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diff --git a/42391-8.txt b/42391-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ca2d416..0000000 --- a/42391-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7086 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Our National Forests, by Richard H. Douai Boerker - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Our National Forests - A Short Popular Account of the Work of the United States - Forest Service on the National Forests - -Author: Richard H. Douai Boerker - -Release Date: March 23, 2013 [EBook #42391] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR NATIONAL FORESTS *** - - - - -Produced by Greg Bergquist, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - -[Illustration: Figure 1. An observation point for finding forest fires. -Vigilance is the watchword on the National Forests. During 1916 forest -officers extinguished 5,655 forest fires. Photo by the author] - - - - - OUR - NATIONAL FORESTS - - A SHORT POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE - WORK OF THE UNITED STATES FOREST - SERVICE ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS - - BY - - RICHARD H. DOUAI BOERKER, M.S.F., PH.D. - - Arboriculturist, Department of Parks, City of New York. - With the United States Forest Service from 1910 to 1917. - - NEW YORK - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - 1918 - _All rights reserved_ - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1918 - BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - Set up and electrotyped. Published, September, 1918 - - - - - _Whom should this humble volume - seek to honor but the father and - mother whose unselfish devotion made - possible both my education and my - profession?_ - - - - -The highest type of scientific writing is that which sets forth useful -scientific facts in language which is interesting and easily understood -by the millions who read. - - L. A. MANN. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Forestry is a vast subject. It has to do with farm and forest, soil and -climate, man and beast. It affects hill and valley, mountain and plain. -It influences the life of cities, states, and nations. It deals not only -with the manifold problems of growing timber and forest by-products, -such as forage, naval stores, tanbark, and maple sugar, but it is -intimately related to the navigability of rivers and harbors, the flow -of streams, the erosion of hillsides, the destruction of fertile farm -lands, the devastation wrought by floods, the game and birds of the -forest, the public health, and national prosperity. - -The practice of forestry has, therefore, become an important part in -the household economy of civilized nations. Every nation has learned, -through the misuse of its forest resources, that forest destruction is -followed by timber famines, floods, and erosion. Mills and factories -depending upon a regular stream flow must close down, or use other -means for securing their power, which usually are more expensive. -Floods, besides doing enormous damage, cover fertile bottom-lands with -gravel, bowlders, and débris, which ruins these lands beyond redemption. -The birds, fish, and game, which dwell in the forests, disappear with -them. Springs dry up and a luxurious, well-watered country becomes a -veritable desert. In short, the disappearance of the forests means the -disappearance of everything in civilization that is worth while. - -These are the lessons that some of the world's greatest nations have -learned, in some cases through sad experience. The French people, after -neglecting their forests, following the French Revolution, paid the -penalty. France, through her reckless cutting in the mountain forests, -has suffered and is still suffering from devastating floods on the -Seine and other streams. Over one million acres were cut over in the -mountains, and the slash and young growth that was left was destroyed -by fire. As a result of this forest destruction the fertility of over -8,000,000 acres of tillable land was destroyed and the population of -eighteen departments was impoverished or driven out. Now, although over -$40,000,000 has been expended, only a very small part of the damage has -been repaired. - -Our own country has learned from its own experiences and from the -experiences of nations like France. On a small scale we have endured the -same devastating floods. Forest fires in the United States have caused -an average annual loss of seventy human lives and from $25,000,000 to -$50,000,000 worth of timber. The indirect losses run close to a half -a billion a year. Like other nations, we have come to the conclusion -that forest conservation can be assured only through the public -ownership of forest resources. Other nations have bought or otherwise -acquired national, state, and municipal forests, to assure the people -a never-failing supply of timber. For this reason, mainly, our own -National Forests have been created and maintained. - -The ever-increasing importance of the forestry movement in this country, -which brings with it an ever-increasing desire for information along -forestry lines, has led me to prepare this volume dealing with our -National Forests. To a large extent I write from my own experience, -having come in contact with the federal forestry movement for more -than ten years. My connection with the United States Forest Service -in various parts of the West has given me ample opportunity to study -every phase of the problem. I am attempting to chronicle a wonderful -accomplishment by a wonderful organization of altruistic Americans,--an -accomplishment of which every American has reason to feel proud. - -Few people realize that the bringing under administration and protection -of these vast forests is one of the greatest achievements in the history -of forest conservation. To place 155,000,000 acres of inaccessible, -mountainous, forest land, scattered through our great western mountain -ranges and in eighteen Western States, under administration, to manage -these forests according to scientific forestry principles, to make them -yield a revenue of almost $3,500,000 annually, and to protect them from -the ravages of forest fires and reducing the huge annual loss to but a -small fraction of what it was before--these are some of the things that -have been accomplished by the United States Forest Service within the -last twenty years. - -Not only is this a great achievement in itself, but few people realize -what the solution of the National Forest problem has meant to the -millions of people who live near them; what it has meant to bring -civilization to the great forested empire of Uncle Sam; what it has -meant to change from a condition of unrestricted, unregulated misuse -with respect to the public domain, to a policy of wise, regulated use, -based upon the principle of the greatest good to the greatest number in -the long run. In the early days before the Forest Service organization -became established, the people were said to have "shot-gun titles" to -timber or grazing lands on the public domain, and "might made right" -in the truest sense of the word. This crude condition of affairs gave -way to wise, conservative use under government control. Just as the -farmer each year sets aside a certain amount of his seed for next year's -planting, just so the stockman saves his calves and cows and lambs -for greater growth and each year sees a part of his herd maturing for -market, and just so the forester, under the new system, cuts only the -mature trees and allows the young timber to remain for greater growth -and greater value in the future, or, in the absence of young trees, -plants small trees to replace those removed. - -The people of the West are convinced that a great work has been done -well and wisely. The people of the Eastern States will soon realize that -a similar forest policy, already inaugurated in the Appalachian and -White Mountains, will mean every bit as much to them. - -If I succeed only in a small degree to make my reader appreciate the -great significance of the National Forest movement to our national -economy, I will feel amply repaid for the time spent in preparing this -brief statement. I am indebted to the Forest Service for many valuable -illustrations used with the text, and for data and other valuable -assistance. To all those who have aided in the preparation of this -volume, by reading the manuscript or otherwise, I extend my sincere -thanks. I am especially grateful to Mr. Herbert A. Smith and others of -the Washington office of the Forest Service for having critically read -the manuscript and for having offered valuable suggestions. - - RICHARD H. DOUAI BOERKER. - - New York, N. Y., - July 7, 1918. - - - - -INTRODUCTION - -FORESTRY AS A NATIONAL PROBLEM - - -The forest problem is, both locally and nationally, of vital -internal importance. Not only is wood--the chief product of the -forest--indispensable to our daily life, but the forest plays an -important rôle in regulating stream flow, thereby reducing the severity -of floods and preventing erosion. For these reasons the preservation of -forests ceases to be a problem of private or individual concern, but -forthwith becomes a governmental problem, or, at best, an enterprise -which should be jointly controlled by the National Government and the -individual States. - -_Our Consumption of Wood._ It is often said that wood enters into our -daily life from the time we are born until we die--from the cradle to -the coffin. It is difficult to imagine a civilization without wood. -In our country in a single year we use 90,000,000 cords of firewood, -nearly 40,000,000,000 feet of lumber, 150,000,000 railroad ties, nearly -1,700,000,000 barrel staves, 445,000,000 board feet of veneer, over -135,000,000 sets of barrel headings, over 350,000,000 barrel hoops, -over 3,300,000 cords of native pulp wood, 170,000,000 cubic feet of -round mine timbers, nearly 1,500,000 cords of wood for distillation, -over 140,000 cords for excelsior, and nearly 3,500,000 telephone and -telegraph poles. In short, we take from our forests yearly, including -waste in logging and manufacture, more than twenty-two billion cubic -feet of wood valued at about $1,375,000,000. This is enough lumber to -construct seven board walks twenty-five feet wide from the earth to the -moon, a distance of about 240,000 miles, or a board walk one-third of a -mile wide completely around the earth at the equator. These figures give -a little idea of the enormous annual drainage upon the forests of the -United States and immediately suggest an important reason that led to -the establishment of our National Forests. - -_The Lumber Industry._ Measured by the number of persons employed, -lumbering is the country's largest manufacturing industry. In its 48,000 -saw mills it employs more than 600,000 men. Its investment in these -plants is over $1,000,000,000, and the investment in standing timber is -$1,500,000,000 more. This industry furnishes the railroads a traffic -income of over $200,000,000 annually. If we include in these statistics -also the derived wood products, we find that over 1,000,000 wage earners -are employed, and that the products and derived products are valued at -over $2,000,000,000 annually. Most certainly we are dealing with a very -large business enterprise. - -_Our Future Lumber Supply._ You may ask, "What effect have the great -annual consumption of wood and these large business interests upon the -future supply of wood?" The most reliable statistics show that out of -5,200 billion feet of merchantable timber which we once possessed, only -2,900 billion feet are left. In other words, almost half of our original -supply of timber has been used. Besides, the present rate of cutting for -all purposes exceeds the annual growth of the forests. Even the annual -growth is considered by many experts of unknown quantity and quality, -to some extent offset by decay in virgin forests. The only logical -conclusion to draw from this condition of affairs, if the present rate -of consumption continues, is a timber shortage in so far as our most -valuable woods are concerned. In view of this it is fortunate that the -National Government began to control the lumber and forest situation -by the creation of National Forests and the institution of scientific -forestry practice. - -_Forests and Stream Flow._ But the forests not only supply us with wood. -For other reasons they deserve governmental consideration. The forests -in the mountains control our streams, vitally affect the industries -depending upon water power, reduce the severity of floods and erosion, -and in this way are intimately wrapped up with our great agricultural -interests. For this reason forestry is by nature less suited for private -enterprise. In agriculture and horticulture the influence of the farm -or the fruit crop rarely extends beyond the owner's fence. What I plant -in my field does not affect my neighbors; they share neither in my -success or failure. If by the use of poor methods I ruin the fertility -of my farm, this fact does not influence the fertility of my neighbor's -fields. But in forestry it is different. Unfortunately, just as the -sins of the fathers are visited upon their children, so the sins of the -mountains are visited upon the valleys. - -[Illustration: Map showing the National Forest areas in the West, -the location of the proposed National Forests in the East, and the -area which the present National Forests would occupy if they were all -consolidated into one body in some of the well-known Eastern States.] - -The mountainous slopes of the Appalachian ranges and the steep, broken, -granite ridges of the Rockies, the Sierras, and the Cascades are the -sites most suited in our country for forestry purposes. The Appalachian -ranges have been affected most by the reckless cutting of forests. When -these mountains were clothed with forests, the rivers ran bank full, -ships came to the harbors at low tide with ease, and factories and -cotton-mills ran steadily all year long. Since the destruction of these -forests the surrounding country has suffered from alternate floods and -droughts; great manufacturing centers have lost their steady supply of -water; harbors are filled with silt from the mountain sides; and fields, -once fertile, are covered with sand, gravel, and débris, deposited by -the ungovernable stream. These forests belonged to private individuals -who disposed of the timber and pocketed all the profits, while the -community below suffered all the loss. In other words, private ownership -is inadequate since private interest and private responsibility are not -sufficiently far-reaching and far-sighted. - -_Forests and Erosion._ Erosion is one of the most serious dangers that -threaten our farms both by transporting fertile soil and by covering -the bottom-lands with sand, gravel, and débris. Since we are largely an -agricultural people, the importance of this problem will be readily -appreciated. Over 50 per cent. of our population is rural, and the -annual production of farm crops has a value of over $5,500,000,000. -Farm uplands are washed away or eroded by high water, and high water is -largely caused by the destruction of the forests on the mountain slopes. -With the forest cover removed, there is nothing to obstruct the flow of -water down the mountain sides. Raindrops beating on the bare soil make -it hard and compact so that most of the water runs off instead of being -absorbed by the subsoil, with the result that a heavy rain storm rushes -down through the valleys in a few days instead of a few weeks, tears out -the river banks, floods the lowlands, and deposits upon them the rocks -and gravel carried down from the mountains. The most effective means for -preventing the erosion and destruction of our farmlands is by the wise -use of the forests at the headwaters of the rivers. - -[Illustration: Figure 2. A typical National Forest landscape in the high -mountains. Potosi Peak, 13,763 feet, from Yankee Boy Basin, Uncampahgre -National Forest, Ouray County, Colorado.] - -_Forestry a Public Enterprise._ From what has been said it will be -seen that forestry is a national business rather than an individual's. -Moreover, it is of such a protracted nature, reaching continuously -into such long periods of time, demanding so many years of time and -patience to see the expected and promised results, that an individual -would not live to see the success of his labors. The individual becomes -easily discouraged and is especially affected by financial conditions. -The Government, on the other hand, having unlimited resources at its -command can more readily afford to wait for results. In fact every -consideration of national welfare urges the Government to carry it on; -it is a sure source of revenue, there is none less fluctuating, and it -is closely connected with the manifold industries of life. Its chief -product is wood, without which the human race, so far, has not succeeded -in managing its affairs, and which will therefore always have a sale -value. - - -THE EXTENT AND CHARACTER OF OUR NATIONAL FORESTS - -_How the Government Obtained the National Forest Lands._ Probably the -first question that will occur to my reader concerning the National -Forests is, How did the Government acquire them? To answer this question -we have but to turn back the pages of history to the close of the -Revolutionary War. Following this war, our country started on its -career of continental conquest. This conquest was largely a peaceful -one because most of the western country was acquired by treaty or -purchase, thus: Louisiana Territory was purchased from France in 1803; -Texas applied for admission into the Union in 1845; Oregon Territory -was acquired by treaty from Great Britain in 1846; the present states -of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona were ceded to us -as a result of the Mexican War in 1848; and the Gadsden Purchase was -obtained from Mexico in 1853 and added to the territory of New Mexico. -Then also Alaska was finally purchased from Russia in 1867. These large -acquisitions, comprising together the western two thirds of the United -States, were gradually divided into territories. Later they became -States, and were opened up to settlement and development by means of -various land and mining laws and large railroad grants. The National -Forests are composed of the land most valuable for growing timber, that -has not been acquired in some way by private individuals, in the western -part of the United States. - -_The Romance of the National Forest Region._ This vast expanse west of -the Mississippi River boasts of some of the wildest and most romantic -scenery on the North American continent, and it is in the heart of this -picturesque country that the National Forests are located. This is the -country in which Owen Wister, Harold Bell Wright, Stewart Edward White, -Jack London, Theodore Roosevelt, and other authors have gotten their -inspirations and laid their plots. To one who knows "The Virginian," or -"When a Man's a Man," or "The Winning of Barbara Worth," or "The Valley -of the Moon," nothing more need be said. To others I might say that my -pen picture of that country is a very poor and very inadequate method -of description. It is the land of the cow-puncher, the sheep-herder, -and the lumber-jack; a land of crude customs and manners, but, withal, -generous hospitality. It is the country of the elk and the mule-tail -deer, the mountain lion and the rattlesnake. Its grandeur makes you -love it; its vastness makes you fear it; yet there is an irresistible -charm, a magic lure, an indescribable something that stamps an indelible -impression upon the mind and that makes you want to go back there after -you have sworn an oath never to return. - -This National Forest empire presents a great variety of scenery, of -forest, and of topography. The beautiful white pine forests of Idaho and -Montana, the steep pine- and spruce-clad granite slopes of the Colorado -Rockies, and the sun-parched mesas of the Southwest, with their open -park-like forests of yellow pine, all have their individual charm. And -after crossing the well-watered Cascades and Sierra Nevadas we find -forest scenery entirely different. The dense, luxuriant, giant-forests -of the coast region of Oregon and Washington, bathed in an almost -continual fog and rain, are without doubt the most wonderful forests in -the world. And lastly, California, so far as variety of forest scenery -is concerned, has absolutely no rival. The open oak groves of the great -valleys, the arid pine- and oak-covered foothills, the valuable sugar -pine and "big-tree" groves of the moist mountain slopes, and the dwarfed -pine and hemlock forests near the serrated crest of the Sierras, all -occur within a comparatively short distance of each other, and, in fact, -may be seen in less than a day on any one of the many National Forests -in these mountains. - -_Famous Scenic Wonders Near the Forests._ Many of the beautiful -National Parks that have been created by Congress are either entirely or -partly surrounded by one or more of the National Forests. These parks -are a Mecca to which hundreds of thousands of our people make their -annual pilgrimage. Most of these parks are already famous for their -scenery, and, in consequence, the National Forests surrounding them -have received greater patronage and fame. The Glacier National Park in -Montana, the Yellowstone in Wyoming, the Rocky Mountain in Colorado, the -Mount Rainier in Washington, the Crater Lake in Oregon, the Wind Cave in -South Dakota, and the Lassen Peak Volcanic Park, the Yosemite, General -Grant, and Sequoia parks in California, are all situated in the heart of -the National Forest region. - -The highest and best-known mountain peaks in the United States are -either located within or situated near the National Forests, as, for -example, Rainier and Olympus in Washington; Hood, Baker, St. Helens, -Jefferson, and Adams in Oregon; Shasta, Lassen, and Whitney in -California; and Pikes Peak in Colorado. - -Then there are the National Monuments, of which there are eleven, all -situated within one or more of the National Forests. These were created -under an act of Congress for the preservation of objects of historic or -scientific interest. The largest monument, and no doubt the most famous, -is the Grand Canyon National Monument located in the Tusayan and Kaibab -National Forests in Arizona, comprising over 800,000 acres. The next -largest is the Mount Olympus Monument on the Olympic National Forest in -Washington, comprising almost 300,000 acres. Other well-known monuments -are the Cinder Cone and the Lassen Peak Monuments on the Lassen National -Forest in California, and the Cliff Dwellings on the Gila National -Forest in New Mexico. - -_The Size and Extent of the National Forests._ With this brief -introduction of the nature of the country in which the National Forests -are located, the reader will be interested to know something of the size -of the Forests and their total area. The total area varies slightly -from time to time, due to the addition of lands that have been found -to have value for forestry purposes, or to the elimination of lands -found to be chiefly valuable for agricultural use. On June 30, 1917, -there were 147 National Forests with a total of 155,166,619 acres. -Thus the average National Forest comprises about one million acres -of government lands. The many private holdings scattered through the -Forests make the average gross area of each Forest much greater. These -Forests are located in Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, -Florida, Idaho, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New -Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Porto Rico, South Dakota, -Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. Besides these Forests there have been -acquired or approved for purchase under the Weeks Law over 1,500,000 -acres in the States of Georgia, Maine, New Hampshire, North Carolina, -South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. These lands are -now under protection and will gradually be consolidated into National -Forests. More lands are constantly being acquired in the Eastern States -in accordance with the Weeks Law. - -Few people have any conception of what a gigantic empire the National -Forest domain is. If consolidated into one large compact area, the 155 -million acres of National Forests would cover an area larger than the -combined areas of thirteen well-known Eastern States, viz.: Maine, -Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New -York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and West -Virginia (see map). This area is also one fifth larger than the entire -area of France. We marvel sometimes at the ability of a ruler to rule -a country as large as France or Germany; why should we Americans not -marvel at the ability of the man who practically rules over our National -Forests, who keeps in perfect working order the great organization which -protects and administrates the Forests? - -_The Topography and Climate of the National Forest Region._ The -difficulty of the work of this organization is at once apparent when -we find that these Forests are located in wild, rugged, mountainous -country, in most cases many miles from the railroad and human -habitations, such as towns and cities. This country is usually far above -sea level--the average being between 3,000 and 8,000 feet in altitude. -But there are large areas in the National Forests of Colorado that lie -above 10,000 feet elevation. Such country as this has a very severe -climate. The climate is usually too cold and the growing seasons too -short for the production of crops such as wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, -etc. Therefore, practically all of this land is what the forester calls -"absolute forest land," that is, it is better adapted for growing timber -crops than any other. Another important fact about the National Forests -is that they are located, for the most part, on steep mountain slopes -and at the headwaters of mountain streams. This makes them of vital -importance in regulating the stream flow of our western rivers. In fact -it is no exaggeration to say that all our large western rivers have -their origin on National Forest land. - - -WHY THE NATIONAL FORESTS WERE CREATED - -Aside from the great economic reasons why a nation should possess -National Forests, there are local reasons which pertain to the welfare -of the home builder and home industries which are often of paramount -importance. The timber, the water, the pasture, the minerals, and all -other resources on the government lands in the West are for the use -of all the people. And only by a well-regulated policy of sale or -rental can these resources be disposed so as to give all individuals -an equal opportunity to enjoy them. These vast resources have been -estimated to have a value of over $2,000,000,000. But their value to -the local communities can hardly be overestimated. The welfare of every -community is dependent upon a cheap and plentiful supply of timber. -If lumber, fence posts, mine props, telephone poles, firewood, etc., -must be brought in from distant markets, the prices are usually very -much higher. The regulation of the cut on each National Forest assures -a never-failing supply of timber to the home builder and to home -industries. Then also the permanence of the great live stock industry -is dependent upon a conservative use of vast areas of government range. -Local residents are protected from unfair competition. Lastly, the -protection by the Forest Service of the forest cover in the western -mountains assures a regular stream flow which is of vital importance for -power, irrigation, and domestic purposes. - -[Illustration: Figure 3. The climate of most of the National Forests -is severe. This view was taken in the early summer and shows the high -mountains still covered with snow. Most of the National Forest lands are -therefore of small value for agriculture. Photo by Abbey.] - -[Illustration: Figure 4. On many high mountains on the National Forests -snow banks persist throughout the summer. This view was taken in the -latter part of August. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the -author.] - -Perhaps the most comprehensive statement upon the purposes of the -National Forests and the methods and general policy of administering -them is to be found in a letter by the Secretary of Agriculture to the -Forester, dated February 1, 1905, when the Forests were turned over -to the Department of Agriculture: - - "In the administration of the forest reserves it must be - clearly borne in mind that all land is to be devoted to its - most productive use for the permanent good of the whole people, - and not for the temporary benefit of individuals or companies. - All the resources of the forest reserves are for _use_, and - this use must be brought about in a thoroughly prompt and - businesslike manner, under such restrictions only as will insure - the permanence of these resources. The vital importance of - forest reserves to the great industries of the Western States - will be largely increased in the near future by the continued - steady advance in settlement and development. The permanence - of the resources of the reserves is therefore indispensable to - continued prosperity, and the policy of this Department for - their protection and use will invariably be guided by this fact, - bearing in mind that the _conservative use_ of these resources - in no way conflicts with their permanent value. - - "You will see to it that the water, wood, and forage of the - reserves are conserved and wisely used for the benefit of the - home builder first of all, upon whom depends the best permanent - use of lands and resources alike. The continued prosperity of - the agricultural, lumbering, mining, and live-stock interests - is directly dependent upon a permanent and accessible supply - of water, wood, and forage, as well as upon the present and - future use of these resources under businesslike regulations, - enforced with promptness, effectiveness, and common sense. In - the management of each reserve local questions will be decided - upon local grounds; the dominant industry will be considered - first, but with as little restriction to minor industries as - may be possible; sudden changes in industrial conditions will - be avoided by gradual adjustment after due notice, and where - conflicting interests must be reconciled the question will - always be decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of - the greatest number in the long run." - - -HOW THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICY HAS BENEFITED THE PEOPLE - -This general policy, which was laid down by the Secretary of -Agriculture, has been followed out, with the result that a great many -benefits have been derived by the nation as a whole, by the individual -States in which the National Forests are located, and, lastly, by the -local communities and users of the Forests. - -_The Remaining Timber Resources Were Saved._ First of all the timber, -the forage, and the water-power on the public domain has been reserved -for the whole people and not for a privileged few. Before the Forest -Reserve policy went into effect, the most valuable timber was being -withdrawn from government ownership by the misuse of the public land -laws, whose purpose and intent were fraudulently evaded. Many claims -were initiated apparently for the purpose of establishing a homestead -but in reality for the purposes of securing the timber on the land -and later to dispose of it to some large timber holder. Every citizen -is allowed to exercise his homestead right. Big timber operators -would secure the services of many dummy locators, pay the expenses of -locating, improving, and perfecting the patent, and then buy the claim -from these dummies for small sums. A large timber holder in California -secured his hundreds of thousands of acres of timber land in this way. -By instructing these men where to locate their claims he was able to -secure more or less solid blocks of timber made up originally of 160 -acre patches. These patches, which originally were bought by the lumber -barons for from $500 to $800 a claim, now have a value of from $8,000 -to as high as $20,000. The people of the United States have lost the -difference. - -It is difficult to say where or how this wholesale misuse of the public -land laws would have ended if it had not been for the inauguration -of the National Forest policy. Since the Government has taken full -charge of its forest domain, this misuse has stopped. In fact many of -the fraudulent claims located years ago are being investigated, and -if they are found to have been initiated with intent to defraud the -Government, the land and the timber is returned to the National Forest -in which it is located. To-day the National Forests contain about one -fifth of the standing timber in the United States, an amount which will -undoubtedly have a great effect upon the supply of timber available for -future generations, especially since under present lumbering methods the -privately owned timber lands are being practically destroyed, while the -National Forests are actually being improved by scientific management. -Four fifths of the standing timber is privately owned, and this is -usually of much higher quality than the publicly owned timber. - -[Illustration: Figure 5. The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in the -background. North Calaveras Grove, California.] - -_The Use of Forage and Water Resources Was Regulated._ The forage and -water resources of the public domain have been subject to similar abuse. -Before the National Forest policy was put into effect the large ranges -of the West were used indiscriminately by all. The range was subject -to considerable abuse because it was used very early in the spring -before the forage was mature, or too late in the fall, which prevented -the forage from ripening its seed and reproducing for the next season. -Not the small, local stockmen, however, but the large sheep and cattle -companies, many controlled by foreign capital, benefited by this -condition of affairs. These "big men," as they were called, illegally -fenced and monopolized large areas, varying in size from townships -to entire counties. What chance would a local rancher with fifty or -sixty cattle have against a million-dollar outfit with perhaps 40,000 -to 50,000 cattle? He was merely swallowed up, so to speak, and had no -chance whatever to get his small share. "Might made right" in those -days, and it is said that if a man held any title or equity on the range -it was a "shotgun" title. Also, the sheep and cattle men had innumerable -disputes about the use of the range which in many cases resulted in -bloodshed. If a sheep man arrived first on the range in the spring with -his large bands of sheep, he simply took the feed. The Government owned -the land and the forage but it had no organization in the field to -regulate the use of it. It was indeed a chaotic condition of affairs and -ended only after the inauguration of the present policy of leasing the -lands under the permit system. These permits are issued and charged for -upon a per capita basis. - -The conservative and regulated use of the grazing lands under Forest -Service supervision has resulted in better growth and better weights -on stock and more actual profit. There are ample data that show that -the National Forests produce some of the best lambs that are put upon -the market. Data secured from the Modoc National Forest, California, -in 1910, show that lambs brought 50 cents per head more and weighed -an average of 10 pounds more than lambs produced outside the Forest. -Weights taken of 10,000 head showed an average of 72 pounds for National -Forest lambs, while outside the Forest average weights on 3,000 lambs -showed only 62 pounds. The regulation of the length of the grazing -season, the introduction of better methods of handling sheep, and the -prevention of over-grazing are some of the Forest Service methods that -produce better lambs. - -Then also under the old system the valuable water-power sites were being -rapidly eliminated from government ownership by large corporations who -secured valuable property for a song. The National Forests, however, -still contain about one-third of the potential water-power resources -of the United States and over 40 per cent. of the estimated power -resources of the Western States. And this vast wealth will not pass from -the ownership of the United States but will be leased under long-term -leases from which the Government will receive yearly a fair rental. - -_The Forests Were Protected from Fire and Trespass._ But not only -have these large timber, forage, and power resources been put under -administration for the use of the people. The protection of the National -Forests, which goes hand in hand with their administration, means a -great deal to the local communities, the States, and the nation as -a whole. Until about twenty years ago the forests upon our public -lands--the timber of the Rocky Mountains from Montana to New Mexico -and of the Pacific Coast ranges from northern Washington to southern -California--seemed destined to be destroyed by fire and reckless, -illegal cutting. Nothing whatever was being done to protect them from -fire or trespass. They were simply left to burn. When the people living -near the public domain wanted any house logs, fence posts, or firewood, -they went into the public domain and took them. The best trees were -usually taken first. In California, especially, there was a common -practice of cutting down the finest sugar pine trees and cutting and -splitting them into shakes to make a roof covering. Then, too, much -government timber was stolen by lumber companies operating in the -vicinity of valuable government timber. After the land had been stripped -of everything of value a fire was started in the slashing, which among -other things burned the stumps and thus practically obliterated all -evidence of trespass. Had this destruction continued there would to-day -have been little timber left in the West, and the development of the -country which demands timber all the time, and not only at certain -intervals, would have been retarded, if not stopped altogether. - -[Illustration: Figure 6. A scene on one of the famous National Parks. -Upper Lake, Glacier National Park, Northern Rockies, Montana.] - -How terrible the forest fires were in this western country is well -illustrated by what an old California settler once told me, and what I -have heard repeatedly in many Western States. He said: "In the years -before the Forest Service took over the care and protection of the -forests around here, the mountains within view of my ranch were not -visible for many months at a time, being almost continually enveloped -in smoke from the big forest fires that were raging in the forests all -summer without ever being under control. They started in the spring as -soon as it became dry and were not suppressed until the late fall rains -and snows put them out." But he added with great enthusiasm, "Since -the Service has taken charge the sky around here is as clear as crystal -all summer. I never see any forest fires, not even smoke, because the -Rangers seem to get to them before they get to be of any size." Such -testimony as this speaks volumes for the efficiency of the present -system of protecting the Forests from fire. - -_The Watershed Cover Was Preserved._ The destruction of the forest cover -on the watersheds feeding thousands of streams which rise in the western -mountains would have had its bad effect on stream flow--low water -during the long dry periods, and destructive floods after heavy rains. -This condition of affairs would have meant disaster to the systems of -irrigation by which most of the western farmers raise their crops. It -would also have seriously impeded and in many cases prevented electric -power development, to say nothing of affecting the domestic water of -many of our large western cities whose drinking water comes from the -streams rising in the National Forests. The protection of these valuable -watersheds by the Forest Service from fire and destructive lumbering is -of such vital importance to the welfare of the nation that it has been -made one of the main reasons for establishing National Forests. - -_Civilization Brought to the Mountains._ What the National Forest -movement has done for settling and building up the Western States -can hardly be overestimated. It has brought civilization into -the wilderness. Roads, trails, telephone lines, and other modern -conveniences have been brought to remote corners of the mountains. It -has encouraged the settlement of the country by calling attention to -the agricultural lands within the National Forests. More important than -that, it has assured the West permanent towns, permanent civilization, -and not a temporary, careless, shiftless civilization which vanishes -with the exploitation of resources, as it did under the old régime. - -The improvements on the National Forests have benefited not only the -Forest officers for the administration of the Forests. They have helped -immensely the local population. The pleasure resorts as well as the -business of the Forests have been made more accessible. New trails have -opened up new and hitherto inaccessible country, where fishing, hunting, -and trapping are ideal. All the old and new roads and trails have been -well marked with sign boards giving the tourist detailed information -about distances between the various points of interest. Roads have -opened up new regions to automobiles and to the horse and wagon. In 1916 -it was estimated that more than 2,000,000 people visited the National -Forests for recreation and pleasure. They came in automobiles, in -horse and wagon, on horseback, on mules, on burros, and in all sorts -of made-to-order contrivances, and the writer has even seen those -that could not afford anything better, pack their camp outfits in a -wheelbarrow and push it before them in their effort to leave the hot, -dusty valleys below, and go to the refreshing and invigorating Forests -of Uncle Sam. In addition to the large numbers of tourists that visit -the National Forests every year, over 100,000 persons or companies use -the National Forests. Of these a little more than half are paid users, -who are charged a fair fee for timber, grazing, or other privileges and -a little less than half enjoy free use privileges. - -_Agricultural Lands Opened to Settlement._ The settlement of the -agricultural lands in the National Forests is a matter that has received -special attention at the hands of the Forest Service in late years. Land -more valuable for agriculture than for timber growing was excluded -from the National Forests before the boundaries were drawn, so far as -this was possible. Small tracts of agricultural land within the Forests -which could not be excluded are opened to settlement under the Forest -Homestead Act of June 11, 1906. The amount of land, however, that is -more valuable for agriculture than for timber is trifling, because the -greater part of the valuable land was already settled before the Forests -were created. The few small patches that are left inside of the National -Forest boundaries are rapidly being classified and opened to entry -for homesteads. Much of the land apparently adapted for agricultural -purposes has a severe climate because it lies at high altitudes and it -is often remote from roads, schools, villages, and markets. Therefore -the chance offered the prospective settler in the immediate vicinity of -the Forests is far better than in the Forests themselves. The Forest -Service is doing everything it can to encourage homesteaders on the -National Forests; it wants them because they help to report fires, help -to fight fires, and in many other ways assist the Forest officers. - -_Permanent and Not Temporary Civilization Resulted._ Only those people -who have been brought up near a large lumbering center can appreciate -what it means when a town vanishes; when all that is left of a thriving -town of 5,000 or more souls is empty streets, empty houses, and heaps of -tin cans. In the days of the Golden Age of lumbering in Michigan many -towns flourished in the midst of the forests. These towns had thrifty, -busy people, with schools, churches, banks, and other conveniences. -These people were engaged in exploiting the forests. The beautiful white -pine forests were converted into boards at the rate of thousands of feet -every day. When these magnificent forests were laid low, the lumbermen -left to seek virgin timber elsewhere. They left behind them empty towns -and barren lands; only a few charred stumps remained to show where the -forests once stood. But this is not an incident peculiar to the Golden -Age of lumbering in Michigan. Even to-day this very thing is happening. -The town of Crossfork, Potter County, Pennsylvania, had a population -of over 2,500 souls in 1909. When the nearby timber was exhausted, -practically the whole town was abandoned. In 1913 it had a population of -50. - -In direct contrast to this short-sighted policy of the State of Michigan -(and many others also) is the National Forest policy, which provides -for a future supply of forest products as well as a present supply; -which provides for work and homes and schools and churches for future -generations as well as for the present; which provides for a permanent -industry and not one that vanishes with the exploitation of the -resources of a region as snow vanishes under the warm rays of a spring -day. Lumbering even to-day is merely the removal of every vestige of -timber that has any sale value. But forestry, which is practiced on -the National Forests, removes only the mature trees, leaving the young -growth to be cut at some future time. Lumbering has been and is to-day -forest destruction; forestry is forest conservation under a system -of wise use. Lumbering is followed usually by fire, and often by an -entire impoverishment of the region in which it is carried on because -it destroys both the mature tree and the young growth; under a system -of forestry, cutting is followed by young, green forests which are -protected from fire for the benefit of future generations. Such a system -leaves the region and the industry in a permanent, good condition. The -county under the old system receives no more taxes after its wealth is -gone; but each county will receive taxes or money in lieu of taxes -every year as long as the National Forests shall endure. - -[Illustration: Figure 7. The remains of the old boiler house. The -town once had a sawmill, planning mill, lath mill, besides modern -conveniences. All these are now gone after the forests have been cut. -Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan.] - -[Illustration: Figure 8. Deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill -left. These are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. -Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan.] - -_Financial Returns._ All the benefits of which I have spoken are without -doubt great assets to the local community, to the State, and to the -nation as a whole. They are great contributions to the welfare of our -country even though they cannot be measured in dollars and cents. This -brings us then to the financial aspect of the National Forest movement. -Even though the fundamental purpose of the National Forests was in no -sense a financial one, it is interesting to look into the finances of -this great forestry enterprise. - -The total regular appropriation for salaries, general expenses, and -improvements for the fiscal year 1918 is $5,712,275. For 1917 it was -slightly less than this: $5,574,735. The receipts from the sale or -rental of National Forest resources in the fiscal year 1917 reached -$3,457,028.41. From these figures it will be seen that the expenditures -exceed the receipts by between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000 a year, -depending partly on the severity of the fire season and partly on the -activity of the general lumber market. When we consider that this is -really a newly established business scarcely twenty years old; that -large expenditure have been made and must necessarily be made every -year for equipment and improvements before the resources could even be -used; and that an efficient organization had to be built up to handle -the business, we must confess that the receipts are really a wonderful -showing. - -When the Forest Reserves were taken over by the Government it could not -be expected that they would yield a revenue at the very outset, nor -could it be expected that even in the long space of twenty-five years -they could be made self-supporting. The reasons for this are many. -They are located for the most part in rugged, inaccessible mountains. -In the case of almost every Forest a great deal of money had to be -expended for roads, trails, telephone lines, fences, bridges, ranger -stations and other cabins, lookout structures, fire lines, and many -other improvements before the resources could even be used. Many of -the resources were practically locked up; there were no roads by which -to get them out of the wilderness. During the fiscal year 1916 alone -there were built 227 miles of roads, 1,975 miles of trails, 2,124 miles -of telephone lines, 89 miles of fire lines, 81 lookout structures, -40 bridges, 222 miles of fences, 545 dwellings, barns, and other -structures, and many other improvements. Up to date there have been -constructed over 3,000 miles of roads, over 25,000 miles of trails, -about 23,000 miles of telephone lines, 860 miles of firebreaks, about -360 forest fire lookout cabins and towers, and many other improvements. -Their total value is estimated at $7,000,000. And these vast -improvements are but a small percentage of the improvements which will -be necessary to be able to put these Forests to their highest use. - -Not only must enormous sums be spent for improvements. The huge sums -which are spent for the protection of the great resources bring no -tangible return in dollars and cents; yet the fire protection system -prevents the destruction of millions of dollars' worth of timber every -year. Then again, when government timber lands are cut over, only -the mature trees are taken; the smaller trees, although they have a -commercial value, are left on the ground to mature because they will -have a still greater value in from forty to fifty years. This is merely -foregoing a small present revenue for a larger future one. Also many -National Forests have on them large areas of steep mountain slopes -where not a stick of timber is allowed to be cut. These areas are -maintained intact for watershed protection. In fact many of the Forests -of southern California are maintained solely for this purpose. These -Forests are covered almost entirely by a low bush-like growth called -"chaparral," which has no value either as timber or as browse, but which -has great value to preserve an equable stream flow for domestic use, -irrigation, and water power. - -But there are still other reasons why the cash receipts from the -National Forests are not as large as they might be. In addition to the -cash receipts the equivalent of a large revenue is foregone every year -through the various forms of free use and the sale of timber to settlers -at cost instead of at its actual cash value. During the fiscal year -1917 approximately $150,000 worth of timber was given to settlers free -of cost. About 40,000 people were served under this policy. Also much -timber is sold at cost to settlers for domestic use. In this way over -4,400 persons received many millions of feet of timber whose cost value -was about $20,000, but whose sale value was much greater. The privilege -of grazing a small number of stock free of charge is granted to settlers -living on or near the Forests. The stock thus grazed amounts to about -125,000 animals every year. The Forests are also put to many special -uses for which no charge is made although their administration involves -some expense. Strict accounting should credit the fair value of such -uses to the receipts from the National Forests, for it is in effect -income which instead of being put into the treasury is made available -for the benefit of the people. - -From what has been said it will be seen that a large part of the -benefits derived from the systematic administration of the National -Forests cannot be measured in dollars and cents. These benefits are -in effect privileges extended to the people who in return assist in -the protection of the Forests from fire and thus more than repay the -Government for what they receive. Even under the rather unfavorable -revenue producing conditions mentioned above, it is interesting to note -that in 1917 the receipts of thirty-two National Forests exceeded their -total expenditures. On fifteen others the receipts exceeded the cost of -protection and administration. In other words, one-third of the National -Forests are practically self-supporting. - -_The New Eastern National Forests._ The great success with which the -National Forest policy was launched in the Western States was largely -responsible for the inauguration of a similar policy in the Appalachian -and White Mountains. The main purpose for which these forests are to be -acquired is to preserve a steady stream flow for water-power navigation -and domestic use, and to lessen the damage caused by floods and erosion. -These forests are of vital influence in controlling the flow of the -Merrimac, Connecticut, Androscoggin, Potomac, James, Santee, Savannah, -Tennessee, and Monongahela rivers. Some years ago the Merrimac drove -mills worth over $100,000,000, which employed over 80,000 people. Upon -these, it is said, 350,000 were dependent for support. In the Carolinas -and Georgia alone the cotton mills operated by water-power turn out an -annual product valued at almost $100,000,000. In these mills 60,000 -people are employed, upon whom 250,000 are dependent for support. These -mills utilize 106,000 horsepower. The forests which control these waters -are therefore of great pecuniary value. - -The Act of March 1, 1911, commonly known as the Weeks Law, made the -acquisition of forest lands in the Appalachian and White Mountains -possible. Up to June 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved -for purchase by the National Forest Reservation Commission. The Forest -Service has been designated as the bureau to examine and value such -lands as may be offered for purchase. The original appropriation was -$2,000,000 per year for five and one-half years, beginning the last half -of the fiscal year 1911. The Agricultural Appropriation Bill for the -fiscal year 1913 made the appropriation for 1912 and subsequent years -available until expended. A further appropriation of $3,000,000 was -provided later for the same purpose, to be expended during the fiscal -years 1917 and 1918. Under Section 2 of the same law coöperative fire -protection with the States was provided for. This section of the law -provided that the Forest Service should maintain a coöperative system -of forest fire protection with those States which have a law providing -for a system of fire protection for state and private forest lands upon -the watersheds of navigable streams. In no case was the amount to be -expended by the Forest Service to exceed the amount appropriated by -the State for the same purpose in any given fiscal year. The original -appropriation was $200,000 and subsequent appropriations have been for -$100,000 annually. Twenty-one States are coöperating with the Forest -Service in this way. - -By the passage of the Weeks Bill, Congress has voiced the sentiment that -the forest fire problem, _even on private land_, is not only no longer -a private problem, is not even exclusively a state problem, but a joint -problem and duty to be borne by the State and nation. Forest fires are -now rightfully looked upon as a public enemy rather than a private -menace. This is a big step in the right direction, and it is hoped that -this same principle will be applied in the not too distant future to all -other matters dealing with private timber lands. If the protection of -these private timber lands is a public and not a private problem, then -certainly their management for continuity is a public problem. A timber -owner should not be allowed to cut his timber without the consent of the -Government, and the Government should see to it that he leaves the young -growth as a basis for a future crop or provides a new growth of timber -by planting young trees. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE - PREFACE vii - - INTRODUCTION xiii - - Forestry as a National Problem xiii - Our consumption of wood xiii - The lumber industry xiv - Our future lumber supply xv - Forests and stream flow xvi - Forests and erosion xvii - Forestry a public enterprise xviii - The Extent and Character of Our National Forests xix - How the Government obtained the National Forest lands xix - The romance of the National Forest region xx - Famous scenic wonders near the Forests xxii - The size and extent of the National Forests xxiv - The topography and climate of the National Forest - region xxvi - Why the National Forests were Created xxvii - How the National Forest Policy has Benefited the People xxx - The remaining timber resources were saved xxx - The use of forage and water resources was regulated xxxii - The Forests were protected from fire and trespass xxxv - The watershed cover was preserved xxxvii - Civilization brought to the mountains xxxviii - Agricultural lands opened to settlement xxxix - Permanent and not temporary civilization resulted xl - Financial returns xliii - The new eastern National Forests xlvii - - - I THE CREATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS 1 - - Economic Conditions Which Led to Forest Conservation 1 - Prodigality leads finally to conservation 1 - The march of forest destruction 2 - Our lumber and water supply imperiled 5 - The First Steps in Federal Forest Conservation 6 - The upbuilding of the West 6 - The Lake States first to act 7 - The first federal steps 8 - The Act of August 16, 1876 9 - Further work under the Act 11 - The First Forest Reserves Established March 30, 1891 12 - The situation before 1891 12 - The need of the forest policy 13 - The Act of March 3, 1891 14 - An Anomalous Condition--Forest Reserves Without Forest - Administration 14 - The Need of Administration on the Reserves 14 - More Reserves created 16 - The Administration of the Reserves Under the General - Land Office 16 - The Act of June 4, 1897 16 - The Division of Forestry in 1898 18 - The Bureau of Forestry 19 - The Consolidation of the Forestry Work in the Department - of Agriculture in 1905 19 - The Act of February 1, 1905 19 - Early forestry education and literature 20 - Changes in the Forest Service personnel 21 - More National Forests created 21 - The growth of the Forest Service 22 - Recent modifications in the organization 23 - The Present Organization of the Forest Service 24 - The administrative districts 24 - The Washington office 26 - The district offices 28 - - - II THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS 30 - - Personnel 31 - Duties of forest officers 31 - The Forest Supervisor 32 - The Forest Assistant 34 - The Forest Ranger 35 - The Forest Clerk 38 - Forest Service Meetings 39 - How the Forest Service Appropriation is Allotted to the - National Forests 40 - Forest Service expenses 40 - The agricultural appropriation bill 42 - The ranger's protection and improvement plans 42 - The Supervisor's plans 43 - Approval of plans by the District Forester 44 - The district fiscal agent 45 - Tax money paid to the states 46 - The Equipment and Supplies for the National Forests 47 - The property auditor and property clerk 47 - Blank forms 48 - Supplies 48 - National Forest Improvements 49 - The need of improvements 49 - Transportation facilities 50 - Communication facilities 53 - Grazing improvements 56 - Protection improvements 57 - Appropriations for improvement work 58 - The Classification and Consolidation of National Forest - Lands 61 - Land classification 61 - The consolidation of National Forest lands 63 - How Young Forests are Planted to Replace Those Destroyed - by Fire 64 - Reforestation and the timber supply 64 - Reforestation and water supply 65 - Government reforestation policy 67 - Methods of reforestation 70 - Direct seeding work on the National Forests 72 - Planting on the National Forests 78 - The Organization and Scope of Forest Experiments and - Investigations 83 - The need of scientific experiments 83 - The science of growing timber 84 - Dendrological studies 86 - Seed studies 87 - Nursery studies 88 - Forestation experiments 89 - Studies of forest influences 89 - Meteorological observations 91 - Forest management studies 92 - Forest protection studies 94 - Protection from grazing damage 95 - Protection from insects and diseases 96 - Tree studies 97 - Grazing investigations 98 - Investigations dealing with poisonous plants and - predatory animals 102 - National Forest utilization experiments 104 - Forest Products Laboratory experiments 108 - Industrial investigations 116 - - - III THE PROTECTION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS 120 - - Protection from Fire 120 - Forest Fire danger on the National Forests 120 - Importance of fire protection 121 - Causes of forest fires on the National Forests 124 - Behavior of forest fires 126 - Losses by forest fires on the National Forests 126 - The forest fire problem stated 128 - Fire prevention 129 - Fire suppression 133 - How forest fire funds are distributed 134 - Forest fire history 136 - Relation of forest fires to the weather 137 - Improvements and equipment for protection 138 - Forest fire maps and charts 139 - Forest fire organization 140 - How fires are located 142 - The fire fighting organization 144 - Forest fire coöperation 146 - Fighting forest fires 147 - Protection Against Trespass, Forest Insects, Erosion, - and Other Agencies 150 - Trespass 150 - Forest insects 154 - Tree diseases 159 - Water supply 162 - Public health 167 - Violation of game laws 168 - - - IV THE SALE AND RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 170 - - The Sale and Disposal of National Forest Timber 170 - Government Timber Sale Policy 171 - Annual yield and cut 172 - Timber reconnoissance 174 - Logging the timber 176 - The first step in purchasing government timber 180 - Procedure in an advertised sale 180 - Timber sale contract clauses 182 - Special contract clauses 184 - When the operation may begin 186 - Marking the timber for cutting 186 - Scaling, measuring, and stamping 188 - Disposal of slash 190 - Payment for timber 192 - Stumpage rates 193 - Cutting period 194 - Readjustment of Stumpage rates 194 - Refunds 194 - The Disposal of timber to Homestead Settlers and Under - Free Use 195 - Sales to homestead settlers and farmers 195 - Free Use 195 - Timber Settlement and Administrative Use 198 - The Rental of National Forest Range Lands 200 - Importance of the live-stock industry 200 - Permits issued in 1917 201 - Kinds of range, grazing seasons, and methods - handling stock 202 - Grazing districts and grazing units 205 - Who are entitled to grazing privileges 207 - Grazing permits 211 - Grazing fees 214 - Stock associations 215 - Protective and maximum limits 216 - Prohibition of grazing 218 - Protection of grazing interests 219 - Special Uses 220 - Claims and Settlement 223 - The National Forest Homestead Act 224 - The mining laws 229 - Coal-land laws 230 - Administrative Use of National Forest Lands 230 - Water Power, Telephone, Telegraph, and Power - Transmission Lines 230 - - APPENDIX 233 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Figure 1. An observation point for finding forest fires. - Vigilance is the watchword on the National Forests. During - During 1916 forest officers extinguished 5,655 forest - fires. Photo by the author _Frontispiece_ - - FACING - PAGE - - Figure 2. A typical National Forest landscape in the - high mountains. Potosi Peak, 13,763 feet, from Yankee Boy - Basin, Uncompahgre National Forest, Ouray County, Colorado xviii - - Figure 3. The climate of most of the National Forests - is severe. This view was taken in the early summer and - shows the high mountains still covered with snow. Most of - the National Forest lands are therefore of small value for - agriculture. Photo by Abbey xxviii - - Figure 4. On many high mountains on the National - Forests snow banks persist throughout the summer. This - view was taken in the latter part of August. Lassen - National Forest, California. Photo by the author xxviii - - Figure 5. The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in the - background. North Calaveras Grove, California xxxii - - Figure 6. A scene on one of the famous National Parks. - Upper Lake, Glacier National Park, Northern Rockies, - Montana xxxvi - - Figure 7. The remains of the old boiler house. The - town once had a sawmill, planing mill, lath mill, besides - modern conveniences. All these are now gone after the - forests have been cut. Lemiston, Montmorency County, - Michigan xlii - - Figure 8. Deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill - left. These are the remains of what was once a prosperous - town. Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan xlii - - Figure 9. Forest officers in front of the Forest - Supervisor's summer headquarters. Note the many telephone - wires that lead from the office. This is 50 miles from the - railroad. Lassen National Forest, California 32 - - Figure 10. Scene in front of the Forest Supervisor's - headquarters. Sheep leaving the National Forest summer - range in the fall to go to winter range in the valley. - Lassen National Forest, California 32 - - Figure 11. Forest officers and lumberjacks burning - the slash resulting from a timber sale. The snow on the - ground makes the burning less dangerous. Washakie National - Forest, Wyoming. Photo by the author 38 - - Figure 12. Forest officers at a winter timber-cruising - camp repairing snow shoes. Besides cruising the timber, - these men make a logging map of the government lands, to - show how the timber can best be taken out. Lassen National - Forest, California. Photo by the author 38 - - Figure 13. A forest fire lookout tower on Leek Springs - Mountain, Eldorado National Forest, California 50 - - Figure 14. A typical Forest Ranger's headquarters. - Idlewood Ranger Station, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 52 - - Figure 15. A typical view of the National Forest - country in Montana. Forest Service trail up Squaw Peak - Patrol Station, Cabinet National Forest 54 - - Figure 16. Forest Rangers repairing a bridge over a - mountain stream. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 56 - - Figure 17. A forest fire lookout station on the top - of Lassen Peak, elevation 10,400 feet, Lassen National - Forest, California. The cabin was first erected complete - in a carpenter's shop in Red Bluff, about 50 miles away. - It was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot of - Lassen Peak. On the last two miles of its journey it - was packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs - and finally reassembled on the topmost pinnacle of the - mountain. Photo by the author 58 - - Figure 18. Forest officers and laborers building a - wagon road through trap rock. Payette National Forest, - Idaho 58 - - Figure 19. Drying pine cones preparatory to extracting - the seed. Near Plumas National Forest, California 66 - - Figure 20. Extracting tree seed from the cones. The - dried cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out - through the wire mesh which forms the sides of the machine 66 - - Figure 21. Preparing the ground with a spring-tooth - harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. Battlement - National Forest, Colorado. This view was taken at - approximately 10,000 feet elevation. Photo by the author 70 - - Figure 22. A local settler delivering a load of - Lodgepole pine cones at the seed extractory, for which he - receives 45 cents per bushel. Forest officers receiving - them, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 70 - - Figure 23. In a forest nursery a trough is often used - for sowing seeds in drills. The seed scattered along the - sides of the trough rattles into position at the bottom - and is more even than when distributed by the ordinary - worker at the bottom of the trough. Pike National Forest, - Colorado 72 - - Figure 24. Uncle Sam grows the little trees by the - millions. These will soon cover some of the bare hillsides - on the National Forests of the West 72 - - Figure 25. One of the largest Forest Service nurseries - where the young trees are given the utmost care before - they are large and strong enough to endure the rigorous - climate of the National Forests. McCloud Nursery, Shasta - National Forest, California 76 - - Figure 26. A view of seed sowing with a corn planter. - San Isabel National Forest, Colorado 78 - - Figure 27. Sowing seed along contour lines on the - slopes. Pike National Forest, Colorado 78 - - Figure 28. A planting crew at work setting out small - trees. The man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind - plants the tree. Wasatch National Forest, Utah 82 - - Figure 29. At the Fort Valley Forest Experiment - Station, Coconino National Forest, Arizona. A typical - meteorological station. Forest officer measuring - precipitation. Note the shelter which contains - thermometers and also the electrically equipped - instruments to record the direction and velocity of the - wind 90 - - Figure 30. Forest officer ascertaining the amount of - evaporation from a free water surface. Fort Valley Forest - Experiment Station, Flagstaff, Arizona 90 - - Figure 31. Forest Ranger with his pack horses - traveling over his district. Meadow Creek, foot of Mt. - Wilson, Montezuma National Forest, Colorado 102 - - Figure 32. A plank of Incense cedar affected by a - disease known as "pin rot." By cutting the cedar timber - when it is mature this can be largely avoided. Lassen - National Forest, California. Photo by the author 114 - - Figure 33. The western pine forests will some day - be a great source for naval stores. By distilling - the crude resin of the Jeffrey pine a light volatile - oil--abietene--is secured which has great healing and - curative properties. Lassen National Forest, California. - Photo by the author 114 - - Figure 34. A forest fire lookout station at the summit - of Mt. Eddy. Mt. Shasta in the background. California 124 - - Figure 35. A forest fire lookout station on the - summit of Brokeoff Mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. Lassen - National Forest, California. Photo by the author 128 - - Figure 36. Turner Mountain lookout station, Lassen - National Forest, California. This is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. - cabin with a stove and with folding bed, table, and - chairs. The forest officer stationed here watches for - forest fires day and night throughout the fire season. - Photo by the author 128 - - Figure 37. A fire line cut through the low bush-like - growth of "Chaparral" on the Angeles National Forest, - California. This "Chaparral" is of great value for - regulating stream flow. The streams are used for water - power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of the - largest lemon and orange groves of southern California 132 - - Figure 38. A forest officers' temporary camp while - fighting forest fires. Near Oregon National Forest, Oregon 132 - - Figure 39. Putting out a ground fire. Even if the fire - does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young - trees and so weakens the larger ones that they are easily - blown over. Wallowa National Forest, Oregon 136 - - Figure 40. Forest officers ready to leave a tool - box for a forest fire in the vicinity. Such tool boxes - as these are stationed at convenient places on National - Forests ready for any emergency. Arapaho National Forest, - Colorado 136 - - Figure 41. A forest fire on the Wasatch National - Forest, Utah. Forest officers trying to stop a forest fire - by cutting a fire line. Note the valuable growth of young - trees which they are trying to save at the right 140 - - Figure 42. A forest fire running in dense underbrush - on one of the National Forests in Oregon 144 - - Figure 43. Men in a dense forest with heavy - undergrowth clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is - running down hill. Crater National Forest, Oregon 144 - - Figure 44. Fire in a Lodgepole pine forest in - Colorado. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 148 - - Figure 45. A mountain fire in "Chaparral" five hours - after it started. Pasadena, California 148 - - Figure 46. A few years ago this was a green, luxuriant - forest. Picture taken after the great fires of August 20, - 1910, on the Coeur d'Alene National Forest near Wallace, - Idaho 152 - - Figure 47. The first evidence of insect attack are - the reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. Lodgepole pine - infested by the mountain pine beetle. Lassen National - Forest, California. Photo by the author 156 - - Figure 48. The last stage of an insect-attacked tree. - The tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. Lassen - National Forest, California. Photo by the author 156 - - Figure 49. Wrecked farm buildings due to flood of May - 21, 1901, Nolichucky River, near Erwin, Tenn. This is one - result of denuding the Appalachian Mountains of their - forest cover 162 - - Figure 50. When steep hillsides are stripped of - their forest growth, erosion results. Erosion has been - especially serious in the Appalachian Mountains. View - taken in Madison County, North Carolina 162 - - Figure 51. A fertile corn-field covered with sand, - gravel and débris brought down from the mountains by - floods. These farm lands are ruined beyond redemption. - This could have been prevented by preserving the forests - on the watershed of this river 166 - - Figure 52. A view towards Mt. Adams and the headwaters - of Lewis River. Council Lake in the foreground. National - forest lands lie at the headwaters of practically every - large western river. This means that the water supply for - the western people used for domestic use, water power, - and irrigation is being protected from pollution and - destruction. View taken on the Rainier National Forest, - Washington 172 - - Figure 53. A large storage reservoir used to irrigate - the ranches in the valley below. Elevation 10,500 feet. - Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author 176 - - Figure 54. A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by - Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10,000 - feet. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by - author. 176 - - Figure 55. View taken in the Coast Range mountains - of California where Sugar pine and Douglas fir and the - principal trees. Klamath National Forest, California. - Photo by the author 180 - - Figure 56. A typical mountain scene in the California - Coast Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of - vital importance. Klamath National Forest, California. - Photo by the author 180 - - Figure 57. A forest officer at work on a high mountain - peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of - National Forest lands. Photo by the author 182 - - Figure 58. A government timber cruiser's summer camp. - These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle - Sam's timber resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an - acre. Photo by the author 182 - - Figure 59. Forest officers moving camp while engaged - in winter reconnoissance work. All food, beds, and - clothing are packed on "Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men - themselves. Photo by the author 184 - - Figure 60. A winter reconnoissance camp showing - snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to - repair the webbing on the snow-shoes. Lassen National - Forest, California. Photo by the author 184 - - Figure 61. A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz - County, California 186 - - Figure 62. A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in - diameter. This is the most valuable timber species in - California. Photo by the author 188 - - Figure 63. A Western Yellow pine forest in California. - These trees are from four to six feet in diameter and - from 150 to 200 feet high. Note the Forest Service timber - cruiser measuring the tree at the left. Photo by the - author. 188 - - Figure 64. Logging in California. Powerful steam - engines pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and - load them on flat cars. Photo by the author 190 - - Figure 65. The loaded flat cars reach the sawmill - where the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During - the fiscal year 1917 timber sales on the National Forests - brought into the National Treasury almost $1,700,000.00. - Photo by the author 190 - - Figure 66. Scene in Montana. Forest officers - constructing a telephone line through the Flathead - National Forest 192 - - Figure 67. Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, - marking National Forest timber for cutting in a timber - sale. Coconino National Forest, Arizona 192 - - Figure 68. An excellent illustration showing the - difference between unrestricted logging as practiced by - lumbermen, and conservative logging as practiced by the - Forest Service. In the foreground is the unrestricted - logging which strips the soil of every stick of timber - both large and small; in the background is the Forest - Service logging area which preserves the young growth to - insure a future supply of timber for the West. Bitterroot - National Forest, Montana 194 - - Figure 69. View showing the Forest Service method of - piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how - stump heights are kept down to prevent waste. New Mexico 196 - - Figure 70. A tie-cutting operation on a National - Forest. These piles of railroad ties are being inspected, - stamped, and counted by Forest rangers. From this point - the ties are "skidded" to the banks of a stream to be - floated to the shipping point. Near Evanston, Wyoming 196 - - Figure 71. Brush piles on a cut-over area before - burning. Forest Service methods aim to clean up the forest - after logging so that forest fires have less inflammable - material to feed on. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana 198 - - Figure 72. At a time of the year when there is least - danger from fire the brush piles are burned. Missoula - National Forest, Montana 198 - - Figure 73. Counting sheep as they leave the corral. - Sheep and cattle are pastured on the National Forests at - so many cents per head, hence they must be counted before - they enter in the spring. Wasatch National Forest, Utah 208 - - Figure 74. Logging National Forest timber. Santa Fe - National Forest, New Mexico 208 - - Figure 75. Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National - Forest at the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. Over 7,500,000 - sheep and goats grazed on the National Forests during the - fiscal year 1917 216 - - Figure 76. Grazing cattle on a National Forest in - Colorado. Permits were issued during 1917 to graze over - 2,000,000 cattle, horses, and swine on the National - Forests 216 - - Figure 77. North Clear Creek Falls, Rio Grande - National Forest, Colorado. The National Forests contain - about one-third of all the potential water-power resources - of the United States 230 - - Figure 78. The power plant of the Colorado Power - Company, on the Grand River, Holy Cross National Forest, - Colorado. Every fiscal year there is a substantial - increase in water power development on the National - Forests 230 - - Figure 79. This is only one of the thousands of - streams in the National Forests of the West capable of - generating electric power. It has been estimated that over - 40 per cent. of the water resources of the Western States - are included in the National Forests. Photo by the author 232 - - Figure 80. View in the famous orange belt of San - Bernardino County, California. These orchards depend - absolutely upon irrigation. The watersheds from which - the necessary water comes are in the National Forests - and are protected by the Forest Service. Some of the - smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate - orchards valued at $10,000,000 232 - - - - -OUR NATIONAL FORESTS - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE CREATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS - - -ECONOMIC CONDITIONS WHICH LED TO FOREST CONSERVATION - -In order that the reader may fully appreciate the gigantic task that -has been accomplished in bringing the National Forest administration -and organization to its present state of development, it is necessary -to briefly sketch the conditions that led up to the inauguration of the -Federal Forest Policy before we stop to consider that policy and the -establishment and organization of National Forests. - -_Prodigality Leads Finally to Conservation._ Every great movement, -which has for its object the betterment of the lot of mankind, lags far -behind the times. There must be an actual economic need before a new -movement can be expected to take root and flourish. Forest conservation -had no place in the household economy of nations that had forests in -superabundance. Their forests were used with prodigality. It seems to be -a great human failing to use natural resources lavishly when the supply -is apparently unlimited, and to practice frugality only when the end of -a resource is in sight. Thus we find in the pages of forestry history -that all nations have begun to husband their forest resources only after -having felt the pinch of want. In our country history repeats itself and -our federal policy of forest conservation properly begins at the time -that the national conscience was awakened to the realization that if we -did not practice economy with our forest resources we would some day be -without an adequate supply of timber and forage, and be confronted with -other dangers and calamities that follow the destruction of forests. - -_The March of Forest Destruction._ When the London Company settled at -Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607 it found that unlimited pine and hardwood -forests confronted it on every side. Nor did these early settlers ever -find a way out of this forested wilderness except by clearings made with -the ax. When the Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod in 1620 they found -similar forests stretching in all directions from their town-site. After -the Atlantic seaboard became pretty well settled the home-builders began -moving westward through New York, Pennsylvania, and what is now Ohio. -Still nothing but unbroken, virgin forests were encountered. Westward to -the Mississippi civilization advanced and still forests reigned supreme. -Then the Middle West, the Rocky Mountain region, and finally the Pacific -Coast regions were settled. During 140 years civilization has spread -from coast to coast and of that vast wilderness of forest there is left -only a remnant here and there. The giant pines that sheltered De Soto -and his thousand followers on their ill-fated expedition in 1541 to -the Mississippi River have long since disappeared. Along the Allegheny -and Appalachian ranges the vast forests that once harbored the hostile -Narragansetts and Iroquois are now but a memory. The giant oak, ash, and -cypress forests of the Mississippi Valley are rapidly being decimated -by the big sawmills that work night and day to outdo each other. In -the north the dense and magnificent forests of white pine that greeted -Father Marquette, when he planted his missionary station at Sault Ste. -Marie in 1668, have been laid low. Unproductive wastes, sandy barrens, -and useless underbrush now greet the eye. In fact the pine forests which -covered the greater part of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota have been -leveled by the woodman's ax. The army of lumbermen has moved now to the -Coast to again turn virgin timberlands into unproductive wastes. - -Thus forest destruction has followed civilization. Statistics show -very vividly how gradually one large lumbering center after another -has become exhausted, often leaving behind desolation and business -depression. In these large centers thriving towns sprang up only to -disappear again after the removal of the forest wealth. In 1850 about 55 -per cent, of the annual cut of lumber came from the New England States; -even as late as 1865 New York furnished more lumber than any State in -the Union. By 1890 Michigan had reached the zenith of its production and -in that year the Lake States furnished 36 per cent. of the lumber cut. -By 1909 the Southern States had increased their cut to over 50 per cent. -of the total of the country. In 1913 the cut of the State of Washington -was the largest ever recorded for that State or for any other State, -even outdoing Michigan during its Golden Age. In 1915 about 20 per cent. -of the cut came from the Coast but the South still furnished almost 50 -per cent. - -_Our Lumber and Water Supply Imperiled._ In our prodigal use of our -forest resources we have become the most lavish users of wood in the -world. While the annual consumption per capita for France is about 25 -cubic feet, and that of Germany about 40 cubic feet, our per capita -consumption is in the neighborhood of 250 cubic feet. And the most -terrible thing about our reckless methods has been that we have wasted -by crude lumbering methods and we have let great forest fires consume -many times as much lumber as we have used. There have been vast public -and private losses through unnecessary forest fires which not only -consumed millions of dollars' worth of timber every year, but which -also cost the lives of thousands of settlers. Then, as every one knows, -by being grossly negligent with our forests, our rivers have visited -their wrath upon the unfortunate people in the valleys. Many streams -have become raging torrents in the spring and only chains of stagnant -pools in the summer, thus destroying their value for water power and -irrigation. Cotton mills, which formerly used water power all the year -round, now must depend upon more expensive steam power generated by coal -to keep their mills running in times of water shortage, while during -high water there is the great danger that the entire factory might be -swept away. - - -THE FIRST STEPS IN FEDERAL FOREST CONSERVATION. - -Gradually the national conscience became awakened to the need of a more -rational use of our forest resources. But it was not until after the -Civil War that the first steps were taken. As was to be expected, the -States in which forest destruction had reached its worst stages were the -first to attempt to mend their ways, thus leading the way along which -the Federal Government was soon to follow. - -_The Upbuilding of the West._ The decade following the Civil War is -marked by the construction of some of our great trans-continental -railroads and the consequent development of the great western country. -In fact between 1865 and 1875 the railroad mileage of the United States -doubled. The first trans-continental railroad, the Union Pacific, was -completed in 1869. Others soon followed. To encourage construction and -settlement vast tracts of land were granted to the railroad companies -by the Government, and with the land much valuable timber passed from -government ownership. After the construction of the railroads towns -and villages sprang up like mushrooms. As was to be expected with this -increased development the destruction of our forests received an added -impetus. The Lake States, then the center of the lumber industry, began -to take alarm at the rapidity with which their hillsides were being -denuded. Destructive lumbering, usually followed by devastating forest -fires, was fast decimating the virgin pine forests. The young growth -that had escaped the lumberman's ax fell a prey to forest fires which -soon took the form of annual conflagrations. As the population increased -the new sections of the country were settled, and as manufacturing -operations were extended timber was getting higher in price. - -_The Lake States First to Act._ The first attempt to remedy the -situation was made by the State of Wisconsin. In 1867 the Wisconsin -legislature suggested a committee who should report upon the -destruction of Wisconsin's forests. The next year Michigan took a -similar step and in 1869 the Maine legislature began to look into their -waning supply by appointing a committee to estimate the standing timber -of the State. As early as this observations and calculations upon the -rate of consumption of lumber pointed to a not far distant wood famine. - -_The First Federal Steps._ The first step taken by the federal -authorities was at the urgent request of the Statistician of the -Department of Agriculture in 1870. At that time lands were recognized as -being either "improved" or "unimproved" farm lands. He recommended that -the category of "unimproved farm lands" be subdivided into "woodlands" -and "other unimproved lands." By thus dividing off woodlands from other -unimproved farm lands more attention was concentrated upon the former. -This attention was manifested in the investigations that followed -shortly in which it was estimated that 39 per cent. of the area of the -country was in woodland. This was the first and most logical step toward -taking an inventory of our forest resources. - -Another early attempt to assist in forest conservation was an attempt -to reforest the treeless plains of our Western States. On March 3, 1873, -the Timber Culture Act was passed by Congress by which the planting to -timber of 40 acres of land in the treeless territories conferred the -title to 160 acres of public domain. At first this act seemed to work -out as intended but it did not take very many years before it proved -a dismal failure. Settlers had no knowledge of planting trees; the -restrictions of the act could not be enforced, and the act was open to -other abuses. The act was finally repealed in 1891. Many similar laws -for encouraging the planting of timber were passed by the legislatures -of some of the Middle Western States, but all met with little success. -In 1874 Nebraska inaugurated Arbor Day. By this act of the legislature -the second Wednesday in April of each year was set aside for planting -trees. Other States have followed the example of Nebraska, so that -to-day almost every State provides one day in the year for planting -trees. Thus Arbor Day has become practically a national institution. - -_The Act of August 16, 1876._ The first constructive piece of -legislation enacted by the Congress of the United States was the Act -of August 16, 1876. This was the first of a series of Acts passed by -Congress which, although occurring many years apart in some cases, -put forest conservation upon a firm basis. Under the first act the -Commissioner of Agriculture was directed: - - "To appoint some man of approved attainments who is - practically well acquainted with methods of statistical inquiry - and who has evinced an intimate acquaintance with questions - relating to the national wants in regard to timber, to prosecute - investigations and inquiries with the view of ascertaining the - annual amount of consumption, importation, and exportation of - timber and other forest products; the probable supply for future - wants; the means best adapted to their preservation and renewal; - the influence of forests upon climate and the means that have - been successfully applied in foreign countries, or that may - be deemed applicable in this country for the preservation and - restoration or planting of forests, and to report upon the same - to the Commissioner of Agriculture, to be by him in a separate - report transmitted to Congress." - -Dr. Franklin B. Hough, an active, untiring, and intelligent scholar, was -the first man to be appointed by this act. As Commissioner of Forestry -he prepared the first report and submitted it to Congress. The next -year, in 1877, Congress granted its first appropriation of $6,000, "for -the purpose of obtaining other facts and information preparatory to -establishing a Division of Forestry." - -_Further Work Under the Act._ The office of Commissioner of Forestry -gradually enlarged the scope of its duties and functions. Five years -later, due to the ever-increasing importance of the subject, a distinct -division, the Division of Forestry, was established in the Department -of Agriculture. The duties and powers of this Division were "to devote -itself exclusively to such investigations of the subject as would -tend to the fullest development of the resources of the country in -that respect, to discover the best methods of managing and preserving -our waning forests and to maintain in all its bearings the universal -interest involved in that industry." - -In 1881 an agent of the Department was sent to Europe to study the work -of forestry there. In 1882 the American Forestry Congress was organized. -This organization had for its object the discussion and dissemination of -the important facts of forestry, and while strictly a private body, had -a considerable influence in later years in educating the people to the -needs of forestry and in helping to establish a rational forest policy -in the United States. Its first meeting took place in Cincinnati. At a -second meeting held the same year in Montreal the name was changed to -the American Forestry Association and since then has been the center -of all private efforts to advance the forestry movement. In 1898 this -association began the publication of a propagandist journal which is now -called _American Forestry_. In 1884 the duty of making experiments with -timber was added to the functions of the Division. The next year the -collecting and distribution of valuable economic tree seeds was begun. -In 1886 the study of the biology of some of our important timber trees -was taken up, while in the following year silvicultural problems first -engaged the attention of the Division. - - -THE FIRST FOREST RESERVES ESTABLISHED MARCH 30, 1891 - -_The Situation Before 1891._ Before 1891 the Division of Forestry was -simply a bureau of information. In general the information supplied -was of a twofold nature. It was technical in so far as it related -to the management of private woodlands and statistical in so far as -the knowledge of the conditions of our forest resources induced the -application of forestry principles. Up to that date Congress had -neither appropriated enough money for efficient outdoor work nor did -she attempt to put any government woodlands under the control of the -Division. Therefore there had been no management because there were no -forests to manage. This one-sided development of the forestry work of -the Division was greatly impeding a rational development of the forest -conservation movement. - -_The Need of a Forest Policy._ The need for a well-defined forest -policy with respect to the government forest lands now began to be -felt. Railroad land grants, the Homestead Act, Preëmption claims, and -the Timber and Stone Act were taking much valuable timberland out of -government ownership. People secured claims under these acts merely -for the timber that was on them. The purposes of the laws and acts -of Congress were being fraudulently evaded. Also the Government had -restrictive and protective laws in regard to its lands, but it could not -enforce them on account of lack of appropriations with which to maintain -an administrative and protective organization. The time was now ripe for -an executive policy to manage the woodlands that still remained in the -possession of the Government before it was too late to save what was -left. - -_The Act of March 3, 1891._ The Division of Forestry was designed by -the nature of its duties to be more than a bureau of information. -The existence of a governmental department to promulgate forestry -principles while the Government itself had made no provision to apply -such principles to its own permanent timberlands was an incongruity that -suggested further legislative action. This was in part supplied by the -law of March 3, 1891, which conferred upon the President the power to -establish Forest Reservations. The first exercise of power under this -act was the presidential