, and such convention -appearing to be the most probable means of establishing in these -states a firm national government-- - -"_Resolved_, That, in the opinion of congress, it is expedient, that, on -the second Monday in May next, a convention of delegates, who shall have -been appointed by the several states, be held at Philadelphia, for the -sole and express purpose of revising the articles of confederation, and -reporting to congress and the several legislatures such alterations and -provisions therein, as shall, when agreed to in congress, and confirmed -by the states, render the federal constitution adequate to the -exigencies of government, and the preservation of the union." - -In consequence of this recommendation, all the states appointed -delegates to the convention, excepting Rhode Island. - -On the day fixed for the meeting of the deputies in convention, -Monday, May 14th, 1787, a small number only had assembled. May 25th, -seven states were represented. The deputation from Pennsylvania, -proposed George Washington, Esq., late commander-in-chief, for -president of the convention,[58] and he was unanimously elected. - -Tuesday, March 29th, the convention entered upon the solemn duties of -their commission. A question of serious magnitude early engrossed -their attention, viz: whether they should amend the old system, or -form a new one. For the former object, they had been appointed, -congress having limited their power to a revision of the articles of -the confederation. But the defects of the old system were so many, -and of such magnitude, that, at the session of the convention the -above day, Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, submitted fifteen -resolutions, as the basis of a new constitution. These resolutions, -denominated the _Virginia plan_, were debated and amended until the -15th of June, when Mr. Patterson, of New Jersey, presented a project -for revising the articles of confederation. This was called the -_Jersey plan_,[59] and, on motion of Mr. Patterson, was taken up--the -Virginia plan, meanwhile, being postponed. - -On the 18th, Mr. Dickinson moved, in committee of the whole, to -"postpone the first resolution in Mr. Patterson's plan, in order to -take up the following, viz: 'that the Articles of Confederation ought -to be revised and amended, so as to render the government of the -United States adequate to the exigencies, the preservation, and the -prosperity of the union'--the postponement was agreed to by ten -states; Pennsylvania, divided." The following day, this substitute was -rejected by a vote of six states to four, and one divided. Mr. -Patterson's plan was again at large before the committee. Towards the -close of the session of the same day, the question was taken upon -postponing this latter plan, and carried by a vote of seven states to -three, and one divided. Mr. Randolph's, or the Virginia plan, came -again under consideration. This was now further discussed to the 23d -of June, when, on motion of Mr. Gerry, the proceedings of the -convention for the establishment of a national government, except the -part relating to an executive, were referred to a committee, to -prepare and report a constitution conformable thereto. This committee -consisted of Mr. Rutledge, Mr. Randolph, Mr. Gorham, Mr. Ellsworth, -and Mr. Wilson. "On the 26th of the same month, those relating to the -executive having been adopted, they, with various other propositions -submitted by individuals, were referred to the same committee, and the -committee adjourned to the 6th of August, when the committee reported -a draft of a constitution. This was under debate until the 9th of -September, and underwent many material alterations. A committee, -consisting of Mr. Johnson, Mr. Hamilton, G. Morris, Mr. Madison, and -Mr. King, was then selected 'to revise the style and arrange the -articles.' The manner in which these eminent scholars and statesmen -performed the duty assigned them, appears from the great precision and -accuracy of the language of the constitution, as well as the happy -arrangement of its various articles." - -The report of this committee was made on the 12th of September, and -further debated till the 16th, when the constitution as amended was -agreed to by all states, and ordered to be engrossed. - -On the following day, September 17th, after the reading of the -constitution as engrossed, the venerable Franklin rose, and putting a -written speech into the hands of Mr. Wilson, requested him to read it: - -"_Mr. President_: I confess that there are several parts of this -constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I -shall never approve them; for having lived long, I have experienced -many instances of being obliged by better information, or fuller -consideration, to change opinions even on important subjects, which I -once thought right, but found to be otherwise. It is therefore that, -the older I grow, the more apt I am to doubt my own judgment, and to -pay more respect to the judgment of others. Most men, indeed, as well -as most sects in religion, think themselves in possession of all -truth, and that wherever others differ from them, it is so far error. -Steele, a protestant, in a dedication, tells the pope, that the only -difference between our churches, in their opinions of the certainty of -their doctrines, is, 'the church of Rome is infallible, and the church -of England is never in the wrong.' But though many private persons -think almost as highly of their own infallibility as of that of their -sect, few express it so naturally as a certain French lady, who, in a -dispute with her sister, said, 'I don't know how it happens, sister, -but I meet with nobody but myself that is always in the right.' - -"In these sentiments, sir, I agree to this constitution, with all its -faults, if they are such, because I think a general government -necessary for us, and there is no form of government but what may be a -blessing to the people, if well administered; and I believe further, -that this is likely to be well administered for a course of years, and -can only end in despotism, as other forms have done before it, when -the people shall become so corrupted as to need despotic government, -being incapable of any other. I doubt, too, whether any other -convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better constitution. -For when you assemble a number of men, to have the advantage of their -joint wisdom, you inevitably assemble, with those men, all their -prejudices, their passions, their errors of opinion, their local -interests, and their selfish views. From such an assembly, can a -perfect production be expected? It therefore astonishes me, sir, to -find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I -think it will astonish our enemies, who are waiting with confidence to -hear that our councils are confounded, like those of the builders of -Babel; and that our states are on the point of separation, only to -meet hereafter for the purpose of cutting one another's throats. Thus -I consent, sir, to this constitution, because I expect no better, and -because I am not sure that it is not the best. The opinions I have -had of its errors, I sacrifice to the public good. I have never -whispered a syllable of them abroad. Within these walls they were -born, and here they shall die. If every one of us, in returning to our -constituents, were to report the objections he has had to it, and -endeavor to gain partisans in support of them, we might prevent its -being generally received, and thereby lose all its salutary effects -and great advantages, resulting naturally in our favor among foreign -nations, as well as among ourselves, from our real or apparent -unanimity. Much of the strength and efficiency of any government in -procuring and securing happiness to the people, depends on opinion--on -the general opinion of the goodness of the government, as well as of -the wisdom and integrity of its governors. I hope, therefore, that for -our own sakes, as a part of the people, and for the sake of posterity, -we shall act heartily and unanimously in recommending this -constitution (if approved by congress and confirmed by the -conventions) wherever our influence may extend, and turn our future -thoughts and endeavors to the means of having it well administered. - -"On the whole, sir, I cannot help expressing a wish that every member -of the convention, who may still have objections to it, would with me, -on this occasion, doubt a little of his own infallibility, and to make -manifest our unanimity, put his name to this instrument." He then -moved that the constitution be signed by the members, and offered the -following as a convenient form, viz: "Done in convention, by the -unanimous consent of the _states_ present, the 17th of September, &c. -In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names." - -The motion of Dr. Franklin to sign by _states_ was objected to by -several of the members, but was agreed to--all the _states_ answering -"_ay_." - -While the last members were signing their names, Dr. Franklin, looking -towards the president's chair, at the back of which a rising sun -happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that -painters had found it difficult to distinguish, in their art, a -rising from a setting sun. I have, said he, often and often, in the -course of the session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as -to its issue, looked at that behind the president, without being able -to tell whether it was rising or setting; but now, at length, I have -the happiness to know that it is a rising, and not a setting sun.[60] - -[Illustration: Franklin.] - -During the deliberations of the convention, several questions of deep -interest arose; but none, perhaps, more exciting than that which related -to the relative weight of the states in the two branches of the national -legislature. The small states, at length, consented that the right of -suffrage in the house should be in proportion to the whole number of -white or other free citizens in each, including those bound to service -for a term of years, and three-fifths of all other persons. While they -yielded this point, they insisted on an equal vote in the senate. - -To this, the larger states objected; and, on this question, they -remained for a time about equally divided. "On the first trial, in -committee of the whole, six states against five decided that the right -of suffrage in the senate should be the same as in the house; the -states of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, South -Carolina, and Georgia, being in the affirmative, and Connecticut, New -York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland in the negative. - -"On the 29th of June, the question was again presented to the -consideration of the convention, in a motion made by Mr. Ellsworth, -"that in the second branch, each state should have an equal vote." We -cannot pretend to give even an outline of the arguments in favor and -against this motion. The debate was warm and exciting. For several -days, the powers of mighty minds were in animated collision; and from -the strong ramparts behind which the respective parties had apparently -entrenched themselves, there was, for a time, little prospect of union -on the question. - -"On the 23d of July, the question was taken, on the motion of Mr. -Ellsworth, that in the senate each state should have one vote; and -five states were in favor of it, five against it, and one divided; and -the motion was lost. This equal division on a subject of such -importance, accompanied with so much warmth on both sides, seemed to -present an insurmountable obstacle to further proceedings of the -convention, without some compromise. To effect this, Charles C. -Pinckney, of South Carolina, moved for the appointment of a committee, -to take into consideration the subject of both branches of the -legislature. This motion prevailed, though not without opposition. -Some of the members were in favor of appointing a committee, though -they had little expectation of a favorable result. Mr. Martin, of -Maryland, declared that each state must have an equal vote, or the -business of the convention was at an end. - -"Mr. Sherman said, we have got to a point that we cannot move one way or -the other; a committee is necessary to set us right. Mr. Gerry -observed, that the world expected something from them: if we do nothing, -we must have war and confusion--the old confederation would be at an -end. Let us see if concessions cannot be made--accommodation is -absolutely necessary, and defects may be amended by a future convention. - -"Thus the convention was at a stand. Hopes were indeed entertained -that unanimity of views might on some basis prevail; but the longer -continuance of the debate, in the then existing state of the -convention, it was apparent, was engendering no good." - -Fully sensible that nothing could be effected but upon a principle of -compromise, the convention proceeded to elect, by ballot, a -committee[61] of one from each state, to report on this exciting -subject, and adjourned for three days. The interval was one of great -anxiety; neither party appeared inclined to recede from the position -it had taken, and the great objects for which the convention had -assembled were apparently to be lost. And who could foresee the -result? But at this most critical juncture, God did not forsake the -nation. He had borne her forward, and now his spirit was felt in his -becalming influence upon the convention. On rëassembling, the above -committee made a report, which being accepted, the deliberations of -the convention proceeded with greater unanimity, until, at length, a -constitution was agreed upon. - -The convention recommended that the constitution should be submitted -to state conventions, and that as soon as the same should have been -ratified by a constitutional majority, congress should take measures -for the election of a president, and fix the time for commencing -proceedings under it. Among the states, great diversity of opinion -prevailed respecting this constitution; and, for a time, it was -doubtful whether it would receive the approbation of a majority. But, -at length, not only this number was obtained, but all gave their -assent, and in the following order: - - By convention of Delaware, December 7, 1787 - " " Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787 - " " New Jersey, December 18, 1787 - " " Georgia, January 2, 1788 - " " Connecticut, January 9, 1788 - " " Massachusetts, February 6, 1788 - " " Maryland, April 28, 1788 - " " South Carolina, May 23, 1788 - " " New Hampshire, June 21, 1788 - " " Virginia, June 26, 1788 - " " New York, July 26, 1788 - " " North Carolina, November 21, 1789 - " " Rhode Island, May 29, 1790 - -"At the first session of the first congress, the senate and house of -representatives, two-thirds concurring, recommended to the states the -adoption of twelve amendments to the constitution, chiefly relating to -the freedom of speech and of the press--the right of petition--trial -by jury--bail--election of president, &c. Ten of these amendments were -adopted by three-fourths of the legislatures of the states, and became -a part of the constitution. Subsequently, two other amendments were -added." - -"The peaceable adoption of this government," says Chancellor Kent, -"under all the circumstances which attended it, presented the case of -an effort of deliberation, combined with a spirit of amity and mutual -concession, which was without example. It must be a source of just -pride, and of the most grateful recollection to every American who -reflects seriously on the difficulty of the experiment, the manner in -which it was conducted, the felicity of its issue, and the fate of -similar trials in other nations of the earth." - -The opinions which prevailed in the convention of 1787, as to the -addition of new states, are worthy of notice. On one occasion, Mr. -Sherman said, "there is no probability that the number of future -states will exceed that of the existing states. If the event should -ever happen, it is too remote to be taken into consideration at this -time." But little more than half a century has elapsed, and the -original number has more than doubled, as may be seen by the following -account of the states admitted: - - Vermont, March 4, 1791. - Kentucky, June 1, 1791. - Tennessee, June 1, 1796. - Ohio, November 29, 1802. - Louisiana, April 8, 1812. - Indiana, December 11, 1816. - Mississippi, December 10, 1817. - Illinois, December 3, 1818. - Alabama, December 14, 1819. - Maine, March 15, 1820. - Missouri, August 10, 1821. - Arkansas, June 15, 1836. - Michigan, January 26, 1837. - Florida, March 3, 1845. - Texas, December 29, 1845. - Iowa, December 28, 1846. - Wisconsin, May 29, 1848. - - Congress assumed jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, Feb. - 27, 1801. - -The constitution, of the formation and adoption of which we have thus -given an account, has been in existence more than sixty years. -Meanwhile, what changes in empires and governments have been effected in -other portions of the globe! Monarchs have been hurled from their -thrones--or have waged war, and expended millions to retain them. Their -subjects, degraded and oppressed, have sighed and struggled for liberty, -but only to find the chains of servitude drawn more closely around them. -Not until recently, have the nations of Europe seemed to realize that an -improvement in their political condition was possible. They are, indeed, -just now making an effort to throw off the yoke and fetters; but what -will be the result of their experiments, no sagacity can well foresee. - -The American people may well congratulate themselves upon the -realization of so many of their early hopes. God has helped them; and -never should his kind and protecting care be overlooked; nor his -interpositions in days of darkness and perplexity be forgotten. That was -a glorious struggle, through which they passed, and which resulted in -their emancipation from British oppression. But I know not whether the -intervening hand of Providence was more conspicuous in that contest, -than in leading our statesmen to the formation of the constitution, or -so many independent states, whose interests were apparently so -conflictive, or whose minds were so diverse, to its unanimous adoption. - -And why has it lasted? Why have we not presented to the world, the -same feverish and changeful disposition, which has characterized our -sister republics of the South? Not one of the latter, scarcely, has -passed a single ten years, without intestine commotions--or some -change of their constitutions--or some radical alteration of their -political principles. And their people--what portions of them have -dwelt securely--or experienced a moiety of the advantages and -prosperity that have blessed this Northern confederacy? - -The constitution of the United States has been, and is, the wonder and -admiration of the civilized world. How is such a national sovereignty -as that constitution contemplates and creates, compatible with so many -independent state sovereignties! Who could imagine that there could -exist such efficiency in the one, and yet such harmony among the -others! To the friends of monarchy, the mystery is nearly -inexplicable; and it seems quite impossible for the statesmen of other -countries, however desirous they may be, so to understand the theory -and practice of our national and state governments, as to conform them -to the circumstances of any other people on the globe. - -If it be inquired how the framers of our constitution should have -devised such a government, and shaped it to meet the wants of a people -in some respects one, and in other respects so diverse, the most -intelligent and truthful answer is--God superintended and guided them; -not by immediate inspiration, but they served a long training; from -the very settlement of the country, and in the circumstances which led -our fathers to these shores, there was a work of preparation. And when -the time came, there was the patriotism--the self-denial--the -intelligence--the political wisdom--which were necessary to devise and -perfect our glorious constitution. - -But will it last?--Last! Should an American citizen ever indulge a -thought to the contrary? But such thoughts will crowd in, and cause -anxiety to the patriot. When he looks over the pages of past history, -and reads the rise and fall of ancient republics--and by what means they -perished--by their own hands--and by means of their prosperity--and then -casts his eyes over his own country, and witnesses the thrift, the -wealth, the expanding strength and glory of that country--he will ask, -will our constitution stand?--will it continue to unite a people -separated into so many and so distant states? Especially will he have -reason for solicitude and doubt, when he dwells upon the great and grave -questions which are rising up, and are dividing the North and the -South--the East and the West. Our congress is already nearly a -battle-field. Our presses, in different sections, are waging war upon -one another, fierce and vindictive; our whole people are divided up into -parties--with sectional interests and sectional jealousies. - -Will the constitution, then, stand? We cannot say that there is no -danger; but there is ground of hope and courage. Let the religion and -patriotism of our fathers, be cultivated--let our unquenchable love of -liberty, and a profound reverence for the constitution and the union, -be instilled into the minds of our children from their earliest days -of thought and reflection, and that noble instrument, and that -glorious union, will continue for generations to come. - -I cannot better close these observations than by citing some forcible -and eloquent remarks of the late Judge Story, addressed to the -American youth.--"Let the American youth," says he, "never forget that -they possess a noble inheritance, bought by the toils, and sufferings, -and blood of our ancestors; and capable, if wisely improved, and -safely guarded, of transmitting to their latest posterity all the -substantial blessings of life--the peaceful enjoyment of liberty, of -property, of religion, and of independence. The structure has been -erected by architects of consummate skill and fidelity; its -foundations are solid; its compartments are beautiful, as well as -useful; its arrangements are full of wisdom and order; and its -defences are impregnable from without. It has been reared for -immortality, if the work of man may justly aspire to such a title. It -may, nevertheless, perish in an hour, by the folly, or corruption, or -negligence of its only keepers, THE PEOPLE. Republics are created by -the virtue, public spirit, and intelligence of the citizens. They fall -when the wise are banished from the public councils because they dare -to be honest, and the profligate are rewarded because they flatter the -people, in order to betray them." - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[54] For a more particular account of this plan of union, the reader -is referred to Pitkin's History of the United States, vol. i. p. 142, -or Holmes' Annals, vol. ii. p. 55. - -[55] Holmes' Annals. - -[56] Madison Papers, vol. ii. p. 687-9. - -[57] Hinton. - -[58] "The nomination came with particular grace from Pennsylvania, as -Dr. Franklin alone could have been thought of as a competitor. The -doctor was himself to have made the nomination of General Washington, -but the state of the weather and of his health confined him to his -house."--_Madison Papers._ - -[59] "This plan had been concerted among the deputation, or members -thereof, from Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and perhaps -Mr. Martin, from Maryland, who made with them a common cause, though -on different principles. Connecticut and New York were against a -departure from the principles of the confederation, wishing rather to -add a few new powers to congress, than to substitute a national -government. The states of New Jersey and Delaware were opposed to a -national government, because its patrons considered a proportional -representation of the states as the basis of it. The eagerness -displayed by the members opposed to a national government, from these -different motives, began now to produce serious anxiety for the result -of the convention. Mr. Dickinson said to Mr. Madison: 'You see the -consequence of pushing things too far. Some of the members from the -small states wish for two branches in the general legislature, and are -friends to a good national government; but we would sooner submit to -foreign power, than submit to be deprived, in both branches of the -legislature, of an equality of suffrage, and thereby be thrown under -the dominion of the larger states.'"--_Madison Papers._ - -[60] Madison Papers. - -[61] This committee consisted of Mr. Gerry, Mr. Ellsworth, Mr. Yates, -Mr. Patterson, Dr. Franklin, Mr. Bedford, Mr. Martin, Mr. Mason, Mr. -Davy, Mr. Rutledge, and Mr. Baldwin. - - - - - VI. GEORGE WASHINGTON, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration] - - INAUGURATED AT NEW YORK, APRIL 30, 1789. - - JOHN ADAMS, VICE-PRESIDENT. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, September 26, 1789,} Secretaries - Edmund Randolph, Virginia, January 2, 1794, } of State. - Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, December 10, 1795 } - - Alexander Hamilton, New York, September 11, 1789,} Secretaries - Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, February 3, 1795 } of Treasury. - - Henry Knox, Massachusetts, September 12, 1789,} Secretaries - Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, January 2, 1795, } of War. - James M'Henry, Maryland, January 27, 1796 } - - Samuel Osgood, Massachusetts, September 26, 1789,} Postmasters - Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, November 7, 1791, } General. - Joseph Habersham, Georgia, February 25, 1795, } - - Edmund Randolph, Virginia, September 26, 1789,} Attorneys - William Bradford, Pennsylvania, January 27, 1794, } General. - Charles Lee, Virginia, December 10, 1795 } - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, First Congress, 1789. - Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, Second do. 1791. - Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, Third do. 1793. - Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, Fourth do. 1795. - -To the traveller whose lot has led him to traverse inhospitable -deserts--encounter fierce storms, and stem angry floods--it is -delightful, at length, to enter a region where such obstacles no longer -impede his progress--where he breathes with freedom--where he pauses to -repose and refresh himself, without the anticipation of similar -immediate toil and fatigue. It may not, indeed, be the end of his -journey--and he may not know with certainty the future issue of that -journey; but the aspect is less forbidding--the prospect is even -inviting--and he passes on, animated with the hope of still better -things to come. - -Some such change we realize at the point at which we have arrived, in -following down the great events of American history. Casting an eye -upon the scenes of the past, little besides toil, agitation, and -conflict, are to be seen. - -The Pilgrim Fathers land on these western shores. Immediately, a -wide-spread wilderness is before them, and the task of clearing it is -begun; savage foes--subtle, secret, and sanguinary--prowl about their -habitations, and for years agitate and distress them. The mother-country -becomes involved in continental wars--America is the theatre of the -contest, and American soldiers must fight her battles. But, like the -palm-tree, the colonists rise under the burdens imposed on them. As they -prosper and expand, England becomes jealous, and bears herself lordly -towards them, in measures of oppression--in prohibitions and exactions. -War ensues--a long and exhausting war; their fields lie neglected; their -cities are captured; their families are impoverished, and their sons are -slain; but they conquer, and are free. But, as a nation, they have no -sufficient bond of union--no efficient government to guide their future -destiny in safety. National and state debts rest as an incubus upon -their efforts, and no adequate power exists by which to provide for -their liquidation. A convention meets: different plans are -proposed--different constitutions are discussed. Obstacles to the -adoption of any arise, which appear insurmountable, and the convention -is on the eve of dissolving--leaving the problem still unsolved, whether -human wisdom is adequate to devise a constitution which shall harmonize -the conflicting interests of thirteen free and independent states. - -Once more Providence rallies to our aid--moving upon untractable -spirits, as in days of yore the spirit had moved upon the troubled -waters, and now, as then, there "is a calm." Deliberations are -resumed--asperities wear away--harmony succeeds--the final vote is -taken--a constitution is adopted, and sent abroad among the people of -the states. - -But again the waters become tumultuous--angry conflict is waged in -almost every state-house in the land--hundreds and thousands lift up -their voices against this constitution, and refuse to sanction -it--ill-boding doubts swell up like clouds gathering from the sea, and -for a time exclude all hope of a constitutional ratification. - -But another becalming influence from on high moves upon the mental -mass; jarring strifes are suspended--angry discord ceases--harmonious -action succeeds--the constitution is ratified, _and George Washington -is elected president of the United States_! - -On the ratification of the constitution, the attention of the people -was at once directed to General Washington, as the first president of -the United States. Communications, expressive of this general desire, -were made to him. "We cannot," said Mr. Johnson, of Maryland, "do -without you, and I and thousands more can explain to any body but -yourself, why we cannot do without you." "I have ever thought," said -Governeur Morris, "and have said, that you must be president; no other -man can fill that office." In a letter on the subject, addressed to -Washington by Colonel Hamilton, the latter said, "You will permit me -to say, that it is indispensable you should lend yourself to its [the -government's] first operations." - -Washington had serious objections to becoming a candidate. He -sincerely wished for retirement. "It is my great and sole desire"--so -he expressed himself to a friend, who had written him--"to live and -die in peace and retirement on my own farm." - -But the voice of the nation demanded a further sacrifice from the -noble and disinterested patriot. He alone was believed to fill so -prëeminent a station in public opinion, that he might be placed at the -head of the nation without exciting envy. He alone possessed the -requisite confidence of the nation. - -By the constitution, the new government was to commence its operations -on the 4th of March, 1789; but a quorum of representatives did not -appear till the 1st, nor of senators till Monday, the 6th day of April. - -On this latter day, the president of the senate, elected for the -purpose of counting the votes, declared to the senate, that the senate -and house of representatives had met, and that he, in their presence, -had opened and counted the votes for the electors for president and -vice-president of the United States; whereby it appeared that GEORGE -WASHINGTON was unanimously elected president. The following table -exhibits the votes of the several electoral colleges: - - ELECTORAL VOTES FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT. - - ELECTION FOR THE FIRST TERM, - COMMENCING MARCH 4, 1789, AND TERMINATING MARCH 3, 1793. - - Key: A. George Washington, of Virginia. - B. John Adams, of Massachusetts. - C. Samuel Huntington, of Connecticut. - D. John Jay, of New York. - E. John Hancock, of Massachusetts. - F. R. H. Harrison, of Maryland. - G. George Clinton, of New York. - H. John Rutledge, of South Carolina. - I. John Milton, of Georgia. - J. James Armstrong, of Georgia. - K. Edward Telfair, of Georgia. - L. Benjamin Lincoln, of Massachusetts. - - ----------+----------------+---+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - Number of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Electors | STATES. | | | | | | | | | | | | | - from each | | A.| B.|C.|D.|E.|F.|G.|H.|I.|J.|K.|L.| - State. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - ----------+----------------+---+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - 5 |New Hampshire, | 5| 5| | | | | | | | | | | - 10 |Massachusetts, | 10| 10| | | | | | | | | | | - 7 |Connecticut, | 7| 5| 2| | | | | | | | | | - 6 |New Jersey, | 6| 1| 5| | | | | | | | | | - 10 |Pennsylvania, | 10| 8| 2| | | | | | | | | | - 3 |Delaware, | 3| 3| | | | | | | | | | | - 6 |Maryland, | 6| 6| | | | | | | | | | | - 10 |Virginia, | 10| 5| 1| 1| 3| | | | | | | | - 7 |South Carolina, | 7| 1| 6| | | | | | | | | | - 5 |Georgia, | 5| 2| 1| 1| 1| | | | | | | | - ----------+----------------+---+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - 69 |Whole No. | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |of electors, | 69| 34| 2| 9| 4| 6| 3| 6| 2| 1| 1| 1| - |Majority, 35 | | | | | | | | | | | | | - ----------+----------------+---+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ - -Whereupon, a certificate and letter--the one prepared by a committee -of the senate, the other by its president--were communicated to -General Washington, setting forth his election, and expressing the -cordial wish, that so auspicious a mark of public confidence would -meet his approbation. - -This certificate and letter were received by Washington, at Mount -Vernon, on the 4th of April. He doubtless appreciated the honor done -him, and was grateful to the people for the confidence reposed in him; -but he would have declined the office, had the convictions of duty -allowed. That, however, was not permitted; and, yielding to the wishes -of the nation, he took leave of Mount Vernon on the second day after -receiving notice of his appointment, and proceeded to New York, at that -time the seat of government--"bidding adieu," as he wrote in his diary, -"to private life and domestic felicity; and, with a mind oppressed with -more anxious and painful sensations than I have words to express." - -The state of the public business required his immediate presence at -the seat of government; but the desire to see the first president of -the United States--the zeal and enthusiasm which were kindled up along -the whole route he was to take, rendered it impossible to proceed with -haste. Crowds flocked around him, wherever he stopped; and corps of -militia, and companies of the most respectable citizens, escorted him -through their respective streets. - -On reaching New York, April 23d, he was received with due ceremony by -the governor of that state, and conducted with military honors through -an immense concourse of people, to the apartments provided for him. -Here he received the salutations of foreign ministers, public bodies, -political characters, and private citizens of distinction, who pressed -around him to offer their congratulations, and to express their joy at -seeing the man, who had the confidence of all, at the head of the -American republic. - -[Illustration: INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON.] - -On Thursday, the 30th of April, the new president was inaugurated. The -oath of office was administered by the chancellor of the state of New -York, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, and an -immense concourse of people, who attested their joy by loud and -repeated acclamations. From the open gallery adjoining the -senate-chamber, which had been the scene of this new but imposing scene, -the assembly returned to the senate-chamber, where the president -delivered an inaugural address; in which, after alluding to the -"anxieties" occasioned by his election to the chief magistracy, and the -fond hope he had indulged of spending the remainder of his days in the -"retreat" to which he had retired, after years of military toil and -strife, he proceeded in terms alike honorable to himself as a Christian -and a patriot: "It would be peculiarly improper to omit, in this first -official act, my fervent supplications to that Almighty Being who rules -over the universe--who presides in the councils of nations--and whose -providential aids can supply every human defect, that his benediction -may consecrate to the liberties and happiness of the people of the -United States, a government instituted by themselves for these essential -purposes: and may enable every instrument employed in its administration -to execute, with success, the functions allotted to his charge. In -tendering this homage to the Great Author of every public and private -good, I assure myself that it expresses your sentiments not less than my -own; nor those of my fellow-citizens at large, less than either. No -people can be bound to acknowledge and adore the invisible hand which -conducts the affairs of men, more than the people of the United States. -Every step by which they have advanced to the character of an -independent nation, seems to have been distinguished by some token of -providential agency; and in the important revolution just accomplished -in the system of their united government, the tranquil deliberations, -and voluntary consent of so many distinct communities, from which the -event has resulted, cannot be compared with the means by which most -governments have been established, without some return of pious -gratitude, along with an humble anticipation of the future blessings -which the past seem to presage. These reflections, arising out of the -present crisis, have forced themselves too strongly on my mind to be -suppressed. You will join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are -none, under the influence of which the proceedings of a new and free -government can more auspiciously commence." - -Such were the sentiments of the patriot--the sage--the Christian -statesman, as he was about to enter upon the duties of an office, upon -the faithful or unfaithful discharge of which, was to depend the -perpetuity or speedy annihilation of a constitution of government, -which had cost thousands of lives and millions of revenue--besides -involving the happiness of unborn millions. Washington had surveyed -the wide field of responsibility. He came to the high and sacred -office reluctantly indeed, but in reliance upon that Divine arm which -had been his stay in the dark and stormy days of the Revolution. -Having put his hand to the plough, he was not the man to look back. -Having passed the Rubicon, his march was forward. Immediately -following the delivery of the above address, the president, with the -members of both houses, attended divine service at St. Paul's chapel. -Thus did Washington, and thus did the national assembly, commence the -government with a _devout recognition of its dependence upon Divine -Providence for success_. Happy for the country, if the same spirit of -piety, and the same acknowledgments to the Divine Author of all good, -had descended to after years. - -The acts and events which signalized the administration of Washington -relate to-- - - A System of Revenue. Indian War. - Regulation of Departments. Rëelection of Washington. - Amendments of the Constitution. Difficulties with France. - Establishment of a Judiciary. Insurrection in Pennsylvania. - Assumption of Debts. Jay's Treaty. - Removal of the Seat of Government. Election of Mr. Adams. - National Bank. Farewell Address. - -_System of Revenue._--The first duty, under the federal constitution, -to which congress was called, was to provide a revenue for the support -of the government. For this purpose duties were laid on imported -merchandize and on the tonnage of vessels; thus drawing into the -national treasury funds, which had before been collected and -appropriated by the individual states. To counteract the commercial -regulations of foreign nations, and encourage American shipping, -higher tonnage duties were imposed on foreign than on American -vessels, and ten per cent. less duty on goods imported in vessels -belonging to the citizens of the United States than the same goods -brought in those owned by foreigners. - -_Regulation of Departments._--Three executive departments were -created, designed to aid the president in the management of the -government. These were styled departments of _war_, of _foreign -affairs_, and of the _treasury_. The heads of these departments were -to be called _secretaries_, and to receive a salary of three thousand -five hundred dollars. They were intended to constitute a council, to -be consulted by the president at his pleasure; and their opinions, on -all important questions, he was authorized to require in writing. - -In framing the acts establishing these departments, a question arose -of serious magnitude, viz: "In what manner, and by whom, these -important officers could be _removed from office_?" The constitution -was explicit in regard to their appointment, giving the power of -nominating to the president, and that of confirming or rejecting the -nomination to the senate; but it was silent as to removal. Some few -maintained that they could be removed only by impeachment; but the -principal question was, "whether they were removable by the president -alone, or by the president with the concurrence of the senate?" - -The debate on this question was long and animated. It was claimed, by -one portion of the members, that as the senate had a voice in the -appointment of these officers, they should have a voice in case of -their removal; that such power entrusted to one man might be -abused--if not by Washington, by some of his successors. - -On the other hand, it was contended that, as it was made the duty of -the president to see the laws faithfully executed, he ought to have -the power of dismissing those agents who were unfaithful; otherwise, -how, in many supposable cases, could he secure a faithful execution of -the laws? It was further urged, that the mal-conduct of an officer -might require his immediate dismission, before the senate--a body -scattered over the states--could be convened. True, the power might be -abused, and, in the hands of an ambitious man, perhaps would be; but -such abuse would, in due time, be rebuked by the people, and the -abuser of this delegated power, be displaced with dishonor. "The -danger," said Mr. Madison, "consists in this: the president can -displace from office a man whose merits require that he should be -continued in it. What will be the motives which the president can feel -for such abuse of his power, and the restraints to operate to prevent -it? In the first place, he will be impeachable by this house, before -the senate, for such an act of mal-administration; for I contend, that -the wanton removal of meritorious officers, would subject him to -impeachment, and removal from his own high trust." - -The difference of opinion on this great question, gave rise to warm -and protracted debates. A majority of both houses, however, at length -decided, that _the power of removal is in the president alone_. -Several who had been members of the convention which framed the -constitution, were, at this time, members of the house of -representatives. They were equally divided on the question--Mr. -Madison and Mr. Baldwin, supporting the construction finally adopted -by congress: Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Gerry, opposing it. - -_Amendments of the Constitution._--The states of New York and -Virginia, although they ratified the constitution, were solicitous to -have certain amendments adopted, which, in separate memorials, they -presented to congress, and urged that body to call another convention -for their adoption. Congress, however, had no authority to call a -convention. Mr. Madison submitted to the house several amendments, -which, together with those presented by several of the states, were -referred to a committee, consisting of one member from each state. -This committee, at length, reported several amendments; twelve of -which, after various alterations, were agreed to by both branches of -congress, and sent to the states. These amendments related to -religion--keeping or bearing arms in time of war--quartering soldiers, -citizens, &c., &c. Ten of these articles were at length ratified by -the state legislatures, and became a part of the constitution. - -_Establishment of a Judiciary._--"A national judiciary was also -established during this session, consisting of a supreme court, -circuit, and district courts. The bill for carrying this part of the -constitution into effect, originated in the senate, and was drawn up -by a committee, of which Mr. Ellsworth was chairman. The district -courts were to consist of one judge in each state. The states were -divided into circuits, in each of which, one of the judges of the -supreme court, and the district judge of the state in which the court -was held, constituted the circuit courts. In certain cases, this court -had original jurisdiction, and also took cognizance of appeals from -the district courts. The supreme court was composed of a chief justice -and five associate judges, and was to hold two sessions annually, at -the seat of government. This court had exclusive jurisdiction in -certain cases, and appellative jurisdiction from the circuit courts, -and also from the state courts, in cases where the validity of -treaties, and the laws of the United States were drawn in question. -This organization of the federal judiciary, has remained nearly the -same to the present time, except for a short period, when a different -system, relative to the circuit courts, was established, but which was -soon abolished, and the old system restored."[62] John Jay was -appointed chief justice; John Rutledge, James Wilson, William -Cushing, Robert H. Harrison, and John Blair, associate judges of the -supreme court, and Edmund Randolph, attorney general.[63] - -_Assumption of Debts._--The second session of the first congress -began on the 6th of January, 1790. At the close of the preceding -session, the secretary of the treasury had been directed to prepare a -plan for providing for the adequate support of the public credit, and -to report the same at the next meeting of congress. On the 15th, in -obedience to the foregoing requisition, Mr. Hamilton submitted his -report. Having dwelt with great ability upon the importance of a -nation maintaining the public credit, he proposed, as the means of -supporting that of the United States, a system of assuming or funding -not only the public debt, but also the state debts, and of making -provision for the payment of the interest by taxes imposed on certain -articles of luxury, and on spirits distilled within the United States. - -The debates on this report were exciting beyond precedent. While not -much difference existed as to funding the foreign debt, a strong -opposition arose, on the part of the democratic party, against -discharging, in full, the domestic debt, and the assumption of the -state debts. The federalists advocated the measure. The contest -between the two rival parties was strong, spirited, and even virulent. -The very foundations of the government were shaken; and a writer has -justly remarked, that to the differences which were then created, and -the excitement which sprung up during the debates, may be ascribed -"the origin of that violent spirit which for years arrayed one part of -the American community against the other." - -The division of sentiment among the members of congress in relation to -the full, or only a partial payment of the domestic debt, arose from -this. A considerable proportion of the original holders of public -securities had been compelled to sell them at greatly reduced -prices--even as low as two or three shillings on the pound. These -securities had been purchased by speculators, with the expectation of -ultimately receiving the full amount. "The federalists were with -Hamilton, in favor of making no difference between the present and -original holders of the continental bills, maintaining that the -government ought not to interfere with transfers. The republican party -advocated the discrimination; contending that it was unjust to the -veterans of the Revolution, who had been obliged to receive this paper -in lieu of gold and silver, and were afterwards compelled to part with -it at a small part of its nominal value, now to be condemned to -poverty, while the speculator was receiving the reward of their blood -and service." - -The assumption of the state debts was also violently opposed. The -advocates of assumption claimed that the debts incurred by the state, -were not for their own benefit, but for the promotion of the common -cause, and that therefore it was right that the whole nation should be -responsible. The debts of the states most active in the war, were the -greatest: those of Massachusetts and Carolina amounted to ten millions -and a half, while those of all the other states were not more than -fifteen millions. Was it just to impose such a burden on the people of -these two states? They had already been great sufferers in the -privations they had endured and in the blood they had lost. - -On taking the vote in the house of representatives, these two plans of -Mr. Hamilton were lost by a majority of two; and, for a season, there -was little prospect that a just financial system would be adopted, or -that the respective parties could on any basis coalesce. But, -fortunately, at this juncture, a question was exciting a deep -interest, and with reference to which there was a wide difference, and -deep feelings, between the northern and southern members, viz: - -_The Removal of the Seat of Government._--The debates on this subject -were almost as exciting as on the fiscal project of Hamilton. A -compromise, however, was at length effected in regard to the permanent -location of the seat of government--the more important, as it led to a -further compromise in relation to the assumption of the state debts. -It was understood that should the seat of government be fixed for ten -years at Philadelphia, and afterwards at a place to be selected on -the Potomac, some of the members of the house of representatives, from -the Potomac, would withdraw their opposition to Mr. Hamilton. This was -accordingly done, and his plans were adopted. The debt funded amounted -to a little more than seventy-five millions of dollars, upon a part of -which an interest of three per cent. was paid, and upon the remainder -six per cent. - -_National Bank._--During the third session of congress, Mr. Hamilton -recommended the establishment of a national bank. To such an -institution, the republican party were bitterly opposed, as -aristocratical and unconstitutional. Besides, they considered banking -institutions useless; the present bill, in several particulars, -defective; but, more than all, it was maintained that the constitution -had not vested the power in congress to charter a bank. The supporters -of the measure, of course, held opposite doctrines, and were not less -strenuous in maintaining them. The bill, however, at length passed both -branches of the national legislature; but the different opinions -entertained, and the asperity with which they had been expressed, led -the president to give to the subject, as a constitutional question, more -than ordinary attention. To aid him in his decision, he required -opinions of his cabinet in writing. Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Randolph -opposed--Mr. Hamilton and General Knox sanctioned the bill. After mature -deliberation, the president became satisfied of the constitutionality -and utility of the bill; upon which, he gave it his signature. - -The capital stock of the bank was ten millions of dollars, two -millions to be subscribed for the benefit of the United States, and -the residue by individuals. One-fourth of the sums subscribed by -individuals was to be paid in gold and silver, and three-fourths in -the public debt. By the act of incorporation, it was to be a bank of -discount as well as deposit; and its bills, which were payable in gold -and silver on demand, were made receivable in all payments to the -United States. The bank was located at Philadelphia, with power in -the directors to establish offices of discount and deposit only -wherever they should think fit within the United States. - -The duration of the charter was limited to the 4th of May, 1811; and -the faith of the United States was pledged that, during that period, -no other bank should be established under their authority. One of the -fundamental articles of the incorporation was, that no loan should be -made to the United States for more than one hundred thousand dollars; -or to any particular state for more than fifty thousand; or to any -foreign prince or state, unless previously authorized by a law of the -United States. The books were opened for subscription in July, 1791, -and a much larger sum subscribed than was allowed by the charter; and -the bank went into successful operation.[64] - -The establishment of a national bank, in connexion with the assumption -of the state debts, contributed to the more complete organization of -two great parties, which had their origin in difference of views -regarding the constitution at the time of its adoption. - -Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Jefferson, both eminent for their talents, and each -with his adherents, were now openly opposed on points which, as matters -of policy, were deemed of vital importance. The former was viewed, not -only as the author of the funding system, the bank, and other measures, -deemed either unconstitutional, or highly injurious to the public -interest, but was charged with hostility to republican principles and to -state rights. Mr. Jefferson, on the other hand, was considered hostile -to the constitution, and was accused of being opposed to the -administration of which he was a member, and of taking measures to -reduce the powers of the general government within too narrow limits. To -Washington, this determined hostility of his two principal secretaries -was truly afflicting; and the more so, when he found it so deep-rooted, -as in no degree to yield to his affectionate remonstrance. - -_Indian War._--While the public councils were engaged thus in matters of -great national importance, the hostile movements of the Indian tribes on -the frontier began to excite the anxious solicitude of all reflecting -minds, especially that of Washington himself. The Creeks at the South -had been at war with Georgia; but in 1790, their chief, M'Gillivray, the -son of a white man, had been induced to go to New York, and conclude a -treaty. This terminated the war in that quarter; but pacific -arrangements, which had been attempted by the president with the tribes -on the north-western frontier, had proved ineffectual. The use of other -means for their pacification, therefore, became indispensably necessary. - -In 1790, congress, at the solicitation of Washington, authorized the -raising of about fifteen hundred men, of whom three hundred were -regulars, and the remainder Pennsylvania and Kentucky militia. The -command of these was given to General Harmar, a veteran officer of the -Revolution, whose instructions required him to penetrate to the Indian -settlements on the Scioto and Wabash, and destroy them. - -In the execution of his commission, in October, General Harmar -detached Colonel Harden with six hundred militia to reconnoitre the -Indian settlements, and, if possible, to bring them to an engagement; -but the Indians, on the approach of the Americans, fired their -principal villages, and fled to the woods. Thus foiled in his attempt -to bring the Indians to action, Colonel Harden was a second time -directed, with one hundred and eighty militia and thirty regulars, to -spy out the position and intentions of the foe. Ten miles west of -Chillicothe, sight was obtained of a considerable body of Indians; at -which, the Kentucky militia suddenly became so alarmed as to flee. -This evil example was soon after followed by the Pennsylvanians--thus -leaving the thirty regulars to sustain an engagement with a greatly -superior force. They displayed the greatest heroism; and maintained -the action, until all but seven being overpowered, the latter -effected their escape, and rëjoined the army at Chillicothe. - -The Indian settlements bordering on the Scioto were now destroyed; -which having been accomplished, Colonel Harden was a third time -detached with three hundred and sixty men, of whom sixty were -regulars, under command of Major Wyllys. This force was attacked by a -large body of Indians at the junction of the St. Joseph with the St. -Mary. It was a most desperate contest. Here the militia retrieved -their character; nor did they attempt to retreat till one hundred and -nine men and officers lay dead on the field. Of the sixty regulars, -only ten survived, and among the killed was their brave commander, -Major Wyllys. Following this reverse, the survivors of the detachments -joined the army, and retired to Fort Washington. - -On the failure of General Harmar, Major General Arthur St. Clair, -governor of the North-west territory, was appointed to succeed him. In -1791, at the head of two thousand men, the latter entered upon an -expedition which had for its object the destruction of the Indian -villages on the Miami. On the 3d of November, the army had proceeded -within twelve or fifteen miles of the Indian villages, at which point -the General formed his forces in two lines--the first, under command -of General Butler, composed the right wing, and lay with a creek -immediately in front of them. The left wing, under command of Colonel -Drake, formed the second, and lay with an interval of some seventy -yards between them and the first line. The militia occupied a post -across the creek, a quarter of a mile in front. - -On the following day, before sunrise, just after the troops had been -dismissed from the parade, an unexpected attack was made on the militia, -who fled in the utmost confusion, and, in their flight, deranged the -continental troops, who were in the act of forming. The officers exerted -themselves to the utmost to restore order; but were not entirely -successful. The Indians fell upon them with savage impetuosity. The -action instantly became extremely warm. The continental troops fought -with spirit and determination; the Indians, with fearful desperation, -advancing to the very mouth of the field-pieces. - -At length, perceiving that the only hope of victory lay in the use of -the bayonet, an impetuous charge was made under Lieutenant-colonel -Drake, and the enemy driven several hundred yards. But not being able -to pursue the advantage gained, the Indians turned, and renewed the -attack. Meanwhile, General Butler was mortally wounded, and the right -wing broken, the artillerists killed, the guns seized, and the camp -penetrated by the enemy. At this critical moment, Major Drake was -ordered to charge with the bayonet. This order he executed with great -intrepidity and momentary success. - -But the American troops, failing to keep their ranks, and flocking -together in crowds, were, in several cases, shot down with but feeble -resistance. At length, perceiving that his officers had suffered -greatly, and the remnant of his army became more and more confused, -General St. Clair ordered a retreat. For some miles, the Indians -followed; but, fortunately for the surviving Americans, they at length -turned back, to plunder the camp of such articles as the former had -been obliged to abandon. The routed troops now continued their flight -to Fort Jefferson, a distance of about thirty miles, throwing away -their arms on the road. At this place, leaving their wounded, the army -continued its retreat to Fort Washington. - -The loss of the Americans was severe, amounting to thirty-eight -commissioned officers killed, and five hundred and ninety-three -non-commissioned officers and privates slain and missing. The wounded -amounted to between two and three hundred officers and men, many of -whom subsequently died. The loss of the Indians bore no comparison, it -is thought, to that of the Americans. This reverse was as unexpected -as unfortunate; yet want of neither ability, zeal, nor intrepidity was -ascribed to the commander of the expedition, by a committee of -congress, appointed to examine into the causes of its failure. - -The subsequent history of this war is brief. In consequence of an -anticipated adjustment of existing difficulties with the Indians, they -having consented to a conference in the spring of 1794, hostilities -were for a time suspended. But the proposed negotiations failing, -General Wayne, with nearly one thousand men, was sent into their -country, to reduce them to subjection. He engaged them in a sanguinary -battle on the 20th of August, 1794, on the banks of the Miami, which -resulted in their utter rout, and which was followed by laying waste -their whole country. By means of this victory over the Miamies, a -general Indian war was doubtless prevented. On the 3d of August, a -treaty was concluded at Greenville, which established peace between -the United States and the Indian tribes, and restored peace and -tranquillity to the frontier settlements. - -_Rëelection of Washington._--During the year 1792, as the time -approached for the election of a chief magistrate, General Washington -expressed his intention, to some of his most intimate friends, to -decline a rëelection. His age and increasing infirmities rendered his -retirement from the cares of political life most desirable. In view of -such retirement, he had prepared a farewell address to the people. -But, through the persuasion of Jefferson, Hamilton, Randolph, and -others, he was induced to forego his private wishes, and was -unanimously rëelected to the presidency. No such unanimity has since -been manifested by the people of the United States, in relation to the -choice of a chief magistrate; nor is such unanimity likely again to -exist. And most conclusively does it show, not merely the gratitude of -the nation to the man who had stood foremost in times of peril, but -its deep and universal sense of the purity of his patriotism and the -worth of his skill in moulding and shaping the government still in its -infancy. Such harmony was alike honorable to the nation and to -Washington. Mr. Adams was rëelected vice-president. The following is -a statement of the votes of the several electoral colleges: - - Key: A. G. Washington, of Virginia. - B. John Adams, of Massa'tts. - C. George Clinton, of New York. - D. Thos. Jefferson, of Virginia - E. Aaron Burr, of New York. - - ----------+------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ - Number of | | | | | | - Electors | STATES. | | | | | - from each | | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. - State. | | | | | | - ----------+------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ - 6 | New Hampshire, | 6 | 6 | | | - 16 | Massachusetts, | 16 | 16 | | | - 4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | 4 | | | - 9 | Connecticut, | 9 | 9 | | | - 3 | Vermont, | 3 | 3 | | | - 12 | New York, | 12 | | 12 | | - 7 | New Jersey, | 7 | 7 | | | - 15 | Pennsylvania, | 15 | 14 | 1 | | - 3 | Delaware, | 3 | 3 | | | - 8 | Maryland, | 8 | 8 | | | - 21 | Virginia, | 21 | | 21 | | - 4 | Kentucky, | 4 | | | 4 | - 12 | North Carolina, | 12 | | 12 | | - 8 | South Carolina, | 8 | 7 | | | 1 - 4 | Georgia, | 4 | | 4 | | - ----------+------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ - 132 | Whole No. of electors, | 132 | 77 | 50 | 4 | 1 - | Majority, 67 | | | | | - -_Difficulties with France._--The rëelection of Washington may be justly -considered as among the most signal favors conferred on the American -people. A revolution in France was in progress, remarkable for the -political changes it was affecting and the sanguinary scenes which -marked it. Monarchy had been abolished, Louis XVI. had fallen by the -guillotine, a republic had been proclaimed, and the national convention -had made proclamation of war against England, Holland, and Spain. - -It was not unnatural that a people, who had themselves just thrown off -the yoke, and were beginning to taste the sweets of liberty, as was -the case with the Americans, should deeply sympathize with a nation -which was engaged in a similar struggle for independence. From the -commencement of the French Revolution, in 1789, not only the -Americans, but the friends of liberty throughout the world, were full -of hope that the political condition of France might thereby be -improved. And as that revolution progressed, the interest deepened; -and when, at length, the Republic was proclaimed, "the affection of -the American nation to its ancient ally, became devotion." The -enthusiasm knew scarcely any bounds, and was frequently manifested in -the most extravagant manner. - -Nor was it unnatural that the French people should look to America for -her sympathy and aid, in so important an enterprise. They had, at a -former period, helped her through her struggle for independence, and -now, that they were embarked in a similar effort, could she withhold -her cöoperation and aid? They had reason to expect it, and were not -long in adopting measures to secure it. - -The news of the declaration of war by France, against the powers -already named, reached the United States in April, and with this -intelligence arrived a new minister from the French republic, Mr. -Genet. Both these circumstances contributed to "increase to an -extraordinary degree the excitement already existing in favor of -France, and disposed a large portion of the nation to an actual -cöoperation with their ally against the enemy." - -Washington and his associates in power were friends to liberty, and were -well-wishers to the cause of true freedom in France. But the Revolution -was assuming a selfish and sanguinary character, which betokened any -thing but the establishment of a free and enlightened constitutional -government. The most unbridled ambition for power was beginning to show -itself, and reason and religion were apparently being deprived of their -legitimate sway. In addition to this, the United States were in no -situation to embark in angry conflict with Great Britain and other -continental powers. In such a conflict it was apparently the wish of -France to involve the country, and, to a considerable portion of the -American people--arising from their prejudices against Great -Britain--such an event would not have been unacceptable. But Washington -judged more wisely for the interests of the nation; and accordingly, on -the 22d of April, issued his proclamation of _neutrality_. - -This neutral and pacific policy of the American government had, -however, no apparent influence upon the new French minister. "Sanguine -in his temperament, of uncontrolled passions, excited to a degree of -insanity by the newborn ideas which raged in France, possessed of the -wildest dreams of national glory and aggrandizement--in a word, the -very incarnation of Jacobinism, he was the fittest brand which the -assembly could have selected to hurl into the magazine of political -strife. His reception at Charleston, where he landed, was well fitted -to encourage him. Public authorities, and private citizens, vied with -each other in glorifying the representative of European democracy. On -all sides he beheld the disposition he desired, and he did not delay -in profiting by it. Vessels were at once fitted out and armed, men -were enlisted, and commissions issued under her authority to cruise -against the enemies of France." Similar demonstrations of regard were -shown him in other places, as he proceeded towards Philadelphia, and -the same arrogant and haughty spirit was manifested by him. Pursuing -his design of involving the country in war, in despite of public -executive prohibition, he issued commissions to capture, and to bring -into American ports, the vessels belonging to countries with whom the -French were at war. - -It is not necessary further to detail the conduct, nor the insolence of -this infatuated man. Suffice it to add, that on the meeting of congress, -December, 1793, the proclamation of neutrality was approved. Soon after, -at the instance of Washington, Mr. Genet was rëcalled by the French -government, which, at the same time, disapproved of his conduct. - -_Insurrection in Pennsylvania._--The summer of 1794, was signalized by -an insurrection in the western counties of Pennsylvania, commonly known -as the "whiskey insurrection." It had its origin in a dissatisfaction -with a law of congress, enacted in 1791, by which a duty was imposed -upon spirits distilled in the United States. The inhabitants of that -part of Pennsylvania were chiefly foreigners, and consequently were less -disposed to submit to the taxation necessary to the support of -government. Strong opposition to the law was early manifested, and not a -few outrages were committed upon the revenue officers while in the -discharge of their duty--such as "whipping, tarring, and branding." - -In consideration of these objections, in 1791-92, congress so modified -the law, as to do away its most obnoxious features. But the law was -now turned to party purposes, and the spirit of discontent was -fostered and inflamed to an excessive degree. The consequence was, -that outrages were renewed, and the wildest anarchy prevailed. - -In September, 1792, the president issued his proclamation against -unlawful combinations, and legal measures were adopted against such as -refused to pay the tax imposed, and also against the rioters. But -these measures were of no practical effect. The president's message -was disregarded, and the violence and extent of the combination -utterly prevented any enforcement of the law. The house of the -collector of Fayette and Westmoreland, was, in November, 1793, entered -at night by an armed party, and the officer forced, at the peril of -his life, to surrender his commission and books. - -After many fruitless efforts to appease the malcontents, the government -decided that its officers should be protected, and the law, at all -hazards, be sustained. Accordingly, in July, a number of writs were -issued, and the marshal dispatched to serve them. In the performance of -this duty in Allegany county, he was fired upon. The following day, the -house of the inspector, General Neville, in the neighborhood of -Pittsburg, was assaulted--but the rioters were repulsed. On the 17th, -the attack was renewed, and, though defended by a detachment from the -garrison at Pittsburg, it was taken and burned. The marshal and -inspector were obliged to flee for their lives. The effect of this -transaction was electrical. The whole of western Pennsylvania was in a -blaze. All order was at an end. All law was prostrate. - -It was now apparent that the interference of the general government -would alone suffice to rule the storm. Neither the civil forces nor -the local militia could be depended on. General Washington, therefore, -on the 7th of August, made a requisition upon the governor of -Pennsylvania and the adjacent states for quotas of militia. Meanwhile, -a proclamation was issued to the insurgents to disperse, and a general -amnesty promised on condition of a peaceable submission. These -measures, however, had no effect. On the 25th of September, the army -was ordered to proceed. On its approach, the principal leader fled. -This removed the great obstacle to a pacification, and a general -submission ensued on the arrival of the militia. Thus terminated a -rebellion which, for a time, threatened the most disastrous -consequences to the union. The enemies of the government were not -unwilling that it should spread wider and wider; nor was foreign -intrigue wanting to give it impulse. Through the forbearing policy of -Washington, in the first instance, and his subsequent firm and decided -measures, the insurrection was quelled. A number of arrests were made, -and a few persons convicted. But all were at length pardoned. - -_Jay's Treaty._--For some time, the relations subsisting between the -United States and Great Britain had been far from amicable. The -original difficulties arose from the non-execution of the treaty of -peace--each nation charging the other with the first infraction. The -principal complaints were, on the one hand, the non-delivery of the -ports held by the latter within the American lines, and the carrying -off the slaves at the close of the war; on the other, the -interposition, by the states, of legal impediments to the recovery of -debts contracted before the war. Added to these sources of trouble, -Great Britain was accused of exciting the hostility of the Indians on -our northern frontier, of impressing our seamen, and, still more -recently, of capturing our neutral vessels, retaliatory upon France, -which had set the example. - -For these reasons, a war between the United States and England was now a -probable event. Nor were the friends of France slow in fanning the flame -of discord. The latter, therefore, were greatly disappointed on learning -that Great Britain had rescinded her orders in relation to the capture -of neutral vessels. But it was a most fortunate circumstance for the -peace of the two countries. Immediately, Washington, perceiving that an -opportunity was presented for a probable settlement of existing -difficulties, on the 16th of April, nominated John Jay, then chief -justice, as envoy extraordinary to the British court. - -On the 7th of March following, 1795, a treaty of amity, commerce, and -navigation, concluded by Mr. Jay, arrived. On the 8th, it was -submitted to the senate. - -The main feature of this treaty respected indemnity for unlawful -captures, which was provided for, but no redress could be obtained for -negroes carried away. The obstructions to collecting debts were to -cease, and the ports on the frontiers were to be evacuated by the 1st -of June, 1796. Other stipulations were embraced, and the treaty was -limited to twelve years. - -On the 24th of June, the senate advised the ratification of the treaty -by a vote of exactly two-thirds. It was well known that the President -was not entirely satisfied with it, but he had determined to ratify -it, if advised by the senate. The cabinet was divided. The country was -also divided. Even the friends of England were disappointed in its -provisions; while her enemies were loud in their complaints and -threats. Boston and the other cities passed condemnatory resolutions. -In several cities, mobs threatened personal violence to the supporters -of the treaty. Mr. Jay was burned in effigy; the British minister was -insulted; and Mr. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting. - -Contrary to the predictions of many, the treaty, thus ratified, -settled the difficulties between the two countries, which were on the -eve of war. It even proved advantageous to the United States. - -_Election of Mr. Adams._--As the presidential term of Washington was -now drawing to a close, he signified his intention to retire from the -duties of public life. During his administration, the people had -become divided into two great political parties; at the head of one, -was Mr. Adams; at the head of the other, Mr. Jefferson. The election -was characterized by a zeal corresponding to the interest taken by the -parties in their candidates, and their devotion to their respective -political creeds. The election resulted in the choice of Mr. Adams, as -may be seen in the following official canvass of the votes: - - ELECTION FOR THE THIRD TERM, - COMMENCING MARCH 4, 1797, AND TERMINATING MARCH 3, 1801. - - Key: A. John Adams, of Massachusetts. - B. Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. - C. Thomas Pinckney, of South Carolina. - D. Aaron Burr, of New York. - E. Samuel Adams, of Massachusetts. - F. Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut. - G. John Jay, of New York. - H. George Clinton, of New York. - I. S. Johnson, of North Carolina. - J. James Iredell, of North Carolina. - K. George Washington, of Virgina. - L. Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolina. - M. John Henry, of Maryland. - - ----------+----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--- - Number of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Electors | STATES. | | | | | | | | | | | | | - from each | |A.|B.|C.|D.|E.|F.|G.|H.|I.|J.|K.|L.|M. - State. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - ----------+----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--- - 3 |Tennessee, | | 3| | 3| | | | | | | | | - 4 |Kentucky, | | 4| | 4| | | | | | | | | - 4 |Georgia, | | 4| | | | | | 4| | | | | - 8 |South Carolina, | | 8| 8| | | | | | | | | | - 12 |North Carolina, | 1|11| 1| 6| | | | | | 3| 1| 1| - 21 |Virginia | 1|20| 1| 1|15| | | 3| | | 1| | - 11 |Maryland, | 7| 4| 4| 3| | | | | | | | | 2 - 3 |Delaware, | 3| | 3| | | | | | | | | | - 15 |Pennsylvania, | 1|14| 2 13| | | | | | | | | - 7 |New Jersey, | 7| | 7| | | | | | | | | | - 12 |New York, |12| |12| | | | | | | | | | - 9 |Connecticut, | 9| | 4| | | | 5| | | | | | - 4 |Rhode Island, | 4| | | | | 4| | | | | | | - 16 |Massachusetts, |16| |13| | | 1| | | 2| | | | - 4 |Vermont, | 4| | 4| | | | | | | | | | - 6 |New Hampshire, | 6| | | | | 6| | | | | | | - ----------+----------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--- - 139 | Whole No. of |71|68|59|30|15|11|5 | 7| 2| 3| 2| 1| 2 - | electors, | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Majority, 70 | | | | | | | | | | | | | - -_Farewell Address._--Washington's administration closed on the 3rd of -March, 1797. Shortly before, he held his last formal levee. It was an -occasion of deep, and even solemn interest. The distinguished of all -parties and opinions were there--veterans of the revolution, -"weather-stained and scarred"--statesmen, bent with the cares and -weight of years spent in the service of their country--executive -counsellors, who had stood by their chief, and aided in giving shape, -union, and strength to the youthful republic--ministers from foreign -governments, whose veneration approached that of his countrymen--and -finally, a long line of private citizens, who admired and delighted to -do honor to the man. They had convened, not for the last time to honor -the president of the United States--the permanency of the republic was -no longer problematical--a successor had been appointed, and hopes were -reasonably entertained that the bonds of union between the several -states would be strengthened in future years; but they had come to bid -"farewell" to Washington--to him, to whose valor and wisdom the nation -was prëeminently indebted for its independence, and the prosperity of -its government--in short, to "a soldier, without stain upon his arms--a -ruler, without personal ambition--a citizen, of self-sacrificing -patriotism--a man, pure, unblemished, and true in every relation he had -filled--one, in short, to whom all ages should point as the testimony, -that virtue and greatness had been and could be united." - -To Washington, the occasion was no less solemn and affecting. On -retiring from the army, he had taken leave of officers and soldiers, -expecting to spend his future days in the shade of his beloved Mount -Vernon. Again he was seeking that happy and peaceful retreat, and was -glad to be released from the cares and responsibilities of office; but -when he looked round upon faces long familiar, and grasped the hands -of those who had helped him in times of anxiety and doubt, -Washington's heart was affected. It is said there were few smiles, but -many tears seen during the reception. - -On leaving the seat of government, Washington presented a token of -regard to the principal officers of government. His affection for them -was sincere and abiding. Towards the entire American people, he bore -the kindness and good-will of a father. He wished their happiness. He -had spent years in their service, without emolument, and even at the -sacrifice of a portion of his patrimony; but that was nothing, so long -as he could see the government stable, and the republic "one and -indivisible." There was, perhaps, no one subject which had occupied -Washington's thoughts, more than the union of the states. And now that -he was about to retire, he felt it to be befitting him to express his -views on some subjects connected, as he thought, with the vital -interests and the future glory of his country. These he embodied in a -"Farewell Address," which, for purity of language, beauty of -conception, and soundness of political sentiments, has never been -equalled. It can never be read but to be admired. There are but two -sentences which we shall cite from this address; but, in respect to -the future glory and prosperity of our country, they are as the -corner-stones to our national capitol: - -"The _unity of government_, which now constitutes you one people, is -now dear to you. It is justly so; for it is the mainspring in the -edifice of your real independence; the support of your tranquillity at -home; your peace abroad; of your safety; of your prosperity; of that -very liberty which you so highly prize." - -"Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political -prosperity, _religion_ and _morality_ are indispensable supports. In -vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor -to subvert these great pillars of human happiness--these firmest props -of the duties of men and citizens." - -On other subjects connected with the future welfare of the country, he -expressed opinions, of whose wisdom and practical value, revolving -years have given ample proof. Against the spirit of innovation upon -the principles of the constitution, he gave solemn warning--against -the spirit of party, when bitter and exclusive, he uttered his solemn -remonstrance. Public credit should be maintained; public economy -practiced; and institutions for the education and improvement of the -public mind, liberally endowed. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[62] Pitkin. - -[63] Never did a magistrate exercise power entrusted to him, with -stricter fidelity than Washington. In respect to appointments to and -removals from office, no man could be more conscientious. Private -friendship exerted no influence, where the public good could not be -subserved. A lofty patriotism swayed him. Even the enemies of -Washington--they were never many--but the few who, at length, opposed -the measures of his administration, had no occasion to censure him for -conferring office on men whose only claim was friendship, or political -affinity to the president. The following anecdote will serve to -illustrate the integrity of the first chief magistrate of the -union--happy had it been for the country, and for the honor and -reputation of some of his successors in that exalted office, had they -followed, in this respect, the "footsteps of an illustrious -predecessor." - -"During his administration, an application was made to him by a -gentleman who had been the friend and companion of the general -throughout the whole course of the Revolutionary war, during which he -had received, on various occasions, indubitable marks of his kindness -and partiality. He had become, in the estimation, if not of himself, -of his friends, in a degree necessary to the happiness of Washington, -and had therefore, in their opinion, only to apply for the office, to -receive it. It was a boon, which, while it would ensure competency and -ease to a friend, would bring that friend into frequent intercourse -with his patron and former associate in arms. - -"For the same office, however, there was a competitor; but as he was -decidedly hostile to the politics of Washington, and had made himself -conspicuous among the opposers of his administration, no serious -apprehensions were felt from this quarter. Towards such a man--a -well-known political enemy--Washington surely could feel under no -obligations, and was not likely to prefer such a one to a personal -friend and favorite. Every one acquainted with the pretensions of the -two applicants, was at no loss to judge as to the president's -decision, and the concurrent opinion was in favor of the friend and -against his competitor. - -"Judge, then, the general surprise, when it was announced that the -political opponent of Washington was appointed and the former -associate of the general in the toils and deprivations of the camp, -was left destitute and dejected. - -"When his decision was known, a mutual friend, who interested himself -in the affair, ventured to remonstrate with the president on the -injustice of his appointment. 'My friend,' replied this illustrious -man, 'I receive with a cordial welcome; he is welcome to my house, and -welcome to my heart; but, with all his good qualities, he is not a man -of business. His opponent, with all his political hostility to me, is -a man of business. My private feelings have nothing to do in the case! -I am not George Washington, but president of the United States. As -George Washington, I would do this man any kindness in my power; but -as president of the United States, I can do nothing.'" - -[64] Pitkin. - - - - - VII. JOHN ADAMS, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration] - - INAUGURATED AT PHILADELPHIA, MARCH 4, 1797. - - THOMAS JEFFERSON, VICE-PRESIDENT. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, (_continued in_ } - _office_), } Secretaries - John Marshall, Virginia, May 13, 1800, } of State. - - Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, (_continued in_ } - _office_), } Secretaries - Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, December 31, 1800, } of Treasury. - - James M'Henry, Maryland, (_continued in_ } - _office_), } Secretaries - Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, May 13, 1800, } of War. - Roger Griswold, Connecticut, February 3, 1801, } - - Benjamin Stoddert, Maryland, May 21, 1798, Secretary of - the Navy. - - Joseph Habersham, Georgia, (_continued in_ Postmaster - _office_), General. - - Charles Lee, Virginia, (_continued in_ Attorney - _office_), General. - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, Fifth Congress, 1797. - Theodore Sedgwick, Massachusetts, Sixth do. 1799. - -On the 1st of March, Washington, now about to retire from the -presidency, addressed a communication to the senate, desiring them to -attend in their chamber, on Saturday, the 4th, at ten o'clock, "to -receive any communication which the new president might lay before -them, touching their interests." In conformity with this summons, the -senate assembled at the time and place appointed. The oath of office -was administered by Mr. Bingham to Mr. Jefferson, the vice-president -elect. The customary oath was next administered by the vice-president -to the new senate; which preliminary forms being finished, the senate, -preceded by their presiding officer, repaired to the chamber of the -house of representatives, to witness the ceremonies of the -inauguration of the new president. - -Mr. Adams entered, accompanied by the heads of departments, the -marshal of the district and his officers, and took his seat in the -speaker's chair; the vice-president and secretary of the senate were -seated in advance on his right, and the late speaker and clerk on the -left; the justices of the supreme court sat before the president, and -the foreign ministers and members of the house in their usual seats. -The venerable Washington himself also appeared. As he entered, all -eyes were turned towards him with admiration, and every heart beat -with joy at the complacency and delight which he manifested at seeing -another about to be clothed with the authority he had laid aside. - -In his inaugural address, Mr. Adams expressed his preference, upon -principle, to a free republican government--his attachment to the -constitution of the United States--an impartial regard to the rights, -interests, honor, and happiness of all the states of the Union, -without preference to a Northern or Southern, an Eastern or Western -position--a love of equal laws and exact justice--an inflexible -determination to maintain peace and inviolable faith with all -nations--his regard for the institutions of religion, and the -propagation of knowledge and virtue among all classes, &c.; and, -finally, he invoked the care and blessing of that Almighty Being, who -in all ages had been the Patron of order, the Fountain of justice, and -the Protector of virtuous liberty. - -Having concluded his address, the oath of office was administered by -Chief Justice Ellsworth. Washington was the first to tender to the new -president his heartfelt congratulations; which having done, he bade -adieu to the seat of government, and hastened to the enjoyment of that -peace and quiet which he had long desired, and which he now -anticipated in his own beloved Mount Vernon. - -The condition of the country, on the accession of Mr. Adams, was -highly prosperous. The constitution had been tested through the -vicissitudes of eight years, and had stood, and continued to stand, as -a monument of the political wisdom of its framers. Fortunately, -several of those sages had borne conspicuous stations in the -government from the time of its organization. The president himself -had been the president of the convention which formed the -constitution. The true intent, therefore, of that instrument, both in -its general and special provisions, had become well understood; its -great principles had been applied, and found to answer the most -sanguine expectations of its patriotic projectors. - -In relation to particular measures, Washington had shown himself to be -as skillful a statesman as he had proved himself sagacious as a -general. A credit had been established for the country, whose -soundness no capitalist doubted--an immense floating debt had been -funded in a manner perfectly satisfactory to the creditors, and a -revenue had been secured sufficiently ample for the national demands. - -Funds also had been provided for the gradual extinction of the -national debt; a considerable portion of it had, indeed, been actually -discharged, and that system devised which did in fact, in the lapse of -some years, extinguish the whole. The agricultural and commercial -thrift of the nation had been beyond all former example, and beyond -all anticipation. The numerous and powerful tribes of Indians at the -West, had been taught by arms and by good faith to respect the United -States, and to desire their friendship. - -The principal events which distinguished the administration of Mr. -Adams, were, - - Difficulties with France Death of Washington. - Treaty with that Power. Removal of the Seat of Government. - Election of Mr. Jefferson. - -_Difficulties with France._--The misunderstanding between France and the -United States, which had commenced during the administration of -Washington, not only extended into that of Mr. Adams, but, soon after -his accession, assumed a still more formidable and even warlike aspect. - -The seditious conduct of Mr. Genet, the French minister, and his -rëcall, were noticed when reciting the prominent events of -Washington's administration. He was succeeded by Mr. Fauchet, who -arrived in the United States in February, 1794. The conduct of this -functionary, if less exceptionable than his predecessor, was by no -means calculated to restore the harmony of the two governments. -Fauchet, believing that a large party in the United States sympathized -with him and his government, insulted the administration by accusing -them of partiality to the English, enmity to his nation, and -indifference to the cause of liberty. - -With a desire to restore the peace of the two governments, General -Washington, in 1794, rëcalled Mr. Morris, our then minister to France, -and appointed Mr. Monroe to succeed him, a gentleman belonging to the -republican party, and, therefore, more acceptable to the French -government, and the more likely to succeed in a satisfactory adjustment -of existing difficulties. Mr. Monroe was received with distinguished -consideration, and as an evidence of his kind reception, the flags of -the two republics were entwined and suspended in the legislative hall. - -Mr. Adet soon after succeeded Mr. Fauchet. He brought with him the -colors of France, which were presented to the government of the United -States as a token of her sympathy and affection for her sister republic. -But when the former discovered that the United States continued rigidly -to maintain their neutrality, her sympathy and affection suddenly -declined. Measures were adopted highly injurious to American commerce. -Her cruisers were let loose upon our commerce, and hundreds of vessels -pursuing a lawful trade were captured and confiscated. - -The favorable results anticipated from Mr. Monroe's embassy to France -signally failed. Whether this failure proceeded from an impossibility -of making terms with the French government, or from a want of firmness -and decision on the part of Mr. Monroe, it may be difficult to decide. -But, dissatisfied with the tardy and unsatisfactory manner in which -the negotiation was conducted, the president decided to rëcall Mr. -Monroe. This was accordingly done, and Mr. Pinckney was appointed to -succeed him. - -The object of Mr. Pinckney's mission was stated in his letter of -credence to be "to maintain that good understanding which, from the -commencement of the alliance, had subsisted between the two nations; -and to efface unfavorable impressions, banish suspicions, and restore -that cordiality which was at once the evidence and pledge of a -friendly union." The French directory, however, refused to acknowledge -Mr. Pinckney in his official capacity; and, at length, by a written -mandate, ordered him to quit the territory of the French republic. - -Intelligence of these facts having been communicated to Mr. Adams, he -summoned congress by proclamation, to assemble on the 15th of May, when, -in a fine and dignified speech, he stated the great and unprovoked -outrages of the French government. He expressed, however, his wish for -an accommodation, and his purpose of attempting it. Meanwhile, he -earnestly recommended the adoption of measures of defence. - -Accordingly, to prevent war, if practicable, Mr. Adams appointed three -envoys extraordinary to the French republic. General Pinckney, then at -Amsterdam, whither he had retired on being ordered to leave France, -Mr. Marshall and Mr. Gerry. These, also, the directory refused to -receive. They were, however, addressed by persons verbally instructed -by Talleyrand, the minister of foreign relations, and invited to make -_proposals_. In explicit terms, these unofficial agents demanded a -large sum of money before any negotiations could be opened. To this -insulting demand, a decided negative was given. A compliance was, -nevertheless, repeatedly urged, until, at length, the envoys refused -to hold with them any further communications. - -These matters becoming known in America, excited general indignation. -The spirit of party appeared to be extinct. "Millions for defence, not -a cent for tribute," the language of Mr. Pinckney to the French -government, resounded from every quarter of the Union. The treaty of -alliance with France was declared by congress to be annulled; and -authority was given for capturing armed French vessels. Provision was -made for raising a regular army, and in case events should render it -expedient, for augmenting it. A direct tax and additional internal -duties were laid. To the command of the armies of the United States, -President Adams, with the unanimous advice of the senate, appointed -George Washington, with the rank of lieutenant-general and -commander-in-chief. Washington reluctantly accepted the office, -declaring, however, that he cordially approved the measures of the -government. - -The first act of hostility between the two nations, appears to have -been committed by the Insurgente, which captured the American schooner -Retaliation, and carried her into Guadaloupe. Soon after, the -Constellation, under the command of Captain Truxton, went to sea, and -in February, 1799, he encountered the Insurgente, which, after a close -action of about an hour and a half, he compelled to strike. The rate -of the Constellation was thirty-two guns; that of the Insurgente, -forty. The former had three men wounded, one of whom shortly after -died, and none killed; the latter had forty-one wounded, and -twenty-nine killed. This victory, so brilliant and so decisive, with -such a wonderful disparity of loss, gave great _eclat_ to the victor -and to the navy. - -_Treaty with France._--The bold and decided tone of the Americans, -added to their preparations for prosecuting a war with vigor--and, -perhaps, more than all, the success of the American navy in various -engagements, had the desired effect. Overtures for renewing the -negotiations were received from the French directory, which were -immediately responded to by the president, by the appointment of -Oliver Ellsworth, chief justice of the United States, Patrick -Henry,[65] then late governor of Virginia, and William Vans Murray, -minister at the Hague, envoys extraordinary for concluding a peace. On -their arrival at Paris, they found the directory overthrown, and the -government in the hands of Napoleon Buonaparte, as first consul. By -him they were promptly received, and a treaty was concluded on the -30th of September, 1800; soon after which, the provisional army in -America was, by order of congress, disbanded. - -_Death of Washington._--The good and the great must die, and, at -length, America was called to mourn the departure of the good and -illustrious Washington. He did not live, much as he desired that -event, to witness the restoration of peace. - -On Friday, December 13th, while attending to some improvements upon -his estate, he was exposed to a light rain, which that same night -induced an inflammatory affection of the windpipe. In the morning his -family physician, Dr. Craik, was called in; but the utmost exertions -of medical skill were applied in vain. Believing, from the -commencement of his complaint, that it would prove fatal, Washington -succeeded, though with difficulty, in expressing a desire that he -might be permitted to die without being disquieted by unavailing -attempts to rescue him from his fate. When no longer able to swallow, -undressing himself, he retired to his bed, there to await his -dissolution. To his friend and physician he said, with difficulty, -"Doctor, I am dying, and have been dying for a long time; but I am -not afraid to die." Respiration became more and more contracted and -imperfect, until half-past eleven on Saturday night, when, retaining -the full possession of his intellect, he expired without a struggle. -Thus, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, died the "Father of his -country." Intelligence of this event, as it rapidly spread, produced -spontaneous, deep, and unaffected grief, suspending every other -thought, and absorbing every different feeling. - -Congress unanimously resolved upon a funeral procession in memory of -Washington. On the appointed day the procession moved from the -legislative hall to the German Lutheran church, where an oration was -delivered by General Lee, a representative from Virginia. The -procession was grand and solemn; the oration, eloquent and impressive: -throughout the Union, similar marks of affection were exhibited--the -whole nation appeared in mourning. Funeral orations, commemorative of -his virtues, were pronounced in almost every city and town, and many -were the tears shed by young and old, as the excellencies of his -character were portrayed, and the services which he had rendered in -achieving the independence, and contributing to the happiness of his -country, were reviewed. - -Washington deserved all the public honors which were paid him, and yet -he needed none of them to add to the celebrity of his name, or the -glory of his achievements. Wherever the story of his greatness, and of -his patriotic services, has travelled, it has elicited the admiration -and homage of mankind. Indeed, among civilized people of all -countries, his name has become a household word, and is identified -with all that is wise, and pious, and patriotic. By the aged warriors -of our Western tribes--now indeed few and far between--he is still -remembered as "our Father:" his name is familiar to the wandering -Bedouin, and his fame has penetrated to the mountain fastnesses of the -roving Tartar. And in all future time--at least while the American -republic has a name and a place on the earth--or while the record of -her Revolution, and the establishment of her government shall -last--the name of Washington will be remembered with gratitude and -joy. "His country is his monument, and her history his epitaph." - -The character of Washington has been so often portrayed, that we shall -not deem it necessary to enter upon a formal review of it in these -pages. It may be, perhaps, a more grateful service which we render, to -garner up some "tributes" to his exalted worth, which have been paid -him by some of the most distinguished men in other countries. - -Said Mr. Fox, in the British parliament, in a speech delivered during -Washington's second presidential term: "Illustrious man! deriving less -honor from the splendor of his situation than the dignity of his mind: -before whom all borrowed greatness sinks into insignificance, and all -the potentates of Europe (excepting the members of our own royal family) -become little and contemptible!"--Said Napoleon--a man not wont to -lavish his praises--and yet a man who understood and could appreciate -noble qualities existing in others--said Napoleon--"Washington is dead! -The great man fought against tyranny; he established the liberty of his -country. His memory will always be dear to the French people, as it will -to all freemen of the two worlds." - -Byron has added his testimony to the excellency and glory of -Washington--a tribute of praise which, it is said, he has no where in -any of his writings paid to a British hero, not even to Wellington -himself. "After taxing his misanthropy for the bitterest forms of -speech, to be applied to the fallen Napoleon, and to mock at the -fearful reverses of the French emperor's fortune, he, by some strange -impulses, winds up his scorching lyric with these few lines:" - - "Where shall the weary eye repose - When gazing on the great-- - Where neither guilty glory glows, - Nor despicable state? - Yes--one--the first--the last--the best-- - The Cincinnatus of the West, - Bequeathed the name of Washington, - To make men blush there was but one." - -Beautiful is the tribute--and as just as beautiful--which the -Professor of Modern History, in the English University of Cambridge -(William Smith, Esq.), pays to the sage of Mount Vernon. "Instances -may be found," says he, "when perhaps it may be thought that he was -decisive to a degree that partook of severity and harshness, or even -more; but how innumerable were the decisions which he had to make! How -difficult and how important through the eventful series of twenty -years of command in the cabinet or the field! Let it be considered -what it is to have the management of a revolution and afterwards the -maintenance of order. Where is the man that, in the history of our -race, has ever succeeded in attempting successively the one and the -other? The plaudits of his country were continually sounding in his -ears, and neither the judgment or the virtues of the man were ever -disturbed. Armies were led to the field with all the enterprise of a -hero, and then dismissed with all the equanimity of a philosopher. -Power was accepted--was exercised--was resigned precisely at the -moment and in the way that patriotism directed. Whatever was the -difficulty, the trial, the temptation, or the danger, there stood the -soldier and the citizen, eternally the same, without fear and without -reproach, and there was the man who was not only at all times -virtuous, but at all times wise. - -"As a ruler of mankind, he may be proposed as a model. Deeply -impressed with the original rights of human nature, he never forgot -that the end and aim of all just government was the happiness of the -people, and he never exercised authority till he had first taken care -to put himself clearly in the right. His candor, his patience, his -love of justice, were unexampled; and this, though _naturally_ he was -not patient--much otherwise, highly irritable." - -"Of all great men"--such is the declaration of Mr. Guizot, one of the -ministers of the late king of the French--"of all great men, -Washington was the most virtuous and the most fortunate. In this -world, God has no higher favors to bestow." - -A writer in the Edinburgh Review, expresses himself in terms equally -honorable to the American Fabius: "If profound sagacity, unshaken -steadiness of purpose, the entire subjugation of all the passions, which -carry havoc through ordinary minds, and oftentimes lay waste the fairest -prospects of greatness--nay the discipline of those feelings that are -wont to lull or seduce genius, and to mar and to cloud over the aspect -of virtue herself--joined with, or rather leading to, the most absolute -self-denial, the most habitual and exclusive devotion to principle--if -these things can constitute a great character, without either quickness -of apprehension or resources of information, or circumventive powers, or -any brilliant quality that might dazzle the vulgar--then _Washington was -the greatest man that ever lived in this world, uninspired by divine -wisdom, and unsustained by supernatural virtue_." - -To the foregoing, we may add an extract from the eloquent peroration of -Lord Brougham, in his masterly essay on "Public Characters." "This is -the consummate glory of the great American; a triumphant warrior, where -the most sanguine had a right to despair; a successful ruler, in all the -difficulties of a course wholly untried; but a warrior, whose sword only -left its sheath when the first law of our nature commanded it to be -drawn; and a ruler who, having tasted of supreme power, greatly and -unostentatiously desired that the cup might pass from him, nor would he -suffer more to wet his lips than the most solemn and sacred duty to his -country and his God required." "It will be the duty of the historian and -the sage in all ages to omit no occasion of commemorating this -illustrious man; and until time shall be no more, will a test of the -progress which our race has made in wisdom and in virtue be derived from -the veneration paid to the immortal name of Washington!" - -Such were some of the attributes, the virtues, the services of -Washington, and such the tribute paid to his greatness, his worth, and -his unequalled glory, as a man, a military chieftain, and a ruler. -More might be added, but it is unnecessary, unless it be, that -Washington was a Christian. Every where--in seasons of trial, peril, -and almost of hopeless despondency--he placed his reliance upon that -Great Being who holds in his hand the fate of men and of nations. His -hopes for his country were founded more on the righteousness of her -cause, and on the blessing of Heaven, than on the number or strength -of his army. Of his religion, he made no parade--of his virtues, no -boast--but he was ever more true to the dictates of piety, and -observant of the forms and institutions of the Gospel. And it was this -reliance upon that Gospel, which enabled him to say, in the closing -moments of life, "I am not afraid to die." - -In conclusion, we may add, in the highly laudatory and just language -of another, "Washington stands almost alone in the world. He occupies -a region where there are, unhappily for mankind, but few inhabitants. -The Grecian biographer could easily find parallels for Alexander and -Cæsar; but, were he living now, he would meet with great difficulty in -selecting one for Washington. There seems to be an elevation of moral -excellence, which, though possible to attain to, few ever approach. -As, in ascending the lofty peaks of the Andes, we at length arrive at -a line where vegetation ceases, and the principle of life seems -extinct; so, in the gradations of human character, there is an -elevation which is never attained by mortal man. A few have approached -it, but none nearer than Washington. - -"He is eminently conspicuous as one of the great benefactors of the -human race; for he not only gave liberty to millions, but his name now -stands, and will for ever stand, a noble example to high and low. He -is a great work of the Almighty Artist, which none can study without -receiving purer ideas and more lofty conceptions of the grace and -beauty of the human character. He is one that all may copy at -different distances, and whom none can contemplate without receiving -lasting and salutary impressions of the sterling value, the -inexpressible beauty of piety, integrity, courage, and patriotism, -associated with a clear, vigorous, and well-poised intellect. - -"Pure and widely disseminated as is the fame of this great and good -man, it is yet in its infancy. It is every day taking deeper root in -the hearts of his countrymen and the estimation of strangers, and -spreading its branches wider and wider to the air and the skies. He is -already become the saint of liberty, which has gathered new honors by -being associated with his name; and when men aspire to free nations, -they must take him for their model. It is, then, not without ample -reason that the suffrages of mankind have combined to place Washington -at the head of his race. If we estimate him by the examples recorded -in history, he stands without a parallel in the virtues exhibited, and -the most unprecedented consequences resulting from their exercise. The -whole world was the theatre of his actions, and all mankind are -destined to partake, sooner or later, in their results. He is the hero -of a new species; he had no model. Will he have any imitators? Time, -which bears the thousands and thousands of common cut-throats to the -ocean of oblivion, only adds new lustre to his fame, new fame to his -example, and new strength to the reverential affection of all good -men. What a glorious fame is his, to be acquired without guilt, and -enjoyed without envy! to be cherished by millions living, hundreds of -millions yet unborn! Let the children of my country prove themselves -worthy of his virtues, his labors, his sacrifices, by reverencing his -name, and imitating his piety, integrity, industry, fortitude, -patience, forbearance, and patriotism. So shall they become fitted to -enjoy the blessings of freedom and the bounties of Heaven."[66] - -_Removal of the Seat of Government._--In the year 1800, the seat of -government, agreeably to a law passed by congress in 1790, was removed -to Washington, in the District of Columbia. This territory, ten miles -square, had been granted to the general government by the states of -Virginia and Maryland. Public buildings had been erected, and in -November of this year, congress, for the first time, held their session -in that place. After congratulating the people of the United States on -the assembling of congress, on the prospect of a residence not to be -changed, the president said: "It would be unbecoming the representatives -of this nation to assemble, for the first time, in this solemn temple, -without looking up to the Supreme Ruler of the universe, and imploring -his blessing. May this territory be the residence of virtue and -happiness! In this city, may that piety and virtue, that wisdom and -magnanimity, that constancy and self-government, which adorned the great -character whose name it bears, be for ever held in veneration. Here, and -throughout our country, may simple manners, pure morals, and true -religion, flourish for ever." - -_Election of Mr. Jefferson._--At this period, a presidential election -recurred. From the time of the adoption of the constitution, the -republican party had been gradually gathering strength, and, in -anticipation of success, great preparations were made by them to elect -their candidates, Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Burr. The candidates of the -federal party were Mr. Adams and General Pinckney. - -Unfortunately for the federal party, the administration of Mr. Adams -had not been generally acceptable. "In the early part of it, the acts -by which the army and navy were strengthened, and eighty thousand of -the militia subjected to his order, were represented, by the -republicans, as proofs that, however he might have been a friend to -the constitution of his country, he now either wished to subvert it, -or was led blindfold into the views of those who did. The republicans -scrupled the policy of a war with France, and denied the necessity, -even in case of such a war, of a large land force. They believed that -spirits were at work to produce this war, or to make the most of a -disturbance, in order to lull the people, while they raised an army, -which they intended as the instrument of subverting the republican, -and establishing a monarchical government." - -These insinuations--or, more properly, charges--were doubtless utterly -groundless; but they served to bring Mr. Adams' administration into -disrepute, and to strengthen the republican party, which were boastful -of their superior regard to the constitution, and friendship to the -rights and liberty of the people. - -Other measures of the administration served to increase the party -odium against it, and, in the sequel, to overthrow it. We allude -particularly to two acts of congress--THE ALIEN and SEDITION LAWS, of -July, 1798. - -The alien law empowered the president "to order all such aliens as he -should judge dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States, -or should have reasonable grounds to suspect were concerned in any -treasonable or secret machinations against the government thereof, to -depart out of the territory of the United States, within such time as -should be expressed in such order." In case of disobedience, such -aliens, on conviction before the circuit or district courts of the -United States, were subjected to imprisonment for not more than three -years, and incapacitated from becoming citizens. The subsequent law, -respecting alien _enemies_, enabled the president, on a declaration of -war, to cause the subjects of the belligerent nation "to be -apprehended, restrained, secured, and removed as alien enemies." Under -both these acts, they were permitted to remove their property, and -under the latter, if not chargeable with crimes against the United -States, to defend themselves. - -Of the two measures, the sedition act was by far the most unpopular. -"The other," says Mr. Tucker, "was condemned by most Americans, like -the stork in the fable, for the society in which he was found, and for -the sake of soothing the great class of foreigners who were not yet -naturalized, the greater part of whom, particularly the Irish and -French, were attached to the republican party."[67] - -The sedition law, in some of its provisions, went still further. It -imposed fine and imprisonment for unlawfully combining and conspiring -with intent to oppose the measures of government, when directed by the -proper authority: for impeding the operation of any law of the United -States; intimidating an officer from the performance of his duty, or -counselling or advising, with similar intent, insurrections, riots, or -unlawful combinations. It also imposed similar, but lighter penalties, -for the publication of false, scandalous, and malicious writings -against the government of the United States, either house of congress, -or the president, with intent to bring them into contempt, &c. The act -was limited to two years. - -Such were the measures which at this most critical period of our history -were adopted, when the United States, if not carrying on, were -undergoing a war with France; and when the country swarmed with secret -spies and agents. These laws have been condemned, and President Adams -and his government severely censured for having secured their enactment. -They were denounced at the time by the republican party in no measured -terms. They were claimed to be unnecessary, cruel, and despotic. - -But, while it is not our province to enter into a justification of -these laws, it may be proper to say, by way of palliation, to use the -language of another, "that the laws themselves sprung from existing -facts, and self-preservation demanded that the power of providing for -the public safety, vested in every government by the very objects of -government, should now be used."[68] - -The sedition law was never enforced, except against a few--Callender was -one--an alien and a fugitive from justice, who would have overthrown the -government, in his zeal to build up the republican party. - -The necessity for the laws regarding aliens, was more apparent. The -Frenchmen in the United States, at that era, were estimated at thirty -thousand. Many of them were associated together in clubs, which had -for their object the furtherance of French interests. The number of -British subjects was still greater. Other foreigners were numerous, -and all were attached to France. They were restless, feverish, -factious. Whatever may be thought of the expediency or justice of the -law in question, no reasonable doubt can be entertained of the -necessity of some restrictive measures in a time of such excitement as -then prevailed. And yet it must be admitted that no man was actuated -by a loftier patriotism than Mr. Adams; nor was any one ever more -ready to make sacrifices for his country's good. It is sometimes urged -that he was vain, self-willed, impulsive. But these imperfections were -relieved by noble virtues. His political opponent--the man who -supplanted him--declared that he was the ablest advocate of -independence. In days when others desponded, he hoped. - -The acts secured the object sought--they secured, if not the peace, -the safety of the country; for even while they were in the process of -enactment, not a few of the more "notorious of the incendiaries" left -the country. But they largely contributed to the overthrow of the -existing administration, and the triumph of the democratic party. - -As the constitution then existed, each elector gave his vote for two -persons, without designating which was to be president--the one having -the largest number being entitled to the presidency, and the other to -the vice-presidency. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr were the two -candidates of the republican party. Each of these having seventy-three -votes, it devolved upon the house of representatives to decide between -them. The federal party having been defeated in respect to their -candidates, sided with the friends of Colonel Burr, in opposition to -Mr. Jefferson. - -As this was the first time that the election of a president had thus -devolved upon the house of representatives, a general interest was -taken in the subject. But that interest was greatly increased by the -then existing state of political parties. On the arrival of the time -for the election, it was decided that, after the balloting had -commenced, no adjournment should be had until a choice was made--that -during the balloting, the doors of the house should be closed--that -the delegation from each state should be seated together--that the -latter should first ballot among themselves, and that duplicates of -these ballots should be made, and placed in separate boxes. When all -the states had thus voted, the ballot-boxes were to be carried by the -sergeant-at-arms to two separate tables. The ballots were then to be -counted by tellers, eight in number, at each table. When counted, the -reports were to be announced from each table; if these reports agreed, -they were to be accepted, as the true votes of the states; but, if -they differed, a new balloting was to be made. - -On Wednesday, the 11th of February, 1801, the balloting commenced. On -the first ballot, eight states voted for Mr. Jefferson, six states for -Mr. Burr, and the votes of two states were divided. Unexpectedly, no -choice was effected during the first day, and an adjournment became -necessary. The balloting was continued on the following day, and, -indeed, until Tuesday, the 17th of February, when the thirty-fifth -ballot, as had all the previous ballots, resulted the same as the first. -The excitement of members, and of citizens attracted from various parts -of the country to see the issue of a novel political contest, had now -become intense. Every possible influence was exerted by the respective -parties. Mr. Nicholson, of Maryland, being too unwell to sit during the -protracted ballotings, had a bed prepared for him in one of the -committee-rooms, to which the ballot-box was carried by the tellers on -the part of the state. For several days, the members ate little, and -slept still less. At length, however, the long contest was terminated by -the thirty-sixth ballot, which resulted in the election of Mr. -Jefferson--ten states having voted for him, four for Mr. Burr, and two -in blank. The following table exhibits the final result: - - Key: A. Thos. Jefferson, of Virginia. - B. Aaron Burr, of New York. - C. John Adams, of Massa'tts. - D. C. C. Pinckney, of S. Carolina. - E. John Jay, of New York. - - ---------+-----------------+----+----+----+----+---- - No. of | | | | | | - Electors | STATES. | | | | | - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. - State. | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+----+----+----+---- - 6 | New Hampshire, | | | 6 | 6 | - 16 | Massachusetts, | | | 16 | 16 | - 4 | Rhode Island, | | | 4 | 3 | 1 - 9 | Connecticut, | | | 9 | 9 | - 4 | Vermont, | | | 4 | 4 | - 12 | New York, | 12 | 12 | | | - 7 | New Jersey, | | | 7 | 7 | - 15 | Pennsylvania, | 8 | 8 | 7 | 7 | - 3 | Delaware, | | | 3 | 3 | - 10 | Maryland, | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | - 21 | Virginia, | 21 | 21 | | | - 4 | Kentucky, | 4 | 4 | | | - 12 | North Carolina, | 8 | 8 | 4 | 4 | - 3 | Tennessee, | 3 | 3 | | | - 8 | South Carolina, | 8 | 8 | | | - 4 | Georgia, | 4 | 4 | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+----+----+----+---- - 138 | Whole No. of | | | | | - | electors, | 73 | 73 | 65 | 64 | 1 - | Majority, 70 | | | | | - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[65] Before the time of embarkation, Mr. Henry died, and Governor -Davie was appointed in his place. - -[66] Paulding's Life of Washington. - -[67] Life of Jefferson, vol. ii. p. 45. - -[68] Gibbs' Memoirs of the Administrations of Washington and John Adams. - - - - - VIII. THOMAS JEFFERSON, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration: Thomas Jefferson.] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1801. - - AARON BURR AND GEORGE CLINTON, VICE-PRESIDENTS. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - James Madison, Virginia, March 5, 1801, Secretary - of State. - - Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, (_continued } Secretaries - in office_), } of Treasury. - Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, January 26, 1802, } - - Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801, Secretary - of War. - - Benjamin Stoddert, Maryland, (_continued } Secretaries - in office_), } of the Navy. - Robert Smith, Maryland, January 26, 1802, } - - Joseph Habersham, Georgia, (_continued } Postmasters - in office_), } General. - Gideon Granger, Connecticut, January 26, 1802, } - - Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801, } Attorneys - John Breckenridge, Kentucky, December 23, 1805, } General. - Cæsar A. Rodney, Delaware, January 20, 1807, } - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, Seventh Congress, 1801. - Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, Eighth do. 1803. - Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, Ninth do. 1805. - Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, Tenth do. 1807. - -Mr. Jefferson was inducted into office, with the usual imposing -ceremonies, on the 4th of March, 1801; on which occasion, deviating -from the example of his predecessors, he transmitted to congress a -_written message_, instead of delivering a speech in person--a -practice which has been followed by his successors in the presidential -chair, without an exception. - -This message was a remarkable document, inasmuch as it set forth the -"essential principles" of our government in the narrowest compass, and -with great clearness and precision of language. These were, "Equal and -exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or -political; peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, -entangling alliances with none; the support of the state governments, in -all their rights, as the most competent administrations for our domestic -concerns, and the surest bulwarks against anti-republican tendencies; -the preservation of the general government, in its whole constitutional -vigor, as the sheet-anchor of our peace at home and safety abroad; a -jealous care of the right of election by the people, a mild and safe -corrective of abuses, which are lopped by the sword of revolution, where -peaceable remedies are unprovided; absolute acquiescence in the -decisions of the majority, the vital principle of republics, from which -there is no appeal but to force, the vital principle and immediate -parent of despotism; a well-disciplined militia, our best reliance in -peace, and for the first moments of war, till regulars may relieve them; -the supremacy of the civil over the military authority; economy in the -public expense, that labor may be lightly burdened; the honest payment -of our debts, and sacred preservation of the public faith; encouragement -of agriculture, and of commerce as its handmaid; the diffusion of -information, and arraignment of all abuses at the bar of the public -reason; freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of -person, under the protection of the _habeas corpus_; and trial by juries -impartially selected. These principles form the bright constellation -which has gone before us, and guided our steps through an age of -revolution and reformation." - -The leading events in the presidential career of Mr. Jefferson, will -require us to notice the-- - - Purchase of Louisiana. Attack on the Chesapeake. - War with Tripoli. British Orders in Council. - Murder of Hamilton. Milan Decree. - Rëelection of Jefferson. Embargo. - Conspiracy and Trial of Burr. Election of Mr. Madison. - Difficulties between France and England. - -_Purchase of Louisiana._--By the treaty of 1783, the Mississippi was -made the western boundary of the United States, from its source to the -thirty-first degree of latitude, and following this line to the St. -Mary's. By a treaty of the same date, the Floridas were ceded to -Spain, without any specific boundaries. This omission led to a -controversy between the United States and Spain, which nearly -terminated in hostilities. By a treaty with Spain, however, in 1795, -boundary lines were amicably settled, and New Orleans was granted to -American citizens as a place of deposit for their effects for three -years and longer, unless some other place of equal importance should -be assigned. No other place being assigned within that time, New -Orleans continued to be used as before. - -In 1800, a secret treaty was signed at Paris, by the plenipotentiaries -of France and Spain, by which Louisiana was guarantied to France, and, -in 1801, the cession was actually made. At the same time, the Spanish -intendant of Louisiana was instructed to make arrangements to deliver -the country to the French commissioners. Upon receiving intelligence -of this intended transfer, great sensibility prevailed in congress, -and a proposition was made to occupy the place by force; but, after an -animated discussion, the project was relinquished, and negotiations -with France were commenced by Mr. Jefferson, for the purchase of the -whole country of Louisiana, which ended in an agreement to that -effect, signed at Paris, April 30th, 1803, by which the United States -were to pay to France fifteen millions of dollars. Early in December, -1803, the commissioners of Spain delivered possession to France; and, -on the 20th of the same month, the authorities of France duly -transferred the country to the United States. - -_War with Tripoli._--In his message to Congress, in 1801, Mr. -Jefferson spoke of the relations of the United States with all nations -as pacific, except with Tripoli, the least considerable of the Barbary -states. This power had made demands, the most unjust, upon the -American government, and had threatened war, because that government -had failed to comply with those demands before a given day. Thus -threatened, the president had sent out Commodore Dale with a squadron -of two ships and a sloop-of-war, to blockade the harbor of Tripoli, by -which piratical cruisers should be prevented from making depredations -upon American commerce. - -In 1803, it became necessary to add to this Mediterranean force. -Accordingly, a squadron of seven sail was ordered, of which Commodore -Preble was put in command. In October, the frigate Philadelphia, -forty-four, Captain Bainbridge, while in eager pursuit of a small -vessel, grounded in the harbor of Tripoli, and, in this situation, was -compelled to surrender. The officers became prisoners, and the crew -slaves. In this emergency, Stephen Decatur, then a lieutenant under -Commodore Preble, proposed a plan for rëcapturing or destroying the -Philadelphia. The American squadron was at that time lying at -Syracuse. Agreeably to the plan proposed, Lieutenant Decatur, in the -ketch Intrepid, four guns and seventy-five men, proceeded, under the -escort of the Syren, Captain Stewart, to the harbor of Tripoli. The -Philadelphia lay within half gun-shot of the bashaw's castle, and was -guarded by several cruisers and gun-boats. The Intrepid entered the -harbor alone, about eight o'clock in the evening, and succeeded in -getting near the Philadelphia, between ten and eleven o'clock, without -having awakened suspicion of her hostile designs. This vessel had been -captured from the Tripolitans, and, assuming on this occasion her -former national appearance, was permitted to warp alongside. The -moment the vessel came in contact, Decatur and his followers leaped on -board, and soon overwhelmed the crew. Twenty Tripolitans were killed. -All the surrounding batteries being opened upon the Philadelphia, she -was immediately set on fire; when, a favoring breeze springing up, the -Intrepid extricated herself from her prey, and sailed triumphantly out -of the harbor. - -In July, 1804, Commodore Preble having concentrated his forces before -Tripoli, opened a tremendous fire of shot and shells, which was as -promptly returned by the Tripolitan batteries and shipping. At the -same time, two divisions of gun-boats--the first under the command of -Captain Somers, the second under Lieutenant Stephen Decatur--advanced -against those of the enemy. - -Lieutenant Decatur, bearing down upon one of superior force, soon -carried her by boarding; when, taking his prize in tow, he grappled with -another, and, in like manner, transferred the fight to the enemy's deck. -In the fierce encounter which followed this second attack, Lieutenant -Decatur, having broken his sword, closed with the Turkish commander, -and, both falling in the struggle, gave him a mortal wound with a -pistol-shot, just as the Turk was raising his dirk to plunge it into his -breast. Lieutenant Trippe, of Lieutenant Decatur's squadron, had boarded -a third large gun-boat, with only one midshipman and nine men, when his -boat fell off, and left him to wage the unequal fight of eleven against -thirty-six. Courage and resolution, however, obliged the numerous foe to -yield, with the loss of fourteen killed and seven wounded. Lieutenant -Trippe received eleven sabre wounds, and had three of his party wounded, -but none killed. - -On the 4th of September, Commodore Preble determined to send a -fire-ship into the enemy's harbor. For this service, the Intrepid was -fitted out, being filled with powder, shells, and other combustible -materials. Captain Somers conducted the enterprise, having for his -associates Lieutenants Wadsworth and Israel, all volunteers. At eight -o'clock in the evening, she stood into the harbor, with a moderate -breeze. Several shots were fired at her from the batteries. She had -nearly gained her place of destination, when she exploded, without -having made any of the signals, previously concerted, to show that the -crew was safe. Night hung over the dreadful catastrophe, and left the -whole squadron a prey to the most dreadful anxiety. - -Doubt, however, was at length turned into certainty. She had -prematurely blown up, destroying one of the enemy's gun-boats, and -shattering several others. Commodore Preble, in his account, says, -that he was led to believe that those boats were detached from the -enemy's flotilla to intercept the ketch, and, without suspecting her -character, had suddenly boarded her, when the gallant Somers and the -heroes of his party, observing the other three boats surrounding them, -and no prospect of escape, determined to put a match to the train -leading directly to the magazine; and, he adds, that his "conjectures -respecting this affair are founded on a resolution which Captain -Somers and Lieutenants Wadsworth and Israel had formed, never to be -taken by the enemy, and never to suffer him to get possession of the -powder on board the Intrepid." - -The reigning bashaw of Tripoli, at this time, was an usurper, while -the lawful one and an older brother, Hamet Caramelli, was at Tunis in -exile. At the commencement of the war, William Eaton, then American -consul at Tunis, becoming acquainted with Hamet, concerted an -expedition to expel the usurper, and restore the rightful heir to the -throne. To such an enterprise, the sanction of the American government -being necessary, General Eaton repaired to the United States, and laid -his plan before our government; but they, thinking the scheme -altogether too romantic, yet not wishing wholly to discourage it, made -him agent for the government; he sailed with the fleet for the -Mediterranean, and proceeding to Alexandria, prevailed on the viceroy -of Egypt to suffer him to have an interview with the exiled bey. They -met near Grand Cairo, and entered into a convention for the purpose of -attacking Tripoli. Eaton was to be commander-in-chief of the land -forces. Their army consisted of a few American sailors, a small -company of artillery, a few straggling Greeks, the servants of Hamet -Bashaw, and some camel-drivers. With this motley band, Eaton dashed -across the desert in the most noble style, fearless of all -difficulties. Here he was joined by a few Arabian cavalry, and, after -suffering every hardship, arising from hunger and a scorching sun, the -party reached Bomba, where they found the Argus and Hornet, under the -command of Captain Hull. The army, of nearly four hundred, continued -their march to Derne. On the 25th of April, 1804, they encamped on an -eminence which commanded the place, and forthwith demanded a -surrender. The inhabitants of Derne treated the summons with contempt. -A furious assault was the consequence, and the place was carried after -a short but desperate action. - -Unfortunately for Eaton's projects, at this time he received -intelligence that the American commissioners in the fleet had made -peace with the bashaw then in power. It was stipulated, that Eaton -should evacuate Derne, and repair to the fleet; and that a mutual -delivery of prisoners should take place, among whom was Captain -Bainbridge, with the officers and crew of the Philadelphia; and, as -the bashaw had a balance of more than two hundred prisoners in his -favor, he was to receive sixty thousand dollars. Hamet Bashaw -accompanied Eaton to the United States, with a few of his followers, -while the remainder of the army fled to the mountains. The -commissioners acknowledged that Eaton's success prepared the way for -the treaty of peace. Moreover, the president of the United States, in -a message to congress, spoke highly of his services; and the citizens -every where hailed him as worthy of a place in the lists of chivalry; -but, during his after-life, he ever felt that injustice was done him -by his countrymen, although Massachusetts made him a grant of ten -thousand acres of land as a reward for his services. - -_Murder of Hamilton._--On the 12th of July, 1804, General Alexander -Hamilton died in the city of New York, in consequence of a wound -received the day previous, in a duel fought by him with Aaron Burr. - -In February, 1804, Colonel Burr was nominated as a candidate for the -office of governor of New York. Judge Morgan Lewis was the opposing -and successful candidate. The contest was violent, and even -"acrimonious." The majority of the democratic party supported Judge -Lewis; a respectable minority favored the election of Colonel Burr. -Similar divisions existed among the federal party. Hamilton and his -immediate political friends were strong in their opposition to Burr. -In the contest, the press was enlisted. Violent, and even libellous -articles, were daily published. In the progress of this warfare, a -letter, written by Dr. Charles D. Cooper to Colonel Burr, was -published, in which, among other matters, there occurred the following -clause: "I could detail to you _a still more despicable_ opinion, -which General Hamilton _has expressed_ of Mr. Burr." - -At the request of Colonel Burr, Judge Van Ness called upon General -Hamilton, and demanded an explanation. A few days following, the -latter replied by letter, in which, after expressing his embarrassment -in attempting to meet a charge so _indefinite_, he said: "I stand -ready to avow or disavow, promptly and explicitly, any precise or -definite opinion which I may be charged with having declared of any -gentleman. More than this cannot fitly be expected from me; and, -especially, it cannot be reasonably asked that I shall enter into any -explanation upon a basis so vague as that you have adopted. I trust, -on reflection, you will see the matter in the same light with me." - -Colonel Burr was not satisfied, and from this date, June 20th, the -correspondence, thus begun, was continued to the 3d of July, when it -was definitely arranged that a meeting should take place between them -on the morning of the 11th, at Weehawk, on the Jersey shore, at seven -o'clock A. M. - -That meeting took place. They fought at ten paces distance. The fire -of Colonel Burr took effect, and General Hamilton fell. The ball -passed through the liver and diaphragm, and lodged in the vertebra. -From the first, it was apparent that the wound was mortal, and of -this, Hamilton was sensible. On the day following, he expired. - -The seconds in this most unfortunate and criminal affair were Mr. -Pendleton, the friend of Mr. Hamilton, and Judge Van Ness, the friend of -Burr. By the former, it was claimed that General Hamilton did not fire -first, nor at all at Colonel Burr. Several circumstances corroborated -this statement. In a paper, left by Hamilton, in anticipation of his -interview with Burr, he writes: "I have resolved, if our interview is -conducted in the usual manner, and it pleases God to give me the -opportunity, to reserve and throw away my first fire, and I have thought -of even reserving my second fire, and thus give a double opportunity to -Colonel Burr to pause and reflect." Dr. Hosack, his attendant physician -on the ground, accompanied him on his return across the Hudson to New -York. On their way, Hamilton, observing the pistol which he had used -lying in the boat, said: "Take care of that pistol; it is undischarged, -and still cocked; it may go off, and do harm. Pendleton knows that I did -not intend to fire at him." "Yes," said Pendleton; "I have already made -Dr. Hosack acquainted with your determination." - -It may be further added, and to the _dishonor_ of Hamilton it should be -added--and perhaps as a solemn dissuasive against a practice at war with -reason, revelation, and all the dear and important relations of -life--that he accepted the challenge, and repaired to that -duelling-ground, contrary to the convictions of conscience and duty. In -the paper already alluded to, he writes: "My religious and moral -principles are strongly opposed to the practice of duelling, and it -would ever give me pain to be obliged to shed the blood of a -fellow-creature in a private combat forbidden by the laws."--In an -interview with him, a few hours before he expired, and as he was about -to part with him, the late Dr. Mason said to him, "I have one request to -make." He asked "what it was?" The doctor replied, that "whatever might -be the issue of his affliction, he would give his testimony against the -practice of duelling."--"I will," said he; "I _have done it_. If -_that_"--evidently anticipating the event--"if _that_ be the issue, you -will find it in writing. If it please God that I recover, I shall do it -in a manner which will effectually put me out of its reach in future." - -Nothing scarcely could exceed the indignation of the public against -the murderer of Hamilton. From that fatal hour, he was shunned by all -classes, and for years roamed abroad, a fugitive from the land in -which he was once honored. Forgetting all party distinctions and -animosities, the people in various parts of the land united in -demonstrations of respect for the memory of Hamilton, and sincere -sorrow at his untimely fall. Next to Washington, no man was, perhaps, -more respected; nor since the departure of the Father of his country -to another world, was the loss of one more deeply or widely deplored. - -Hamilton had occupied a conspicuous place for years in the army and -under the government. In the former capacity, he had stood by the side -of Washington. He loved military life, and, as a soldier and a patriot, -deserved well of his country. From his views on several subjects -connected with the organization of the government, and especially the -management of the finances of the country, many dissented. Yet, it -cannot be denied, that the policy he advised, resulted in the prosperity -of the country. He was a strong partisan in his time, and tenacious of -his opinions. There were contemporary with him others of a similar -stamp, yet widely different from him in their political views. - -But, aside from his political career, Hamilton was a distinguished -man--possessed of a lofty and comprehensive mind. At the bar, with men -of learning and experience, he was, perhaps, without a rival. "His -eloquence combined the nervousness and copious elegance of the Greek -and Roman schools." - -It was truthfully said of him, what was beautifully said of another: - - "Incorrupta fides--nudaque veritas, - Quando ullum inveniet parem? - Multis ille quidem flebilis occidit." - -_Rëelection of Mr. Jefferson._--In 1805, Mr. Jefferson was elected a -second time to the office of president. The electoral votes were one -hundred and seventy-six, of which he received one hundred and -sixty-two. George Clinton was chosen vice-president. The following is -the official canvass of the votes: - - Key: A. Thos. Jefferson, of Virginia. - B. C. C. Pinckney, of S. Carolina. - C. George Clinton, of New York. - D. Rufus King, of New York. - - ---------+-----------------+----------+--------------- - No. of | |PRESIDENT.|VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |----------+--------------- - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. - State. | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-------+------- - 7 | New Hampshire, | 7 | | 7 | - 19 | Massachusetts, | 19 | | 19 | - 4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | | 4 | - 9 | Connecticut, | | 9 | | 9 - 6 | Vermont, | 6 | | 6 | - 19 | New York, | 19 | | 19 | - 8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | 8 | - 20 | Pennsylvania, | 20 | | 20 | - 3 | Delaware, | | 3 | | 3 - 11 | Maryland, | 9 | 2 | 9 | 2 - 24 | Virginia, | 24 | | 24 | - 14 | North Carolina, | 14 | | 14 | - 10 | South Carolina, | 10 | | 10 | - 6 | Georgia, | 6 | | 6 | - 5 | Tennessee, | 5 | | 5 | - 8 | Kentucky, | 8 | | 8 | - 3 | Ohio, | 3 | | 3 | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-------+------- - 176 | Whole No. of | | | | - | electors, |162 | 14 | 162 | 14 - | Majority, 89 | | | | - -_Conspiracy and Trial of Burr._--In the spring of 1807, Colonel Aaron -Burr was arrested on the Tombigbee river, Mississippi territory, on a -charge of treason against the United States; and was conveyed to -Richmond, Virginia, for trial. Other arrests were made of persons -supposed to be concerned with him in his treasonable scheme--among -them were Generals Adair and Dayton, Blannerhasset, Swartwout, -Alexander, Smith, Bollman, Ogden, &c. Burr and Blannerhasset alone -were brought to trial. The trial of the former took place in May, -1807, before the circuit court of the United States, Judge Marshall -presiding. No indictment was found by the grand jury until the 25th of -June, when two bills were presented against Burr--one for treason, the -other for a misdemeanor. On the 30th of June, he was committed to the -penitentiary for safe keeping until the 3d day of August. From the 5th -until the 17th of August, the court was engaged in obtaining a jury -and discussing points of law. On that day, the treason case was -opened, and an examination of witnesses on the part of the government -commenced. On the 1st of September, the case was given to the jury, -and as no overt act was proved against Colonel Burr to sustain the -charge of treason committed within the state of Virginia, the jury -rendered a verdict of "Not guilty." - -On the 9th of September, a jury was empaneled to try Colonel Burr on -the indictment for misdemeanor, which consisted of seven counts; the -substance of which was, that Aaron Burr did set on foot a military -enterprise, to be carried on against the territory of a foreign -prince, viz: the province of Mexico, which was within the territory of -the king of Spain, with whom the United States were at peace. After -proceeding in the trial at some length, the district attorney himself -moved that the jury should be discharged--the evidence of the guilt of -the accused not appearing, sufficient. To a discharge of the jury -without the rendition of a verdict, Burr objected; whereupon the jury -retired, and soon returned with a verdict of "Not guilty." - -The distinguished talents of Colonel Burr, his well-known cunning and -intrigue, and the eminent station he had occupied in the United States, -together with the grave charges against him of a contemplated -dismemberment of the Union, with other projects--all combined to attach -interest and importance to his trial. In his message to congress, -developing the designs of Burr, as the government understood them, -President Jefferson accused him of designing to revolutionize the -territory west of the Alleganies, and of establishing an independent -government, of which New Orleans was to be the capital, and himself the -chief. In addition to this project, Colonel Burr, it was alleged, had -formed another, which, in case of the failure of the first, might be -carried on independent of it, viz: an attack on Mexico, and an -establishment of an empire there. To serve as a pretext for all his -preparations, and an allurement for such followers as really wished to -acquire settlements in that country, it was stated that a third object -was provided--the settlement of the pretended purchase of a tract of -land on the Washita, claimed by a Baron Bastrop. - -Such were the plans of Burr, according to intelligence communicated -from time to time to the government of the United States. On the -belief of the guilt of Burr, or through utter hostility to him, -Jefferson acted; and with an evident design to prevent his escape, he -succeeded in procuring the passage of a bill in the senate for -suspending the writ of habeas corpus; but it was rejected by the -house, by the strong vote of one hundred and thirteen to nineteen. - -Burr, to his dying day, denied any intention of dismembering the -Union; but avowed the projects which did not involve the charge of -treason. "In his latter days," says his biographer, "Colonel Burr had -no longer any motive for concealment; nor did he evince the least -desire to suppress the facts in relation to any of his acts, even -where the promulgation of those facts was calculated to effect his -moral character. According to his representation, repeated at a time, -and under circumstances the most solemn and impressive, (Burr at this -time was expected to survive but a short time,) his views were -twofold, viz: _First_, The revolutionizing of Mexico; and, _Second_, A -settlement on what was known as the Bastrop lands." - -It is further added by his biographer, that "during the years 1806 and -1807, Herman Blennerhasset kept a private journal, in which are -recorded the principal incidents arising out of his connexion with -Colonel Burr. Portions of it are interesting and amusing. The entries -confirm the particular statements of Truxton, Bollman,[69] and others, -and repudiate the idea of treasonable designs. It appears that in -December, 1805, Blennerhasset addressed a letter to Colonel Burr, -expressing a wish to participate in any speculation in the Western -country that might present itself to Burr. A Spanish war was hourly -anticipated, and Blennerhasset proposed to join Burr in any expedition -that might be undertaken against the Spanish dominions. - -"In August, 1806, in consequence of this overture, Burr visited -Blannerhasset at his home on the Ohio, and the next day rode with him -to Marietta, and then separated, Burr being on his way to Chilicothe. -From Marietta to Blannerhasset's was about fifteen miles. Some time -after, Burr returned to Blannerhasset, to whom he said that an -expulsion of the Spaniards from the American territory, or an invasion -of Mexico, would be pleasing to the administration, if it could be -accomplished without an open, formal war, which would be avoided as -long as possible, from parsimony on the one hand, and the dread of -France on the other." - -We have thus given such a statement of this subject as our limits -permit, and as seems due to the respective parties engaged in it. -Different opinions will doubtless be entertained with reference to -Burr's real designs. That he contemplated the dismemberment of the -Union, and the founding of an empire, of which New Orleans was to be -the centre, and himself the head, will be questioned by some. That he -was capable of devising such a project, and would have accomplished -it, if in his power, no one acquainted with the deep designing -character of the murderer of Hamilton, can doubt. With exalted -talents--with an early education and parental counsel, as liberal and -watchful as ever, perhaps, fell to the lot of mortal to enjoy--with -the favor and patronage of a people, seldom so generously conferred, -or so long and uniformly enjoyed--Burr proved himself a selfish, -unprincipled man. One thing is certain, and this he admitted--that he -designed the invasion and overthrow of the Mexican government, and the -erection of an independent power in its place. And to further his -views, he induced not a few, by "inuendoes and otherwise," to believe -that his arrangements for the accomplishment of this were with the -knowledge, if not the approbation, of the United States' government. - -_France and England, 1806._--A contest between these two powers, which -had been waging for some time, and which had involved the whole of -Europe, began now seriously to affect the commercial interests of -America. It being the obvious policy of the latter to preserve a strict -neutrality in respect to these belligerent powers, every act of the -American government had respect to maintaining the same. Being neutral, -her vessels carried from port to port the productions of France and her -dependent kingdoms; and also to the ports of those kingdoms, the -manufactures of England, bringing, by means of this "carrying trade," -vast wealth to the nation. These advantages were, however, too great to -be long enjoyed unmolested. American ships, carrying to Europe the -produce of French colonies, were captured by British cruisers, and -condemned by their courts as lawful prizes; and now, several European -ports, under the control of France, were, by British orders in council, -May 16, 1806, declared to be in a state of blockade, although not -invested with a British fleet; and American vessels, attempting to enter -those ports, were also captured and condemned. France and her allies -suffered from these proceedings, but far less than the United States. By -way of retaliation, in November of the same year, Buonaparte issued a -decree at _Berlin_, declaring the British islands to be in a state of -blockade, and of course authorizing the capture and condemnation of all -neutral vessels attempting to trade with them. Thus, from the -retaliatory measures of these two rival powers, the commerce of the -United States was seriously injured. - -Although the relations of Great Britain and America were at this time -ostensibly pacific, yet there existed, and had long existed, a claim -on the part of Great Britain, and a pretence under that claim, which -was denied by the several presidents during their administrations. -This was what was denominated "the right of search"--founded upon the -English principle, that no act of a subject can change his allegiance -to the government under which he was born. Upon this principle, Great -Britain, soon after the peace of 1783, claimed the right to board and -search neutral vessels, and take therefrom all British seamen found -therein. In the exercise of this pretended right, citizens of the -United States had been seized, and, being transported to a distant -part of the world, had been compelled to perform the degrading part of -British sailors. Notwithstanding the remonstrances of Washington, -Adams, and Jefferson, the odious practice was still continued, and -every year was adding to its aggravations. - -_Attack on the Chesapeake._--At length, an event occurred, growing out -of this pretended "right of search," which roused the indignation of -the American people. - -A British armed ship, called the Melampus, while lying in Hampton roads, -lost, by desertion, several of her crew, viz: William Ware, Daniel -Martin, John Strachan, John Little, and Ambrose Watts. Not long after, -the first three offered themselves for enlistment on board the -Chesapeake, then at Norfolk, Virginia, preparing for the Mediterranean. - -The British consul at Norfolk; being apprised of this circumstance, -wrote a letter to the American naval officer, requesting these men to -be returned. With this request the officer refusing to comply, the -British agent requested an order from government for their surrender. -An examination, however, into the characters and claims of the men in -question, resulted in proof that Ware, Martin, and Strachan, were -natives of America. The two former had _protections_, or notarial -certificates of their being American citizens. Strachan had no -_protection_, but asserted that he lost it previously to his escape. -Such being the circumstances of the men, the government refused to -surrender them. - -On the 22d of June, the Chesapeake weighed anchor, and proceeded to -sea. She passed the British ships Bellona and Melampus, lying in -Lynnhaven bay. There were two ships lying off Cape Henry, one of -which, the Leopard, Captain Humphreys, weighed anchor, and, in a few -hours, came alongside the Chesapeake. - -A British officer immediately came on board, and demanded the -deserters. To this, Captain Barron replied, that he did not know of -any being there, and that his duty forbade him to allow of any muster -of his crew, except by their own officers. - -During this interview, Barron, noticing some proceedings of a hostile -nature on board the adverse ship, gave orders, on the departure of the -officer, to clear his gun-deck, and, after some time, directed his men -to their quarters secretly, and without beat of drum; still, however, -without any serious apprehensions of an attack. - -Before these orders could be executed, the Leopard commenced a heavy -fire, which proved very destructive. In thirty minutes, the hull, -rigging, and spars of the Chesapeake were greatly damaged; three men -were killed and sixteen wounded; among the latter, was the captain -himself. Such was the previous disorder, that, during this time, the -utmost exertions were insufficient to prepare the ship for action, and -the captain thought proper to strike his colors. - -The British captain refused to accept the surrender of the Chesapeake, -but took from her crew Ware, Martin, and Strachan, the three men -formerly demanded as deserters, and a fourth, John Wilson, claimed as -a runaway from a merchant ship. - -"On receiving information of this outrage, the president, by -proclamation, interdicted the harbors and waters of the United States -to all armed British vessels, forbade intercourse with them, and -ordered a sufficient force for the protection of Norfolk, and such -other preparations as the occasion appeared to require. An armed -vessel of the United States was dispatched, with instructions to the -American minister at London, to call on the British government for the -satisfaction and security which the outrage required." - -Pursuant to these instructions, Mr. Monroe, then minister resident at -the court of St. James, demanded reparation; and, as an essential part -of that reparation, security against future impressments from American -ships. But Mr. Canning, the British minister, objected to uniting -these subjects, and Mr. Monroe not being authorized to treat them -separately, Mr. Rose was dispatched, by the English government, as -envoy extraordinary to the United States, to adjust the difficulty -which had arisen on account of the Chesapeake.[70] - -_Orders in Council._--In November, Great Britain issued her orders in -council, which measure she declared to be in retaliation of the French -decree of November, 1806. By these orders, all neutral nations were -prohibited from trading with France or her allies, excepting upon the -payment of a tribute to England. - -_Milan Decree._--Scarcely had the news of the adoption of the above -orders reached Milan, where Buonaparte then was, than he issued, -December 17th, a retaliatory decree, called the "Milan Decree," which -confiscated any and every vessel found in any of his ports, which had -allowed herself to be searched by an English ship, or had paid the -tribute demanded. - -_Embargo._--Congress had been summoned, by proclamation of the -president, to meet as early as the 27th of October. The wanton attack -upon the Chesapeake had filled the country with indignation--all -parties felt the national honor insulted; forgetting, for the time, -political jealousies and animosities, all concurred in demanding -satisfaction for the outrage. - -There were other subjects, also, which, in the opinion of the -executive, required the thoughtful consideration of the national -legislature. The conduct of the continental belligerents was preying -upon the vital interests of America. Great Britain was asserting -rights which could never be allowed, and assuming a lofty tone which -would excite no other feelings but indignation. - -In view of the circumstances of the country, the president recommended -to congress to lay an embargo--by which measure he designed to detain -seamen, ships, and merchandise in port, to preserve them from the -dangers to which they were exposed on the ocean; but the higher -motive for recommending such a measure, probably, was the hope of -thereby inducing--coercing, we might with more truth say--the -belligerent powers to respect the laws of nations. In accordance with -the recommendation of the president, an embargo was laid. - -This measure was not without its commercial and political effects. The -large shipping interest then in the United States was locked up by -means of it, and vessels abroad, which were obliged to come in, could -go out no more. To the New England states, which were prëeminently -commercial, the embargo was highly obnoxious. They believed the -measure both impolitic and oppressive. - -A rapid change in the political opinions of the people of New England -was the consequence. A large majority, embracing many who had supported -the administration, now united with the federal party, and opposed its -measures with zeal. Thus pressed by public sentiment, the government -felt the necessity of repealing the embargo, which it was the more -willing to do, from the consideration that it had failed to effect its -principal object; but, at the same time, another law was passed, -prohibiting all intercourse with France and Great Britain for one year. -"Provision was made in this law, that, should either of the hostile -nations revoke her edict, so that the neutral commerce of the United -States should be no longer violated, the president should immediately -make it known by proclamation, and, from that time, the non-intercourse -law should cease to be enforced as it regarded that nation." - -_Election of Mr. Madison._--In this critical posture of affairs, the -period having again arrived for the election of president, Mr. -Jefferson signified his determination to follow and confirm the -example of Washington, by retiring to private life at the expiration -of his second term. "Never did a prisoner," said he, "released from -his chains, feel such relief as I shall, on shaking off the shackles -of power. I thank God for the opportunity of retiring from them -without censure, and carrying with me the most constant proofs of -public approbation. I leave every thing in the hands of men so able to -take care of them, that, if we are destined to meet misfortunes, it -will be because no human wisdom could avert them." James Madison was -chosen his successor, and George Clinton rëelected vice-president. The -following table presents the result of the official canvass: - - Key: A. James Madison, of Virginia. - B. George Clinton, of New York. - C. C. C. Pinckney, of S. Carolina. - D. George Clinton, of New York. - E. James Madison, of Virginia. - F. James Monroe, of Virginia. - G. John Langdon, N Hampshire. - H. Rufus King, of New York. - - ---------+-----------------+--------------+------------------------ - No. of | | PRESIDENT. | VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |--------------+------------------------ - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | H. - State. | | | | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- - 7 | New Hampshire, | | | 7 | | | | | 7 - 19 | Massachusetts, | | | 19 | | | | | 19 - 4 | Rhode Island, | | | 4 | | | | | 4 - 9 | Connecticut, | | | 9 | | | | | 9 - 6 | Vermont, | 6 | | | | | | 6 | - 19 | New York, | 13 | 6 | | 13 | 3 | 3 | | - 8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | | 8 | | | | - 20 | Pennsylvania, | 20 | | | 20 | | | | - 3 | Delaware, | | | 3 | | | | | 3 - 11 | Maryland, | 9 | | 2 | 9 | | | | 2 - 24 | Virginia, | 24 | | | 24 | | | | - 14 | North Carolina, | 11 | | 3 | 11 | | | | 3 - 10 | South Carolina, | 10 | | | 10 | | | | - 6 | Georgia, | 6 | | | 6 | | | | - 7 | Kentucky, | 7 | | | 7 | | | | - 5 | Tennessee, | 5 | | | 5 | | | | - 3 | Ohio, | 3 | | | | | | 3 | - ---------+-----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- - 175 | Whole No. of | | | | | | | | - | electors, |122 | 6 | 47 |113 | 3 | 3 | 9 | 47 - | Majority, 88 | | | | | | | | - -FOOTNOTES: - -[69] Commodore Truxton and Doctor Bollman testified before the court, -that they were both intimate with Colonel Burr; that in their -conversation with him, there had been no reserve; and that they had -never heard him speak of a dissolution of the Union. - -[70] This unhappy difficulty was not finally adjusted till 1811. Mr. -Rose reached America December 25th. But, having no authority to -negotiate until the president should rëcall his proclamation of July -2d, and the president declining to accede to such a preliminary, the -negotiations, for the time, closed. In November, 1811, the British -minister communicated to the secretary of state, that the attack on -the Chesapeake was unauthorized by his majesty's government; that the -officer at that time in command on the American coast, had been -rëcalled; that the men, taken from the Chesapeake, should be restored, -and that suitable pecuniary provision should be made for those who -suffered in the attack, and for the families of the seamen that fell. -To these propositions the president acceded. But the question, -touching the right of search, was left undecided. - - - - - IX. JAMES MADISON, PRESIDENT - - -[Illustration] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1809. - - GEORGE CLINTON AND ELBRIDGE GERRY, VICE-PRESIDENTS - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - Robert Smith, Maryland, March 6, 1809,} Secretaries - James Monroe, Virginia, November 25, 1811,} of State. - - Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, (_continued in_ } - _office_), } Secretaries - George W. Campbell, Tennessee, February 9, 1814,} of Treasury. - Alexander J. Dallas, Pennsylvania, October 6, 1814,} - - William Eustis, Massachusetts, March 7, 1809,} - John Armstrong, New York, January 13, 1813,} Secretaries - James Monroe, Virginia, September 27, 1814,} of War. - William H. Crawford, Georgia, March 3, 1815,} - - Paul Hamilton, South Carolina, March 7, 1809,} - William Jones, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1813,} Secretaries - Benjamin W. } of the - Crowninshield, Massachusetts, December 17, 1814,} Navy. - - Gideon Granger, Connecticut, (_continued in_ } Postmasters - _office_), } General. - Return J. Meigs, Ohio, March 17, 1814,} - - Cæsar A. Rodney, Delaware, (_continued in_ } - _office_), } Attorneys - William Pinkney, Maryland, December 11, 1811,} General. - Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, February 10, 1814,} - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, Eleventh Congress, 1809. - Henry Clay, Kentucky, Twelfth do. 1811. - Henry Clay, Kentucky, Thirteenth do. 1813. - Langdon Cheves, South Carolina, Thirteenth do. 1814. - Henry Clay, Kentucky, Fourteenth do. 1815. - -In his address, delivered on the occasion of his inauguration, Mr. -Madison alluded to "the present situation of the world as without a -parallel, and that of the United States as full of difficulties." The -two leading powers of Europe, France and England, were still engaged -in arraying against each other commercial edicts, which tended -directly to destroy the commerce of nations disposed to pursue a -neutral policy. The United States, moreover, were suffering by means -of restrictions upon their commerce, imposed by the federal -government. The condition of the people, especially the commercial -portion of it, was gloomy and depressing. A vast amount of capital, -invested in shipping, was lying idle, and rapidly diminishing in -value. Neither the embargo nor non-intercourse had had the effect to -induce either of the belligerent powers to pause in their wanton and -unjust restrictions and decrees. On the contrary, their obnoxious -measures were growing oppressive every month. The patience of the -United States' government was nearly exhausted. Every thing betokened -a speedy resort to arms. - -The principal events and measures which subsequently signalized the -administration of Mr. Madison, were as follows: - - Battle of Tippecanoe, Rëelection of Mr. Madison, - Early Session of Congress, Capture of York, - Declaration of War, Siege of Fort Meigs, - Surrender of Hull, Perry's Victory, - Capture of the Guerriere, Battle of the Thames, - Battle of Queenstown, Creek War, - Capture of the Frolic, Battle of Chippewa and Bridgewater, - Capture of the Macedonian, Capture of Washington, - Capture of the Java, Engagement on Lake Champlain, - Battle of Frenchtown, Battle of New Orleans, - Capture of the Peacock, Treaty of Ghent, - Close of Mr. Madison's Administration. - -_Battle of Tippecanoe._--This battle, fought on the 7th of November, -1811, was doubtless one of the most spirited and best-fought actions -recorded in the annals of Indian warfare. - -For several years, the Indian tribes on our Western frontier had -exhibited a restless and hostile spirit, engendered by the intrigues -of two twin-brothers of the Shawnee tribe, Tecumseh, the _Crouching -Panther_, and Ol-li-wa-chi-ca, the _Open Door_, generally known as the -Prophet. The former was a bold and skillful warrior, sagacious in -council, and formidable in battle; the latter was cunning, cruel, -cowardly, and treacherous. - -One important object of these brothers, was to form a general -combination of the north-western and south-western Indians, for the -purpose of preventing the whites from extending their settlements west -of those already existing, and perhaps of recovering the valley of the -Mississippi--a territory which, from its great fertility, they -naturally and strongly desired to possess. - -The plans of the brothers were, from time to time, communicated to -General Harrison, then governor of the north-west territory, by his -confidential advisers; and, for several years, by his forbearance and -wise policy, he was enabled to counteract those plans, without -exciting their jealousy or increasing their hostility. - -In September, 1809, General Harrison held a council at Fort Wayne, -where he negotiated a treaty with the Miamies and several other Indian -tribes, by which they sold to the United States a large tract of -country on both sides of the Wabash, extending up that river more than -sixty miles above Vincennes. - -At the time this treaty was negotiated, Tecumseh was absent, but his -brother, the Prophet, who was present, made objection to it; but, on -the return of the former, he expressed great dissatisfaction, and even -threatened to put to death those chiefs who had signed the treaty. -From this time, no efforts of General Harrison availed to pacify the -brothers, or to quiet the restless and hostile feelings of their -followers. At length, the Indians proceeded to the perpetration of -deeds of depredation and murder; the white population of the frontier -became excited and alarmed. In this state of things, General -Harrison, by order of the president, assembled five hundred of the -militia and volunteers of Indiana, and with these, increased by a -regiment of United States' infantry, consisting of three hundred and -fifty men, and a small but gallant body of volunteers from Kentucky, -took post at Fort Harrison, sixty miles above Vincennes; whence, not -long after, he proceeded, October 28th, 1811, to the Prophet's town. -At the distance of nine or ten miles, the army encamped on the evening -of the 5th of November. - -On the following day, the army proceeded towards the town in the order -of battle; and when arrived within a short distance, they were met by -a deputation of the Prophet's counsellors. "They were sent," they -said, "to ascertain why an army was advancing upon them, and to avert, -if possible, approaching hostilities. This was the wish of the Prophet -himself." A suspension of hostilities was agreed upon, for the purpose -of an interview between the governor and chiefs, to be held the -following day. - -The ensuing night was dark and cloudy. The moon rose late, and soon -after midnight there commenced a light fall of drizzling rain. The -night, however, passed without interruption, and the governor and his -aids rose at a quarter to four, and were sitting in conversation -before a fire. It was still dark, as the light of the moon was -shadowed by heavy and lowering clouds. At this moment, an attack by -the Indians was commenced. They had stealthily crept up near the -sentries, with the intention of rushing upon them, and killing them -before they could give the alarm. But, fortunately, one of them -discovered an Indian creeping towards him through the grass, and fired -at him. This was immediately followed by the Indian yell, and a -furious charge upon the left flank. The camp-fires were immediately -extinguished, as their light only served to expose our men to the -deadly aim of the Indians. Upon the first alarm, the governor mounted -his horse, and proceeded to the point of attack; and, finding the line -there much weakened, he ordered two companies from the centre and -rear line to march to their support. About this time, the gallant -Colonel Daviess, of Kentucky, in attempting to dislodge some Indians -concealed behind some trees, was shot down, being pierced with three -balls, either of which would have proved fatal. His men repulsed the -Indians several times, and finally succeeded in carrying him into the -camp. Colonel Isaac White, of Indiana, another brave officer, who -served as a volunteer under Colonel Daviess, likewise fell in this -sanguinary charge. About the same time, Colonel Owen, aid to Governor -Harrison, was also killed. - -[Illustration: TIPPECANOE.] - -"The battle was now maintained in every direction with desperate -valor. The Indians advanced and retreated by a rattling noise, made -with deer-hoofs. They fought with great enthusiasm, and seemed -determined to conquer. - -"When the day dawned, the left flank, the most assailable part of the -encampment, was rëinforced by four companies, drawn from the rear and -centre; the right flank was strengthened by two companies; the -dragoons were mounted, and, supported by them, a simultaneous charge -was made upon the enemy on both flanks; and so vigorous and determined -was the attack, that the enemy gave way on all sides. The Indians, on -the left flank, were driven into a swamp, impenetrable to cavalry, -while those on the right were put to flight with great loss, and this -severely-contested victory was at last gained by our gallant -troops."[71] - -The Indians engaged in this battle were supposed to amount to one -thousand. They were led by three distinguished warriors--_White -Loomstone Eater_, and _Winnemac_--the last a Potawattomie chief, who had -made great professions of friendship to General Harrison himself. -Tecumseh was not present at the battle, being on a visit to more -southern tribes, the object of which was supposed to be to enlist them -in a common cause against the United States. As for the Prophet, he took -no active part in the engagement, but employed himself in chanting a -war-song from a neighboring eminence. When it was announced to him that -the tide was setting strongly against his warriors, and that they were -falling on every side, his only response was "to fight on, and that they -would soon see the fulfillment of all his predictions." - -A melancholy duty followed the battle--that of burying their brave -companions, who had fallen on the field. This done, and the wounded -provided for, the army took up their march from the scene of carnage, -and returned to Vincennes. The results of the engagement were -important. The haughty and discontented spirit of the Indians was -humbled, and the plan which they had devised, and which had nearly -ripened to maturity, of attacking and destroying the scattered border -settlements, was defeated. - -_Early Session of Congress._--On the 5th of November, 1811, President -Madison summoned a meeting of congress. His message indicating an -apprehension of hostilities with Great Britain, the committee of -foreign relations in the house of representatives reported resolutions -for filling up the ranks of the army; for raising an additional force -of ten thousand men; for authorizing the president to accept the -services of fifty thousand volunteers, and for ordering out the -militia when he should judge it necessary; for repairing the navy, and -for authorizing the arming of merchantmen in self-defence. A bill from -the senate, for raising twenty-five thousand men, after much -discussion, was also agreed to by the house. - -_Declaration of War._--Preparations in anticipation of war were now -industriously urged; yet the hope was still cherished, until May in -the following year, that a change of policy in Europe would render -unnecessary an appeal to arms. Towards the close of that season, the -Hornet arrived from London, bringing information that no prospect -existed of a favorable change. On the 1st of June, the president sent -a message to congress, recounting the wrongs received from Great -Britain, and submitting the question, whether the United States should -continue to endure them, or resort to war? The message was considered -with closed doors. On the 18th, an act was passed, declaring war -against Great Britain; soon after which, the president issued his -proclamation making public announcement of the same. - -_Surrender of Hull._--At the time of the declaration of war, General -Hull was at Dayton, in Ohio, with a small American force, destined for -Detroit. This having been subsequently increased to two thousand five -hundred men, on the 12th of July he crossed into Canada, and taking -post at Sandwich, issued from that place a proclamation, couched in -bold and imposing language. By means of it, the Indians were awed into -neutrality, and the Canadians, favorable to the American cause, either -remained quietly at home or joined his ranks. - -On the 1st of August, intelligence was received by the American -general of the fall of the fortress at Mackinaw on the 17th of July. -Until the moment of a demand to surrender, no intelligence had been -received by the garrison of the declaration of war. This event justly -filled Hull with surprise and consternation, as he had now no means of -checking the incursions of the restless hordes of northern savages. - -On the 5th of August, a council of war was held, to deliberate upon -the expediency of attacking the fortress of Malden; but as the -artillery had not arrived, it was decided to wait two days, and then -proceed with or without it, as the case might be. - -Meanwhile, however, communications were received from Generals Porter -and Hall, who commanded on the Niagara frontier, that the enemy were -leaving their posts in that quarter, and were concentrating their forces -at Malden. At the same time, Hull was informed that he could not depend -upon assistance from General Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, although -the latter had been directed by the government to invade Canada from -Niagara, and cöoperate with Hull. Under all the aspects of the case, -although his delayed artillery had arrived, Hull issued orders, on the -afternoon of the 7th, for his army to return to Detroit. - -An order to the officers and army so unexpected as this--at a moment -when they were anticipating a victory and the honors due from it--was -like a thunderbolt upon them. The murmurs of the volunteers and -regular troops were loud. They upbraided their commander with -pusillanimity, and even treachery. - -On the 14th, a British force, under command of General Brock, the most -active and able of the British commanders in Canada, took a position -opposite Detroit, where they proceeded to erect batteries. On the -15th, he sent a flag, bearing a summons to the American general to -surrender, in which he says: "It is far from my intention to join in a -war of extermination, but you must be aware that the numerous body of -Indians, who have attached themselves to my troops, will be beyond my -control the moment the contest commences." To this, General Hull -answered: "I have no other reply to make, than that I am prepared to -meet any force which may be at your disposal," &c. General Brock -immediately opened his batteries upon the town and fort, and several -persons within the fort were killed. The fire was returned by the -Americans with some effect. - -On the morning of the 16th, the British crossed the river, and -landing, under cover of their ships, at Spring Wells, three miles -below Detroit, commenced their march towards the fort. Hull, it was -evident, was perplexed and agitated. At first, his army was drawn up -in order of battle without the fort, his artillery advantageously -planted, and his troops impatiently waiting the approach of the enemy. -At length, when the British were within five hundred yards of their -lines, most suddenly and unexpectedly an order from General Hull was -received, directing them "to retire immediately to the fort." - -No sooner were the troops in the fort, than they were further directed -to stack their arms--immediately after which, a white flag was suspended -from the walls, in token of submission. A British officer rode up to -ascertain the cause, for this surrender was no less unexpected to the -assailants. A capitulation was agreed to, without even stipulating the -terms. Words are wanting to express the feelings of the Americans, in -being thus compelled to surrender to an inferior force, without firing a -gun, when they were firmly convinced that that force was in their power. -The British took immediate possession of the fort, with all the public -property it contained; among which were forty barrels of powder, four -hundred rounds of fixed twenty-four-pound shot, one hundred thousand -ball cartridges, two thousand five hundred stand of arms, twenty-five -pieces of iron cannon and eight of brass, the greater number of which -had been captured by the Americans during the revolutionary war. Besides -this great amount of warlike stores, the whole territory, forts and -garrisons were also delivered up. - -In his official dispatch, General Hull labored to free his conduct -from censure, by bringing into view the inferiority of his force, -compared with that of the enemy; and, also, the dangers which -threatened him from numerous western tribes of Indians. But whether -the views which induced this surrender were in reality justly founded -or not, the public mind was altogether unprepared for an occurrence at -once so disastrous and mortifying. - -Some time after, having been exchanged, Hull was arraigned before a -court-martial, of which General Dearborn was president. By this -tribunal, he was acquitted of treason, but sentenced to death for -cowardice and unofficer-like conduct. In consideration, however, of -his revolutionary services, and the recommendation of the court, the -president remitted the punishment of death, but deprived him of all -military command. - -_Constitution and Guerriere._--While defeat and disgrace were -attending the American arms on the land, the ocean was the theatre of -bold and successful achievement on the part of the American navy. On -the 19th of August, three days after the disgraceful surrender of -Detroit, the Constitution achieved a splendid victory over the -Guerriere. On the 2d of August, the Constitution put to sea. On the -19th, a vessel hove in sight, which proved to be the Guerriere, and -the Constitution bore down upon her. "At first, it was the intention -of Captain Hull to bring her to close action immediately; but, on -coming within gun-shot, she gave a broadside, and filled away; then -wore, giving a broadside on the other tack, but without effect. They -now continued wearing and manoeuvring on both sides, for -three-quarters of an hour, the Guerriere attempting to take a raking -position; but, failing in this, she bore up, and run with her top-sail -and jib on the quarter. The Constitution, perceiving this, made sail -to come up with her. Captain Hull, with admirable coolness, received -the enemy's fire without returning it. The enemy, mistaking this -conduct on the part of the American commander for want of skill, -continued to pour out his broadsides with a view to cripple his -antagonist. From the Constitution, not a gun had been fired. Already -had an officer twice come on deck, with information that several of -the men had been killed, at their guns. The gallant crew, burning with -impatience, silently awaited the orders of their commander. The moment -so long looked for, at last arrived. Sailing-master Aylwin having -seconded the views of the captain with admirable skill, in bringing -the vessel exactly to the station intended, orders were given at five -minutes before five P. M., to fire broadside after broadside, in quick -succession. The crew instantly discovered the whole plan, and entered -into it with all the spirit that the circumstances were calculated to -inspire. Never was any firing so dreadful. For fifteen minutes the -vivid lightning of the Constitution's guns continued one blaze, and -their thunder roared with scarce an intermission. The enemy's -mizen-mast had gone by the board, and he stood exposed to a raking -fire which swept his decks. The Guerriere had now become unmanageable; -her hull, rigging, and sails, dreadfully torn; when the Constitution -attempted to lay her on board. At this moment, Lieutenant Bush, in -attempting to throw his marines on board, was killed by a musket-ball, -and the enemy shot ahead, but could not be brought before the wind. A -raking fire now continued for fifteen minutes longer, when his -main-mast and fore-mast went, taking with them every spar excepting -the bowsprit. On seeing this, the firing ceased, and at twenty-five -minutes past five, she surrendered. "In thirty minutes" says Captain -Hull, "after we got fairly alongside of the enemy, she surrendered, -and had not a spar standing, and her hull, above and below water, so -shattered, that a few more broadsides must have carried her down." The -Guerriere was so much damaged, as to render it impossible to bring her -in; she was therefore set fire to the next day, and blown up. The -damage sustained by the Constitution was comparatively of so little -consequence, that she actually made ready for action when a vessel -appeared in sight the next day. The loss on board the Guerriere, was -fifteen killed and sixty-three wounded: on the side of the -Constitution, seven killed and seven wounded. It is pleasing to -observe, that even the British commander, on this occasion, bore -testimony to the humanity and generosity with which he was treated by -the victors. The American frigate was superior in force by a few guns, -but this difference bore no comparison to the disparity of the -conflict. The Guerriere was thought to be a match for any vessel of -her class, and had been ranked among the largest in the British navy. -The Constitution arrived at Boston on the 28th of August, having -captured several merchant vessels."