proclamation creating the Yellowstone Park -Timber Land Reserve under President Harrison on March 30, 1891. This -was probably the wisest step yet taken in the development of a National -Forest policy; but, unfortunately, the act left the Division simply a -bureau of information as it was before. - - -AN ANOMALOUS CONDITION--FOREST RESERVES WITHOUT FOREST ADMINISTRATION - -_The Need of Administration on the Reserves._ At first thought it -will be seen that this piece of legislation must necessarily remain -inoperative unless it were followed by the establishment of a proper -administration of the Reserves based upon sound forestry principles. -Furthermore, the law withdrew from public use all such lands that might -be acquired under it. It was now easy for the Government to acquire -lands; the question that next presented itself was how to protect and -regulate the use of these new acquisitions. Forest protection cannot be -secured without forest rangers and forest guards; nor forest management -without technical foresters. The very reasons for establishing the -Reserves would point to the absolute need of a system of managing them. -These reasons were briefly: - - "to prevent annual conflagrations; to prevent useless - destruction of life and property by fires, etc.; to provide - benefit and revenue from the sale of forest products, fuels, - and timbers; to administer this resource for future benefit; to - increase the stock of game; to promote the development of the - country; to give regular employment to a professional staff; to - secure continuous supplies of wood and to get the maximum amount - of good from each acre." - -Such arguments as these assume the presence of a force of men to protect -and administrate these Reserves. - -_More Reserves Created._ In spite of this serious fault in the Act of -March 3, 1891, more Forest Reservations were created. By 1894 Presidents -Harrison and Cleveland had created about 17,500,000 acres and on a -single day, February 22, 1897, President Cleveland proclaimed over -20,000,000 acres. By the close of 1897 a total of almost 40,000,000 -acres of Forest Reserves had been established. - -During the six years following the law giving the President power -to establish Reserves, the Reserves were under the jurisdiction of -the General Land Office. The appropriations of Congress were small, -amounting to less than $30,000 annually. Such appropriations were used -mainly for testing timber strength and the conditions affecting quality. - - -THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE RESERVES UNDER THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE - -_The Act of June 4, 1897._ The Secretary of the Interior in 1896 -requested the National Academy of Sciences, the legally constituted -advisor of the Government in scientific matters, to investigate, report -upon, and recommend a National Forest policy. This resulted in the Act -of June 4, 1897, under which, with subsequent amendments, the National -Forests are now being administered. Under this act the Reserves remained -in the hands of the General Land Office, Department of the Interior. It -charged this office with the administration and protection of the Forest -Reservations. Later the Geological Survey was charged with surveying and -mapping them, and the Division of Forestry was asked to give technical -advice. It is very evident that the Division of Forestry containing all -the trained scientific staff had no relation to the government forestry -work except as the offices of the Department of the Interior might apply -for assistance or advice. It is true that an important step had been -taken, but the complete separation of the administration by the General -Land Office and the force of trained men in the Division of Forestry was -a serious defect. - -The Act of June 4 might be called the Magna Charta of national -forestry. The U. S. Geological Survey undertook the task of surveying, -classifying, and describing the Forest Reservations. At a cost of -about one and one-half million dollars over 70,000,000 acres of Forest -Reserves were mapped and described. The General Land Office undertook -the administration and Forest Superintendents and Rangers were appointed -to take charge of the Reservations. The rules and regulations for -administering the Reserves were formulated by the Commissioner of the -General Land Office. - -_The Division of Forestry in 1898._ On July 1, 1898, the Division of -Forestry employed 11 persons, 6 clerical and 5 scientific. There were -also some collaborators and student assistants. There was no field -equipment and no field work. But in the fall of 1898 an important -step was taken. From that time on the Division of Forestry offered -practical assistance to forest owners and thus it shifted its field of -activity from the desk to the woods. The lumbermen were met on their -own grounds and actual forest management for purely commercial ends was -undertaken by well known lumbermen. From that time dates the solution of -specific problems of forest management and the development of efficient -methods of attacking them. The work of the Division at this time, -therefore, consisted of activities along 4 distinct lines: (1) that of -working plans, (2) that of economic tree planting, (3) that of special -investigations, and (4) that of office work. Thus it will be seen, even -at this late date the Division had practically nothing to say about the -scientific forestry methods which should be used on the Reservations. - -_The Bureau of Forestry._ In 1901 the Division of Forestry was raised -to the rank of a Bureau, but this was a change in name only and carried -with it no change in the handling of the Government's vast forest -resources. - - -THE CONSOLIDATION OF THE FORESTRY WORK IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE -IN 1905 - -_The Act of February 1, 1905._ The necessity of consolidating the -various branches of government forest work became apparent and was urged -upon Congress by President Roosevelt and by the executive officers -concerned. This was finally accomplished by the act of February 1, 1905, -by which entire jurisdiction over the Forest Reserves was transferred -to the Secretary of Agriculture. Matters of surveying and passage of -title, however, were still kept under the jurisdiction of the General -Land Office. By this act the Division of Forestry for the first time in -its career became an administrative organization. On July 1 of the same -year the Bureau of Forestry became the Forest Service and in 1907 the -change of name from "Forest Reserves" to "National Forests" was made to -correct the impression that the forests were like reserves which had -been withdrawn from use. - -_Early Forestry Education and Literature._ The Act of February 1, -1905, was the final step which established the federal policy with -regard to our National Forests. At this stage it will be interesting -to note briefly the status of the science of American Forestry and -of forestry education. As late as the spring of 1898 there was no -science or literature on American Forestry, nor could education in -the subject be procured in the country. But soon thereafter several -forestry schools were established, namely, Cornell Forestry School in -1898, Yale School of Forestry and Biltmore Forest School in 1899, and -the University of Michigan Forestry School in 1903. The beginning of -the twentieth century saw the first professional foresters graduated -and taking upon themselves the task of applying scientific forestry -methods to the National Forests. Further evidence of the growth of the -profession of forestry was the organization of the Society of American -Foresters in 1900. The first professional journal was started in 1902 -as the _Forestry Quarterly_, and other scientific forestry literature -was issued by the Government. The scientific knowledge gathered in the -field work since 1898 has taken the form of a rapidly growing literature -on the subject which has formed the basis of the science of American -Forestry. - -_Changes in the Forest Service Personnel._ By 1905 the work of the -Forest Service had increased to such an extent that the number of -employees was increased to 821. With the opening of the forestry -schools, professional foresters became available and the National -Forests then began to be put into the hands of expert scientific men. -Gradually the old type of untrained, non-scientific woodsman is being -replaced by the trained forester. In addition, the entire force was -made a part of the classified Civil Service and the plan of political -appointees was banished forever. - -_More National Forests Created._ While the administration of the -National Forests was being adjusted the area of National Forests was -constantly being increased. To the 40,000,000 acres of Reserves set -aside by Presidents Harrison and Cleveland before 1897, President -McKinley added over 7,000,000 acres until 1901. When Roosevelt became -President the National Forest policy received an added impetus and -vigor. Being a great lover of the out-of-door-life and being especially -well acquainted, on account of his extensive travels, with the great -western country, President Roosevelt threw his powerful influence into -the balance. With the close coöperation of Mr. Gifford Pinchot, his warm -personal friend, and at that time the Chief Forester, Mr. Roosevelt -set aside between 1901 and 1909 over 148,000,000 acres of National -Forests, more than three times as much as had been set aside by all his -predecessors together. Since 1909 a careful adjustment of the boundaries -has been going on, both Presidents Taft and Wilson adding small areas -here and there, which were found valuable for forestry purposes, or -eliminating small areas found to have no value. Acts of Congress passed -since 1907 prohibit the addition by the President to the National -Forests already established in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, -Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. Additions can be made in these States -only by special act of Congress. A number of such acts have been passed; -some of them upon petitions of the people in these States. - -_The Growth of the Forest Service._ The growth of the Forest Service -between 1897 and 1917 is little short of marvelous. The number of its -employees has increased from 61 in 1898 to 3,544 on June 30, 1917. The -annual appropriations have increased from less than $30,000 in 1897 to -$5,712,275 for the fiscal year 1918. But besides this appropriation -for 1918 the Weeks Law calls for an expenditure of $2,100,000 and the -Federal Aid Road Act for $1,000,000 more. The receipts of the National -Forests have also increased by leaps and bounds. In 1897 the receipts -were practically negligible in amount but by 1906 they had reached -approximately $800,000. In the fiscal year 1917 they were more than -$3,457,000. - -_Recent Modifications in the Organization._ Further slight modifications -in the organization, as established in 1905, were made since that -date. Before 1908 all the work of the Forests was supervised from the -main office in Washington and this arrangement caused much delay and -inconvenience in carrying on the business of the Forests. In the fall -of 1908 six administrative districts were established, to which another -was added in 1914. By this arrangement the National Forests are divided -into 7 groups and each group has a district headquarters in a large -city or town centrally located in the group. The District Office acts -as sort of clearing house for all National Forest business. All matters -in the administration and protection of the National Forests that -cannot be settled on the Forest or appear to be of general importance -to the district are taken to the District Office, which is in charge of -a District Forester and several assistants. Beginning in 1909 Forest -Experiment Stations were established in each district and in 1910 the -Forest Products Laboratory, the first one of its kind in the world, was -formally opened at Madison, Wisconsin. The Weeks Law, passed on March -1, 1911, provides for the acquisition of forest lands on the watersheds -of navigable streams in the Appalachian and White Mountains. Up to June -30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved for purchase in these -mountains. The Pisgah National Forest in North Carolina was recently -organized from purchased lands. - - -THE PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF THE FOREST SERVICE - -_The Administrative Districts._ The administration of the National -Forests and the conduct of all matters relating to forestry which -have been placed upon the Department of Agriculture are in charge of -the Forester whose office is in Washington, D. C. To facilitate the -administration of the Forests 7 districts have been established with -headquarters in the following places: - - - District 1. (Montana, northeastern Washington, northern Idaho, - and northwestern South Dakota) Missoula, Montana. - - District 2. (Colorado, Wyoming, the remainder of South Dakota, - Nebraska, northern Michigan, and northern Minnesota) - Denver, Colorado. - - District 3. (Most of Arizona and New Mexico) Albuquerque, New - Mexico. - - District 4. (Utah, southern Idaho, western Wyoming, eastern and - central Nevada, and northwestern Arizona) Ogden, - Utah. - - District 5. (California and western Nevada) San Francisco, - California. - - District 6. (Washington, Oregon, and Alaska) Portland, Oregon. - - District 7. (Arkansas, Florida, Oklahoma, and the newly - purchased areas in South Carolina, Georgia, North - Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, New - Hampshire, Maine, and Alabama,) Washington, D. C. - -Each administrative district embraces a number of National Forests and -is in charge of a Forest officer known as the District Forester who -is responsible to the Forester for all administrative and technical -work performed within the district. Each District Forester is aided -by several assistants and by specialists in various lines of work. -Each National Forest is in charge of a Forest Supervisor who may -have a Deputy and a Forest Assistant or Forest Examiner to assist -him if the amount of business on a National Forest warrants it. Each -National Forest is subdivided into Ranger districts for the purpose of -facilitating the protection work. Each Ranger district is in charge of a -Ranger who may be assisted by other Rangers or Forest Guards. - -_The Washington Office._ The work of the Forest Service in Washington is -organized under the Office of Forester and the Branches of Operation, -Lands, Silviculture, Research, Grazing, Engineering, and Acquisition -of lands under the Weeks Law. The Office of Forester includes the -Associate Forester, the Editor, the Dendrologist, the Chief of Accounts, -besides Inspectors and Lumbermen. The Branch of Operation administers -and supervises the business organization of the Forest Service and -has general supervision of the personnel, quarters, equipment, and -supplies of the Service and all the fire protection and permanent -improvement work on the National Forests. The Branch of Lands examines -and classifies lands in the Forests to determine their value for forest -purposes, conducts the work in connection with claims on the Forests -prior to proceedings before United States registers and receivers, -and assists the Chief Engineer of the Service in handling matters in -connection with the occupation and use of the National Forest lands for -hydro-electric power purposes. The Branch of Silviculture supervises -the sale and cutting of timber on the National Forests and coöperates -with States in protecting forest lands under Section 2 of the Weeks Law. -The Branch of Research has supervision over the investigative work of -the Service, including silvicultural studies, studies of state forest -conditions, investigations of the lumber and wood-using industries and -lumber prices, and the investigative work carried on at the Forest -Products Laboratory and the Forest Experiment Stations. The Branch of -Grazing supervises the grazing of live stock upon the National Forests, -allotting grazing privileges and dividing the ranges between different -owners and classes of stock. It is also charged with the work of -improving depleted grazing lands and of coöperating with the Federal and -state authorities in the enforcement of stock quarantine regulations. -The Branch of Engineering has to do with the proper designing and -planning of roads, trails, and bridges; with the engineering problems -involved in granting permits to hydro-electric plants in the Forests; -and with the making of forest maps, surveys, improving the forest atlas, -and other drafting work. The Branch of Acquisition of Lands under the -Weeks Law has charge of examining and evaluating such lands which are -offered for purchase and recommending suitable lands for purchase under -the act. - -_The District Offices._ Each District Office (of which there are 7) is -organized in the main along the same lines as the Washington office. -Each Branch in the Washington office is represented in the District -Office by an Assistant District Forester or some similar official. -The Office of the District Forester has in addition the Office of -Solicitor (Forest Service Branch), which is in charge of an assistant -to the Solicitor of the Department of Agriculture. He is the advisor -to the District Forester in all matters of law which arise in the -administration of the National Forests. His opinions are usually binding -except that, in urgent cases, appeal may be taken to the Solicitor of -the Department at Washington through the Forester. Many cases of law -arise on the National Forests such as cases of timber, fire, and grazing -trespass. All these are handled in the Office of the District Forester. -The Office of Accounts in the districts is in charge of the District -Fiscal Agent who is an assistant to the Chief of Accounts in the -Washington Office. Three of the districts have a Branch of Products. The -Experiment Stations in the districts are under the supervision of the -District Forester and the men in charge of them bear the same relation -to the District Office as the Supervisor of a National Forest. Most -of the districts also have in the Office of Silviculture a Consulting -Pathologist who has charge of all problems relating to tree diseases. - -The following scheme will illustrate in a general way the organization -of the Forest Service and show how the National Forests are administered -at the present time: - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS - - -Under the head of administration we must necessarily understand those -factors which are essential to carry on the business of the National -Forests. First of all we must consider the personnel, that is, the men -that make up the organization by means of which the work on the Forests -is done. Next we must learn how the money for this large enterprise is -appropriated each year to carry on the work, and how it is divided up -so that each National Forest gets an amount each year in proportion to -its needs. Then again men and money are of little avail without tools, -equipment, and supplies. The proper distribution of these to the 147 -National Forests is no small business organization in itself. Lastly -we must learn of the many permanent improvements which are made on -the National Forests which are absolutely necessary for their proper -administration, protection and use. No large constructive forestry -enterprise is complete without these. They consist of the construction -of means of transportation, means of communication, and living quarters -for the personnel; of extensive planting of young trees to reëstablish -forests which have been destroyed by fires; the carrying on of research -and experiments to aid in the development of the best methods of -forestry; and the classification and segregation of agricultural lands -and the establishment of permanent boundaries. All these matters -must necessarily be considered before we attempt to learn about the -protection and the utilization of the National Forests. - - -PERSONNEL - -_Duties of Forest Officers._ Forest officers are the servants of the -people and they are expected to assist in every way possible those who -wish to use the resources of the Forests. Their first duty is to enforce -the regulations under which all permits, leases, sales, and rentals are -made. These regulations cover every phase of National Forest activity -and in conducting business under them they must not let personal or -other interests weigh against the good of the Forests. For the good of -the Forest Service their conduct must be prompt and courteous and their -business methods sensible and effective. They make it their business to -prevent misunderstandings and violations of forest regulations rather -than to correct mistakes after they have been made. - -On the National Forests there are permanent employees and temporary -employees. Under the former heading come the Forest Supervisor, the -Deputy Supervisor, the Forest Assistant, the Forest Ranger, Lumbermen, -Sealers, Planting Assistants, and Forest Clerks. Under the latter -category come the Forest Guards, the Field Assistants, and the Temporary -Laborers. All permanent positions are in the classified Civil Service. -Vacancies are filled from a certified list of those who have passed a -Civil Service examination or by promotion from the lower ranks. - -[Illustration: Figure 9. Forest officers in front of the Forest -Supervisor's summer headquarters. Note the many telephone wires that -lead from the office. This is 50 miles from the railroad. Lassen -National Forest, California.] - -[Illustration: Figure 10. Scene in front of the Forest Supervisor's -headquarters. Sheep leaving the National Forest summer range in the fall -to go to winter range in the valley. Lassen National Forest, California.] - -_The Forest Supervisor._ A Forest Supervisor is in charge of each -National Forest and he plans the work of the Forest and supervises -its execution. He works, of course, under direct instruction from the -District Forester and is responsible to him. When the amount of business -on the Forest warrants it he is assisted by a Deputy Supervisor. -Both these positions are filled by the promotion of experienced men in -the classified Civil Service. The Forest Supervisor's headquarters are -located in towns conveniently situated with regard to the most important -points in his Forest. The town is usually located on a railroad and -centrally located with regard to the various Ranger districts of his -Forest. His headquarters are usually the center of the system of roads -and trails which covers his entire Forest. From his office also the -telephone system radiates in all directions to his various District -Rangers. In short, the Forest Supervisor's office is so situated that he -has at all times full knowledge of all the activities of his Forest; he -is therefore in a position to give advice and directions by telephone -to his Rangers and other subordinates almost at any time of the day or -night. Such intimate communication is of especial importance during the -fire season. - -Some Forests have two headquarters, one that is occupied in the winter -and the other that is occupied in the summer. The summer quarters is -usually most advantageously situated as far as the business of the -Forest is concerned, but owing to deep snow, which seriously interferes -with mail and telephone connections, a more accessible winter quarters -is occupied from October to May. - -The force of men the Forest Supervisor has working under him varies of -course with the amount of work to be performed. The permanent force is -usually from 10 to 15 men, which during the fire season may be increased -to from 25 to 40 and in cases of great fire emergency sometimes to -several hundred men, by the addition of temporary employees. - -_The Forest Assistant._ The other permanent men on a National Forest are -the Forest Assistant or Forest Examiner, Forest Rangers, and a Forest -clerk with his assistant, the Stenographer and Typewriter. The Forest -Assistant or Examiner ranks next to the Deputy and his work is directed -by the Forest Supervisor, to whom he makes his reports. The Forest -Assistant is the technical man of the Forest force, who upon making -good is promoted to Forest Examiner. He is employed upon such technical -lines of work as the examination and mapping of forest areas; reports on -applications for the purchase of timber; marking, scaling, and managing -timber sales; the survey of boundaries; and nursery and planting work. - -Not only is a Forest Assistant called upon to perform these various -lines of technical work. The very nature of the country he is in -indicates that he must be an all-round practical man. He must be able -to ride, pack, and drive. He must often live alone and therefore must -do his own cooking, washing, and take care of other personal needs. -He must be strong and healthy and capable of undergoing hardships, at -least be able to stand long days of walking, climbing, and horseback -riding. His various duties and the different situations that arise often -call for knowledge and practical ability as a carpenter, a mechanic, -a plumber, an engineer, a surveyor, and many other lines of work. -Perhaps more important than his education and ability are his personal -qualifications. His temperament must be such that he must feel satisfied -and contented under the most trying conditions. He must be able to do -without most of the comforts of modern civilization for most of the -time. For these reasons the country-bred western youths are more liable -to make a success of the work than the city-bred easterner. - -_The Forest Ranger._ The Forest Ranger's position is one of the most -important and at the same time the most difficult positions on our -National Forests. - -The Forest Ranger's headquarters are usually at the nearest business -center to his district and if that is not practicable permanent -headquarters are provided on the Forest. In any case his station -is located as near to the center of the business activity of his -district as possible. If his headquarters are centrally located in his -district, trails, roads, and telephone lines lead out from his cabin -to all parts of his district. His station is built and maintained at -government expense and usually has, besides his living quarters, a barn, -tool-house, pasture, corral, and other necessary improvements. - -The Forest Ranger performs such routine work as the supervision of -timber sales, grazing, free use, special use, and other contracts and -permits, the carrying out of the protection and improvement plans for -his district, and other administrative duties. The average Forest Ranger -has a territory of from 75,000 to 150,000 acres to take care of. On -June 30, 1917, there were about 1,100 Forest Rangers employed on the -National Forests who were assisted by over 900 Assistant Forest Rangers -and Forest Guards. The protective force was therefore about one man for -every 77,800 acres or about 121 square miles. - -The Forest Ranger must be a man who is physically sound and capable of -enduring great hardships. He is often required to do heavy manual labor -in fighting fire under the most trying conditions. For this reason he -must have great endurance. They are usually men who have been brought up -in timber work, on ranches or farms, or with the stock business. They -are therefore thoroughly familiar with the region in which they are to -be employed and especially acquainted with the rough, semi-primitive -life which is characteristic of remote places in the West. - -He must be able to take care of himself and his horses in regions remote -from settlement and supplies. He must be able to build trails, roads -and cabins; he must be able to ride, pack, and drive and deal tactfully -with all classes of people. He must know something about land surveying, -estimating, and scaling timber; of logging, mining laws, and the live -stock business. His duties include patrol to prevent fire and trespass; -estimating, surveying, and marking timber; the supervision of cutting -and similar work. He is authorized to issue permits, build cabins and -trails, oversee grazing business, investigate mining and agricultural -claims, report upon applications, and report upon and arrest for the -violation of Forest laws and regulations. - -_The Forest Clerk._ The Forest Clerk performs the clerical work and -the book-keeping in the Forest Supervisor's office. He sometimes has a -Stenographer and Typewriter to assist him and to do the mechanical work -of correspondence. Lumbermen are specialists who are thoroughly well -versed in all that pertains to logging, milling, scaling, and cruising -timber. They are assigned temporarily to Forests where need for their -work arises. Scalers are men thoroughly familiar with the art of scaling -or measuring logs, ties, poles, cord wood and other forest products. -Planting Assistants are specialists in nursery and planting work. Their -duties include the preparation of seed beds, seed sowing, transplanting -and care of seedlings, and field planting. They are assigned to the -Forest Service nurseries. - -[Illustration: THE WORK OF FOREST OFFICERS IN THE WINTER - -Figure 11. Forest officers and lumberjacks burning the slash resulting -from a timber sale. The snow on the ground makes the burning less -dangerous. Washakie National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 12. Forest officers at a winter timber-cruising -camp repairing snow shoes. Besides cruising the timber, these men make a -logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can best be -taken out. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author.] - -Temporary Laborers, Forest Guards, and Field Assistants are employed -during the field season when additional work on the National -Forests warrants it. Forest Guards perform temporary protection, -administrative, and improvement work; Field Assistants, usually students -of forestry serving their apprenticeships, are usually employed at minor -technical work and timber cruising; Temporary Laborers are employed by -the day or month at any kind of improvement or maintenance work. - -_Forest Service Meetings._ A general meeting of the Forest force is -usually held annually to give the Forest officers the benefit of each -other's experience, to keep in touch with the entire work of the Forest, -and to promote "esprit-de-corps." The time and place of the meeting -depends upon circumstances, but it is usually held at a time of the year -when there is least danger from fire. Often joint meetings are held with -the forces of adjacent Forests. This annual meeting idea is carried -through the entire Forest Service. The Forest Supervisors in each -administrative district usually meet at the district headquarters once -a year and the District Foresters of all the districts together with -representative officers from the Washington office usually meet annually -at some centrally located district office such as the one at Ogden, -Utah. These meetings assist greatly in keeping all the work in the -various branches of the Service up to the same standard of efficiency, -in avoiding mistakes by learning the experience of others, and in -correlating and summarizing work done on similar problems in widely -different regions. - - -HOW THE FOREST SERVICE APPROPRIATION IS ALLOTTED TO THE NATIONAL FORESTS - -It is, indeed, a great task to distribute the money that is each -year appropriated by Congress for the Forest Service so that the -Washington Office, the District Offices, and the 147 National Forests -each get their just share and so that each dollar buys the greatest -amount of good for the whole people without extravagance or waste. To -do this a large organization has been built up composed of business -men who have absolutely no selfish interest at heart and among whom -graft or favoritism is unknown and unheard of. It may be said without -exaggeration that the business of the National Forests is on a -thoroughly sound and efficient basis. - -_Forest Service Expenses._ While for reasons already spoken of, the cash -receipts are considerably below the expenses for running the Forests, -the rapidly increasing system of roads, trails and telephone lines -points not only to a constantly increasing use and service to the -public but also as a consequence to increased financial returns. - -The expenses of the Forest Service on the National Forests are of a -two-fold character. There are costs of administration and protection -on the one hand which might be called ordinary running expenses, and -the costs of improvements, reforestation, and forest investigations -on the other. The latter are really in the nature of investments, -and do not properly fall into the category of operating costs. Yet -they are absolutely necessary to the welfare of the Forests. They -comprise expenditures for roads, trails, telephone lines, and similar -improvements, the establishment of forests by the planting of young -trees which have been destroyed by past fires, the carrying on of -research and experiments to aid in the development of the best methods -of forestry, and expenses connected with the classification and -segregation of agricultural lands in the Forests. The establishment of -permanent boundaries and the cost of making homestead and other surveys -are also in the nature of investments. Such expenditures may be looked -upon as money deposited in the bank to bear interest; they will not -bring direct financial returns now but will produce great revenue many -years hence. - -_The Agricultural Appropriation Bill._ The fiscal year in the Forest -Service extends from July 1 of one year to June 30 of the next. Every -year, in the Agricultural Appropriation Bill that comes before Congress, -there is an appropriation for the Forest Service for its work. This -appropriation is not in a lump sum but by allotments or funds. There -is the fund for Fire Fighting, one for General Expenses, another for -Statutory Salaries, another for Improvements, another for Emergency Fire -conditions, and usually there are special appropriations for various -purposes. For the fiscal year 1918 (extending from July 1, 1917, to June -30, 1918) there are special appropriations for Land Classification, for -purchasing land under the Weeks Law, for coöperative fire protection -under the Weeks Law, and for the Federal Aid Road Act. - -_The Ranger's Protection and Improvement Plans._ Long before this bill -reaches Congress every Forest Ranger on every National Forest, every -Forest Supervisor, and every Branch of the Washington and the District -Offices have been estimating how much money they will need to carry -out the plans proposed for the next fiscal year. Each Forest Ranger -works and studies over his plans for the next year with which he hopes -to protect his district from fire. He plans and figures out what -improvements are urgently necessary to make the remote parts of his -district more accessible. He tries to arrive at a safe estimate of the -cost of so many miles of trails, roads, and telephone lines, so many -cabins, barns, corrals, etc., which he thinks are absolutely essential -to the proper administration of his district, and he estimates the -number of Forest Guards, lookout men, and patrol men he will need for -the protection of his territory. Usually these items are summed up under -his annual Improvement Plan and his Protection Plan respectively. - -_The Supervisor's Plans._ When the Forest Supervisor receives such -estimates and plans from each of his Forest Rangers he studies them over -carefully and tries to decide in an impartial way what improvements -are most necessary in each Ranger district and what additional men are -necessary for the adequate protection of the region in question. He -carefully weighs the arguments for and against each expenditure and -decides what improvements must be made now and which ones it would be -possible to postpone for one or more years without detriment to the work -of his Forest as a whole. For in most cases the amount of necessary -work to be done on each Ranger district is far in excess of the amount -which the Forest Supervisor could approve owing to the inadequacy of -the Forest Service funds. So, for the Forest Supervisor, it is merely a -question of how low he can keep his estimates for money for the ensuing -year until such a time when Congress will appropriate more money so -that all the important and necessary work can be done. In most cases -therefore the major part of all the expenditures recommended by the -Forest Ranger is warranted, but the Forest Supervisor knows that he must -cut all the estimates down considerably in order to bring the total -Forest estimate reasonably near the amount he is likely to get, basing -his judgment upon what he got the year before. - -_Approval of Plans by the District Forester._ The District Forester then -gets the National Forest estimate from every one of his 25 or 30 Forest -Supervisors and he in turn must decide what projects on each Forest are -immediately necessary and which ones can be postponed. The same process -is repeated in the Washington office when all the estimates from the -District Foresters are received, and the Forester in turn sends to the -Secretary of Agriculture his estimates by allotments or funds, which -in turn are put before Congress. While Congress sometimes makes minor -changes in the Forest Service appropriation, in most cases the bill is -passed as it stands. - -_The District Fiscal Agent._ The money appropriated by Congress is -allotted to each district, and in turn to each National Forest and -finally to each Ranger district by funds, such as General Expenses, -Fire Fighting, Improvements, etc. In each district the financial -matters are taken care of in the Office of Accounts by the District -Fiscal Agent. He is the Assistant of the Chief of the Forest Service -Branch of the Division of Accounts of the Department of Agriculture -and pays all the bills incurred by the district and receives all the -money which comes in from the sale of National Forest resources. The -amount of money appropriated for the district is credited to him and he -disburses this appropriation in accordance with the Fiscal Regulations -of the Department of Agriculture. No other officer is allowed to receive -money for the sale of timber, forage, or other resources; in fact no -other official in the District handles any of the Forest Service funds -whatsoever. - -All remittances by users of the National Forests are made to the U. S. -District Depository. If a rancher has bought some timber from a Forest -Ranger, he is given a letter of transmittal showing the amount of the -purchase which he must send to the District Fiscal Agent with the amount -necessary to pay for the timber. The letter of transmittal explains the -purpose of the remittance. - -_Tax Money Paid to the States._ Another interesting feature of the -National Forest business is the money paid each State out of the annual -receipts in lieu of taxes. It must be remembered that National Forests -do not pay taxes to the States in which they are located. On the other -hand, if the National Forests were private property they would bring -into the county and state treasuries yearly taxes. To compensate the -State for the taxes lost in this way each National Forest pays to each -county in proportion to the area of the National Forest lands located -in that county a sum of money equal to 25 per cent, of the total -gross receipts each fiscal year. From the receipts of the fiscal year -1917 this amounts to about $850,000. It is provided that this money -is to be expended for schools and roads in the county in which the -National Forests lie. Recently a law was passed giving the Secretary -of Agriculture authority to expend an additional 10 per cent. of the -National Forest receipts for the construction of roads and trails for -the benefit of local communities. From the fiscal year 1917 this amounts -to about $340,000. These moneys for roads, trails, and schools are of -course a great benefit to the mountain communities, since usually the -amount of taxable property in such remote localities is small and hence -the amount of taxes received is small. These allotments to the counties -have helped to develop the communication systems of local communities -and have also made the National Forests more accessible and useful. - - -THE EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR THE NATIONAL FORESTS - -_The Property Auditor and Property Clerk._ The depot for equipment, -supplies, and blank forms is located at Ogden, Utah, and this office -furnishes all the Forests in all the districts with most of the -equipment necessary. The record of the property of the United States in -the custody of the Forest Service is kept by a man called the Property -Auditor. Requisitions for supplies and equipment are made by the Forest -Supervisor to the Property Clerk. Government property is considered -expendable or non-expendable depending upon its character. Each Forest -has a Property Custodian who has charge of all the property assigned -to the Forest. When property is received from the Property Clerk or if -property is transferred from one forest officer to another, the Property -Custodian must note the change on his records. - -_Blank Forms._ The blank forms which are supplied by the Property Clerk -are printed standard forms used in issuing permits, making contracts, -reports, examinations, timber sale agreements, in short, those used in -almost every business transaction of the Forest Service. Even timber -estimates, tree measurements, and other similar public records are kept -on standard printed forms for permanent uniform record. - -_Supplies._ Supplies such as stationery, typewriters, pencils, ink, -notebooks, paper for map work, compasses, measuring tapes, and a host -of other articles are furnished upon requisition by the Property -Clerk. Equipment such as filing cases, tables, chairs, typewriters, -tree-measuring instruments, tents, cooking utensils, surveying -instruments, snow shoes, skiis, knapsacks, water buckets, canteens, -kodaks, and many other forms of equipment are furnished by the Property -Clerk, although in cases of emergency some of these things may be -purchased locally by Forest officers by the authority of the Forest -Supervisor. - - -NATIONAL FOREST IMPROVEMENTS - -_The Need of Improvements._ It is but natural, from their situation, -that the National Forests represent pioneer conditions; conditions -that one might expect to find in a wild, rugged, mountainous country. -This was true to an extreme degree when the National Forests were -first established and it is true in a very large degree even to-day, -since the amount of time and money which it will be necessary to -expend on the construction of improvements on the 155,000,000 acres -of National Forests is something enormous. For a long time to come, -then, the National Forests will need improvements in order to make them -secure against fire and in order to make the resources, now locked -up, available. Proper protection and the fullest use of National -Forest resources depend mainly upon facilities for transportation, -communication, and control. All parts of the National Forests should be -accessible by roads and trails; there should be telephone communication -between settlements and Forest officers' headquarters and with the -lookout stations; and in most cases suitable living accommodations must -be provided for the field force. For the fullest use of the forage -resources, water for the live stock must be developed and range fences -constructed; to reduce the hazard and the cost and difficulty of -controlling forest fires, firebreaks and other works must be constructed. - -_Transportation Facilities._ Adequate facilities for travel and -transportation are of first importance. Steam roads, electric roads, and -boat lines are utilized in the National Forest transportation system -as well as the existing roads and trails. Added to this, new roads and -trails are being constructed every year to complete the already existing -network. - -[Illustration: Figure 13. A forest fire lookout tower on Leek Springs -Mountain. Eldorado National Forest, California.] - -The need for new roads and trails depends upon the number of them -already existing, the value of the resources that it is necessary to -make accessible, the fire liability, and the amount of unrealized -revenues due to lack of transportation facilities. If valuable -grazing land or timber land can be made accessible there is good reason -for building a new road. In many cases roads and trails are built to -facilitate the protection of large remote areas from fire. Such areas -may have large bodies of valuable timber which if destroyed by forest -fires would involve a heavy loss. Even aside from valuable timber on -an area, it is absolutely necessary when a forest fire breaks out to -get to it with men and fire-fighting equipment in the shortest possible -time before it spreads. If the fire gets to be a large one, many men -with provisions, tents, fire-fighting tools, and other equipment must be -transported to the scene of the fire. Any delay in the transportation -of these things may prove fatal and may result in an uncontrollable -conflagration. - -The transportation system that is proposed for a National Forest, if the -one that exists is inadequate, is usually planned many years ahead. The -ultimate or ideal system is always kept in mind so that every mile of -road or trail that is constructed is made a part of it. If not enough -money is available for a good road, a trail is built along the line of -the proposed road. Later this trail is widened into a permanent road. -The Engineer connected with each District Office usually has charge of -laying out big road projects. A few miles of permanent, good, dirt road -with good grade is always preferred to many miles of poor road with -heavy grade and improper drainage. A road and trail system is planned -for each National Forest which will eventually place every portion of -the Forest within a distance of at least 7-1/2 miles of a wagon road. A -pack-train can then transport supplies from the point to which they are -delivered on the wagon road to any field camp and return in a single day. - -In trail and road construction it is very often necessary to build -bridges. Sometimes a very simple log bridge meets the need, but in -bridging many large mountain torrents, which become very high and -dangerous in the spring, large bridges are necessary. Cable suspension -bridges and queen and king truss bridges are built where occasion arises -for them, but only after being planned in detail and after the District -Forester has approved their design and method of construction. - -[Illustration: Figure 14. A typical Forest ranger's headquarters. -Idlewood Ranger Station, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado] - -Very often navigable streams and lakes are used as a part of the -transportation system on a National Forest. On the Tahoe National Forest -in California launches are operated by the Forest Service on Lake -Tahoe to patrol the region around the lake for forest fires. Ferries, -boats, and launches belonging to private companies or individuals are -used by agreement or if necessary are bought by the Service from the -Improvement funds. Speeders, motor cars, and hand cars on railroads or -logging roads are often used when an agreement has been made with the -company. In this way railroads are made a part of the transportation -system of the Forest. - -_Communication Facilities._ The system of communication on the National -Forests is scarcely less important than the system of transportation. -This system includes telephone lines, signal systems, and mail -service. The telephone system, as can be readily seen, is of the -utmost importance for the transaction of all kinds of National Forest -business. In case a Forest Ranger wishes to speak to his Supervisor -about controlling a large fire, it makes a great difference whether he -can talk to him over the telephone or whether he must send a messenger -on horseback perhaps 60 or 70 miles. In the former case practically no -time is lost, in the latter it would take at least two days for the -messenger to reach the Forest Ranger, and in the meantime the fire would -continue to rage and spread. - -In the absence of a telephone system a signal system is used. The one -probably used the most in forest fire protection work is the heliograph, -by which code messages are sent from one point to another by means of a -series of light flashes on a mirror. The light of the sun is used and -the flashes are made by the opening and closing of a shutter in front of -the mirror. Very often these heliograph stations are located on mountain -tops in the midst of extremely inaccessible country. Where there are a -number of these stations at least one is connected by telephone to the -Forest Supervisor's office. When the Forest officer at the telephone -gets a heliograph message about a certain fire he immediately telephones -the news directly to the Forest Ranger in whose district the fire is -located, or if he does not happen to be in direct communication with -the Forest Ranger he notifies the Forest Supervisor, who then notifies -the officer concerned. Of course it is all prearranged who should be -notified in case a fire is reported to the heliograph man. - -[Illustration: Figure 15. A typical view of the National Forest country -in Montana. Forest Service trail up Squaw Peak Patrol Station, Cabinet -National Forest.] - -Unfortunately it has been found that this system of communication is -not satisfactory even under favorable conditions. This system depends -upon direct sunlight; without it is useless. When there is much smoke in -the air it is also of uncertain value. The heliograph system has perhaps -reached its greatest development upon the California National Forest, -but even here experience has shown that it is only a temporary makeshift -and the plan is to replace it by a telephone system as soon as possible. - -The Forest Supervisor, especially in his summer headquarters, depends -directly upon the mail service for communication with the District -Forester and the outside world. In many cases the fact that the Forest -Supervisor has his headquarters in a small mountain community in the -summer has made it possible for that community to receive a daily mail -service or mail at least three times a week. When the Forest Supervisor -becomes satisfied that mail service is desirable in certain mountain -communities he investigates local settlers' needs for mail facilities; -or he may coöperate with the people in the nearest village who are -petitioning for mail service. Often his influence proves the deciding -factor in getting it. - -As I have said before, telephone communication is indispensable to fire -protection and to quick and efficient methods of conducting National -Forest business. Not only do Forest Service lines enter into the -National Forest telephone system but all private lines are also made -use of. By coöperative agreements with private companies the National -Forest lines are used by private companies, in return for which private -lines are used by the Forest Service. In this way a complete network of -telephone lines is established connecting not only the Forest Supervisor -with all his Rangers and his forest fire lookout stations, but also -connecting each one of these with local communities and the large towns -at a distance. Thus, when a forest fire occurs and the available local -help is not sufficient to control the fire the telephone system is put -to use to call help from the nearest villages and towns. - -[Illustration: Figure 16. Forest Rangers repairing a bridge over a -mountain stream. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado] - -_Grazing Improvements._ It is often necessary for the complete and -economical use of the forage on a National Forest to coöperate with the -local stockmen to develop range by constructing improvements. Water -may have to be developed; fences, corrals, bridges, trails, and other -works may have to be constructed. Often cattle belonging to different -stockmen are grazed on adjacent areas which are not separated by natural -boundaries such as rivers, ridges, or swamps. If there is no obstacle to -prevent the cattle from drifting from one range into another, a drift -fence is built, thus definitely separating one stockman's range from the -other. Often good range would remain unused on account of lack of water -altogether or on account of lack of water during the dry season only. -In this case the Forest Service usually coöperates with the stockmen to -provide water. Roads, trails, and bridges are often necessary to enable -sheep and cattle to reach range lands. - -_Protective Improvements._ Ranger stations, cabins, lookout stations, -firebreaks and similar works are required to protect the forests from -fire and are known as protective improvements. Buildings are constructed -for the field force to afford necessary shelter and to furnish an office -for the efficient transaction of business. Land is often cultivated for -the production of forage crops and fences are built to insure necessary -pasturage for live stock used by the Forest officers in their work. The -buildings may be substantial houses to be used throughout the year or -they may be merely such structures as will afford the necessary shelter -and domestic conveniences for Forest officers in the summer. These -summer camps are constructed where needed for the use of patrolmen, -officers engaged in timber sale work or at such points as will serve the -needs of officers traveling through the forest. Barns, sheds, and other -small structures are constructed at the Ranger's headquarters when they -are needed. Office buildings are also constructed for the use of Forest -Rangers or for summer headquarters of the Forest Supervisor. - -[Illustration: Figure 17. A forest fire lookout station on the top of -Lassen Peak, elevation 10,400 feet, Lassen National Forest, California. -This cabin was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in Red -Bluff, about 50 miles away. It was then taken to pieces and packed to -the foot of Lassen Peak. On the last two miles of its journey it was -packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled -on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 18. Forest officers and laborers building a wagon -road through trap rock. Payette National Forest, Idaho.] - -_Appropriations for Improvement Work._ The money for the construction of -National Forest improvements is secured from various sources. The annual -Forest Service appropriation usually carries a considerable sum for this -purpose. In the fiscal year 1918 $450,000 has been appropriated for this -work, which divided among the 147 National Forests gives an average only -of about $3,000 per Forest. This is really a very small sum considering -the size of the average National Forest. Fortunately there are other -appropriations and funds and each year sees more money available for -this most important work. Under the law 25 per cent. of the receipts -are paid to the States in which the National Forests are located to be -expended for roads and schools. The amount to be paid to the States in -this way from the receipts in 1917 is about $848,874.00. By the acts of -Congress organizing them as States, Arizona and New Mexico also receive -for their schools funds an additional share of the receipts based on the -proportion that their school lands within the National Forests bear to -the total National Forest area in the States. The approximate amounts -due on account of the receipts for 1917 are $42,844.80 to Arizona and -$18,687.56 to New Mexico. Congress has also provided that 10 per cent, -of the receipts shall be set aside as an appropriation to be used -under the direction of the Secretary of Agriculture for road and trail -building in National Forests in coöperation with state authorities or -otherwise. The amount thus appropriated on account of the fiscal year -1917 receipts is $339,549.61. This added to the amount carried over -from the 1916 receipts fund, $136,981.23, and the amount appropriated -for improvements, in the regular Agricultural Appropriation Bill, -$450,000.00, brings the total available for the construction of roads, -trails, cabins, bridges, telephone lines, etc., on the National Forests -for the fiscal year 1918 to $926,530.84. - -There is still another fund recently appropriated which will enable -roads and trails to be built on a very much larger scale than hitherto -has been possible and will result in the rapid opening of forest regions -at present practically inaccessible. The Federal Aid Road Act, passed by -Congress in 1916, appropriated ten million dollars for the construction -and maintenance of roads and trails within or partly within National -Forests. This money becomes available at the rate of a million dollars -a year until 1927. In general, the States and counties are required to -furnish coöperation in an amount at least equal to 50 per cent. of the -estimated cost of the surveys and construction of projects approved -by the Secretary of Agriculture. The apportionment among the States -is based on the area of National Forest lands in each State and the -estimated value of the timber and forage resources which the Forests -contain. - -The total amount from all sources available for roads, trails, and other -improvements on the National Forests during the fiscal year 1918 is -therefore $1,926,530.84. - - -THE CLASSIFICATION AND CONSOLIDATION OF NATIONAL FOREST LANDS - -The classification and consolidation of National Forest lands is -a matter of great importance to their proper administration and -protection. If all the lands within the Forests are to be put to their -highest use for the permanent good of the whole people the lands -inside of their boundaries must be classified and permanent boundaries -established for each Forest. Through this kind of work the National -Forests gain in stability. The classification and segregation of the -agricultural lands is most important, for these lands are open to entry -under the Forest Homestead Act. - -_Land Classification._ The land classification work is organized in the -Washington and District Offices under the Branch of Lands. Crews of men -are sent out from the District Offices and the work of classification, -carefully planned ahead, is done by projects, that is, large contiguous -areas are examined together. For instance, the Hat Creek Project on the -Lassen National Forest consisted of a number of large areas containing -scattered parcels of agricultural lands along the Hat Creek valley in -that Forest. For the classification of the lands on a big project a -surveyor and a lineman, one or more timber cruisers, and an expert from -the Bureau of Soils constitute the crew. As a result of this work over -1,100 individual tracts within the Forests were made available for entry -under the Forest Homestead Act during the fiscal year 1916, because -this land was found to have a greater value for growing agricultural -crops than for growing timber. Under this same policy since 1912 about -12,000,000 acres were eliminated from the Forests, partly because they -were of greater value for agricultural use, or because they were not -suited for the purposes for which the National Forests were created. -Up to June 30, 1917, 127,156,610 acres of National Forest land have -been examined and classified. Such work as this, once and for all time, -will settle the controversy now and then waged in Congress by certain -Congressmen that the National Forests have large and valuable tracts -of agricultural lands locked up within their boundaries and therefore -should be abolished, or turned over to the States, or equally radical -disposition made of them. Such Congressmen usually are working for some -predatory private interests who want to secure the great wealth in the -National Forests that is being wisely conserved for the people. - -_The Consolidation of National Forest Lands._ There has also been a -great need for consolidating the National Forest lands where these were -interspersed with private or state lands. Congress has recognized this -need and from time to time has granted authority to exchange lands with -private owners or States where such an exchange would be advantageous -to the Government through the resulting consolidation of holdings. -Thus by getting the government lands into a more compact body their -administration and protection are materially facilitated in many ways. - -Before any exchange is made it must be ascertained that the land which -the Government is to receive has equal value with that relinquished, -also that the land is chiefly valuable for the production of timber and -the protection of stream flow. Recent additions to the Whitman National -Forest in Oregon consisted of privately owned cut-over timberland -rapidly reproducing to valuable timber trees. Title to this will be -secured by exchange for government owned lands. - - -HOW YOUNG FORESTS ARE PLANTED TO REPLACE THOSE DESTROYED BY FIRE - -_Reforestation and the Timber Supply._ More than 15,000,000 acres of -National Forest lands which are capable of producing timber and valuable -chiefly for that purpose have been denuded of their original tree -growth. These lands are not adapted to agriculture and possess but a -small value for grazing. In their present condition they are practically -unproductive barrens. - -It is probable that one-half of this area will reforest itself naturally -through the reseeding of burns, and the encroachment of tree growth upon -natural openings, parks, grass lands, and brush lands. This natural -extension of the forest on such areas is progressing at the estimated -rate of 150,000 acres annually. The remaining half of the denuded area, -7,500,000 acres, must be reforested by artificial means. This land -is unquestionably adapted to growing timber and useful to the nation -primarily for that purpose. Every year that it lies idle the country -suffers a great financial loss, for such an immense area is capable of -growing at least three-quarters of a billion feet of timber annually. -It was recently estimated that the timberlands on the National Forests -are producing between five and six billion feet of lumber annually by -growth. The complete restocking of the areas now denuded or sparsely -timbered will increase the annual production of wood at least 25 per -cent., an item certainly worth considering. - -_Reforestation and Water Supply._ Even more important than the value -of the timber which is lost annually is the part which these large -areas play in the conservation of water supply. Most of this area is on -the watersheds of western streams and rivers and the fact that it is -denuded is a dangerous menace to the equable flow of the rivers which -drain those areas. The National Forests contain over 1,175 watersheds -which supply many municipalities, 324 water-power projects, and 1,266 -irrigation projects, aside from many other outside power and irrigation -projects which are fed by watersheds within the Forests. The cities of -Salt Lake City, Utah; Denver and Colorado Springs, Colorado; Portland, -Oregon, and Seattle, Washington, all derive their municipal water supply -from streams arising in the National Forests. The proposed water system -for the city of San Francisco, California, is also to be taken from the -National Forest streams. A few years ago planting was undertaken on -the watershed of the Colorado Springs, Colorado, reservoir. This water -supply is worth annually from $80,000 to $100,000. Besides this the -2,000 horsepower hydro-electric plants are valued at $40,000 and the -40,000 undeveloped horsepower are said to have an additional value of -$400,000, making the total value of the watershed more than $500,000, -with the probability that a greater water supply having a far greater -value will be needed as the city grows. - -[Illustration: Figure 19. Drying pine cones preparatory to extracting -the seed. Near Plumas National Forest, California.] - -[Illustration: Figure 20. Extracting tree seed from the cones. The dried -cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh -which forms the sides of the machine.] - -And there are many evidences that the people of the West have begun to -realize that the National Forests are the key to the entire water-supply -situation in the West no matter for what purpose the water is used. The -public consideration now being given to flood control, the requests from -many western cities for special measures to protect their municipal -water supply, the concern expressed by irrigation associations in -Colorado and elsewhere, lest even the regulated cutting on the National -Forests may reduce stream flow, and the rapid rate at which unused -reservoir and power sites in the Forests are being developed, all are -evidences of the importance of Forests in protecting water supplies. -Reforestation is essential so that the National Forests can effectively -discharge this function. - -_Government Reforestation Policy._ The duty of the Forest Service to -put the denuded areas which will not be reforested naturally into -a condition of productivity admits of no further argument. But the -problem is not so easily solved as it is made clear. Under the semi-arid -conditions prevailing on many National Forests this work involves -uncertainties and unsolved problems. On the National Forests artificial -reforestation was an untried field when the Forest Service entered it. -The Government therefore had to develop its own practice in the face -of a great variety of conditions, largely unfavorable. The situation -still calls for intensive experiments to develop the best methods from -the standpoint of both cost and results. More than that, it calls for a -different set of methods for each forest region of the West which has -its peculiar trees, climate, and soils. Then, lastly, when the proper -methods have been demonstrated by experiment, the new methods can be -applied on a large scale with a very good chance for success. - -Therefore intensive experiments must come first. Business prudence -requires the development of all methods in detail and reasonable -certainty as to their results before large sums are expended upon field -operations. In the least favorable regions like the semi-arid mesas -of the Southwest, the work is restricted for the present to small, -carefully conducted experiments, the result sought being reliable -information upon how to proceed rather than the reforestation of many -acres. In the most favorable regions, as the western slopes of the Rocky -Mountains and the Cascade Ranges, the results already obtained have been -so excellent, due to an unusual combination of good growing conditions, -that operations upon a larger scale have been justified simultaneously -with continued intensive investigations. As the work is extended into -each new region or new National Forest, the most favorable sites are -always chosen first. After the possibilities and limitations of each -method have been ascertained by experience under the best conditions -of each locality the work can either be intelligently extended or -restricted. But the work is always conducted from the standpoint of the -maximum return for each dollar expended. - -In accordance with the policy outlined by the Forest Service watersheds -used for municipal supply or irrigation continue to receive first -consideration. Large sums are not, however, being spent on such -watersheds where any uncertainty as to the outcome exists; that is -before successful methods have been perfected by experiment. In addition -to watersheds, reforestation work is being conducted for the primary -object of producing timber only where climatic conditions and other -factors are extremely favorable. As far as possible these areas are -being selected with reference to the low cost of the work, natural -conditions which insure rapid tree growth, and urgent local need for -additional timber supplies. These favorable conditions generally obtain -in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Minnesota, and Michigan and it is -in these States that the best results have been obtained. In California, -Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and the Southwest the work is restricted to -intensive experiments on a small scale, until successful methods of -meeting the adverse local conditions have been perfected. - -[Illustration: Figure 21. Preparing the ground with a spring-tooth -harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. Battlement National -Forest, Colorado. This view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet -elevation. Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 22. A local settler delivering a load of Lodgepole -pine cones at the seed extractors, for which he receives 45 cents -per bushel. Forest officers receiving them. Arapaho National Forest, -Colorado.] - -_Methods of Reforestation._ Two general methods of reforestation have -been developed. The first is called the direct seeding method, in -which tree seed is sown upon the ground with or without simple forms -of cultivation. The other method is the planting method by which -seedlings are grown in nurseries under ideal conditions of soil, light, -and moisture until they are large enough to be transplanted and stand -the rigors of the open field. Direct seeding, where successful, is the -cheaper method, but is necessarily limited to sites whose soil and -moisture conditions are exceptionally favorable to tree growth. The -inability of the newly germinated seedling to establish itself except -in comparatively moist soil makes the success of this method on the -semi-arid mesas of the Southwest, for example, very problematical, -especially since these localities are subject to long dry seasons. In -such localities the use of the direct seeding method must be restricted -to experiments designed to determine the exact range of conditions -under which it is feasible. The main effort, however, of the Forest -Service has been given to direct seeding on areas where reasonable -success appears to be assured. The planting of 2 or 3 year old -seedlings or transplants largely overcomes the adverse soil and moisture -factors which appear to have made direct seeding unsuccessful in many -localities. This method, which is the general practice in European -forestry, must without doubt be employed to reforest a considerable -portion of the denuded lands. The growing and planting of nursery stock -is carried on simultaneously with direct seeding. The object of this is -to ascertain the comparative results of the two methods, the sites on -which the greater success will be obtained from each, and the proper -relation of the two methods in the future development of reforestation -work. - -Since reforestation work was begun on the National Forests about 135,500 -acres have been sowed or planted. The larger part of this acreage was -reforested by direct seeding. Until only a few years ago larger areas -were direct seeded each year than were planted to nursery stock, but at -the present time more planting is being done. During the fiscal year -1916 about 7,600 acres were planted and about 2,800 acres were seeded. -The average cost in that year of planting was about $10.00 per acre, -that of the seeding was about $4.50 per acre. The 1917 costs were -slightly higher, due to the increased cost of labor and supplies. - -The reforesting methods of the Forest Service mean the collection of -large quantities of seeds and the growing of large quantities of small -trees for planting. Since 1911 the Forest Service has collected over -175,000 pounds of seeds for its direct seeding and planting work. During -the fiscal year 1916 the Forest Service had 14 large tree-nurseries -and 7 small ones, which had in them over 37 million young trees which -would, in a short time, be planted in the field. From these figures it -is readily seen that the reforestation work on the National Forests is -conducted on a large scale. - -_Direct Seeding Work on the National Forests._ The direct seeding work -on the National Forests involves many more problems than one would at -first thought suppose. Seed must be collected and extracted; it must be -stored, if it is not used immediately; if the seed is sown it must be -protected from rodents and very often the ground must be prepared before -the seed is sown. - -[Illustration: Figure 23. In the forest nursery a trough is often used -for sowing seed in drills. The seed scattered along the sides of the -trough rattles into position at the bottom and is more even than when -distributed by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. Pike -National Forest, Colorado.] - -[Illustration: Figure 24. Uncle Sam grows the little trees by the -millions. These will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the -National Forests of the West.] - -Seeds are collected in various ways. Often cones are purchased at -advertised rates from persons who make a business of seed collecting. -The collectors deliver the cones to a specified Ranger station or -to some seed extracting plant. But such collectors are not always -available. Seed is collected by Forest officers by stripping cones -directly from standing trees or from those felled in logging operations. -Large quantities are also gathered from the vast stores or caches -assembled by squirrels. - -Seed extraction is usually done most economically by experienced Forest -officers. It requires drying by exposure to natural or artificial heat -to open the cones; threshing to separate the seed from the scales and -woody portions of the cone; and cleaning or fanning to remove chaff and -dirt. Much of the extraction has hitherto been done in small quantities -at a large number of stations and with very simple home-made appliances. -In view of the large amount of seed which must be handled each year -the cost of extraction has been materially reduced and seed of higher -average fertility has been obtained by concentrating the major part -of the work at central seed-extracting plants equipped with improved -machinery. - -A problem of great importance from the standpoint of final results -is that of having seed available at the season of the year when it is -needed. Past experiments have shown that fall sowing is essential to -success in most parts of the West where extensive seeding projects will -be conducted. Experience has also shown that seed on a large scale -cannot be extracted in time for use in the same season. Moreover, -every year is not a good seed year, so that Forest officers must take -advantage of the good years to collect large quantities and store -them for use during years of seed shortage. Purchased domestic or -foreign seed cannot be used to advantage to make up these deficiencies -because it is sometimes of poor quality and not adapted to the climatic -conditions in which it must be sown. For these reasons methods had to -be devised for storing large quantities of seeds for several years at -a time and in such a manner that their vitality would not be impaired. -Many storage tests have been made by the Forest Service to determine the -best way of storing seeds. The tests showed that the sealed glass jar -is the best container and that seed must be stored either in air-tight -receptacles or at low temperatures to be kept for any considerable -period without loss of fertility. - -Probably the greatest obstacle encountered in reforestation by direct -seeding is the destruction of the seeds by rodents. The failure of many -direct seeding projects has been due primarily to loss from this cause. -Failure has occurred on areas of practically every character regardless -of the time of the year the seed was sown. Success has been encountered -only where recent burns had largely eliminated the animals either -by outright destruction or by the loss of food supply. The rodents -which are most destructive to tree seeds are the ground squirrels, -the chipmunks, the mice, and the gophers. It is not strange that they -should seek out the seed that has been carefully sown by the Forest -officers. In many cases these seeds are their natural food and they are -wonderfully diligent and expert in searching it out. - -In coöperation with the Biological Survey, the Forest Service has -worked on the problem of destroying the rodents. Many methods have been -tried out in the field. The free use of grain poisoned with strychnine -has thus far produced the best results and has reduced the loss from -rodents sufficiently to secure satisfactory germination. The successful -elimination of such injury appears to lie in the thorough poisoning by -this method of areas to be seeded, once or oftener in advance of sowing. - -With successful germination assured by the collection of good seed and -the protection of it after it has been sowed from rodents, the next -problem lies in cheap methods of cultivation and sowing. This will -enable the young seedling to develop its root system early enough and -rapidly enough to withstand the first annual drought, the dominant -feature of the climate of all the western National Forests. - -[Illustration: Figure 25. One of the large Forest Service nurseries -where the young trees are given the utmost care before they are large -and strong enough to endure the rigorous climate of the National -Forests. McCloud Nursery, Shasta National Forest, California.] - -There are numerous methods used in sowing tree seed on the National -Forests. Three general methods are used in most of the work. Broadcast -sowing is practiced in the fall and spring or upon the snow in the -winter, both on ground that has not been prepared and on soil that has -been scarified by rough brush drags, harrowing, disking, or partial or -complete plowing. In seed-spot sowing the seed is planted at regular -intervals in small spots where the soil is cleared of vegetation and -worked up loose to a depth of from 5 to 6 inches. When corn planting -or dibbling is practiced the seed is thrust into the soil by a hand -corn-planter, or, in the case of large nuts, pressed into holes made -with a pointed stick. The corn-planter method is often combined with the -preparation of seed spots or the plowing of single furrows, in order to -plant the seed in loose soil free from vegetation. - -On a large majority of the Forests broadcast seeding on unprepared -ground has not succeeded. As a rule satisfactory stands have been -secured from broadcasting only after an expensive preliminary -cultivation which would be impracticable in extended operations and -which would exceed the cost of planting with nursery stock. But -broadcasting on prepared strips and upon recent burns has given some -success. The seed-spot method has been most successful if done at the -proper season. Late summer and early fall sowing has produced better -results than sowing in spring or winter. As a whole direct seeding -has not succeeded, especially when the results and costs of the work -are compared with the planting of nursery stock. Planting has thus -far yielded better results, especially on the less favorable areas. -Furthermore, from the standpoint of final results attained, planting has -actually been cheaper than seeding, in spite of the greater initial cost -of planting. While the major emphasis in reforestation work is placed -upon planting, considerable seeding is being done, but it is confined to -the most favorable localities and sites. - -_Planting on the National Forests._ Reforestation by planting young -trees has received much attention during the last few years principally -because it has produced better results. Much still remains to be said -for both methods and future experiments alone can decide which method -to use in a specified region and under given conditions of climate and -soil. Usually direct seeding has been tried first in any given locality -where reforestation work was to be done. In fact the policy of the -Forest Service in artificial reforestation on the National Forests has -been, first, to conduct experiments to find out what can be done and -what is the best way to do it; second, to reforest by direct seeding -wherever this is feasible; and third, to plant nursery seedlings where -direct seeding has been found too uncertain. - -[Illustration: Figure 26. A view of seed sowing with a corn planter. San -Isabel National Forest, Colorado] - -[Illustration: Figure 27. Sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. -Pike National Forest, Colorado] - -In selecting areas for planting, preference is usually given to the -watersheds of streams important for irrigation and municipal water -supply and to land which is capable of producing heavy stands of -a quick-growing species or of a specially valuable species. Next in -importance are areas which offer good opportunities for object lessons -to the public in the practice of forestry. Some areas offer combinations -of advantages. For instance, a burned-over tract may be suitable for -planting to some rapid-growing species which is also valuable for timber -and at the same time may be situated so that it will serve as an object -lesson also. It is on such areas in general that reforestation by -planting is being concentrated. - -While the reforestation of the watersheds of streams important for -irrigation and municipal water supply has a large financial value, this -value is hard to estimate because it involves not actual cash profit but -loss prevented. But when a favorable site is planted to a quick-growing, -valuable, species, it is comparatively easy to arrive at a fair estimate -of the possible profit on money invested. It has been estimated that -under many conditions it is highly profitable to reforest waste lands -on the National Forests by planting. From certain experiments made it -is estimated that a white pine forest artificially established on a -second-class forest soil in Minnesota, will yield about 46,500 board -feet per acre in 50 years, worth at least $10 per thousand feet, or -$465 per acre. Figuring the cost of planting and the cost of care and -protection per acre per year at 3 per cent. compound interest gives a -total cost of $34.07 per acre at the time the timber is cut and a net -profit of $8.62 per acre per year. Douglas fir in the Northwest will -produce 81,000 board feet in 80 years, worth at least $8.50 per thousand -feet. After deducting all expenses this would leave a net profit of -$555.30 in 80 years or about $6.94 per acre per year. These profits are -indeed large, considering that the land is not capable of producing -cereal or vegetable crops profitably. And it must be remembered that in -all the above calculations all the money invested is earning 3 per cent. -compound interest and that the net profits are the earnings in excess of -this 3 per cent. interest. - -The little trees that are set out on the National Forests every year -are produced in large nurseries, where they are grown by the millions. -In these nurseries the little trees receive the most expert care from -the time the seeds germinate until the time they are large enough to -withstand the rigors of wind and weather on the barren hillsides of -Uncle Sam's Forests. The seeds are first carefully sown in seed beds -and left to develop in these from one to three years. At the end of one -year they may be transplanted in nursery rows where they will have more -room to develop. Rapidly growing species like yellow pine are kept only -a year in the seed bed and perhaps one or two years in the transplant -beds; but slow growing species, like cedar, must remain in the seed beds -two years and usually two years in the transplant beds. All this depends -upon the species and the site upon which it is to be planted. - -If my reader were to visit the Pikes Peak region during spring or fall -he would doubtless encounter large gangs of men planting young trees -on the barren mountain slopes. Under the proper supervision of Forest -officers some of the men will be seen digging holes with a mattock while -others are coming directly behind them with bags or boxes with wet moss -or burlap, containing small trees. These men are called respectively the -diggers and planters. Two men will plant from 500 to 1,000 trees a day, -depending upon how deep the holes must be dug to accommodate the roots, -whether the ground is bare or covered with sod, whether the land is -mountainous or level, and many other factors. - -In this way Uncle Sam plants his denuded areas in the Forests, so -that they will be producing _timber_ for future generations instead -of useless _brush_ or _tree weeds_. The great variety of climatic and -topographic conditions included in the National Forest area makes the -problem of tree planting infinitely complex. Nursery stock must be -raised in each region having similar climatic conditions, and in each of -these regions different methods of planting must be used, depending upon -local conditions. The semi-arid mesas of Arizona and New Mexico present -different planting problems from the humid forest regions of Oregon and -Washington; the methods used in the sandhills of Nebraska and the sand -plains of Michigan cannot be applied in full on the high mountain slopes -of Colorado; nor are the planting problems in the vast chaparral areas -of northern California anything like those encountered in the mountains -of Idaho, or in the prairie States of the Middle West, or in the Black -Hills. Then, again, the reforestation problems of the chaparral fields -of southern California are more perplexing than any I have mentioned -above. - -[Illustration: Figure 28. A planting crew at work setting out small -trees. The man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind plants the tree. -Wasatch National Forest, Utah] - - -THE ORGANIZATION AND SCOPE OF FOREST EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS - -_The Need of Scientific Experiments._ No science can make progress -without intensive experiments and investigations, least of all a new -science like forestry. The science of forestry as it has developed -in Europe is several hundred years old, but the science of forestry -as applied to American conditions is still in the infancy of its -development--probably not over 20 years old. Therefore we know very -little about our trees, our forests, and the wood which they produce, -and the professional foresters who handle the scientific work on our -National Forests are very much handicapped. To supply the needed -information about the requirements of many of our tree species, the uses -to which their wood can be put, and many other related subjects, the -Forest Service has established 8 Forest Experiment Stations (recently -reduced to 6) and one Forest Products Laboratory. It has become the -business of these institutions to study the laws governing the life of -the tree and the forest and their effect upon the final product--wood. -The Experiment Stations are working on the solution of the many -problems which confront the Forest officers in the management and the -protection of the National Forests; while the Forest Products Laboratory -was organized to promote the most profitable utilization and the most -economical disposition of the forest products of the National Forests. -Both sets of institutions, in doing this, are helping materially to -build up the science of American Forestry, which even to-day can hardly -be said to exist. - -_The Science of Growing Timber._ In order to better understand the many -diversified problems which are being studied at the Forest Experiment -Stations, it is necessary to give the reader a few ideas concerning the -science of forest ecology. This science is the basis of all problems -dealing with the growing of timber and is therefore a study of the -utmost importance to forestry. Forest ecology is the study of the -relations of trees and forests to their surroundings. By surroundings -(or environment) we mean all the factors which influence their growth -and reproduction, such as soil temperature, soil moisture, soil -texture, rainfall, light, wind, air temperature, relative humidity, -altitude, slope, exposure, and surface. Forests, we must remember, are -not warehouses of standing logs; they are not merely aggregations of -individual trees; but they are complex communities of living organisms, -which are affected in many ways by climate and soil and which, in -turn, affect in no small degree the climatic and soil conditions in -their immediate vicinity. The forester cannot treat the forest as -an aggregation of individuals, for forests have laws which govern -their behavior which are entirely different from those that govern -the individual tree. Some foresters and botanists prefer to call this -science by the name of "tree sociology," and they compare it with human -sociology. Individuals, as we well know, are governed by different -natural laws than communities. Just so with trees and forests. In order, -therefore, to grow a never-failing supply of timber intelligently and -economically we must understand these complex organisms and communities, -we must study their behavior under different soil and climatic -conditions and ascertain the conditions under which they grow best. Only -by doing this can the forester achieve all the objects of forestry, -namely, to help Nature to produce more and better timber, in a shorter -length of time and at the smallest possible cost. - -The experimental work of the Forest Experiment Stations is grouped -under such categories as these: dendrological studies, forestation -studies, studies in forest influences, studies relating to forest -management, studies in forest protection, commercial tree studies, and -grazing studies. - -_Dendrological Studies._ Dendrological studies include studies in tree -distribution and wood identification. For each tree species growing in -the United States (and there are about 500 of them) it is desirable to -know its geographical distribution, its commercial distribution, and -its local distribution. The first of these deals with the entire range -of the tree by geographical divisions; the second of these with the -distribution of those bodies of timber that are of commercial quantity -or size; and the last deals with the distribution of the tree by -local divisions, such as lowlands, slopes, ridges, valleys, plateaus, -etc. This information is usually placed on maps for permanent record. -Observations by Forest officers on the many National Forests are -recorded by them and at the first opportunity sent to Washington. Very -often it happens that the range of a species of tree is considerably -extended and that a tree is found growing in a locality where it was -never reported from before. The identification of woods is done at -the Forest Products Laboratory. The distinguishing characteristics of -the woods of many American tree species have been determined. The wood -of different trees is studied under the microscope to discover in what -way it differs from other woods closely related. Many such results are -published for the benefit of both the lumber dealer and the general -public in the form of bulletins. Both the subject of dyewoods and that -of the many woods now sold as mahogany have been investigated in this -way. The resulting data have been used by many companies and have helped -to protect the public from frauds. - -_Seed Studies._ Experiments in reforestation are grouped under seed -studies, nursery studies, and sowing and planting. Considerable work -has been done in developing the best methods of seed-extraction. Much -valuable information has been gathered on the largest amount of seed -that may be extracted from pine cones of different species per unit -of time at different degrees of temperature; the maximum temperature -which may be applied to seeds of different species without impairing -their vitality; the germinating power of seed extracted at different -temperatures; the comparative length of time required for the -germination of seed extracted with or without artificial heat; and the -most economical type of seed-extracting plant. Studies have been made -upon the comparative germination of tree seeds in the field and the -greenhouse. The ultimate success of the plantations being established -on the National Forests in a large degree depends upon the character -of the seed used. Hence studies are being conducted of the effect of -altitude, soil, age of the tree, density of stand, insect damage and -disease infection, and other factors that affect the mother tree, upon -the character of the seed collected from those trees, and the growth and -form of the resulting seedling. Also tests to show the effect of the -source of seed on the form and growth of young seedlings have indicated -very clearly that with all species the seed grown in the locality where -the trees are to be planted give as a rule better results than seed -imported from another region. - -_Nursery Studies._ Nursery studies endeavor to show the most efficient -methods for growing young trees for field planting for each species -of trees. It is of great importance to know how much seed to sow per -foot in the nursery beds; what is the best time (spring or fall) for -sowing; to what depth the seed should be covered in order to give -the highest germination; whether better results are obtained by drill -sowing or by broadcast sowing; the best methods of shading, fertilizing, -watering, and cultivating the seed beds; the methods of securing the -best root development of the young seedlings; the best time and method -of transplanting from the nursery beds to the transplant beds; the best -methods for retarding spring growth in seedlings to be used at high -altitudes; and other problems of similar nature. - -_Forestation Experiments._ Experiments in forestation have, year after -year, proven that planting is much safer than direct seeding and -ultimately less expensive. For this reason a greater emphasis has been -placed upon planting studies. These studies have attempted to show the -best season for planting each species; the best methods of planting; the -most advantageous classes of stock to use; and what the most suitable -sites are for each species of tree. - -_Studies of Forest Influences._ Studies on the influence of forests upon -stream flow and erosion are attempting to furnish important data for -American conditions upon this subject. At the Wagon Wheel Gap Forest -Experiment Station in Colorado such a study is being carried on. The -purpose of the study for the first two or three years has been to -determine the character of the two streams which are to be measured. The -forest cover on the two watersheds is practically identical. The results -so far obtained indicate that the influence upon the stream flow must be -about the same in both cases, and, consequently, a comparison of these -streams after the denudation of one watershed will be a very fair test -of the influence of the forest cover upon the relative height of the -flood stage and low-water stage, the amount of erosion, and the rate of -melting of the snow. - -[Illustration: Figure 29. At the Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station, -Coconino National Forest, Arizona. A typical meteorological station -Forest officer measuring precipitation. Note the shelter which contains -thermometers and also the electrically equipped instruments to record -the direction and velocity of the wind.] - -[Illustration: Figure 30. Forest officer ascertaining the amount of -evaporation from a free water surface. Fort Valley Forest Experiment -Station, Flagstaff, Arizona.] - -Experimental observations which have been conducted since 1908 at the -various Forest Experiment Stations have shown that the forest exercises -a decided moderating influence upon temperature extremes, wind motion, -and evaporation. Likewise, the presence of a forest cover retards the -melting of snow in the spring, and in this way huge snowbanks in the -forests feed the nearby streams until late in the summer. Forests -therefore have been shown to conserve the water supply and also causing -this water to run off slowly rather than in sudden floods. Studies have -also been conducted on determining the effect of cutting timber upon -the climate within the forest. - -_Meteorological Observations._ The climatic requirements of forest types -have been studied at the Fremont Experiment Station since January 1, -1910, through experimental observations, and other stations have