[72] - -The victory thus achieved was of incalculable importance to the -Americans. If unexpected and surprising to them, it was still more so -to the English. On the ocean, the latter claimed supremacy; and their -successes in respect to other nations seemed to justify their proud -pretensions. Indeed, whatever might be the result of the contest on -the land, it had scarcely occurred to the English, that the Americans -could, in any equal engagement on the water, become the victors. Nor -had the Americans themselves confident hope of any signal success. But -this beginning diffused a general joy throughout the nation, as well -it might, and excited anticipations which, if high, were destined to -be more than realized. - -_Battle of Queenstown._--For the purpose of invading Canada, an army -of about five thousand New York militia had been collected on the -Niagara frontier. Of these, General Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany, -an officer of great merit, had the command. His head-quarters were at -Lewiston, on the river Niagara, opposite to which was Queenstown, a -fortified British post. Several hundred regular troops were also -attached to his command. - -The militia displaying great eagerness to attack the enemy, the -general determined to give them an opportunity by crossing over to -Queenstown. On the morning of the 13th, the army having been -rëinforced by three hundred regulars, under Colonel Christie, the -passage of the Niagara was made. One division of the troops was -commanded by Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer; the other, was the -division of Colonel Christie. These were to be followed by Colonel -Fenwick's artillery, and the residue of the army. The first party -which effected a landing, was that of Colonels Van Rensselaer and -Christie, about four o'clock in the morning. On landing, the -detachments were formed by order of Colonel Van Rensselaer, (Colonel -Christie not having crossed with his men,) for the purpose of storming -the heights of Queenstown. - -At this critical moment, the American troops were attacked on either -flank, during which the brave Colonel Van Rensselaer received four -severe wounds, which were then supposed to be mortal. The command now -devolved upon Captain Wool, the senior officer of the regular troops, -who, although sorely wounded, repaired to Van Rensselaer, and -volunteered for any service which might relieve the troops of the -latter. Colonel Van Rensselaer directed the storming of the British -battery upon the heights. Wool immediately conducted his force -silently and circuitously, leaving the battery to his right, until he -had passed it, and attained an eminence which commanded it. The -British, finding that resistance would not avail them any thing, left -it to the Americans, and retreated down the heights of Queenstown. - -Elated with their success, the Americans had fallen into disorder, when -suddenly they beheld the intrepid Brock advancing at the head of a -rëinforcement of about three hundred men from Fort George. In a moment -of alarm, an officer raised a white flag, in token of surrender, but -which Wool indignantly pulled down. To keep the enemy at bay, until he -could form his men, he dispatched a body of sixty men, who advanced, but -retreated without firing a gun. The British followed, and drove the -Americans to the brink of the precipice. One soldier, who was about to -descend, Wool ordered to be shot; but, as the musket was levelling, he -returned. Thus prohibiting either surrender or retreat, and being ably -seconded by his officers, Wool rallied, and led on his troops to the -attack. The British, in their turn, gave way, and retreated down the -hill. Brock, in attempting to rally them amidst a galling fire from the -Americans, was mortally wounded. His party no longer attempted -resistance, but fled in disorder. - -The Americans were now congratulating themselves on their success, -when, unexpectedly, they were attacked by a body of British and -Indians, amounting to one thousand, under General Sheaffe, who had -followed the energetic Brock from Fort George. The battle becoming -warm, and the Americans being hard pressed, General Van Rensselaer -rëcrossed the Niagara, for the purpose of bringing over the militia, -who were on the opposite bank. - -But their ardor had abated. The sight of the wounded, and the groans -of the dying, who most unfortunately had been carried in boats to the -American side, had served to destroy all their courage. They could not -be persuaded to cross, although their gallant general besought them -with tears. Two thousand and five hundred of the militia, quite -sufficient to have maintained the works which had been taken, remained -idle and cowardly spectators of this most interesting scene. For this -conduct, they found an excuse in the unconstitutionality of obliging -militia to enter a foreign territory for the purpose of aggressive -war. Thus the day was lost, and the troops, who had fought so nobly, -had fought in vain, and were obliged, at length, to surrender. Sixty -were killed, one hundred wounded, and seven hundred made prisoners. - -_Wasp and Frolic._--On the 13th of October, the American sloop-of-war -Wasp, mounting sixteen thirty-two-pound carronades, two long twelves, -with one hundred and thirty men, left the Delaware on a cruise. On the -night of the 17th, several sail were discovered, which, in the -morning, proved to be English merchantmen from Honduras, under convoy -of a brig and two ships, armed with sixteen guns each. The brig -shortened sail, with an evident disposition for an engagement. - -Meanwhile, the Wasp having prepared for action, ranged close up on the -starboard side of the enemy, receiving her broadside at the distance -of some sixty yards, and delivering her own. From this moment, the -action became unremitted. The fire of the Frolic, for so she proved to -be, was to that of the Wasp, as three to two; but with this remarkable -difference, that while the former uniformly fired as she rose, the sea -being rough, the latter as uniformly fired when she sunk. And the -consequence was, that the shot of the Frolic were either lost, or only -touched the rigging of the Wasp, while those from the latter struck -the hull of her antagonist. - -In the brief space of five minutes, the maintop-mast of the Wasp was -shot away, and, falling down with the maintop-sail yard across the -larboard fore and foretop-sail, rendered her head yards unmanageable -during the rest of the action. Soon after, her gaff and -mizen-gallant-masts were shot away. - -Perceiving the desolating effect of the enemy's fire upon his spars -and rigging, Captain Jones at first decided to board; but, soon after, -finding his ship in a favorable position to rake, he directed a fresh -broadside to be delivered. The vessels had gradually approached, and -were now so near, that in loading some of the guns of the Wasp, the -rammers hit against the bows of her antagonist, and the men of the -Frolic could no longer be kept at their quarters forward. The -discharge of one or two carronades swept the enemy's decks. The -impetuosity of the Wasp's crew could be no longer restrained, and -they began to leap into the rigging, and from thence on to the -bowsprit of the brig. In this movement, however, they were preceded by -Mr. Biddle, the first lieutenant. On reaching the deck, judge his -surprise, only three officers and a seaman at the wheel were to be -seen! The bodies of the slain were lying here and there, and the deck -was slippery with blood. - -The colors were still flying, there being no seaman to pull them down. -This grateful service was performed by Mr. Biddle himself. The officers -now stepped forward, and surrendered their swords in submission. Thus, -in forty-three minutes, possession was taken of the Frolic, after one of -the most bloody conflicts recorded in naval history. - -The Frolic was commanded by Captain Whinyates. She mounted on her main -deck sixteen thirty-two-pound carronades, four long guns, differently -stated to be sixes, nines, and twelves, with two twelve-pound -carronades on a top-gallant forecastle. The Wasp had five killed and -five wounded. Her hull sustained but trifling injury. The loss of the -Frolic was seventy or eighty in wounded and killed. Both these vessels -were captured the same day by the Poictiers, seventy-four, and taken -to Bermuda. - -This and other naval victories, while they served to animate and -gratify the whole American people, were humbling to the pride of Great -Britain. She had made her boast that she would drive our "bits of -striped bunting" from the ocean; but she found herself mistaken; nor -was a committee of investigation able to solve the mystery, except -that the American frigates were seventy-fours in disguise! - -_United States and Macedonian._--The capture of the Frolic was almost -immediately succeeded by the capture, off the Western Isles, October -25th, of the British frigate Macedonian, mounting forty-nine -carriage-guns, by the American frigate United States, forty-four guns. -The former was commanded by Captain John S. Carden; the latter by -Captain Stephen Decatur. - -The engagement, from its commencement, lasted for nearly an hour and a -half--the early part being occupied in firing long-shot; but it was -terminated in a very short period, after the vessels came into close -action. For a time, the advantage of position was with the Macedonian; -but, notwithstanding this, the fire of the Americans was so superior, -that, in a brief space, the mizen-mast, fore and maintop-mast, and -main-yard of the enemy, were cut down; besides receiving not less than -one hundred round shot in her hull. Of her crew, three hundred in -number, thirty-six were killed, and sixty-eight wounded. - -The damage sustained by the United States was comparatively small. She -lost one of her top-gallant-masts, received some wounds in her spars, -had a good deal of rigging cut, but was hulled only a few times. Of -her officers and crew, five were killed and seven wounded. - -The manner in which the brave Decatur received Captain Carden on board -the United States did him great honor. When the latter presented his -sword, as in such cases is usual, the former assured him that "he -could not think of taking the sword of an officer who had defended his -ship so gallantly, but he should be happy to take him by the hand." - -The United States, after the action, was in a condition to pursue her -course; but, desirous of securing a prize so valuable as the -Macedonian, Captain Decatur determined to make the attempt, -notwithstanding her disabled state. Accordingly, having made such -repairs upon her as circumstances allowed, the two ships made the best -of their way to the United States. - -The Macedonian was a fine ship of her class. She was smaller, of -lighter armament, and had fewer men than the United States; but the -disproportion between the force of the two vessels was much less than -between the execution. - -The reputation of Captain Decatur, already high, was added to by the -manner in which the Macedonian was captured; and another testimony -was added to the skill and bravery of the naval officers of the United -States. - -If such warfare must be--yet it is gloomy to think of it among -rational and immortal beings, made of one blood, and having one common -destiny--it may not be criminal, perhaps, to desire that our country's -cause should be crowned with success, if that cause be just. - -_Constitution and Java._--The naval campaign of 1812 closed with -another American victory, equal in brilliancy to any which had -preceded. On the 29th of December, a few leagues west of St. Salvador, -on the coast of Brazil, the Constitution, now under command of -Commodore Bainbridge, descried the British frigate Java, forty-nine -guns, and four hundred men, commanded by Captain Lambert. Both -vessels, for some time, manoeuvred to obtain a position that would -enable them to rake, or avoid being raked. In the early part of the -engagement, the wheel of the Constitution was shot away. Commodore -Bainbridge determined to close with the British vessel, -notwithstanding, in so doing, he should expose his ship to be several -times raked. He ordered the fore and main-sails to be set, and luffed -up close to the enemy, in such a manner that his jib-boom got foul of -the Constitution's mizen-rigging. About three o'clock, the head of the -British vessel's bowsprit and jib-boom were shot away; and, in the -space of an hour, her fore-mast was shot away by the board, her -main-topmast just above the cap, her gaff and spanker-boom, and her -main-mast nearly by the board. - -About four o'clock, the fire of the British vessel being completely -silenced, and her colors in the main rigging being down, she was -supposed to have struck. The courses of the Constitution were now -hauled on board, to shoot ahead, in order to repair her rigging, which -was very much cut. The British vessel was left a complete wreck. Her -flag was soon after discovered to be still flying. The Constitution, -however, hove to, to repair some of her damages. About a quarter of -an hour after, the main-mast of the British vessel went by the board. -About three-quarters of an hour after four, the Constitution wore, and -stood for the British vessel, and got close athwart her bows, in a -very effectual position for raking, when she prudently struck her -flag. The Constitution had nine men killed and twenty-five wounded; -the Java had sixty killed and one hundred and twenty wounded. Captain -Lambert was mortally wounded. - -[Illustration: CONSTITUTION & JAVA.] - -The great distance from the United States, and the disabled state of -the Java, forbade every idea of attempting to bring her to the United -States. No alternative was therefore left but to burn her, which was -done, after the prisoners and their baggage were removed to the -Constitution. They were all landed at St. Salvador, and paroled. The -commander of the Java, Captain Lambert, died soon after he was put on -shore. - -Lieutenant Aylwin, of the Constitution, was severely wounded during the -action. When the boarders were called to repel boarders, he mounted the -quarter-deck hammock-cloth, and, in the act of firing his pistol at the -enemy, received a ball through his shoulder. Notwithstanding the -severity of his wound, he continued at his post until the enemy struck. -He died, however, on the 28th of January, at sea. - -_Close of the Campaign of 1812._--The naval victories, which have been -noticed, were peculiarly gratifying to the Americans; the more so, from -the humiliating fact that, on the land, not a single achievement had -been made worthy the American valor. Not one victory had been gained -which lasted--nor one foot of territory acquired, of which possession -was retained. But the navy had triumphed. The victories gained, were by -that class of citizens whose rights had been violated; and over a -nation, whose long-continued success had led them to consider themselves -lords of the sea. Many British merchantmen were also captured, both by -the American navy and by privateers. The number of prizes, made during -the first seven months of the war, exceeded five hundred. - -_Campaign of 1813._--The scene of the campaign of 1813, comprehended -the whole northern frontier of the United States. The army of the -West, under General Harrison, was stationed near the head of Lake -Erie; the army of the centre, under General Dearborn, between Lakes -Ontario and Erie; and the army of the North, under General Hampton, -occupied the shores of Lake Champlain. The invasion of Canada was the -grand project of the campaign. The British forces in Canada were under -the general command of Sir George Prevost. The defence of the Upper -Provinces was committed to Colonels Procter and Vincent; that of the -Lower Provinces was entrusted to General Sheaffe. - -_Battle of Frenchtown._--Michigan, of which Detroit was the prominent -town, was still in possession of the British. The citizens of the -western country, being anxious to regain possession of it, General -Harrison determined to undertake a winter campaign, having the -rëconquest of that territory in view. Accordingly, General Winchester, -with about eight hundred men, principally from the most respectable -families in Kentucky, was directed to proceed in advance of the main -army. Learning, during his march, that a party of British were -stationed at Frenchtown, situated on the river Raisin, twenty-six -miles from Detroit, he attacked and dispersed them. - -The Americans encamped near the field of battle, a part of them being -protected by close garden pickets. "Although near an enemy's post, but -little precaution was taken to prevent a surprise. Early in the -morning of the 22d of January, they were attacked by a large force of -British and Indians; the former commanded by Colonel Procter, the -latter by the chiefs Round-head and Split-log. The troops on the open -field were thrown into disorder. General Winchester and other officers -made an ineffectual attempt to rally them. They fled, but while -attempting to escape, were mostly killed by the Indians. The general -and Colonel Lewis were made prisoners. - -"The troops behind the pickets maintained the contest with undaunted -bravery. At length, Colonel Procter assured General Winchester, that -if the remainder of the Americans would immediately surrender, they -should be protected from massacre; but otherwise, he would set fire to -the village, and would not be responsible for the conduct of the -savages. Intimidated by this threat, General Winchester sent an order -to the troops to surrender. - -"Colonel Procter, leaving the wounded without a guard, marched -immediately back to Malden. The Indians accompanied them a few miles, -but returned early the next morning. Deeds of horror followed: the -wounded officers were dragged from the houses, killed, and scalped in -the streets. The buildings were set on fire. Some who attempted to -escape, were forced back into the flames. Others were put to death by -the tomahawk, and left shockingly mangled in the highway. The infamy -of this butchery should not fall upon the perpetrators alone. It must -rest equally upon those who instigated them to hostility, by whose -side they fought, who were able, and were bound by a solemn engagement -to restrain them."[73] "By this bloody tragedy," observes Mr. -Breckenridge, "all Kentucky was literally in mourning; for the -soldiers thus massacred, tortured, burned, or denied the common rites -of sepulture, were of the most respectable families of the state; many -of them young men of fortune and property, with numerous friends and -relatives. The remains of these brave youth lay on the ground, beat by -the storms of heaven, and exposed to the beasts of the forest, until -the ensuing autumn, when their friends and relatives ventured to -gather up their bleaching bones, and consigned them to the tomb." - -_Hornet and Peacock._--The day following the tragical affair of -Frenchtown, a signal naval battle was fought off South America, between -the Hornet, Captain Lawrence, and the Peacock, Captain Peake. "In less -than fifteen minutes the Peacock struck her colors, displaying at the -same time a signal of distress. The victors hastened to the relief of -the vanquished; but the Peacock sank before all her crew could be -removed, carrying down nine British seamen, and three brave and generous -Americans. "Of all our naval victories," remarks a writer, "this is the -one which the Americans recollect with most pleasure." Not that there -was more glory in the achievement, but there was such high-souled -generosity, such unwonted effort, such risk of life to save the crew of -the conquered ship, as rarely, if ever, before occurred. Her guns were -thrown overboard--her shot-holes plugged--every thing done--but she went -down, and some noble hearts with her. And, then, as if what had been -done were not enough, to crown the whole, the crew of the Hornet divided -their clothes with the prisoners. On his return to the United States, -Captain Lawrence was promoted to the command of the frigate Chesapeake, -then in the harbor of Boston. For several weeks the British frigate -Shannon, of equal force, had been cruising before that port; and Captain -Broke, her commander, had announced his wish to meet, in single combat, -an American frigate. Inflamed by this challenge, Captain Lawrence, -although his crew was just enlisted, set sail on the 1st of June to seek -the Shannon. Towards evening of the same day they met, and instantly -engaged with unexampled fury. In a very few minutes, and in quick -succession, the sailing-master of the Chesapeake was killed, Captain -Lawrence and three lieutenants were severely wounded, her rigging was so -cut to pieces that she fell on board the Shannon; Captain Lawrence -received a second and mortal wound, and was carried below; at this -instant, Captain Broke, at the head of his marines, gallantly boarded -the Chesapeake, when resistance ceased, and the American flag was struck -by the British. Of the crew of the Shannon, twenty-four were killed and -fifty-six wounded. Of that of the Chesapeake, forty-eight were killed -and nearly one hundred wounded. This unexpected defeat impelled the -Americans to seek for circumstances consoling to their pride, and, in -the journals of the day, many such were stated to have preceded and -attended the action. The youthful and intrepid Lawrence was lamented -with sorrow--deep, sincere, and lasting. When carried below, he was -asked if the colors should be struck: "No," he replied; "they shall wave -while I live!" Delirious from excess of suffering, he continued to -exclaim, "Don't give up the ship!"--an expression consecrated by his -countrymen. He uttered but few other words during the four days that he -survived his defeat." - -_Rëelection of Mr. Madison._--The period for the election of president -of the United States having again arrived Mr. Madison was a second -time placed at the head of the nation, and Elbridge Gerry chosen -vice-president. They were inaugurated on the 4th day of March, 1813. -The following table exhibits the result of the electoral vote: - - Key: A. James Madison, of Virginia. - B. DeWitt Clinton, of New York. - C. Elbridge Gerry, of Massa'tts. - D. Jared Ingersoll, of Pennsylv'a. - - ---------+-----------------+----------+---------------- - No. of | |PRESIDENT.|VICE-PRESID'T. - Electors | STATES. |----------+---------------- - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. - State. | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-------+-------- - 8 | New Hampshire, | | 8 | 1 | 7 - 22 | Massachusetts, | | 22 | 2 | 20 - 4 | Rhode Island, | | 4 | | 4 - 9 | Connecticut, | | 9 | | 9 - 8 | Vermont, | 8 | | 8 | - 29 | New York, | | 29 | | 29 - 8 | New Jersey, | | 8 | | 8 - 25 | Pennsylvania, | 25 | | 25 | - 4 | Delaware, | | 4 | | 4 - 11 | Maryland, | 6 | 5 | 6 | 5 - 25 | Virginia, | 25 | | 25 | - 15 | North Carolina, | 15 | | 15 | - 11 | South Carolina, | 11 | | 11 | - 8 | Georgia, | 8 | | 8 | - 12 | Kentucky, | 12 | | 12 | - 8 | Tennessee, | 8 | | 8 | - 7 | Ohio, | 7 | | 7 | - 3 | Lousiana, | 3 | | 3 | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-------+-------- - 217 | Whole No. of | | | | - | electors, |128 | 89 | 131 | 86 - | Majority, 109 | | | | - -_Capture of York._--York, the capital of Upper Canada, was, at this -time, the great depository of British military stores for the western -posts, and hence its capture was deemed an object of great importance, -besides that it would be the means of thwarting the plans of the -enemy. With this object in view, about the middle of April, General -Dearborn issued orders to General Pike to embark on board a flotilla, -with seventeen hundred men, and proceed to its reduction. - -"The force of the enemy, under the command of General Sheaffe, -consisted of seven hundred and fifty regulars, and five hundred -Indians, besides a body of grenadiers and a corps of Glengary -fencibles. These troops had collected near the place of debarkation, -which was nearly a mile and a half from the fort. Major Forsyth was -the first who landed. General Pike soon followed with the remainder of -the troops. After a severe contest of half an hour, the enemy -retreated to their works. The Americans followed; they had destroyed -one battery, and were now within sixty yards of the main works, when -the sudden and tremendous explosion of a magazine near by filled the -air in every direction with huge stones and fragments of wood, which -caused a dreadful havoc among the troops. One hundred of the Americans -and forty of the British were killed. General Pike fell mortally -wounded. Finding resistance unavailing, General Sheaffe, with the -British regulars, retreated towards Kingston, leaving the commanding -officer of the militia to make the best terms in his power. The brief -outlines of a capitulation were soon agreed on, and the Americans took -possession of the town. The brave Pike survived but a few hours; and, -like Wolfe at Quebec, drew his last breath amidst the cheering shouts -of victory. His dying head reposed upon the banner that had lately -floated over the fortress which his valor had aided to conquer. - -"General Dearborn now took command of the troops. The loss of the -British was ninety killed, two hundred wounded, and three hundred -prisoners, besides five hundred militia, released upon parole. A great -quantity of stores was likewise found here, as York was the naval and -military _dépôt_ for Upper Canada. General Sheaffe's baggage and -papers fell into the hands of the Americans. - -"On the 8th of May, General Dearborn evacuated the capital of Upper -Canada: and having crossed the lake, for the purpose of leaving the -wounded at Sackett's Harbor, again set sail, and disembarked his -troops at Niagara."[74] - -_Siege of Fort Meigs._--General Harrison was marching to the support -of General Winchester, when the tidings of the defeat and massacre at -Frenchtown reached him. As he could now be of no service to that -general, he took post at a place called the Rapids, on the south side -of the Maumee, a river flowing into the west end of Lake Erie, where -he erected a fort, which he named Fort Meigs, in honor of the governor -of Ohio. - -The erection of this fortification was by no means agreeable to the -British, and a plan was early laid to capture and destroy it. On the -26th of April, a large party of British and Indians, combined, made -their appearance on the opposite side of the river; and, on the -morning of the 26th, the Indians were conveyed over in boats, and -surrounded the fort in every direction. - -On the 29th, the siege began, all intercourse with other posts being -cut off. During the preceding night, the British had thrown up a -mound, on which to plant their guns, and behind which they could -secure themselves from the fire of the Americans. - -Next day, several of the Americans were wounded; and General Harrison -himself, being continually exposed, had several narrow escapes. On the -following day, the enemy fired two hundred and fifty-six times from -their batteries. The Americans fired less rapidly, but with greater -effect. A bullet struck the seat on which General Harrison was -sitting, and at the same time a volunteer was wounded, as he stood -directly opposite to him. - -In this manner, several days passed; during which, General Harrison -and his soldiers displayed the utmost coolness and determination. They -were resolved to surrender only when they could fight no longer--when -ammunition failed, or food and water could no longer be obtained. - -At this critical juncture, intelligence was received that General -Clay, with twelve hundred men, was hastening to their relief. He was -already but a few miles up the river, and an officer was immediately -dispatched, directing him to land one-half of his force on the -opposite side, for the purpose of forcing the enemy's batteries and -spiking his cannon. - -The gallant Colonel Dudley was deputed to execute this order; but, -unfortunately, his troops pursued the retreating enemy until, -suddenly, a party of Indians, under command of the celebrated -Tecumseh, rose from ambush upon them. The slaughter was terrible. The -brave Colonel Dudley was among the killed, and more than five hundred -of his detachment were taken prisoners. The other part of General -Clay's troops were more fortunate. And yet, lured by a party of -Indians, whom they wished to destroy, they proceeded into the woods, -where they would have been cut off, had not General Harrison -dispatched a company of cavalry to cover their retreat. - -At length, the British gave up the contest. Although they had made -many prisoners, this did not aid them, in relation to the fort. The -8th of May brought an end to the toils of the Americans in the fort of -Camp Meigs. An exchange of prisoners took place, and on the morning of -the 9th, the enemy commenced their retreat. Thus did Harrison sustain, -in effect, a siege of twelve days; during which, the enemy had fired -eighteen hundred shells and cannon-balls, besides keeping up an almost -continual discharge of small arms. The loss of each was about equal. - -_Perry's Victory._--During the summer, by the exertions of Commodore -Perry, an American squadron had been fitted out on Lake Erie. It -consisted of nine small vessels, carrying fifty-four guns. A British -squadron had also been built and equipped, under the superintendence of -Commodore Barclay. It consisted of six vessels, mounting sixty-three -guns. Commodore Perry, immediately sailing, offered battle to his -adversary; and on the 10th of September the British commander left the -harbor of Malden, to accept the offer. In a few hours, the wind shifted, -giving the Americans the advantage. Perry, forming the line of battle, -hoisted his flag, on which was inscribed the words of the dying -Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" Loud huzzas from all the vessels -proclaimed the animation which this motto inspired. About noon, the -firing commenced; after a short action, two of the British vessels -surrendered; and the rest of the American squadron now joining in the -battle, the victory was rendered decisive and complete. The British loss -was forty-one killed and ninety-four wounded. The American loss was -twenty-seven killed and ninety-six wounded; of which number, twenty-one -were killed and sixty wounded on board the flag-ship Lawrence, whose -whole complement of able-bodied men, before the action, was about one -hundred. The commodore gave intelligence of the victory to General -Harrison in these words: "We have met the enemy, and they are ours. Two -ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." - -[Illustration: PERRY'S VICTORY.] - -_Battle of the Thames._--By means of the victory of Commodore Perry, the -Americans became masters of Lake Erie, but the territory of Michigan, -which had been surrendered by Hull, was still in possession of Colonel -Procter. The next movements of General Harrison were therefore against -the British and Indians at Detroit and Malden. General Harrison had -previously assembled a portion of the Ohio militia on the Sandusky -river; and on the 7th of September four thousand from Kentucky, the -flower of the state, with Governor Shelby at their head, arrived at his -camp. With the cöoperation of the fleet, it was determined to proceed at -once to Malden. On the 27th, the troops were received on board, and -reached Malden on the same day; but the British had, in the mean time, -destroyed the fort and public stores, and had retreated along the Thames -towards the Moravian villages, together with Tecumseh's Indians, -consisting of twelve or fifteen hundred. It was now resolved to proceed -in pursuit of Procter. On the 5th of October, a severe action occurred -between the two armies at the river Thames, by which the British army -fell into the hands of the Americans. In this battle, Tecumseh was -killed, and the Indians fled. The British loss was nineteen regulars -killed, fifty wounded, and about six hundred prisoners. The American -loss, in killed and wounded, amounted to upwards of fifty. Procter made -his escape down the Thames. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF THE THAMES.] - -On the 29th of September, the Americans took possession of Detroit, -which, on the approach of Harrison's army, had been abandoned by the -British. - -[Illustration: Creek Chiefs surrendering to General Jackson.] - -_Creek War._--While affairs were proceeding at the North, the public -attention was arrested by hostilities commenced by the Creek Indians. -They had been visited by Tecumseh, who had persuaded them that the Great -Spirit required them to unite in an attempt to extirpate the whites. In -the fall of 1812, a sanguinary war had been waged by the Creeks and -Seminoles, against the frontier inhabitants of Georgia. At the head of -two thousand five hundred volunteers from Tennessee, General Jackson had -marched into their country, and compelled them to desist; but, soon -after his return, their animosity burst forth with increased and fatal -violence. Dreading their cruelty, some three hundred men, women, and -children, took refuge in Fort Mimms. Here, at noon-day, on the 30th of -August, they were surprised by a party of six hundred Indians, who, from -the fort, drove the people into the houses which it inclosed. To these -they set fire. Seventeen only of the refugees escaped to carry the -horrid tidings to the neighboring stations. But the whites resolved on -vengeance. General Jackson, at the head of three thousand five hundred -militia of Tennessee, again took up his march into the southern -wilderness. A detachment, under General Coffee, encountering at -Tallushatchie a body of Indians, a sanguinary conflict ensued. The -latter fought with desperation, neither giving nor receiving quarter, -until nearly every warrior had perished. Yet still, the spirit of the -Creeks remained unsubdued. With no little sagacity and skill, they -selected and fortified another position on the Tallapoosa, called by -themselves Tohopeka, and by whites Horse-shoe Bend. Here nearly a -thousand warriors, animated with a fierce and determined resolution, -were collected. Three thousand men, commanded by General Jackson, -marched to attack this post. To prevent escape, a detachment under -General Coffee encircled the Bend. The main body advanced to the -fortress, and for a few minutes the opposing forces were engaged muzzle -to muzzle at the port-holes; but at length, the troops leaping over the -walls, mingled in furious combat with the savages. When the Indians, -fleeing to the river, beheld the troops on the opposite bank, they -returned, and fought with increased fury and desperation. Six hundred -warriors were killed; four only yielded themselves prisoners; the -remaining three hundred escaped. Of the whites, fifty-five were killed -and one hundred and forty-six wounded. It was deemed probable that -further resistance would be made by the Indians at a place called the -Hickory-ground; but, on General Jackson's arriving thither in April, -1814, the principal chiefs came out to meet him, and among them was -Weatherford, a half-blood, distinguished equally for his talents and -cruelty. "I am in your power," said he; "do with me what you please. I -have done the white people all the harm I could. I have fought them, and -fought them bravely. There was a time when I had a choice; I have none -now; even hope is ended. Once, I could animate my warriors; but I -cannot animate the dead. They can no longer hear my voice; their bones -are at Tallushatchie, Talladega, Emuckfaw, and Tohopeka. While there was -a chance of success, I never supplicated peace; but my people are gone, -and I now ask it for my nation and myself." Peace was concluded, and -General Jackson and his troops enjoyed an honorable but short -repose.[75] - -_Battles of Chippewa and Bridgewater._--In the beginning of July, -General Brown crossed the Niagara with about three thousand men, and -took possession without opposition of Fort Erie. In a strong position at -Chippewa, a few miles distant, was intrenched an equal number of British -troops, commanded by General Riall. On the 4th, General Brown approached -their works; and the next day, on the plains of Chippewa, an obstinate -and sanguinary battle was fought, which compelled the British to retire -to their intrenchments. In this action, which was fought with great -judgment and coolness on both sides, the loss of the Americans was about -four hundred men; that of the British was upwards of five hundred. Soon -afterwards, General Riall, abandoning his works, retired to the heights -of Burlington. Here Lieutenant-general Drummond, with a large -rëinforcement, joined him, and, assuming the command, led back the army -towards the American camp. On the 25th was fought the battle of -Bridgewater, which began at four in the afternoon, and continued till -midnight. After a desperate conflict, the British troops were withdrawn, -and the Americans left in possession of the field. The loss on both -sides was severe, and nearly equal. Generals Brown and Scott having both -been severely wounded, the command devolved upon General Ripley. He -remained a few hours upon the hill, collected the wounded, and then -retired unmolested to the camp. This battle was fought near the cataract -of Niagara, whose roar was silenced by the thunder of cannon and the din -of arms, but was distinctly heard during the pauses of the fight. The -American general found his force so much weakened, that he deemed it -prudent again to occupy Fort Erie. On the 4th of August, it was invested -by General Drummond with five thousand troops. In the night, between the -14th and 15th, the besiegers made a daring assault upon the fort, which -was repelled with conspicuous gallantry by the garrison, the former -being more than nine hundred men, the latter but eighty-four. The siege -was still continued. On the 2d of September, General Brown having -recovered from his wounds, threw himself into the fort, and took command -of the garrison. For their fate, great anxiety was felt by the nation, -which was, however, in some degree removed, by the march from -Plattsburgh of five thousand men to their relief. After an hour of close -fighting, they entered the fort, having killed, wounded, and taken one -thousand of the British. The loss of the Americans was also -considerable, amounting to more than five hundred. On the 21st of -September, the forty-ninth day of the siege, General Drummond withdrew -his forces. - -_Capture of Washington._--About the middle of August, a British -squadron of between fifty and sixty sail, arrived in the Chesapeake, -with troops destined for the attack of Washington, the capital of the -United States. A body of five thousand of them having landed, an -action was fought at Bladensburgh, six miles from Washington. General -Winder commanded the American force; Commodore Barney the flotilla. -The British were commanded by Major-general Ross and Rear-admiral -Cockburn. The Americans were repulsed, and General Ross, at the head -of about seven hundred men, took possession of Washington, and burned -the capitol, the president's house, and public offices, the arsenal, -the navy yard, and the bridge over the Potomac. The loss of the -British in this expedition, was nearly a thousand men in killed, -wounded, and missing; the loss of the Americans was ten or twelve -killed, and thirty or forty wounded. Commodore Barney's horse was -killed under him, and himself wounded in the thigh, and taken -prisoner; but he was paroled on the field of battle for his bravery. - -After the capture of Washington, the British army rëembarked on board -the fleet in the Patuxent, and Admiral Cockburn moved down that river, -and proceeded up the Chesapeake. On the 29th of August, the corporation -of Alexandria submitted to articles of capitulation, and the city was -delivered up to the British. On the 11th of September, the British -admiral appeared at the mouth of the Patapsco, fourteen miles from -Baltimore, with a fleet of ships of war and transports, amounting to -fifty sail. The next day, six thousand troops were landed at North -point, and commenced their march towards the city. In this march, when -the foremost ranks were harassed by a brisk fire from a wood, -Major-general Ross was mortally wounded. A battle was fought on this -day. The American forces, the militia, and the inhabitants of Baltimore, -made a gallant defence, but were compelled to retreat; the British, -however, abandoning the attempt to get possession of the city, retired -to their shipping during the night of the 13th of September. - -_Engagement on Lake Champlain._--Towards the close of the winter of -1814, the troops under General Wilkinson removed from their -winter-quarters at French Mills, and took station opposite -Plattsburgh. At this time, General Izard assumed the command. During -the summer, the troops were reduced, by various detachments, to -fifteen hundred. Moreover, the defences here were mostly in a state of -dilapidation, and the stores and ordinances in great disorder. - -It was while troops and fortifications were in this state, that -intelligence was received that Sir George Prevost, governor-general of -Canada, was on his march, at the head of fourteen hundred men, -well-disciplined, with ample stores and a numerous train of artillery. -In addition, the British had a respectable naval force on the lake, -amounting to ninety-five guns and one thousand and fifty men. To cope -with this combined, and vastly superior force, the Americans had the -troops already named, and a flotilla carrying eighty-six guns and -eight hundred and twenty-six men. - -On the 3d of September, Sir George Prevost, having taken possession of -Champlain, proceeded to occupy Plattsburgh. But, instead of making the -most of his advantage, the British general contented himself with -erecting works, by which to annoy the Americans--thus giving the -latter opportunity to strengthen themselves, and to summon from New -York and Vermont a considerable force to their aid. At the moment, the -delay of the British was not understood, but in a few days it was -explained by the appearance of the British squadron, which was -observed bearing down in order of battle. It consisted of the frigate -Confiance, carrying thirty-nine guns; twenty-seven of which were -twenty-four pounders; the brig Linnet, of sixteen guns; the sloops -Chub and Finch, each carrying eleven guns; thirteen gallies, five of -two guns, and the remainder of one gun. Commodore McDonough, -commanding the American squadron, lay at this time at anchor in -Plattsburgh bay. His fleet consisted of the Saratoga, of twenty-six -guns, eight of which were long twenty-four pounders; the Eagle, twenty -guns; the Ticonderoga, seventeen guns; the Preble, seven, and twenty -gallies, six of which carried two, and the remainder one gun each. One -of this squadron had been constructed in eighteen days, from timber -cut for this purpose, standing on the shore of the lake. - -At about nine o'clock, the British commander, Captain Downie, anchored -in line abreast the American squadron, about three hundred yards -distant--the Confiance taking a position opposite the Saratoga--the -Linnet, opposite the Eagle--the British galleys and one of the sloops, -opposite the Ticonderoga, Preble, and left division of the American -galleys--the other sloop was opposed to the right division. - -The action now opened, and at the same time an engagement commenced -on the land, between the forces under General McComb and Sir George -Prevost. The fate of the day depended chiefly on the result of the -engagement between the two large vessels. For two hours, this contest -was waged, with great skill and bravery, between these two; but the -greater weight of the enemy's battery seemed to incline the scale of -victory. By this time, the guns of the Saratoga, on the starboard -side, had been either dismounted or rendered unmanageable: nor was the -condition of the Confiance much better. The fortune of the day now -depended upon a difficult manoeuvre--to change the position of the -vessels, so as to bring their larboard sides into action. In this, the -Saratoga succeeded, while the attempt on the part of the Confiance -failed. The explosions of the former, on wheeling, now became -tremendous, and a short and successful work was made of it. In -eighteen minutes, the Saratoga announced her surrender. Meanwhile, the -Linnet had struck to the Eagle. Three of the galleys were sunk; the -rest escaped. With the exception of the latter, the entire squadron -was captured. It was a most sanguinary and disastrous contest. The -Saratoga had received in her hull fifty-five round shot; the -Confiance, one hundred and five. Twice the Saratoga was set on fire by -hot shot. The time occupied in the action was two hours and twenty -minutes. Captain Downie, of the Confiance, was killed, with forty-nine -of his men, and sixty wounded. The Saratoga lost twenty-eight killed -and twenty-nine wounded. The total loss of the American squadron -amounted to fifty-two killed and fifty-eight wounded. The loss of the -British was eighty-four killed, one hundred and ten wounded, and eight -hundred and fifty-six prisoners. - -This engagement took place in sight of the two armies. But they were -not idle spectators of the exciting scene. They also became engaged, -and, during the naval conflict, the noise of cannon, bombs, rockets -responded to the explosions on the water. Three desperate efforts were -made by the British to cross over, and storm the American works. -Other modes of attack were resorted to, but repulse and defeat -followed each and every one of them. On the loss of the squadron, -which was as painful as unexpected, the efforts of the British -relaxed; but the firing was still kept up, and continued till night, -when the siege was raised, and the artillery withdrawn. During the -night, Prevost withdrew his forces and retired. - -Thus failed a project for which liberal preparations had been made, -and of whose success, the highest hopes had been indulged. Thus Sir -George Prevost was taught, that not then, nor there, whatever he might -do at some future day, could he display British colors as a token of -triumph. The "star-spangled banner" must still wave on the waters of -Champlain; and our national flag still float over the fortifications -of Plattsburgh. - -_Battle of New Orleans._--In the spring of 1814, General Jackson was -appointed a major-general in the army of the United States, and assigned -to the protection of the city of New Orleans, and the circumjacent -territory. To this duty he addressed himself with a promptitude and -resolution characteristic of the man, and commensurate with the -preparations which, it was supposed, the British had made to subdue it. - -On the 1st day of December, the general reached New Orleans, and, on the -4th, rumor was rife that a hostile fleet was already wending its way -along the coast. On the 6th, this rumor was confirmed. Admiral Cochrane -and Sir George Cockburn, after the burning of Washington, and subsequent -retreat down the Chesapeake, were now directing their course towards New -Orleans. The expedition was formidable, consisting of more than eighty -sail, which were still to be rëinforced; on board the transports were -some eleven thousand troops, "veteran heroes of the Peninsula," ardent -for the attack--commanded by four generals of great experience--two -admirals, and twelve thousand seamen and marines, with fire-ships, -rockets, ammunition, and artillery in abundance. - -The inhabitants of New Orleans were, at this time, supposed to be not -less than thirty thousand--a number quite sufficient, under ordinary -circumstances, to furnish adequate assistance. But they were chiefly -of French and Spanish extraction. By the purchase of Louisiana, they -had recently become citizens of the United States; but the sympathies -and patriotism of some had not followed their transfer. In addition, -the city had few, if any defences; arms, ammunition, troops--all were -wanting. - -In circumstances like these, General Jackson assumed command of the -city. He saw the danger which impended; he saw the importance of power -amid the conflicting elements. He has sometimes been censured for his -despotic bearing during these scenes of turmoil and confusion. But we -must not judge too severely. He felt the emergency, and did not -hesitate to proclaim martial law, as, in his view, the only means of -safety and protection to the city. - -The force which General Jackson had brought with him from Mobile, -amounted to only about fifteen hundred men, and consisted of Coffee's -Tennessee volunteers, Hind's company of cavalry, and the seventh and -forty-fourth regiments. To these were added three hundred city -volunteers, and a battalion of men of color, two hundred, making a -total, with the troops in garrison at Fort St. Philips, of only -twenty-five hundred men. This force was so obviously inadequate, that -General Jackson made every effort to supply the deficiency; and in -this, he was seconded by the executive of Kentucky, Tennessee, and -Louisiana. But their patriotic exertions were, in a great measure, -unavailing; there being, at no time, of Louisianians, in the army of -General Jackson, more than nine hundred, and still less from any other -state. The naval force, stationed at New Orleans, consisted of six -gun-boats and several smaller vessels, under command of Commodore -Daniel T. Patterson. - -Soon after reaching New Orleans, General Jackson proceeded to examine -the various fortified points below the city, and gave directions for -strengthening them as his means allowed. On the 9th, he returned to -the city, whence he proceeded on a similar tour of inspection to the -lakes. Contrary to all expectation, the British armament, instead of -coming up the Mississippi, entered the lakes which connect with the -gulf, and, on the 23d of December, commenced landing their forces on -the narrow strip of land bordering the river. Before reaching this -point, however, an engagement had taken place between the gun-boats -and a large British force, which had resulted in the capture of the -former. It was a spirited action of some two hours, and the Americans -surrendered only when the enemy had gained their decks, and -overpowered them by numbers. The whole number of guns in the American -vessels was twenty-three, and of men one hundred and eighty-three. The -British had forty-five boats, forty-three pieces of cannon, and twelve -hundred men. The loss of the Americans was very small, while that of -the British was not less than three hundred, including several -officers, killed and wounded. - -The invading army, it was now certain, was at hand. Indeed, they had -effected a landing; they were on the banks of the Mississippi, only -nine miles from the city. This, as we have stated, was on the 23d of -December. - -General Jackson had decided, in case of their landing, to attack them -the first possible moment. "Feeble as my force is," said he, "I am -resolved to assail the enemy on his first landing, and perish sooner -than he shall reach the city:" a resolution which he now proceeded to -fulfill with all the energy in his power. That same night was the time -appointed. - -A little before dark, the American troops arrived in view of the -enemy. They were, at this time, about two thousand strong, but -afterwards rëinforced to the number of one thousand more. Among the -vessels, which had escaped the British, was one of considerable size, -called the Caroline. With this, Commodore Patterson was to drop down -the river, anchor in front of the British, and commence the attack, -which should be a signal for a general assault. - -A British officer, who was present during the scene, thus describes -the dismay of the British troops, when first the Caroline opened her -appalling fire upon them. - -"The day passed without any alarm, and, the darkness having set in, -the fires were made to blaze with increased splendor; our evening meal -was eaten, and we prepared to sleep. But about half-past seven -o'clock, the attention of several individuals was drawn to a large -vessel, which seemed to be stealing up the river till she came -opposite to our camp, when her anchor was dropped, and the sails -leisurely furled. We hailed her, but she gave no answer. This forboded -no good. Soon after, we heard some one cry, in a commanding voice, -'Give them this for the honor of America!' and they did give it to us. -Explosion after explosion burst upon us, and showers of grape swept -down numbers in the camp. - -"Nor to this dreadful storm of fire had we any thing to oppose. Our -artillery was too light to bring into competition with an adversary so -powerful. Our only alternative was to shelter the men, as much as -possible, from this iron hail; and our only shelter was to hasten -under the dyke ["levee"]. There we lay for an hour, unable to move -from our ground, or offer any opposition; when the sound of musketry, -at some distance, called our attention towards the pickets, and warned -us to prepare for a closer and more desperate strife. Soon after, our -apprehensions were realized. A semi-circular blaze of musketry burst -upon us. We were surrounded." The assailants were Coffee's brigade of -six hundred dismounted riflemen. - -The further details of proceedings that night, we must omit. For two -hours, such warfare was carried on as the darkness allowed. The -American troops did not exceed two thousand; the force of the enemy -reached, at length, four or five thousand. The Americans were not the -victors, nor were they vanquished. They retired in safety, with a loss -of but twenty-four killed, one hundred and fifteen wounded, and -seventy-four made prisoners. The loss of the British was not less than -four hundred in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among the Americans -killed were two valiant officers--Colonel Lauderdale and Lieutenant -McClelland. This action was probably the salvation of New Orleans. -From that hour, the Americans had more confidence; the British less. - -On the 4th of January, the long-expected rëinforcement from Kentucky, -amounting to two thousand two hundred and fifty, under command of -Major-general Thomas, reached New Orleans, but the great advantage, -anticipated from this additional force, failed of being realized. Not -more than five hundred of them were supplied with muskets fit for -service; for the remainder, none could possibly be furnished. - -For several days longer, the armies continued in view of each other, -but comparatively inactive. Preparations, however, were making. The -clouds were gathering. The storm was approaching. At length, the 8th -of January arrived; a day rendered memorable by the victory achieved -by the Americans over a British force greatly superior, and in every -possible way prepared for the contest. - -On the morning of the 8th, signals, intended to produce concert in the -enemy's movements, were descried. Sky-rockets shot up. Preparations, as -if for immediate action, were observed. And thus it proved. The -important day had arrived, and operations were commenced on the part of -the British, by showers of bombs and balls upon the American line: while -congreve-rockets, in multitudes, went whizzing through the air. The two -divisions, under command of Sir Edward Packenham in person, and -supported by Generals Keane and Gibbs, now moved forward. A dense fog -enabled them to approach within a short distance of the American -intrenchments without being discovered. Their march was dignified--their -step, firm--their bearing, lofty. Meanwhile, all was silence among the -Americans behind the parapets. The guns were loaded--the matches were -ready--all were waiting, with breathless anxiety, for the word of -command. Jackson stood an intent observer of the scene. He watched every -movement--weighed every circumstance--measured the lessening distance. -They had reached the critical spot to which the guns were pointed--the -voice of Jackson was heard, as in tones of thunder, "Fire!" and, in an -instant, such a storm of death rolled over the astonished British, as -was scarcely ever before witnessed. The front ranks were mowed down, and -their advance arrested. At this critical juncture, Sir Edward Packenham -threw himself in front of the astonished columns, and urged them on. But -at that instant, he fell mortally wounded, and, nearly at the same time, -Generals Gibbs and Keane were borne from the field, dangerously wounded. -The troops now fled. In their flight, they were met by General Lambert, -on the advance with a reserve force, and urged once more to renew the -attack; but his commands were unheeded. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS.] - -There were, indeed, other attempts made upon the American works in -other quarters, and they were partially successful; but, in the -sequel, the British were every where repulsed--the American flag waved -in triumph--the city of New Orleans was safe--and, that night, joy and -gladness were in every family. - -The American effective force, at the time, on the left bank, was three -thousand seven hundred; that of the enemy, at least nine thousand, -and, by some authorities, they were reckoned still more numerous. The -killed, wounded, and prisoners, as ascertained on the day after the -battle, by Colonel Hayne, the inspector-general, was two thousand six -hundred. General Lambert's report to Lord Bathurst, stated it to be -two thousand and seventy. Among the killed was the commander-in-chief, -and Major-general Gibbs, who died of his wounds the following day; -besides many other valuable officers. The loss of the Americans, in -killed and wounded, was but thirteen. - -It is certainly surprising that generals so distinguished for their -sagacity, and so experienced in military tactics, as were the British, -should have hazarded such an assault. It seems probable that the -enterprise was one of great magnitude and danger, in their view; but -warranted by the circumstances in which they were placed. But, on the -other hand, the Americans were entitled to all possible praise. Their -bravery and zeal were conspicuous through the entire contest. It was -fortunate that their commander was possessed of great courage and -equal skill. General Jackson acquired greater reputation, on this -occasion, than he had gained at any previous period of his life, -distinguished as his military fame had become. - -To the benevolent heart, there will ever be connected with this battle -one sad, sad reflection. The carnage of that day--the groans, sorrows, -sufferings caused by that conflict--might have been spared. Peace -between the two nations had actually been agreed upon. Oh! could some -breeze have wafted the intelligence to these Western shores ere the -dawn of that 8th of January, 1815, what streams of blood had been -stayed! how many precious lives would have been spared! what despair -and destitution averted from families and individuals! - -_Treaty of Ghent._--The brilliant successes of the Americans were duly -appreciated, and joy and exultation pervaded the nation. Tidings of -peace soon followed. A negotiation, which had been opened at Ghent in -the Netherlands, towards the close of 1814, between the American -commissioners, J. Q. Adams, Bayard, Clay, Russel, and Gallatin, and -the British commissioners, Gambier, Goulburn, and Adams, resulted in a -treaty of peace, which was signed on the 24th of December. It -immediately received the approbation of the prince regent, and was -ratified by the president and senate on the 18th day of February. This -was a welcome event to all parties. Among a portion of the people, the -war had never been popular. A large debt had been contracted, and the -commerce of the country had greatly suffered. There was a general joy -that the war had terminated; yet some were disposed to inquire, what -object had been gained? It was true, the credit of the country in -respect to military skill, but especially as to naval tact, had been -greatly increased. An arrogant, invading foe had been driven from our -shore. Our national honor vindicated--but, in the end, the treaty -negotiated and ratified was silent as to the subjects for which the -war was professedly declared. It provided only for the suspension of -hostilities--the exchange of prisoners--the restoration of territories -and possessions obtained by the contending powers during the war--the -adjustment of unsettled boundaries--and for a combined effort to -effect the entire abolition of traffic in slaves. But, notwithstanding -several important omissions, the treaty was joyfully received, and the -various classes of society once more began to turn their attention to -their accustomed trades and occupations. - -_Close of Mr. Madison's Administration._--The remainder of Mr. -Madison's administration was marked by few events or measures of -national importance. Yet, we may briefly notice the conclusion of a -treaty, conducted at Algiers, with the dey of Algiers, by William -Shaler and Commodore Stephen Decatur, on the 30th of June, 1815--a -"convention by which to regulate the commerce between the territories -of the United States and of his Britannic Majesty," concluded at -London, July 3--and the incorporation of a national bank, with a -capital of thirty-five millions of dollars. - -February 12th, the electoral votes for Mr. Madison's successor were -counted in the presence of both houses of congress, when it appeared -that Mr. Monroe was elected by a large majority. The following is a -summary of the votes: - - Key: A. James Monroe, of Virginia. - B. Rufus King, of New York. - C. D. D. Tompkins, of New York. - D. John E. Howard, of Maryland. - E. James Ross, of Pennsylv'a. - F. John Marshall, of Virginia. - G. Robt. G. Harper, of Maryland. - - ---------+-----------------+----------+------------------------ - No. of | |PRESIDENT.| VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |----------+------------------------ - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. - State. | | | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+----+---- - 8 | New Hampshire, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 22 | Massachusetts, | | 22 | | 22 | | | - 4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | | 4 | | | | - 9 | Connecticut, | | 9 | | | 5 | 4 | - 8 | Vermont, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 29 | New York, | 29 | | 29 | | | | - 8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 25 | Pennsylvania, | 25 | | 25 | | | | - 3 | Delaware, | | 3 | | | | | 3 - 8 | Maryland, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 25 | Virginia, | 25 | | 25 | | | | - 15 | North Carolina, | 15 | | 15 | | | | - 11 | South Carolina, | 11 | | 11 | | | | - 8 | Georgia, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 12 | Kentucky, | 12 | | 12 | | | | - 8 | Tennessee, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 8 | Ohio, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 3 | Lousiana, | 3 | | 3 | | | | - 3 | Indiana, | 3 | | 3 | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+----+---- - 217 | Whole No. of | | | | | | | - | electors, |183 | 34 |183 | 22 | 5 | 4 | 3 - | Majority, 109 | | | | | | | - -FOOTNOTES: - -[71] Life of William Henry Harrison. - -[72] Breckenridge's History of the War. - -[73] Hale's History of the United States. - -[74] Willard's Republic. - -[75] Hinton. - - - - - X. JAMES MONROE, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration: MONROE.] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1817. - - DANIEL D. TOMPKINS, VICE-PRESIDENT. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, March 5, 1817,} Secretary - } of State. - - William H. Crawford, Georgia, March 5, 1817,} Secretary - } of Treasury. - - Isaac Shelby, Kentucky, March 5, 1817,} Secretaries - John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, December 15, 1817,} of War. - - Benjamin W. (_continued_ } - Crowninshield, Massachusetts, _in office_), } Secretaries - Smith Thompson, New York, November 30, 1818.} of the Navy. - Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, December 9, 1823,} - - Return J. Meigs, Ohio, (_continued_ } Postmasters - _in office_), } General. - John M'Lean, Ohio, December 9, 1823,} - - Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, (_continued_ } Attorneys - _in office_), } General. - William Wirt, Virginia, December 15, 1817,} - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - Henry Clay, Kentucky, Fifteenth Congress, 1817. - Henry Clay, Kentucky, Sixteenth do. 1819. - John W. Taylor, New York, Sixteenth do. 1820. - Philip P. Barbour, Virginia, Seventeenth do. 1821. - Henry Clay, Kentucky, Eighteenth do. 1823. - -The elevation of Mr. Monroe to the presidency was an event highly -auspicious to the interests of the nation. Besides having been -employed for many years in high and responsible stations under the -government, he possessed a sound and discriminating judgment, and a -remarkably calm and quiet temperament. In not a few of the qualities -of his mind, he resembled Washington, and, like that great and good -man, apparently had the true interests of his country in view in the -acts and measures of his administration. He may be said to be -fortunate in respect to the time and circumstances of his accession to -the presidency. A war, of whose justice and expediency a respectable -portion of the country had strong doubts--and as to which, therefore, -loud and even angry debate had existed, both in congress and -throughout the country--that war had terminated, and the asperities -growing out of different views entertained of it, were fast subsiding. -Commerce, too, was beginning to revive, and the manufacturers were -hoping for more auspicious days. In every department of industry, -there was the commencement of activity; and, although the country had -suffered too long and too seriously to regain at once her former -prosperity, hopes of better times were indulged, and great confidence -was reposed in the wise and prudent counsels of the new president. - -A review of the principal measures and events during the presidency of -Mr. Monroe, will require us to notice the following topics: - - Tour of the President, Revision of the Tariff, - Admission of Missouri, Visit of Lafayette, - Provision for indigent officers, &c., Review of Mr. Monroe's - Rëelection of Mr. Monroe, Administration, - Seminole War, Election of Mr. Adams. - -_Tour of the President._--This took place in the summer and autumn -following Mr. Monroe's inauguration, and extended through the Northern -and Eastern states of the Union. It was an auspicious measure, and -contributed, no doubt, in a degree, to his popularity. He had in view, -the better discharge of his duty as president, in superintending the -works of public defence, and most probably the cultivation of friendly -feelings with the great mass of the people. These objects were happily -accomplished. The works of public defence, which he wished personally -to inspect or to provide for, were the fortifications of the sea-coast -and inland frontiers, naval docks, and the navy itself. For all these -objects, congress had made liberal appropriations, and by personal -observation, he sought the means of guiding his judgment as to the -best mode of promoting the interests thus committed to his care. - -[Illustration: Reception of Mr. Monroe at New York.] - -The president made two other visits of a similar kind, during his -first term, viz: one in the summer of the following year, and the -other in the summer of 1819. The former was to the Chesapeake bay and -the country lying on its shores. The other was to the Southern and -South-western states of the Union. In the course of a few weeks he -visited Charleston, Savannah, and Augusta, as also the Cherokee -nation, Nashville, Louisville, and other places. The same national -objects commanded his attention as during his other tours, and the -same spirit of courtesy and deference was manifested towards him. - -_Admission of Missouri._--In another place, (p. 538,) we have had -occasion to notice the periods at which the several states, formed -since the adoption of the Federal Constitution, have been admitted -into the Union, and Missouri among them; but, as in respect to this -state, there were new and peculiar considerations involved, it is -deemed important to speak of them in this place more at large.--The -proposition to admit Missouri into the Union, was considered at the -same time with Maine; but, although congress passed the act of -admission for both at once, it was _conditional_ in regard to -Missouri. A clause in the constitution of this state, requiring the -legislature to enact a law "to prevent free negroes and mulattoes from -coming to and settling in the state," was obnoxious to a majority of -the members of congress. After a long debate in that body, it was -decided that Missouri should be admitted, on the condition that no -laws should be passed, by which any free citizens of the United States -should be prevented from enjoying the rights to which they were -entitled by the constitution of the United States. - -There had previously been a long and exciting debate in congress, on -the subject of the restriction of slavery in the bill admitting -Missouri. The bill for admitting that territory, contained a provision -prohibiting slavery within the new state; but, having passed the house -of representatives, it was arrested in the senate. Strong sectional -parties, in reference to this subject, appeared, not only in congress, -but throughout the country. It was deemed imminently a time of danger -to the general interests of the nation and the Union itself. The -dissolution of the general government seemed to be threatened. That -the pernicious system of involuntary servitude should be further -extended, seemed to be abhorrent to the minds of most of the wise and -good. On the other hand, the rights of the slave-holding states were -thought by themselves, at least, to be invaded. Accordingly, members -of congress from the non-slave-holding states, strenuously advocated -the restriction; while members from the slave-holding portion of the -country as strenuously opposed it. - -The long and earnest debates on the subject, were concluded, only by -the parties accepting a _compromise_, in consequence of which, slavery -was to be tolerated in Missouri, but forbidden in all that part of -Louisiana as ceded by France, lying north of thirty-six degrees thirty -minutes north latitude, except so much as was embraced within the -limits of the state. The vote in the house of representatives was -several times given for excluding slavery; but the senate disagreed, -and would not yield to the house. When the house yielded, at length, -to the opinion of the senate, it was by a majority of _four_ only, in -favor of the bill, omitting the clause of exclusion, and containing -that of the interdiction of slavery elsewhere, as already defined. The -compromise happily averted whatever danger there might have been to -the union of the states. - -When Missouri, by a solemn act of her legislature, had accepted the -fundamental condition imposed by congress, that she would not -authorize the passage of any laws excluding citizens of other states -from enjoying the privileges to which they were entitled by the -constitution of the United States, she was declared a member of the -Union. This occurred August 10th, 1821. - -_Provision for indigent Officers and Soldiers._--In 1818, a law was -passed by congress, granting pensions to the surviving officers and -soldiers of the Revolutionary war, which included all who had served -nine months in the continental army at any period of the war, provided -it was at one term of enlistment. Another act of congress, following -at the expiration of two years, modified, and in some degree -restricted this law, by confining the pension to those who were in -destitute circumstances. Still, under this condition, the number who -received the bounty, or rather the justice of their country, was very -large, not less than thirteen thousand having experienced the grateful -relief. Through the inability of the government, soon after the war, -these soldiers who had so largely contributed to the liberties of -their country, had never been duly compensated. They now received a -welcome, though late remuneration. - -_Rëelection of Mr. Monroe._--In March, 1821, Mr. Monroe entered upon his -second term of office, having been rëelected president by nearly an -unanimous vote. Mr. Tompkins was also continued in the vice-presidency. -The following table exhibits the vote of the several electoral colleges: - - Key: A. James Monroe, of Virginia. - B. John Q. Adams, of Massa'tts. - C. D. D. Tompkins, of New York. - D. Rich'd. Stockton, of New Jersey. - E. Robt. G. Harper, of Maryland. - F. Richard Rush, of Pennsylv'a. - G. Daniel Rodney, of Delaware. - - ---------+-----------------+----------+------------------------ - No. of | |PRESIDENT.| VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |----------+------------------------ - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. - State. | | | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+----+---- - 8 | New Hampshire, | 7 | 1 | 7 | | | 1 | - 15 | Massachusetts, | 15 | | 7 | 8 | | | - 4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | | 4 | | | | - 9 | Connecticut, | 9 | | 9 | | | | - 8 | Vermont, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 29 | New York, | 29 | | 29 | | | | - 8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 25 | Pennsylvania, | 24 | | 24 | | | | - 4 | Delaware, | 4 | | | | | | 4 - 11 | Maryland, | 11 | | 10 | | 1 | | - 25 | Virginia, | 25 | | 25 | | | | - 15 | North Carolina, | 15 | | 15 | | | | - 11 | South Carolina, | 11 | | 11 | | | | - 8 | Georgia, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 12 | Kentucky, | 12 | | 12 | | | | - 8 | Tennessee, | 7 | | 7 | | | | - 8 | Ohio, | 8 | | 8 | | | | - 3 | Lousiana, | 3 | | 3 | | | | - 3 | Indiana, | 3 | | 3 | | | | - 3 | Mississippi, | 2 | | 2 | | | | - 3 | Illinois, | 3 | | 3 | | | | - 3 | Alabama, | 3 | | 3 | | | | - 9 | Maine, | 9 | | 9 | | | | - 3 | Missouri, | 3 | | 3 | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+----+---- - 235 | Whole No. of | | | | | | | - | electors, |231 | 1 |218 | 8 | 1 | 1 | 4 - | Majority, 118 | | | | | | | - -No president, since Washington, has received so decided an expression -of the public will. His popularity seemed to be the result of his -moderation in politics, his candid temper, and his wise and useful -measures. His administration throughout was the era of good feeling. - -_Seminole War._--Within the southern limits of the United States, but -mostly in Florida, lived a tribe, or confederacy of Indians, named -_Seminoles_. They consisted, originally, of fugitives from the -northern tribes, resident within the limits of the United States. To -these fugitives, additions were made from the Creek Indians, numbers -of whom were dissatisfied with the provisions of the treaty of 1814, -and negroes, who had absconded from their masters. The resentments -enkindled in the breasts of these miserable people, are believed to -have been fanned by foreign emissaries, of whom the most noted were -two Englishmen, Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert C. Ambrister. The -consequence was, that outrages were committed upon the inhabitants of -the states on our southern borders, the progress of which it became -necessary to arrest. - -General Gaines, the United States' officer in that quarter, made a -demand to deliver up the authors of these outrages, but the Indians -refused to comply. In consequence of this refusal, the Indians, who -were still on the lands ceded to the United States by the Creeks, in -1814, were placed at the disposal of General Gaines, to remove them or -not, as he should see fit. - -The general availed himself of his discretionary power to take an -Indian village called Fowl Town, near the Florida line. In this -undertaking, one man and one woman were killed, and two women made -prisoners. It was executed by a detachment under Major Twiggs. A few -days after, a second detachment, who were on a visit to the town to -obtain property, were fired upon, and a skirmish ensued, in which -there was a loss of several on both sides. Shortly after, a large -party of Seminole Indians formed an ambuscade upon the Appalachicola -river, attacked one of the American boats, ascending near the shore, -and killed, wounded, and took the greater part of the detachment, -consisting of forty men, commanded by Lieutenant R. W. Scott, of the -seventh infantry. There were also on board, killed or taken, seven -women, the wives of soldiers. Six of the detachment only escaped, four -of whom were wounded.[76] - -[Illustration: Attack of the Seminoles on Lieutenant Scott's Boats.] - -This event led to increased hostilities. Fort Scott, in which General -Gaines with about six hundred regular soldiers was confined for a time, -was openly attacked by a large force of the enemy. General Andrew -Jackson was directed, December 26, to take the field. In connection with -this, he was authorized, if he deemed the force of General Gaines to be -insufficient to carry on the war, "to call on the executives of the -neighboring states for such an additional militia force as he might deem -requisite." General Jackson varied from the order addressed to him, by -sending out a circular to the patriots of West Tennessee, inviting them, -to the number of one thousand, to take up arms with him against the -Indians. The General's call was promptly responded to, and the thousand -volunteers were, in due time, gathered to his standard. - -In this affair, General Jackson was widely censured for departing from -the letter and spirit of his instructions; although the apology -offered, was the delay that would have been caused, had the governor -of Tennessee, who was either at Knoxville or in the Cherokee nation, -been first called upon. The account of his proceedings, which he sent -to the secretary of war, seems to have met with favor by the public -authorities at Washington. The troops thus raised, were joined by a -number of friendly Creeks under General M'Intosh. Meanwhile, it -appears from the instructions of the president to General Gaines, that -the war was to be prosecuted in Florida, only in the event of the -Indians fleeing into that country, and, in that case, the Spanish -authority was to be respected wherever it was maintained. Jackson, -however, did not conform to these instructions, and particularly in -regard to the interdiction not to attack a Spanish fort, should any -Indians take shelter under one, which was also a matter of -instruction. He justified his non-compliance, in this case, on the -ground that, orders issued to one officer, could not be construed as -orders to his successor, without a special reference to the -first--that his orders were general and discretionary, and that the -circumstances contemplated by the orders to General Gaines, never -existed. The Indians were found sheltered _within_ a fort, and not -merely under the protection of its guns on the outside. - -On the plan of warfare, which the American general deemed it -justifiable to act, he not only entered Florida in pursuit of the -Indians as they fled thither, but he forcibly seized the Spanish -garrison, St. Marks. While at St. Marks, information was imparted to -General Jackson, that the governor of Pensacola was favoring the -Indians; upon which, although the executive had given instruction not -to attack a Spanish fort, he took up his march for the fort at -Pensacola, before which, after twenty days, he appeared prepared to -subdue it, at whatever expense it might cost. The fortress was -invested on the 25th of May, and, after a bombardment and cannonading -for two days, the garrison surrendered prisoners of war. The officers -of the government, civil and military, were transported to Havana, and -a new government established for the province. These matters being -settled, General Jackson announced to the secretary of war that the -Seminole war was terminated, and returned to his house at Nashville. - -[Illustration: Taking the Fort at Pensacola.] - -The conduct of the general, in transcending his orders, was made a -subject of inquiry in the house of representatives, and a report made -disapproving of some parts of it as arbitrary, unjustifiable, and -dangerous in principle; and the report was ably supported by Mr. Clay, -of Kentucky, and Mr. Johnson, of Virginia, and others, but opposed by -many other members. The inquiry disclosed several highly arbitrary -acts. Mr. Monroe caused the instructions given on this occasion to be -laid before Congress; and he also gave orders immediately for the -restoration of the forts and places to the Spanish authorities. - -General Jackson was, also, charged with undue severity, in the -execution of Arbuthnot and Ambrister, the Englishmen before alluded -to, whom he took in the territory. The former he caused to be hung, -and the other to be shot. The punishment was summary, and without law; -but the executive found cause to excuse these acts on the -consideration of the peculiar exigency of the case. The great -popularity of the military commander was supposed to have furnished a -reason for no further proceedings or inquiries into this affair. - -_Revision of the Tariff_.--A law was passed by congress, on the -subject of the tariff, in May, 1824, embracing the revision and -alteration of the tariff which had heretofore existed. Except a slight -protection to coarse cotton cloths, nothing had been done to encourage -the manufactures of the country. The attention of the people had been, -for a long time, turned towards the subject, and congress had debated -it at different periods, but very little had been effected. Such was -the state of things from 1816 to 1824. On the part of many citizens, -great zeal had been manifested in favor of manufactures among us. -Numbers, especially in the Northern and Eastern states, owing to the -impediments which existed in the prosecution of commerce and -navigation, by the restrictive measures of the government, as well as -by the war, had engaged in the business of manufacturing. By their -energy, perseverance, and economy, they had attained to a measure of -success; but still, some public enactments were wanting to give due -encouragement to the general interests of manufactures. The well-known -favorable opinion of the president, as also the growing interest felt -by the people on the subject, produced their effect in calling to it -the attention of the national legislature, to some practical purpose. - -At the period above named, congress imposed higher duties on several -articles of import, chiefly of the description of those then -manufactured in the United States. On several articles, a duty of five -per cent. was laid, in addition to that before imposed, though the act -met a very powerful opposition. The debate on the bill occupied the -house of representatives more than ten weeks, and the bill was passed -by a majority of only five. It was opposed by those who were concerned -in commerce, on the ground that it would prove detrimental to their -particular interests. It was opposed by those who were concerned in -agriculture, from the consideration that an undue profit was secured -by it to the manufacturers. On the part of some, it was a ground of -opposition that it would greatly diminish imports, and thus lessen the -public revenue. A portion of the national legislature, who were -professedly in favor of encouraging manufactures, believed that they -were already sufficiently protected. This opposition was principally -by members from the Southern states, where no manufactures were -established, and who believed that additional duties on imports would -operate unequally in different parts of the union. - -But notwithstanding the strong opposition to the measure, the bill of -the house passed the senate with several alterations, by a vote of -twenty-five to twenty-one. The measure, when put to the test of -experiment, proved effectual in affording the desired protection to -the articles which it embraced; but the same legislation was wanted in -regard to others, perhaps equally important to the comfort, defence, -and independence of the country. - -_Visit of Lafayette._--The arrival of the Marquis de Lafayette into -the United States, signalized the year 1824. It was an event of great -interest to the people of the country. As the friend, benefactor, and -ally of the Americans during the Revolution, he was remembered with -lively gratitude after his return to his native land, and his -subsequent history had been traced by many among us with deep concern, -as well as admiration. Nearly half a century had elapsed, since he -came as a youthful, devoted adventurer to our shores, in the cause of -freedom, and age was now stealing over him with its usual effects on -the human frame. Before the close of life, he wished once more to -revisit the scenes of his early conflicts; and, having intimated his -intention of coming to this country, the people were prepared to give -him a welcome and enthusiastic reception. - -[Illustration: Landing of Lafayette at Castle Garden.] - -He landed at New York, on the 16th of August, accompanied by his son, -and M. L. Vasseur, his secretary. His entrance into the city was more -than a Roman triumphal procession. Splendid as it was, it was more -remarkable as the tribute of the concentrated heart of America, in its -great commercial capital. He was met by one universal burst of -grateful enthusiasm. - -In the course of about a year, he visited each of the twenty-four -states, and most of the principal cities of the land, and was every -where received with the like spirit of enthusiasm and gratitude. - -[Illustration: Lafayette laying the Corner-stone.] - -He was present on the occasion of laying the corner-stone of the -Bunker hill monument, and assisted, as was most befitting he should, -in laying its corner-stone. His presence added greatly to the interest -of the occasion, and long will it be remembered with what enthusiasm -his presence was greeted. - -"When the time arrived which he had fixed as the termination of his -visit, it was thought most fitting that his departure from the country -should take place from the capital. A frigate was prepared at that -place, and named, in compliment to him, the Brandywine, to transport -him to his native country. The few weeks spent, upon the invitation of -the president, as the guest of the nation, in the national palace, -were appropriated to taking leave of those venerable men who had -shared with him, both in establishing the independence of the -country, and in receiving all the appropriate honors which the people -could bestow. He had previously visited and taken leave of the -venerable Adams; he now in succession took leave of the other -ex-presidents, the illustrious author of the declaration of -independence; the able supporter and advocate of the federal -constitution; and the soldier of the Revolution, who had shed his -blood in the same cause with Lafayette." - -[Illustration: Lafayette at the tomb of Washington.] - -His departure, which was from the seat of government, on the 7th of -September, 1825, was affecting in the highest degree, but it needs not -here to be described. Suffice it to say, that in passing down the -Potomac, he landed to pay a farewell visit to the tomb of Washington; -then, proceeding on his way, he made a safe and prosperous voyage to -France. - -_General Review of Mr. Monroe's Administration, his Character, -&c._--As has been already remarked, under the administration of Mr. -Monroe, there existed a propitious state of things. The wisdom and -practical foresight of Mr. Monroe were manifested in the measures of -his administration. Profound peace continued through the whole of it, -the amicable relations of the country with other nations having been -carefully cherished. Of the national debt, not less than sixty -millions were paid. The Floridas were not only peaceably acquired, but -the western boundaries of our country were so settled as to give it -the width of a continent. He effected the repeal of the internal -taxes, reduced the military establishment to the smallest compass -consistent with safety, and brought the army under an efficient -organization. The asperity of party spirit yielding in a great degree, -he was enabled to carry most of those measures which he deemed -necessary to the public welfare. Progress was made in the suppression -of the slave-trade, the civilization of the Indians advanced, and the -independence of the South American nations recognized. - -As to the character of President Monroe, there seems to be scarcely a -dissenting opinion. His feelings, manners, and principles, appeared to -be adapted eminently for conciliation. Nearly all united under him and -with him in carrying out the public enactments. "He was not so great a -philosopher as Jefferson, nor so learned as Madison; but he possessed a -more practical knowledge, or was more desirous of pursuing that which -was useful, than of adopting new theories, or of supporting his own -speculative views in opposition to public opinion. He faithfully strove -to defend and promote the great interests of the republic; but sought -not for impracticable good in ways discovered only to his contemplative -imagination." Fisher Ames' lively, but perhaps too severe, remark -concerning Mr. Jefferson, that "he strains his optics to look beyond its -(the world's) circumference, and contemplates invisibility till he -thinks nothing else is real," has no application to Mr. Monroe, though -the latter was of the same school of politics. To continue the quotation -first presented, "He (Mr. Monroe) had as much regard for humanity, and -was as sincere a lover of his kind, as Mr. Jefferson; but he followed -more truly the beaten path of common sense, and adhered more cautiously -to the plain maxims sanctioned by experience, and shown by past history -to be essential to the welfare of society." - -_Election of John Quincy Adams._--It being understood that, according -to the example of his predecessors, Mr. Monroe would retire at the -expiration of his second term, the subject of his successor was early -introduced to the nation. Several candidates were put in nomination, -and the claims of each were duly urged by their respective friends and -supporters. The following was the electoral vote, according to the -official count before the two houses of congress: - - Key: A. Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. - B. John Q. Adams, of Massachusetts. - C. Wm. H. Crawford, of Georgia. - D. Henry Clay, of Kentucky. - E. John C. Calhoun, of S. Carolina. - F. Nathan Sanford, of New York. - G. Nathaniel Macon, of N. Carolina. - H. Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. - I. Martin Van Buren, of New York. - J. Henry Clay, of Kentucky. - - ---------+-----------------+---------------+----------------------- - No. of | | PRESIDENT. | VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |---------------+----------------------- - from each| |A. |B. |C. |D. |E. |F. |G. |H. |I. |J. - State. | | | | | | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- - 8 | New Hampshire, | | 8 | | | 7 | | | 1 | | - 15 | Massachusetts, | |15 | | |15 | | | | | - 4 | Rhode Island, | | 4 | | | 3 | | | | | - 8 | Connecticut, | | 8 | | | | | | 8 | | - 7 | Vermont, | | 7 | | | 7 | | | | | - 36 | New York, | 1 |26 | 5 | 4 |29 | 7 | | | | - 8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | | | 8 | | | | | - 28 | Pennsylvania, |28 | | | |28 | | | | | - 3 | Delaware, | | 1 | 2 | | 1 | | | | | 2 - 11 | Maryland, | 7 | 3 | 1 | |10 | | | 1 | | - 24 | Virginia, | | |24 | | | |24 | | | - 15 | North Carolina, |15 | | | |15 | | | | | - 11 | South Carolina, |11 | | | |11 | | | | | - 9 | Georgia, | | | 9 | | | | | | 9 | - 14 | Kentucky, | | | |14 | 7 | 7 | | | | - 11 | Tennessee, |11 | | | |11 | | | | | - 16 | Ohio, | | | |16 | |16 | | | | - 5 | Lousiana, | 3 | 2 | | | 5 | | | | | - 5 | Indiana, | 5 | | | | 5 | | | | | - 3 | Mississippi | 3 | | | | 3 | | | | | - 3 | Illinois, | 2 | 1 | | | 3 | | | | | - 5 | Alabama, | 5 | | | | 5 | | | | | - 9 | Maine, | | 9 | | | 9 | | | | | - 3 | Missouri, | | | | 3 | | | | 3 | | - ---------+-----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- - 261 | Whole No. of | | | | | | | | | | - | electors, |99 |84 |41 |37 |182|30 |24 |13 | 9 | 2 - | Majority, 131 | | | | | | | | | | - -FOOTNOTE: - -[76] General Gaines' official letter. - - - - - XI. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration: J. Q. ADAMS.] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1825. - - JOHN C. CALHOUN, VICE-PRESIDENT. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - Henry Clay, Kentucky, March 7, 1825, } Secretary - } of State. - - Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, March 7, 1825, } Secretary - } of Treasury. - - James Barbour, Virginia, March 7, 1825, } Secretaries - Peter B. Porter, New York, May 26, 1828, } of War. - - Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, (_continued in_ } Secretary - _office_), } of the Navy. - - John M'Lean, Ohio, (_continued in_ } Postmaster - _office_), } General. - - William Wirt, Virginia, (_continued in_ } Attorney - _office_), } General. - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - John W. Taylor, New York, Nineteenth Congress, 1825. - Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, Twentieth do. 1827. - -The policy and views of Mr. Adams were, in the main, conformed to those -of his immediate predecessor. As secretary of state under Mr. Monroe, it -is believed that no important measures were adopted without the advice -or consent of Mr. Adams. He would, of course, have been apt to continue -in the same general line of conduct. His qualifications were of the -highest order; he well understood the interests of his country, and was -skilled in every art of diplomacy and government. - -On one point, perhaps, he differed in theory from Mr. Monroe. He -expressed less regard for state rights, or allowed more power to the -general government, according to his construction of the constitution, -than Mr. Monroe did. The latter considered the United States' government -strictly _federal_; the former viewed it rather as a consolidated or -national one. In their public measures, however, this difference of -opinion did not often lead to the exercise of greater power by one than -the other. The constitution was the guide of both; but one might approve -an act of congress for internal improvements, from which the other would -probably have withheld his assent, from scruples as to the -constitutional authority of the federal government for such enterprises. - -The administration of Mr. Adams was, however, destined to be -confronted by a very formidable opposition. This was from the -beginning, on the part of numbers--they were determined to dislike his -measures, whether right or wrong, as they differed with him in matters -of opinion, and were dissatisfied with some circumstances attending -his election. It was alleged that the latter was brought about by -corruption. This state of things constituted a second era of political -asperity in the history of our government, which has not subsided to -this day. But the constitution has happily survived the shock, though, -at the present time, it begins to be assailed by the more dangerous -spirit of sectional divisions. Another portion of Mr. Adams' political -opponents, more honest or honorable than the rest, were willing to -judge him by his acts. "It is but justice to add, that the charge of a -bargain between Mr. Adams and Mr. Clay has not been satisfactorily -supported. On the contrary, it seems now to be generally admitted that -no alliance had been formed between these gentlemen, previous to the -election which issued in Mr. Adams' accession." - -The following are the principal topics upon which we propose to dwell -in noticing the administration of Mr. Adams, viz: - - Controversy respecting the Creeks, Fiftieth Anniversary of - Proposed Mission to Panama, Independence, - Internal Improvements, "American System," - Election of General Jackson. - -_Controversy respecting the removal of the Creeks._--At the commencement -of Mr. Adams' term of office, a controversy arose between the general -government and the state of Georgia, respecting the territory occupied -by the Creek Indians. There had long been a dispute between these people -and the Georgia state government, which claimed the lands on which the -Creeks resided. The claim was professedly founded on a compact into -which the United States entered with Georgia, in 1802, of extinguishing, -at the national expense, the Indian title to these lands, and of -removing the natives, "as soon as it could be done peaceably, and on -reasonable terms." The consideration, on the part of Georgia, was the -relinquishment of her claim to the Mississippi territory. Georgia was -impatient to have the compact fulfilled--the Indians, having grown more -attached to their homes, refused to alienate their territory. Between -the vehemence of Georgia and the resistance of the Creeks, the general -government had a difficult task to perform. As it had been invariably -desirous of observing good faith with the Indian tribes, and had treated -them with much lenity and kindness, it was fully disposed to do justice -to the Creeks, while it was equally desirous to satisfy Georgia. Before -the government could extinguish the Indian claim in the manner before -agreed upon, i. e. "peaceably, and on reasonable terms," the governor of -Georgia insisted on the removal of the tribe, and threatened to take -possession of the territory by force. It was in contemplation, however, -on the part of the federal executive, to resort to force to prevent -these proceedings on the part of Georgia. The danger of a collision, at -one time, appeared to be imminent. The national executive, nevertheless, -by his prompt and vigilant measures, passed through the crisis with -safety, and effected successfully the object in view. - -[Illustration: Removal of the Creek Indians.] - -A treaty, which had been made with a party of the Indians just before -Mr. Adams entered upon his office, by which all the Creek lands in -Georgia and Alabama were ceded to the United States, and which had -been sanctioned by the senate on the last day of the session, was -virtually set aside. Upon a more dispassionate consideration, it had -appeared not to have been executed in good faith, and accordingly a -new treaty was concluded at Washington, through great effort on the -part of the public authorities. This was entered into with the chiefs -of the Creek tribe, in March, 1826. It stipulated for the payment of a -large sum to the tribe, and to guaranty the lands not expressly ceded -by them. Congress sanctioned the treaty and its stipulations, though -the members from Georgia expressed their dissent on record. The -conduct of Mr. Adams, in this difficult and perplexing affair, was -approved very generally in congress, and throughout the country. - -_Proposed Mission to the Congress at Panama._--The president having -been invited to send commissioners to the congress of Panama, which -had for its object the cementing of the friendly relations of all the -independent states of America, saw fit to accept the invitation. -Having nominated Richard C. Anderson and John Sergeant, as ministers -on the part of the United States, and William B. Rochester, of New -York, as secretary, he presented these names to the senate for -confirmation. This step awakened a spirit of animosity against the -president, and a long and angry debate ensued; but the nominations -were eventually confirmed, and the necessary appropriations voted. -Measures were soon taken to carry this policy into effect, and -directions were sent to Mr. Anderson, who was then in Columbia, to -attend the congress, which was to be convened in the beginning of -summer. But he was cut down by a malignant fever before he could reach -the place. Mr. Sergeant was prevented from going, on account of the -lateness of the period at which his appointment was made. - -This failure of representation at the congress, on the part of the -United States, was, by many, deemed auspicious, as the relations and -interests of the country might otherwise have been compromitted; but -others thought differently, and believed that a conference of the kind -might issue in the adoption of a friendly and enlightened policy -between the parties. - -_Internal Improvements._--In 1826, a proposition was made in congress to -expend a sum of money for repairing and extending the Cumberland road. -An act had been passed long before, during Mr. Jefferson's second -presidential term, for making a road from Cumberland, in the state of -Maryland, or near that place, and on the north bank of the Potomac -river, to the river Ohio. Hence the name of the road. After having been -commenced, money was appropriated, at different periods, to finish and -repair the road. It was considered of great national advantage and -convenience, inasmuch as it furnished a commodious way from the Atlantic -slope to the Ohio river and to the great valley of the Mississippi. - -To the proposition above alluded to for an additional sum of money, -opposition was made at the present time. The amount asked was eighty -thousand dollars, for repairs and also for its continuance farther -west; for it was considered as proper to extend it to a remoter point, -as to have made it to the Ohio river. The sum was named in a general -appropriation bill. Many were opposed, on account of their doubts -respecting the authority of congress to expend money for such objects. -Others, however, who were reluctant to vote money for internal -improvements on general principles, were in favor of the appropriation -in this instance, as it would be of great public utility, and as the -road, in order to be used with facility, must be repaired. - -"The vote, at this time, for an appropriation to repair the Cumberland -road, indicated the views of members of congress on the subject of -internal improvements; for it was long discussed, and several members -went fully into the constitutionality of this and several measures. In -the senate, the votes were twenty-three in favor and fifteen against -the appropriation. And, in the house of representatives, they were -ninety-two to sixty-three. And, at the same session, congress -authorized the executive to subscribe, on the part of the government, -for shares in the Dismal Swamp canal, so called, within the state of -Virginia, to the amount of sixty thousand dollars; which was a direct -recognition of the power of congress to construct works for the public -convenience. An act was also passed for a survey in Florida, with a -view to construct a canal across the peninsula, from the Atlantic to -the Gulf of Mexico."[77] - -_The Fiftieth Anniversary of American Independence._--This was a day -long to be remembered in the annals of the nation. The exultation of -feeling throughout the country, that we had reached in safety the -fiftieth anniversary of our independence, was great. The day was every -where celebrated with more than the usual demonstrations of joy. But -the most striking feature of the occasion, was the simultaneous deaths -of two ex-presidents of the United States, John Adams and Thomas -Jefferson. The coincidence in their departure from life was certainly -remarkable, more especially as having occurred at that particular -juncture. It would seem to have been a providential dispensation, -designed to answer some important purpose; perhaps to awaken the great -principles of political freedom and equal rights, to the maintenance -of which the lives of both were consecrated. They had both--and -equally, perhaps--acted a most conspicuous part on the theatre of the -world, and especially in the affairs of American independence. "Both -had been presidents, both had lived to great age, both were early -patriots, and both were distinguished and ever honored by their -immediate agency in the act of independence. It cannot but seem -striking and extraordinary, that these two should live to see the -fiftieth year from the date of that act; that they should complete -that year, and that then, on the day which had fast linked for ever -their own fame with their country's glory, the heavens should open to -receive them both at once. As their lives themselves were the gifts of -Providence, who is not willing to recognize in their happy -termination, as well as in their long continuance, proofs that our -country and its benefactors are objects of his care?" - -Although they belonged to different schools in politics, and were -separated, for a time, by the party distinctions which prevailed soon -after the constitution went into operation, yet they seemed to have -coalesced very much in views and feelings in the latter portion of -their lives. Friendly letters, of great interest, passed between -them, which were given to the public at the time. But the -coincidences or parallel circumstances attending these distinguished -men are not yet exhausted. "They belonged to the same profession, and -had pursued its studies and its practice, for unequal lengths of time -indeed, but with diligence and effect. Both were learned and able -lawyers. They were natives and inhabitants respectively of those two -of the colonies, which, at the Revolution, were the largest and most -powerful, and which, naturally, had a lead in the political affairs of -the times. When the colonies became, in some degree, united, by the -assembling of the general congress, they were brought to act together -in its deliberations, not indeed at the same time, but both at early -periods. Each had already manifested his attachment to the cause of -the country, as well as his ability to maintain it, by pointed -addresses, public speeches, extensive correspondence, and whatever -other mode could be adopted for the purpose of exposing the -encroachments of the British parliament, and animating the people to -manly resistance. Both were not only decided, but early friends of -independence. While others yet doubted, they were resolved; where -others hesitated, they pressed forward. They were both members of the -committee for preparing the Declaration of Independence; they -constituted the sub-committee, appointed by the other members to make -the draft. They left their seats in congress, being called to other -public employments, at periods not remote from each other, although -one of them returned to it, afterwards, for a short time. Neither of -them was of the assembly of great men which formed the present -constitution, and neither was at any time member of congress under its -provisions. Both have been public ministers abroad, both -vice-presidents, and both presidents." These coincidences were -surprisingly completed, as already mentioned, by their simultaneous -deaths, and that on the anniversary of liberty. - -_Introduction of the "American System."_--The phrase "American System" -was given to the policy advocated by many, of protecting, by impost -duties, the manufactures of the country against foreign competition. It -began to be employed during the administration of Mr. Adams. Additional -duties were sought by the friends of manufactures on woolen goods, and a -bill for that purpose passed both houses of congress, in the months of -April and May, 1827. The measure, however, seemed not to be satisfactory -to the country at large. "The president was in favor of affording -protection to domestic manufactures generally, and of woolens -particularly, which, at this time, was the leading question in political -economy, so far as the federal government was believed to have authority -to interfere. But he was also friendly to extensive enterprises in -commerce and navigation, and expressed no opinion in support of the -ultra doctrines of the manufacturers." - -_Election of General Jackson._--The administration of Mr. Adams -encountered strong and determined opposition. The circumstance of his -rival, General Jackson, having had a larger popular vote than himself, -and having, in congress, only a small majority, when elected to -office, seemed, in the view of the democratic party, quite sufficient -to justify a more than usual distrust of his administration, from its -beginning. Mr. Adams was watched with singular vigilance, and every -advantage taken to render his acts unpopular. It was early charged -against him, that a corrupt bargain had been made with Mr. Clay, his -secretary of state. The Panama mission was represented as a measure -weak and injudicious. And, moreover, it was charged that his -administration was wasteful and extravagant. - -Of the falsity and injustice of these charges, it is now unnecessary -to speak. They were a part of an organized system of opposition, and -designed to prevent the rëelection of Mr. Adams, and secure that of -General Jackson. In this design, the friends of the latter succeeded, -the vote of the electors for president affording a victory to his -supporters, as gratifying as the defeat of the friends of the former -was mortifying. - - Key: A. And'w. Jackson, of Tennessee. - B. John Q. Adams, of Massa'tts. - C. John C. Calhoun, of S. Carolina. - D. Richard Rush, of Pennsylv'a. - E. William Smith, of S. Carolina. - - ---------+-----------------+----------+----------------- - No. of | |PRESIDENT.| VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |----------+----------------- - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. - State. | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-----+-----+----- - 9 | Maine, | 1 | 8 | 1 | 8 | - 8 | New Hampshire, | | 8 | | 8 | - 15 | Massachusetts, | | 15 | | 15 | - 4 | Rhode Island, | | 4 | | 4 | - 8 | Connecticut, | | 8 | | 8 | - 7 | Vermont, | | 7 | | 7 | - 36 | New York, | 20 | 16 | 20 | 16 | - 8 | New Jersey, | | 8 | | 8 | - 28 | Pennsylvania, | 28 | | 28 | | - 3 | Delaware, | | 3 | | 3 | - 11 | Maryland, | 5 | 6 | 5 | 6 | - 24 | Virginia, | 24 | | 24 | | - 15 | North Carolina, | 15 | | 15 | | - 11 | South Carolina, | 11 | | 11 | | - 9 | Georgia, | 9 | | 2 | | 7 - 14 | Kentucky, | 14 | | 14 | | - 11 | Tennessee, | 11 | | 11 | | - 16 | Ohio, | 16 | | 16 | | - 5 | Lousiana, | 5 | | 5 | | - 3 | Mississippi, | 3 | | 3 | | - 5 | Indiana, | 5 | | 5 | | - 3 | Illinois, | 3 | | 3 | | - 5 | Alabama, | 5 | | 5 | | - 3 | Missouri, | 3 | | 3 | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-----+-----+----- - 261 | Whole No. of | | | | | - | electors, |178 | 83 | 171 | 83 | 7 - | Majority, 131 | | | | | - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[77] Bradford's History of the Federal Government. - - - - - XII. ANDREW JACKSON, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration: JACKSON.] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1829, - - JOHN C. CALHOUN AND MARTIN VAN BUREN, _Vice-Presidents_. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - Martin Van Buren, New York, March 6, 1829,} - Edward Livingston, Louisiana, January 12, 1832,} Secretaries - Louis M'Lane, Delaware, May 29, 1833,} of State. - John Forsyth, Georgia, June 27, 1834,} - - Samuel D. Ingham, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1829,} - Louis M'Lane, Delaware, January 13, 1832,} - William J. Duane, Pennsylvania, May 29, 1833,} - Roger B. Taney, Maryland, (appointed in } Secretaries - the recess: } of Treasury. - negatived by } - the Senate,) } - Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire, January 27, 1834,} - - John H. Eaton, Tennessee, March 9, 1829,} Secretaries - Lewis Cass, Ohio, December 30, 1831,} of War. - - John Branch, North Carolina, March 9, 1829,} Secretaries - Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire, December 27, 1831,} of the Navy. - Mahlon Dickerson, New Jersey, June 30, 1834,} - - William T. Barry, Kentucky, March 9, 1829,} Postmasters - Amos Kendall, Kentucky, March 15, 1836,} General. - - John M. Berrien, Georgia, March 9, 1829,} Attorneys - Roger B. Taney, Maryland, December 27, 1831,} General. - Benjamin F. Butler, New York, June 24, 1834,} - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, Twenty-first Congress, 1829. - Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, Twenty-second do. 1831. - Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, Twenty-third do. 1833. - John Bell, Tennessee, Twenty-fourth do. 1834. - James K. Polk, Tennessee, Twenty-fifth do. 1835. - -In his inaugural address, General Jackson exhibited, in comprehensive -terms, his views in regard to the administration of the government. He -spoke of the limitations and extent of executive power--the peace and -friendship to be cultivated with foreign powers--the respect due to -the rights of the separate states--the solicitude to be exercised in -the management of the public revenue--the equal fostering care of the -general government in respect to agriculture, commerce, and -manufactures--the necessity of _reform_, and the correction of certain -abuses--the attention to be given to internal improvement and the -diffusion of knowledge--the policy to be observed towards the Indian -tribes within our borders--and other similar topics. - -He expressed, also, the diffidence he felt on assuming the high and -responsible station to which he had been elevated, and the reverence -with which he regarded the examples of public virtue left us by his -illustrious predecessors; hoping at the same time to receive -instruction and aid from the cöordinate branches of the government, -and the indulgence and support of his fellow-citizens in general. It -was a brief and terse address, and manifested the characteristic -decision and fearlessness of the man. - -A sketch of the more prominent measures and events of General Jackson's -administration will require us to notice the following topics, viz: - - Condition of the Country, Rëelection of Andrew Jackson, - Georgia and the Cherokees, Removal of Deposites, - Public Lands, Death of Lafayette, - National Bank, Deposite Act, - Internal Improvements, Seminole War, - Indian Hostilities, Treasury Circular, - Discontents in South Carolina, Election of Mr. Van Buren, - Character of Jackson's Administration. - -_Condition of the Country._--A high degree of prosperity was enjoyed -in the United States at this era. The administration of General -Jackson's predecessor had been crowned with signal success. -Circumstances, however, connected with the election of Mr. Adams were -seized upon as a ground of attack; and, in the eye of many, all that -he afterwards did, as the executive of the nation, was unnaturally -colored or distorted. But the results showed that his administration -had been conducted with wisdom, integrity, and vigor. During the whole -course of it, uninterrupted peace had been enjoyed; our commercial -relations had been gradually extended; and, in many instances, the -claims of American citizens upon foreign governments had been -prosecuted with success. At home, the marks of an able administration -were exhibited, in the increased activity imparted to the legitimate -powers of the federal government for the development of the resources -of the country, and the increase of its wealth and respectability. - -_Georgia and the Cherokees._--The president, in his message on the 8th -of December, 1829, had presented, at considerable length, his views in -regard to the disposal of the Indian tribes within the limits of the -United States. He recommended their removal beyond the boundary of the -different states, but without compulsion, to such territory west of -the Mississippi, as congress might set apart for their use. In this, -he wished to avoid the difficulties arising from the treaties between -the United States and these Indians, and the opposing claims of the -states within whose limits the Indians resided. This was one of the -most embarrassing subjects which demanded the attention of the new -administration. It was especially applicable to the relation which the -Cherokees, a powerful tribe within the limits of Georgia, sustained to -the general government. - -Treaties had been made with this tribe, from time to time, ever since -the adoption of the federal constitution. In these treaties, the -protection of the United States was promised them, and the territory -they inhabited was acknowledged to be theirs. But the government had -also acknowledged the limits of Georgia, and had agreed to extinguish -the Indian title whenever it could be peaceably effected. - -Georgia, in her anxiety to secure the Indian territory, had passed -laws from time to time, with reference to that object, claiming -exclusive civil and criminal jurisdiction over the Indians. In this -state of things, the new administration came in, and the views of the -president coinciding with those of the state of Georgia, a change was -made in her mode of procedure. She was allowed, with the approbation -of the general government, to extend her laws over the Cherokees, and -to consider the treaties of the United States with them, guaranteeing -their territory, as unconstitutional and void. - -In conformity to the president's proposal of removing the Indians, as -already alluded to, a bill was submitted to both houses of congress, -in February, 1830, authorizing the president to set apart such portion -as he should deem necessary of the public territory west of the -Mississippi, to be divided into districts, for the permanent residence -of the emigrating Indians. The bill underwent a thorough and spirited -debate, and was finally passed by both houses, by a small majority. - -The laws of Georgia had come into direct conflict with those of the -United States, but this bill seemed to release the president from the -duty of enforcing the acts of the latter, and observing the faith of -treaties, as it was also in agreement with his determination not to -regard either, in reference to a sovereign state. Encouraged by the acts -of the government and the views of the president, Georgia proceeded to -assert entire sovereignty over the Indians within its limits, issued -writs of the state courts against the residents in the Indian -territories, and tried the Cherokees before the tribunals of the state. -At length, even the missionaries of the American board, residing and -laboring among them, were arrested, tried, condemned and imprisoned, for -refusing to obtain a permit from the government of Georgia to reside -within the territory, or to take an oath of allegiance to the state. -And, to consummate their high-handed proceedings, the decision of the -supreme judicial tribunal of the United States, pronouncing the acts of -the Georgia legislature null and void, being unconstitutional, was -resisted by the state. What might have ensued from this condition of -affairs, had the general government undertaken to enforce the decision -of the supreme court of the nation, as it would have been its imperious -duty, it is needless to say. The missionaries relieved Georgia from the -dreaded calamity, by informing the governor that they had instructed -their counsel to prosecute the case no further. Soon after this, the -missionaries were set at liberty. - -Notwithstanding all the stringent measures of Georgia, the Cherokees -were determined to remain in the land of their fathers. But at length, -in 1835, a few of their chiefs were induced to sign a treaty for the -sale of their lands and a removal west of the Mississippi. Although -this treaty was opposed by a majority of the Cherokees, and the terms -afterwards decided upon at Washington rejected, yet, as the state of -Georgia was determined in its hostility, and they could expect no -protection, according to the new doctrine, from the general -government, they finally decided upon a removal; but it was not until -the close of the year 1838, that the task of emigration was completed. - -_Public Lands._--Questions pertaining to the public lands were -earnestly debated at this period. These lands form an immense domain, -and lie on both sides of the Mississippi, though much the larger -portion lies on the west of that river. Applying the Georgia doctrine, -in reference to the sovereignty of the state over all land within its -limits, some of the new states, formed out of the public domain, set -up a claim to the property in the soil of all lands not owned by -individuals, as an element of sovereignty. The mode of disposing of -these lands, was complained of in other states, and attempts were made -to throw doubt on the validity of the title of the general government -to that portion within the limits of states. - -A resolution of Mr. Foot, of Connecticut, on this subject, gave rise -to animated discussion in the senate, on the 29th of December, 1829. -In the course of the debate, Mr. Hayne, of South Carolina, introduced -the subject of state rights, and contended that the several states -within which the public lands were situated, should have the entire -control and jurisdiction over them. Mr. Webster, of Massachusetts, -replied to Mr. Hayne in one of the most eloquent and effective -speeches ever delivered in congress, and contended that on subjects -fully committed to the government by the constitution, its powers were -absolute, exclusive, and unlimited; that no state, nor even a number -of states, might justly interfere in such cases; and that the public -lands not expressly ceded to a particular state, were solely and -absolutely at the disposal of the United States' government. This -speech destroyed, for a time, the hopes of the advocates of the novel -doctrine of nullification; yet the views of Mr. Hayne, respecting -state rights and powers, continued to be entertained by a large -portion of the people of the Southern states. No particular law -resulted from this able and prolonged discussion. - -_National Bank._--In anticipation of a request for the renewal of the -charter of the United States' bank, the president, in his message to -congress, had expressed opinions adverse to that measure. But the -standing committees of the senate and house, to which that portion of -his message referred, made reports in opposition to the president's -views. The friends of the administration formed a majority in both -committees, and it was readily perceived how little harmony of action -there was likely to be, on that subject, between the president and the -party which had brought him into power. - -About four years anterior to the expiration of the existing charter, -that is, in December, 1832, a memorial was presented to congress from -the president and directors of the United States' bank, for a renewal -of its charter. This memorial was referred to a select committee, -which, on the 13th of March following, reported in its favor, -recommending only some limitations to the power of issuing notes and -holding real property; also, the payment of a bonus of one million -five hundred thousand dollars. After long debates, and various -amendments, a bill for this purpose was carried in the senate by a -vote of twenty-eight to twenty, and in the house by a vote of one -hundred and seven to eighty-five; but, being on the 4th of July sent -to the president, it was returned to the senate on the 10th of July -with an absolute veto, which, not being opposed by two-thirds, decided -the fate of the bank. - -_Internal Improvements._--The policy of the government from an early -period, though not from the beginning, had favored works of internal -improvement, so that it seemed to be settled as a feature of each -successive administration, from Mr. Jefferson to the present period. -From General Jackson's own votes, while he was a member of the senate, -it might reasonably be inferred that the same policy would be -coincident with his views as president. But such was found not to be -the fact. The question of internal improvements by the general -government, was earnestly discussed at the first session of the -twenty-first congress, and a bill was passed in the house, by a vote -of one hundred and two to thirty-five, in the senate by twenty-four to -eighteen, authorizing a subscription to the stock of the Maysville and -Lexington road company, in Kentucky. The bill thus passed by so large -a majority, was sent to the president for his approval. After -retaining it eight days, he returned it to the house, on the 27th of -May, 1830, with his objections. - -The reading of this veto message produced much excitement in congress. -Many of the friends of the president from Pennsylvania and from the -Western states, had confidently looked for his approbation of the -bill. Their surprise and disappointment were equally great. The -question being taken upon the passage of the bill, notwithstanding the -objections of the president, the vote stood, yeas ninety-six, nays -ninety-four. Two-thirds of the house not agreeing to pass the bill, -it was rejected, though a majority of the house refused to sustain the -objections of the president. - -_Indian Hostilities._--The year 1832 was distinguished by a series of -Indian hostilities, commonly known as "Black Hawk's War," from the -name of the celebrated Indian chief, who was the leader of the Sac and -Fox Indians in these hostilities. These tribes, together with the -Winnebagoes, had, for a considerable time, manifested a restless -disposition, and appeared evidently disposed to commence hostilities, -as opportunity might offer. They had joined the British in the war of -1812, and inflicted much injury on the Americans. Encouraged by the -friendship of the British, as well as incited by their own warlike -propensities, the Sacs and Foxes claimed the right of occupying a part -of the country upon Rock river, even after it had been sold to the -citizens of the United States, and the latter had made settlements -upon it. In attempting to assert this right, frequent collisions -ensued; and, as no persuasions on the part of the agents of the -government could induce them to be quiet, and confine themselves to -their own country on the west of the Mississippi, measures were taken -to compel them to desist from their aggressions. As early as 1831, a -considerable detachment of the army, and also of the militia of -Illinois, was called into the field; upon which, the Indians agreed to -confine themselves within their own proper limits. - -In a short time, however, this arrangement was violated by a party of -these Indians, in an outrage committed upon a band of friendly -Menomonies, in the very vicinity of Fort Crawford. Twenty-five persons -were wantonly killed and many wounded, while encamped in the village -of Prairie du Chien, under the protection of our flag. It was felt by -the government, that this aggression could not be passed over without -the infliction of a due chastisement; as all was at stake, in regard -to the friendly Indians and the frontier settlements in that quarter. -Accordingly, the department ordered General Atkinson, on the 7th of -March, 1832, to ascend the Mississippi with the disposable regular -troops at Jefferson barracks, and to strengthen the frontiers; orders -were also given for the rëoccupation of Chicago. - -In the prosecution of his instructions, General Atkinson proceeded to -the Indian country, where, after various skirmishes, and several more -serious engagements, the Sacs and Foxes, under the direction of Black -Hawk, fled beyond the Mississippi. On the 28th and 29th of July, -General Atkinson crossed with his army to the north side of the -Wisconsin, at Helena, in pursuit of the enemy. After a most difficult -and forced march, over steep mountains and through deep ravines, on -the 5th day of March, the enemy was announced by one of the scouts. A -suitable disposition was made of the American forces, with a view to -prevent the escape of any of the foe, and the firing commenced, as the -different portions of the army came in contact with him. The battle -lasted upwards of three hours. About fifty of his women and children -were taken prisoners, and many were killed in the battle. When the -Indians were driven to the bank of the Mississippi, some hundreds of -the men, women, and children plunged into the river, and hoped, by -diving, to escape the bullets. Very few, however, escaped--the -American sharp-shooter is nearly infallible in his aim. - -Black Hawk, in the midst of the battle, escaped, and went up the -river. The savages, after this defeat, became convinced of the -impossibility of contending, with success, against the American arms. -No further serious resistance was offered on their part, and the war -soon closed by the capture of Black Hawk, who was delivered up to the -American commander, by two Winnebagoes, on the 27th of August. He was -well treated and much noticed in the United States. - -_Discontent in South Carolina._--The year 1832 was distinguished also -by discontents in the Southern portion of the country, particularly in -South Carolina, arising from the tariff of 1828. That tariff had been -slightly modified by an act of congress, in the summer of 1832. But -the small and partial reduction of duties thus secured, did not -diminish, but rather served to increase the opposition to the American -System, then so called. By this system was meant the policy of high -duties on imports, for the protection of domestic manufactures. - -In South Carolina, it was resolved, a few months after the passage of -the law of July, 1832, by the legislature, that the present law, and -that of 1828, were infractions of the constitution, or exceeded the -power given to the federal government by that compact, and were, -therefore, null and void; and that the execution of those acts, within -the state, was to be prevented, even by force, if necessary. And the -requisite measures were taken to enforce this resolution. - -An issue was thus brought on between the state and federal government, -that imperiously demanded attention. The very existence of the -government depended on the decision of the president. South Carolina -had set at defiance the supreme authority of the Union, and declared -that no umpire should be admitted to decide between the contending -parties. In such an exigency, the president felt that there was no -room for hesitation. The difficulty must be met, not only to save the -Union from dismemberment, or the loss of one of its constituent parts, -but to protect those citizens of South Carolina, who still adhered to -the Union, from the horrors of civil discord. The president, with his -personal courage and indomitable will, as also clothed with the -irresistible power of the Union, determined to throw himself into the -breach, and to enforce the revenue acts with an entire disregard to -the pretended rights of sovereignty, which were assumed by the state -of South Carolina. - -To carry the determination of the government into effect, all the -disposable military force was ordered to assemble at Charleston, and a -sloop-of-war was sent to that port to protect the federal officers, in -case of necessity, in the execution of their duties. On the 10th of -December, the proclamation of the president was issued, plainly and -forcibly stating the nature of the American government, and the -supremacy of the federal authorities in all matters intrusted to their -care. At the same time, in this document, he exhorted the citizens of -South Carolina not to persist in a course which must bring upon their -state the force of the confederacy, and expose the Union to the hazard -of a dissolution. - -The proclamation of General Jackson was a noble production. It was -hailed with delight throughout the country, as well by his political -opponents, as by his friends. "Perhaps no document has emanated from -the executive department of the government, which has been more -generally approved, both in regard to the style in which it was -written, and the doctrines asserted and maintained, since the farewell -address of the first president. It contains no speculative opinions, -no new theories; it speaks the facts of history, in the language of -the constitution, and in the spirit which we, of a later generation, -may suppose animated its framers." - -The president, on this momentous occasion, was nobly supported by the -leaders of the opposition party in congress, with Mr. Webster at their -head. The force of public opinion was irresistible--South Carolina was -compelled to shrink before it. No resistance was actually made to the -enforcement of the laws they had nullified, and, consequently, no -coercive measures were necessary on the part of the general government -to maintain its authority. The objectionable laws were somewhat -modified in the session of 1833, by what was termed "the compromise -act," proposed by Mr. Clay; and South Carolina, though she has -steadfastly adhered to her theories, has been contented not to reduce -them to practice. - -_Rëelection of General Jackson._--In the autumn of 1832, the electors -of the country were again convened in their respective places of -residence for the choice of a president. The two principal candidates -were General Jackson and Henry Clay. The friends of Mr. Calhoun, in -South Carolina, where the tariff question had already produced a -bitter feeling of hostility to the government, remained almost -entirely aloof from the contest. The anti-masonic party in the -Northern states, which had been recently formed, supported William -Wirt, of Maryland. The opponents of General Jackson were strongly -opposed to his rëelection, and made great exertions to defeat it; but -the returns from the electoral colleges exhibited a large majority in -his favor. The following is the official result of the electoral vote: - - Key: A. Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. - B. Henry Clay, of Kentucky. - C. John Floyd, of Virginia. - D. William Wirt, of Maryland. - E. Martin Van Buren, of New York. - F. John Sergeant, of Pennsylvania. - G. William Wilkins, of Pennsylvania. - H. Henry Lee, of Massachusetts. - I. Amos Ellmaker, of Pennsylvania. - - ---------+-----------------+---------------+------------------- - No. of | | PRESIDENT. | VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |---------------+------------------- - from each| |A. |B. |C. |D. |E. |F. |G. |H. |I. - State. | | | | | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- - 10 | Maine, |10 | | | |10 | | | | - 7 | New Hampshire, | 7 | | | | 7 | | | | - 14 | Massachusetts, | |14 | | | |14 | | | - 4 | Rhode Island, | | 4 | | | | 4 | | | - 8 | Connecticut, | | 8 | | | | 8 | | | - 7 | Vermont, | | | | 7 | | | | | 7 - 42 | New York, |42 | | | |42 | | | | - 8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | | | 8 | | | | - 30 | Pennsylvania, |30 | | | | | |30 | | - 3 | Delaware, | | 3 | | | | 3 | | | - 10 | Maryland, | 3 | 5 | | | 3 | 5 | | | - 23 | Virginia, |23 | | | |23 | | | | - 15 | North Carolina, |15 | | | |15 | | | | - 11 | South Carolina, | | |11 | | | | |11 | - 11 | Georgia, |11 | | | |11 | | | | - 15 | Kentucky, | |15 | | | |15 | | | - 15 | Tennessee, |15 | | | |15 | | | | - 21 | Ohio, |21 | | | |21 | | | | - 5 | Lousiana, | 5 | | | | 5 | | | | - 4 | Mississippi, | 4 | | | | 4 | | | | - 9 | Indiana, | 9 | | | | 9 | | | | - 5 | Illinois, | 5 | | | | 5 | | | | - 7 | Alabama, | 7 | | | | 7 | | | | - 4 | Missouri, | 4 | | | | 4 | | | | - ---------+-----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- - 288 | Whole No. of | | | | | | | | | - | electors, |219|49 |11 | 7 |189|49 |30 |11 | 7 - | Majority, 145 | | | | | | | | | - -_Removal of the Deposites._--The law of 1816, which created the United -States' bank, required that the public moneys should be deposited in -that bank, subject to be removed only by the secretary of the -treasury, and requiring him, in that case, to present his reasons for -removing them to congress. Congress had already refused to authorize -the removal of the deposites, and the president was now resolved to -effect it on his own responsibility. The new secretary of the -treasury, William J. Duane (for there had been some recent changes in -the cabinet), refusing to act in this matter, and resigning his -office, the attorney-general, Roger B. Taney, was appointed in his -place. Mr. Taney immediately issued the necessary orders for the -removal of the deposites from the United States' bank; a measure which -resulted from the president's determination to break off all -connection between the government and the bank. - -At the coming session of congress, 2d of December, 1833, one of the -first acts of the senate was the adoption of a resolution, by a vote -of twenty-six to twenty, declaring "that the president, in his late -executive proceedings, in relation to the public revenue, had assumed -upon himself authority and power not conferred by the constitution and -laws, but in derogation of both." This resolution remained on the -journal until January 15, 1837, when it was formally expunged by order -of the senate. - -The act of the president, and the measures taken by the United States' -bank, occasioned much embarrassment throughout the mercantile -community, during the years 1834 and 1835. Committees, appointed by -the merchants, mechanics, and tradesmen of the principal commercial -cities, solicited the president to rëplace the government deposites in -the United States' bank. But he resisted every solicitation. Many -petitions were sent to congress on the same subject. The senate -favorably received them; but the house saw fit to sustain the -president in this measure. - -_Death of Lafayette._--This illustrious man and benefactor of America, -died at his residence, La Grange, in France, on the 20th of May, 1834. -This event was announced to congress on the 21st of June, in a message -from the president. The character, services, and sacrifices of -Lafayette, as an apostle of liberty and lover of mankind, were spoken of -in appropriate terms of commendation in the president's communication. A -joint select committee, of both houses, reported a series of -resolutions, among which, one went to request the president to address a -letter of condolence to the survivors in his family, and another to -appoint John Quincy Adams to deliver, at the next session of congress, -an oration on the life and character of the illustrious man. In due -time, Mr. Adams pronounced his eulogy, in which the character and -actions of Lafayette were drawn in a masterly manner. - -_Deposite Act._--The deposite or distribution act was passed by -congress in 1835. The president had given it his "reluctant approval," -with the apprehension of evil consequences flowing from it. In a -message to the subsequent congress, he speaks of it as merely an act -for the deposite of the surplus moneys of the United States in the -state treasuries, for safe keeping, until wanted for the service of -the general government--but that it had been spoken of as a _gift_, -would be so considered, and might be so used. The manifestation of the -president's feelings, in regard to this act and its disadvantages, was -not calculated to relieve the minds of some, as to what he might -attempt, in order to defeat its execution, or to prevent a future -similar measure. This apprehension was subsequently strengthened by -certain circumstances, which, however, need here no specific mention. -There was at least an apparent effort to obtain control over the -government funds, so as to divert them from the channel directed by -the act of congress. - -_Seminole War._--The Seminole Indians of Florida, near the close of the -year 1835, commenced hostilities against the settlements of the whites -in their neighborhood. To this, they were incited by the attempt of the -government to remove the Indians to lands west of the Mississippi, in -accordance with the treaty of Payne's Landing, executed in 1832. That -treaty, however, the Indians denied to be justly binding upon them, and -they naturally felt a strong reluctance to quit their homes for ever. -Micanopy, the king of the Seminoles, was opposed to the removal; and -Osceola, their most noted warrior, said he "wished to rest in the land -of his fathers, and his children to sleep by his side." - -Osceola was cruelly put in irons by General Thompson, the government -agent, who was displeased by the pretensions of the chieftain, and his -remonstrances against the governmental proceedings. He, however, -obtained his liberty, at length, by dissembling his displeasure, and -gave his confirmation to the treaty of removal. The whites were thus -lulled into security; and, while they were expecting the delivery of -the cattle and horses of the Indians, according to the treaty, the -latter were already commencing the work of devastation and death. - -At this time, Major Dade was dispatched from Fort Brooke, at the head -of Tampa Bay, with upwards of an hundred men, to the assistance of -General Clinch, stationed at Fort Drane, in the interior of Florida. -The latter was supposed to be in imminent danger. Dade had proceeded -only about half the distance, when he was suddenly attacked by the -enemy, and he and all, except four of his men, were killed, and these -four, terribly mangled, afterwards died of their wounds. - -At the time of this massacre, Osceola, with a small band of warriors, -was lurking in the vicinity of Fort King, about sixty-five miles -south-west from St. Augustine. Here General Thompson and a few friends -were dining at a store near the fort, when Osceola and his band -surprised them by a sudden discharge of musketry, and five out of nine -were killed. The general was one of the slain, his body having been -pierced by fifteen bullets. The Indian chief and his party then rushed -in, scalped the dead, and retreated before they could be fired upon -from the fort. - -There were other engagements about this time between the Americans and -the savages; and subsequently, upon the junction of several of the -Creek towns and tribes with the Seminoles in the war, murders and -devastations became frequent. The Indians obtained possession of many -of the southern mail routes in Georgia and Alabama, attacked -steamboats, destroyed stages, burned a number of towns, and compelled -thousands of the whites, who had settled in their territory, to -abandon their homes. A strong force, however, of confederate whites -and friendly Indians, having been sent against them, and several of -the hostile chiefs having been captured, the Creeks submitted, and, -during the summer of 1836, several thousands of them were transported -west of the Mississippi. - -In October of the same year, Governor Call took command of the American -forces in Florida, and marched into the interior with nearly two -thousand men. At the Wahoo swamp, not far from Dade's battle-ground, -five hundred and fifty of his troops attacked a large number of the -enemy, who, after a fierce contest of nearly half an hour, were -dispersed, with the loss of twenty warriors left dead on the field. In a -second engagement, the Americans lost nine men killed and sixteen -wounded. The combats of the whites and Indians in Florida, at this -period, seem to have been attended with much loss of life on both sides. - -_Treasury Circular._--An important circular, in relation to the funds -which should be received in payment for the public lands, was issued -from the treasury department on the 11th of July, 1836. The purport of -the circular was, to instruct the receivers of the public money, after -the 15th day of August next ensuing, to receive in payment of the public -lands nothing except gold and silver, and in the proper places, Virginia -land scrip, in accordance with the directions of the existing laws. In -order to secure the faithful execution of the requirements of the -circular, all receivers were strictly prohibited from accepting, for -land sold, any draft, certificate, or other evidence of money or -deposite, though for specie, unless signed by the treasurer of the -United States, in conformity to the act of April 25th, 1820. - -At the next following session of congress, the president, in his -message, was pleased to represent this specie circular as having -produced many salutary consequences, contrary to the views of a large -portion of the citizens of the United States, who believed that the -embarrassment and disturbance of the currency, so severely felt, were, -in a great measure, owing to the operation of that circular. - -_Character of General Jackson's Administration._--It is hardly to be -anticipated, perhaps, that a full and impartial estimate of General -Jackson's administration, can be formed during the present generation. -There were many strong points in it, and these are apt to call forth -strong correspondent feelings, whether of approbation or dislike. Men -differ, and may honestly differ, in regard to the propriety of his -conduct and the wisdom of his measures. That he was honest, as a ruler, -will not be at all doubted. That he was self-willed, and determined to -have his own way, will scarcely less admit of a question. - -Still, it is not too much to hope, that the services he rendered to -his country, connected though they be with the stern and high-handed -measures adopted by his indomitable will, may be cherished with -gratitude and respect. As a statesman, he had clear views, and, in -some instances, a sort of prophetic foresight. When he had once -determined upon a particular course, where any important principle was -involved, he could not be made to swerve from what he conceived to be -just and right. As the element of fear seemed not to be in him, he -never shrunk from the discharge of any public duty, and was always -ready to avow any act of his administration, as in the instance of -removal of the public deposites through his secretary, and -unshrinkingly to abide the consequences. - -_Election of Martin Van Buren._--General Jackson, in his last annual -message, signified his intention, at the expiration of his term, to -retire to private life. At the democratic convention for nominating a -successor, Mr. Van Buren received a decided majority. The votes of the -electoral colleges, counted February 8th, 1837, showed the following -result: - - Key: A. Martin Van Buren, of New York. - B. Wm. H. Harrison, of Ohio. - C. Hugh L. White, of Tennessee. - D. Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts. - E. W. P. Mangum, of N. Carolina. - F. R. M. Johnson, of Kentucky. - G. Francis Granger, of New York. - H. John Tyler, of Virginia. - I. William Smith, of Alabama. - - ---------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------- - No. of | | PRESIDENT. |VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |-------------------+---------------- - from each| |A. |B. |C. |D. |E. |F. |G. |H. |I. - State. | | | | | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- - 10 | Maine, |10 | | | | |10 | | | - 7 | New Hampshire, | 7 | | | | | 7 | | | - 14 | Massachusetts, | | | |14 | | |14 | | - 4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | | | | | 4 | | | - 8 | Connecticut, | 8 | | | | | 8 | | | - 7 | Vermont, | | 7 | | | | | 7 | | - 42 | New York, |42 | | | | |42 | | | - 8 | New Jersey, | | 8 | | | | | 8 | | - 30 | Pennsylvania, |30 | | | | |30 | | | - 3 | Delaware, | | 3 | | | | | 3 | | - 10 | Maryland, | |10 | | | | | |10 |23 - 23 | Virginia, |23 | | | | | | | | - 15 | North Carolina, |15 | | | | |15 | | | - 11 | South Carolina, | | | | |11 | | |11 | - 11 | Georgia, | | |11 | | | | |11 | - 15 | Kentucky, | |15 | | | | |15 | | - 15 | Tennessee, | | |15 | | | | |15 | - 21 | Ohio, | |21 | | | | |21 | | - 5 | Lousiana, | 5 | | | | | 5 | | | - 4 | Mississippi, | 4 | | | | | 4 | | | - 9 | Indiana, | | 9 | | | | | 9 | | - 5 | Illinois, | 5 | | | | | 5 | | | - 7 | Alabama, | 7 | | | | | 7 | | | - 4 | Missouri, | 4 | | | | | 4 | | | - 3 | Arkansas, | 3 | | | | | 3 | | | - 3 | Michigan, | 3 | | | | | 3 | | | - ---------+-----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- - 294 | Whole No. of | | | | | | | | | - | electors, |170|73 |26 |14 |11 |147|77 |47 |23 - | Majority, 148 | | | | | | | | | - - - - - XIII. MARTIN VAN BUREN, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration: VAN-BUREN.] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1837. - - RICHARD M. JOHNSON, VICE-PRESIDENT. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - John Forsyth, Georgia, (_continued in_ } Secretary - _office_), } of State. - - Levi Woodbury, New Hampshire, (_continued in_ } Secretary - _office_), } of Treasury. - - Joel R. Poinsett, South Carolina, March 7, 1837,} Secretary - } of War. - - Mahlon Dickerson, New Jersey, (_continued in_ } Secretaries - _office_), } of the Navy. - James K. Paulding, New York, June 30, 1838,} - - Amos Kendall, Kentucky, (_continued in_ } Postmasters - _office_), } General. - John M. Niles, Connecticut, May 25, 1840,} - - Benjamin F. Butler, New York, (_continued in_ } Attorneys - _office_), } General. - Felix Grundy, Tennessee, September 1, 1838,} - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - James K. Polk, Tennessee, Twenty-sixth Congress, 1837. - R. M. T. Hunter, Virginia, Twenty-seventh do. 1839. - -Prior to the elevation of Mr. Van Buren to the presidency, he had been -long in public life, and had been honored with several offices in his -native state and under the general government. His talents, learning, -and experience, though not greater than those of many others of his -countrymen, were generally allowed to be adequate to his station. He -had not, indeed, like all his predecessors, been connected more or -less with the scenes of the Revolution, for he was born in the -concluding year of the war. But, in the swiftly revolving years, it -was evident that the time must soon come, when others than the men of -'76 would be called to the helm of government. New men, and those not -of the Anglo-American stock, must participate, as agreeable to the -will of our mixed community, in guiding the ship of state which the -fathers launched forth on the sea of experiment. Such was the case in -respect to Mr. Van Buren, and such must it be hereafter, so far as -regards men of ante-revolutionary birth. Whether our future presidents -will continue to be guided by the spirit and example of the sages and -heroes of the Revolution, remains to be seen. - -In developing the administration of Mr. Van Buren, the following -topics will be noticed: - - Measures respecting Banks, Difficulties in Maine, - Treasury Circular, Border Troubles, - Continuance of Florida War, Changes of Public opinion, - Internal Improvements, Character of the Administration, - Public Expenses, Election of William H. Harrison. - -_Measures respecting Banks, &c._--The embarrassments in trade, -consequent on the discontinuance of the Bank of the United States, -issued in a great and disastrous diminution of the revenue. In this -state of things, the administration found it necessary to resort to -large loans. The people, as was to be expected, soon began to suffer -in their private enterprises, and the country throughout wore a gloomy -aspect, in respect to its pecuniary affairs and general prosperity. -This condition of things arose to a great height, in the year 1837, -and continued for some time afterwards. "Over trading, or the unusual -amount of importations, was one cause to which this unprosperous state -of the country was imputed. But it was also attributed to the -discontinuance of the national bank, and to the repeated attempts of -the administration to destroy its influence. Several petitions, from -different commercial towns and cities, with very numerous subscribers, -were presented to the president, requesting an early session of -congress. The president delayed, for some time, to act on the -petitions; but the distress increasing, and other petitions being -addressed to him, he issued a proclamation for convening the national -legislature in the month of September." - -In his message, the president proposed what his opponents termed the -"sub-treasury scheme." He held out very little hope of relief to the -people from the government. His opinion was, that the government could -do little more than take care of itself--that the class or classes of -the community who had suffered, could alone supply a remedy, by a more -prudent and limited course of enterprise and trade. These, and similar -suggestions, seemed little calculated to satisfy a large portion of -the people, especially as the government had destroyed one important -means of benefit and facility to the merchants, and, through them, to -all the other classes of citizens. - -Following the suggestions of Mr. Van Buren, congress passed an act -authorizing the issue of _treasury notes_, to the amount of ten -millions of dollars, for the immediate wants of the government. "This -was no other than a loan, except in name. The notes were made -negotiable, and thus became, in fact, merely paper money; with no -better credit, for there was no greater capital, or certainty of -payment, than there had been in the national bank. The like amount of -treasury notes was authorized in 1838, and again in 1839, but a part -of former issues had been redeemed." - -The sub-treasury scheme, which the president had proposed in his -message, did not succeed at that time. The measure was opposed not -only by the adverse political party, but by his democratic friends who -were concerned in banks, and it was, at that period, very unpopular. -This portion of the democratic party separated from the -administration, and were known as _conservatives_. They eventually -fell into the ranks of the old opposition, or as it was (and is still) -termed, "the whig party." The subject of the sub-treasury was -postponed. At the opening of the session of congress, in the following -December, as may be remarked in anticipation, Mr. Van Buren again -pressed the measure, which now seemed to be his favorite; but, though -carried in the senate, it was defeated in the house. In a spirit of -perseverance, he was enabled to effect the object, through his -political friends, at the next session, when, on the 4th of July, -1840, the bill received his signature. - -The extra session of congress seemed to satisfy neither party. The -friends of the administration viewed the causes of the depression of -business and the consequent distress, to be overaction in business, -arising from exclusive issues of bank paper, and other facilities for -the acquirement and enlargement of credit; the contraction of a large -foreign debt, investment in unproductive lands, and vast internal -improvements; and they naturally wished the separation of the -government from the banks, in which project they were for the present -disappointed. The opponents of the administration traced the causes of -the pecuniary difficulties of the country to the veto of the national -bank; the removal of the deposites, with the earnest injunction of the -secretary of the treasury upon the banks to enlarge their -accommodations; the gold bill and the demand of gold for the foreign -indemnities; the imperfect execution of the deposite law; and the -treasury order of July, 1836: and they naturally desired some -modification or counteraction of these measures by legislative -interference. Disappointment was felt among the mass of the people, -that the government had taken care of itself, while their plans must -be impeded, and the labors of industry go unrewarded. - -_Issue of the Treasury Circular._--This was a communication from the -secretary of the treasury to the several collectors and receivers of -the public money, containing instructions in respect to the safe -keeping of the same. The instructions were as follows: "Congress -having adjourned without making any additional provisions for the -security and safe keeping of the public money, it is obvious that, in -the present state of the laws and of the banks, an unusual -responsibility devolves upon those who collect the revenues of the -general government. The president expects that exertions, -corresponding to the occasion, will cheerfully be made by every -officer, and that no effort will be spared to have all the laws, as -well as the regulations and instructions of the treasury department, -scrupulously enforced. Accuracy in your accounts, punctuality in your -returns, promptness in your deposites and payments, and entire -forbearance to use any part of the public funds for private purposes, -will, it is hoped, characterize the whole class of collecting offices -hereafter. In the present condition of things, if any departure should -unfortunately occur, it will be much regretted; and, however -unpleasant the task, an exemplary and severe notice of the -irregularity will become necessary, in order to secure the great -public interests involved in this subject. The duty on the part of -public officers to abstain from the employment of the public moneys -for private advantage, is so apparent, that no excuse whatever for it -can be deemed admissible." - -_Continuance of the War in Florida._--The war in Florida continued to -be prosecuted during the administration of President Van Buren. Large -sums of money were expended in maintaining it. Three millions and a -half of dollars had been appropriated on its account, during the years -1836 and 1837, under General Jackson; and at the extra session in -October, 1837, one million and six hundred thousand dollars were -appropriated; and in 1838, the expenses for supporting the war in that -quarter against the Indians, amounted to as large a sum as in either -of the two preceding years. "When the difficulty arose with these -Indians, President Jackson supposed that it would be soon terminated. -And no one, at that time, had any reason to suppose it would continue -for years, and have cost the government eight or ten millions. Other -measures than those of force, would probably have terminated the -difficulty at an early period. It would certainly have saved many -valuable lives now lost to the country, and been far more satisfactory -to the friends of humanity throughout the Union." - -_Internal Improvements._--During Mr. Van Buren's administration, large -sums were appropriated for internal improvements, although the -president was generally opposed to the policy. The expenditures were, -however, for purposes which the advocates of state rights, for the -most part, believed to be legitimate, such as repairs on the -Cumberland road and its continuance through the states of Indiana and -Illinois; for light-houses, life-boats, buoys, and monuments, in -behalf of the interests of navigation. In reference to these objects, -there was always far more agreement among the different parties in -congress, than in reference to any thing that seemed less essential to -the nation's benefit. - -_Public Expenses._--The expenses of the government had been increasing -to a considerable extent, from year to year. During the year 1837 and -1838, they amounted to nearly thirty-two millions each. The number of -public agents was greatly multiplied, and the compensation for their -services was, in many cases, greatly increased. The federal officers -into whose hands moneys were placed, frequently appropriated them for -improper purposes, and thus loss ensued. Extra services were often -charged, through some pretext, and thus the compensation allowed by -law was largely exceeded. The public printing for congress, and for -the departments under the executive, occasioned a large and frequently -a needless expenditure, as it was found, in many cases, that the work -could have been performed at a far cheaper rate. Such was the tendency -of high party feeling towards an abuse of government patronage. - -_Difficulties in the State of Maine._--The North-eastern boundary had -long been a source of difficulty between the United States and -England. The question had seemed on the eve of a decision by arms -between the British authorities in New Brunswick and the state of -Maine. Armed bands had been sent out on both sides to the territory in -dispute. General Scott had been sent to the scene of contention by the -president, and the affair, through the general's exertions, was, for -the time, quieted, yet not settled. The danger attending this state of -things, induced Mr. Van Buren, on the 26th of February, 1839, to -communicate to congress a message on this subject, which resulted in -an act of congress, giving the president additional power for the -defence of the country, in certain cases, against invasion, or any -attempt on the part of Great Britain to exercise exclusive -jurisdiction over the disputed territory. - -He was authorized, in this event, to accept the services of any number -of volunteers, not exceeding fifty thousand. The sum of ten millions -was appropriated for the president to employ in executing the -provisions of this act. At the same time, an appropriation was made -for the sending of a special minister to England, should it be -expedient in the opinion of the president. - -_The Border Troubles on the Northern Frontier._--The Canada rebellion, -so called, which broke out during the years 1837 and 1838, strongly -enlisted the sympathies of many of the Americans, especially in the -northern parts of the states of New York and Vermont. They viewed it -as the sacred cause of liberty and human rights. The consequence was, -that they assumed the name of _patriots_, and formed secret -associations, which they called Hunter's Lodges, with the object of -rendering assistance to the insurgents in their efforts to establish -independence in Canada. - -"In the prosecution of this well-meant, but illegal interference in -the concerns of a foreign power, a daring party of adventurers took -possession of Navy island, a small spot of ground, containing about -three hundred and fifty acres, and situated in the Niagara river, -about two miles above the falls, and lying within the jurisdiction of -Upper Canada. It was fortified so strongly by the adventurers, as to -resist an attack upon it by Sir James Head, the commander of the -British forces. The president of the United States and the governor of -the state of New York both issued proclamations, enjoining upon the -inhabitants of the frontier to observe a strict neutrality. - -"Notwithstanding these injunctions, arms and ammunition were procured, -either by purchase or by stealth, and kept for the use of the -insurgents. The party upon Navy island fired upon the opposite shore -of Canada, and boats were destroyed by the force of their shot. The -persons who were in possession of the island, amounting to seven -hundred, were fully supplied with provisions, and had collected twenty -pieces of cannon. - -"These measures, on the part of the Americans, produced great -excitement among the provincial authorities in Canada. A small -steamboat, called the Caroline, was hired by the insurgents, to ply -between Navy Island and Schlosser, on the American shore, in order to -furnish the islanders with the means of carrying on the war. It began -to run on the morning of the 29th of December, and, during the evening -of that day, a detachment of one hundred and fifty armed men from the -Canada side, in five boats, with muffled oars, proceeded to Schlosser, -drove the men who were on board the Caroline ashore, cut her loose -from her fastenings to the wharf, and, setting the boat on fire, let -her float over the falls. In this enterprise, a man by the name of -Durfee was killed; and it is said that one or two more were left in -the steamboat when she went over the cataract."[78] - -The Americans, in their turn, were greatly excited, and the threatened -serious consequences to the peace existing between our government and -that of Great Britain, were, with difficulty averted. The president, -however, by proclamation and other measures, succeeded, at length, in -checking the belligerent movements of our people on the frontier. - -[Illustration: Burning of the Caroline.] - -_Changes of Opinion among the People._--Although the president, during -his visit to his native state in the summer of 1839, for the first -time since his inauguration, was every where greeted with enthusiasm -by his political friends, and with great personal respect by his -opponents, yet it was evident that the political horizon wore a -different aspect from what it formerly had done. The derangement of -the currency and prostration of trade, attributed by many to the -mal-administration of government, had caused great political changes. -Of the representatives in the twenty-sixth congress, there were one -hundred and nineteen democrats and one hundred and eighteen whigs, -leaving out of view five representatives from New Jersey, whose seats -were contested. After several fierce debates, the democratic members -from this state were admitted. - -Mr. Van Buren, in 1840, being a candidate for rëelection, failed to -carry the suffrages of the people. The great political changes, from -causes already intimated, as shown in the state elections, gave, at -the outset, but little hope of his success. - -_Character of the Administration._--Mr. Van Buren's administration, -which closed on the 3rd of March, 1841, was an exciting one; and its -character, even at this day, cannot, in all respects, be properly -estimated. The verdict of posterity will be given with more justice than -that of the present generation, in respect to its real benefit to the -country. The great event of his administration, as has been remarked, by -which it "will hereafter be known and designated, is the divorce of bank -and state in the fiscal affairs of the federal government, and the -return, after half a century of deviation, to the original design of the -constitution." The caution, however, which history must necessarily -observe on this subject, is well exhibited in the following remarks: - -"The full results of the peculiar and experimental policy of President -Jackson and President Van Buren, respecting banks and the currency, in -their influence on the condition of the country, for good or for evil, -for succeeding years, cannot be correctly estimated. The immediate -consequences were a general disturbance of the trade and monetary -affairs of the nation, and an unprecedented check to the accustomed -pursuits of a people so enterprising in their spirit, and so desirous -of improving their condition, as are the citizens of the United -States. The sub-treasury scheme also gave alarm to the friends of the -constitution generally, and to men of settled republican sentiments, -who perceived in it a deviation from the essential elements of liberty -recognized in the constitution, and a weakness of the responsibility -of public agents, who should always be controlled by the authority of -law. They knew that power was corrupting; that it was necessary to -impose checks on those who were clothed with political authority, and -to make them constantly amenable to their constituents. The -developments and effects of this fearful experiment, must be left for -narration to a distant day. The only just hope of the perpetuity and -future purity of the republic, rest on the intelligence and virtue of -the people, and on their wisdom in the choice of men for places of -public trust; who, like Washington, shall make the constitution their -guide, and, under the controlling influence of its doctrines and -requisitions, shall seek to preserve the integrity of the Union, and -the rights and welfare of individuals." - -_Canvass for the Presidency._--Unusual efforts had been put forth in -the election of Mr. Van Buren's successor. Never before had greater -activity been manifested by the leading political parties of the -nation. The country had been convulsed with the strife for many -months. The whole political press had exerted its utmost influences on -the one side or the other, and that, in many instances, in the most -unscrupulous manner. Considerations of great interest and importance -were urged by the respective parties; much truth was uttered and -widely disseminated, but more falsehood and detraction. Popular -meetings--in numbers, character, and enthusiasm, never before -assembled on the American soil for this or any other purpose--were -held towards the conclusion of the political contest in every state, -and in almost every county. The most distinguished men in the nation -addressed thousands and tens of thousands, by night and by day. Said -an eminent statesman, on one occasion, "If, on the occurrence of our -presidential elections in future, our contests must be so severe, so -early begun, and so long continued, human nature will fail. The -energies of man are not equal to the conflict." The question, which -had been actually determined before, was _officially_ decided on the -10th of February, 1841, when the ceremony of counting and announcing -the votes of the electoral colleges for president and vice-president -took place. The result was as follows: - - Key: A. W. H. Harrison, of Ohio. - B. M. Van Buren, of New York. - C. John Tyler, of Virginia. - D. R. M. Johnson, of Kentucky. - E. L. W. Tazewell, of Virginia. - F. James K. Polk, of Tennessee. - - ---------+-----------------+----------+------------------- - No. of | |PRESIDENT.| VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |----------+------------------- - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. - State. | | | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+---- - 10 | Maine, | 10 | | 10 | | | - 7 | New Hampshire, | | 7 | | 7 | | - 14 | Massachusetts, | 14 | | 14 | | | - 4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | | 4 | | | - 8 | Connecticut, | 8 | | 8 | | | - 7 | Vermont, | 7 | | 7 | | | - 42 | New York, | 42 | | 42 | | | - 8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | 8 | | | - 30 | Pennsylvania, | 30 | | 30 | | | - 3 | Delaware, | 3 | | 3 | | | - 10 | Maryland, | 10 | | 10 | | | - 23 | Virginia, | | 23 | | 22 | | 1 - 15 | North Carolina, | 15 | | 15 | | | - 11 | South Carolina, | | 11 | | | 11 | - 11 | Georgia, | 11 | | 11 | | | - 15 | Kentucky, | 15 | | 15 | | | - 15 | Tennessee, | 15 | | 15 | | | - 21 | Ohio, | 21 | | 21 | | | - 5 | Lousiana, | 5 | | 5 | | | - 4 | Mississippi, | 4 | | 4 | | | - 9 | Indiana, | 9 | | 9 | | | - 5 | Illinois, | | 5 | | 5 | | - 7 | Alabama, | | 7 | | 7 | | - 4 | Missouri, | | 4 | | 4 | | - 3 | Arkansas, | | 3 | | 3 | | - 3 | Michigan, | 3 | | 3 | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+---- - 294 | Whole No. of | | | | | | - | electors, | 234| 60 | 234| 48 | 11 | 1 - | Majority, 148 | | | | | | - -FOOTNOTE: - -[78] Willard's History of the United States. - - - - - XIV. WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1841. - - JOHN TYLER, VICE-PRESIDENT. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, March 5, 1841, Secretary of - State. - - Thomas Ewing, Ohio, March 5, 1841, Secretary of - Treasury. - - John Bell, Tennessee, March 5, 1841, Secretary of - War. - - George E. Badger, North Carolina, March 5, 1841, Secretary of - the Navy. - - Francis Granger, New York, March 6, 1841, Postmaster - General. - - J. J. Crittenden, Kentucky, March 5, 1841, Attorney - General. - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - John White, Kentucky, Twenty-eighth Congress, 1841. - John W. Jones, Virginia, Twenty-ninth do. 1843. - -The unwonted efforts put forth in the presidential canvass, had -prepared a majority of the people for an unusual exultation of feeling -on the accession of General Harrison; but, in the providence of God, -that exultation was destined to be transitory. Just one month from the -day of his inauguration, after a brief sickness, he died. The nation, -it may well be believed, was surprised by this most unexpected -calamity. It was difficult to conceive that the recent august -spectacle of his introduction into the highest office in the gift of -his countrymen, should be so nearly associated with his funeral -honors. The loss seemed severe, in proportion to the expectations that -had been indulged. A suitable commemoration of the distressing event -was observed throughout the United States, by public bodies, and -especially by Christian worshiping assemblies. Political opponents, in -many instances, were not slow to render homage to the memory of the -deceased president. There had been time for no particular development -of principles or course of policy, on the part of the administration. -The cabinet had been formed, and things were proceeding prosperously, -and the future was full of promises, when this bereavement came to -quench the hopes of millions. - -This brief notice of a brief administration may be closed by an -extract from the circular issued by the members of the cabinet, -immediately after the president's decease, and which alludes to his -dying, as well as his living example: "The people of the United -States, overwhelmed, like ourselves, by an event so unexpected and so -melancholy, will derive consolation from knowing that his death was -calm and resigned, as his life had been patriotic, useful, and -distinguished; and that the last utterance of his lips expressed a -firm desire for the perpetuity of the constitution,[79] and the -preservation of its true principles. In death, as in life, the -happiness of his country was uppermost in his thoughts." - -Upon the demise of General Harrison, Mr. Tyler, the vice-president, in -accordance with the provisions of the constitution, as they were -construed by himself, and were acquiesced in by the nation, became -president of the United States. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[79] His last words were, as if addressing his successor, "Sir, I wish -you to understand the principles of the government. I want them -carried out. I ask nothing more." - - - - - XV. JOHN TYLER, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration] - - ASSUMED THE GOVERNMENT APRIL 4, 1841 - -[The cabinet of General Harrison continued in office under Mr. Tyler -till September, when they all resigned, excepting Mr. Webster, who -remained till the 8th of May, 1843, when the department of state was -temporarily filled by the attorney general, Hugh S. Legare.] - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, January 2, 1844,} Secretaries - John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, March 6, 1844,} of State. - - Walter Forward, Pennsylvania, September 13, 1841,} Secretaries - John C. Spencer, New York, March 3, 1843,} of Treasury. - George M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15, 1844,} - - John C. Spencer, New York, December 20, 1841,} Secretaries - James M. Porter, Pennsylvania, March 8, 1843,} of War - William Wilkins, Pennsylvania, February 15, 1844,} - - Abel P. Upshur, Virginia, September 13, 1841,} - David Henshaw, Massachusetts, July 24, 1843,} Secretaries - Thomas W. Gilmer, Virginia, February 15, 1844,} of the Navy. - John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 14, 1844,} - - Charles A. } Postmaster - Wickliffe, Kentucky, September 13, 1841,} General - - Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina, September 13, 1841,} Attorneys - John Nelson, Maryland, January 2, 1844,} General - John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 5, 1845,} - -The bereavement which the nation had experienced, seemed to demand from -it a solemn recognition of the Divine Providence in the sad event. -Accordingly, Mr. Tyler very properly appointed a day of public -humiliation, fasting, and prayer, to be observed throughout the land, in -token of its sense of the Divine judgment, and, as a means of securing -the continuance of the Divine favor. This was well received, and the day -was religiously observed throughout our widely-extended country. - -In the room of an inaugural address, President Tyler made an official -declaration, in a published document, of the principles and general -course of policy which he intended should mark his administration. -These, as summarily expressed, were generally satisfactory to his -political friends. - -The principal measures and events of President Tyler's administration -will be noticed in the following order: - - Extra Session of Congress, Annexation of Texas, - Relations with Great Britain, Character of Mr. Tyler's - Settlement of the N. E. Boundary, Administrat'n, - Difficulties in Rhode Island, Celebration of Bunker's hill - Modification of the Tariff, Monument, - Treaties, Presidential Canvass. - -_Extra Session of Congress._--A few days before his death, General -Harrison had issued his proclamation for an extra session of congress, -to be held on the 31st of May, 1841, principally on account of the -condition of the revenue and finances of the country. These were -suffering, in consequence of the character of the events that had -taken place. The revenue was insufficient to support the government, -and the currency of the country was greatly disordered. Congress -assembled, in conformity to the proclamation, and engaged in the grave -and urgent business to which their attention had been called. - -Several important acts were passed at this session, among which -were--the _establishment of a uniform system of bankruptcy_, a measure -which seemed imperiously required for the relief of more than half a -million of debtors, who otherwise had no prospect of paying their -debts--a bill providing for the _distribution of the net proceeds of the -public lands among the states_, according to their respective population -on the federal representative scale--also, the _repeal of the -sub-treasury law_, which had been adopted towards the close of Mr. Van -Buren's administration--and an act _imposing duties of twenty per cent. -on the value of all articles of import not expressly excepted therein_. - -Congress, at this time, passed a bill having in view the establishment -of a national bank, which, however, Mr. Tyler saw fit to veto, -notwithstanding, in his first message, he had recommended a bank of -some kind. The bill, which the president set aside, chiefly, as he -alleged, from his doubts as to its accordance with the constitution, -contained, in the view of its framers, a compromise sufficient to -overcome his constitutional objections to a bank. But having, in his -veto-message, shadowed forth a fiscal agent, such as was believed he -might approve, a bill, in agreement therewith, was framed and adopted; -yet this also he vetoed; and there not being a constitutional majority -in its favor, it was lost. This was a result, in both cases, -sufficiently mortifying to the political party which had raised him to -power. To the friends of a national bank, the disappointment was -extreme. Great excitement prevailed, and all of Mr. Tyler's cabinet, -except Mr. Webster, resigned. - -_Relations with Great Britain._--A communication was made to the -American government, on the part of that of Great Britain, as -announced by the president in his message of the 6th of December, -1841, respecting the destruction of the steamboat Caroline. That -affair, it was alleged, was undertaken by orders from the authorities -of the British government. Under this sanction, the release of -Alexander McLeod, a British subject, who had been indicted for the -murder of an American citizen, on that occasion, was demanded by the -English authorities. It happened, however, favorably for the peace of -the two countries, that McLeod had previously been tried in the state -of New York, and acquitted. The excitement and anxiety, among all -parties, had been intense during the trial, and the result was -awaited, with no little foreboding, on the part of the peaceably -disposed. It was now only left that the affair of the Caroline should, -in some way, be adjusted by negotiation. - -_Settlement of the North-eastern Boundary._--The important event of -defining and agreeing upon the North-eastern boundary of the United -States, took place in 1842. The treaty made with England on this -subject, was ratified by the senate on the 20th of August, of that -year. The proper boundary, between the United States and the British -possessions in that quarter, had long been a matter of serious -controversy and difficulty. The claims of either country conflicted -with those of the other--bitter feelings were engendered among the -inhabitants dwelling on the borders, and disturbances not unfrequently -took place between them, so that the peaceful relations of the two -powers were, to some extent, constantly endangered. It was fortunate -for the country, that Mr. Webster was still a member of the cabinet, -and brought the weight of his character and official station to bear -upon this question. It was also fortunate for England that she sent so -conciliating and able a negotiator as Lord Ashburton, to treat on the -subject. In the spirit of kindness and compromise, the matter was -discussed, and, at length, settled between them--the president, at the -same time cöoperating in endeavors to the same effect. - -That the states of Maine and Massachusetts, who were interested in the -division to be made between the countries, might be satisfied, their -respective legislatures appointed several gentlemen as commissioners -on the occasion. The treaty was duly ratified on the part of both -powers, in the latter part of 1842, with the public proclamation of -the same by the president; and thus ended a harassing controversy of -fifty years' standing. - -_Difficulties in Rhode Island._--From a state of things which existed -in Rhode Island at this time (1842), the most serious consequences -were feared, in respect to that commonwealth, if not to the Union at -large. In attempts to set aside the ancient charter of the state, the -mode of adopting a new constitution became a matter of controversy -among the people. A portion of them proceeded, in a manner -unauthorized by the laws of the state, in erecting the fabric of the -government. This portion of the citizens, called the "suffrage party," -actually formed and adopted a constitution of their own, made choice -of Thomas W. Dorr as governor, and elected a legislature. This was -aside from the government which was already existing in the state. -That being administered regularly at the same time, and another -portion of the citizens, called the "law and order party," upholding -it; a conflict, as to authority, necessarily ensued between the two -parties. The law and order party had chosen their governor, Samuel W. -King, at the appointed period, and both parties met to transact the -business usually attended to at the meeting of legislative bodies. - -"The legally organized party then took active measures to put down -what was denominated the rebellion. Great commotion ensued, and -several arrests were made. Dorr left the state, but soon returning, -his followers assembled under arms, and a bloody struggle appeared -inevitable. The insurgents, however, dispersed on the appearance of -the government forces, and Dorr, to avoid arrest, fled from the state. - -"In June, however, the insurgents again made their appearance under -arms, and were joined by Dorr. The whole state was now placed under -martial law, and a large body of armed men was sent against the -insurgents, who dispersed without any effectual resistance. Dorr -again fled; but returning, after a few months, was arrested, tried -for treason, convicted, and sentenced to be imprisoned during life. In -the mean time, a constitution for the state had been adopted, -according to the prescribed forms of law. In June, 1845, Dorr was -released, although he had refused to accept a pardon on condition of -taking the oath of allegiance to the state government." - -_Modification of the Tariff._--A well-regulated tariff was believed, -by many, to be the only measure by which the financial disorders and -stagnation in business, so characteristic of the times, could be -remedied. Accordingly, before the adjournment of the second session of -the twenty-seventh congress (August 31st, 1842), a bill modifying, in -some important particulars, the existing tariff, passed both houses of -congress, and received the signature of the president. The first bill -introduced and passed, was vetoed by Mr. Tyler; and, for a time, the -friends of the measure indulged in painful apprehensions as to the -final issue. An unwonted hostility had been manifested, on the part of -a powerful party, to any modification of the law on this subject, and -every step of its progress had been most earnestly and bitterly -contested. But the imperious necessity of the measure, the wants of -the national treasury, and the suffering condition of the various -branches of industry, induced congress to yield to the prejudices of -the executive. Accordingly, such alterations were made in the bill -vetoed as comported with the president's views, and it was returned -with his signature. - -_Celebration of the Bunker's hill Monument._--"In June, 1843, was -celebrated, with great pomp and appropriate ceremonies, the completion -of the Bunker's hill monument. This great public work had met with -numerous delays; but, having at length received its topmost stone, the -17th of June, the anniversary of the battle, was assigned to celebrate -the event. The president and several members of his cabinet honored -the celebration. A multitude, of all classes, and from various parts -of the country, were present. An oration was pronounced by Mr. Webster -on the occasion. The pageant was grand and imposing, and calculated to -exalt, in the hearts of assembled thousands, the virtues and -patriotism of the men who had, in by-gone years, moistened the soil on -which the monument stands with their richest blood. A sad event, -however, followed fast upon the festivities of the day--this was the -sudden decease of Mr. Legare, the recently-appointed secretary of -state. He had followed the president to witness the celebration; but -sudden sickness fell upon him, and he died at his lodgings, in Boston, -on the morning after the celebration." - -_Treaties._--The treaty with _Great Britain_, fixing a boundary line -between the United States and Canada, has already been elsewhere -mentioned. But in addition to that subject, the treaty at that time -formed also stipulated, that each nation should maintain on the coast -of Africa a naval force, of vessels sufficient to carry, in all, not -less than eighty guns; to be independent of each other, but to act in -concert for the suppression of the slave trade. By another article of -the treaty, it was stipulated that fugitives from justice, found in -either country, should be delivered up by the two governments -respectively, upon complaint, and upon what should be deemed -sufficient evidence to sustain the charge. - -A treaty between the United States and the _Chinese Empire_, was -ratified by a unanimous vote of the senate, during the second session -of the twenty-eighth congress. The treaty was concluded by Caleb -Cushing and Tsying, on the 3d of July, 1844. It placed our relations -with China on a new footing, and under auspices highly favorable to -the commerce and other interests of this country. - -Some months previous to this time, a treaty had been negotiated with -_Texas_, respecting the annexation of that republic, as a territory, -to the United States. The annunciation of such a treaty, was made to -congress in April, 1844, by a special message from the president, and -excited much surprise throughout the country, and awakened great -anxiety in the minds of those who were opposed to the measure. They -viewed it as involving an extension of slavery, and a probable war -with Mexico, as she still laid claim to Texas as a portion of her -rightful domain. The senate, however, rejected the treaty, and thus -frustrated Mr. Tyler's designs at that period. - -_Joint Resolution for the Annexation of Texas._--The rejection of the -treaty with Texas, before mentioned, seemed not to discourage the -president from attempting the annexation of that country to the United -States, in violation, as many believed, of the constitution. According -to his wishes, and it is supposed at his suggestion, a joint -resolution[80] for annexation was introduced into congress, and passed -the house of representatives, January 23d, 1845, by a vote of one -hundred and eighteen to one hundred and one. In the senate, the -resolution underwent several important amendments, particularly one by -Mr. Walker, involving the alternative of negotiation at the option of -the president, which, having been concurred in by the house, received -the sanction of the executive, and thus the way was prepared for the -annexation of the country in question. - -"As these measures, in regard to the admission of Texas, were adopted at -the close of the session of congress, it was expected that Mr. Tyler -would leave it to his successor to consummate the wishes of congress, -and it was also understood that Mr. Polk had determined to negotiate a -treaty with Texas, under the alternative offered by Mr. Walker's -amendment. President Tyler, however, determined to forestall the action -of his successor, and hence dispatched an express to communicate to -Texas, that he had decided to invite Texas into the Union, under the -provisions of the resolutions as they passed the house of -representatives, without the exercise of farther treaty-making power." - -_Character of Mr. Tyler's Administration._--"Of the character of Mr. -Tyler's administration, and his personal relations thereto, it is yet -too early to speak. His independent course in vetoing the bank bills -and other measures, greatly exasperated the party who had elevated him -to office, and he was denounced as a traitor; while his equally -independent course in opposing General Jackson in his measures against -the United States' bank, and also his alliance with the whigs during -Mr. Van Buren's administration, denied him the confidence of the -democrats. He himself said, 'I appeal from the vituperation of the -present day to the pen of impartial history, in the full confidence -that neither my motives nor my acts will bear the interpretation which -has, for sinister purposes, been placed upon them.' As an executive of -the people's will, he exhibited all the necessary vigor of a chief -magistrate. 'Nor is it to be denied,' says one of his political -opponents, 'that the foreign relations of the United States were ably -managed during his presidential term, and that he generally surrounded -himself with able counsellors in his cabinet.'" - -_Presidential Canvass._--Mr. Tyler's presidential term expired on the -4th of March, 1845, and he was not rëelected, nor indeed was he a -candidate for rëelection, except for a short period. The candidates of -the two great political parties were now Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and -James K. Polk, of Tennessee. These had been nominated by the -respective conventions of the parties, which had assembled in the city -of Baltimore, one on the 1st, and the other on the 17th of May, 1844. -The strife and the efforts of the adherents of the respective -candidates were eager and persevering. The issue, for some time, -appeared to be doubtful; but the close of the canvass showed that the -democratic nominee had been elected. - -The following table exhibits the result of the official count in the -presence of both houses of congress, February 12th: - - Key: A. James K. Polk, of Tennessee. - B. Henry Clay, of Kentucky. - C. Geo. M. Dallas, of Pennsylv'a. - D. T. Frelinghuysen, of N. Jersey. - - ---------+-----------------+----------+--------------- - No. of | |PRESIDENT.|VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |----------+--------------- - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. - State. | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-------+------- - 9 | Maine, | 9 | | 9 | - 6 | New Hampshire, | 6 | | 6 | - 12 | Massachusetts, | | 12 | | 12 - 4 | Rhode Island, | | 4 | | 4 - 6 | Connecticut, | | 6 | | 6 - 6 | Vermont, | | 6 | | 6 - 36 | New York, | 36 | | 36 | - 7 | New Jersey, | | 7 | | 7 - 26 | Pennsylvania, | 26 | | 26 | - 3 | Delaware, | | 3 | | 3 - 8 | Maryland, | | 8 | | 8 - 17 | Virginia, | 17 | | 17 | - 11 | North Carolina, | | 11 | | 11 - 9 | South Carolina, | 9 | | 9 | - 10 | Georgia, | 10 | | 10 | - 12 | Kentucky, | | 12 | | 12 - 13 | Tennessee, | | 13 | | 13 - 23 | Ohio, | | 23 | | 23 - 6 | Lousiana, | 6 | | 6 | - 6 | Mississippi, | 6 | | 6 | - 12 | Indiana, | 12 | | 12 | - 9 | Illinois, | 9 | | 9 | - 9 | Alabama, | 9 | | 9 | - 7 | Missouri, | 7 | | 7 | - 3 | Arkansas, | 3 | | 3 | - 5 | Michigan, | 5 | | 5 | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-------+------- - 275 | Whole No. of | | | | - | electors, |170 | 105 | 170 | 105 - | Majority, 138 | | | | - -FOOTNOTE: - -[80] To this resolution there were three conditions--the 1st was, that -Texas should adopt a constitution, and lay it before congress on or -before the 1st day of January, 1846. 2. That all mines, minerals, -fortifications, arms, navy, &c., should be ceded to the United States. -3. That new states might hereafter be formed out of the said -territory. The amendment of Mr. Walker allowed the president of the -United States, instead of proceeding to submit the foregoing -resolutions to the republic of Texas, as an overture on the part of -the United States for admission, to negotiate with that republic. - - - - - XVI. JAMES K. POLK, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration: J.K. POLK.] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1845. - - GEORGE M. DALLAS, VICE-PRESIDENT. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, March 5, 1845, Secretary - of State. - - Robert J. Walker, Mississippi, March 5, 1845, Secretary - of Treasury. - - William L. Marcy, New York, March 5, 1845, Secretary - of War. - - George Bancroft, Massachusetts, March 10, 1845,} Secretaries - John Y. Mason, Virginia, September 9, 1846,} of the Navy. - - Cave Johnson, Tennessee, March 5, 1845, Postmaster - General. - - John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 5, 1845,} Attorneys - Nathan Clifford, Maine, December 23, 1846,} General. - Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, June 21, 1848,} - - SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. - - John W. Davis, Indiana, Twenty-ninth Congress, 1845. - Robert C. Winthrop, Massachusetts, Thirtieth do. 1847. - -The election of Mr. Polk to the presidency was not very strongly -anticipated by the democratic party; for besides the great popularity -of his rival, Mr. Clay, he had received the nomination of the -Baltimore Convention, held in May of the previous year, not as the -first choice of that body, but because of its inability to harmonize -on another candidate. Before the meeting of the convention, Mr. Van -Buren was expected to be the prominent candidate; but his avowed -opposition to the annexation of Texas, added to other sources of -dissatisfaction, induced the convention to abandon him, and to select -a candidate in the person of James K. Polk, whose political views were -supposed to be more in accordance with those of the democratic party, -especially at the South. During the first seven ballotings of the -convention, Mr. Polk did not receive a single vote; on the eighth -balloting, but forty-four; while on the ninth, he received every vote -of the convention, amounting to two hundred and sixty-six in number. -On the occurrence of the election, despite the efforts which were made -in favor of the whig candidate, he was elected by a strong majority. - -On the occasion of his induction into office, Mr. Polk, following usage, -delivered an address, explanatory of the principles which would guide -him in the administration of the government. These were so nearly -identical with those expressed by his predecessors, that we deem it -unnecessary to detail them. It may be stated, however, that he expressed -himself opposed to a national bank--to a tariff for protection only; but -was strongly in favor of the annexation of Texas, and was satisfied of -our "clear and unquestionable title to Oregon." In official action, he -pledged himself to administer the government for the whole people, -irrespective of the party by which he was elected. - -The events and measures which signalized the administration of Mr. -Polk were-- - - Decease of General Jackson, Battle of Buena Vista, - Admission of Texas, Capture of Vera Cruz, - Division of Oregon, Cerro Gordo, - Mexican War, Progress of the Army, - Siege of Fort Brown, Occupation of Mexico, - Battle of Palo Alto, Treaty, - Battle of Resaca de la Palma, California and its Gold, - Fall of Monterey, Election of General Taylor. - -_Decease of General Jackson._--A short time previous to the -termination of his presidential career, General Jackson was attacked -with a severe hemorrhage of the lungs. He recovered, however, -sufficiently to be present at the inauguration of his successor. On -his arrival at the Hermitage, he was weak and infirm; but relaxation -from arduous duties, added to the attention of friends, at length -restored him to comparative health. His lungs, however, were from this -time feeble, if not positively diseased. - -But, for several months prior to his decease, his health became -visibly worse. He was constantly cheered, however, by the visits of -his old and attached personal friends; and the consolations of -religion were a never-failing solace to his heart. - -"General Jackson continued to grow more feeble until the 8th day of -June, 1845. Early in the morning of that day he swooned, and, for some -time, was supposed to be dead. On reviving from the swoon, he became -conscious that the spark of life was nearly extinguished, and, -expecting to die before another sun would set, he sent for his family -and connections to come and receive his dying benediction. His -remarks, it is said, were full of affection and Christian resignation. -His mind retained its vigor to the last, and his dying moments, even -more than his earlier years, exhibited its highest intellectual light. -His death took place on the evening of the 8th of June, in the -seventy-ninth year of his age. By his request, Dr. Edgar, of the -Presbyterian church, preached his funeral sermon."[81] - -General Jackson was, doubtless, no ordinary man. For many years, he -occupied a prominent place in the affairs of his country. Whatever may -have been thought of the wisdom or constitutionality of some of his -measures, all united in awarding to him the merit of honesty, and a -true desire to promote the welfare of the nation. That he was ardent, -sometimes rash, and withal precipitate in his measures, and then -determined, may be admitted, without any meditated wrong to his -reputation. But when death laid him in the grave, political -differences were forgotten, and political opponents united in paying a -high and well-merited tribute to his memory. - -_Admission of Texas._--We have already had occasion to refer (p. 721) -to the joint-resolution of congress, of the 23d of January, 1845, for -the annexation of Texas to the United States. The conditions -prescribed by that resolution were subsequently accepted by Texas, -and, in his first annual message to congress, Mr. Polk informed that -body that nothing remained to consummate that annexation but the -passage of an act by congress, admitting her into the Union upon an -equal footing with the original states. - -To such a strange and summary process of admitting states, there were -loud and strong remonstrances. The unconstitutionality of the measure -was urged; but more, the probable increased disturbance of our -relations with Mexico, which still claimed the jurisdiction, whether -justly or not, over a considerable part of the territory. Besides, it -was contended that the direct effect would be to extend the -oppressions and curses of slavery. - -Neither argument nor remonstrance, however, served to induce the -president or his supporters to pause. They pretended to foresee great -and signal blessings as the necessary result of thus extending the -free institutions of the United States. And, accordingly, it was, upon -the recommendation of the president, resolved by congress to admit -Texas upon an equal footing with the original states. And the grant -was made to her, which had not before been made since the adoption of -the federal constitution, to allow her two representatives, while her -population was insufficient to entitle her to one, except under the -specific provision of the constitution, that each state shall have, at -least, one representative. - -In consequence of these measures, in relation to Texas, by the -American government, and at an early stage of them, the Mexican -minister demanded his passports; and, at a subsequent date, the -American minister, Mr. Slidell, was refused a reception and -recognition, as such, by the Mexican government. Thus, as had been -predicted by the opposers of annexation, a serious misunderstanding, -which already existed between the United States and Mexico, in -relation to the conduct of the latter touching other matters, was -rendered still more serious, and was rapidly tending, it was plainly -perceptible, to open hostilities between the two powers. - -While such was the position of our relations with Mexico--the horizon -becoming daily more obscure, and clouds, portentous of evil, were -rising higher and higher--a single act of the president precipitated -the war which many had predicted, but which all saw reason to deplore. -This was an order issued to General Taylor to break up his encampment -at Corpus Christi, and, passing the Neuces, to concentrate his forces -on the left bank of the Rio del Norte. - -_Division of Oregon._--Prior to the introduction of Mr. Polk into -office, several attempts had been made by the governments of the -United States and Great Britain to settle, by negotiations, questions -in dispute between them, as to the proprietorship and occupation of -Oregon--all of which had failed. These negotiations were conducted at -London, in the years 1818, 1824, and 1826; the first two, under the -administration of Mr. Monroe; the last, under that of Mr. Adams. The -negotiations of 1818 having failed to accomplish its object, it was -agreed, October 20th of that year, that, to the citizens of each -nation, the harbors, bays, &c., should be open for ten years. The -negotiations of 1824, left this agreement untouched, as did those of -1826; but, August 6th, 1827, it was further agreed, that it should be -competent for either party, after October 20th, 1828, to annul this -convention, by giving to the other twelve months' notice. - -Subsequently, negotiations were resumed. In 1844, the British -plenipotentiaries offered to divide the Oregon territory by the -forty-ninth parallel of latitude, leaving the navigation of Columbia -river free to both nations. This proposition was immediately rejected -by the American minister; whereupon, he was invited by the British -minister to make a proposition in return. - -At this stage of the negotiation, Mr. Polk took the presidential -chair; and, anxious to settle the question, he made the same offer -which had been made by the British minister, excepting the free -navigation of the Columbia river. This proposition being unacceptable, -further negotiations terminated. - -On the meeting of congress, in December, 1845, the president recommended -that the notice required by the convention of August, 1827, should be -given to Great Britain, which, at the expiration of a year, would bring -the question to an issue. The subject, thus brought to the notice of -congress, excited the highest possible interest. The friends of the -executive, and perhaps others, were strongly in favor of giving the -required notice, while serious apprehensions were entertained by many, -that the _practical_ effect of such a measure would be a war between the -two nations. At length, the question was settled by the adoption of a -resolution in accordance with the executive recommendation. In the -house, the vote on the resolution was one hundred and forty-two to -forty-six; in the senate, forty-two to ten. - -The official notice, thus directed, was given by the president to her -majesty Queen Victoria, on the 28th of April, 1846. Before the -delivery of this notice, however, the British minister at Washington -had received instructions to submit to the American government a new -and further proposition for a partition of the territory in dispute. - -In a special and confidential communication to the senate on the 10th of -June, the president informed congress that such a proposition had been -made, and requested their advice. At the same time, he reiterated the -views expressed in his annual message, that no compromise, which the -United States ought to accept, could be effected; that our title to the -whole of Oregon was maintained by irrefragable arguments, and that the -claim could not be abandoned, without a sacrifice of both national honor -and interests. Such was the tenor of the president's communication. But -he solicited advice. In a resolution, adopted thirty-eight to twelve, -the senate advised the president to accept the proposal of the British -government, which he accordingly did; and, on the 16th of June, a -convention or treaty, settling boundaries, &c., in relation to Oregon, -was communicated by the president to the senate, by the latter of which -it was ratified, forty-one to fourteen. - -The amicable settlement of such a question, which had long subsisted -between the two governments--which had employed, time after time, and -for a series of years, some of the most distinguished statesmen on both -sides the water--which had given birth to warm and excited feelings, and -to warm and contentious words--which had become more embarrassing the -longer negotiations were continued, and which, it was agreed on both -sides, was fast ripening into open rupture and collision--the amicable -settlement of such a question, was a subject worthy of congratulation in -both hemispheres. If the terms of the treaty were not so favorable to -the American nation as might have been obtained, they were such as the -friends of peace and good understanding were willing to accept; and, as -it was admitted that the treaty was consummated through the wisdom and -firmness of the senate, that body received, as it was entitled to -receive, the thanks of the nation. - -[Illustration: Surprise of Captain Thornton and Party.] - -_Mexican War._--In compliance with the order of the president, already -noticed (p. 729), General Taylor arrived, with the "army of occupation," -on the 28th of March, before Matamoras. On the same day, the Mexican -general, Ampudia, warned General Taylor to withdraw his forces beyond -the Nueces, which notification was repeated by General Arista, on the -24th of April, who, at that date, superseded Ampudia. On the same day, a -rumor prevailed that the enemy were crossing the river, above and below -the American camp. To ascertain the truth of this rumor, Captain Ker, -with a squadron of dragoons, was directed to reconnoitre between the -camp and the mouth of the river; while another squadron, consisting of -sixty-three dragoons, under Captain Thornton, was sent above for the -same object. The former returned without having seen or heard of a -hostile corps. But the party under Captain Thornton was suddenly -surrounded by a large body of Mexican infantry and cavalry, made -prisoners, and taken to Matamoras. Captain Thornton himself effected an -escape by an extraordinary leap of his horse, which, however, -subsequently fell with and injured him. In endeavoring to return to the -camp, he was taken a few miles from it, and joined his men, as a -prisoner, at Matamoras. This was the first actual fight of the war, and -was the occasion of great exultation on the part of the Mexicans. - -_Siege of Fort Brown._--While these events were transpiring, -intelligence was received by General Taylor that Point Isabel, the -harbor on the Texas coast nearest the mouth of the Rio Grande, and -where all his military stores were deposited, was about being -assailed, and that all communication with that important post might -soon be interrupted. This intelligence decided General Taylor at once -to take up his line of march for the Point, and to open a -communication between that and Fort Brown. Arrangements were -accordingly made. Fort Brown was so nearly completed, that under a -competent garrison it might prudently be left. Major Jacob Brown, -after whom the fort was named, was put in command of it, and the -seventh regiment of infantry and two companies of artillery were -assigned as the garrison. - -These arrangements having been completed, General Taylor, with the -main body of the army, commenced his march towards Point Isabel. It -was a hazardous, but necessary movement. Of the number, position, and -plans of the enemy he was profoundly ignorant. The Mexican General, -Arista, mistook this movement of General Taylor towards Point Isabel -for a precipitate retreat, and immediately dispatched a courier -extraordinary to Mexico, announcing the fact. In the opinion of some, -he was better informed, but "wished, for ulterior purposes, to create -such an impression among the Mexican soldiers and the Mexican -government." But whatever might have been his ignorance, he soon had -an opportunity to inform himself of the real object of the movement, -and therefore set about endeavoring to destroy Fort Brown. - -For two days following the departure of the army, Fort Brown remained -unmolested; but, on the third morning, the Mexicans opened upon it -with a battery of seven guns, killing Sergeant Weigard, but otherwise -effecting no material injury. On leaving the fort, General Taylor had -instructed Major Brown, in case the Mexicans surrounded it, to give -him information by firing the eighteen-pounders at stated intervals. -The contingency having occurred, the critical condition of the fort -was thus communicated to General Taylor, who made instant preparations -to return to its relief. Meanwhile, the bombardment was renewed; -during which, Major Brown was mortally wounded, and was succeeded in -command by Captain Hawkins. - -On the 7th and 8th, the bombardment was continued; but about two -o'clock it ceased, when was heard, in the direction of Point Isabel, a -heavy cannonading. It was the presage of relief, as Captain Hawkins -inferred from it that, in whatever contest General Taylor was engaged, -he was urging his return. And so it proved. Towards the close of the -day, intelligence was received that the Americans had "met the enemy," -and had driven them back towards Matamoras. - -_Battle of Palo Alto._--General Taylor had heard the signal-guns at -Fort Brown; and, on the evening of the 7th, left Point Isabel with a -force of about two thousand one hundred men, with a large train of -provisions and military stores. At the distance of seven miles, he -encamped, resuming his march early on the morning of the 8th. In their -progress, they at length reached a broad prairie, bounded by Palo -Alto, a thick grove of dwarfish trees. On either side of the American -army were ponds of water, and beyond them, chapparal. Upon this -prairie, a large body of Mexicans were drawn up in battle array. No -time was lost in the requisite preparations, on the part of the -Americans, and soon a cannonading was commenced on either side, which -for two hours rent the air with its thunders. In the firing of the -Mexicans there was little precision, their missiles almost invariably -passing over the American lines, while the discharges from the -American guns marked their courses with carnage and death. - -At the expiration of two hours, the Mexican batteries began to -slacken, and, at length, ceased altogether. They were unable longer to -withstand the terrible and destructive fire of Ringgold's, -Churchill's, Duncan's, and Ridgeley's guns, and began to fall back, -for the purpose of forming a new line of battle under cover of the -smoke. The Americans also formed a new line. At the expiration of an -hour, the action was renewed by our artillery, which was even more -destructive than before. As night was now drawing on, the Mexicans, -bent on one last and most vigorous effort, poured in upon Ringgold's -battery a literal tempest of balls. Captain Page fell, mortally -wounded, a cannon-ball having carried away the whole of his lower-jaw; -and the brave Ringgold, nearly at the same time, had both legs shot -away by a cannon-ball, which passed through his horse. On the 11th, he -died at Point Isabel. - -With great spirit and determination did Arista and his army maintain the -contest; but it was in vain. They were at length driven from the field -in hopeless disorder. Night put an end to the contest; and the wearied -and exhausted victors sank upon the field, where they chanced to be, -glad to find opportunity to rest from toil so severe. The force of -General Taylor did not exceed two thousand three hundred; that of Arista -consisted of six thousand infantry, with seven pieces of artillery, and -eight hundred cavalry. The loss of the Americans was but four men -killed--three officers--and thirty-seven wounded. Two hundred Mexicans -were killed; four hundred wounded. Some estimate their loss in killed, -wounded, and missing, little short of one thousand. - -[Illustration: Charge of Captain May.] - -_Resaca de la Palma._--At two o'clock, on the following day, the -American army moved from the field of victory, at Palo Alto, towards -Fort Brown. Towards evening, what was their surprise when, on -approaching a ravine, called Resaca de la Palma, or the Dry River of -Palma, they discovered the Mexican army occupying this exceedingly -well-selected spot, and drawn up in battle array. A vigorous action -immediately ensued. The Mexican artillery became engaged with Ridgeley's -battery, as the latter moved up the ravine. Generals La Vega and Requena -superintended the former, and the effect of the firing soon began to be -severely felt along the American lines. To dislodge them, became -indispensable to the safety of the Americans. The execution of this duty -was assigned to Captain May, whose celebrated charge now took place. "I -will do it," said May; and, turning to his troops, he rose in his -stirrups, pointed to the guns before them, now pouring forth their -terrific explosions, and exclaimed, "Remember your regiment! men, -follow!" He struck his charger, and bounded on before them, while a -deafening cheer answered his call; and immediately the whole were -dashing towards the cannons' mouths. May outstripped them--fortunately, -wonderfully did he escape, and wonderful was it that so many of his -squadron escaped, exposed, as they were, to a fire which swept fearfully -along the very line they were pursuing. Some, indeed, there met an -untimely fate--seven men, among whom were the brave and noble-hearted -Inge and Sacket. Terrific as was the scene, May and his followers -pressed on. As they approached the battery, at a single bound, May's -horse cleared it. The horses of a few others were equal to the leap, and -their impetus carried them beyond the guns. Wheeling again, they drove -the gunners off, and Captain Graham, and Lieutenants Pleasantson and -Winship, with others, coming up, were masters of the battery. General La -Vega was made prisoner. The American infantry now charged the Mexican -line; for a time, the latter fought desperately, and sustained -themselves with stubborn bravery; but, at length, yielding to necessity, -they precipitately fled from the field. In this battle, only the -outlines of which we give, the Americans captured eight pieces of -artillery, several standards, large military stores, and several hundred -prisoners. The loss of the Americans, in both these actions, was three -officers and forty men killed. Besides the officers already named, was -Lieutenant Cochrane. Thirteen officers and one hundred men were wounded. -The Mexican loss was one hundred and fifty-four officers and men killed; -two hundred and five wounded; missing, one hundred and fifty-six. -General Taylor, following the battle, continued his march to Fort Brown; -and, on the 18th, took possession of Matamoras, the Mexican settlement -opposite. - -_Fall of Monterey._--Following the occupation of Matamoras, -preparations were made, by order of the government, for an advance -into the interior of Mexico. During these preparations, which occupied -the space of three months, several Mexican villages, Reinosa, Wier, -Revilla, and Camargo, were taken possession of. This last place, -situated about one hundred and eighty miles above the mouth of the Rio -Grande, was selected as a _dépôt_ of supplies; and to this point, the -several divisions of General Taylor's army were at length -concentrated. The first of these divisions, two thousand and eighty, -was commanded by General Twiggs; the second, one thousand seven -hundred and eighty, by General Worth; the third, two thousand eight -hundred and ten, by General Butler. - -On the 19th of September, these several divisions reached a place called -Walnut Springs, distant from Monterey three miles. The capture of this -city was now the immediate object in view. It was a strongly-fortified -place, with a competent garrison under command of General Ampudia. On -the evening of the 19th, a reconnoisance of the fortifications was made; -and, on the following day, the attack was commenced by the division of -General Worth. On the 21st, the attack was renewed, and two fortified -heights were taken; the guns of one of which was turned upon the -bishop's palace, which had been rendered exceedingly strong. On the 22d, -other heights, above the bishop's palace, were carried, and, soon after, -the palace itself. As these fortifications, in a measure, commanded the -city, the enemy, on the night of the 22d, evacuated all his defences in -the lower part. On the morning of the 23d, the streets of the upper part -of the city became the scene of action. Here the battle raged. All that -day the firing was kept up; the American troops proceeded from house to -house--from square to square--the Mexicans resisting them at every step. -The carnage was frightful. - -Early on the 24th, Ampudia prepared to evacuate the town; a suspension -of hostilities was, therefore, arranged till twelve o'clock; during -which, at the request of Ampudia, General Taylor had an interview with -him, which resulted in a capitulation; placing the town and materials of -war, with certain exceptions, in the possession of the American general. - -The city was found to be of great strength. There were mounted -forty-two pieces of cannon. The Mexican force consisted of seven -thousand troops of the line and two or three thousand irregulars. The -American force was four hundred and twenty-five officers, and six -thousand two hundred and twenty men. The artillery was one ten-inch -mortar, two twenty-four pound howitzers, and four light field -batteries, of four guns each. - -The American loss was twelve officers and one hundred and eight men -killed; thirty-one officers and three hundred and thirty-seven men -wounded. The loss of the Mexicans was still more considerable. An -armistice was allowed by General Taylor, of eight weeks, subject to be -revoked by either government. On receiving intelligence of the -armistice and its conditions, the American government, it is said, -directed its termination. The Mexican army was permitted to retire, -and marched out with the honors of war. - -_Victory at Buena Vista._--For some months following the occupation of -Monterey, General Taylor was variously employed; during which time, -with what he had already achieved, the conquest of the provinces of -New Mexico, New Leon, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas, in the Mexican -republic, had been effected. - -As an advance still farther into the interior of Mexico was ordered by -the government, General Worth, with his division, had some time -previously been sent forward to take the pass at Saltillo, fifty miles -west of Monterey. To this point, leaving a force of one thousand five -hundred men to garrison Monterey, General Taylor directed his course -on the 31st of January, and, on the 2d of February, reached Saltillo. -His effective force at this time was about five thousand. On the 4th -of February, he advanced upon Agua Nueva, a strong position on the -road leading from Saltillo to San Luis; at which place intelligence -was received, on the 21st, that Santa Anna, the Mexican -general-in-chief, with an army exceeding twenty thousand men, was on -the advance. Finding his present position, at Agua Nueva, less -favorable for a conflict with a force so overwhelming, he fell back -upon Buena Vista, a strong mountain-pass, eleven miles nearer -Saltillo. Of the five thousand troops, of which his army was composed, -less than five hundred were regulars; while, on the other hand, the -army of Santa Anna consisted of the flower of the Mexican nation. The -odds were fearful, being more than four to one. - -At length, on the 22d of February, the Mexican army bore down upon -General Taylor, whose troops, now formed in order of battle, calmly -awaited the approach of the Mexican host. Halting his army at some -little distance, Santa Anna sent a summons to General Taylor to -surrender; to which the hero of Palo Alto very politely, but laconically -replied, "I beg leave to say, that I decline acceding to your request." - -Still, the enemy forbore, for a time, an attack, evidently waiting the -arrival of his rear columns. But on the morning of the 23d, the -conflict between the armies began. A full description of the battle -would occupy pages. Few engagements were ever entered upon when the -forces were so unequal in numbers. That victory should declare for -Taylor and his five thousand troops, is the wonder and admiration of -all military men. But while all due praise is accorded to the infantry -and the few cavalry engaged, the most effectual work was accomplished -by the artillery. The American artillery cannot probably be excelled. -At one moment--a most critical and anxious moment it was--when it -seemed nearly impossible but that the Mexican army should -overpower--if by no other means, by the force of numbers--Captain -Bragg was ordered to take a particular position with his battery, the -Mexican line being but a few yards from the muzzle of his pieces. The -first discharge of the cannister caused the enemy--probably advancing -as they were--to pause and hesitate; while a second and third -discharge drove them back in disorder; and, in the words of General -Taylor, "saved the day." - -That night--it was a night intensely cold--the American soldiers were -compelled to bivouac without fires, expecting that the morning would -renew the conflict. During the night, the wounded were removed to -Saltillo. The following day, prisoners were exchanged, the dead were -collected and buried; and it may be added, that the Mexican wounded, -left upon the field by Santa Anna, were sent to Saltillo, and -comfortably provided for. - -The loss of the Americans during the action was, killed, two hundred -and sixty-seven; wounded, four hundred and fifty-six; missing, -twenty-three. The Mexican loss in killed and wounded was supposed to -amount to two thousand--five hundred of whom were left upon the field -of battle. "Our loss," says General Taylor in his official dispatch, -"has been especially severe in officers, twenty-eight having been -killed upon the field. We have to lament the death of Captain George -Lincoln, assistant adjutant-general, serving in the staff of General -Wool--a young officer of high bearing and approved gallantry, who fell -early in action. No loss falls more heavily upon the army in the field -than that of Colonels Hardin and McKee, and Lieutenant-colonel Clay. -Possessing in a remarkable degree the confidence of their commands, -and the last two having enjoyed the advantage of a military education, -I had looked particularly to them for support, in case we met the -enemy. I need not say, that their zeal in engaging the enemy, and the -cool and steadfast courage with which they maintained their positions -during the day, fully realized my hopes, and caused me to feel yet -more sensibly their untimely loss." - -The annals of American warfare probably do not furnish a more remarkable -victory than this of Buena Vista, whether we consider the inequality of -the forces engaged--the character of the forces, being nearly all -volunteers on the American side, and regular troops on the other--or the -decisive nature of the victory itself. Most remarkable were the coolness -and gallantry displayed; but it must be remembered that that coolness -and gallantry were, in no slight degree, the result of those qualities -which so eminently distinguished the commanding general himself. - -_Capture of Vera Cruz._--Events connected with the prosecution of the -war, will require us in the next place to speak of transactions in -another quarter of that agitated and long-distracted country. - -Some two hundred miles south-easterly of the capital, on the Gulf of -Mexico, is situated the city of Vera Cruz--a place of considerable -mercantile importance, and nearly opposite to which is a small island, -on which stands the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, a fortress long -celebrated for its impregnable strength. - -The reduction of this fortress, and the capture of this most important -maritime town belonging to Mexico, had for some time engaged the -attention of the American government. For a time, the well-known -strength of the fortress, and the danger arising from the vomito, of -garrisoning that and the city, in case of their reduction, strongly -operated against the enterprise. But their importance to the final and -more speedy termination of the war, at length decided the president -and his advisers to hazard the expedition. It being impracticable to -withdraw General Taylor from the theatre of his signal victories, the -enterprise was intrusted to the long-tried and accomplished General -Scott. - -In obedience to his orders, General Scott left Washington on the 24th -of November, on this great and doubtful enterprise. On the 1st of -January, he reached the Rio Grande. The troops destined for this -expedition, among whom was a considerable portion of the army under -General Taylor, were directed to rendezvous at Lesbos, an island about -one hundred and twenty-five miles north-west of Vera Cruz. From this -point, the army was transported to the west of the island of -Sacrificios. The landing of the troops having been effected without -direct opposition, although the guns and castles, of the city kept up -a constant firing with round shot and thirteen-inch shells, the -several divisions of the army took their respective positions for the -purpose of investment and siege. - -Soon after the commencement of the siege, a "norther" prevailed, which -rendered it impossible to land heavy ordnance. On the 17th, a pause -occurred in the storm, and ten mortars, four twenty-four-pound guns, -and some howitzers were landed. On the night of the 18th, the trenches -were opened, and--engineers, with sappers and miners, leading the -way--the army gradually closed in nearer the city. - -On the 22d of March--seven of the ten-inch mortars being in battery, and -other works in progress--General Scott summoned the governor of Vera -Cruz to surrender the city. This he refused. On the return of the flag, -the mortar-battery, at a distance of eight hundred yards from the city, -opened its fire, and continued to fire during the day and night. - -On the 24th, the batteries were rëinforced with twenty-four pounders -and Paixhan guns. On the 25th, all the batteries were in "awful -activity." Terrible was the scene! The darkness of the night was -illuminated with blazing shells circling through the air. The roar of -artillery, and the heavy fall of descending shot, were heard -throughout the streets of the besieged city. The roofs of buildings -were on fire. The domes of churches reverberated with fearful -explosions. The sea was reddened with the broadsides of ships. The -castle of San Juan returned from its heavy batteries the fire, the -light, the smoke, the noise of battle. Such was the sublime and -awfully-terrible scene, as beheld from the trenches of the army, from -the 22d to the 25th of March. - -Early on the morning of the 26th, General Landers, on whom the command -had been devolved by General Morales, made overtures of surrender. -Late on the night of the 27th, the articles of capitulation were -signed and exchanged. - -On the 29th, the official dispatch of General Scott announced that the -flag of the United States floated over the walls of Vera Cruz and the -castle of San Juan d'Ulloa. The regular siege of the city had continued -from the day of _investment_, the 12th of March, to the day the articles -of capitulation were signed, the 27th; making a period of _fifteen -days_, in which active, continuous, vigorous operations were carried -on. During this time, our army had thrown three thousand ten-inch -shells, two hundred howitzer shells, one thousand Paixhan shot, and two -thousand five hundred round shot, weighing, in the whole, about _half a -million pounds_! Most effective and most terrible was the disaster and -destruction they caused within the walls of the city, whose ruins and -whose mourning attested both the energy and the sadness of war. - -[Illustration: The American Army in Vera Cruz.] - -The surrender of the city almost necessarily led to the surrender of the -castle. By the terms of capitulation, five thousand prisoners were -surrendered on parole, and nearly five hundred pieces of fine artillery -were taken. The number of killed and wounded, on the American side, was -comparatively small. The principal officers killed were Captains -Alburtis and Vinton. The destruction of life fell heavily upon the -Mexicans, and especially upon the citizens of Vera Cruz, many of whose -females and children found their death from shells falling and bursting -in the city. This, however painful it was, was unavoidable, inasmuch as -many, who had ample time to leave the city before the bombardment -commenced, failed to take advantage of that opportunity. - -The fall of Vera Cruz and its neighboring fortress was the result of -cool and determined bravery, but more, perhaps, of scientific skill -and wise calculation. The castle had long been considered impregnable, -and, by many, its reduction was deemed little short of presumption. - -_Cerro Gordo._--The victories of Palo Alto, Monterey, and Buena Vista, -under General Taylor, followed, as they were, by the capture of Vera -Cruz, and the fall of that Mexican Gibraltar, San Juan d'Ulloa, although -terribly disastrous to the Mexicans, had not served to conquer them. -Nothing short of the loss of their capital, it was apparent, could -subdue them; and the occupation of that now became the one great and -controlling object of the commander-in-chief. Preparations were -accordingly made to march upon the city of Mexico, by the way of Jalapa, -Perote, and Puebla, a distance of about three hundred miles. - -On the 12th of April, the American army had reached the neighborhood -of Cerro Gordo, a mountain-pass, sixty miles from Vera Cruz. Here -Santa Anna had collected about fifteen thousand men, and had made -every possible preparation to resist the progress of the Americans. He -had fortified several eminences, formidable by nature, but now still -more formidable by the batteries, which he had planted. - -Perceiving that a front attack of these works would be hazardous in -the extreme, General Scott directed a road to be opened around Cerro -Gordo, which would enable the army to ascend the mountain, and gain -the rear of the Mexican works. This was a masterly movement--the work -of indescribable toil; but when accomplished, it was apparent to the -Mexicans that their fate was sealed. The consequence was, that one -position after another was obliged to yield, until, at length, but one -remained--the fortress of Cerro Gordo, the highest and most -formidable. The storming of this was intrusted to Colonel Harney, -supported from various points by Twiggs, Shields, and Pillow. It was a -desperate enterprise, but at length it was accomplished. Sergeant -Henry had the honor of hauling down the national standard of Mexico. -Of the gallant conduct of Colonel Harney, General Scott was an -immediate witness. When all was effected, approaching the colonel, -between whom and himself there had been some coolness, he thus -addressed him: "Colonel Harney, I cannot adequately express my -admiration of your gallant achievement, but, at the proper time, I -shall take great pleasure in thanking you in proper terms." - -[Illustration: Colonel Harney at Cerro Gordo.] - -The result of the victory was, three thousand prisoners; forty-three -pieces of brass artillery, manufactured at Seville; five thousand -stands of arms; and the five Generals Penson, Jarrero, La Vega, -Noriega, and Obando. - -Meanwhile, the Mexican commander-in-chief addressed himself to his own -personal safety. In company with Generals Canalizo and Almonte, and -some six thousand men, he made his escape. But he was so hotly -pursued, that he was obliged to leave his carriage, and mount a mule -which was attached to it. Nor was there time to unharness the animal, -but he was detached by summarily cutting the harness. The carriage was -of course abandoned; and in it, or near it, was found Santa Anna's -cork leg, which, in the haste of the moment, had fallen off; and to -restore which there was now no time. And still more, his dinner, which -had been prepared, was discovered in his carriage uneaten; and which, -after the pursuit was ended, served as a grateful repast to the -several hungry and weary American officers. - -_Progress of the Army._--Baffled in his attempt to arrest the march of -the American army, Santa Anna had no other course but to retreat, as -we have related. The way was now open to the American troops, who -advanced upon Perote; which having garrisoned, they proceeded to the -ancient city of Puebla, in the Spanish tongue _Puebla de los Angelos_, -the city of angels. Here, for several weeks, the army rested, waiting -for rëinforcements, the troops being deemed entirely inadequate for so -formidable an undertaking as that of marching on the capital. At -length, the anticipated forces having arrived, preparations were made -to advance. On the 6th of August, 1847, the army consisted as follows: - - Scott's force at Puebla, 7,000 - Cadwallader's brigade, 1,400 - Pillow's brigade, 1,800 - Pierce's corps brigade, 2,409 - Garrison at Puebla, under Colonel Childs, 1,400 - ------ - Total arrived at Puebla, 14,009 - Deduct from this the garrison at Puebla, including sick, 3,261 - ------ - Total marched from Puebla, 10,748 - -This army was arranged in four divisions, with a cavalry brigade. This -brigade was under the command of Colonel Harney. General Worth -commanded the first division; General Twiggs the second; General -Pillow the third; and General Quitman the fourth. - -[Illustration: Battle of Churubusco.] - -At length, on the 7th of August, the second division, under General -Twiggs, commenced its march, followed on the 8th, 9th, and 10th, by the -other divisions. No opposing foe impeded their progress. On the 17th, -the army was concentrated at San Augustine, about ten miles south of -Mexico, on the Acapulco road leading to the city. From this point, the -Americans were destined to meet with the most formidable resistance. -Every possible preparation had been made by Santa Anna to prevent their -access to and occupation of the city. On the 20th, the drama opened, -and, on that day, several distinct and severe engagements occurred -between the Mexicans and the several divisions of the American army, the -principal of which were the battles of _Contreras_ and _Churubusco_. In -these engagements, thirty-two thousand Mexicans were engaged, and were -defeated, and even routed. Three thousand prisoners were made, -including eight generals and two hundred and five other officers. Four -thousand, of all ranks, were killed and wounded; thirty-seven -field-pieces captured, besides large stores of ammunition. An easy -access to the city now presented itself, and, but for a single -circumstance, the victorious Americans would doubtless have occupied it -that same evening, or early on the ensuing morning. - -Some time previously, the president of the United States, desirous of -ending the war, had deputed a commissioner, Nicholas P. Trist, Esq., -to proceed from Washington to Mexico, there, if possible, to effect a -treaty with that government. The present was deemed a fit moment, ere -the victors entered the city; and, in order to avoid a forcible entry, -to propose an adjustment of difficulties. Accordingly, the -commander-in-chief decided to pause, and await the action of its -councils. On the 21st, an armistice was agreed upon. This was followed -by consultations between Mr. Trist and Mexican commissioners, in -relation to the terms of peace. These, however, failed; and -infractions of the armistice having occurred, the conflict was -resumed. On the 8th, the two armies were engaged in a severe action at -_Molinos del Rey_. In this action, Santa Anna commanded in person. It -continued two hours, and was attended with great loss on both sides, -but resulted in the triumph of the American arms. - -[Illustration: STORMING OF CHEPULTEPEC.] - -There remained yet one formidable obstacle to the entrance of the -city. This was the fortress of _Chepultepec_--a natural and isolated -mount of great elevation, strongly fortified at its base and on its -acclivities and heights. On the morning of the 12th, the bombardment -and cannonade of this fortress was commenced, and was continued on the -13th. The Mexicans resisted with stubborn obstinacy, and, at length, -yielded only by dire necessity. The officer who had the honor of -striking the Mexican flag from the walls, and planting the American -standard, was Major Seymour, of the New England regiment, soon after -he had succeeded the gallant Colonel Ransom, who fell while leading -his troops up the heights of Chepultepec. - -Such was their position on the night of the 13th. On the following -day, the victorious army entered the ancient and still proud, but now -subjugated city of the Aztecs--a place celebrated for its wealth and -magnificence--for its public squares and public palaces--its churches -and other beautiful structures--from the very discovery of the -country. At the capture of Mexico, the effective force of General -Scott did not exceed six thousand. - -[Illustration: The Army crossing the National Bridge near Cerro Gordo.] - -_Treaty._--The occupation of Mexico, by the American army, essentially -terminated the war. A few other engagements, between detachments of -the armies, occurred at subsequent dates; but the fate of the capital -crushed the hopes and paralyzed the efforts of the Mexicans. In this -posture of affairs, Mr. Trist renewed his proposal for a treaty -between the two republics. At length, this desirable object was -effected, and "a treaty of peace, friendship, and settlement," was -signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo. On its being submitted to the senate of -the United States by the president, a long and exciting debate ensued. -But, at length, after important amendments, it was ratified by a -constitutional majority. To facilitate its ratification by the Mexican -government, and to explain the modifications which it had undergone, -the Hon. Mr. Sevier and Hon. Nathan Clifford were dispatched to -Mexico. On their arrival at the city of Querataro, on the 25th of May, -they found that the house of deputies had already sanctioned the -treaty, and, on that day, it was adopted by the Mexican senate by a -vote of thirty-three to five. - -By this treaty, Upper California and New Mexico were ceded to the -United States. The latter paying to the former fifteen millions of -dollars, in four annual instalments, and assuming such debts as were -due by Mexico to American citizens, not exceeding three millions and a -quarter of dollars. - -[Illustration: Californians.] - -_California and its Gold._--The territories of New Mexico and Upper -California, were known at the time of their cession to be sufficiently -large for a great empire. But, by many, they were considered of -comparatively little value to the United States, excepting the bay of -San Francisco, on the Pacific, as a place of harbor for our ships. But, -since their acquisition, California has become, from its mineral wealth, -especially its gold, an object of great interest and attraction. The -whole civilized world has been astonished by the reports which have been -put in circulation respecting its golden treasures, and thousands upon -thousands have set forth for this western El Dorado. - -California is separated into two divisions by a range of mountains, -called the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Mountains, which stretches along -the coast at the general distance of one hundred and fifty miles from -it. West of this range are the valleys of San Joaquin and the -Sacramento, which are watered by rivers of the same name. They rise at -opposite ends of these valleys, and at length meet and enter the bay -of Francisco together. The greatest point of interest in this -newly-acquired territory, is the valley of the Sacramento, which is -distinguished by its gold deposites or "_placers_," as they are -called. The recent discovery of the existence of gold in this region -was accidental. In enlarging the race-way of a water-wheel, connected -with a saw-mill just erected by a Mr. Marshall for Captain Sutter, by -letting in a strong current of water, a considerable quantity of earth -was carried to the foot of the race. Not long after, Mr. Marshall -discovered some glittering particles in this earth, which, on further -inspection, proved to be virgin gold. Further explorations ensued, and -deposites have been found to exist in various portions of this valley -for several hundred miles. - -_Election of General Taylor._--The administration of Mr. Polk was -signalized by many interesting and important events. Yet, it cannot be -said to have been popular, even with the party to which he owed his -elevation. Towards the close of his term, few, if any, seriously -advocated his rëelection. At a democratic convention, held in -Baltimore May 21st, 1848, Lewis Cass, of Michigan, was nominated for -the presidency, and General W. O. Butler, of Kentucky, for the -vice-presidency. The candidates proposed by a whig convention held at -Philadelphia, June 7th, were General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, and -Millard Fillmore, of New York. Subsequently, a free-soil convention -assembled at Utica, and nominated Martin Van Buren. The votes of the -several electoral colleges resulted as follows: - - Key: A. Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana. - B. Lewis Cass, of Michigan. - C. Millard Filmore, of New York. - D. Wm. O. Butler, of Kentucky. - - ---------+-----------------+----------+--------------- - No. of | |PRESIDENT.|VICE-PRESIDENT. - Electors | STATES. |----------+--------------- - from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. - State. | | | | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-------+------- - 9 | Maine, | | 9 | | 9 - 6 | New Hampshire, | | 6 | | 6 - 12 | Massachusetts, | 12 | | 12 | - 4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | | 4 | - 6 | Connecticut, | 6 | | 6 | - 6 | Vermont, | 6 | | 6 | - 36 | New York, | 36 | | 36 | - 7 | New Jersey, | 7 | | 7 | - 26 | Pennsylvania, | 26 | | 26 | - 3 | Delaware, | 3 | | 3 | - 8 | Maryland, | 8 | | 8 | - 17 | Virginia, | | 17 | | 17 - 11 | North Carolina, | 11 | | 11 | - 9 | South Carolina, | | 9 | | 9 - 10 | Georgia, | 10 | | 10 | - 12 | Kentucky, | 12 | | 12 | - 13 | Tennessee, | 13 | | 13 | - 23 | Ohio, | | 23 | | - 6 | Lousiana, | 6 | | 6 | 6 - 6 | Mississippi, | | 6 | | - 12 | Indiana, | | 12 | | - 9 | Illinois, | | 9 | | - 9 | Alabama, | | 9 | | - 7 | Missouri, | | 7 | | - 3 | Arkansas, | | 3 | | - 5 | Michigan, | | 5 | | - 3 | Florida, | 3 | | 3 | 3 - 4 | Texas, | | 4 | | - 4 | Iowa, | | 4 | | - 4 | Wisconsin, | | 4 | | - ---------+-----------------+----+-----+-------+------- - 290 | Whole No. of | | | | - | electors, |163 | 127 | 163 | 127 - | Majority, 146 | | | | - -FOOTNOTE: - -[81] Life of Andrew Jackson, by John S. Jenkins. - - - - - XVII. ZACHARY TAYLOR, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration] - - INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 5, 1849. - - MILLARD FILLMORE, VICE-PRESIDENT. - - HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS. - - John M. Clayton, Delaware, March 6, 1849, Secretary of - State. - - William M. Meredith, Pennsylvania, March 6, 1849, Secretary of - the Treasury. - - Thomas Ewing, Ohio, March 6, 1849, Sec'ry of Home - Department.[82] - - George W. Crawford, Georgia, March 6, 1849, Secretary of - War. - - William B. Preston, Virginia, March 6, 1849, Secretary of - the Navy. - - Jacob Collamar, Vermont, March 6, 1849, Postmaster - General. - - Reverdy Johnson, Maryland, March 6, 1849, Attorney - General. - -It was an occasion of great rejoicing on Monday, the 5th of March, -when the hero of Buena Vista stood on that spot at the eastern portico -of the national capitol, where had stood Jefferson, Madison, and -others, and baring his head, took the oath prescribed, to support the -constitution, which was administered to him by Chief Justice Taney. - -The inaugural address of General Taylor, like all his official -communications to government while in the field, was brief--shorter -than any similar address by any other president, except Mr. Madison's. -To a majority of the people, it proved quite satisfactory, and even in -England was pronounced an eloquent production. Previous to his -election, General Taylor had declined all pledges, excepting the -assurance to the nation, that he would never be the president of a -party, but should endeavor, if elected, to bring back the government -to the spirit of the constitution, as understood and administered by -Washington. Other pledges than this, he now declined, standing, as he -did, before God and the nation; but this pledge he was ready to renew. -"In the discharge of these duties," said he, "my guide will be the -constitution, which I this day swear to 'preserve, protect, and -defend.' For the interpretation of that instrument, I shall look to -the decisions of the judicial tribunals established by its authority, -and to the practice of the government under the earliest presidents, -who had so large a share in its formation. - -"Chosen by the body of the people, under the assurance that my -administration would be devoted to the welfare of the whole country, -and not to the support of any particular section or merely local -interests, I, this day, renew the declarations I have heretofore made, -and proclaim my fixed determination to maintain, to the extent of my -ability, the government in its original purity, and to adopt, as the -basis of my public policy, those great republican doctrines which -constitute the strength of our national existence." - -The ceremonies of the inauguration being over, General Taylor entered -upon the duties of his office, respected for his private worth and -public services, with many supplications, on the part of the pious and -the patriotic, that his official course might, in its issues, prove as -beneficial to his country as was Washington's, which he had presented -to himself as the model of his administration. - - Taylor's administration continued on page 902. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[82] A new office, embracing certain portions of business heretofore -transacted in the Departments of State, Treasury, &c. - - - - - BRITISH AMERICA. - - GENERAL REMARKS. - - -[Illustration] - -British America embraces not far from one equal half of the North -American continent. The whole area amounts to about four millions of -square miles. The Arctic ocean bounds it on the north, and the -Atlantic on the east. The southern boundary is the St. Lawrence, and -the extended chain of lakes as far westward as the Lake of the Woods, -whence the dividing line between the British possessions and the -United States follows the forty-ninth parallel of latitude westward to -the Strait of Fuca, and thence along its channel south-west to the -Pacific ocean. On the west, British America is bounded in part by the -ocean, and in part by the line of the one hundred and forty-first -degree of west longitude. - -The greater portion of this immense region is a waste, uninhabited, -the home of wild beasts, and the seat of eternal snow and ice. It -possesses little value, except the skins and furs which are taken from -the animals that rove there. The settlements are few, even in those -parts that have been reduced into provinces, and these embrace but an -inconsiderable portion of the whole region. - -It has not been thought important to establish regular governments in -all the provinces, so called. Such governments are established only in -the Canadas, Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, New Brunswick, Prince Edward's -Island, and Newfoundland. The Canadas consist of Upper and Lower, or -Canada West and Canada East, and embrace the principal amount of the -population and productive resources of that whole northern world. - -Canada East is a country of some considerable extent, measuring about -two hundred thousand square miles, but mostly hilly and rocky, and -unproductive, except on the borders of the St. Lawrence. - -Canada West contains an area of one hundred and fifty thousand square -miles, if its western boundary, as is generally considered, extends no -farther than to the heads of the streams which fall into Lake -Superior. The climate of Canada West, or Upper Canada, is less severe -than that of Lower Canada. It has also some quite productive soil. - -[Illustration] - - - - - I. CANADA.[83] - - - DISCOVERY--Settlement--Capture of Quebec--Death of - Champlain--Religious Enterprises--War made by the - Iroquois--Accessions to the Colony--Progress of the - Colony--Attempts of the English to Conquer Canada--Condition - of Canada in 1721 and 1722--General Prosperity of the - Colony--Refusal to join in the War of American - Independence--Consequences of American Independence to - Canada--Territorial Divisions and Constitution--Dissensions - after the close of the war of 1812--Disturbances and - Insurrections. - -_Discovery._--Jacques Carter, of St. Malo, in France, is the -acknowledged discoverer of Canada. He was a distinguished mariner, and -was solicited by the French to conduct a voyage to Newfoundland. This -he undertook with two small vessels, of only twenty tons burden each. -On the 10th of May, 1534, he saw the shores of that island, and -steering to the south along the coast, landed at a harbor which he -named St. Catharine's. Thence, proceeding westward and northward, he -entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the mouth of the river of the -same name; but the unfavorableness of the weather, and the lateness of -the season, induced him to return to France. He, however, first took -possession of the country in the name of his king. - -During the following year, he was invested with the command of three -ships of larger size, and well equipped with all sorts of supplies; -and making a second voyage to Newfoundland, he entered the gulf on the -day of St. Lawrence. Hence, it is supposed, is the name of the gulf -and of the river. This voyage was not completed till he reached, in a -pinnace and two boats, the present site of Montreal on the St. -Lawrence river. This was then the principal Indian settlement, named -Hochelaga, where the natives received him with great kindness. He took -formal possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, and -returned home in the spring of the following year, 1536. - -Voyages of discovery were made successively by Roberval, Pontgravè, -and Champlain, down to the beginning of the seventeenth century; but -of these, no particular notice need be given. - -[Illustration: Champlain's Interview with the Algonquins.] - -_Settlements._--The important city of Quebec was founded by Champlain, -in 1608. On the 13th of July of that year, he fixed on a most commanding -promontory, on the north side of the River St. Lawrence, for the site of -his settlement. The choice of such a spot for "the capital of a great -trans-Atlantic empire, does him immortal honor." Here he remained -through the winter, but, as soon as the season admitted, he resumed his -voyage up the river. At a distance of twenty-five leagues above Quebec, -he met a band belonging to the celebrated nation of the Algonquins, whom -he agreed to join in their wars against the Iroquois. In this step, he -committed a fatal error. It was the means of bringing upon the French -settlements, in Canada, all the calamities of savage warfare for nearly -a hundred years. He was, however, successful at that time in an -engagement with the Iroquois. - -A few years after the settlement of Quebec, viz., in 1611, Montreal was -founded. Champlain, who had in the mean time returned to France once and -again, visited America that year, arriving at a place of rendezvous -appointed for another warlike expedition. Not finding the Indians, he -employed his time in selecting a spot for a new settlement, higher up -the river than Quebec. Carefully examining the region, he fixed upon -ground in the vicinity of an eminence which he called Mount Royal; and -it would seem from the prosperity which has since attended the place, -under the name of Montreal, that his choice has been amply justified. -After sowing grain on a cleared spot of some extent, he inclosed it with -a wooden wall. Champlain explored the River Ottawa, and many other parts -of the country, while he remained in it. In consequence of expeditions -from France, at various times, a few other settlements were formed; but -the colony, though bearing the imposing name of New France, was in a -condition of extreme weakness, and seemed to be viewed with -indifference, both by the mother-country and England. - -_Capture of Quebec._--The growth of this place was very inconsiderable -for many years; but it early became a mark for the assaults of an enemy. -Hostilities having commenced with England, two French subjects, David -and Louis Kirk, entering the service of that country, equipped a -squadron, which sailed to the mouth of the St. Lawrence, captured -several vessels, and intercepted the communication between the -mother-country and the colony. In July, 1629, Sir David Kirk summoned -Quebec--a summons which was followed by a surrender of the place, the -invaded party being promised honorable conditions, and allowed to depart -with their arms, clothes, and baggage. The request of a ship to convey -them directly home was not granted, but they were promised a commodious -passage by way of England. In consequence of the adjustment of -difficulties between the two countries, the place was at length -restored; and Canada, with Cape Breton and Acadia, was confirmed to -France. The final treaty, however, was not signed till the 29th March, -1632. - -_Death of Champlain._--Champlain, as the founder of the most important -places in New France, was for a long time the life and soul of the -colony. His energy, scientific accomplishments, and popularity, seemed -to be most intimately connected with the prosperity, and even -existence of the colony. In 1633, he was appointed governor, and -sailed with a squadron, carrying all necessary supplies, to Canada, -where, on his arrival, he found most of his former colonists. A -greater prosperity now attended the affairs of New France. Means were -employed for maintaining harmony among the inhabitants, and methods -devised for introducing into the colony only persons of -unexceptionable character. - -But the end of his enterprising career was now come. He perished in -the year 1636, having been drowned in the lake which bears his name. -His death was, of course, a severe misfortune to Canada, and the loss -could not well be repaired. M. de Montmagny was appointed his -successor, and appeared to have commanded the general respect of the -native inhabitants. But the colony was in a critical condition, and he -could act only on the defensive, in the hostilities in which they were -disposed from time to time to engage. Owing to the policy of the court -at home, of continuing no governor in power longer than three years, -Montmagny was displaced at the end of that time by the appointment of -another governor. This system, however, was ill-suited to a settlement -like that of Canada, where an intimate local knowledge, and a peculiar -mixture of firmness and address, were necessary to deal with -tumultuary tribes whom they were too feeble to subdue. Ailleboust, -his successor, is said to have been a man of probity, but he -indifferently possessed the energy required in so difficult a -situation. The Iroquois now became peculiarly turbulent, and, as will -soon be seen, brought dreadful calamities on the whites. - -_Religious Enterprises._--Catholic missionaries had not merely formed -establishments at Quebec and Montreal, but had also penetrated into -the domains of the savages. These religionists certainly gave full -proof of sincerity in their work, as they renounced all the comforts -of civilized life, and exposed themselves to every species of hardship -and danger. The religious "establishments did little for the immediate -improvement of the colony, yet as points of possession, occupied by -persons whose avocations were professedly holy and useful, they laid -the foundation on which arose the superstructure of those morals and -habits that still and will long characterize the Gallo-Canadians." - -As to the effect of the Catholic missions on the native tribes, it is -to be observed, they undoubtedly reclaimed their votaries from many -savage habits, and trained them up to some degree of order and -industry. The tribe found to be the most docile and susceptible of -improvement, was that of the Hurons; and their great numbers presented -a wide field for religious effort. More than three thousand of them -are recorded to have received baptism at one time, though only a -portion of the number probably retained even the profession of -Christianity. The general effect produced was in a degree favorable, -and softened somewhat the aspect of this wild region. The main object -was to unite the Indians in villages. Of these, several were formed, -the principal of which were Sillery, or St. Joseph, and St. Mary. - -_War made by the Iroquois._--In 1648, the Iroquois, as already -intimated, were resolved on renewing the war; for what cause, if for -any, does not now appear. Their movements were rapid and fatal. The -village of Sillery was occupied by four hundred families, and was -accordingly a tempting object to the savages. In a time of profound -peace, and while the missionary was celebrating the most solemn -ordinances of religion, the shriek was suddenly heard, "We are -murdered!" The enemy had commenced an indiscriminate massacre, without -distinction of sex or age. The women fled for safety into the depths of -the forest; but the infants whom they carried in their arms betrayed -them by their crying, and mother and suckling were alike butchered. The -assailants, at length, fell upon the priest, and after each in -succession had struck him a blow, they threw him into the flames.[84] - -[Illustration: Extermination of the Hurons.] - -By this onset, the Hurons were wholly routed; their country, which had -for some time reposed in peace and security, became a scene of -devastation and blood. Fleeing for refuge in every direction, a few -subsequently united with their invaders, but the greater number sought -safety among the Chippewas of Lake Superior. A small remnant of about -three hundred were able to secure the protection of the French at -Quebec. Here, they were viewed only as objects of charity; and though, -as such, considerable exertions were put forth in their behalf, yet the -whole number could not be accommodated. Numbers were exposed to cold and -hunger, until a station could be formed for them, which was named -Sillery, after their former chief settlement. In consequence of the -successes of the Iroquois, the French were chiefly confined to the three -forts of Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal. For a number of years, a -sad state of things existed in the colony. The French had been compelled -to accept of humiliating terms of peace, and even by these means, only -partially secured the boon. The Iroquois continually extended their -dominion, conquering one tribe of their fellow-savages after another, -and even insulting the French in their fortified posts. The latter, from -fear or weakness, were compelled to witness the destruction of their -allies. They were themselves, in a great measure, safe in their -fortresses, for these the enemy had no adequate skill to besiege. - -_Accessions to the Colony._--It had been represented to Louis XIV., -who had lately ascended the throne, that his government was exposing -the French name to contempt, through neglect of his fine American -province, and tame subjection to Indian ravages. He was sufficiently -bent upon aggrandizement not willingly to incur such a reproach; and -accordingly troops were dispatched from France, and the French power -was at once considerably augmented in the province. The Marquis de -Tracy was sent out at this time, 1665, in the joint character of -viceroy and lieutenant-general. Besides the soldiers, a considerable -number of settlers, including artisans, with horses and cattle, were -conveyed with him to Canada. He was able to overcome and repress the -savages, and increase the fortifications and defences of the country. -The population was more than doubled by means of the immigration. - -_Progress of the Colony._--After M. de Tracy, the government was -administered successively by M. de Courcelles, Count Frontenac, M. de -la Barre, Denonville, and Count Frontenac the second time, down to the -year 1698. Under the first-named governor, the French power was -gradually extended to the interior of Canada and the upper parts of -the River St. Lawrence. A settlement of Hurons was established on the -island of Michilimackinack, a situation very favorable to the -fur-trade, and a site for a fort was selected at Cataraqui, on Lake -Ontario, a position of importance for trade and defence. Count -Frontenac, immediately upon his accession, caused the fort to be -completed. He conducted the affairs of the colony with spirit and -energy during a period of ten years, but he was too independent in his -administration to suit a jealous court at home. His successor, M. de -la Barre, not fulfilling the expectations of the government, was soon -rëcalled, and the Marquis Denonville appointed in his room. The -measures of this governor were not at all well advised; his treachery -to the natives brought him into difficulty; he obtained only an empty -victory over them, and, towards the conclusion of his administration, -the very existence of the colony was threatened. At this period, 1689, -Frontenac was rëcalled to the government. It was hoped that his -experience would teach him to avoid the errors of his former -administration, while his decision, energy, and fascinating manners, -were deemed of vital importance to the welfare of the settlement. - -Frontenac, anxious to justify to the world the choice made of him, the -second time, to administer the affairs of Canada, determined at once -on several bold projects. As his own country and England were now at -war, and as England relied much on the aid of her provinces of the -south, he resolved on attacking the latter. Accordingly, he fitted out -three expeditions; one against New York, a second against New -Hampshire, and a third against the province of Maine. The fatal attack -upon Corlear, or Schenectady, detailed in another part of this work, -was the result of the first expedition. The burning of Salmon Falls, -on the borders of New Hampshire, proceeded from the second expedition. -The third destroyed the settlement of Casco, in Maine. - -The atrocities of the French and their savage allies soon aroused the -Northern colonies, New York and New England, to take vengeance on the -foe. The English determined to strike a blow which might at once -deprive him of all his possessions. Two expeditions were prepared; one -by sea, from Boston, against Quebec; the other by land, from New York, -against Montreal. The first was commanded by Sir William Phipps, a -native of New England, of humble birth, who had raised himself by his -talents to a high station. Both expeditions failed as to their -ultimate object; but Sir William captured all the French posts in -Acadia and Newfoundland, with several on the St. Lawrence; and it is -not without reason supposed that Quebec itself would have fallen, had -not the English commander too hastily considered the enterprise as -hopeless. He made a very considerable effort, but did not persevere. -The French, Colden says, returned fervent thanks to Providence for -having, by a special interposition, deprived their enemies of common -sense. Montreal was saved only after a most strenuous resistance. - -The French, under the administration of Frontenac, sustained -themselves, and generally held their own against the attacks of the -English and the Indians. Peace, at length, having taken place between -France and England, negotiations were entered into for closing the -provincial war and exchanging prisoners; but before the negotiations -were concluded, Frontenac died. This event occurred on the 29th day of -November, 1698, and may be said to have constituted an era in the -Canadian history, as by his energy and talents he had retrieved the -affairs of the settlement, and raised it into a powerful and -flourishing state. De Callières, the successor of Frontenac, finally -effected the negotiations in 1700. - -_Attempts by the English to Conquer Canada_.--The first serious -attempt to bring the French province of Canada under the English sway, -and its failure, have already been chronicled. Other efforts were -subsequently put forth with this object in view, as soon as the parent -countries had again taken up arms on account of the Spanish -succession. Canada, in this instance, was left to her own resources, -as Louis XIV. had been entirely unsuccessful in his European wars, and -could afford her no aid. She was at this time, also, able to repel her -invaders, or was providentially delivered from their attack. - -De Vaudreuil, who was then governor, in contemplation of a formidable -attack, sought to dissipate it by an offensive movement. He sent out a -detachment of two hundred men, which, after a long march, succeeded in -storming and destroying Haverhill, a frontier village; though, while -returning, they fell into an ambuscade. Thirty of their number were -killed; but having beaten off their assailants, the remainder reached -Montreal in safety. - -In 1709, the English left New York for Canada with a force of two -thousand men, joined by an equal number of savages. But after they had -erected a chain of posts from New York, and had occupied, in great -force, Lakes George and Champlain, circumstances occurred which -defeated the project. The savages, who were the Iroquois, failed them -from prudential considerations; and a pestilential disease happening -among the English troops, the enterprise was abandoned, after their -canoes and forts were burned to ashes. - -The succeeding year, the English prepared a new and greater armament. -General Nicholson arrived at Boston with a considerable squadron and -fresh forces were expected, which, with those already in the country, -were to be employed in two joint expeditions, by sea against Quebec, and -by land against Montreal. But it happened, to the signal relief of the -French, that the squadron was wrecked near the mouth of the St. -Lawrence, a circumstance which prevented also the land forces, that were -already on the march, from proceeding farther. The treaty at Utrecht, -which took place on the 30th of March, 1713, put an end, for many years, -to their armaments for the reduction of Canada. The long interval proved -to be a season of prosperity to this French domain in the New World. - -_Condition of Canada in 1721 and 1722._--This was the time when -Charlevoix visited the colony, who gave a description of its state as -he saw it. - -Quebec was estimated to contain about seven thousand inhabitants; both -the lower and the upper town were partially built, but none of the -extensive suburbs appear to have existed. The society, composed in a -great measure of military officers and noblesse, was extremely -agreeable, and no where was the French language spoken in greater -purity. Under this gay exterior, however, was concealed a very general -poverty. - -The only employment suited to their taste was the fur-trade. This, -connected as it was with habits of roving and adventure, had great -attractions for the people, and little fortunes were thereby -occasionally made; but these were soon dissipated in the haste to enjoy -pleasure and display. The absence of gold and silver, then considered -almost the only objects as giving lustre to a colony, had always caused -New France to be viewed as of less importance than it was in reality. - -The coasts of the St. Lawrence, for some extent below Quebec, were -already laid out in seignories, and tolerably cultivated. At a place -seven leagues from the capital, many of the farmers were found in easy -circumstances, and more wealthy than their landlords. The latter were -in possession of grants which they had neither capital nor industry to -improve, and they were, therefore, obliged to let them out at small -quit-rents. - -The island and city of Montreal presented to the eye objects of deep -interest. The population was considerable, as both the upper and lower -towns were already built, and a suburb had been commenced. Montreal -was rendered comparatively secure against the savages, by the vicinity -of two neighboring villages which were inhabited by friendly Indians. - -_General Prosperity of the Colony._--Canada enjoyed a long period of -tranquillity, under the administrations of De Vaudreuil and Beauharnois, -Gallissonière, Jonquière, Longuiel, and Du Quesne and his successors. - -During this interval, the French appear to have entirely overcome that -deeply-seated enmity, so long cherished by the great Indian tribes. -Their pliant and courteous manners, their frequent intermarriages, -and, in some instances, actual adoption of the habits of savage life, -rendered them better fitted than the English, to secure the confidence -of the American savage. Instead of having to treat them as British -allies, they could usually employ them, when occasion required, for -their own military service. - -An equally favorable change took place in respect to the fur-trade, -which had been considerably diverted to the English market. A more -liberal system appears to have been adopted; and a large annual fair, -opened at Montreal, became the general centre of the traffic. - -_Canada transferred to the English._--In an early portion of the -volume, we have given an account of the "French and Indian war," -during which an expedition against Quebec, under Wolfe, was attempted. -This was in 1759. That expedition resulted, as is well known, in the -death of that distinguished military hero, and the capitulation of the -city. A single incident, only, will be here alluded to, touching the -fall of this victorious general. On receiving his mortal wound, he -said, "Support me--let not my brave soldiers see me drop." About a -year following the surrender of Quebec, the whole of Canada was -transferred to the dominion of Great Britain, by which it has ever -since been held as one of her dependencies. - -[Illustration: Death of Wolfe.] - -_Refusal to join in the War of American Independence._--In the revolt -of the United Colonies against the government of the mother-country, -the Canadians were pressingly invited to join and assist the former. -They, however, never swerved from their allegiance. With a view to -conciliate the Canadians, the "Quebec Act," passed in 1774, changed -the English civil law, which had been at first introduced, for the -ancient system. The French language was also directed to be employed -in the law-courts, and other changes were made for the purpose of -gratifying the people. The most important privilege of all, that of a -national representation, was, however, not granted. - -_Consequence of the American Independence to Canada._--The issue of -the war of independence in the colonies, though unfavorable, or at -least mortifying, to the mother-country, was attended with some -advantages to Canada. A large body of loyalists, who had sought refuge -in her territories during the war, received liberal grants of land in -the Upper Provinces, as also farming utensils, building materials, and -subsistence for two years. A great extent of country was thus put -under cultivation, and flourishing towns, as those of Kingston and -Toronto, arose from the policy which was adopted in regard to these -settlers. Thus was laid the foundation of that prosperity which has -since so eminently distinguished the Upper Province. - -_Territorial Division and a Constitution._--A steady advancement and -growth of the country, caused the population to feel more and more -their importance, and they were little contented in the absence of a -representative government. The wish for such a government was, at -times, strongly expressed. In 1790, Mr. Pitt determined to comply with -the desires of the people on this subject; but, as a preliminary, it -was resolved to divide Canada into two governments, upper and lower. -The constitution granted, proved to be on a basis nearly resembling -that of the British constitution. The first house of assembly was -opened in 1792, but for several years their proceedings were of no -special importance. In 1797, General Prescott was called to administer -the government, when complaints began to be made respecting the grant -of lands. The Board constituted for that purpose, had appropriated -extensive tracts to themselves, and thereby had impeded the work of -general settlement. He was succeeded, however, in 1800, by Sir Robert -S. Milnes, as lieutenant-governor. A few years afterwards, a decision -of the chief justice of Montreal declared slavery inconsistent with -the laws of the country, and the small number of slaves then living -there received a grant of freedom. - -_Dissensions after the Close of the War of_ 1812.--The contests in -which Canada was involved with the United States, during the war of -the latter with England, from 1812 to 1815, an account of which the -reader will find in a prior part of the volume, had scarcely closed, -before the country was disturbed by internal dissensions, particularly -the Lower Province. They arose chiefly from the jealousies which -existed between the different branches of the government. Indeed, as -early as 1807, the assembly seriously complained of an undue influence -exercised by the executive and judicial officers. The difficulties -continued through successive administrations, with partial suspensions -under compliant or conciliatory governors, until the government came -into the hands of Sir Francis Burton, who, by yielding all the points -in dispute, succeeded in conciliating the assembly. The principal -subject of dispute had been the public revenue and its appropriation. - -But the conciliation was not lasting. Every concession to the assembly -gave rise to new demands, and the right was now claimed of an -uncontrolled disposal of the entire revenue. Lord Dalhousie, who -resumed office in 1826, resisted the demand, and the dissensions were -of course renewed. Their violence was, indeed, much increased. On the -meeting of the assembly in 1827, Mr. Papineau was chosen speaker, an -appointment which, on account of his violent opposition to the -measures of government, Lord Dalhousie refused to sanction. But the -assembly being in no mood to recede from its position, the consequence -was, that no session was held in the winter of 1827-28. - -Discontent had now risen to an alarming height; and, in the latter year, -a petition was presented to the king, signed by eighty-seven thousand -inhabitants, complaining of the conduct of successive governors. The -subject was brought before parliament, and a committee reported the -expediency of a thorough and effectual redress, admitting, generally, -that the grievances complained of were well-founded. Sincere attempts -appear to have been made to carry out the provisions of the report, or -measures of reform which had been promised; but, in the course of the -colonial government, the claims of the crown and those of the assembly, -on certain points, proved to be conflicting. The breach which was hoped -to be closed, now became wider than ever. The assembly began to specify -conditions on which certain salaries should be paid to the colonial -officers; and, as a fundamental reform, next demanded that the -legislative council, hitherto appointed by the crown, should be -abolished, and a new one, like that of the American senate, substituted -in its place, composed of members elected by the people. A petition to -this effect was transmitted to the king, early in 1833, signed by -Papineau. The British ministry, however, scouted at once such a -proposal, and hinted the possibility of summary measures on the part of -parliament, in order to compose the internal dissensions of the -colonies. This was an imprudent intimation. - -Both the refusal and the inuendo but added fuel to the flame. The -assembly refused to pass any bill of supply whatever for the year -1834, and in a more resolute manner than heretofore, insisted on an -elective legislative council. The next governor who was sent out, the -Earl of Gosford, professed conciliatory views; but his real object was -otherwise, as was accidentally discovered. The real instructions with -which he was charged, were common to him and to the governor of the -Upper Province; but the latter had made public a part of those -instructions apparently without the knowledge of Lord Gosford's -intentions. The rage of the popular leaders now knew no bounds; they -complained not only of the disappointments they had experienced, but -of the deception which had been practiced upon them. The assembly, as -before, withheld the supplies, and made no provision for the public -services. - -_Disturbances and Insurrection._--A crisis had now arrived. Ministers -determined no longer to postpone measures for counteracting the -proceedings of the popular party, and placing the executive government -in a state of regular action. The death of the king, meanwhile, the -necessity of a dissolution of the parliament, and the unwillingness to -begin the government of a young and popular queen by a scheme of -coercion, caused a delay in the execution of the designs of government. -The expedient of advancing the amount required for the public service, -by way of loan from the British revenue, was substituted by ministers, -in the prospect of being ultimately reimbursed from the provincial fund. -The ball, however, was set in motion, and such was the momentum, that it -could not be stopped at once. Meetings were held in the counties of -Montreal and Richelieu, in which it was affirmed, that the votes of the -Commons, (declaring the elective legislative council and the direct -responsibility of the executive to the assembly, inexpedient,) had put -an end to all hopes of justice. A general convention was proposed, to -consider what further means were advisable, and a recommendation was -made to discontinue the consumption of British manufactures, and of all -articles paying taxes. - -This state of things put the government on the alert; preparations -were made to have in readiness for the public service an additional -regiment from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. A proclamation, also, was -issued, warning the people against all attempts to seduce them from -their allegiance. Meetings of the friends of the government were held -in Montreal and Quebec, condemning the house of assembly, declaring -attachment to the British connexion, and deprecating disorganization -and revolution. Notwithstanding all the attempts of the governor to -effect a compromise, an agreement in respect to the topics in dispute -could not be brought about. A recourse to arms appears now to have -been determined upon by the popular leaders, with the avowed object of -effecting an entire separation from the parent state. The efforts made -to arouse the spirit of independence were considerable, though more -secret than formerly, until an association was formed, under the -title of the Sons of Liberty, who even paraded the streets of Montreal -in a hostile and threatening manner. Other measures of defiance, in -different parts of the country, were resorted to, having in view still -more directly the ultimate object of resistance and independence. The -recent appointments of the two councils, designed as an alleviation, -in part, of the people's complaints, were declared wholly -unsatisfactory, while the introduction of an armed force into the -province was stigmatized as a new and outrageous grievance. - -The government could not overlook these incipient steps of an -insurrection. Additional military force was called into -requisition--loyal volunteer associations were formed as an offset to -those of the other party, and the Catholic clergy were zealous in -their endeavors to preserve the peace. A scene of violence occurred in -the streets, November 6th, 1837, between the two parties, in which the -loyalists proved to be the stronger body. That event, as might be -expected, increased the ferment; so that the government, as the most -effectual course to put a stop to the aggressive movement of the -people, arrested at Montreal a number of the most conspicuous leaders, -with the exception of Papineau, who had disappeared. A part of these, -however, were subsequently rescued--a fight ensued between the militia -employed on this occasion, who amounted only to thirty, and a body of -three hundred well-armed men, protected by a high fence. The former, -of course, was overcome. - -In adopting the prompt measures which were now deemed necessary by the -government, strong detachments under Colonels Gore and Wetherall were -sent to the village of St. Denis and St. Charles on the Sorel, to rout -the armed bodies of insurgent assembled in those places, under -Papineau, Brown, and Neilson. Gore was repulsed; but Wetherall, on the -26th of November, attacking a force of one thousand men, came off -victorious, having killed and wounded nearly three hundred of the -enemy. This latter affair decided the fate of the contest in that -quarter. Terror seized the minds of the peasantry, and they began to -consider themselves betrayed by their leaders. A few days -subsequently, Neilson, one of the commanders of the insurgent forces, -was taken in a barn, conveyed into Montreal, and thrown into prison. -Papineau, however, could not be discovered. - -In other portions of the province, where the insurrection had been -still more formidable, the government forces were successful. At St. -Eustache and the village of St. Benoit, the most bloody scenes were -enacted; and there seems to have been at the latter place, after the -regular battle, a wanton and barbarous destruction of human life, on -the part of the enraged royalists. At the close of the year 1837, the -whole Lower Province was reduced to a state of tranquillity. - -In the mean time, Upper Canada had become the theatre of interesting -events. A party had arisen, influenced by inhabitants who had -emigrated from the United States; who, advancing from step to step in -discontent, at length, scarcely made any secret of their desire to -separate from the mother-country, and join the American Union. In -1834, this party, for the first time, obtained a majority in the -assembly, and after making or finding causes of disagreement with the -governor of the province, Sir Francis Head, at length stopped the -supplies, after the example of the Lower Province. Sir Francis then -reserved all their money bills for her majesty's decision, and -rejected application for the payment of their incidental expenses. To -settle the difficulties, if possible, he made an appeal to the people -by a new election. This resulted favorably to the constitutional side, -and restored tranquillity till the time of the outbreak in the Lower -Province. That occasion was seized by Mackenzie, one of the chief -leaders at the head of five hundred men, to put his plans in -operation, and attempt a separation of the province from Great -Britain. His design of taking Toronto by surprise was, however, -defeated. Upon the manifestation of force on the part of the loyal -inhabitants, he retired, his followers were easily dispersed, and a -number of them taken prisoners. A large body of the militia had -assembled for the defence of the government; but they were given to -understand that they might now return to their homes. Only such a -portion was retained, under Colonel M'Nab, as was wanted to bring -Duncombe, another leader, to terms, which was effected. - -Mackenzie, fleeing to Buffalo, created an interest in favor of the -patriots among a portion of the American people, who, on the northern -frontier, had been accustomed to sympathize in their attempts at -independence. Bodies of men with their leaders, from the American -side, took possession of Navy island, situated in the Niagara channel, -between Grand island and the British shore. This they fortified with -cannon, and designed as the seat of offensive operations. But Mr. Van -Buren, the American president at that time, interposed his authority -at once to arrest these hostile proceedings, so far as his countrymen -were concerned, and sent General Scott to the scene of action, that a -strict neutrality might be enforced. It was during this period that -the small steamer, named Caroline, as has been already related in the -present work, was burned by the British. This attack had nearly proved -fatal to the peace of the country; it did not, however, arrest the -vigorous measures adopted by General Scott to fulfil the objects of -his mission. The force now collected against the insurgents, became so -far formidable, that they evacuated the island on the 14th of January, -1838. The spirit of insurrection was now laid, but much remained to be -done to effect a satisfactory adjustment of the difficulties between -the government and the disaffected. The great reputation of Lord -Durham, who was appointed governor in May, 1838, it was hoped would -render his action favorable to such an object; but he was soon called -upon to decide upon a delicate and difficult question, viz: the -treatment of the prisoners taken in the rebellion. Upon a confession -of guilt, he sentenced them to be deported to Bermuda, and to be kept -there in strict surveillance. Should they ever return to Canada -without leave of the governor, they were to suffer the penalty of -death. The same was awarded to Papineau and others, implicated in the -late insurrection, but who had fled the country. This procedure -created not a little excitement in the home government, it being -deemed an usurpation of power not belonging to the governor-general of -a province. A grant of indemnity, however, was passed in his case; but -Lord Durham was not of a temperament to brook this interposition, and -he soon threw up his administration, and left for England on the 1st -of November. No sooner had he departed, than fresh troubles arose. The -spirit of disaffection was rife, and hopes were inspired through the -aid which American sympathizers might afford. Communications were -secretly kept up with the latter. But miserable success attended the -operations of the insurgents. Dr. Robert Nelson, at the head of four -thousand men, failed completely to make an impression, and, threatened -by the government forces at his quarters at Napierville, he and his -company dispersed without firing a shot. - -In Upper Canada, Sir Francis Head had already resigned. His successor, -Sir George Arthur, soon found himself involved in difficult -circumstances. Bands of lawless individuals, to the number of several -hundreds, on several occasions crossed from the American side; but -were, in general, effectually repulsed with little loss to the -British. The captives taken were treated with a severity which had not -before been exercised towards that misguided and unfortunate class of -people. They were generous in their sympathy, but they had violated -the laws of civilized communities, and were liable to a just -retribution. A considerable number of the most conspicuous were -immediately shot, and the rest condemned to severe or ignominious -punishments. The "Canadian Rebellion," was closed by these -occurrences. The whole history of their efforts showed that the Canada -people were unprepared, at that period, for an undertaking of such -vast magnitude and imminent peril. - -In 1840, by an act of the imperial parliament, Upper and Lower Canada -were united into one, under the name of the Province of Canada. Some -changes were made in the form of the government; but only a few of the -causes of grievance have been removed, and the great body of the -people are still abridged to a considerable degree, in respect to the -choice of their rulers, or the free enactment of the laws of the -state. Still more recently, the province has been thrown into great -excitement by an attempt to pay, from the public exchequer, the losses -sustained by those who took part in the Canadian rebellion. What the -result of these stormy times will be, the future only can disclose. - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[83] For the principal events of Canadian history during the French -and Indian war--the invasion of Canada by the United Colonies, in -1775, and by the United States in 1812-15--the reader is referred to -the prior portions of the volume, where these events are detailed. - -[84] Murray's British America. - - - - - II. NOVA SCOTIA. - - -[Illustration: NOVA-SCOTIA.] - - LIMITS--Conquest by the English--Settlement--Annexation to the - British Crown--Policy of England in relation to the - Country--Situation of the English Settlers--English Treatment - of the Acadians--State of the Province during the Wars of the - United States--Results of the War of 1812. - -_Limits._--Nova Scotia is a large peninsula on the south-eastern part -of British America, united to the continent by a narrow isthmus, -between Chignecto bay and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is three -hundred and eighty-eight miles in length from north-east to -south-west, and contains an area of sixteen thousand square miles. It -is a rough, mountainous country, barren on the sea-board, but very -fertile in some of the interior parts. - -_Settlement._--De Monts, a French gentleman, sailing from France with -a view to settlement in this part of America, touched, in the first -instance, at Nova Scotia, on the 16th May, 1604; but no settlement was -effected until the year after, and that was at Port Royal (now -Annapolis). The whole country, including New Brunswick, was then -known by the name of Acadia. The settlement above spoken of was soon -after, in 1614, broken up by Argall, an English captain, engaged in -the Virginia settlement. The whole region was viewed with indifference -on the part of the English, because it did not contain gold and -silver. They, however, made an attempt, under Sir William Alexander, -to occupy it, some years after Argall's success against Port Royal; -but were obliged to desist, from finding it in possession of the -French. In 1628 and 1629, the English succeeded in taking Nova Scotia -and Canada; but by the terms of a treaty in 1632, the whole country -was restored to France. - -_Conquest by the English._--A period of several years was passed in -the infelicities of a deadly feud between the rival chiefs who held -possession of the country. But amidst their contentions, an expedition -was sent against Nova Scotia in 1654 by Cromwell, who had then -declared war against France; and the result was the reduction of the -warring parties, and the submission of the whole country to the -English authority. This was but a temporary acquisition. By the peace -of 1667, Nova Scotia was again ceded to the French. - -In the course of a few subsequent years, Nova Scotia was twice invaded -and taken by the English from the colony of Massachusetts; the first -time under Sir William Phipps, and the second time by a body of five -hundred men from Boston. Acadia was now held by the British until the -treaty of Ryswick in 1697, when it again reverted to France. - -_Permanent Annexation to the British Crown._--There was a speedy -return of the war between France and England, and the reduction of -Nova Scotia was again left to New England. The first expedition, under -Colonel Church, and a subsequent one, three years after, effected -little for the object in view. The determination of the New -Englanders, however, could not be shaken. After two years spent in -preparing, they assembled a large force of five regiments; and under -the command of General Nicholson, they arrived at Port Royal on the -24th of September, 1716, which in its weakness capitulated without -resistance. The month following, when the deed of surrender was made, -forms the era of the permanent annexation of Nova Scotia to the -British crown.[85] The Indians of the country, who were strongly -attached to the French, were not satisfied with the transfer, and for -many years became extremely troublesome to the English, frequently -surprising them, and carrying off their property. It was in the course -of these disturbances, that the Massachusetts troops in 1728 defeated -the tribe of the Noridgewocks; among the results of which invasion, -was the death of the celebrated Father Rolle, their missionary. - -_Policy of England in relation to the Country._--After the treaty of -Aix-la-Chapelle 1748, which had been preceded by disasters to the -French possessions in America, particularly by the taking of -Louisburg, Great Britain began to pay more attention to Nova Scotia. -Hitherto, it had been quite a French country, peopled and cultivated -throughout by that hostile nation. It was suggested, that of the large -number of soldiers and sailors discharged in consequence of the peace, -a part might with great advantage be located as agriculturists, and -thereby provide the colony with an English population. This project -was embraced with ardor by the Earl of Halifax. - -Fifty acres were allowed to every private, with ten additional for -each member of his family. A higher allowance was granted to officers, -in proportion to their rank. By this arrangement, three thousand seven -hundred and sixty adventurers with their families were induced to -embark in May, 1749. They were landed, not at Annapolis, but Chebucto, -named henceforth Halifax, after the patron of the expedition. - -_Situation of the English Settlers._--As munificent provision was made -for them from time to time, a town, with spacious and regular streets, -was soon reared; where they were as comfortably situated as they could -be with a hostile population in their vicinity, and the difficulties -arising from the French claims. The boundaries of the country were in -dispute between the two nations--the encroachments of the English, as -the French settlers deemed them, alarmed the fears of the latter; and -the Indians, excited by French emissaries, committed upon the English -numerous outrages. At length, the French arose in rebellion against -the British rule; but it was not until after many attempts to subdue -them, on the part of the English, that the object was effected. The -success of the last expedition, under Colonel Monckton, in 1755, from -New England, secured the tranquillity of all French Acadia, then -claimed by the English under the name of Nova Scotia. - -_English Treatment of the French Acadians._--The English, in consequence -of the war which now raged between France and Britain, did not feel at -ease. They had reason to believe that, in the event of an invasion of -Nova Scotia by the French, they would find not only the Indians, but the -Acadians, friendly to the invaders. A cruel expedient, hardly justified -by the circumstances, was adopted to prevent the danger and evil. It was -determined to break up the homes of the latter, and disperse them -throughout the British colonies, so that they might be unable to unite -in offensive measures. They were comfortably situated, and attached to -their homes; were a quiet people, only a few of them ever having been -openly engaged in arms against the British; and, consequently, they -could not but keenly feel the greatness of their wrongs. They submitted -to them, but with moans and pathetic appeals, though occasional forcible -resistance was offered. - -"Notwithstanding the barbarous diligence with which this mandate was -executed, it is not supposed that the number actually deported -exceeded seven thousand. The rest fled into the depth of the forest, -or to the nearest French settlements, enduring incredible hardships. -To prevent the return of the hapless fugitives, the government reduced -to ashes their habitations and property, laying waste their own lands -with a fury exceeding that of their most savage enemy. In one -district, two hundred and sixty-three houses were at once in a blaze. -The Acadians, from the heart of the woods, beheld all they possessed -consigned to destruction; yet they made no movement till the -devastators wantonly set their chapel on fire. They then rushed -forward in desperation, killed about thirty of the incendiaries, and -then hastened back to their hiding-place."--Such is the account given -by an eloquent historian of this barbarous proceeding. - -[Illustration: DESTRUCTION OF ACADIE.] - -_Condition of the Acadians._--By the peace which was concluded at -Paris, in 1763, France was compelled to transfer to her victorious -rival all her possessions on the North American continent. After the -peace, the case of the Acadians was necessarily taken into -consideration. The severe treatment to which they had been subjected -brought no advantage to the country, as it had not become the theatre -of war, and there no longer remained any pretext for continuing the -persecution. Though transportation was advised by the governor, yet -the administration at home, with a more equitable spirit, allowed them -to return to their original places of abode, receiving lands on taking -the customary oaths. Yet the justice rendered was imperfect, inasmuch -as no compensation was allowed them for their plundered property. - -It, however, pleased a number to return, though in 1772 the whole body -was found to be only two thousand one hundred; an eighth-part, -perhaps, of what had constituted once a flourishing colony. They have -since, by their industry, brought themselves into a thriving state. - -_State of the Province during the War of the United States._--The -condition of Nova Scotia, as indeed of the adjoining British provinces -on the North, was highly critical during the war of the American -Revolution; but the fears indulged from this source proved unfounded. -The province remained loyal to the crown during the whole of that long -and arduous contest. At its close, there was a large influx of -refugees into the province. The number that arrived, prior to -September, 1783, was reckoned at eighteen thousand, and two thousand -more landed in the following month. - -"Many of these new citizens possessed considerable property, as well -as regular and industrious habits, so that they formed a most -important acquisition. Several additional townships were erected; -Shelburne, before nearly deserted, rapidly acquired upwards of ten -thousand inhabitants; emigrants from Nantucket established a -whale-fishery at Dartmouth; while saw and grist mills were established -in various parts of the province. A considerable proportion of these -emigrants directed their course to the region beyond the peninsula; -which thereby acquiring a great increase of importance, was, in 1784, -erected into a distinct government, under the title of New -Brunswick." Cape Breton, from the above date, after having been -separated from Nova Scotia until 1820, was rëannexed to the latter. - -_Results of the War of 1812._--The war between the United States and -Great Britain, which broke out in 1812, materially advanced the -prosperity of Nova Scotia, and showed the importance of Halifax as a -naval station. Into this port numerous prizes were carried, by the sale -of which large fortunes were realized. The evils of war were almost -unknown, for a neutrality was observed by the government of Maine and -the British authorities on the New Brunswick frontier; so that although -the militia were kept in readiness for service, they were not called -into it. A long succession of able governors since, has been the means -of giving to the province a desirable increase of wealth and prosperity. -The importance of Halifax has, within a few years, been greatly -increased, by becoming a touching place for the royal English steamers -(Cunard line) in their transit across the Atlantic. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[85] Murray's British America. - - - - - III. NEW BRUNSWICK. - - - EXTENT--Physical Aspect and Soil--Settlement and Progress--Signal - Calamity. - -_Extent._--New Brunswick is a territory which forms a kind of -irregular square, lying on the east of the state of Maine, though -extending farther north than that state, and therefore bounded west by -a portion of Canada. It comprises an area of more than twenty-seven -thousand square miles, and hence its surface considerably exceeds that -of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton united. - -_Physical Aspect and Soil._--The surface of the country is broken and -undulating, though scarcely any where rising into mountains. The -fertility of the soil is greater than that of Nova Scotia, and is -especially indicated by the magnificent forests with trees of enormous -size, the export of which for timber and shipping constitutes the -chief occupation of the colonists. The borders of the streams consist -of the richest meadow lands. The climate, like that of Canada, is -excessively cold from November to April. At the latter period comes a -sudden change, bringing intense heat and rapid vegetation. - -_Settlement and Progress._--Previously to 1783, the French -comprehended the territory now called New Brunswick, under the general -appellation of New France, viewing it more particularly as an -appendage to Acadia. At that period, it received its present name and -its existence as a colony. The English claimed it as a part of Nova -Scotia, though they paid no attention to its improvement. - -After that peninsula had been finally ceded to the English, the French -laid claim to New Brunswick as a part of Canada, and made preparations -to enforce it by arms. But the subject was put to rest finally by the -cession of all Canada to the British, at the peace of 1763. It only -remained to be populated and improved by enterprising people from -abroad, as it was inhabited mainly by the few Acadians who had sought -refuge from persecution among its forests. - -A people of this description soon came, or more properly had emigrated -to New Brunswick, the year before the era of the peace above referred -to. They consisted of families from New England, who settled at -Mangerville, about fifty miles up the St. John, and, in 1783, they -amounted to about eight hundred. At the close of the revolutionary war, -several thousand of disbanded British troops removed from New England, -were located at Frederickton. The new colonists, however, were subjected -to great hardships and cruel privations, when first placed in the midst -of this wilderness, which they more keenly felt from the fact that they -had been accustomed to the comforts of civilized life. - -Great exertions were made for the improvement of the country under -General Sir Guy Carlton, who was appointed governor in 1785. A degree -of success attended his efforts, as a gradual advancement took place. -During a period of fourteen years from the time he left the country, -the government was administered by a succession of presidents. By an -arrangement of duties on foreign timber, and by leaving that from New -Brunswick free, a foundation was laid for the signal prosperity of the -colony. This state of things commenced in 1809, and the exports of -this article, from that period, continually increased, until it -reached its acme in 1825. Then a severe rëaction was experienced, in -consequence of speculative over-trading. The trade, however, assumed a -healthy condition in the space of a few years. - -The progress of the colony of late years has been cheering, and its -natural advantages appreciated, as they have been the more unfolded. -It was during the administration of Sir John Harvey, that the disputed -boundary between Maine and New Brunswick had nearly occasioned a -rupture between the United States and Great Britain. This source of -danger to the peace of both countries, was removed, as elsewhere -related, by a treaty in 1842, which settled the question to the -satisfaction of those concerned. - -_Signal Calamity._--We may not conclude this brief notice of New -Brunswick without giving some account of an awful calamity which, in -1828, befel that part of this province which borders on the Mirimachi. -In October of that year, during the prevalence of a long drought, the -pine forests caught fire. Being filled with resinous substance, and the -fire being driven by a high wind, the conflagration was impelled with -the most awful rapidity. Its sound was like uninterrupted thunder--its -column rose two hundred feet above the loftiest pine. Next was seen, as -it were, an ocean of flame, rolling towards New Castle and Douglas; all -resistance was vain; these towns were reduced to ashes. The miserable -inhabitants, abandoning their all, rushed to the bank, and threw -themselves into boats, canoes, on rafts or logs, to convey them down to -Chatham; but several, of both sexes, were either killed or severely -injured. The flames spread a vast distance into the country, destroying -magnificent forests and numerous cattle; even wild beasts and birds were -drawn into them by a sort of fascination. The benevolence of the -neighboring British provinces and of the United States was most -liberally exerted on the distressing occurrence. The towns which were -destroyed, have since that time been rebuilt. - - - - - IV. PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND. - - - LOCATION, Surface, and Climate--Early Settlers--Change of - Possession--Plans of Colonization--Character of late - Governors--Inhabitants. - -_Location, Surface, and Climate._--Prince Edward, formerly St. John, -is an interesting island, lying in the southern part of the Gulf of -St. Lawrence. It has a very winding outline and a crescent-like form, -and is deeply indented by bays and inlets. The area is estimated at -one million three hundred and eighty thousand seven hundred acres. - -Its surface bears a different aspect from that of the adjoining parts -of America. It is gently undulating, with hollows filled by numberless -little creeks and lakes. The coasts of these, as well as of the open -sea, present a peculiarly soft and agreeable scenery, as they are -skirted by trees of the most varied foliage. - -The climate is less severe than in the adjoining parts of America; the -winter is shorter and milder than in Lower Canada, and more steady -than in Nova Scotia. Its healthfulness is remarkable, and contributes -to an extraordinary increase of population. - -_Early Settlement._--This island was necessarily included in the -boundaries of the empire which the French court claimed in North -America, in consequence of the discoveries of Cartier and Verazzani. -It appears to have been granted, in 1663, to a French captain, the -Seuir Doublet, but held in subordination to a fishing company, -established at the small island of Mexoa. It seems, in fact, to have -been valued only for fishery, and, for this purpose, to have had some -few stations established upon it. - -_Change of Possession._--After the second reduction of Louisburg, in -1758, that of Prince Edward again followed, and it became permanently -attached to the British crown. Its French inhabitants experienced a -cruel proscription for a time. Thousands of peaceable and industrious -settlers were expelled the island, on suspicion of their being -concerned in the murder of some Englishmen, whose scalps were -discovered in the French governor's house. These were doubtless the -fruits of Indian massacres. - -_Plans of Colonization._--Some years after the island was confirmed to -Britain, Lord Egremont formed a singular scheme, by which it was to be -divided into twelve districts, ruled by as many barons, each of whom was -expected to erect a castle on his own property, while that nobleman was -to preside as lord paramount. This unwise plan was changed for another -not much preferable. In August, 1767, a division was made into -sixty-seven townships, of about twenty thousand acres each, which, with -some reservations, were made over to individuals supposed to possess -claims upon the government. They became bound to settle the country in -ten years, to the extent of at least one person for two hundred acres. -The scheme was indifferently carried into effect. - -After the proprietors succeeded in procuring for it a governor -independent of Nova Scotia, Mr. Patterson, appointed to that office, -in 1770, brought back a number of exiled Acadians, with a view to -relieve the effects of the former cruelty of the government. Tracady -was settled by Captain Macdonald with three hundred Highlanders, and -Chief-baron Montgomery made special efforts to fulfill his proprietary -obligations. From these beginnings the colony received gradual -accessions, and, in 1773, a constitution being accorded, the first -house of assembly was called. - -In 1803, the Earl of Selkirk, to whom emigration is so much indebted, -carried over an important colony, consisting of about eight hundred -Highlanders. Such judgment was shown in his arrangements, that the -settlers soon became very prosperous, and, with the friends who have -since joined them, amounted, before the year 1840, to upwards of four -thousand. - -_Character of the late Governors._--The governors of late years have -generally well sustained the interests of the colony, with the exception -of one, Mr. Smyth. He succeeded in 1813, and his violent and tyrannical -conduct caused a general agitation in the colony. He had prevented the -meeting of the house of assembly for several years previous to 1823, and -when a committee of the inhabitants was appointed to draw up a petition -for his removal, he caused them to be arrested. The high-sheriff, Mr. -Stewart, however, fortunately made his escape to Nova Scotia, and thence -to England. When the true state of things was made known there, the -governor was rëcalled, and Lieutenant-colonel Ready was appointed his -successor. In 1836, Sir John Harvey was appointed governor. He was -highly and justly esteemed for his many good qualities; but being, in -1837, removed to the government of New Brunswick, his place was supplied -by Sir Charles A. Fitzroy. - -_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants consist of a few Indians, about five -thousand Acadians, but chiefly of emigrants from different parts of -the empire, particularly from Scotland, the natives of which -constitute more than one-half of the entire population. - - - - - V. NEWFOUNDLAND. - - -[Illustration: NEWFOUNDLAND.] - - LOCATION and Importance--Discovery and Settlement--French - Hostilities--Renewal of War--Change of Administration--Present - Condition. - -_Location and Importance._--Newfoundland is an island on the eastern -coast of North America, extending farther out into the Atlantic than -any other point of the Western hemisphere. It is an important and -large island, being about one thousand miles in circuit. Its -consequence arises not from its internal resources, but from its -position and its connection with the cod-fisheries in its vicinity. In -this, its commercial aspect, it is the most valuable of all the -English northern possessions. - -The celebrated bank, which constitutes the fishing-ground, is -estimated to extend six hundred miles in length and two hundred in -breadth, composed almost throughout of masses of solid rock. The -abundance of fish is literally inexhaustible, no diminution of -fruitfulness being observed, although Europe and America have drawn -upon this treasure, to any extent, for several centuries. The vast -masses of ice, which float down from the northern seas into the -neighborhood of this island, bring also with them a valuable article -of commerce, viz: herds of seal, which the seamen contrive to take, -and which furnish a rich store of oil for export. - -_Discovery and Settlement._--Newfoundland was discovered, in 1497, by -Cabot, and has always been claimed by Britain. Attention was drawn to -its fisheries before 1517; since, as early as that time, it was stated -by the crew of an English ship, that they had left forty vessels, of -different European nations, engaged in the fishery. - -Several partial attempts were made at settling the country, from 1536 to -1612; but it was only at the latter date that we find the first attempt -made on a large scale to colonize the territory. It was chiefly promoted -by Mr. Guy, an intelligent merchant of Bristol, who induced a number of -influential men at court to engage in the undertaking. In 1610, he -having been appointed governor of the intended colony, conveyed thither -thirty-nine persons, who constructed a dwelling and store-house, and -formed there the first permanent settlement. - -For several years, however, the spirit of settlement languished. It -was not until 1621 that it began to revive under the auspices of Sir -George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore, who obtained a grant of a -considerable tract on a part of the island. He had in view the -establishment of a Catholic colony, who might enjoy there the free -exercise of their religion. About twenty years after his first -plantation, there were estimated to be about three hundred and fifty -families on different parts of the coast. The fishery, at the same -time, grew rapidly into importance. - -In 1660, the French, who had previously become active rivals of the -British in the fishery, formed a settlement in the Bay of Placentia, -which they occupied for a long period. - -Through some jealousy, excited by those who favored the deep-sea or -whale-fishery, in opposition to the boat-fishery at Newfoundland, -serious attempts were made at one time, by the government at home, to -break up all the settlements on the island, and reduce the land to a -desert. This cruel and suicidal policy could, however, be effected but -in part, and some years afterwards more just views began to be -entertained on the subject, and some emigrations even were made again! - -_French Hostilities._--During the war with France, which broke out in -consequence of the revolution of 1688, the settlements in Newfoundland -endured great vicissitudes. The latter had, by favor or oversight, -been allowed full freedom of fishing, and even formed several -settlements. They evidently showed an intention of gaining possession -of the whole island. With a view to effect their object, the works at -Placentia were attacked in 1692, and partly destroyed; but, in 1696, -the French, rëinforced by a squadron from Europe, attacked St. John, -yet without success. The place, however, suffered severely, and -another armament, before the end of the year, gaining possession of -it, set it on fire. Upon this, Ibberville, with a body of troops, -destroyed all the English stations, except Bonavista and Carbonier. An -English fleet, sent out to retrieve these disasters, failed through -the misconduct of the commander. The difficulties were terminated in -1698, by the peace of Ryswick, which placed every thing on the same -footing as before the contest. - -_Renewal of War._--The war of the succession exposed the colony again -to the attacks of the French, who were favored by local situation in -their proceedings at Newfoundland. The English, at first, took some of -the smaller settlements; but in 1705, the troops in Placentia, -rëinforced by five hundred men from Canada, successfully attacked the -British colonists. Three years afterwards, St. John was completely -destroyed, and the French became masters of every English station, -except Carbonier. A subsequent attempt of the British to recover -their possessions, was not without effect; but their splendid -successes in Europe enabled them at the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, to -do more than redeem all their losses in America. Louis XIV. was -compelled to yield up all his possessions on the coast of -Newfoundland; but he retained, for his subjects, the right to erect -huts and stages for fishing on particular portions of the coast. - -_Changes of Administration._--The nominal dependence of Newfoundland -on Nova Scotia, was withdrawn in 1779. From this period until 1827, -the government of the island was administered by naval commanders, -appointed to cruise on the fishing station, but who returned to -England during the winter. Since the last-named period, the government -has been administered by resident governors, and, in 1832, it was -determined to grant the boon of a representative assembly. This was -placed on an extremely liberal footing, the assembly being elected by -a suffrage nearly universal. - -_Present Condition._--The chief British settlements are on the large -peninsula named Avalon, constituting the south-eastern part of the -island, St. John, the capital, is very convenient for ships coming -either from Europe or America, and particularly for the deep-sea and -seal-fisheries. After all its improvements, it still bears the aspect -of a fishing station, consisting of one long and narrow street, -extending entirely along the sea. - -[Illustration] - - - - - VI. HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY. - - - EXTENT--Discovery--Settlement--Contests with France--Present State. - -_Extent._--The Hudson's Bay Territory is a region of British America, -far surpassing, in extent, the settled and occupied parts. It is about -two thousand six hundred miles in length, from east to west, and -nearly one thousand five hundred miles in width, from south to north. -It extends northerly till it reaches the Arctic ocean. - -_Discovery._--Hudson's bay, from which the territory takes its name, -was repeatedly visited, at an early period, by English navigators, -though for a long time solely with a view to the great object of -discovering a north-west passage to Asia. It appears that Sebastian -Cabot, in 1517, first penetrated to this gulf, but did not view it as -an inclosed sea. This voyage, however, was lost sight of, so that when -Hudson, in 1610, sailed through the straits now bearing his name, and -found a wide and open expanse, it was considered a new discovery, and -named, from him, the Hudson sea. Nor was it recognized as a bay, but -was viewed, with hope, as a part of the Pacific. The great navigator, -however, having been compelled to winter within the straits, where the -crew were exposed to severe suffering, a violent mutiny arose among -them, when he and several of his adherents were exposed, in a small -boat, on this inhospitable shore, and doubtless perished. - -Several voyages were made during the next half century, with many -perils and disasters, and all of them abortive as to the primary -object. But they were the means of laying open the great extent of -Hudson's bay, and of conveying some idea of the valuable furs which -might be obtained on its shores. - -_Settlements._--A Frenchman, named Grosseliez, having penetrated -thither from Canada, made a survey of the country, and laid before -the French court the plan of a settlement. Finding his proposition -unheeded, he sought the English patronage under Prince Rupert, and in -June, 1668, a company of adventurers sailed in a vessel commanded by -Zachariah Gillam, and reached a river, then called Nemisco, to which -they gave the name of Rupert. Here they wintered with comparative -comfort. Upon the report made by this party, a capital of ten thousand -five hundred pounds was subscribed by the prince and others, and a -charter was obtained, securing to them the exclusive trade and -administration of all the countries around Hudson's bay. They -immediately sent out adventurers, who formed a settlement on Rupert's -river. Others were established on Moose river, in 1674, and four years -later on the Albany. By 1685, they had added two more on the Nelson -and Severn, and in 1690, their affairs were in such a flourishing -condition, that they determined to triple their original stock. - -_Contests with France._--France, learning these results, regretted her -indifference to the proposal of Grosseliez, and commenced efforts to -secure advantages which she had, in effect, thrown away. "A claim was -advanced on the ground of prior occupation, and Grosseliez, already -detached from the English service, was sent out, in 1682, with another -officer. He not only laid the foundation of a factory on Hayes' river, -but, in the following spring, surprised the British one on the Nelson, -taking Gillam a prisoner, and carrying him to Canada; and yet, soon -after, by means not very distinctly stated, the English became masters -of these stations. In 1686, however, amid a profound peace, the -Chevalier de Troyes marched thither, and suddenly took the Rupert, -Hayes, and Albany factories. These movements do not seem to have -attracted much attention in Europe, but when the war in 1688 broke out, -hostile operations were carried on with great ardor. During 1693-94-95, -the different posts were successively taken and rëtaken. In 1696, the -English had recovered almost the whole; but in the following year, a -squadron from France defeated the Hudson's bay ships, and took all the -forts except Albany. The treaty of Ryswick leaving things _in statu -quo_, this state of possession continued till the peace of Utrecht, in -1713, by which the various posts were restored to Britain." - -Discoveries have been made in the intervening years, from the above -date to the present time, which have resulted in a more extensive -knowledge of this immense country. Settlements have occasionally been -made on the coasts of the bays or rivers which so abound there; but -the object principally in view of the many expeditions on those -northern waters--viz: the ascertaining of a passage into the Pacific -at the head of the American continent--has never been secured. - -[Illustration] - - - - - RUSSIAN AMERICA. - - GENERAL DESCRIPTION. - - -The Russians may be regarded as the first discoverers of the -north-western shores of this continent. Behring and Tchirikow, in -1728, first saw the straits which separate America and Asia. The -Russian voyagers subsequently extended their discoveries southwardly, -along the American coast towards Nootka Sound, and, at a late period, -made a few establishments for hunting and trade with the Indians on -the coast. A single settlement at Sitka, and two others at Kodiak, and -Illuluk, on an adjacent island, engaged in the fur-trade with the -Indians, comprise all the actual Russian possessions in America. - -The limits of the Russian territory, in this region, are bounded on the -south by the parallel of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes north -latitude; but though the Muscovite power lays claim to the territory, -and about fifty thousand Indians acknowledge his authority, the -sovereignty is little more than a name. On the 5th of April, 1824, a -convention between the United States and his majesty the Emperor of all -the Russias, was concluded and signed at St. Petersburg. By the third -article of this convention it was agreed, "that hereafter there should -not be formed under the authority of said states any establishment upon -the northern coast of America, nor in any of the islands adjacent, to -the north of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes of north latitude; and -that, in the same manner, there shall be none formed by Russian -subjects, or under the authority of Russia, south of the same parallel." - -This coast possesses an Alpine character. In some parts it rises into -mountains covered with snow, with immense glaciers winding through -its cavities. The most remarkable summit seems to be that called St. -Elias by the Russian navigators, and which, it is affirmed, has been -visible at sea at the distance of sixty leagues. - -The inhabitants of the more northern regions of this coast, appear to -be Esquimaux, as they abound also on the eastern coast, and around -Hudson's bay. The savages of Nootka are said to be very cruel to the -captives taken in war, and have frequently proved treacherous and -vindictive in the intercourse held with trading-vessels. - -[Illustration] - - - - - MEXICO. - - SYNOPTICAL SKETCH. - - -[Illustration: The Eagle with the Serpent alighting on the rock in -Lake Tenochtitlan, on the spot where the City was built.] - - DISCOVERY--Condition, anterior to the Spanish Conquest--Invasion by - Cortez--Arrival of Cortez in the Mexican Capital--Abdication of - Montezuma--Retreat of Cortez, and Return--Fall of the City and - Empire--Fate of Cortez--Extent of New Spain--Introduction of the - Catholic Religion--Native Spanish Population under the Colonial - Government--Classes of the Inhabitants--Causes of the First - Mexican Revolution--Commencement of the Revolution--Continuation - of the War by the Patriot Chiefs--Decline of the - Revolution--Invasion by Mina--Revolution under - Iturbide--Adoption of the Federal Constitution--Prosperity of - the years 1825 and 1826--Election of President in - 1828--Usurpation of Bustamente--Defence of the Federal - Constitution--Santa Anna's Proceedings--Establishment of a - Central Republic--Attempts against the Central - Government--Revolution of 1841--Overthrow of Santa Anna's - Government. - -The northern coast of Yucatan was first visited and explored in 1517 by -Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, who sailed from Cuba in three small -vessels, with a company of adventurers. He here found a race of men -much bolder and more warlike than the inhabitants of the islands, who -resisted the intruders with a most determined spirit. Many of the latter -perished in the contests they were engaged in and Cordova himself -received a wound, of which he died soon after his return to Cuba. - -The prospect of booty which the region presented, stimulated the -Spaniards to secure their prize at any hazard. Another expedition was -planned the following year, under Grijalva, consisting of four ships -and two hundred and forty men. They commenced by verifying the reports -of the preceding adventurers; they then continued their voyage as far -as the River Panuco, and were met every where with the marks of a good -degree of civilization. Landing frequently, they were sometimes -suspected, and warmly attacked; at other times, they were received -with the reverence due to superior natures. - -_Condition, anterior to the Spanish Conquest._--The most ancient Mexican -nation, according to tradition, was the Toltecas. It would appear that, -at a period corresponding with that of 472 of the Christian era, they -were expelled from their own country, called Tollan, somewhere north of -Mexico, whence becoming migratory for many years, they at length built a -city, called Tolton, fifty miles east from Mexico. - -In 667, the Toltecas were chiefly cut off by famine and pestilence. -About a hundred years after this, their country was occupied by the -Checkemecas, who likewise emigrated from some northern section of the -continent. They mingled and intermarried with the remnant of the -Toltecas. In 1160, the Aztecs, who dwelt north of the Gulf of -California, abandoned their country, and, for a series of years, led a -wandering life. They originally consisted of six tribes, but eventually -the Mexican tribes separated from the rest, and continued their journey -alone. In 1325, they reached a spot on which they commenced a city, and -which they called Mexico, after Mexitli, their god of war. Here, for -two hundred years, down to the time of their conquest by the Spaniards, -they flourished. They increased in power and wealth. They were joined by -the other Aztec tribes from whom they had separated. They were a -superior people--well instructed in the art of war. They excelled in -sculpture, and, at the time of the invasion, had made considerable -progress in architecture, agriculture, &c. Their capital contained not -less than one hundred thousand inhabitants. Their government was an -elective monarchy. Montezuma was on the Mexican throne, and had -surrounded himself with the highest regal splendor, and exercised the -most despotic power. Such, in brief, was the condition of the Mexicans -when their conquest was attempted by the Spaniards. - -_Invasion by Cortez._--The reports which had been brought home by -several, especially Grijalva, of the fertility and wealth of Mexico, -determined Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, to attempt its conquest. -The expedition was intrusted to Fernando Cortez, a man peculiarly well -calculated by his courage, his perseverance, and other qualities, for -an enterprise like this, full of danger and difficulty. The expedition -consisted of eleven vessels and six hundred and seventeen men. The -object was to make war upon a monarch whose dominions were more -extensive than all the kingdoms subject to the Spanish crown. Arriving -at the island of Cozumel, Cortez had there the good fortune to redeem -Aguilar, a Spaniard, who had been eight years a prisoner among the -Indians, and who proved extremely useful as an interpreter. In March, -1519, Cortez landed in Tabasco, a southern province of Mexico, where, -though the Indians met him with extraordinary courage, they were -routed with great slaughter, in several successive engagements. - -Continuing his course to the westward, he landed at San Juan d'Ulloa. -Here he was most respectfully addressed by a deputation on board of his -ship, but in a language altogether unknown to him, and even to Aguilar. -Fortunately, one of his female slaves, received at Tabasco, well -understood the Mexican language, and explained what had been said in the -Yucatan tongue, with which Aguilar was unacquainted. This woman, who was -known afterwards by the name of Donna Marina, informed him that the -persons who addressed him were the officers of a great monarch, whom -they called Montezuma, and that they were sent to inquire what his -intentions were in visiting their coast, and to offer any assistance he -might need in order to continue his voyage. Cortez, having thus learned -the purport of the message, assured the officers that he approached -their country with the most friendly sentiments, and came to propose -matters of great moment to their prince, which should soon be more fully -unfolded. Next morning he landed his men, horses, and artillery, by the -assistance of the natives, who unconsciously were admitting among them -the instruments of their own destruction. - -[Illustration: Marina interpreting the Address of the Mexican -Deputation.] - -On the 26th of March, Cortez commenced his march towards the Mexican -capital, having first destroyed his vessels, that his soldiers, -deprived of the means of retreat, might rely solely on their valor. On -his way thither, by consummate address, he alienated from Montezuma -several of the petty states with their caziques. Others he compelled, -by force of arms, to join him. By degrees, he marched into the -country, and, with the addition of the natives, he found himself at -the head of an army consisting of several thousand persons. - -[Illustration: Cortez burning his Ships.] - -_Arrival of Cortez in the Mexican Capital._--As Cortez approached the -Mexican capital, a great retinue of persons came to meet him, adorned -with plumes and clad in mantles of fine cotton. Each of these saluted -Cortez in the most respectful manner. They announced the approach of -Montezuma himself; and soon after, the harbingers, two hundred in -number, in a uniform dress, appeared in sight. These were followed by a -company of higher rank, in splendid apparel, in the midst of whom was -Montezuma, carried in a litter richly ornamented with gold and feathers -of various colors. The king and Cortez met, and the most respectful -salutations passed between them. Montezuma conducted Cortez to the -quarters that had been prepared for his reception, and took leave of -him, saying, "You are now with your brothers in your own house; refresh -yourselves after your fatigue, and be happy until I return." - -[Illustration: Meeting of Montezuma and Cortez.] - -The first care of Cortez, however, was to take precautions for his -security, by planting the artillery so as to command the different -avenues which led to the place allotted for his reception. - -In the evening, Montezuma returned to visit his guests, and again made -them magnificent presents. Various conferences passed between them; -and the next day Cortez and some of his principal attendants were -admitted to an audience of the emperor. - -While these events were happening, Cortez formed a plan no less -extraordinary than daring. This was to seize Montezuma in his palace, -and to carry him prisoner to the Spanish quarters. He communicated his -plan to his principal officers, and almost instantly put it into -execution. - -[Illustration: Montezuma on his Throne.] - -_The Abdication of Montezuma._--Although Montezuma was permitted to -exercise the functions of royalty, yet he was guarded with the utmost -vigilance by the Spaniards. The king's brave son, with several of the -principal officers, on the slightest pretext, was burned alive by the -command of Cortez. The monarch himself was, at length, bound with -fetters. Having both the monarch and his subjects under this temporary -authority, Cortez availed himself of it to the utmost. He appointed -commissioners to survey the empire, and to prepare the minds of the -people for submitting to the Spaniards; and, in the end, he persuaded -Montezuma to acknowledge himself a vassal to the Spanish crown, and to -pay an annual tribute. The fallen prince, at the instance of Cortez, -accompanied this profession of fealty and homage, with a magnificent -present to the king of Spain, and, after his example, his subjects -brought in liberal contributions. - -_War, and the Death of Montezuma._--About this time Velasquez, piqued -by the success of his subaltern, had sent a force into Mexico to take -him and his principal officers prisoners; but the good fortune of -Cortez triumphed again; for overcoming his enemies in battle, he -induced the greater part of them to join his standard; and when he had -least of all expected it, he was placed at the head of a thousand -Spaniards, ready to aid him, at any hazard, in his enterprises. - -This additional force had but just time to enroll themselves under -their new leader, before the Mexicans attacked them in all directions. - -[Illustration: Death of Montezuma.] - -Cortez now found himself environed with the most imminent dangers. The -only resource which remained to him was to try what effect the -interposition of Montezuma might have upon his enraged subjects. When, -the next morning, they approached to renew the assault, that -unfortunate prince was compelled to advance to the battlements, and -exhort his people to discontinue hostilities. But the fury of the -multitude could not be repressed, and it was now directed momentarily -against their prince. Flights of arrows and volleys of stones poured -in so violently upon the ramparts, that before the Spanish soldiers -had time to lift their shields for Montezuma's defence, two arrows -wounded the unhappy monarch, and a blow of a stone on his temple -struck him to the ground. - -Most bitterly did these poor men lament the consequences of their -displeasure, as they witnessed the fate of their sovereign. As for -Montezuma, in a paroxysm of rage he tore the bandage from his wounds, -and so obstinately refused to take any nourishment, that he soon ended -his days, rejecting with disdain all the urgency of the Spaniards that -he should embrace the Christian faith. - -_Retreat and Return of Cortez._--The death of Montezuma filled the -Mexicans with surprise and terror; but added to, rather than -diminished, their hostility. They determined to reduce by famine a foe -which they could not subdue by force. This coming to the knowledge of -Cortez, he perceived, situated as he was, that his safety lay in -instant retreat from the city. Preparations were accordingly made to -march out of Mexico that very night. Each soldier took such booty as -he was able; yet a large quantity of silver was left behind. At -midnight, the troops abandoned their quarters, and proceeded in -silence along the causeway that led to Tacubaya. - -The Mexicans were watching the retreating foe. At length, the latter -reached a breach which had been made in the causeway, when in an -instant they were astounded by a tremendous roar of martial -instruments. Clouds of arrows were showered upon them. Yet they -struggled on to a second breach, where they were obliged to wade -through the mud and water. All was darkness, confusion, dismay. Many -were so heavily laden with spoils, that they sunk to rise no more. The -carnage was dreadful. It was a night of blood--or what is known in the -Mexican history as the _Noche triste_, or "doleful night." Cortez lost -some five or six hundred Spaniards, and of his allies, the -Tlascalans, above two thousand. Only a small portion of the pillaged -treasures was saved--horses, ammunition, baggage, nearly all were -gone. In the morning, although his troops needed rest and his wounded -care, Cortez pursued his march towards Tlascala, where he was received -with kindness by his allies. - -[Illustration: Noche Triste.] - -Some interval of tranquillity was now absolutely necessary, not only -that the Spaniards might give attention to the cure of their wounds, -but in order to recruit their strength, exhausted by a long succession -of fatigues and hardships. When these objects had been attained, and -his forces were considerably augmented, on the 28th of December, 1520, -Cortez commenced his return towards Mexico. - -In his progress towards it, he took possession of Tezcuco, the second -town in the empire, situated on the lake about twenty miles from the -capital. He had already prepared the materials for building several -brigantines, so that they might be carried thither in pieces ready to -be put together, and launched when they were needed. Here he -established his head-quarters, as it was the most suitable place to -launch the brigantines. With the launching of these, all was in -readiness for the great enterprise. - -[Illustration: Cortez building Brigantines on the Lakes.] - -Nor were the Mexicans unprepared. Upon the death of Montezuma, his -brother, Quetlavaca, a man distinguished for his courage and capacity, -was raised to the throne. But in the midst of his preparations to meet -the invaders, he was fatally attacked by the small-pox, a scourge -which had been introduced into the country by the Spaniards. -Gautimozin, nephew and son-in-law of Montezuma, was next chosen -emperor, nor could the choice have fallen on a more deserving man. - -Great bravery was displayed by the Mexicans during the siege. Cortez -found it necessary to proceed with caution in all his measures. His -chief prospect of success lay in cutting off supplies from the city; -at length, in that, he succeeded, so that the public stores were -exhausted, and the sufferings in the city became extreme. - -_Fall of the City and Empire._--At this crisis, Gautimozin, in an -attempt to escape to the provinces, with a view to arouse his people -more effectually for his defence, was captured and conducted to Cortez. - -He appeared with singular composure and self-respect, requesting of -Cortez, that no insult should be offered to the empress or his -children. "I have done," said he to his conqueror, "what became a -monarch. I have defended my people to the last extremity. Nothing now -remains but to die. Take this dagger," (laying hold of one which -Cortez wore,) "plant it in my heart, and put an end to a life which -can be no longer useful to my country." Before he left the city, he -had been careful to disappoint the expectations of the Spaniards, by -throwing all his treasures into the lake. - -When the fate of their sovereign was known, the Mexicans laid down their -arms, and Cortez took possession of that small part of the capital which -yet remained, three-fourths of it having been reduced to ashes during -the conflict. In this manner terminated the memorable siege of Mexico. - -The fate of the capital decided that, also, of the empire. The -provinces submitted, one after another, to the conquerors. Small -parties of Spaniards, marching through them without interruption, -penetrated in different quarters to the Pacific ocean. Thus a great -and rich empire was secured to Spain, through the almost incredible -efforts of a single man at the head of a small band of adventurers. - -_Fate of Cortez._--As a reward for his bold and surprising achievements, -Cortez was warmly eulogized by his countrymen at home, and the Emperor -Charles V. appointed him captain-general and governor of New Spain, with -other tokens of favor. But a bitter cup was at last pressed to his lips. -After returning to America, and continuing there for a time in his -command, he came back, in 1540, to his native country. But in -consequence of his ambition and usurpations, his reception at home was -ill-suited to the character of his heroic deeds. "The emperor behaved to -him with cold civility, his ministers treated him sometimes with -neglect, sometimes with insolence. His grievances received no redress; -his claims were urged without effect; and, after several years spent in -fruitless application to ministers and judges, he ended his days on the -2d of December, in the sixty-second year of his age." - -_Extent of New Spain._--This country, under the Spaniards, embraced a -more extensive region than the empire of Mexico, or the dominions of -Montezuma and his predecessors. It included, in addition to the Mexican -empire proper, New Navarre, a vast territory, extending to the north and -west; the provinces of California, as also the peninsula of California; -and, moreover, the provinces of Yucatan and Honduras, stretching from -the Bay of Campeachy to beyond Cape Gracias a Dios. At an early period, -most of these countries had been visited and subjugated by Spanish -adventurers. The peninsula of California, which had been discovered by -Cortez in 1536, began to be explored by the Jesuits towards the close of -the seventeenth century. Here they established an important mission, -but, after a time, were expelled from the country. - -_Introduction of the Catholic Religion._--The conquerors of New Spain -carried with them the Catholic faith, which became the established -religion; and, indeed, was the only religion that was tolerated, until -the revolution in the beginning of the present century. The -establishment was instituted as an auxiliary branch of the government, -on a similar model to that in Spain. In attempts to convert the -natives, they made use of the same unjustifiable means that have been -resorted to by the Jesuits. But notwithstanding all that was done, -their spiritual character and condition were unchanged. Of real -Christianity, they remained wholly ignorant, and retained all their -veneration for their ancient superstitions. This mixture of -Christianity with their own heathenish rites and notions, was -transmitted to their posterity, and has never been eradicated. That -device of the infernal pit, the Inquisition, was established in -America by the bigoted zeal of Philip II., in the year 1570. This -measure completed the ecclesiastical apparatus for fastening -Catholicism on the new world. - -[Illustration: Introduction of Christianity.] - -_Native Spanish Population under the Colonial Government._--For nearly -three centuries, down to the year 1810, Mexico was governed by viceroys, -appointed by the court of Spain, all of whom, with one exception, were -European Spaniards. Every situation in the gift of the crown was -bestowed upon a European, nor is there an instance, for many years -before the revolution, either in the church, the army, or the law, in -which the door of preferment was opened to a Spaniard, Mexican-born. -Through this policy, a privileged _caste_ arose, distinct from the -Mexican Spaniards in feelings, habits, and interests--the paid agents of -a government whose only aim was to enrich itself, without any regard to -the abuses perpetrated under its authority. - -_Classes of the Inhabitants._--Anterior to the revolution in 1810, the -population of Mexico was divided into distinct castes, as follows: 1, -The old Spaniards, born in Spain, designated _Chapetones_. 2, -_Creoles_ or Whites, of pure European race, born in America, and -regarded by the first class as natives. 3, The _Indians_, or -indigenous copper-colored race. 4, The _Mestizos_, or mongrel breeds -of Whites and Indians, in the purer descent approaching to the -Creoles. 5, _Mulattoes_, or descendants of Whites and Negroes. 6, The -_Zambos_, descendants of Negroes and Indians. And 7, The _African -Negroes_, whether manumitted or slaves. - -The pure races were the old Spaniards, Creoles, Indians, and Negroes, -and gave rise, in their various combinations or divisions, to the -others. The remaining three races were impure or mixed, and were -sub-divided, without any assigned limits. Upon the breaking out of the -revolution, the distinctions of caste were all absorbed in the name of -Americans and Europeans. - -_Causes of the First Mexican Revolution._--For more than a century, -Spain had been on the decline, when, in 1808, the Emperor Napoleon -gave a finishing stroke to her degradation, by seizing upon the royal -family, and placing his brother Jerome upon the throne. To this -revolution, the Spanish chiefs, who were assured of their places, were -disposed to yield, excepting the viceroy of Mexico. But the _people_, -indignant at the foul treatment which their sovereign had received, -were determined not to submit to it. A general revolt against the -authority of Buonaparte, soon disclosed itself in old Spain, -intelligence of which reaching Mexico on the 29th of July, 1808, the -feelings of the people were excited to the highest pitch of -enthusiasm. At this time, the Cabildo, or municipality of Mexico, -presented a petition to Iturrigaray the viceroy, to assemble a junta, -or representatives of the province, for self-government. The viceroy, -however, hesitated, fearing the Spanish population, who opposed the -measure. Apprised of his inclination to gratify the people, the -Spaniards seized the viceroy, and delivered him over to the prison of -the Inquisition. The conspirators were principally Spanish merchants -in Mexico, and were secretly favored in their designs by the court of -the Audiciencia, the highest judicial tribunal of Mexico. - -The European Spaniards, both in the capital and in the interior, now -formed patriotic associations for the defence of what they termed -their rights, and armed themselves against the Creoles, who had -favored the project of assembling the junta. The latter, though by far -the most numerous, were unused to arms, and submitted for the moment; -but their spirit was aroused, and it became an absorbing question -whether themselves or the small clique of Europeans should possess the -right of administering the government during the captivity of their -king. A general impatience to shake off the yoke of foreign -domination, began to seize the minds of all. There was wanting only a -leader to make the occasion and to strike the blow. - -_Commencement of the Revolution._--The person was soon found, in Don -Miguel Hidalgo Castilla, a clergyman, distinguished for his talents, -learning, and liberality of sentiment. Perceiving the general -disaffection of the people, and the prevailing animosities against the -Spaniards, as also having private motives of discontent, Hidalgo -conceived the plan of a general insurrection for the subversion of the -colonial government. - -Allende, a friend of Hidalgo, was the first to raise the standard of -revolt in the little town of Dolores, on the 16th of September, 1810, -where he seized and imprisoned seven Europeans, whose property he -distributed among his followers. The Indians, under Hidalgo, now flew -to arms; and being rëinforced by disaffected troops belonging to the -government, Hidalgo marched to Guanaxuato, a wealthy town of eighty -thousand inhabitants, of which, after a strenuous contest, he received -the submission. This was an acquisition of signal importance, as he -found in the treasury an amount of five millions of silver. - -From this period, the insurrection spread rapidly, notwithstanding the -efforts of Venegas, the new viceroy, to allay it. Many towns declared -in favor of Hidalgo, who proceeded from Guanaxuato to Valladolid, -where he was joyfully received as a deliverer. His pecuniary resources -were increased by the donation of one million two hundred thousand -dollars from the public authorities. His next step was to march -towards the capital. He had made a great acquisition in having -Morelos, a warlike priest, and highly celebrated in the revolution, -come to his aid. - -Mexico was, at this time, in a highly critical condition--the -prevailing disaffection had reached it, and was producing its fruits -of weakness and division. The forces collected for its defence were -wholly inadequate to the object. - -In this juncture of affairs, Hidalgo might doubtless have seized on -the capital; indeed, many were anxiously awaiting his approach, as its -deliverer. After an anxious night, great was the surprise the next -morning, on the part of the people, when they saw the assailants -retiring. The cause of Hidalgo's strange retrograde movement has never -been satisfactorily ascertained. - -From this period, sad reverses awaited him. When he had arrived at -Aculco, on his retreat, he was attacked, on the 7th of November, by -Calleja, who, with the main part of the Spanish army, had previously -reached the capital. Of the royal troops, six thousand were disciplined -veterans, and their imposing appearance alone was sufficient to frighten -Hidalgo's Indians. These fled at the first fire; the regular troops -being thus left unsupported, were unable long to stand the attack. -Pursued by the royalists with great fury, the slaughter became immense; -ten thousand of the independents, in the official report of Calleja, -were said to have been killed, wounded, and taken prisoners. Hidalgo, -having retreated to Guanaxuato, was, on the 29th of November, attacked -again by Calleja, and driven from his position, with the loss of -twenty-five pieces of cannon and several valuable officers. - -"Hidalgo retreated to Valladolid, where he caused eighty Europeans to -be beheaded, and proceeded thence to Guadalaxara; he made another -triumphal entrance into that city, on the 24th of November. Here he -committed another act of cold-blooded massacre, which has left a foul -blot on his name. All the Europeans having been thrown into prison, -Hidalgo determined to destroy them. Without trial or previous -examination, they were taken out in small parties, and conducted under -the veil of night to retired parts of the neighboring mountains, where -between seven and eight hundred were butchered in secret. This -remorseless act of barbarity, besides being wholly unjustifiable by -the rules of war, was impolitic in the extreme. It prevented many -respectable Creoles from joining the insurgents; and as it drove the -Spaniards to despair, it furnished them at the same time with an -excuse for any atrocities which they chose to commit." - -Hidalgo continued to retreat towards Saltillo. By this time, his -forces were reduced to about four thousand men; and arriving at -Saltillo, a distance of nearly five hundred miles from the Mexican -capital, he left the army, and with several officers sought the -frontiers of the United States, with the intention of purchasing arms -and military stores. He was destined, however, to be the victim of -treachery. One of his subordinates in office had the baseness to -arrest him, for the purpose of securing a pardon for himself. The -leader, unsuspicious of danger when attacked, was easily overcome and -taken. It was on the 21st of March, 1811, that Hidalgo and his -followers were made prisoners. Many of them were executed on the field -of action the next day. Hidalgo and a few others were not put to death -until the 27th of July following. - -_Continuation of the War by the Patriot Chiefs._--The revolution had -evidently taken deep hold on the minds of the people. The fate of -Hidalgo did not dispirit the chiefs of the patriot cause. The prominent -of these, Rayon, a lawyer, Villagran, and Morelos, a priest, now assumed -the responsibility of directing the storm. The principal of these was -Morelos, and to an account of his movements we confine ourselves. - -From small beginnings Morelos possessed, at length, an efficient army, -and was obeyed throughout nearly the entire southern coast of Mexico. -On taking the field, town after town was taken, and victory succeeded -to victory. His course, moreover, was marked by the humane treatment -of his prisoners in every instance. Morelos had now great reason to -hope for success in his noble enterprise, while the inhabitants were -ready to aid him in every possible way. In this state, it was deemed -necessary to oppose to him the greatest captain of the governmental -forces, and Calleja was summoned to defend the capital. - -Calleja, soon after his arrival at Mexico, attacked the army of -Morelos at Quantla; but after a severe action, he was repulsed, and -obliged to retreat, leaving five hundred dead on the field of battle. -But what he could not effect by storm, he now attempted to accomplish -by siege. For seventy-five days he continued to besiege Morelos, who -was determined, if possible, to hold out; but all hopes of obtaining -provisions being, at length, extinguished, Morelos resolved to -evacuate the place, which he effected on the night of the 2d of May, -1811. Most of the inhabitants marched out with the army. When Calleja -discovered the movement, he commenced a spirited attack upon them, and -four thousand of the patriots were slain. It was during the events -attending the siege of Quantla, that Victoria and Bravo, both young -men, began to distinguish themselves in the cause of independence. -Guerréro likewise, in the successful defence of a neighboring town, -began his long and perilous career. - -Following the affair at Quantla, Morelos engaged in numerous encounters -with divisions of the enemy, and, for a time, was victorious; but he -was at length taken, and doomed to execution. Just prior to his death, -he uttered the following simple, but affecting prayer: 'Lord, if I have -done well, thou knowest it; if ill, to thy infinite mercy I commend my -soul.' He then bound a handkerchief over his eyes, gave the signal to -the soldiers to fire, and met death with as much composure as he had -ever shown when facing it on the field of battle. - -_Decline of the Revolution._--After the death of Morelos, no leader -was found whose influence was sufficient to combine the efforts of the -insurgents, and secure harmony among the chiefs. The cause of the -revolution, therefore, declined apace. Teran, Guerréro, Rayon, Torrés, -Bravo, and Victoria, commanding in different parts of the country, -were mostly, in the course of two or three years, overcome, and taken -prisoners. The story of Victoria is one of uncommon interest. The -province of Vera Cruz was the field of his operations, and it was not -until after a struggle of two years, that this formidable insurgent -chief was disarmed of his power to harass the viceroy, Apadoca. He -lost many of his followers in battle, others deserted him, and he was -left, in the end, literally alone. No threats and no promises of -preferment could induce him to offer his submission to the government. -Unattended by a single friend, he sought the solitude and security of -the mountains, and was lost for several years to his country. - -_Invasion of Mexico by Mina._--In the year 1817, when most of the -insurgent forces were dispersed, an enterprise of singular boldness -was attempted in Mexico, by a foreigner named Don Xavier Mina. His -more specific object was to establish the independence of Mexico on a -constitutional basis, without an entire severance of the country from -Spain. Mina was a nephew of the celebrated general of that name, who -so long resisted the French and Spanish royalists in his native -country. In May, 1816, he sailed from Liverpool with a small -expedition, having a few thousand stand of arms, and also equipages -for a body of infantry and cavalry, and arrived in the United States -in June. Here he procured the service of several officers, an addition -of muskets, and some pecuniary aid from Baltimore and New Orleans. -Sailing for the Gulf of Mexico, he did not reach Galveston until -November, where he was joined by Aury, the commander of the privateers -in that quarter, and by some of the inhabitants; but as it was too -late for operations, he passed the winter in Galveston. - -Early in the following spring, Mina entered upon the prosecution of -his design. But the time chosen by him was unpropitious. The -revolutionary cause had fallen to a low point. Mina failed, was taken, -and shot. The power of the insurgents was broken, and most of their -eminent men were either killed in battle, or shot as traitors, or -imprisoned. But the principles of independence were daily gaining -ground in the country at large, and the spirit of the revolutionists, -though checked for a time, was not subdued, as was proved by -subsequent events in Mexican history. - -_Revolution under Iturbide._--The unfortunate termination of the -expedition under Mina, was by no means a termination of the difficulties -in which Mexico had long been involved. The next person who largely -figured in her affairs was Augustin Iturbide, who had risen, in 1816, by -his valor and capacity, to the command of what was called the northern -army. In 1820, the cortes having ordered the sale of the church -property, the viceroy, Apadoca, refused to acknowledge the cortes; he -employed Iturbide to reduce Guerréro, one of the patriot chiefs; but, -instead of this, he formed a junction with that chief, and on February -24th, 1821, he proclaimed the independence of his country. Soon after, -he took possession of the capital, and, in 1822, May 18th, he usurped -the crown, through the subserviency of his troops. He was proclaimed -emperor, under the name of Augustin the First. - -The next morning congress was convened in extraordinary session. His -election to the imperial dignity was proposed and discussed in his -presence, and was voted for by a few more than one-half the whole body -of delegates. Meanwhile, the friends of liberal institutions, overawed -by the power of the usurper, fled to their wonted retreats, until a -fitting season should arrive for acting with union and efficiency. The -acts of oppression of Iturbide, from this time, continued to increase. -He ordered the dissolution of congress, had recourse to forced loans, -with other usurpations. - -While affairs were in this posture, Santa Anna, who at this time was -commanding at Vera Cruz, was suddenly dismissed. Surprised at -treatment thus harsh, and as he deemed unjust, Santa Anna excited the -garrison to revolt, for the purpose of dethroning Iturbide, and -establishing a republican government. While these matters were in -progress, Victoria, who for some years had lived in obscurity, made -his appearance, and was appointed commander-in-chief of the -insurgents. In February, 1823, Echavarri, the commander of the -imperialists, joined forces with Victoria and Santa Anna. - -Defection now became general among the officers of the army; in -consequence of which, Iturbide was obliged to surrender his power. -Hastily assembling at Mexico the dispersed members of congress, on the -19th of March, 1823, he tendered them his abdication of the crown. -Congress allowed him a yearly pension of twenty-five thousand dollars, -on condition of his leaving the Mexican territory for ever. On the -11th of May, he embarked for Leghorn. - -_Adoption of the Federal Constitution._--A provisionary government was -immediately established, and a triplicate executive appointed, -consisting of Generals Victoria, Bravo, and Negrete. Measures were at -once adopted for the convocation of a new congress, which, upon -assembling, entered on the arduous plan of framing a constitution of -government. This they did on the federative plan, and on the 2d of -February, it was sworn to in the capital, amidst the rejoicings and -acclamations of the people. The government soon went into operation, and -Victoria was chosen president of the republic, and Bravo vice-president. - -Contrary to the decree of perpetual banishment against him, Iturbide -returned to Mexico in disguise; but, being discovered, he was shot. -This took place on the 10th of July, 1824. Several disturbances had -occurred, partly on his account, during his absence; but the republic -was now relieved from one great source of disquietude. - -The general provisions of the new constitution, as to the distribution -of the powers of government into their parts, were the same as those -of the constitution of the United States; but they differed as to the -right of trial by jury, which was omitted, and the Roman Catholic -religion was alone to be tolerated in Mexico. - -_Prosperity of the years 1825 and 1826._--The new government was now -acceptable to the Mexican people. The administration of Victoria was -popular, and measures were maturing for cementing the union of states, -and for consolidating the public liberty. Much was done, also, to -stimulate the industry of the people. The prospect of public peace, -order, and liberty in Mexico, was such as to attract thousands of -emigrants from the United States and from Europe. Wealth, and comfort, -and honors, were held out as a reward of virtue and enterprise. But -the pleasant vision soon vanished, and this ill-fated country was -again the theatre of turmoil and contention. - -_Election of a President in 1828._--Victoria's term now expiring, a -new president was to be chosen; among the prominent candidates for -which office were General Guerréro, and Gomez Pedraza, then secretary -of war. The canvass resulted in the choice of Pedraza; but the friends -of Guerréro soon set up a claim in his favor, alleging that, in taking -the votes, he was defeated solely by fraud. - -At the session of the new congress in January, 1829, the house of -representatives proclaimed Vincent Guerréro to be duly elected -president, on the constitutional ground that he had the majority of -the _legal_ votes. General Bustamente, who had been supported by the -partisans of Pedraza, was declared to be duly elected vice-president; -and in organizing the new administration, Zavala, then governor of the -state of Mexico, was appointed secretary of state, and General Santa -Anna, secretary of war. - -_Usurpation of Bustamente._--Soon after the declaration of congress in -favor of the election of Guerréro, that body passed a resolution -investing him with dictatorial powers, in anticipation of an invasion -by Spain, to recover possession of Mexico. The Spanish army of four -thousand five hundred men, sent for that purpose, were defeated, and -compelled to retire. The continuance of his extraordinary power was -now no longer necessary; yet Guerréro continued to exercise it, and in -a manner and for purposes not contemplated. This brought upon him the -censure of Bustamente and others, who saw in his measures a desire to -perpetuate his dictatorship. Yet, on the 11th of December, Guerréro -resigned his dictatorship into the hands of congress, and retired to -his estate. Bustamente immediately assumed or usurped the presidency, -pretending that he was actuated solely by a desire to restore the -constitution, which had been violated in the elevation of Guerréro to -the presidency. The latter now fled to the mountains, but -circumstances, in the spring of 1830, seeming to favor an attempt to -regain his lost authority, he embarked in the enterprise, and the -whole country was again in arms. He was, however, unsuccessful, and -falling into the hands of his opponents, he was condemned as a -traitor, and executed in February, 1831. - -_Defence of the Federal Constitution._--The measures of Bustamente -directly tended towards the establishment of a strong central -government, as those of Guerréro had been in favor of a perpetual -dictatorship. On the ground of Bustamente's procedure in his -government, Santa Anna, in 1832, placed himself at the head of the -garrison of Vera Cruz, and, as a pretext for revolt, demanded a -rëorganization of the ministry. His declarations were in favor of the -constitution and the laws, and consequently rallied the friends of the -federal system to his support. War soon began to rage, and it was not -until nearly a year, that an accommodation was made, when it was -agreed that Pedraza should be restored to the government. He was -accordingly restored, and by means of his favorable notice of Santa -Anna, now his friend, but formerly his enemy, he exerted such an -influence, that the latter was elected his successor in 1833. Gomez -Farias was chosen vice-president. The federal system was now -apparently rëestablished under the new administration. - -_Proceedings of Santa Anna--a Central Republic Established._--From the -first moment of Santa Anna's accession to the presidency, he was -inflamed with a desire for dictatorial power. He seized an opportunity -to desert the federal republican party, and joined the centralist -faction. By a military order, he dissolved the constitutional congress -in May, 1834, and in January, 1835, he assembled a revolutionary and -aristocratic congress, which deposed the vice-president Farias, and -elected General Barragan, a leading centralist, in his place. About -the same time, through the influence of Santa Anna, the constitution -of 1824 was abolished by congress, as were also all the state -constitutions and state authorities, and a central republic was -established in its place. So violent a measure proved unacceptable to -several of the states. Zacatecas submitted, and declared for -centralism. "The torch of liberty was now extinguished in the -republic, and military despotism fully established." No! it was not -quite extinguished. One Mexican territory, Texas, with her by fifty -thousand bold inhabitants, chiefly emigrants from the United States, -was ready to resist the dictates of a usurper and a despot. Santa -Anna felt at once the importance of reducing Texas, and of defeating -the Americans or driving them from the country. He made the attempt -with an army of eight thousand men, but when he supposed that his -object had been attained, he was suddenly attacked at San Jacinto, by -General Houston, who routed his troops, and took him prisoner. This -occurred on the 21st of April, 1836. After being a prisoner several -months, he was permitted to return to Mexico, where, in the mean time, -his authority as president had been superseded, and where he passed -several years in obscurity, on his own hacienda (farm). - -[Illustration: Texans Flying to Arms.] - -_Attempts against the Central Government._--Two successive attempts -were made against the central government during the years 1837 and -1838, under Bustamente, who had been chosen president after his return -from France. The first consisted of declarations in favor of -federation, and of Gomez Farias for the presidency; but the -disturbance was easily quelled. The other attempt was made by Mexia -in 1838, who had once before raised the standard of rebellion against -the central government. He was opposed by Santa Anna, who had issued -from his retirement, and who hoped, by rendering some service to the -government, to wipe off the disgrace which attached to his name. Mexia -was unfortunate, and, being taken prisoner, was almost instantly shot. -Santa Anna appeared again on the stage, in resisting an attack from an -invading French expedition against the town of Vera Cruz. - -An insurrection commenced with the federalist party, in the month of -July, 1840, headed by General Urrea and Gomez Farias, and, for a time, -the prospect was favorable for another reform of the constitution. - -_Revolution of 1841._--But revolutions were not at an end in Mexico. An -insurrection broke out in the month of August, 1841, the result of which -was, the bombardment of the capital, the downfall of Bustamente, and the -convention of Tacubaya. Santa Anna took a part in this revolution -against the president, and being at the head of the army, he selected -the junta, which, according to the "plan of Tacubaya," was to choose the -president of the republic. The junta repaid the distinction conferred -upon them by selecting him for that high office. The congress, however, -which assembled in June, 1842, proving to be disagreeable to Santa Anna, -he dissolved it by an authoritative act, and, convening an assembly of -notables, they fixed on a new constitution. - -_A New Constitution._--This was proclaimed on the 13th of June, 1843, -and conferred almost all the power on the national executive. Santa -Anna himself having been chosen that executive, the new government was -organized by the assembling of congress in January, 1844. There was -little agreement between that body and the dictator, as he might now -be called, and hostility to his administration began to be expressed -throughout the country. Measures were accordingly taken for his -overthrow, in which Paredes, who had commenced the revolution of 1841, -bore a conspicuous part. At the head of a body of troops, he openly -declared against the dictator, and soon carried with him several of -the northern provinces. - -_Overthrow of Santa Anna's Government._--The people in the capital -soon arose in arms; the military declared against the dictator, and on -the rëassembling of congress, General Herrera, the leader of the -constitutional party, was appointed provisional president of the -republic, and a new ministry was formed. This was an occasion of -unbounded rejoicing throughout the country. Santa Anna, however, with -the troops still under his command, attempted to rëgain his lost -authority; but meeting with defeat and disappointment, he endeavored -to escape, having first proposed to his opponents terms that were not -accepted. This occurred in January, 1845. He was taken prisoner, and -confined several months in the castle of Perote; after which, congress -passed against him a decree of perpetual banishment from Mexico. - -In the mean time, the province of Texas having maintained its -independence during nine years, and having been acknowledged therein -by the United States and several European powers, was, upon its own -application, received into the confederacy of the former, and became a -constituent part of the great American Union. This annexation became -the occasion of the war between Mexico and the United States, of which -an account is given in the history of the latter country. - - - - - GUATEMALA. - - GENERAL DESCRIPTION. - - -[Illustration: Volcanoes. Ruins of Old Guatemala, destroyed by an -Earthquake and Volcanic Eruption, and abandoned by the Inhabitants.] - - LOCALITY--Extent--Physical Character--Discovery and - Conquest--Independence of the Country. - -Guatemala, or the "Republic of Central America," is the most southern -point or portion of the North American continent, exclusive of the -isthmus. It has an area of one hundred and eighty-five thousand square -miles. It is composed of five states, which are sub-divided into -districts, and of the federal district, which contains the seat of -government. - -The soil of the country is in general good, and exhibits the same -variety as in Mexico, with similar productions. In portions of it, -Guatemala is subject to tremendous convulsions of nature. This is the -case mostly in the mountainous regions, of which there is a lofty -chain, traversing the country, and presenting a series of twenty-one -volcanic summits in constant activity. Old Guatemala, the capital of -the state of Guatemala, has been several times destroyed by -earthquakes, as it lies between the volcanoes of Agua and Fuego. - -_Discovery and Conquest._--Guatemala, like the other portions of the -American continent in this quarter, was discovered by the Spaniards. -It appears never to have formed a part of the empire of Mexico. At the -arrival of the Spaniards, it contained many distinct kingdoms or -principalities. The natives, called _Quiches_, lived in cities, and -some ruins of their works are yet visible. The subjugation of Mexico -by Cortez, struck terror into the inhabitants of Guatemala, and some -of the chiefs sent embassies to the conqueror, offering to submit to -him, and acknowledging themselves vassals of the Spanish king. Cortez -dispatched Pedro de Alvarado, one of his officers who had been most -active in the conquest of Mexico, to take possession of the country. - -Alvarado marched from Mexico in November, 1523, with three hundred -Spaniards, and a large auxiliary force of Mexicans. He met, however, -with strenuous opposition in his progress. The Indians were defeated -in several engagements, and the Spaniards remained masters of the -provinces in which these engagements took place. On entering the -kingdom of Quiche, they met with a more serious resistance than they -had received elsewhere. The invaders, nevertheless, on the 14th of -May, 1524, gained the victory in a great battle. Alvarado continued -his march to the capital of the king of Kachiquel, who had sent his -submission to Cortez. This prince received the stranger with courtesy, -and on the 29th of July, 1524, they laid the foundation of the ancient -city of Guatemala. The conquest of the remaining provinces followed -soon after, although many savage wilds have remained to the present -day very little explored or known by the conquerors. - -[Illustration: Alvarado marching on Guatemala.] - -_Independence of the Country._--The people of Guatemala declared -Guatemala independent on the 15th of September, 1821, and subsequently -it was incorporated with Mexico; but on the fall of Iturbide, it -disconnected itself from Mexico, and formed a separate independent -republic on the 4th of July, 1843, under the title of the "Federation -of Central America." - -The constitution of the republic is modeled on that of the United -States. The president and vice-president are elected for four years. The -senate is composed of two members from each of the states, and the house -of representatives consists of deputies (one deputy for thirty thousand -inhabitants) elected by the people. They have abolished slavery in this -country, as well as in Mexico. No other religion than the Catholic is -tolerated in Guatemala, that being the established faith. - - - - - SOUTH AMERICA. - - I. NEW GRENADA. - - -[Illustration: Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean.] - - EXTENT and Physical Features--Revolution of 1811--Formation of a - Constitution--Liberation of Quito--The Crisis of - 1828--Separation of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Equator--State - of the Government since the Separation. - -_Extent and Physical Features._--New Grenada constitutes the -north-west portion of the South American continent, commencing with -the isthmus, and extending down on the western coast nine hundred and -eighty miles. It contains an area of three hundred and eighty thousand -square miles. The country is traversed by several chains of the Andes, -the basis of which consists of elevated plains or table-lands, which -are many thousand feet above the level of the sea. The soil is -extremely fertile, and produces in great richness and abundance the -various fruits and vegetables of the tropical regions. The climate is -hot and unhealthy in the low country on the coast, but on the -table-lands is found a perpetual spring. - -_Revolution of_ 1811.--Soon after the invasion of Spain by the French -in 1808, a revolutionary spirit began to manifest itself in the -Spanish colonies of South America; and in the course of a few years, -all these colonies, one after another, declared themselves -independent, and formed republican constitutions, most of which took -that of the United States as a model, in a great measure. But the -people were ill-prepared for free governments. Their character, -education, and habits were little in accordance with republicanism. - -New Grenada declared itself an independent state in 1811, and after a -long and severe struggle with the mother-country, expelled the -Spaniards from its territory. The memorable victory of Carabobo, in -1821, completed the overthrow of the Spanish authority. In this -battle, an army of six thousand royalists was nearly annihilated, only -four hundred men saving themselves by taking shelter in Porto Cavello. -The patriots were led on by Bolivar.[86] Previously to this period, -viz: in 1819, a union was decreed of New Grenada and Venezuela into -one republic, under the name of Columbia, the presidency of Quito -having subsequently succeeded to the confederacy. - -_Formation of a Constitution._--On the 17th of July, 1821, a general -congress met at _Rosario de Cucuta_, to form a constitution, which was -completed and adopted on the 30th of August. The legislative power was -vested in a senate of thirty-six members, and in a chamber of deputies -of ninety-four members, and Simon Bolivar was elected president, and -Santander vice-president. Bolivar and Santander were both rëelected for -a second term, commencing on the 1st of January, 1827. - -_Liberation of Quito._--In respect to the liberation of Quito, it -appears that the destruction of the royal army, on the plains of -Carabobo, enabled Bolivar to direct his whole attention to the -expulsion of the Spaniards from the southern provinces. The presidency -of Quito, afterwards formed into the republic of Equador, had, for -many years, been united with New Grenada. The army of the South, under -Sucre, was rëinforced by the troops which could be spared from other -situations, amounting to seven thousand men, and the president placed -himself at its head. Both parties having at length concentrated their -forces, the campaign and the fate of Quito were decided at the battle -fought at Pinchincha, about the 1st of June, 1822. Bolivar's usual -success still attended him, and the arms of the republic were again -crowned with a most signal victory. - -_The Crisis of 1828._--In 1828, the country was threatened with -anarchy, and Bolivar took a decisive step--and daring as it was -decisive--in dissolving the Columbian congress on the 27th of August -of that year, and assuming absolute authority. To this movement he had -been encouraged by addresses from various municipal bodies, calling -upon him to put an end to the public disorders, by taking upon himself -that authority. He organized a new government to suit his own views, -and soon began to feel the consequences of the bold measure he had -adopted, in the conspiracies that were formed against him. The month -of September did not pass without an attempt to assassinate him. His -aid-de-camp was killed, but Bolivar's life was saved by the courage of -his officers. Generals Padilla and Santander were charged with this -plot, and by a special tribunal condemned to death. The former was -executed, but the punishment of Santander was commuted for -banishment. Several other individuals suffered death. The country was -more or less agitated by violent factions; many military leaders -aspired to the supreme command, and Bolivar's efforts to prevent -dissension incited insurrections. Many denounced him as a usurper and -tyrant. Venezuela claimed her independence, and Bolivar, after -endeavoring in vain to unite them, and create a spirit of harmony -under his rule, resigned all his authority to the congress at Bogota, -in 1830. He retired to Carthagena in deep depression of spirits, on -account of the calamities of his country. - -_Separation of New Grenada, Venezuela, and Ecuador, or Equator._--On -the 4th of May, 1830, Senor Joachim Mosquera was elected president, -and General Domingo Caicedo, vice-president; but on the 4th of -September, Mosquera resigned, and Urdanata was appointed temporary -president until the arrival of Bolivar, whose return to power was -decreed by a meeting of soldiers and citizens; but Bolivar died at -Carthagena, December 17th, the same year. Venezuela again joined -Columbia for a short time; but in November, 1831, a new separation -took place, and since that time the late republic of Columbia has been -divided into three republics, viz: New Grenada, Venezuela, and -Equator, whose constitutions are similar to that of Columbia. - -_State of the Government since the Separation._--Since this period, -there seems to have been a regularity in the appointment of the -highest officers of the government. In 1832, General Santander was -called to the presidency, whose term of office expired in 1836. The -next term of four years was filled by José Ignacio de Marquez. Of late -years--that is, for two successive terms--General Herran has been -president of New Grenada. Don Thomas C. Mosquera was elected president -of the republic in 1848. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[86] Simon Bolivar was a native of Caraccas, and belonged to one of -the most respectable and wealthy families of that city. By a series of -brilliant and arduous services, he established the liberty and -independence of his native country, and procured the well-deserved -title of The Liberator. - - - - - II. VENEZUELA. - - -[Illustration: First Discovery by the Spaniards--They approach the -Village built upon poles.] - - NAME, Physical Features, &c.--Discovery--State of the Country - under the Spanish Dominion--Termination of the Spanish - Dominion--Condition since. - -_Name, Physical Features, &c._--This republic formerly known by the -name of the Captain-generalship of Caraccas, as has been seen, once -formed a part of the republic of Columbia. When it was first brought -to the knowledge of the Spaniards, they called the place where they -landed Venezuela, from the common propensity to find a resemblance -between the objects they saw in America, and those that were familiar -to them at home. An Indian village, built upon piles, was the object -which suggested the name. - -Venezuela includes a portion of the great chain of the Andes and a vast -plain, which constitutes the greater part of the surface. It is watered -by the Orinoco, one of the largest rivers of the world, which empties -into the Atlantic by about fifty mouths. The area of Venezuela measures -four hundred and fifty thousand square miles. In respect to its soil, -it has all the richness of the equatorial regions of the globe. - -_Discovery._--The Spaniards, under Ojeda, first visited this country, -in 1499. They made some attempts to settle at the Indian village -before adverted to, which they observed built upon piles, in order to -raise the huts above the stagnant waters around. But their labors -were, for the most part, abortive. The reduction of the country was -brought about by soldiers of fortune, abounding in Germany in the -sixteenth century, who, through an arrangement of the Emperor Charles -V., were introduced into these wilds. These adventurers, neglecting -the purpose for which they were placed there, which was to cultivate -and improve the country, became impatient to amass riches, and -wandered from district to district in search of mines. In this -pursuit, they cruelly plundered the natives, and imposed on them -intolerable tasks. In a few years, the desolated province hardly -afforded them subsistence; and when they were removed by their -employers, the Spaniards again took possession of the country, and -soon renewed the horrors which it had already experienced. In -consequence of these, and other ravages at a later period, the whole -region lay waste for a long season. When new settlements were at -length commenced, they advanced so slowly, that this part of the -Spanish possessions remained comparatively unproductive, while the -other American colonies were in a thriving state. - -_State of the Country under the Spanish Dominion._--As in the other -provinces held by Spain on this continent, the Spanish dominion -continued in this until the early part of the nineteenth century. -Venezuela was, however, agitated by the question of freedom and -independence, perhaps, earlier than was the fact elsewhere in Spanish -America. As early as in 1797, an attempt to raise the standard of -independence was made in Venezuela, so keenly did the country feel the -rapacity and oppression of the Spanish government. Two natives of -Caraccas were leaders in this revolt, which comprised a large number of -people distinguished for their talents, virtues, and wealth. The -insurrection, which had for its object the securing of the heads of -government, as hostages, till a treaty could be made with the court of -Spain for a redress of grievances was fixed for the 14th of July, 1797; -but was divulged by one of the conspirators on the evening previous. The -consequence was, that most of the conspirators were arrested, and -eventually put to death, but the leaders effected their escape. - -The discontents of the people continued, and General Miranda, in -consequence of earnest entreaties expressed in letters from Venezuela, -to put himself at the head of an expedition for revolutionizing the -country, acceded to the proposal. Proceeding to the United States, he -collected there a body of a few hundred adventurers. With this force -he sailed from New York in 1806; but after arriving on the coast, he -was repulsed by the Spanish gun-boats; and it was only after -recruiting his forces at Trinidad, and aided under the convoy of a -British sloop, that he again proceeded to the place of destination. -He, however, effected nothing, as he found the people now luke-warm in -the cause of revolt, and abandoned the project, with the loss of -numbers of his men, who were taken and hanged. - -_Termination of the Spanish Dominion._--The Spanish authority, -however, over the province, was drawing to an end. The great -revolution broke out in 1810. On the 19th of April, the -captain-general of Caraccas was deposed, and delegates were chosen by -the people to meet in a congress, for the purpose of forming a -government for Venezuela. The congress published a declaration of -independence on the 5th of July, 1811, and this example was followed -by the other provinces, which were afterwards united, as has already -been mentioned, in the republic of Columbia. - -In so succinct an account as the present, the details of the revolution -cannot be given, nor would they be specially interesting or useful, from -their want of general and permanent results. It needs only to be stated, -that the patriots were generally successful till 1812, when they -experienced the terrible calamity of the loss of their city, Caraccas, -by an earthquake; a circumstance which wrought upon the superstitious -fears of the populace against the cause, and that Miranda, who had -returned to this country, in despair capitulated, was taken a prisoner, -and finally sent to Spain, where he died in a dungeon. - -From this period, through a series of years, the contest maintained a -doubtful character; Bolivar defeating the royalists in several -battles, and they in their turn defeating him. The struggle between -the parties continued, until after the junction of New Grenada and -Venezuela, in 1819. The battle of Carabobo in 1820, as already related -in the history of the former state, put the finishing stroke to the -war in Venezuela. By the end of the year, the Spaniards were driven -from every part of the two provinces, except Puerto Cabello and Quito. - -_Condition since the Overthrow of the Spanish Power._--The promise of -better times soon after the union of New Grenada and Venezuela, was -realized but in part. The country continued disturbed for years. In -the mean time, the republic of Columbia was formed, but, as already -shown, it was not destined to continue: its remembrance, however, will -always be connected with the heroic efforts of Bolivar. - -The government of the country was administered from 1831 to 1835, by -General José Antonio Paez, the president, and 1835 to 1839, by Dr. -Vargas, also the president. Since the last-named period, the -government has been in the hands again of General Paez. From recent -accounts, however, it would seem that the country is in a disturbed -state, a war being carried on between Paez and Monagas--Paez -representing the constitutional party. Very lately, the latter -obtained a decided victory over Monagas. - - - - - III. EQUATOR, OR ECUADOR. - - -[Illustration: EQUADOR.] - - NAME, Extent, Physical Character--Classes of the - Inhabitants--Subversion of the Spanish Authority--Condition - since the Spanish Rule. - -_Name, Extent, &c._--This country derives its name from its situation, -it being intersected towards the north by the equator. It is one of -the three republics before spoken of, formed from the territory which, -before 1831, constituted the republic of Columbia, and it comprehends -the ancient kingdom or presidency of Quito, and formerly constituted a -part of the vice-royalty of New Grenada. It has an area of three -hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles, and a population of six -hundred and fifty thousand souls. - -The western part of Ecuador is traversed from north to south by a -chain of the Andes, forming a double ridge of colossal summits; the -valley between which, constitutes a table-land of about twenty-five -miles in width, and from nine thousand to nine thousand five hundred -feet in height. Throughout this elevated valley, a perpetual spring is -enjoyed; while on the summits of the mountains the snows of winter -are always seen; and in the low country, along the coast, the heat is -excessive, and the climate is dangerous to foreigners. The whole -eastern portion of the state is traversed by the great River Amazon, -which forms a part of the southern boundary of the republic. - -_Classes of the Inhabitants._--A small proportion only of the -inhabitants are whites, the Indians and mixed breeds composing the bulk -of the population. The civilized part of the population is confined to -the central valley and the western coast, the vast tracts of land to the -east of the mountains being occupied by independent and hostile tribes -of savages. The aborigines belonged to the Peruvian family, and numerous -remains of their architectural industry and skill are still visible. - -_Subversion of the Spanish Authority._--Dissatisfaction with the -authority of the central junta of Spain, and generally the anxiety -which was felt for the fate of the colonies, in case the French should -prevail in the peninsula, led to the establishment of a junta in the -province of Quito in August, 1809, and the Marquis Selva Allegre was -chosen its president. - -The viceroy of New Grenada, Don Amar, determined to destroy the junta; -"but, desirous of exhibiting an appearance of acting in conformity to -the will of the people, he convened the principal inhabitants of Santa -Fe de Bogota, for the purpose of consulting them on the subject, -believing that they would not have independence sufficient to oppose -his will. In this, however, he was disappointed. The assembly not only -approved of the proceedings at Quito, but declared that a similar body -ought to be formed in Santa Fe, for the security of the country, in -case Spain should finally be conquered by the French. - -"The assembly, with the consent of the viceroy, was adjourned to meet -again on the 11th of September, 1809, the first meeting being on the -7th. Still thinking to intimidate the members, the viceroy required -that each one should give his vote in writing. When the assembly again -met, they were surprised to see that the guards of the palace were -doubled, and that great military preparations had been made, as if an -enemy was approaching the city. But even this seasonable display of -military force did not have the effect of overawing the assembly; its -debates were bold and spirited; and the voting by written ballots, -showing the opinions of the different members, tended to strengthen -their firmness and resolution, so that the friends of the measure were -rather increased than diminished. - -"This occasion first brought into notice several individuals, who -afterwards became distinguished patriots; Camillo de Torres, -Gutierrez, Father Padilla, and Moreno, were among the number. Being at -length persuaded that he could not have the appearance of acting in -conformity to public opinion, he took immediate steps to suppress the -popular junta at Quito by an armed force; and the viceroy of Peru -having dispatched troops for the same object, the junta was obliged to -yield to a power which it had no means of resisting. And although an -assurance was given by the president of the _audiencia_ of Quito, that -no one should any way suffer on account of what had taken place; yet, -in violation of this plighted faith, a large number of those who had -belonged to, or supported the popular government, were arrested and -imprisoned, and on the 2d of August, the following year, they were all -massacred in prison, under pretence of revolt. The troops stationed in -the city, after massacring the prisoners, were suffered to plunder the -inhabitants; the scene of rapine and carnage was shocking, and -involved the property of thousands, and the lives of more than three -hundred persons, murdered in cold blood." - -From this period, a long struggle ensued--most of the incidents are -common with those which have been narrated. The Spanish authority was -not entirely overthrown, until the splendid victory of Pinchincha, in -1822; soon after which, Quito was united with Columbia. This union -was dissolved in 1830, and Quito formed an independent state. - -_Condition since the Spanish Rule._--One of the early presidents of the -republic was Vincente Rocafuerte; more lately, the executive department -has been filled by Juan Joseph Flores; according to the latest advices -from Ecuador, there are symptoms of a revolution. Numerous accusations -against the president have been brought forward. What events may grow -out of it, time will decide. The instability of political affairs in -that quarter of the world has long been remarked; nor perhaps will it -soon cease to be a feature of the governments of South America. - -[Illustration] - - - - - IV. PERU. - - -[Illustration: Manco Capac and his Wife appearing on the borders of -Lake Titiaca.] - - LOCALITY, Extent, and Physical Character--Condition at the time of - its Invasion by the Spaniards--Conquest by Pizarro--Condition - of the Country after the Conquest--Insurrection--Revolutionary - Movement--Declaration of Independence--Condition of the - Country after the Expulsion of the Spaniards. - -_Locality, Extent, &c._--Peru lies south of Equator along the western -shore of the continent, nearly central between the isthmus and the -Straits of Magellan, having an area of five hundred thousand square -miles, and a population of one million eight hundred thousand. The -country is traversed by several chains of the Andes, from north to -south, the principal chain lying nearly parallel to the coast. There -exists a great variety as to the surface, soil, and climate of Peru, -portions of the country being sterile, with no rains, and only dews; -and others very fertile, abounding in impenetrable forests of gigantic -trees, and producing the rich fruits and vegetables of tropical -regions. The traveler, according to his elevation, meets here with -eternal snows or perpetual summer, or the most excessive and deadly -heat. The gold and silver wealth of Peru has a world-wide celebrity. -The silver mines of Potosi are perhaps the richest known, unless the -recent golden treasures of California shall be found to exceed them. -Like the latter, the former were first made known by accident. An -Indian, by the name of Hualpa, one day following some wild animals up -the mountain, laid hold of a shrub or tree to aid his ascent; which, -giving way, revealed a mass of silver ore, which lay so near the -surface as to cling to the roots. For some time Hualpa kept his -discovery a secret, but his rapid increase of wealth attracting the -notice of a countryman, he revealed it to him. The friends, however, -soon quarreled; upon which, the secret was divulged. - -[Illustration: Hualpa discovers the Mine of Potosi.] - -_Condition at the time of its Invasion by the Spaniards._--"Peru was -one of the two monarchies of America which, at the invasion of the -Spaniards, had attained to a degree of refinement far above that -savage state in which most of the American Indians lived. It was also -remarkable from the contrast of the character of its civilization to -that of the Mexicans. Instead of the fierce and lofty spirit, the -bloody wars, the uncouth deities, and ferocious rites of the latter, -the Peruvians were united in tranquil subjection to a mild -superstition, which represented their Inca as the child of the sun, -to whom unreserved submission was due. However fable may have been -mixed with the truth in the tale of Manco Capac and his wife Mama -Ocollo--who, according to the traditions of the country, founded the -empire, first appearing among the people about the year 1100, claiming -to be children of the sun--the story of the greatness of the Peruvian -empire has nothing fabulous. It comprehended not only the vast region -now called Peru, but the territory of Quito or Ecuador, which is -covered with the monuments of the Incas. Order was established in this -vast region; the land was carefully cultivated; the rivers were -carefully employed in irrigating the soil; mountains were formed into -terraces to receive the canals constructed for this purpose, and walls -were built to prevent the water from escaping; so that large tracts, -which have now relapsed into deserts, were rendered productive." - -[Illustration: Manco Capac and his Wife first appearing to the -Peruvians.] - -_Conquest by Pizarro._--Francisco Pizarro, an uneducated Spaniard, is -entitled to the renown, or the infamy, of bringing this rich country -under the dominion of Spain, in the former part of the sixteenth -century. The details are too numerous to be here given; but suffice it -to say, that with two associates and about two hundred soldiers, he -overran this splendid empire, and filled it with rapine and blood. The -gentle and unsuspicious character of the natives rendered them an easy -prey to the artifice, cupidity, and cruelty of these Spanish -cut-throats. Pizarro's associates were Diego de Almagro, a soldier of -fortune, and Fernando de Luques, a mercenary priest. - -[Illustration: Valverde addressing Atahualpa.] - -Atahualpa, the Peruvian emperor, treated the strangers with great -courtesy, and sent them several valuable presents--fruits, corn, -emeralds, and vases of gold and silver. The sight of the gold and -silver served to render the Spaniards more fierce, and prepare them -for the cruel butcheries that followed. The following morning, -Atahualpa, attended by fifteen thousand men, met Pizarro at a place -previously appointed. He was borne on a throne of gold. As the -procession approached Pizarro, a Dominican friar, by the name of -Valverde, made a long address to the emperor, in which he endeavored -to expound the Christian religion; following which, he proposed to -him a submission to the king of Spain, on the ground that the pope had -made a present to him of Peru. - -To this, Atahualpa replied, that he was willing to be the friend of the -king of Spain, but not his vassal. The pope he considered a very -extraordinary personage to make a present of that which did not belong -to him; and as to those whom the friar denominated Christians--"If," -said he, "they worship a God who died upon a cross, I worship the _Sun_, -who never dies." After further efforts at persuasion, Valverde became -indignant, and called upon the Spaniards to vindicate their holy -religion, and to wreak their just vengeance upon dogs who could thus -trample upon the gospel. Upon this, a signal was given, and the work of -butchery commenced in the emperor's own palace. Pizarro himself advanced -towards Atahualpa, and took him prisoner, while all around the princes -of the race of the Incas, the flower of the nobility, and other great -men of the court, were indiscriminately put to the sword. - -The cruelties that were inflicted, from this time forward, upon this -unoffending people, and the riches amassed by these rapacious -adventurers, so abhorred of God and men, are scarcely capable of -enumeration, were it the object of this succinct account to speak of -particulars. While their prince, being a prisoner, was condemned on -some frivolous pretext, and strangled at the stake, they were made to -expiate, by their death, the crime of owning a rich and beautiful -country. Their great city of Cuzco was entered by Pizarro, in 1534, -and plundered of its immense wealth. Indeed, the thirst of blood and -plunder was every where exhibited in the progress of the Spaniards -through the country. Had the latter shown any degree of moderation and -humanity, they would probably have made themselves masters of the -empire without further bloodshed than this commencement of the fearful -tragedy. A people, by constitution and training so mild and -submissive, would have yielded to the yoke without much reluctance. -But the infinite variety of their calamities stirred up the people to -revenge, and they found agents to give it, for a time, a degree of -effect. But the Spaniards persevered in their efforts to overthrow the -country; large numbers poured into it from abroad, and all resistance -finally ceased. Those of the natives who were most attached to their -liberty, to their government, and to their religion, took refuge at a -distance among inaccessible mountains. The greater part of them, -however, submitted to their conquerors. - -[Illustration: Pizarro in Cuzco.] - -The fate of these robbers was, at length, as deplorable as that of the -subjects of their rapacity and cruelty. By various causes irritated and -enraged against each other, the leaders fought among themselves, and the -most revolting scenes of revenge and hatred were exhibited in the -result. The original leaders of the enterprise were soon no more, and -others followed in the same path of robbery, blood, and mutual jealousy -and contention. These civil wars continued through a series of years. -Fortunately for this part of the new world, the most seditious of the -conquerors, and of those who followed in their steps, had perished in -these wars. With their departure was connected a degree of tranquillity, -and then only the Catholic kings might with truth style themselves the -sovereigns of the Spaniards settled in Peru. - -_Condition of the Country after the Conquest._--The native Peruvians, -after their subjugation, quietly submitted to the Spanish yoke for -more than two centuries. They felt keenly, in many instances, the -wrongs inflicted on them, but they had no power of resistance against -a disciplined European force. They were loaded with insupportable -burdens, yet it was useless to complain. The exactions of their -conquerors were most unreasonable and cruel, and they passed their -days in sorrow, groaning under the severest bondage. It would seem -that all memory of their ancient independence, and the glories of the -empire of Manco Capac, was lost from among them. Under their -oppressions, their spirit and resolution appeared wholly to depart; -but events proved that they were capable of being aroused--if by -nothing better, at least by despair. - -_Insurrection in the latter part of the Eighteenth Century._--The -sufferings of the natives became so extreme, that they wanted nothing -but a leader to induce them to rise upon their oppressors, and attempt -the overthrow of the Spanish power. Such a leader was found in Tupac -Amaru, a descendant, on the mother's side, from an Inca of that name. -He was well fitted, in many respects, to head an insurrection, having -a commanding figure and intrepidity of spirit. He animated his -countrymen to many heroic deeds, and, in the course of the rebellion, -several successful battles were fought, and many Spaniards killed in -the encounters, and many massacred in the progress of the Indian arms; -but these were, on the whole, unsuccessful; their irregularities -were, perhaps, more than retaliated by the Spaniards. Amaru was -captured in the course of the war, and drawn into pieces by wild -horses, as the punishment of his attempt to free his countrymen from -oppression. Several other leaders were likewise taken, and shared the -same cruel fate. - -The principal leaders of the insurrection being no more, the great body -of the Indian population quietly returned to vassalage, and bowed again -under the galling yoke. Such was the issue of an attempt for freedom, -which filled Peru with bloodshed and misery for the space of two years, -and of a war, in which, it is asserted, one-third of the population of -Peru perished by the hand of violence. It produced no permanent or -important change in the condition of the Indians. They were rigidly -prohibited the use of arms. The tribute pressed more heavily afterwards, -and was more strictly levied, and that unfortunate people were treated -more contemptuously, in revenge of their unsuccessful rebellion. - -_Revolutionary Movements in the early part of the Present -Century._--Previously to the French invasion of Spain, and the confusion -into which the mother-country was thrown by that event, and the -consequent facilities and inducements which were furnished to the -colonies in respect to their independence, an attempt had been made in -Peru, having that object in view, as early as the year 1805. It was -undertaken by Ubalde, an eminent jurist of Cuzco; but it proved to be a -failure, and its author paid his life as the forfeiture of his rashness. - -In 1809, a popular movement took place, and provisional juntas were -established at Quito and La Paz. This revolutionary design, however, was -at once defeated by the viceroys of Peru, Buenos Ayres, and New Grenada, -whose armies dissolved the juntas. After this second abortive attempt, -Peru remained tranquil for ten years, while the neighboring provinces -were engaged in the war of their independence. At length, the people of -Chili having defeated the Spanish army in the decisive battle of Maypu, -in 1818, conceived the project of securing their independence by -expelling the Spaniards from Peru. A naval armament and a land army both -were fitted out for this object; the one in 1819, and the other in 1820. -The naval force was commanded by Lord Cochrane, an English adventurer, -and the land force was commanded by General San Martin. - -Some obstacles were interposed to the immediate success of the -undertaking; partly from negotiation, and partly from the insufficiency -of the invading forces--the liberating army of San Martin being only -about five thousand strong, and Cochrane being able only to blockade the -Peruvian ports. The city of Lima appeared to be too powerful for an -attack by the army of the general; but having, at length, resolved on -the enterprise of advancing upon this city, the pusillanimity of the -viceroy made way for a success which force might not have achieved. The -viceroy fled, to secure his personal safety, while a deputation of -citizens invited San Martin to enter the city as a liberator. - -_Declaration of Independence._--It was on the 12th of July, 1821, that -San Martin made his entry into Lima, where he was received with -acclamations, and, on the 28th, the independence of Peru was formally -declared. San Martin took the title of Protector of Peru, with supreme -power, both civil and military. A provisional government was -organized, and measures were adopted to establish the affairs of the -country on a permanent basis. But the new state of things was -fluctuating. It was not until the 20th of September, 1822, that the -first Peruvian congress convened. At this congress, an executive junta -was appointed, of three persons, to administer the government. San -Martin declined the office of commander-in-chief of the Peruvian -armies, and returned to Chili. - -From this period, there was little promise of stability for the new -republic. Discontent and dissensions followed among the people, and -every thing was thrown into confusion. It was not until the great -liberator, Bolivar, had come among them, by invitation of a portion of -the people, and after three sanguinary battles had with the royalist -forces, that the Spanish power was prostrated in Peru. On the 10th of -December, 1824, the Peruvian congress was again installed. Bolivar was -then declared the political and military head of the republic, as he -had been once before, and a gift of a million of dollars was tendered -him for his services, which he saw fit to refuse. Lower Peru was thus -liberated, and, as early as January, 1826, Upper Peru experienced the -same deliverance, through the arms of the patriot General Sucre. - -_Condition of the Country after the Expulsion of the -Spaniards._--Bolivar's influence was great, and a constitution of -government was adopted, which harmonized with his views; but the -people were still dissatisfied, and they seized an occasion, when -Bolivar was absent in Columbia, of rising in insurrection, and -effected a complete revolution in the beginning of the year 1827. A -new form of government was adopted, combining the properties of a -federal and a central system, with a president, chosen for four years, -a national congress, and a separate provisional government. - -The republic, however, did not become settled by this latter change; -for the constitution of 1827, like that which preceded it, has proved -to be too little congenial to the taste and capacities of the people. -As late as 1835, four chiefs, in arms, were striving for the -supremacy; and one year later, a spurious president, General -Salaverry, having been defeated in battle, was condemned to death by a -court martial, and shot, with his adherents, in the month of February, -1836. In 1837, Peru was placed under the protection of Santa Cruz, -president of Bolivia. Both Chili and Buenos Ayres were at war with -Peru, a few years since. - - - - - V. BOLIVIA. - - -[Illustration] - - NAME, Extent, and Physical Character--Overthrow of the Spanish - Power--Proclamation of Independence--Choice of Rulers under - the New Constitution--Present Condition. - -_Name, Extent, &c._--This country, originally called Upper Peru, and -once forming a portion of the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres, or La -Plata, dates from the battle of Ayacucho, December 9th, 1828, in which -the republicans, under Sucre, completely defeated the royalists. The -name, Bolivia, given to it, was in compliment to Bolivar. - -The republic has a length of one thousand one hundred and forty-two -miles, and an area of four hundred and ten thousand square miles. In -its physical features, it is marked by several lofty peaks of the -Andes. Some of them exceed twenty thousand feet in height. The -inequality of the surface gives it a great variety as to temperature -and climate. In the central portion of it, the soil has great -agricultural capabilities. The mineral wealth of the country is very -considerable--the famous mine of Potosi, which has heretofore been -particularly noticed, now belongs to Bolivia. - -_Overthrow of the Spanish Power._--The provinces of Upper Peru having -been wrested from the Spaniards, as above stated, General Sucre soon -cleared the country of the royalist forces. As he advanced into the -territory, not only was he received with universal joy by the -inhabitants, but the royal corps, in various places, spontaneously -declared for the independence of the country. Sucre reached Potosi in -April, 1825, where Olaneta, the Spanish general, made what resistance -he was able, but was himself slain, and the royal troops in Upper Peru -surrendered to the conquerors. - -_Proclamation of Independence._--The upper territories being thus -emancipated, a general congress of delegates was convened to decide on -the political destiny of the intendencies; whether they would unite with -Lower Peru, or the United Provinces, or form a separate and independent -nation. The latter was chosen; and, on the 6th of August, 1825, a solemn -declaration of the independence of Upper Peru was published. The -congress, which assembled at Chiquisaca, gave the new republic its name, -and determined to call the capital _Sucre_, the name of the general -whose exploits have so often been spoken of. Having solicited Bolivar to -prepare a constitution, the congress dissolved itself on the 6th of -October. The constitution which was proposed by Bolivar, and adopted by -the congress in 1826, vested the executive power in a president chosen -for life, with the privilege of naming his successor, and the -legislative power in three bodies: a senate, tribune, and censors. But -this constitution was soon abolished. - -_Choice of Rulers under the New Constitution._--Sucre, at the time of -the adoption of the Bolivarian constitution, resigned his -discretionary power, and was elected president; but he sent in his -resignation to the congress which assembled on the 3d of August, -1828, and returned to Columbia, and, in June, 1830, he was -assassinated near Pasto. On the retirement of Sucre, General Velasco -filled the office of president, till the meeting of the convention, on -the 16th of December. This body displaced Velasco, and elected General -Blanco president. A revolution soon followed, which resulted in the -deposition and death of Blanco, January 1st, 1829. A temporary -government was established, with Velasco at the head, till a new -president could be elected, and Santa Cruz was chosen. Generals -Velasco and Ballivian have since been elected presidents of the -republic; the latter is still in office. - -_Present Condition._--The most recent accounts represent Bolivia as -being in a state of civil war. The antagonists of President Ballivian -have proclaimed the constitution of 1839, and constituted a -provisional government, backed by a powerful military organization. -The revolution is headed by General Belza, minister of war, who has -violated his oath of office, disgraced his country, and outraged -constitution and laws, for the purpose of gaining the presidency. - -[Illustration] - - - - - VI. CHILI. - - -[Illustration: View of Valparaiso.] - - EXTENT, Physical Features, Climate--Conquest by Almagro--Revolution - in the beginning of the Present Century--Final Establishment of - Independence--Subsequent Condition. - -_Extent, Physical Features, Climate, &c._--Chili, lying on the shore -of the Pacific, from the twenty-fourth to the forty-fifth degrees of -south latitude, its length being one thousand two hundred and sixty -miles, and its breadth three hundred miles, possesses many natural -advantages and attractions. The immense chain of the Andes traverses -the country from north to south. In the vicinity of these mountains, -earthquakes are common, and these seem to be the only drawbacks to the -paradise which nature has formed in this part of the South American -continent. Chili, it is believed, is blessed with the most salubrious -and delightful climate on the globe. - -Though there are some sterile tracts, the soil, in general, is -remarkably fertile, and the products are rich and varied. Medicinal, -dyeing, and aromatic plants abound, and there are several plants -peculiar to the country. All kinds of metal abound in Chili. Gold, -however, is the most copious, and in some districts there is scarcely -a hill which does not contain it. Chili is supposed to be the only -American state, formerly subject to Spain, whose commerce has been -increased since the separation from the mother-country. - -[Illustration: Almagro marching against Chili.] - -_Conquest by Almagro._--After the principal provinces of Peru were -brought into subjection, the Spanish conquerors turned their attention -to the conquest of Chili. In the early part of 1535, Almagro set out for -Cuzco, in the prosecution of this enterprise, with a considerable force. -From the nature of the route, he met with great difficulties, and lost -many of his men; but he at length accomplished his design, and was -received with tokens of submission on the part of the inhabitants. The -natives, however, at length, recovering from their astonishment at the -sight of so superior a race of men as the Spaniards, began to think of -regaining their liberty. Hence, a war arose, which lasted ten years, in -which, though the natives were sometimes successful, they were -generally and in the end defeated. For a long course of years, the -possession of the country by the Spaniards continued to be disputed, and -fatal hostilities occurred from time to time, as they attempted to -extend their empire in Chili. Their object, however, was effected by -degrees, as in all the other American colonies. - -_Revolution in the beginning of the Present Century._--The occasion of -the revolution in Chili, and its subsequent independence, was the same -as in the other Spanish states in America, viz: the disturbances in -Spain in consequence of the French invasion in 1809. The -captain-general of the province was compelled to resign, and by the -popular voice the Count de la Conquista was elevated to his place. The -count immediately took measures for instituting a new government. A -general congress was determined on, and at length chosen, after some -attempts made by the royalists at a counter-revolution. The congress, -upon their organization, passed a decree, permitting all persons who -were dissatisfied with the changes in the government, to leave the -country with their effects, within six months. The children of slaves, -born in future, were declared free, and many other acts were passed, -with a view to reform the abuses of the ancient government. - -Discontent, however, with the new order of things, soon arose, and -there was the usual amount of plots and counter-plots, menace and -fighting, between the friends and the enemies of the changes in the -government, which has constituted a principal feature of Spanish -American history in modern times. After various military movements and -internal struggles, the revolutionary power was overthrown, and, in -1814, the Spanish authority was completely rëestablished in Chili. - -_Final Establishment of Independence._--This state of things continued -for more than two years. But it was destined to pass away, after some -severe fighting. The government of Buenos Ayres dispatched an army, -under San Martin, for the purpose of liberating Chili. After -incredible exertions and fatigue, he crossed the lofty chain of the -Andes, and arrived in Chili with very little loss. At Chacabuco, the -royal troops were defeated, and put to the rout, on the 12th of -February, 1817. At Santiago, the liberator was received with -acclamations by the inhabitants, and made supreme director. He, -however, declined the office, and bestowed it upon O'Higgins, who had -commanded a division of his army. Chili was delivered by means of San -Martin's successes, ending in the great victory of Maypu, April 5th, -1818, in which the whole Spanish army was destroyed, with the -exception of their commander, Osorio, and a few horsemen. This victory -set the seal on the independence of Chili, and the patriots were soon -enabled to carry the war into the enemy's country by the invasion of -Peru, as narrated in the history of the latter. - -_Condition subsequently to the Establishment of Independence._--The fact -of securing her independence has given little repose to Chili. The -outward forms of a republic have been preserved in her government, while -parties have struggled for the ascendancy, and filled the country with -turbulence. For several years, the southern frontiers were disturbed by -the depredations of an outlaw, named Benavides, a Spaniard, who put -himself at the head of the Araucanian Indians, and desolated the country -with fire and sword, and the commission of bloody atrocities unsurpassed -in the history of savage warfare. His success, and the authority he had -acquired over the Indians, induced him to think himself a powerful -monarch, and he attempted to establish a navy. He captured several -American and English vessels, which touched on the coasts of Chili for -refreshments, and made himself master of a large amount of property, -arms, and military stores. The Spaniards encouraged him in his piracies -and murders, and furnished him with troops and artillery. But his bloody -career was cut short by the Chilians, who dispatched an expedition -against him in October, 1821. Arauco, his capital, was taken, his forces -defeated, and Benavides compelled to flee. He was taken prisoner in -February, 1822, tried and executed. - -In January, 1823, O'Higgins was compelled to resign, and was succeeded -by Ramon Freire, as supreme director. In July, 1826, Freire resigned his -office, and Admiral Manuel Blanco was appointed in his place; but before -the expiration of two months, he retired from office. In 1827, the form -of the government was changed; but the public tranquillity has not been -secured by the change. Of the two vice-presidents, who were chosen from -1827 to 1831, one was expelled and the other assassinated. Chili, for -many years, has been agitated by the dissensions of two parties; the one -desiring to establish a central government, and the other, a government -like that of the United States. - -Chili, in connection with Buenos Ayres, within a few years, has been -at war both with Peru and Bolivia. According to the latest accounts, -some difficulty now exists between this country and Buenos Ayres; the -hope is expressed that it may not issue in war. The too great -readiness of the infant republics of South America to engage in -contentions with one another, and to indulge in internal feuds, must -be acknowledged to be a bad omen in respect to their preparation for -the blessings of liberty and independence. - -[Illustration] - - - - - VII. BUENOS AYRES, OR PROVINCES OF LA PLATA. - - -[Illustration: BUENOS AYRES.] - - NAME, &c.--Inhabitants, or Classes of People--Discovery and - Settlement--First Insurrection against the Government of - Spain--Progress and Changes of the New Government--Present - Condition of the Government. - -_Name, &c._--This country received its name, at first, from the name -of its great river La Plata. The river was so denominated from the -fact that, among the spoils of a few Indians, inhumanly put to death, -some ornaments of gold and silver had been found. In 1778, it was -erected into a Spanish vice-royalty by the name of the vice-royalty of -Rio de la Plata. On its declaration of independence, in 1816, it -assumed the name of the United Provinces of La Plata, and, in 1826, -that of the Argentine Republic; and it has, also, long been known by -the name of Buenos Ayres, from the name of its chief city. - -_Inhabitants, or Classes of People._--These are the same as are found -in Chili, viz: European Spaniards, Creoles, Negroes, Indians, and the -mixed races. The Chiquintos are a numerous and civilized nation of -independent Indians. There are also many other tribes. There is a -striking sameness in the character of all the South American states. -Among the Creoles, the strictest equality obtains. No white would do -service for any one of his own nation. Education, perhaps, in all the -classes, is rather neglected. - -_Discovery and Settlement._--Sebastian Cabot, in the early part of the -sixteenth century, sailed up the river, to which he gave the name of La -Plata. In attempting to build a fortress in the country, or otherwise to -commence a settlement, he met with so much opposition from the -inhabitants, that, in 1530, he returned to Spain, in order to obtain -recruits. The few men whom he left in the colony, were either massacred, -or abandoned the country. Some more considerable forces, led by Mendoza, -came and settled on the river in 1535, and laid the foundation of Buenos -Ayres. Their condition, however, was precarious, whether there, or -wherever else they located themselves in the country. They were in -danger of being cut off, either by famine or Indian hostilities. Buenos -Ayres was at length abandoned, and settlements made farther up the -river. To propitiate the natives, they finally resorted to the policy of -marrying their women. From a union of this kind, sprung the race of -Mestizoes, which, in the course of time, became so common in South -America. Buenos Ayres was rebuilt in 1580, and from that time some of -the petty nations in that vicinity submitted to the Spanish yoke. A -degree of civilization and order was effected among this savage people, -by the Jesuits, through a long course of years. - -_First Insurrection against the Government of Spain._--The desire of -throwing off the government of the mother-country was manifested at an -early period among the inhabitants of the city of Buenos Ayres. The -development of this feeling was somewhat earlier there, than in other -parts of Spanish America. It owed its origin to the war which existed -between Spain and Great Britain, in 1806. As the consequence of this -war, the province of La Plata was neglected, and thus presented a -strong temptation for invasion on the part of the British. That which -might have been attempted at some subsequent period by public -authority, was commenced by private aggressions, or certainly without -orders from the government. A fleet and army, under Commodore Topham -and General Beresford, after effecting the conquest of the Cape of -Good Hope, proceeded to Buenos Ayres, on the 8th of June, 1806, and, -after a slight resistance, took possession of the place on the 28th of -June. The Spaniards, however, under Liniers, a French officer, -collecting a large force in the country, rëtook it within sixteen -days, with a good deal of loss to the British. The latter having -received rëinforcements, made two several attempts to recover -possession of the city, but failed in both. - -In the embarrassments occasioned by Napoleon's invasion of Spain, -parties sprang up in Buenos Ayres, some supporting Liniers, who had -been appointed viceroy of the province, and others the Spanish -authority. The latter appeared, for a time, to be the prevailing -power; but the ebulition of royalty which had proclaimed Ferdinand, -was of short duration. The Spanish Americans began to feel that they -had power in their hands, as was manifested in their defeat of the -British. Their discontents increased at the tyranny exercised over -them. Commotion followed commotion, till in May, 1810, the viceroy, -Cisneros, finding his embarrassments and perplexities greatly -increased by the disasters of the Spaniards at home, was compelled to -announce his inability to manage the government. By the request of the -municipality of the city, he called a congress, which established a -provisional junta for the government of the country. The 25th of May, -the date of this government, has ever since been observed as the -anniversary of independence in Buenos Ayres. - -_Progress and Changes of the New Government._--On the part of Spain, -attempts were made to recover her lost power, and the difficulties and -dissensions, so universally experienced by the American colonies on -such occasions, were felt in a considerable degree in Buenos Ayres. In -1811, a congress assembled in the city of Buenos Ayres, and placed the -executive power in the hands of a triumvirate. In 1812, Posadas was -appointed supreme director of the republic, with a council of seven. -In 1816, a congress assembled at Tucuman, declared the countries on -the La Plata independent, and named Pueyredon director; having -transferred its sessions to Buenos Ayres, it assumed the title of the -United Provinces of South America. - -In 1819, a congress assembled at Buenos Ayres, formed a constitution, -modeled on that of the United States, and Rondeau was elected supreme -director, and Rivadavia was placed at the head of foreign affairs. For -some time, the principal functions of the government were discharged -by a constituent congress, the executive power being intrusted to the -provincial government of Buenos Ayres. - -In February, 1826, Rivadavia was elected president. The republic -became involved in war with Brazil, on account of Banda Oriental, -which was first added to Brazil, and afterwards declared (August, -1828) independent. Rivadavia having resigned, the congress was -dissolved, each of the provinces became again independent, and Dorego -was chosen governor of the province of Buenos Ayres. General Lavalle, -at the head of the Unitarios, caused Dorego to be shot, and himself to -be proclaimed president, December 1st, 1828. A bloody civil war -ensued, and in August, 1829, Lavalle was compelled to resign, and his -successor was General Juan Jose Viamont, who was succeeded, December -8th, 1829, by General Juan Manuel de Rosas, who was declared dictator -August 9th, 1830; but before the end of the year, General Queroga made -himself dictator or governor. In 1835, De Rosas was made governor of -Buenos Ayres for five years; and, in addition to his other duties, he -was charged with the foreign relations of the Argentine Republic.[87] - -As early as the year 1822, the independence of the United Provinces of -La Plata was acknowledged by the congress of the United States, and a -treaty of commerce was concluded with Great Britain in 1825. Domestic -troubles, however, were again renewed, the union of the provinces was -dissolved, and separate governments were established. But the -difficulties did not soon come to a close, as two fiercely-contending -parties, of opposite views respecting the forms of government, created -no small amount of turbulence and misrule. - -On December 29th, 1839, a battle was fought at Cagancha, between -General Echagne, governor of the Buenos Ayrean province of Entre Rios, -and General Fructuoso Rivera, president of the Oriental Republic of -Uruguay. The former had an army of five thousand men, and was defeated -with a loss stated at eight hundred killed, and a considerable number -of prisoners, together with the loss of their baggage and horses. The -loss of General Rivera, in killed and wounded, was stated at about two -hundred. - -_Present Condition of the Government._--The government of this -country, for many years past, has been in the hands of Don Juan M. de -Rosas. According to the latest advices, Rosas is in trouble with the -new British minister, Mr. Southern. It is stated that the former -refused to receive Mr. Southern, unless he was authorized to treat -with Rosas on the basis laid down by Mr. Hood, the first special -minister that was sent out by England. Mr. Southern refuses to submit -to that condition, and thus the affair remains at present. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[87] American Almanac for 1849. - - - - - VIII. ORIENTAL REPUBLIC, OR URUGUAY. - - -[Illustration: URUGUAY.] - - LOCALITY, Extent, &c.--Name and History--The Constitution. - -_Locality, Extent, &c._--This country lies north of the Rio de la -Plata, east of the river Uruguay, and south of Brazil. It has an area -of eighty thousand miles. Monte Video is the capital of the republic, -and is a town of some importance. Uruguay comprises nine departments. - -_Name and History._--This country constituted a part of the -vice-royalty, afterwards the republic of La Plata, and was known by -the name of Banda Oriental (Eastern Frontier, from its geographical -position). After the declaration of the independence of the United -Provinces, it became the subject of an obstinate war between the new -republic and the empire of Brazil. - -Elio, who was appointed by the regency of Spain captain-general of the -province of Rio de la Plata, in that capacity, also, governed the -province of Monte Video, or the Banda Oriental. He was now the most -dangerous and powerful enemy with which the government of Buenos Ayres -were at war. That government having received an ally, by the desertion -of Artigas, a captain in the royal service, employed him, in conjunction -with General Rondeau, in an expedition against Banda Oriental. In May, -1811, they obtained a signal victory at Las Piedras over the royalists, -and laid siege to Monte Video. In this extremity, Elio, finding himself -unable to hold out long without assistance, applied to the Portuguese of -Brazil, who sent him an army of four thousand men, and a subsidy of -moneys. Before any important operations could be engaged in, however, a -treaty was concluded between Monte Video and Buenos Ayres, in November, -1811, by virtue of which the siege of Monte Video was to be raised, and -the Portuguese forces were to return home. In pursuance of the treaty, -the siege was raised, but the Portuguese proved faithless, and began to -ravage the territory of La Plata. - -Danger now encompassed the Buenos Ayreans, not only from the -Portuguese, but from the royalists of Peru. They, however, induced the -latter to withdraw their troops, and the royalists they defeated in -battle; but nothing could restore quiet to the country, and -hostilities were again commenced with Monte Video. The war was carried -on with various success, and what, with this calamity and rival -factions which infested the city, little tranquillity was enjoyed, -till articles of agreement between the Brazilians and Buenos Ayreans -were signed at Rio Janeiro, August 27, 1828. Then was effected the -independence of the country, which took the title of the Republic of -Monte Video, so named from its capital, but it has since assumed the -title of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay. - -A constitution was adopted in 1830, according to which the legislative -power is vested in two bodies; a senate of nine members, and a house -of representatives of twenty-nine members, and the code Napoleon was -established as the law of the country. - - - - - IX. BRAZIL. - - -[Illustration: Tropical Vegetation--Animals, &c.--Landing -Slaves--Washing for Diamonds.] - - SITUATION, Extent, &c.--Discovery and Settlement--Policy of the - Portuguese Government--Removal of the Portuguese Court to - Brazil--Constitution and Government. - -_Situation, Extent, &c._--Brazil is an extensive country, occupying -the eastern and central portion of South America, from four degrees -north to thirty-three degrees south, and from thirty-five degrees to -seventy-three degrees west longitude. It has an area of three millions -square miles. - -This region is traversed by several distinct chains of mountains, -chiefly in the eastern and northern provinces, but they do not any of -them reach to any great elevation. "The mighty Orellana," or the -Amazon, gives a character to the country, as it is the largest river -in the world, both in regard to the length of its course and its -volume of water; draining an area of more than two millions of square -miles, and furnishing the country with the amplest means of -intercommunication. The greater part of Brazil is constituted of an -immense immeasurable plain, through which flow innumerable streams, on -which stand boundless and impenetrable forests, and the whole of which -swarms "with animal life in all its forms; ferocious beasts of prey, -huge serpents, alligators, troops of monkeys, flocks of -gaudily-colored and loquacious birds, and clouds of insects, are yet -undisturbed by the arts of man." - -A great variety exists as to the climate. Intense heat prevails under -the equator, but rendered supportable by the excessive humidity of the -atmosphere and the copious dews. Mild and temperate, with occasionally -cold weather, is experienced in the southern portions. - -The soil is very fertile in a large portion of the country, and -produces an immense variety of rich and valuable plants and -vegetables, many of them being peculiar to this region. The forests -are admirable for their beauty and grandeur; the growth of trees being -gigantic, and the number of ornamental ones surpassing calculation. An -important article of export, are several kinds of what is called -_Brazil-wood_, not to speak of timber for ship-building, mahogany, and -an infinity of dyeing woods. - -The golds and diamonds of Brazil are far-famed; the quantity of gold -annually obtained being estimated at five millions of dollars. Brazil -has more foreign commerce than any other country in America, except -the United States. Its principal ports are Rio Janeiro, Bahia or St. -Salvador, Pernambuco, Para, San Luis de Maranham, and San Pedro. - -_Discovery and Settlement._--The discovery of Brazil, by the -Portuguese, was a matter of accident. It occurred in the year 1500, as -Pedro Alvarez Cabral was sailing from Lisbon with a fleet for the East -Indies. Standing out a great distance to the west, in order to avoid -the calms on the coast of Africa, he saw land, on the 24th of April, -in latitude seventeen south, and on the 3d of May landed at a harbor -which was named Porto Seguro. The country was named Brazil, -eventually, from the circumstance that the forests abounded with trees -producing a beautiful dye-wood of a fiery red, to which the Portuguese -gave the name of _brazil_, from _braza_, a live coal. Cabral having -taken possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, the king -of Portugal, dispatched a vessel to Lisbon, to announce his important -discovery, while he himself proceeded on his voyage to India. - -The king, gratified with the foregoing announcement, immediately -fitted out an expedition, under Amerigo Vespucci, consisting of three -ships, which sailed in 1501. Vespucci explored the country as far -south as the fifty-second degree of latitude, but formed no -settlement. After a voyage of sixteen months, he returned to Lisbon. -Two years after, 1503, he made a second voyage, in which he had the -misfortune to lose all his fleet, with the exception of his own ship. -During this visit, he established a settlement on the coast, and -carried home a cargo of brazil-wood, the value of which was so great, -as to induce many adventurers to embark for that country. These -volunteer colonists, composed of various grades and conditions in the -social scale, but all imbued with the spirit of enterprise, formed a -settlement at St. Salvador. - -The settlement which had been made on the coast in 1503, under Vespucci, -received but little attention, until certain French adventurers, about -half a century afterwards, attempted to settle a colony at Rio Janeiro. -A Portuguese force finally expelled the French from their position, -after a struggle of two years, in 1567--the French having continued in -different parts of the country, from 1558 till that time. Owing to -various circumstances, the Portuguese court, from making this region a -place of exile and confinement for convicts and the unhappy victims of -the Inquisition, was led to regard it, at length, as a place of some -importance. The sugar-cane began to be cultivated, and the new luxury of -sugar was sought with avidity. In connection with this, a governor was -sent out to manage the affairs of the settlers, and he built a city at -St. Salvador, which became the centre of the colony. The Jesuits, -however, were the most efficient class in building up the colony, and -conciliating the affections of the natives. - -As misfortunes, during the latter part of the sixteenth century, befel -the Portuguese in Europe, advantage was taken of their weakness, and -their Brazilian possessions were invaded and taken by the Dutch. But -they were not suffered to hold their conquest without molestation. In -1626, St. Salvador was rëtaken by the Portuguese; the Dutch, however, -retained their power for a number of years in the country, and added -to their conquests, till they were expelled, in 1654, by a superior -Portuguese force sent against them. In 1661, the sole possession of -Brazil was secured to Portugal by treaty, in consideration of the sum -of one million seven hundred thousand dollars, which that crown -engaged to pay to the United Colonies. - -_Policy of the Portuguese Government in the latter part of the -Eighteenth Century._--The measures adopted by the government in respect -to Brazil, were narrow and illiberal. Their effect was to discourage -industry, and to fetter commerce. On the latter, restrictions and -monopolies were imposed. The search for gold and diamonds engrossed the -attention of the government. Foreigners could either gain no admission -into the country, or were jealously watched. Trade was carried on only -at the fortified posts. This disastrous state of things continued till -the beginning of the present century, when an event took place which -changed the whole aspect of affairs in this country. - -_Removal of the Portuguese Court to Brazil._--The event above referred -to, was the removal of the court in the mother-country to this, its -American colony. The design of effecting such a change was entertained -many years before it took place; as early as 1761, the measure had -been determined on, and preparations were made; but it was not until -1808, that the project was put into execution. The occasion was the -declaration of war by Buonaparte against Portugal. The regent (who, -after the death of his mother, in 1816, became king of Portugal, by -the title of John VI.), with the royal family, left Europe for Brazil, -where they arrived January 22d, 1808. This event resulted in great -advantage to the Brazilians. Soon, the old exclusive system of trade -was abolished, and all the ports of the country were opened to the -commerce of the world; the free exercise of industry was permitted to -all classes of people; and the press, which for three centuries had -been prohibited, was immediately established. - -After the fall of Napoleon, John raised Brazil to the rank of a -kingdom, in 1815, thenceforth to be called the kingdom of Brazil, -which, with the European territories, should constitute the United -Kingdoms of Portugal, Algarves, and Brazil. In 1821, John returned to -Portugal, leaving his son, Pedro, in Brazil, as prince-regent. On the -12th of October, 1822, Brazil was declared independent, as there had -been, for some time, a manifest and growing desire, on the part of the -people, for this change. At the same time, the Prince Pedro was -crowned emperor of Brazil. On the death of John VI., in 1826, Pedro -declared his daughter Maria Queen of Portugal; and, on the 6th of -April, 1831, he abdicated the throne of Brazil in favor of his son, -Pedro II., born October 2d, 1825, and who is now emperor. - -_Constitution of Government._--According to the constitution, which -was formed in 1823, and adopted in 1824, Brazil is a hereditary -monarchy, with a legislative assembly, consisting of two houses; a -senate, appointed by the emperor, and a house of representatives, -elected by the people. The Catholic faith is the religion of the -state, but all other Christians are tolerated, though not allowed to -build churches, or perform divine service in public. - - - - - X. PARAGUAY. - - -[Illustration: PARAGUAY.] - - SITUATION, Extent, &c.--Insurrection and attempt at Revolution in - the latter part of the Eighteenth Century--Establishment of - Independence, and a Despotic Government. - -_Situation, Extent, &c._--This republic is situated between the rivers -Paraguay and Parana, having the empire of Brazil on the east, and the -Argentine Republic on the west. It has an area of ninety thousand -square miles. Its divisions consist of eight departments. - -This country is considered the fairest portion of what was once the -United Provinces. Its climate is mild and balmy; the surface is not -mountainous, neither is it a dead level; it is well supplied with a -great variety of streams of pure water; its soil is every where found -to be exceedingly productive, and was originally covered with immense -forests of stately timber. Among its more ample productions are grain, -cotton, sugar, and excellent fruits--oranges, figs, the olive, and the -grape--as well as the singular vegetable called _matte_, so -extensively used in South America as a tea or beverage. - -_Insurrections and attempts at Revolution in the early part of the -Eighteenth Century._--Paraguay is rendered remarkable by several -projects, more than a century ago, having in view its independence, -and, what is more wonderful, by the open and public assertion, at that -time, of the principle, that the authority of the people was greater -than that of the king himself. Thus was anticipated, in a colony of -the most bigoted and despotic court of Europe, more than a hundred -years ago, the modern liberal doctrine of the sovereignty of the -people. The attempts referred to were made by individuals, who had, -perhaps, their private causes of grievance, as Antequera, Mompo, and -Mena, though one of them, certainly, Mompo, was the preacher of the -doctrine above stated. No real independence, however, was effected, -except for a short period. The revolutionary leaders were soon -overcome in battle, put to death, or banished, and the authority of -the king of Spain was rëestablished, and continued for the greater -part of a century. - -_Establishment of Independence, and a Despotic Government._--In 1810, -the junta of Buenos Ayres sent a body of troops to Paraguay to depose -the Spanish governor, but they were compelled to retreat. The -inhabitants, however, themselves deposed the governor, and took the -government into their own hands. In 1813, they proclaimed Paraguay a -republic, under two consuls, the principal of which was Dr. Jose -Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia. At the end of the year, Francia caused -himself to be named dictator for three years, and, at the close of -this term, for life. On the 24th of September, 1826, a formal -declaration of independence was made, though the country, for fourteen -or fifteen years, had been governed independently of Spain. - -The administration of Dr. Francia proved to be an absolute and perfect -despotism, and that of a most severe and sanguinary character. He was -a native of Paraguay, and received the degree of doctor of theology at -the University of Cordova, in Tucuman. For nearly thirty years he -acted the tyrant over the inhabitants of the country, and brought the -entire mass into the most unresisting subserviency to his will. No -personage has figured so conspicuously as Dr. Francia, in the modern -history of South America. When, by consummate address, he had -succeeded in getting himself appointed dictator for life, commenced -one of the most extraordinary events on record. "From the moment when -he found his footing firm, and his authority quietly submitted to, his -whole character appeared to undergo a sudden change. Without faltering -or hesitation--without a pause of human weakness, or a thrill of human -feeling--he proceeded to frame the most extraordinary despotism that -the world has ever seen. He reduced all the population of Paraguay to -two classes; of which the dictator constituted one, and his subjects -the other. In the dictator was lodged the whole power, legislative and -executive; the people had no power, no privileges, no rights, and only -one duty, to obey. All was performed rapidly, boldly, and decisively. -He knew the character of the weak and ignorant people at whose head he -had placed himself, and who had the temerity to presume that they had -energy and virtue sufficient to form a republic. The inhabitants of -Paraguay delivered themselves up, bound hand and foot, into the hands -of an absolute and ferocious despot, who reduced them to absolute -slavery, ruined their commerce and agriculture, shut them up from the -rest of the world, and dragged to the prison or the scaffold every man -in the country whose talents, wealth, or knowledge opposed any -obstacle in the way of his tyranny. No human being was allowed to -leave the country, or dispatch a letter abroad." A few only escaped, -by means of the flooding of the country by the rise of the river -Paraguay, and from these individuals the world has learned respecting -the secrets of this more than Dionysian espionage and tyranny. No -attempted conspiracies availed to secure his person or destroy his -life. He managed so as to gain over his soldiers entirely to his -interests. As was to be expected, he lived in constant fear of -assassination or poisoning, ordering his guards sometimes to shoot -those who dared to look at his house in passing along the streets, and -taking the trouble to cook his own victuals. He died at about the age -of eighty, in 1842, having thus enacted the despot during the long -course of twenty-eight years. - -The wonder of all is, that the people generally were contented and -happy under this strict and unnatural regime; yet it is partly to be -accounted for from the entire security of person and property which -was felt, so far as the intercourse of the people among themselves was -concerned. Each district was made responsible for every theft -committed in it. All the inhabitants, Indians as well as Creoles, were -taught to read, write, and keep accounts. Public schools were every -where established, and children were required to attend them, until, -in the judgment of the municipal authority, they were sufficiently -instructed. The dictator also established lyceums and other liberal -institutions. Every person was required to labor, and mendicity was -prohibited. It has been represented, however, that there was a -mitigation of the doctor's despotism, in the latter part of his life. - -According to the more recent accounts, the government of this country -was administered by five consuls; but this and the other matters -pertaining to Paraguay, are very imperfectly known, as the country -has, for so long a period, been avoided by foreigners. - - - - - WEST INDIES. - - -[Illustration: WEST INDIES.] - - SITUATION, Extent, &c.--Inhabitants--Political Divisions.--I. - BRITISH WEST INDIES: - Jamaica--Trinidad--Barbadoes--Bahamas--St. - Christopher--Bermudas or Sommers' Islands--St. Vincent.--II. - SPANISH WEST INDIES: Cuba--Porto Rico.--III. FRENCH WEST - INDIES: Martinique--Guadaloupe.--IV. DUTCH WEST INDIES.--V. - DANISH WEST INDIES.--VI. HAYTI. - -_Situation_, _Extent_, _Climate_, _Productions_, _&c._--The West -Indies constitute the great archipelago of the western continent, -extending from latitude ten to twenty-eight degrees north, between the -coast of Florida on the north, and the mouth of the river Orinoco in -South America. They are a large cluster of islands, in their several -portions variously denominated, according to their situations or other -peculiarities, but will here be considered in their political -divisions. The land area of the whole group is over ninety-three -thousand square miles. - -These islands have a general sameness of character, in some respects, -from the position which they occupy on the face of the globe. The -climate, as is to be expected, is generally very warm, though moderated -and made comfortable, for the most part, by sea breezes. The thermometer -frequently rises above ninety degrees; but its medium height maybe -stated at about seventy-eight degrees of Fahrenheit. They are visited by -periodical rains, which are often powerful, and in general the humidity -of the atmosphere is very great, causing iron and other metals that are -easily oxydated, to be covered with rust. Hurricanes are common to most -of these islands, and frequently, in their incredible fury, produce the -most desolating effects wherever they extend. - -The productions of the West Indies are rich and varied, and constitute -important articles of commerce. From the fertile soil spring the -sugar-cane, the coffee-plant, the allspice or pimento, the nutritive -banana or plantain, the pineapple, the luscious fruit of the anana, -the yam, sweet potato, uca, maize, and cassava or manioc, with cocoa, -tobacco, cotton, various dye-woods and stuffs (fustic, logwood, -indigo, cochineal), and medicinal plants; such as arrow-root, -liquorice-root, ginger, jalap, ipecacuanha, sarsaparilla, &c.; the -mahogany and lignum-vitæ are included in the vegetable productions of -this archipelago; but to this catalogue must still be added the -bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, mango, papaw, guava, orange, lemon, tamarind, -fig, cashew-nut, mammee, grenadilla, panilla, panda-nut, &c. - -_Inhabitants._--The white inhabitants of the West Indies are Creoles, -Spanish, English, French, Germans, &c.; but the negroes are the most -numerous class, though the mixed races are quite abundant. The Indians -are extinct, except as mingled with negroes in a part of the island of -St. Vincent. The general classes are those of master and slave, or -were such before the act of emancipation took effect in the British -portion of the islands. From the diversity of nations or races, -several languages are necessarily in use, as the English, the French, -the Spanish, with other European tongues, and the Creole, a jargon -used in Hayti, composed of French and several African dialects. - -_Political Divisions._--These consist of the British islands, the -Spanish islands, the French islands, the Dutch islands, the Danish -islands, one Swedish island, and the independent island of Hayti. The -British own twenty-two islands, of various dimensions; the Spanish, -two, viz: the large islands of Cuba and Porto Rico; the French, six; -the Dutch, four; and the single Swedish island is St. Bartholomews. -The last is a small, but fertile, island, which was ceded to Sweden by -France in 1785. - -I. BRITISH WEST INDIES.--The government of the British West Indies is -modeled on the constitution of the mother-country. The several islands -have a governor or lieutenant-governor, and a legislative council -appointed by the crown; and the most of them have also a house of -representatives, chosen by the people, who legislate upon all subjects -of a local character. - -The West Indies were formerly a great mart of that infamous traffic, -the slave-trade, which, according to M'Culloch, was commenced by the -Portuguese in 1542, and this nation seems disposed to be the last to -relinquish it. By means of the noble exertions of Wilberforce, -Clarkson, Sharp, and others, an act was passed in 1806 by the British -parliament for abolishing the slave-trade; and the present age has -witnessed another act highly honorable to the British nation, for the -total abolition of slavery, at great expense, throughout the British -colonies. By this memorable act, which was passed by parliament in -1833, the slaves were on the 1st of August, 1834, made apprenticed -laborers to continue such, a part of them till the 1st of August, -1838, and a part till the 1st of August, 1840, when they were all to -become completely free. To indemnify the owners of the slaves, -parliament voted the sum of twenty millions pounds, as a compensation, -payable in certain fixed proportions, according as each colony should -be ascertained to have complied with the terms of the act. - -Soon after the passing of this act, the slaves in the island of -Antigua and the Bermudas were made free by the colonial governments, -and acts were afterwards passed by the legislatures of Barbadoes, -Jamaica, Nevis, Montserrat, St. Christopher's, St. Vincent, and -Tortola, liberating all the slaves or apprenticed laborers in those -islands on the 1st of August, 1838. Movements of a similar nature -also, about the same time, took place in the other islands, bringing -to a close the apprenticeship which had been established.[88] - -A few of the more important British islands will be noticed separately -in a brief manner. - -1. _Jamaica._--This island was discovered by Columbus in his second -voyage in 1494. It was first settled by the Spaniards in 1509. A body of -seventy men were sent to it by Diego Columbus, the son of the -discoverer. These were blood-thirsty wretches, who made frequent -assaults on the natives, for the purpose of robbery or revenge. The -progress of settlement was extremely slow--not more than three thousand -inhabitants, of whom half were slaves, being found on the island in -1655, when it was taken by a British force, under Penn and Venables. - -Soon after this event, Jamaica was colonized by three thousand -soldiers, disbanded from the parliamentary army, who were followed by -about one thousand five hundred royalists. At the period of its -capture by the English, many of the slaves belonging to the Spanish -settlers fled to the mountains, where they long lived in a kind of -savage independence, and became troublesome to the British colonists. -They have been known by the name of _Maroons_. In 1795 they were -overcome by the English, as they descended from their fastnesses for -the purpose of assaulting the former, and six hundred of them were -sent to Nova Scotia, where they were settled on locations of land -provided for them by the government. Since the occupancy of the island -in 1655, the English have firmly maintained their authority over it. - -2. _Trinidad._--This is a fruitful island, producing cotton, sugar, fine -tobacco, indigo, ginger, maize, and various fruits. Its area is nearly -two thousand square miles, and its population over forty-five thousand. -Its climate is unhealthy. This island was taken by Sir Walter Raleigh in -1595, and by the French in 1676. It was captured from the Spaniards in -1797, and ceded to England by the treaty of Amiens in 1802. - -3. _Barbadoes._--This island is situated on the eastern border of the -West Indian archipelago. It has a large population for its size, -numbering over one hundred thousand souls, on an area of less than two -hundred square miles. The climate is hot, but the air is pure, and -moderated by the constant trade-winds, which render it salubrious, in -comparison with the other islands. The exports from the island are -sugar, rum, ginger, cotton, aloes, &c. It is subject to tempests, -which at times have occasioned great devastation and loss of life. - -Barbadoes is supposed to have been discovered by the Portuguese, and -appears never to have had any aboriginal inhabitants. In 1627, some -English families settled there, but without any authority from the -government. It was soon afterwards supplied with a regular colony by the -Earl of Carlisle. The British settlers at length brought this rich, but -uncultivated, track into entire subjection by the power of industry. - -4. _Bahamas._--The Bahama or Lucayos islands consist of about seven -hundred very small islands, extending over a large space of the -archipelago on its northern border. Their soil is generally light and -sandy, and productive only in a few places. The principal products are -cotton, salt, turtle, fruits, mahogany, and dye-woods. The group among -them called Turk's island, is famous for its salt ponds, which annually -yield more than thirty thousand tons of salt for the foreign market. - -Guanahani, or Cat island, is celebrated as being the land which Columbus -first discovered. He named it San Salvador. The Spaniards first settled -on these islands, but at length abandoned them, having shipped off the -natives to work in the mines in other places. They remained desolate for -more than a century. In 1629, New Providence was taken possession of by -the English, who remained there till 1641, when they were driven out by -the Spaniards in a cruel and barbarous manner. They, however, changed -owners repeatedly, till, in 1783, they were confirmed to the English by -treaty. For many years previous to the close of the American war, the -Bahamas were the haunts of pirates, buccaniers, and freebooters. - -5. _St. Christopher's._--This island, with Montserrat, Nevis, Antigua, -and the Virgin isles, form one government, the governor generally -residing at Antigua. The interior of the country is a rugged mass of -precipices and barren mountains, the loftiest rising to three thousand -seven hundred and ten feet. The island has a productive soil on the -plains. - -St. Christopher's is said to have been the nursery of all the English -and French colonies in the West Indies. It was first visited by both -nations on the same day, in 1625. They shared the island between them, -engaging, by treaty, to observe perpetual neutrality and alliance -against the Spaniards, the common enemy. The possession of a common -property in the productions of the island, led eventually to -jealousies and contentions. Whenever war broke out between the -mother-countries, the colonists engaged among themselves, and -alternately drove each other from the plantations; but the treaty of -Utrecht confirmed the British in the possession of the whole island. - -6. _Bermudas._--The Bermudas, or Sommers' islands, consist of a -cluster of small islands in the ocean, opposite the coast of North -Carolina, about two hundred leagues distant. They number about four -hundred, but most of them are of no importance. A few of them have -numerous forests, which supply timber for ship-building, thus giving -employment to the inhabitants, in connection with navigation. The -climate is healthful and pleasant, and the fields and trees are clad -in perpetual green. Their population is nearly nine thousand. These -islands were first discovered in 1522, by Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard, -who found them without inhabitants. From him they received the name by -which they are generally known. They were also called Sommers, from -the circumstance that Sir George Sommers was wrecked on them, in 1609. -Shortly after this event, the islands were settled by the English, who -have retained possession of them ever since. - -7. _St. Vincent._--St. Vincent is a rugged and elevated island, of -small extent, but extremely fertile, and well adapted to the -cultivation of sugar and indigo. - -This island was first colonized, in 1719, by the French, from -Martinique. They had no small difficulty, even at that late period, in -bringing the fierce Carib natives under their authority. It was obtained -by the British, at the peace of 1763, and, though afterwards subjected -to the French arms, it was, in 1783, again confirmed to the British. - -II. SPANISH WEST INDIES.--Although Spain had the honor of first -ascertaining the existence of the West Indian islands, and enjoyed the -privilege of settling and holding most of them for a time, yet they -have all passed from her authority, except two, Cuba and Porto Rico. -Cuba, however, is by far the largest of the group, having an extent of -territory equal to nearly one-half of the land area of the entire -archipelago.--The exports of these islands consist of sugar, rum, -molasses, coffee, tobacco, and cigars, with honey, hides, cotton, -fruits, &c. - -1. _Cuba._--This island, as being the largest, is, in many respects, -the most important in the whole cluster of the islands of the American -continent. "During the last fifty years, a concurrence of -circumstances has rendered Cuba the richest of the European colonies -in any part of the globe; a more liberal and protecting policy has -been adopted by the mother-country; the ports of the island have been -thrown open; strangers and emigrants have been encouraged to settle -there; and, amid the political agitations of Spain, the expulsion of -the Spanish and French residents from Hispaniola, the cession of -Louisiana and Florida to a foreign power, and the disasters of those -who, in the continental states of America, adhered to the old country, -Cuba has become a place of general refuge." Its growth and increase, -within the above-named period, have been very great. By the census of -1831, it contained eight hundred and thirty thousand inhabitants. The -value of its exports, in 1833, was nearly fourteen millions of -dollars; that of its imports, eighteen millions and a half. In 1838, -the government of Spain levied a subsidy of two millions five hundred -thousand dollars on the island, to assist in defraying the expense of -the civil war. These facts denote a state of things which formerly was -far from existing on this island. - -Cuba was discovered by Columbus in his first voyage; but he did not -ascertain whether it was an island or a part of the continent. The -question was not determined until some years afterwards. It was -conquered by the Spaniards, under Velasquez, in 1511. Little progress -was made in the settlement of the island till 1519, when it was found -that the most convenient route between Mexico and Europe would be -through the Bahama channel, and it was desirable to possess a sea-port -on the passage. This led to the foundation of Havana, the harbor of -which is the best in the world. Cuba has ever been a Spanish colony. - -2. _Porto Rico._--This island is somewhat large for one of the West -Indian cluster, having four thousand five hundred square miles. It -possesses a great variety of surface, mountains, hills, and valleys. Its -climate and productions are similar to those of the adjacent islands. - -Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in 1493, but the Spaniards made -no attempt to settle it till 1509, when the pursuit after gold carried -them thither from Hispaniola, under the command of Ponce de Leon. The -natives, impressed by the belief of the superior nature of the -Spaniards, made no resistance, but submitted to the yoke of bondage. -Subsequently, they made an insurrection, and massacred a hundred of -the invaders; but they were easily subdued, as soon as the Spaniards -received rëinforcements from St. Domingo. Condemned to the mines, the -wretched natives all finally disappeared from among the living. This -island was taken by the English towards the close of the seventeenth -century, but they found the climate so unhealthy, that they abandoned -the conquest. It is now, with Cuba, under the government of a -captain-general, who resides at Havana. - -III. FRENCH WEST INDIES.--The French, at present, possess but few of -the islands of this Western main, having lost some of their most -important ones, as the result of oppression or warfare. Of those that -remain to them, two are of some consequence. - -1. _Martinique._--This island is about fifty miles long and sixteen -broad. It has an uneven surface, and, in some instances, mountainous -eminences. Sugar, coffee, cassia, cotton, indigo, cocoa, and ginger, -are among its principal productions. - -This island was settled by the French in 1635. The British took it in -1794; it was restored to France in 1802. It changed hands again in -1809, but was finally restored to France in 1815. - -2. _Guadaloupe._--This island is somewhat extensive, being seventy -miles long, and twenty-five broad at its widest part. In many parts, -it has a rich soil, and among its productions are enumerated sugar, -coffee, rum, ginger, cocoa, logwood, &c. It has been repeatedly -captured by the British, and as often restored to France. - -IV. DUTCH WEST INDIES.--The Dutch possess four islands in the West -Indian group, viz: Curaçoa, St. Eustatius, St. Martin, and Saba. -_Curaçoa_ was first possessed by the Spaniards, in 1527. It was taken -by the Dutch in 1634. It is an island of thirty miles in length and -ten in breadth. Its chief productions are sugar and tobacco, but its -soil is not of the best quality, and for its supply of water it is -dependent on the rains. St. Eustatius is said to be one of the finest -and best-cultivated islands of all the Caribbees. Its chief product is -tobacco. The English captured the island in 1801, but restored it to -the Dutch in 1814. - -V. DANISH WEST INDIES.--These islands are three in number, viz: St. -Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas. They are all small, the largest, St. -Croix, having only eighty square miles. St. John is celebrated for its -fine and capacious harbor. It has a number of salt ponds. St. Croix -has a salubrious climate and fertile soil. Every part of it is under -the highest cultivation. The Danes first obtained possession of these -islands, and still retain them. - -VI. INDEPENDENT ISLAND, _Hayti_.--The island of Hayti, which now forms -an independent negro republic, was formerly called St. Domingo and -Hispaniola--St. Domingo, from the name of its chief city, and which -became its common appellation in Europe; Hispaniola, meaning _little -Spain_, so called by Columbus. Hayti is its original name, and, after -a lapse of three hundred years, has been revived since the revolution. -The island belonged, the western part of it, to France, and the -eastern to Spain. It is the second in size of the West India islands, -having an area of about thirty thousand square miles. It is traversed -by mountains in two chains, from east to west, with several collateral -branches, from which the rivers pour over the plains below. - -Besides the tropical fruits and vegetables which this region affords, -Hayti abounds with many valuable kinds of wood. The mahogany is of a -superior quality, and a species of oak affords planks sixty or seventy -feet long. The pine is also abundant in the mountains. The annual -value of exports is about four millions of dollars, the principal -article being coffee, with mahogany, campeachy-wood, cotton, tobacco, -hides, cacas, tortoise-shell, wax, ginger, &c. - -This island was discovered by Columbus in his first voyage, and became -early the scene of many an adventure, as the civilized European -mingled with the native Carib. In the course of about half a century, -however, from the time of their settlement here, the Spaniards -exterminated the whole native population, estimated at more than two -millions. They remained undisputed masters of the island till 1630, -when some English and French, who had been driven out of St. -Christopher's, took refuge there, and established themselves on the -northern coast. The French finally obtained a firm footing on the -island, and, after many ineffectual attempts on the part of the -Spanish government to expel them, were, by the treaty of Ryswick, in -1691, formally confirmed in the possession of the western half of -Hayti. The French portion of the island became, at length, the far -most important part of it in productiveness and wealth. - -The convulsions in France, in the latter part of the last century, -reached to this, its distant and beautiful colony. The doctrines of -liberty and independence had begun to affect the minds of the blacks, -who constituted seven-eighths of the population. They soon became ripe -for a rebellion, which accordingly broke out in 1791, in the French -portion of Hayti. On the 1st of July, 1801, the independence of this -island was proclaimed, the celebrated Toussiant L'Ouverture being at -that time the leader. Toussiant died in 1803, and the command devolved -upon Dessalines, one of the chiefs, who was appointed governor for -life; but afterwards assumed, in 1804, the title of Jacques I., -Emperor of Hayti. His tyrannical reign was terminated by assassination -in 1806. Christophe, the second in command, assumed the administration -of affairs; in 1807, he was appointed chief-magistrate for life, and, -in 1811, he assumed the title of King Henry I. But he found a -formidable rival in Petion, who possessed himself of the south part of -the island, which was formed into a republic, of which he was, in -1816, appointed president for life. - -Petion died in 1818, and was succeeded by Boyer, as president for -life. Two years afterwards, the subjects of Christophe, wearied with -his tyranny, revolted, and he, being deserted by his troops, shot -himself. Upon this event, Boyer marched with an army to the north; -and, after a feeble resistance from a portion of the royalist chiefs, -was received as a deliverer by the people, and the two states became -united under one republic. There was little difficulty in the -undertaking, as the people, who were principally colored, revolted -against the Spanish authorities, and received Boyer as their friend. -The Spanish soldiers were removed from the island, and the work of -emancipation was completely effected. From that period, the authority -of the blacks has been extended over the whole of Hayti. - -In 1825, April 17th, a treaty was concluded between France and Hayti, by -which the independence of the latter was acknowledged, on condition of -receiving one hundred and fifty millions of francs, to be paid in five -annual instalments. On the 1st of February, 1838, a new treaty of peace -was concluded at Port-au-Prince, between this republic and the kingdom -of France. The balance due from Hayti to France was fixed at sixty -millions of francs, to be paid by annual instalments, from 1838 to 1863. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[88] American Almanac for 1839. - - - - - CONSTITUTION - - OF THE - - UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. - - -WE THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES, in order to form a more perfect -Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for -the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the -blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and -establish this Constitution for the United States of America. - - - ARTICLE I. - -_Section_ 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in -a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and -House of Representatives. - -_Section_ 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members -chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the -electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for -electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. - -No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the -age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United -States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that -state in which he shall be chosen. - -Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several -states which may be included within this Union, according to their -respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole -number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of -years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other -persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after -the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every -subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law -direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every -thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; -and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire -shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and -Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey -four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, -North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. - -When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the -executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such -vacancies. - -The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other -officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. - -_Section_ 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two -senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six -years; and each senator shall have one vote. - -Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first -election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three -classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated -at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the -expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the -expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every -second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation, or otherwise, -during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive -thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the -legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. - -No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of -thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and -who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which -he shall be chosen. - -The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the -Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. - -The Senate shall chuse their other officers, and also a President _pro -tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall -exercise the office of President of the United States. - -The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When -sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When -the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall -preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of -two-thirds of the members present. - -Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to -removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office -of honour, trust or profit under the United States: but the party -convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, -trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. - -_Section_ 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for -senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the -legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or -alter such regulations, except as to the places of chusing senators. - -The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such -meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by -law appoint a different day. - -_Section_ 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns -and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall -constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn -from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of -absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each House -may provide. - -Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its -members for disorderly behaviour and, with the concurrence of -two-thirds, expel a member. - -Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to -time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment -require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House -on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be -entered on the journal. - -Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the -consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any -other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. - -_Section_ 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a -compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out -of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except -treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest -during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and -in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in -either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. - -No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was -elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the -United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments -whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person -holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of -either House during his continuance in office. - -_Section_ 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the -House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with -amendments as on other bills. - -Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and -the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the -President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if -not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it -shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on -their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such -reconsideration two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, -it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by -which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds -of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes -of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of -the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the -journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned -by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall -have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as -if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent -its return, in which case it shall not be a law. - -Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the -Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a -question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the -United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be -approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by -two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to -the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. - -_Section_ 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, -duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the -common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all -duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United -States;--To borrow money on the credit of the United States;--To -regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, -and with the Indian tribes;--To establish an uniform rule of -naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies -throughout the United States;--To coin money, regulate the value -thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and -measures;--To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the -securities and current coin of the United States;--To establish post -offices and post roads;--To promote the progress of science and useful -arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the -exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;--To -constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court;--To define and -punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences -against the law of nations;--To declare war, grant letters of marque -and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and -water;--To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to -that use shall be for a longer term than two years;--To provide and -maintain a navy;--To make rules for the government and regulation of -the land and naval forces;--To provide for calling forth the militia -to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel -invasions;--To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the -militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the -service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, -the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the -militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;--To -exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such -district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of -particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of -the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority -over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the -state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, -magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings;--And to -make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into -execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this -Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any -department or officer thereof. - -_Section_ 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of -the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be -prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight -hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such -importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. - -The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, -unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may -require it. - -No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. - -No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion -to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. - -No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. - -No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue -to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels -bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay -duties in another. - -No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of -appropriations made by law, and a regular statement and account of the -receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from -time to time. - -No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no -person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without -the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, -or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. - -_Section_ 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or -confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit -bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in -payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law -impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. - -No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts -or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely -necessary for executing it's inspection laws: and the net produce of -all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall -be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws -shall be subject to the revision and controul of the Congress. - -No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of -tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any -agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or -engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as -will not admit of delay. - -ARTICLE II.--_Section_ 1. The executive power shall be vested in a -President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office -during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, -chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: - -Each state shall appoint in such manner as the legislature thereof may -direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and -representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress: but -no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or -profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. - -[_A clause originally inserted in this place, relative to the election -of President and Vice-President, has been superseded and annulled by -Article Twelve of the Amendments; which see._] - -The Congress may determine the time of chusing the electors, and the -day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same -throughout the United States. - -No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United -States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be -eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be -eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of -thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the -United States. - -In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, -resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the -said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the -Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, -resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, -declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer -shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President -shall be elected. - -The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a -compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during -the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not -receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, -or any of them. - -Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the -following oath or affirmation:-- - -"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the -office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my -ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United -States." - -_Section_ 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and -navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, -when called into the actual service of the United States; he may -require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of -the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of -their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves -and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of -impeachment. - -He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, -to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; -and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the -Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, -judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United -States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and -which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the -appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the -President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. - -The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may -happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which -shall expire at the end of their next session. - -_Section_ 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress -information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their -consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; -he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of -them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the -time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall -think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; -he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall -commission all the officers of the United States. - -_Section_ 4. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of -the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, -and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and -misdemeanors. - -ARTICLE III.--_Section_ 1. The judicial power of the United States, -shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as -the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, -both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices -during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their -services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their -continuance in office. - -_Section_ 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and -equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United -States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their -authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public -ministers, and consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime -jurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall be a -party;--to controversies between two or more states;--between a state -and citizens of another state;--between citizens of different -states,--between citizens of the same state claiming lands under -grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens -thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. - -In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and -consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the supreme court -shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before -mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both -as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations -as the Congress shall make. - -The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by -jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes -shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, -the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law -have directed. - -_Section_ 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in -levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them -aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on -the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession -in open court. - -The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, -but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or -forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. - -ARTICLE IV.--_Section_ 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each -state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every -other state. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner -in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the -effect thereof. - -_Section_ 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all -privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. - -A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who -shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand -of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered -up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. - -No person held to service or labour in one state, under the laws -thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or -regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labour, but -shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or -labour may be due. - -_Section_ 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; -but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of -any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more -states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of -the states concerned as well as of the Congress. - -The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules -and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging -to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so -construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any -particular state. - -_Section_ 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this -Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them -against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the -executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic -violence. - -ARTICLE V.--The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall -deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, -on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several -states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in -either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of -this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths -of the several states, or by convention in three-fourths thereof, as -the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the -Congress; Provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the -year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect -the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first -article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of -its equal suffrage in the Senate. - -ARTICLE VI.--All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before -the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the -United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. - -This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be -made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be -made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme -law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, -any thing in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary -notwithstanding. - -The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of -the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial -officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall -be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no -religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office -or public trust under the United States. - -ARTICLE VII.--The ratification of the Conventions of nine states, -shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between -the states so ratifying the same. - - Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the states present - the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one - thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the Independence of - the United States of America the twelfth. _In Witness_ whereof we - have hereunto subscribed our names, - - GEO WASHINGTON--_Presidt and deputy from Virginia_. - - _New Hampshire_--John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. - - _Massachusetts_--Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. - - _Connecticut_--Wm. Saml. Johnson, Roger Sherman. - - _New York_--Alexander Hamilton. - - _New Jersey_--Wil: Livingston, David Brearley, Wm. Paterson. - Jona. Dayton. - - _Pennsylvania_--B. Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robt. Morris, - Geo: Clymer, Tho: Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, - James Wilson, Gouv: Morris. - - _Delaware_--Geo: Read, Gunning Bedford, Jun'r, John - Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jaco: Broom - - _Maryland_--James M'Henry, Dan: of St. Thos. Jenifer, Danl. - Carroll. - - _Virginia_--John Blair, James Madison, Jr. - - _North Carolina_--Wm Blount, Rich'd Dobbs Spaight, Ho. - Williamson. - - _South Carolina_--J. Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, - Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler - - _Georgia_--William Few, Abr. Baldwin. - - Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, _Secretary_. - - - - - ARTICLES - - IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, - - The Constitution of the United States of America, - - - PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLATURES OF THE - SEVERAL STATES, PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL - CONSTITUTION. - -(_Article_ 1.) Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of -religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the -freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably -to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. - -(_Article_ 2.) A well regulated militia, being necessary to the -security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear -arms, shall not be infringed. - -(_Article_ 3.) No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any -house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a -manner to be prescribed by law. - -(_Article_ 4.) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, -houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, -shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable -cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the -place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. - -(_Article_ 5.) No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or -otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a -grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in -the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; -nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put -in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal -case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, -liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private -property be taken for public use, without just compensation. - -(_Article_ 6.) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy -the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the -state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which -district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be -informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted -with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for -obtaining witnesses in his favour, and to have the assistance of -counsel for his defence. - -(_Article_ 7.) In suits at common law, where the value in controversy -shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be -preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined -in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the -common law. - -(_Article_ 8.) Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive -fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. - -(_Article_ 9.) The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, -shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the -people. - -(_Article_ 10.) The powers not delegated to the United States by the -Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the -states respectively, or to the people. - -_Article_ 11. The judicial power of the United States shall not be -construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or -prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another -state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. - -_Article_ 12. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and -vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at -least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; -they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, -and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and -they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, -and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of -votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit -sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to -the President of the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in -presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the -certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--The person having -the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if -such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; -and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the -highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as -President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by -ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall -be taken by states, the representation from each state having one -vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members -from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall -be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall -not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon -them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the -Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or -other constitutional disability of the President. The person having -the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the -Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of -electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the -two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the -Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose Shall consist of two-thirds -of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number -shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally -ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of -Vice-President of the United States. - - - _The following is prefixed to the first Ten[89] of the preceding - Amendments._ - - - CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES, - - Begun and held at the City of New York, on Wednesday, the fourth of - March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine. - -The Conventions of a number of the states, having at the time of their -adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent -misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and -restrictive clauses should be added: And as extending the ground of -public confidence in the government, will best insure the beneficent -ends of its institution; - -_Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United -States of America, in Congress assembled_, two-thirds of both Houses -concurring, That the following Articles be proposed to the -legislatures of the several states, as amendments to the Constitution -of the United States, all, or any of which articles, when ratified by -three-fourths of the said legislatures, to be valid to all intents and -purposes, as part of the said Constitution, viz. - -Articles in addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the -United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the -Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth article of -the original Constitution. - -The first ten amendments of the Constitution were ratified by the -states as follows, viz: - - By New Jersey, 20th November, 1789. - By Maryland, 19th December, 1789. - By North Carolina, 22d December, 1789. - By South Carolina, 19th January, 1790. - By New Hampshire, 25th January, 1790. - By Delaware, 28th January, 1790. - By Pennsylvania, 10th March, 1790. - By New York, 27th March, 1790. - By Rhode Island, 15th June, 1790. - By Vermont, 3 November, 1791. - By Virginia, 15 December, 1791. - - * * * * * - - - _The following is prefixed to the Eleventh of the preceding - Amendments:_ - - THIRD CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES: - - At the First Session, begun and held at the City of Philadelphia, in - the State of Pennsylvania, on Monday the second of December, one - thousand seven hundred and ninety-three. - -_Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United -States of America, in Congress assembled_, two-thirds of both Houses -concurring, That the following Article be proposed to the legislatures -of the several states, as an amendment to the Constitution of the -United States; which when ratified by three-fourths of the said -legislatures, shall be valid as part of the said Constitution, viz: - - * * * * * - - - _The following is prefixed to the Twelfth of the preceding - Amendments:_ - - EIGHTH CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES: - - At the First Session, begun and held at the City of Washington, in - the Territory of Columbia, on Monday the seventeenth of October, - one thousand eight hundred and three. - -_Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United -States of America, in Congress assembled_, two-thirds of both Houses -concurring, That in lieu of the third paragraph of the first section -of the second article of the Constitution of the United States, the -following be proposed as an amendment to the Constitution of the -United States, which, when ratified by three-fourths of the -legislatures of the several states, shall be valid to all intents and -purposes, as part of the said Constitution, to wit: - - * * * * * - -The ten first of the preceding amendments were proposed at the first -session of the first Congress of the United States, 25 September, -1789, and were finally ratified by the constitutional number of -states, on the 15th day of December, 1791. The eleventh amendment was -proposed at the first session of the third Congress, 5 March, 1794, -and was declared in a message from the President of the United States -to both houses of Congress, dated 8th January, 1798, to have been -adopted by the constitutional number of states. The twelfth amendment -was proposed at the first session of the eighth Congress, 12 December, -1603, and was adopted by the constitutional number of states in 1804, -according to a public notice thereof by the Secretary of State, dated -25th September, of the same year. - - * * * * * - -[asterism] _The foregoing copy of the Constitution, Amendments, &c., is -printed from an edition which "has been critically compared with the -original, and found to be correct in text, letter and punctuation;" and -is so certified by James Buchanan, Secretary of State._ - -[Illustration] - -FOOTNOTE: - -[89] Only ten of the twelve Articles of Amendment proposed by the first -Congress, were ratified by the states; the first and second in order not -being approved by the requisite number. These two were the following: - -_Article the First._ After the first enumeration required by the first -Article of the Constitution, there shall be one representative for -every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, -after which, the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that -there shall not be less than one hundred representatives, nor less -than one representative for every forty thousand persons, until the -number of representatives shall amount to two hundred, after which the -proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall not be -less than two hundred representatives, nor more than one -representative for every fifty thousand persons. - -_Article Second._ No law, varying the compensation for the services of -the senators and representatives, shall take effect, until an election -of representatives shall have intervened. - - - - - DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. - - -When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people -to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, -and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal -station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a -decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should -declare the causes which impel them to the separation. - -We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; -that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; -that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, -to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving -their just powers from the consent of the governed; and that, whenever -any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the -right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new -government, laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing -its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect -their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that -governments, long established, should not be changed for light and -transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that -mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to -right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. -But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably -the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute -despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such -government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such -has been the patient sufferance of the colonies, and such is now the -necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of -government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a -history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct -object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To -prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world: - -He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for -the public good. - -He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing -importance unless suspended in their operations till his assent should -be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to -attend to them. - -He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large -districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of -representation in the legislature; a right inestimable to them, and -formidable to tyrants only. - -He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, -uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public -records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with -his measures. - -He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with -manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. - -He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause -others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of -annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; -the state remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of -invasion from without, and convulsions within. - -He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that -purpose obstructing the laws of naturalization of foreigners, refusing -to pass others to encourage their migration thither, and raising the -conditions of new appropriations of lands. - -He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his -assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. - -He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of -their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. - -He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of -officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. - -He has kept among us, in time of peace, standing armies, without the -consent of our legislatures. - -He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior -to, the civil power. - -He has combined with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign -to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent -to their acts of pretended legislation. - -For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: - -For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders -which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states: - -For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: - -For imposing taxes on us without our consent: - -For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefit of trial by jury: - -For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences: - -For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring -province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging -its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit -instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies: - -For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and -altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments: - -For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested -with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. - -He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his -protection, and waging war against us. - -He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and -destroyed the lives of our people. - -He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries -to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already -begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled -in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a -civilized nation. - -He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high -seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners -of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. - -He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored -to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian -savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction -of all ages, sexes, and conditions. - -In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in -the most humble terms. Our repeated petitions have been answered only by -repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act -which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. - -Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We -have warned them, from time to time, of the attempts, by their -legislature, to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have -reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement -here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we -have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow -these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections -and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice -and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity -which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of -mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. - -We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in -General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the -world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by the -authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and -declare that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be free -and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to -the British crown, and that all political connection between them and -the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and -that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy -war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do -all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. -And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the -protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our -lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. - - JOHN HANCOCK. - - _New Hampshire._ - - JOSIAH BARTLETT, - WILLIAM WHIPPLE, - MATTHEW THORNTON. - - _Massachusetts Bay._ - - SAMUEL ADAMS, - JOHN ADAMS, - ROBERT TREAT PAINE, - ELBRIDGE GERRY. - - _Rhode Island._ - - STEPHEN HOPKINS, - WILLIAM ELLERY. - - _Connecticut._ - - ROGER SHERMAN, - SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, - WILLIAM WILLIAMS, - OLIVER WOLCOTT. - - _New York._ - - WILLIAM FLOYD, - PHILIP LIVINGSTON, - FRANCIS LEWIS, - LEWIS MORRIS. - - _New Jersey._ - - RICHARD STOCKTON, - JOHN WITHERSPOON, - FRANCIS HOPKINSON, - JOHN HART, - ABRAHAM CLARK. - - _Pennsylvania._ - - ROBERT MORRIS, - BENJAMIN RUSH, - BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, - JOHN MORTON, - GEORGE CLYMER, - JAMES SMITH, - GEORGE TAYLOR, - JAMES WILSON, - GEORGE ROSS. - - _Delaware._ - - CÆSAR RODNEY, - GEORGE READ, - THOMAS M'KEAN. - - _Maryland._ - - SAMUEL CHASE, - WILLIAM PACA, - THOMAS STONE, - CHARLES CARROLL, of Carrollton. - - _Virginia._ - - GEORGE WYTHE, - RICHARD HENRY LEE, - THOMAS JEFFERSON, - BENJAMIN HARRISON, - THOMAS NELSON, JR., - FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, - CARTER BRAXTON. - - _North Carolina._ - - WILLIAM HOOPER, - JOSEPH HEWES, - JOHN PENN. - - _South Carolina._ - - EDWARD RUTLEDGE, - THOMAS HEYWARD, JR., - THOMAS LYNCH, JR., - ARTHUR MIDDLETON. - - _Georgia._ - - BUTTON GWINNETT. - LYMAN HALL, - GEORGE WALTON. - - - - APPENDIX. - - XVII. ZACHARY TAYLOR, PRESIDENT, - - (CONTINUED FROM PAGE 756.) - -Congress assembled on the 3d of December. But the organization of the -House of Representatives was delayed for twenty days, that period -being consumed in voting for a Speaker, before a choice was effected. -The ballotings reached the number of sixty-three. So nearly balanced -were the two great political parties, that a few members, constituting -the "Free Soil Party," so called, had it in their power for this long -time to prevent a choice, and that power they exercised with an -obstinacy of purpose, which excited the marvel of the nation. Nor, at -the last, was a choice effected but by the adoption of a novel -resolution, viz., that after voting _viva voce_ three times, if no -speaker is elected, the vote shall be called again, and the member -having the highest vote, provided it be a majority of a quorum, shall -be declared elected. Under this rule the choice finally fell upon the -candidate of the democratic party. - -To the people of the country, such a contest was regarded with deep -regret, and even with indignation. The feelings of members became -excited and exasperated; political jealousies and animosities were -kindled, sectional differences were magnified to unwonted importance, -and sectional interests advocated and insisted upon, all giving -premonition of the long and stormy session which followed. - -Fortunately, the President and Senate awaited the issue with a calm -and dignified bearing; and, on the organization of the House, the -former communicated his annual Message. It was more brief than such -documents have usually been; but clear, able, and remarkably -practical. It recommended among other matters of various moment, an -alteration of the Tariff--improvements in rivers and harbors--strict -neutrality of the nation in foreign quarrels--and the immediate -admission of California with the Constitution which she had already -formed. The message concluded by urging the preservation of the Union, -in terms as noble in sentiment, as beautiful in expression. The -President said: "Attachment to the Union of the States, should be -habitually fostered in every American heart. For more than half a -century, during which kingdoms and empires have fallen, this Union has -stood unshaken. The patriots who formed it, have long since descended -to the grave; yet still it remains, the proudest monument to their -memory, and the object of affection and admiration with every one, -worthy to bear the American name. In my judgment, its dissolution -would be the greatest of calamities; and to avert that, should be the -study of every American. Upon its preservation must depend our own -happiness, and that of countless generations to come. What ever -dangers may threaten it, I shall stand by it, and maintain it in its -integrity to the full extent of the obligations imposed, and the power -conferred upon me by the Constitution." - -_Proceedings in Congress._--For years the subject of slavery has been, -as is well known, a fruitful theme of controversy, and a source of -jealousy and agitation, between parties in the southern and northern -states. The great territorial acquisitions of the United States, -consequent upon the war with Mexico, and the question whether slavery -should or should not obtain in those territories, had served to -increase that jealousy and that agitation. Moreover, California had -already adopted a Constitution, by which slavery was excluded, and was -making application for admission into the Union. Other states were -soon expected to follow her lead. To the South, these anti-slavery -tendencies were not only unexpected, but most unwelcome, as with the -hope, and, probably, with the design of extending the area of slavery, -they had ardently enlisted in the Mexican war. On the other hand, the -people of the North generally, were for preventing the further -extension of slavery, and even desired to curtail the system by all -constitutional measures within their power. - -It was in this sensitive and excited state of the country that Congress -assembled. The members themselves participated more or less in these -jealous and antagonistical feelings, which were rather increased than -allayed by the unfortunate contest attendant upon the election of a -speaker. Indeed, that a storm was approaching was too evident to be -concealed. A crisis had come which must be met. Questions of the deepest -importance could no longer be postponed. It was fortunate for the -nation, that the Senate at this time embodied men of great political -sagacity, and firm and patriotic resolution. Among these may be -mentioned, by way of pre-eminence, Mr. Clay, who had once more returned -to the councils of the nation, and upon whom more than any other man, it -seemed to devolve, to mediate between parties holding a hostile -attitude, and to suggest some measures, if such were possible, by which -great and daily increasing difficulties might be compromised. - -Accordingly, towards the close of January, Mr. Clay introduced his -celebrated resolutions to the consideration of the Senate, "by which, -taken together, he proposed an amicable arrangement of all the questions -in controversy between free and slave states, growing out of the subject -of the institution of Slavery." These resolutions were as follows. - -The first of these related to the admission of California, when she -should apply, without providing for the introduction or exclusion of -Slavery within her boundaries. The second declared that Slavery does not -exist, and is not likely to be introduced into the territories acquired -from the republic of Mexico; and that no legislation should be had in -reference to its introduction or exclusion therefrom. The third -established the western boundary in the state of Texas. The fourth -provided for the payment of the public debt of the State of Texas, she -relinquishing to the United States all her claims for any part of New -Mexico. The fifth asserted the inexpediency of abolishing slavery in the -District of Columbia, without the consent of Maryland, without the -consent of the people of the district, and without just compensation to -the owners of the slaves within the district. The sixth expressed the -expediency of prohibiting the slave-trade in the District of Columbia. -The seventh related to the restitution and delivery of fugitive slaves. -The eighth denied the power to Congress, to prohibit or obstruct the -slave-trade between the slaveholding states. - -These resolutions were subsequently supported by Mr. Clay in a speech -of great power, and in which the great pacificator stood before the -Senate and the world as the firm and fast friend of the country--the -whole country, in whose service, for whose prosperity, and for the -preservation of whose Union, he had labored with untiring assiduity -during the greater part of his life. In view of the dangers which were -thickening around the country and the prospect of disunion, and -possibly civil war growing out of these unsettled questions, between -the North and South, Mr. Clay in conclusion, most eloquently said, -"Sir, I implore gentlemen, I adjure them, whether from the South or -the North, by all they hold dear in this world--by all their love of -liberty--by all their veneration for their ancestors--by all their -gratitude to Him, who has bestowed on them such unnumbered and -countless blessings--by all the duties which they owe to mankind--and -by all the duties which they owe to themselves, to pause, solemnly to -pause at the edge of the precipice, before the fatal and dangerous -leap is taken into the yawning abyss below, from which none who ever -take it, shall return in safety." - -From this time for months, these resolutions occupied the -consideration of the Senate--speech following speech--often embodying -the most profound views--exciting the deepest feelings, and giving -birth ofttime to eloquence the most powerful and patriotic. - -_Death of Mr. Calhoun._--During the pendency of these great questions -which were agitating the country to its remotest ends, and the -discussion of which seemed to increase rather than allay the already -excited storm, an event occurred calculated to show the folly of all -such sectional strife, as that in which the Representatives of the -nation were engaged. This was the death of that able and distinguished -statesman, John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, who died at Washington, -while a member of the Senate, on the 6th of April. Among the great men -of the day, few had occupied a more commanding station than he, and -but few had been longer engaged in the public service of his country. -As early as 1810, Mr. Calhoun took his seat in the House of -Representatives of the United States. The period was pregnant with -portentous events. Europe was involved in war, nor was it improbable -that the United States would long escape its calamities. Mr. Calhoun -felt, and enforced the necessity of immediate preparation for such a -state. The first tones of his voice in public life might be considered -war-like, yet no man loved peace better, or deemed it more likely to -be secured than by being well prepared for hostilities. In subsequent -years, he occupied various important offices. During the -administration of the younger Adams, and the first term of Gen. -Jackson, he held the office of Vice President. During a part of the -Tyler Administration, he was Secretary of State. For many years he had -a seat in the Senate. In all these stations he showed himself to be a -man of pre-eminent talents and incorruptible integrity. He was -strongly southern in his feelings, and perhaps his sectional -prejudices sometimes led him to the advocacy of some measures, and -opposition to others, which with other feelings he would have avoided. -Yet, no one could doubt his patriotism or his firmness in the cause of -right, as he understood it. His speeches displayed great logical -acumen, and were often characterized for great power and brilliancy, -which commanded the admiration of his strongest political opponents. - -In the great questions which were agitating the national representatives -at the time of his death, Mr. Calhoun had taken the deepest possible -interest. He was solemnly impressed with the critical juncture of -affairs, and thought he foresaw in the measures which were likely to be -adopted, the precursors of a shock fatal to the integrity of the -National Union. Though borne down with a disease which in the sequel -must prove fatal, he enlisted himself strongly--too strongly for his -physical strength, to avert impending calamities, as he deemed them, and -by so doing, hastened the termination of his mortal existence. - -His departure was a national loss. Even those who had long differed -from him in regard to political doctrines and political measures, -lamented his death. A committee of the Senate accompanied his remains -to his native state, where it is believed he was held in honor and -affection almost unequaled in the history of public men. - -The funeral obsequies of Mr. Calhoun having been solemnized, Congress -resumed its deliberations, and, shortly after, a resolution introduced -by Mr. Foote, referring the subject matters in debate to a select -committee, consisting of thirteen, was adopted. Of this committee, Mr. -Clay was chairman. To this committee were referred the following -subjects upon which to report: - -1st. The admission of California as she presents herself. 2d. -Governments for territories without any anti-slavery proviso. 3d. -Settlement of the boundary question between Texas and New Mexico, and -the purchase of the territory of Texas. 4th. The ultimate admission of -other states, formed from the territory of Texas. Besides these, the -committee were permitted to take into consideration or not, at their -discretion, the subject of fugitive slaves, and Slavery in the -District of Columbia. - -On the 8th of May, Mr. Clay presented the majority report of the -Committee of thirteen, denominated the compromise or omnibus bill, -which after a protracted discussion failed; but its provisions were -subsequently passed, as we shall have occasion to notice in a -subsequent page. - -_Invasion of Cuba._--On the 25th of April, and the 2d of May, an -expedition, three hundred in number, left New Orleans, under command -of Gen. Lopez, for the secret purpose of invading Cuba. This force had -been collected, armed, and officered in the United States. So secretly -had the affair been conducted, that neither the Spanish Consuls in our -larger ports, nor the government of the United States had been -apprised of it. The invaders consisted in part of old Mexican -soldiers, some of whom were informed of the object in view, while not -a few enlisted under the expectation that the expedition was bound to -California. On the morning of the 19th of May, a landing was effected -at Cardenas. A brief struggle ensued between the invaders and the -troops, in which the latter were repulsed, the Governor captured, his -palace plundered, and a large quantity of public money seized. The -invaders had counted upon accessions to their ranks in the Spanish -army, and from the disaffected inhabitants. In this, however, they -were disappointed, and Lopez re-embarked on board the steamer, and -with a few of his followers made his escape to the United States, -leaving the great body of his adherents to the tender mercies of the -authorities of Cuba. As soon as the sailing of the expedition was -known, the American executive despatched armed vessels to prevent its -landing in Cuba. In this, however, they failed. Lopez was arrested in -New Orleans, and held for trial. It seems that a Spanish steamer -captured two vessels in the Mexican waters, laden with men whom they -suspected of having intended to join the invading expedition, and took -them into Havanna. The release of these was peremptorily demanded by -the President, and subsequently they were so released. But three, it -is believed, of all who participated in the invasion, were condemned, -and these three were sent to the galleys. - -_Convention with Great Britain._--This Convention had reference to the -Nicaragua treaty, so called, which was ratified by the governments of -the United States and Great Britain, and promulgated at Washington, -the 4th of July, 1850. This treaty provided for the establishment of a -communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by means of a -ship canal, to be constructed by way of the river San Juan de -Nicaragua, and either or both of the lakes of Nicaragua or Maragua, to -any port or place on the Pacific Ocean. - -_Death of Gen. Taylor._--The administration of Gen. Taylor was -suddenly brought to a close, on the 9th of July, by his demise, on the -evening of that day. His illness was brief, and occasioned by exposure -and fatigue, while attending the celebration of the 4th of July. His -funeral was attended by a large military display, by the officers of -government and the representatives of foreign nations, and by an -immense concourse of his fellow citizens. - -This event was unexpected, and the more so, from the well known vigor of -health always enjoyed by the President. It came upon the nation, as in -the case of the death of the lamented Harrison, like the voice of an -earthquake. Few could credit it; none were prepared for it. That he, who -"had passed through severe military duties in the swamps of Florida, and -on the plains of Mexico, unharmed by bullet or pestilence, should be -struck down in the midst of his friends, and in the high station to -which his country had raised him--it was thought passing strange." - -In a former part of this work we have had occasion to sketch a portion -of the military service rendered by Gen. Taylor, while in the -employment of the Government. We have seen with what courage, skill, -and bravery he bore himself at Palo Alto, Buena Vista, and on other -fields, where victories were achieved which would have done credit to -a Napoleon or a Wellington. During his entire military life, in the -midst of his most brilliant victories, in the flush of all his -military prosperity, he seems to have maintained an unaffected -simplicity of character, a remarkable plainness of manners, an -unbending integrity of soul, combined with kindness, moderation, and -benevolence, calculated to win the admiration and confidence of all to -whom he stood related. - -"Returning, laurel-crowned and victorious, from a foreign war," as a -writer remarks, "he was hailed from his first landing on his native -strand, as the future President. With what unaffected modesty he -received these new honors--how scrupulously he abstained from any and -every step that might look like seeking this high office--how calmly and -how simply, when installed as President, he bore his honors, we need not -attempt to recite." From the day of his inauguration, to the day of his -death, it is believed that he endeavored, as he expressed himself on his -dying pillow, to do his duty. No one, perhaps, ever suspected him of -"pursuing any crooked path in politics," or "having been actuated by -sinister views and purposes." His administration was brief--only one -year and four months--too brief to decide upon the policy which he might -have deemed it his duty to pursue, in the difficult and trying times -upon which the government had fallen, and amidst the perplexing -questions which it was called to decide. It was fortunate for his -reputation, perhaps, that he was removed at the precise juncture at -which God called him to resign his exalted station. He had committed no -error. He stood before the nation and the world, as the man of -integrity--brilliant in his former military exploits--firm and patriotic -in his brief civil career. He enjoyed the confidence of friends--he -commanded the respect and admiration of political opponents. He died -mourned and lamented by all. To what higher honors could a man wish to -attain? What reputation more exalted, or more enviable, could he wish to -leave behind him? _Fortunate Senex_! - - - - - - XVIII. MILLARD FILLMORE, PRESIDENT. - - -[Illustration] - - ASSUMED THE GOVERNMENT JULY 10, 1850. - -[Immediately upon the death of President Taylor, the members of his -Cabinet tendered their resignation to President Fillmore, but at his -request, and for the safety of the public service, they retained their -offices for a few days. On the 15th, the new Cabinet was formed.] - - Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, July 15, Secretary of - State. - - Thomas Corwin, Ohio, July 15, Secretary of - Treasury. - - Alexander H. H. Stuart, Secretary of - the Interior.[90] - - Charles M. Conrad,[91] Secretary of - War. - - William A. Graham, North Carolina, July 15, Secretary of - the Navy. - - John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, July 15, Attorney - General. - - Nathan K. Hall, New York, July 15, Postmaster - General. - -It is a most admirable feature of the Constitution of the United -States, that it provides, in case of the death of a President, for the -ready and quiet transfer of all his powers to the Vice President, as -his constitutional successor. And a most interesting hour was that -when, on the day following the death of Gen. Taylor, and while his -remains were still reposing in the national mansion, Mr. Fillmore took -the oath of the Presidential office in the presence of both Houses of -Congress. It was a service occupying but a brief space; but in that -short time a transfer of all executive power was quietly effected, and -the machinery of government, which had paused for only a few hours, if -it may be said to have been suspended at all, was again in motion, and -was proceeding with its accustomed regularity and harmonious action. -How unlike to scenes in other nations of the world, when the demise of -a sovereign is nearly sure to be followed by turmoil and confusion, -and the transfer of his power is effected only, perhaps, by strife and -bloodshed. But here, at the bidding of God, the President one hour -puts off the mantle of his power and authority, and the next his -successor assumes it, and not one wave of commotion is observed. Who -will not say of such a Constitution,--_Esto perpetua_? - -_The Compromise Bill._--The death of Gen. Taylor, and the funeral -obsequies consequent thereupon, suspended for a brief time all other -Congressional proceedings of the National Council. When, at length, -action was resumed, it was natural to expect that an event so -providential and so monitory would have its due influence in -mitigating the acerbity of party spirit, and of infusing into the -minds of legislators a deeper sense of the importance of harmony and -mutual kindness. But it proved otherwise. Scarcely had the grave -closed upon the remains of the great and good man, ere the same heated -contest was renewed, and the same sectional jealousies indulged. - -It would impart no pleasure to enter into the details of the Senate's -action, day after day, upon the Compromise bill, the one great measure -which had absorbed its dissensions nearly the whole of the session. -Suffice it to say, that in consequence of various amendments, the -bill, at length, contained nothing but the sections relating to the -territory of Utah, and in that shape it was passed by a vote of 32 to -18. Thus a series of measures, which had been under discussion for -months, which the powerful eloquence of Clay, Cass, and others had -advocated, and which by them and others was deemed almost essential to -the peace and integrity of the Union, was lost, and for the time any -adequate substitute seemed hopeless. Clouds of deeper intensity than -ever seemed to be gathering, and anarchy and discord were ready to -extend their baleful influence to the nation at large. - -Happily, however, a conservative spirit at length prevailed. Men -perceived the necessity of doing something to save the nation and the -Union, and under this conviction, a movement was made to revive, in -another form and in distinct bills, the measures which had been -previously combined into one, and been lost. We shall attempt to state -little more than results. - -First, the bill for the admission of California was taken up, and -after a warm discussion, during which amendment after amendment was -offered and rejected, it was passed by the Senate, 34 to 18. To this -bill a formal and spirited protest was presented by several southern -Senators, but its registration on the journal was refused. - -Next, followed a bill making proposals to Texas for the settlement of -her western boundary, and proposing to pay her ten millions of -dollars, provided she should relinquish all claim to the United States -for territory beyond the boundaries prescribed. The bill was debated -for several days, and on the 9th of September, received its final -passage. Yeas 30, nays 20. - -On the 14th, the bill providing for a territorial government for New -Mexico, was taken up and finally passed. - -The above several bills were sent of course to the House of -Representatives, and by that body were passed with amendments with -regard to some of them, but only after as warm and even heated debate, -as was ever, perhaps, known on the floor of Congress. - -Two other important bills received also the sanction of a majority of -both houses; the first was a bill to facilitate the recovery of -fugitive slaves; and the second, a bill abolishing the slave trade in -the District of Columbia. - -Congress adjourned on the 30th of September; the session having been -protracted to the long period of ten months, and having proved more -stormy than any other session since the adoption of the Federal -Constitution. The effects of the above measures time only can -determine. While to the South, the abolition of the slave trade in the -District of Columbia, is most obnoxious, being, as is affirmed, a -precursor of further action by the general government in relation to -the abolition of slavery, the fugitive slave bill has received the -loud and decided condemnation of individuals and assemblies at the -North. The opinion, however, of the Attorney General, that this latter -bill does not suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus, has served in a -measure to allay the wide-spread hostility to it, as such suspension -was supposed to be contemplated by it, and was condemned as -unconstitutional and unjust. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[90] This office, first tendered to James A. Pearce, of Maryland, was -declined; also by Hon. Charles J. Jenkins, Georgia, and Hon. Henry S. -Geyer, of Missouri; but it was accepted by Hon. T. M. S. McKennan, of -Pennsylvania, who resigned at the close of a single day. - -[91] Edward Bates, of Missouri, was originally appointed Secretary of -War, but declined the appointment. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Obvious punctuation and spelling errors have been fixed throughout. - -Non-Latin characters have been replaced with the nearest Latin -equivalent for example [oe] (the oe ligature), was replaced with oe. - -Inconsistent hyphenation has been left as in the original text. - -The illustrations referred to as being on page 610 and 872 in the list -of illustrations does not exist. - -Incorrect page numbers in the list of illusatrations have been corrected -to the real page numbers in the original text. - -Page 838: The discovery of Venzuela by Ojeda is listed as 1449, -independant references place this at 1499. Changed the text to match -historical references. - -Page 862: The resignation of Ramon Frier is listed as 1816, -independant references place this at 1826. 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