taken -up the same problem since that date. The first step in this work at the -Fremont has been to obtain a complete meteorological record as a basis -for determining what climatic conditions are most important in limiting -the natural range of such important species as Yellow pine, Douglas fir, -and Engelmann spruce. The data collected so far have shown that soil -moisture and soil temperature are the controlling factors in determining -the existence of the three forest types. It has also been shown what -climatic conditions each of the three types of forest must have in order -to succeed. This work has since been extended to include other types of -forest and a meteorological station has been established at timber line -on Pikes Peak. This station, which is at approximately 11,500 feet, is -equipped with self-recording instruments to measure the climatic factors -which obtain at that elevation and which mark the uppermost altitudinal -limit of tree growth in that locality. - -Such studies as these, based upon systematic meteorological -observations, have an important bearing on all other forest problems. -The data secured in this way especially assist the technical foresters -in solving the various problems in forest management, reforestation, -fire protection, and land classification, besides giving positive -knowledge of the environment in which our trees live and of the factors -affecting their growth and reproduction. These systematic observations -are of prime importance if we ever hope to have a science of American -Forestry. - -_Forest Management Studies._ Experiments in forest management are -carried on to determine the best methods of cutting National Forest -timber to secure natural reproduction and at the same time to improve -the quality and productivity of the remaining stand. These studies -are carried on by means of permanent sample plots, on which all the -trees are carefully measured and recorded. First the timber is cut -on the plots under different systems of management, or thinnings or -improvement cuttings are made. An exact record is kept of the amount -of timber removed and of the size and distribution of the remaining -trees. Measurements taken at regular intervals show the precise effect -of the method used on each plot. Close observations of the reproduction -which takes place, brush and other forms of cover which may establish -themselves, and changes in soil conditions are recorded. On similar -sample plots methods of brush disposal, methods of marking timber for -cutting, and thinning methods are studied. After logging there are -several ways in which the resulting slash may be disposed, depending -upon surrounding conditions. In some localities the brush must be -burned immediately on account of the fire danger which its presence -involves; in other places it must be removed because it interferes with -reproduction; in still other places the brush may be scattered over the -area because there is little fire danger and, in fact, the brush has -been found to assist and protect reproduction. All these possibilities -must be determined by experiments. Likewise in marking timber for -cutting and in thinning practice various methods are possible, depending -upon circumstances, the most important of which are the requirements of -the species and the density of the forest. - -Other management studies deal with the determination by actual -measurement of the volumes of trees and stands, and the growth of trees -and the yields of whole forests. Reliable growth and yield data for the -different species and types are necessary to properly handle timber -sales as well as for forest management. They are also essential for -determining damages caused by fires and trespass. - -_Forest Protection Studies._ Studies in forest protection endeavor to -find the best methods of protecting the National Forests from fire, -grazing, disease, insects, wind, snow, hail, and animals. The most -efficient protection of the National Forests from fire calls for an -accurate, scientific knowledge of all the factors that enter into the -problem. Comprehensive studies are undertaken to secure the basis for a -more scientific method of distributing National Forest fire-protecting -funds. The aim has been to find the degree of intensiveness in fire -protection warranted by timber, forage, and watershed values, as -modified by their susceptibility to damage by fire. Under the ideal -system of allotting fire-protecting funds, the most valuable resources, -which at the same time are most in danger of destruction by fire, -should receive the largest amount of funds and therefore the greatest -amount of protection. Less valuable resources, less susceptible to -fire danger, should receive protection in proportion. Other classes -of fire protection studies have to do with the various phases of -fire prevention, fire detection, and fire control. Studies have also -been carried on to determine the rapidity with which fire spreads in -different forest types, and under a given set of climatic conditions. - -_Protection from Grazing Damage._ Studies of the effects of grazing -upon the natural reproduction of forests are conducted with a view to -devising a system of range control which would minimize such injury -without requiring the total exclusion of the stock from the range. -Studies have shown that serious damage occurs to seedlings under -four feet in height during the dry season, on areas containing poor -forage, or which have been overgrazed, or where there was little or no -underbrush. It was found that sheep do twice as much damage as cattle. -Some of the measures that have been adopted to lessen the injury to -reproduction by sheep and cattle are: the revegetation of overgrazed -areas, reductions in the amount of stock, provisions for the better -distribution of stock by the regulation of watering places, and -the exclusion of sheep from cut-over areas on which reproduction is -deficient until the seedlings reach a sufficient height to be out of the -reach of the animals. - -_Protection from Insects and Diseases._ In coöperation with the Bureau -of Entomology and the Bureau of Plant Industry the Forest Service is -conducting a large number of studies and investigations dealing with the -insects and diseases that do destructive damage to forests. The direct -result of these studies will be the gradual eradication of predaceous -insects and dangerous tree diseases from the valuable timber forests -of the Government. Control measures already taken have shown the value -of exact scientific information. On the Klamath National Forest some -years ago about 900 acres were treated for insect infestation. The cost -was about $3,000 and the amount of timber saved by the eradication of -the insects was worth over $600,000. Other studies are carried on to -identify and describe certain classes of insects, such, for instance, -as those that destroy the seeds of trees in the cones. The various -families, genera, and species of forest insects are studied and -described, and the results are published in the form of monographs. -Many of these insects are difficult to identify and concerning others -very little is known. Investigations on tree diseases have not made -such good progress, because tree diseases are much more difficult to -control. Tree diseases, like human diseases, must be prevented instead -of controlled. A general survey of the tree diseases prevalent in the -National Forests has been made, especially in California. Further -studies have brought to light little known or even unknown diseases. In -California, studies have shown that a certain relation exists between -old age and disease. Incense cedar, for example, seems to become -infested after it reaches maturity at an age of about 150 years. - -_Tree Studies._ Commercial tree studies are made of important tree -species. The results are published in the form of monographs dealing -with the range, silvicultural characteristics, growth, yield and -management of each tree. These studies bring together all the important -facts known about the tree described, such as: the industrial uses -of the wood, the conditions under which the tree succeeds, the rate -of growth in different situations, and the most suitable methods of -management to secure the highest returns. Tables are included to show -the volume of the trees at different ages and sizes, in cubic feet, in -cords, in board feet, etc. Studies are also made of the life history -and requirements of important forest trees, often in connection with -commercial studies. Such studies cover: local, geographical, and -commercial occurrence of the species, the species which are associated -with it, the habit of the tree, its soil and climatic requirements for -germination and growth, and the various matters connected with its -reproduction. Such publications as these give the Forest officers much -valuable information about the trees with which they are dealing, and -also furnish the only sources of information to students in forest -schools on the characteristics and requirements of the trees important -in forestry in this country. - -_Grazing Investigations._ Grazing investigations, being intimately -connected with a great national industry, have received a considerable -amount of attention. These studies are confined at present to grazing -reconnoissance, the reseeding of depleted mountain grazing lands, -studies in the best methods of handling sheep on the range, studies of -the effect of grazing on the forest, identification of range plants, -and the systematic elimination of poisonous range plants and predatory -animals. - -Grazing reconnoissance is a stock taking of the forage possibilities of -a certain piece of range land. This work is usually done by organized -parties, but a small amount is done also by Forest officers in spare -time. This study aims to collect all the important grazing information, -such as: the area of grazing lands, the kind of forage, the species of -forage plants, the location of streams, springs, and other watering -places for stock, the location of stock driveways, drift fences, and -cabins, the location of timber lands that do and those that do not -contain forage, and many other matters pertaining to the grazing of -stock. The maps and field data secured furnish the basis for range -improvement and more intensive range management. Up to date, over -12,288,885 acres of range lands have been covered in this way. - -All intensive forage and range experiments are conducted at the Great -Basin Experiment Station on the Manti National Forest. Here intensive -problems are carried on under controlled conditions and under constant -and careful observation and the necessary care and thoroughness is -given to them which could only be given them at a fully equipped -experiment station. All grazing investigations on the National Forests -are carried on under the direct supervision of this station. - -The seeding of depleted grazing lands is accomplished either by direct -artificial seeding or through rotation grazing. Under the former method -the seed of native or foreign grasses and other range plants are sown -on the range, in the attempt to increase the forage crop. By rotation -grazing, that is, permitting the stock to feed first on one area and -then on another, the grasses and forage plants are allowed to recuperate -from the effect of grazing and allowed to reproduce. The stock is -excluded from one area while the seed is maturing, and after the seed -has matured and become scattered on the area the stock is allowed to -graze on it. As the stock feeds on the plants it tramples the seed -into the ground and thereby furnishes favorable conditions for the -germination of the seed. There are few parts of the National Forests -that cannot be completely regenerated by the adoption of either one or -the other of these two methods. - -To reduce interference with the natural processes of reforestation, -damage to tree growth and watersheds, depletion of grazing lands, and -the waste of valuable forest resources, it is important to develop -improved methods of managing different kinds of live stock on different -types of land. These new methods of handling stock have been applied -only to sheep. The lambing of sheep in small inclosures on the open -range has resulted in the saving of a large percentage of the lambs. The -new method of bedding sheep where they happen to be at nightfall has -been found to have many advantages over the old system of returning them -to an established bedding ground a number of nights in succession. The -results have been better sheep, less damage to range, and more feed. - -It was not so many years ago that practically nothing was known about -the various plants which make up the forage crop on the National -Forests. Forest officers could not identify the plants or say whether -they were of value for forage or not. This made it difficult to secure -the use of each range by the class of stock to which it was best -adapted, to apply deferred and rotation grazing and to eliminate losses -from poisonous plants. This obstacle to efficient range management -was overcome when a system of plant collection and identification -was started by the Forest Service. Some 23,000 specimens of about -3,000 different species have been collected on the National Forests, -identified by specialists and the collector informed as to the value -of each species. The identification of range plants is the first step -toward securing an intimate knowledge of the life history of the -plant. Such information as the soil and moisture requirements, date of -flowering and seeding, requirements for reproduction, and its relation -to other range plants is of the utmost importance if the maximum forage -crop is to be produced on the range each year. This constitutes the -latest stage in the development of grazing studies. - -[Illustration: Figure 31. Forest Ranger with his pack horses travelling -over his district. Meadow Creek, foot of Mt. Wilson, Montezuma National -Forest, Colorado] - -_Investigations Dealing with Poisonous Plants and Predatory Animals._ -In coöperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry the study of poisonous -plants and the means for reducing the losses from them has been -undertaken. The death camas, the lupines, the larkspurs, some of the -wild cherries, locoweed, and practically all species of zygadenus are -plants that have been found to cause death among stock. While the -handling of stock to avoid the poison areas can eliminate the losses -to a small extent, it has been found that the most expeditious remedy is -in digging out and destroying the poisonous plants. On the Stanislaus -National Forest in California, a cattle range of about 14,000 acres, -containing about 67 acres of larkspur, was cleared of this weed at a -cost of about $695. The average loss of cattle in previous years had -been about 34 head. Following the eradication of the larkspur the loss -was 4 head. The net saving was valued at $1,800. Similar operations are -conducted on other Forests. - -The work of the destruction of predatory animals has been transferred to -the hands of the Bureau of Biological Survey. Formerly special Forest -Service hunters were detailed to hunt the animals, and these men used to -kill about 4,000 a year. The Biological Survey, however, still furnishes -traps, ammunition and poison for the destruction of predatory animals -to Forest officers, who do this work in connection with their regular -duties. Bears, coyotes, mountain lions, lynxes, wildcats, and wolves are -the animals that do the most of the damage. What makes the problem a -difficult one is that the wolf and the coyote, the two species which do -the greatest damage to game and domestic stock, are transient visitors -on the Forests which frequent the Forests only when game and stock is -most abundant. They are bred, born, and spend the greater portion of -their lives in the foothills outside of the National Forests. Under -these conditions the animals killed on the Forests are quickly replaced -by others from outside. For this reason the matter was handed over to -the Biological Survey, which will destroy these animals throughout the -public domain and the results will be much more permanent and effective. - -Besides the investigations carried on by the Forest Experiment Stations -many studies are carried on dealing with forest products. The purpose of -the Branch of Forest Research of the Forest Service is to promote the -most profitable and economical utilization of forest products by means -of experiments and investigations. The work of the Branch falls into -three divisions: National Forest utilization, the work of the Forest -Products Laboratory, and industrial investigations. - -_National Forest Utilization Experiments._ The work of the proper -utilization of the products of the National Forests is under the -supervision of the District Forester and the Assistant District -Forester in charge of Forest Products in the districts. Only three out -of the seven districts have such an organization. These men have charge -of all problems connected with the use and marketing of National Forest -timber, the construction of improvements on the Forests, and related -administrative questions. The following problems are included: studies -of existing industries, covering methods and costs of manufacture, -grades, and other specifications of manufactured products and the -prices obtained for such products; the collection of market prices, -mill scale studies to determine grades and overrun, and investigations -in kiln drying; waste in existing industries and closer utilization -possible through improved methods; new uses for National Forest species -through wood preservation; introduction of industries which will -result in closer or more profitable utilization, as the manufacture of -pulp and paper, wood distillation, turpentining, and the manufacture -of secondary wood products; overcoming prejudices against particular -species or classes of material; general questions of timber supply -and demand, markets and freight rates; advice and assistance in the -construction of National Forest improvements, particularly in the -use of wood preservatives; advice and assistance to persons on any -matter connected with the utilization of National Forest timber; the -preparation of publications upon subjects covered by investigations -which have practical or scientific value; and demonstrations of methods -or processes developed by the Forest Service for the benefit of local -communities. - -The presence on a Forest of large quantities of unmarketable timber, -or dead timber, or of material not used in current sales would mean -an investigation of methods for its utilization. Local problems -affecting wood-using industries in manufacturing or marketing timber, -such as sap stain in lumber, difficulties in seasoning lumber, and -the effect of different silvicultural methods upon the average grades -of lumber manufactured, are also taken up with the Products experts -at the District Office. Also in the construction of National Forest -improvements the Forest Supervisor may need assistance in applying wood -preservatives to telephone poles, fence posts, and other material. -Sometimes timber treating plants are erected, if necessary, to treat not -only material used on the National Forests, but also material used by -local residents near a Forest. - -One of the important problems which confronts the Office of Products -in the various National Forest districts is the utilization of the -so-called low grade or inferior tree species. The terms "high grade" -and "low grade" or "inferior," as used at present, merely indicate the -lumberman's valuation of the timber from his point of view and according -to his standards of value. If a certain species will not produce clear -lumber, which is straight-grained, easily worked, and not subject to -splitting or warping, it is at once classed as inferior. But the Forest -Products specialists each year are making progress in demonstrating that -wood, in order to be of marketable value, does not necessarily need to -be cut in the form of lumber. It is also being shown that proper methods -of drying lumber make possible the use of inferior woods for lumber and -manufacturing purposes. - -The Office of Forest Products in California has made considerable -progress in overcoming the lumberman's prejudices against the inferior -species in the California National Forests and the species are beginning -to find wider use and to command better prices. The discovery that -Incense cedar was valuable for making lead pencils caused the price of -this so-called "inferior" species to jump from an average of $10 per -thousand feet in logs f. o. b. cars to as high as $16. White fir, a -species religiously avoided by lumbermen in the woods, was found to have -special properties which make it very valuable as a pulpwood. One mill -in California now uses annually upwards of 30,000 cords of it for making -paper. Lodgepole pine has been shown to have a great value for telephone -and telegraph poles when treated with preservatives. It was found to be -12 per cent. stronger than Western Red cedar, the standard pole timber, -has a more desirable taper and can be shipped for less money. Many other -cases could be cited from this and other National Forest Districts. - -_Forest Products Laboratory Experiments._ The work of the Forest -Products Laboratory includes investigations on the mechanical properties -of wood; the physical and chemical characteristics and properties of -wood; air seasoning and artificial drying of wood; agencies destructive -to wood; wood preservation; wood distillation; production of naval -stores; and the production of pulp and paper and other chemical -products of wood. This work is carried on at the Laboratory and -sometimes in coöperation with the National Forests and district experts. -At the Laboratory there is a director and a large staff of technical and -scientific men, such as chemists, physicists, and engineers, each of -whom is an expert in his particular line of work. - -A good deal of attention is given to testing the strength of woods -grown in the United States, as a means of assisting users to select the -species best adapted to a given purpose, or to find substitutes for -species which are becoming difficult to obtain. The strength of a good -many species used for structural timbers has been tested. The species -most used for this class of timber are the Southern pines, Douglas fir, -Norway pine, Tamarack, and Red spruce. An important discovery was made -several years ago that Western hemlock, generally considered an inferior -timber, showed an average strength 88 per cent. as great as that of -Douglas fir, one of the best construction timbers in the United States. -Strength tests have also been made on fire-killed timber and these have -shown that timber killed by fire is almost as strong as green timber. -Other tests have been made to determine the effect of preservative -treatment upon the strength of timber. As a result of the large number -and variety of strength tests carried on by this Laboratory the United -States Government now has a more thorough and comprehensive collection -of data on the mechanical properties of wood than any other nation. - -Many studies are also conducted to determine the physical properties -and the structure of the different kinds of wood grown in this country. -The minute structure of the wood of many of our native species has been -studied by means of microscopic slides. A study has also been made of a -large number of species to determine the specific gravity of the actual -wood substance. Other tests are made to determine the specific heat of -woods. - -The drying or seasoning of woods, more especially of certain species -which have been found difficult to season, has received a good deal of -attention. A new type of kiln, invented by a Forest Service man, has -been devised to season such woods as the eucalyptus, which has always -been very difficult to handle in drying. Western larch has been seasoned -with a loss of only 5 per cent., whereas the loss in ordinary commercial -kilns usually ran between 60 and 70 per cent. As a result, many -manufacturers have remodeled their old kilns to embody the new Forest -Service methods. A new method has also been developed for the rapid -dry-kilning of Eastern hemlock, which has great commercial possibilities. - -Experiments in wood preservation have to do with the kind of -preservatives it is best to use, the character of the wood to be -treated, and the methods of injection. Experiments have developed the -best methods for treating railroad ties, mine timbers, fence posts, -wood paving blocks, telephone and telegraph poles, and wharf piling. -Untreated mine timbers have been found to last only from 1 to 2 years, -while treated ones are usually entirely sound at the end of 4 years. -Untreated railroad ties last from 5 to 10 years, while treated ones will -last over 15. Such experiments as these have shown the advisability -of treating all kinds of timbers with creosote or zinc chloride, or -some other preservative. Many new preservatives are being proposed or -marketed each year by various companies or individuals. These are all -tested to determine their value to prevent the growth of fungi in the -wood. Their efficiency varies greatly and many of them have been shown -to have very small value. - -Studies in wood distillation seek to find new woods which can be used -for this industry, new and more efficient methods which can be employed, -and new uses for wood waste and stumps. Charcoal, wood alcohol, acetate -of lime, and tar are derived from the distillation of such woods as -beech, birch, and maple, to which tar oils and turpentine are added -for the pines and other resinous woods. These by-products of wood -distillation have many uses, as well as the many products which are, in -turn, made from these by-products. Charcoal is used in the manufacture -of black powder, acetic acid is used in the manufacture of explosives, -and wood alcohol is converted into formaldehyde for disinfection against -contagious diseases. By means of temperature control methods developed -at the Laboratory in the destructive distillation of hardwoods, the net -gain per annum of one company's plant was over $17,000. About one-half -of the plants of the country have adopted the new method developed by -the Forest Products Laboratory. - -Experiments have been conducted by the Laboratory in the distillation -of the needles of coniferous trees and the distillation of the crude -gum of some of the important timber trees of the South and West. The -oils distilled from many trees in this way have found great use for -various purposes. Shoeblacking owes its peculiar aromatic odor, faintly -suggestive of the deep spruce and hemlock woods, to an oil which is -distilled from these same kind of needles. Evergreen tree leaf oils -are used for the perfume of soap, and in the manufacture of liniments, -insecticides, and medicinal preparations. - -Investigations have been carried on at the Forest Products Laboratory -in making artificial silk from sawdust. The industry has already -attained considerable proportions. It consists principally of converting -cellulose into viscose, which, in turn, is manufactured into an almost -endless number and variety of silk and other goods varying from sausage -casings to silk hose and tapestries. Sawdust is used also in the -manufacture of inlaid linoleum and dynamite. - -Experiments in naval stores are attempting to improve the old methods -of harvesting turpentine, which have proven very destructive to the -forests. With the approaching exhaustion of the Southern Pinery as -a field for the naval stores industry, it has become more and more -important to find other species for this purpose. Consequently the -Laboratory has conducted experiments with the various pines on the -National Forests in California, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. - -[Illustration: Figure 32. A plank of Incense cedar affected by a disease -known as "pin rot." By cutting the cedar timber when it is mature this -can be largely avoided. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the -author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 33. The western pine forests will some day be a -great source for naval stores. By distilling the crude resin of the -Jeffrey pine a light volatile oil--abietene--is secured which has great -healing and curative properties. Lassen National Forest, California. -Photo by the author.] - -A great many pulp and paper investigations are also conducted by this -Laboratory. The large size of the industry and the threatened exhaustion -of the native spruce forests which furnish the principal supply are -circumstances which call for intensive investigations. About nine-tenths -of the paper which we use is made from wood, and the amount of wood -which is converted into paper annually has reached almost 5,000,000 -cords. There are over 2,500 newspapers in the United States, and it -is said that a single issue of a New York Sunday paper consumes the -trees on about 15 acres of forest. The main object of the work at the -Laboratory has been to use other species of wood for the manufacture of -paper to offset the fast waning supplies of spruce. Poplar, hemlock, -pine and balsam are now being used in considerable quantities. News -and wrapping paper has also been successfully made from many National -Forest species, including Sitka spruce, Western hemlock, Engelmann -spruce, Red fir, White fir, and Lodgepole pine. Kraft paper has been -made and manufactured into suitcases, bags, wall coverings, twine, and -similar articles. Not only has the Forest Products Laboratory brought -into use species of trees never before tried for paper making, but it -has also improved some of the old methods of paper making to such an -extent that the results have been adopted by various large paper mills. - -Many strength tests are conducted with packing boxes. The railroad -companies of the United States are paying annually claims amounting to -many millions of dollars because of goods damaged in shipment. Much of -the damage is preventable through properly constructed boxes. Tests -conducted at the Laboratory have shown for canned-food boxes an increase -in strength of 300 per cent, by the use of four additional nails in each -end of the box. The results of these tests are being rapidly adopted by -manufacturers and canners. - -The dyeing principle of the Osage orange wood was not used prior to the -investigations conducted by the Laboratory. The value of this material -has been so conclusively shown that about one million dollars' worth -of the dye is now being manufactured annually in the United States and -practically all from material which was formerly wasted. - -The discovery that sodium fluoride is superior to sodium carbonate in -preventing sap stain in lumber promises to reduce materially the present -estimated loss of $7,000,000 from this cause. - -_Industrial Investigations._ The function of the Office of Industrial -Investigations of the Branch of Forest Research is to conduct -statistical and industrial studies of uses of wood in the United States. -The aim of these investigations is to determine methods and conditions -under which wood is now used; the marketable products obtained from -it; tendencies in methods of manufacture; and improved methods -possible, especially in the utilization of waste. When practicable, -such investigations are followed by the commercial application of their -results. This office also conducts all statistical investigations of the -production and use of forest products. - -The work of industrial investigations includes the following: collection -and compilation of statistics on the production and consumption of -forest products, prevailing market and stumpage prices, imports -and exports, and transportation rates; the compilation and study of -specifications of rough and manufactured forest products; studies of -lumber manufacture and wood-using industries as to methods, forms -of material, waste, costs, equipment, substitution of one species -for another, and improvements through a more conservative use of -raw material; studies of special problems or features of wood-using -industries; advice and assistance to States, industries and individuals -along such lines of work; and the dissemination of results by -publications. - -Many studies in wood utilization are made not only of certain industries -like the shingle, or the lumber industry, but also dealing with the -industries of particular sections of the country and with the various -States. These investigations in the States show the kinds and amounts -of woods required by the various industries, the purposes for which the -various species are employed, and the extent of their use. So far the -wood-using industries of 35 States have been studied and the results -published. - -Records of lumber prices for important woods are compiled quarterly. -These figures are useful in establishing timber sale prices on the -National Forests. Statistics as to the annual consumption of lumber in -the country are also compiled by this office. - -The wood waste exchange was established in 1914 by the Forest Service. -It consists of two lists of manufacturers, which are sent out quarterly -to persons desiring them. One of these is of "Opportunities to Sell -Waste" and contains the names of firms which use sawdust and small -pieces of wood. This list is sent to people having waste for sale. The -other list is of "Opportunities to Buy Waste," and gives the names of -concerns which have waste to dispose of. This list is sent to people who -wish to buy material. No charge is made for this service, and at the -present time over 500 coöperators are using this exchange. - -By the use of this exchange, makers of wooden novelties have been -successful in finding supplies of material near their plants. Other -wood-working industries have been able to dispose of their waste at -higher prices than they could otherwise have obtained. Many firms were -located within short distances of each other, but until recently have -had no way of getting together. A Philadelphia firm, engaged in the -manufacture of composition flooring, has been able to obtain a portion -of its sawdust from a New York lumber company. A New York woodworking -establishment disposed of its waste pieces of white oak and sugar maple -to a maker of wooden novelties in Connecticut for use in the manufacture -of furniture knobs. A clock maker of Connecticut secured waste material -for making clock boxes from the planing mill of a New York lumber -company. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE PROTECTION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS - - -The resources of the National Forests may be injured or destroyed in -many ways. Fire may burn the timber and young growth; insects and tree -diseases may damage or kill timber, and certain persons may innocently -or willfully commit trespass on National Forest land and use the -resources without permit. Then also, the fish and game of the Forests -must be protected from unlawful shooting and trapping, and the water -issuing from National Forest streams must be kept free from pollution, -to protect the public health. - - -PROTECTION FROM FIRE - -_Forest Fire Danger on the National Forests._ Practically all the -resources of the National Forests are subject to severe injury or -even to entire destruction by fire. It is an ever-present danger on -the National Forests, due to their great inaccessibility, their dry -climate, and to other unfavorable conditions. There are probably few -forest regions in the world where the danger of fire is greater than -on the National Forests. The great size of the individual Forests, -as compared with the size of the available patrolling force, the -difficulty of reaching remote areas across miles of wilderness, the dry -air and light rainfall in most parts of the western United States, the -prevalence of lightning storms in the mountains, the sparseness of the -population, and the constant use of fire in the industries and the daily -life of the people, all combine to make the hazard exceptional. - -_Importance of Fire Protection._ Forest fires when uncontrolled mean -the loss of human lives, the destruction of homes, live stock, forage, -timber and watershed cover. Besides the direct damage to the National -Forest resources it defeats all attempts to practice forestry; it -nullifies all efforts of forest management, such as regulation of -cutting to insure a second crop of timber, the planting of denuded -areas, and the restriction of grazing to assist reproduction. Fire -destroys the very improvements which are constructed annually at great -expense. In other words, protection from fire is the first and most -important problem on the National Forests without which no operation or -transaction, however small, can be undertaken. - -If the problem of fire protection is the most important task confronting -a Forest officer on the National Forests, then certainly fire prevention -is next in importance. Obviously it is easier to prevent fires than -to fight them. All large conflagrations have their origin in small -fires which if they could be reached in time could probably be put out -by one man. But in regions remote from water and supplies fires may -start and reach vast proportions before a party of fire fighters can -get to the scene, no matter how promptly the start is made. By far the -best plan, therefore, is to prevent fires rather than to depend upon -fighting them after they get started. To this end the Forest Service has -given the most earnest consideration. During the dangerous season the -main attention of Forest Supervisors and Forest Rangers is devoted to -preventing fire. Extra men are employed, the Forests are systematically -patrolled, and a careful lookout is maintained from high points. Roads -and trails are so built that every part of the Forests may be quickly -reached with pack animals. Tools and food for fire fighters are -stored at convenient places. The Ranger stations and lookout houses -are connected with the office of the Forest Supervisor by telephone, -so that men may be quickly assembled to fight a dangerous fire which -the patrolman cannot subdue alone. Each Forest Supervisor endeavors to -secure the coöperation of all forest users in the work of preventing -fires and in reporting and helping to fight them in case they get -started. - -Probably the beginning point of any discussion of forest fires is a -consideration of their causes. The Forest Service has kept careful -records year after year (by calendar and not fiscal years) concerning -the cause, the damage, the area burned over, the cost of fighting and -many other matters. During the calendar year 1917 there were 7,814 -forest fires on the National Forests. Of these the National Forests of -California had to contend with 1,862. Of the total number of forest -fires 40 per cent. were confined to less than 1/4 of an acre, 28 per -cent. to less than 10 acres, while 32 per cent. spread over areas -greater than 10 acres. The large percentage of small fires shows how -efficiently the National Forest fire protection organization works in -keeping the area burned over to the lowest possible acreage. - -_Causes of Forest Fires on the National Forests._ Forest fires on the -National Forests originate in many different ways. In 1917, lightning -caused 27 per cent.; unknown agencies, 17 per cent.; campers, 17 per -cent.; incendiaries, 12 per cent.; railroads, 13 per cent.; brush -burning, 7 per cent.; saw mills, 3 per cent., and all other causes, 4 -per cent. Thus it will be seen that a very large percentage, at least -60 per cent., of the fires are attributable to human agencies and -are therefore preventable. At least 27 per cent, of the fires, those -attributed to lightning, are not preventable, and the only way to combat -those is for the Forest officer to get to them as soon as possible after -they get started. The preventable fires, however, may be arrested at -their source, that is, by popular education dealing with the use of fire -in the woods these causes can be greatly reduced and, in time, no doubt, -eliminated. Therefore, the fire protection problem immediately resolves -itself into two almost distinct phases of action--fire prevention and -fire control. - -[Illustration: Figure 34. A forest fire lookout station at the summit of -Mt. Eddy. Mt. Shasta in the background, California] - -Just how these various agencies start fires may be of interest. -Railroads cause fires by their locomotives sending out sparks through -the smokestack or dropping hot ashes along the right-of-way. These -sparks alight in inflammable material, such as dry grass and leaves, -and start a fire. Lightning sets fire to trees, especially dead and dry -ones. In the California mountains, lightning storms without rain are -frequent and these do great damage. The author has seen as many as nine -forest fires started by a single lightning storm inside of half an hour. -Incendiary fires are set by people with varying intent. How many are set -with malicious intent, just to see the forests burn, is not known, but -many fires are started by people setting fires to drive game, to improve -the pasture, to make traveling through the woods easier, or for other -reasons. Brush burning includes those fires which start from settlers -clearing land and burning the brush and thickets. Campers cause a large -percentage of the fires by leaving their camp fires burning. Instead -of extinguishing them before they leave camp, careless people let them -burn; a wind blows a few sparks into some dry leaves or grass nearby, -and the fire is started. Many forest fires also start around logging -camps by sparks escaping from logging engines, or by setting fire to -the slash that is left after logging and allowing these fires to get -beyond control. - -_Behavior of Forest Fires._ Fires behave differently, once they get -started, depending upon the character of the timber, the amount of wind, -and the degree of inflammability of the forest cover. Ground fires burn -the inflammable dry grass, needles, dead twigs, etc., on the ground; -crown fires are much more severe and, being usually fanned by a heavy -wind, run through the tops or crowns of the trees; brush fires burn the -bushes and dry shrubs from 5 to 10 feet high; timber fires consume the -entire forest--crown, stem, ground cover, and undergrowth--and usually -occur in timber that stands close together. - -_Losses by Forest Fires on the National Forests._ The results of forest -fires naturally vary with the kind and intensity of the fire. Crown and -timber fires do the most damage, and ground and brush fires do less. -While the ground fires and brush fires seem to do very little damage to -the valuable timber, still they may greatly reduce the productive power -of the soil and destroy the watershed cover. Severe ground fires may -kill valuable timber by girdling the trees. The great fires of August, -1910, which swept northern Idaho and western Montana destroyed millions -of dollars' worth of timber and 85 human lives, and cost the United -States $839,000 for fire fighting. These were timber fires and they -occurred for the most part in valuable stands of dense timber. - -The forest fire losses on the National Forests for the last 9 years -show a very great and gradual reduction of losses due to forest fires. -In 1908, the total loss through fires was $451,188 and in 1909 it was -$297,275. In 1910, the year of the great fires in Montana and Idaho, -there were very heavy losses in timber and human lives, due to an -unusual combination of dry weather and high winds. But in that year -the fire organization was not complete; it had never really been tried -out. In this year the organization received its first severe test, and -while it did the best it could with the available men and equipment, -the situation in Idaho pointed out conclusively the weak points and the -short-comings. The proof of these statements is found in the statistics -of the next 5 years, when the average total loss for 1911 to 1915, -inclusive, was $293,000, and, it must be remembered, several of these -years were equally as unfavorable, so far as dry weather and high winds -were concerned, as the year 1910. During these years, however, the fire -fighting organization had a good chance to be tried out thoroughly; for, -as is quite evident, experience is the greatest teacher in this kind of -work. During the calendar year 1916 the fire losses reached a new low -level, compared to other years, the losses amounting to only $198,599. -In 1917 they were higher. - -[Illustration: Figure 35. A forest fire lookout station on the summit -of Brokeoff Mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. Lassen National Forest, -California. Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 36. Turner Mountain lookout station, Lassen -National Forest, California. This is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. cabin with -a stove and with folding bed, table, and chairs. The forest officer -stationed here watches for forest fires day and night throughout the -fire season. Photo by the author.] - -_The Forest Fire Problem Stated._ Having seen a little of the causes, -behavior and results of forest fires on the National Forests, it is -comparatively easy to state the forest fire problem as it occurs on -the National Forests. Briefly stated, it is this: With the funds, -organization and equipment that are available, the aim of the Forest -Service is to keep the area burned over each year (and therefore the -damage done) down to an accepted reasonable minimum. But the problem -is not as easily worked out as it is stated, due, largely, to a great -many uncontrollable and variable factors which cannot be foreseen in -advance, the most important of which are the weather conditions. As -has been said before, there are two general ways of keeping the area -burned over down to an accepted reasonable minimum: either prevent the -fires from getting started (as in the case of those started by human -agencies) or, after they get started, to get to them with men and fire -fighting implements in the shortest possible time after they are found. -The former is called fire prevention, and the latter fire suppression or -control. How the organization of the National Forests solves these two -problems is of the greatest interest. - -_Fire Prevention._ The measures employed for fire prevention may be -either administrative, legislative or educative in nature. - -The most important administrative measures employed to prevent fire -are those that aim to reduce the amount of inflammable material in -the National Forests. This is done in many different ways. The free -use timber policy enables Rangers to give away much dead timber, both -standing and down. Timber operators cutting on the National Forests are -required by the Forest Service contract to remove dead snags, which are -a fire menace, from the timber sale area. Where there is fire danger, -all slashing resulting from such sales must be burned or otherwise -disposed of. While grazing is usually not considered a measure to -prevent fires, still grass lands that have not been grazed over become -very dry in the fall and are a dangerous fire menace. Wherever it is -feasible, old slash left by lumbermen on private lands adjacent or -near to the National Forests are burned, when the fire can be confined -to a small area. Another administrative measure is the reduction of -the causes of fires by a patrol force. Forest Guards travel along the -highways where there is most traffic and most danger. Their presence -often is enough to remind campers, hunters and fishermen to put their -camp fires out before leaving them. These patrolmen mix with the people -and, if necessary, remind them in a courteous way to be careful to -extinguish their camp fires before breaking camp. - -Most of the necessary legislative measures for preventing forest fires -already exist. The National Forest force is seeking merely to obtain -a strict enforcement of existing laws. Railroads are required to use -spark-arresters on their locomotives and to provide for keeping their -rights-of-way free from inflammable material. Logging camps must also -prevent the destruction of National Forest timber by fire by using -spark-arresters on all logging engines. The Forest officers are ever -on the alert for the detection and apprehension of campers for leaving -fires unextinguished and incendiaries for starting fires willfully. -These careless individuals are arrested by them without warrant, either -under the Federal laws, if the fire occurred on National Forest lands, -or under the State law, if it occurred outside of government lands. - -Educational measures are for the purpose of educating both the local -forest-using public and the general public who may travel through the -Forests in the careful use of fires in the forests. Forest officers, -especially Rangers, come into personal touch with local residents and -users, that is, the ranchers, stockmen, business men, loggers, campers, -hunters, fishermen and others. Such people are often reminded by -personal appeals by the Forest officers. Most of them have learned by -this time, because of having been called upon to help fight fires at -one time or another, and having gotten a taste of the result of other -people's carelessness. Many written appeals are also sent out by the -Supervisor and are slipped into the envelopes when grazing permits and -other official documents are mailed. One of these written appeals, and -probably the one that has been used most widely, is known as the six -rules for the prevention of fires in the mountains: - - - 1. Matches.--Be sure your match is out. Break it in two before - you throw it away. - - 2. Tobacco.--Throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stumps in - the dust of the road and stamp or pinch out the fire before - leaving them. Don't throw them into the brush, leaves, or - needles. - - 3. Making camp.--Build a small camp fire. Build it in the open, - not against a tree or log, or near brush. Scrape away the - trash from all around it. - - 4. Leaving camp.--Never leave a camp fire, even for a short - time, without quenching it with water or earth. - - 5. Bonfires.--Never build bonfires in windy weather or where - there is the slightest danger of their escaping from - control. Don't make them larger than you need. - - 6. Fighting fires.--If you find a fire try to put it out. If you - can't, get word of it to the nearest United States forest - ranger or State fire warden at once. Keep in touch with the - rangers. - -Besides these kinds of appeals, many kinds of fire warnings are posted -at conspicuous places along roads and trails to remind the public to be -careful with fire in the Forests. - -[Illustration: Figure 37. A fire line cut through the low bush-like -growth of "Chaparral" on the Angeles National Forest, California. This -"Chaparral" is of great value for regulating stream flow. The streams -are used for water power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of -the largest lemon and orange groves of southern California.] - -[Illustration: Figure 38. A forest officers' temporary camp while -fighting forest fires. Near Oregon National Forest, Oregon.] - -An attempt is also made to reach the general public, that is, those -living outside the local communities, but who occasionally travel -through and use the National Forests. Many hundreds of thousands -travel through the Forests every year by automobile or by other -conveyances. These people camp in the Forests, fish, hunt, and enjoy the -cool climate and beautiful scenery. Before they start on their trips, -that is, while they are still in their home towns, and also while they -are on their way, many means have been devised to reach them. They -are confronted with newspaper advertisements, folders, booklets, and -other printed matter. In towns and cities, public meetings, lectures, -exhibits, expositions, county fairs, commercial clubs, and the chambers -of commerce, all help, either directly or indirectly, by one means or -another, to inform the people of the great fire danger on the National -Forests. Even the letters sent out by the District Forester and the -Supervisors have written appeals affixed to the outside of the envelopes -by means of a rubber stamp. In short, every possible means is used to -educate the public that uses the National Forests and in whose interest, -in fact, the Forests are being maintained and protected. - -_Fire Suppression._ So much for the problem of fire prevention. In -case a fire does get started, and there are thousands of them on the -National Forests every year, the problem, as has been said before, -consists of getting men and tools to it in the shortest possible time, -in order to keep the damage down to the lowest possible point. To do -this, a vast organization has been formed by the Forest Service, which -is not unlike the Minute Man organization of Revolutionary days. A brief -outline of this organization and how it works when a fire starts will -give my reader a still better idea of what the Forest Service is doing -in forest fire protection. But before speaking of this organization, a -few preliminary matters are of interest; they deal with the manner of -distributing fire protection funds, forest fire history, and the study -of weather conditions. - -_How Forest Fire Funds Are Distributed._ It devolves upon the Forest -Supervisor and also the District Forester to apportion the appropriation -allotted for fire protection in the most economical and efficient -manner. First of all, the money is allotted to the various Forests in -proportion to their needs. These needs are measured by the size of the -Forest, the value of its resources, the length of the dangerous dry -season, the fire liability or the amount of money loss in case of fire, -the fire hazard or the degree to which an area is subject to fire -danger, the difficulty of prevention and control and many other factors. -These same factors are employed to apportion the Supervisor's allotment -of money to the various Ranger districts on his Forest. - -Probably the most difficult factors for the Forest Supervisor to -appraise on each Ranger district are the fire liability and the fire -hazard. Fire liability has to do with the amount of damage a fire could -do if it got started. Valuable timber needs protection most of all, and -the value of the forest is determined by the kind of trees in it and the -density of the stand. Fire hazard is usually expressed in terms of risk. -The Supervisor asks his Ranger if the risk on a certain area in his -district is high, low, or medium. Risk depends, of course, largely upon -the character and inflammability of the forest cover and the presence of -human causes. Dense forests involve greater risk than open, scattering -trees; government forests interspersed with private holdings containing -much old slash have a high risk factor; and government forests near -sawmills, large towns, and along railroad rights-of-way also have high -risk factors. All these matters must be considered, in order that each -area on each Ranger district gets just enough money for fire protection -and not a bit more. - -[Illustration: Figure 39. Putting out a ground fire. Even if the -fire does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young trees and -so weakens the larger ones that they are easily blown over. Wallowa -National Forest, Oregon.] - -[Illustration: Figure 40. Forest officers ready to leave a tool box for -a forest fire in the vicinity. Such tool boxes as these are stationed at -convenient places on National Forests ready for any emergency. Arapaho -National Forest, Colorado.] - -_Forest Fire History._ Very important also in fire protection are the -studies which the Forest Service is carrying on, dealing with forest -fire history. For many years back, records have been kept on all fires: -their causes, area burned over, date of the fire, damage caused, the -exact location of each fire, the cost of fighting it, the total number -each month and each calendar year, and many other data. More recently -records have been kept upon still further details connected with each -fire, such as: the time elapsed between the start and the discovery of -a fire, between the discovery and the report to the proper official, -between the report and the beginning of the actual work of fighting, and -the time required to put the fire out. Intensive studies have been made -also upon the length and character of the fire season on each Forest, -for it is important to know the maximum length, the minimum length and -the average length of the fire season. These data show how much extra -help must be hired for fire patrol and fire fighting, and during what -periods the greatest damage is done, based both on acreage burned -over and by the number of fires. Studies of this kind yield positive -information on what areas of each Forest are particularly liable to -lightning fires, to camp fires, and to incendiary fires. With this -knowledge the Forest Supervisor can plan and distribute his men and -funds more intelligently; they tell him during what period he can expect -the most trouble, and therefore must have the greatest number of fire -fighters at his command. It is scientific study like this that is doing -more than anything else to solve the fire protection problem in the -Western States. - -_Relation of Forest Fires to the Weather._ In coöperation with the -United States Weather Bureau, the Forest Service studies weather -conditions in relation to forest fires. Weather forecasts have been sent -to each Forest Supervisor throughout the fire season, informing him of -the probable weather conditions. The velocity and duration of the wind, -the temperature, the precipitation, and the relative humidity are all -factors which greatly affect the inflammability of the forest. Forest -Supervisors have been informed in these forecasts of what are known as -emergency conditions, that is, an unusual and abnormal combination of -weather conditions which make fire danger very great. These conditions -may be a high wind, low relative humidity, high temperatures, or a -combination of the three. When a Forest Supervisor is informed by the -District Forester that emergency conditions are likely to exist during -the next ten days or so, he immediately sends an alarm to all his -Rangers to be especially watchful. - -_Improvements and Equipment for Protection._ After the preliminaries -of fire protection finance, forest fire history, and the study of -weather and emergency conditions have been worked out, probably the -first and most important prerequisite to forest fire protection is a -matter already spoken of, namely, the improvements and the equipment. -The construction and maintenance of improvements and the possession of -suitable equipment is second in importance only to the organization -which is to do the actual fire suppression. Roads, trails, telephone -lines, fire lines, lookout stations, Ranger stations, tool and food -caches, a central supply depot, and many other things are necessary -before men can be effective. Each Forest Ranger has use for the -following equipment: fire fighting tools, water bags and pails, teams, -pack horses, wagons, automobiles, saddle horses, tents, portable -telephone lines, riding and packing equipment, and many other special -equipment, which must be hired when occasion for its use arises. If a -Forest Ranger has not access to this equipment, and few of them have, he -has hanging by his telephone a complete list of all the stores, stables, -garages, etc., in the neighboring towns and how much equipment each can -furnish when called upon. - -_Forest Fire Maps and Charts._ Not the least important bit of equipment, -by any means, is the fire map or maps. The Forest Supervisor has a fire -map of his whole forest in his office and the Forest Ranger has one -of his district (sometimes including the neighboring districts, too) -hanging in his cabin, usually posted conspicuously, so that it can be -referred to any time of the day or night without delay. These maps have -upon them all the available information regarding the country which is -to be protected. They show physiographic features, such as topography, -creeks, springs, meadows, water, swamps, etc.; vegetative features, such -as timber, forage, brush, reproduction, planted areas, regenerating -areas, slashings, etc.; such man-made features as roads, trails, cabins, -ranger stations, corrals, pastures, Supervisor's headquarters, sheep -camps, cattle camps, ranches, camp sites, railroads, logging railroads -and camps, sawmills, power plants, towns, villages, etc.; and special -protective features, such as locations of men, tools, equipment, tool -and food caches, local help, emergency help, fire lines, fire breaks, -lookouts, government and private telephone lines, instruments and -switchboards, locations of stores, state Fire Wardens, livery stables, -pack trains, garages, stage routes, etc. All these features and data -are not put upon one map; usually a series of maps are used or some of -the information is put on charts or on the border of the maps. In short -all this information is put in such form that it is available at the -shortest notice for emergency conditions. It makes little difference how -it is recorded, so long as the information is available when needed. - -[Illustration: Figure 41. A forest fire on the Wasatch National Forest, -Utah. Forest officers trying to stop a forest fire by cutting a fire -line. Note the valuable growth of young trees which they are trying to -save on the right.] - -_Forest Fire Organization._ The forest fire organization, whether it -be on the whole National Forest or upon the Ranger district, consists -of three agencies: the fire detection agencies, the fire reporting -agencies, and the fire fighting agencies. All these must work in -absolute harmony without interruption of any kind, to obtain the maximum -of efficiency. The detection agencies consist of the lookout men, -stationed at high, advantageous points which overlook large areas, and -the moving patrolmen, who are assigned to definite beats or territory -which cannot be adequately reached by the lookouts. Lookout men live in -small cabins on the tops of high mountains, and they watch for fires -constantly. In regions which have very few high points and which are -not suited to that method of detection, moving patrolmen are employed. -These men move about on foot, on horseback, on railroad speeders, in -automobiles, or in any other conveyance adapted to the country they are -in. - -When the detectors find a fire they report it immediately to the -nearest Forest Ranger or the Forest Supervisor. The Forest Ranger in -whose district the fire is located is logically the first man to be -informed, but telephone connections and other conditions sometimes alter -this procedure. Just because a fire is found in, we will say, Ranger -district number one, does not necessarily mean that the Forest Ranger -of this district is the proper man to be notified. The fire may be at -the very outer boundary of his district and may be much more easily -accessible to the Forest Ranger in district number two. In any case -it is all arranged beforehand just exactly who shall be notified in -case of a fire in each and every corner of a National Forest. Each man -in the organization has his duties and responsibilities determined for -him in advance and he does his part without being prodded or reminded. -The location of a fire in the wild and inaccessible forest regions of -the West, which may seem a very simple matter, is determined in a very -ingenious manner. - -_How Fires Are Located._ The lookout man, as well as the Forest Rangers -and the Forest Supervisor, is provided with identical maps of the -Forest. These maps show most of the important features useful in fire -protection work, including also the private lands, all government -holdings, and the public land survey. This public land survey has -divided the land surface into legal subdivisions known as townships, -sections, and quarter sections, and it is by these and with reference -to these that all features, both natural and artificial, are located. A -township is usually a square 6 miles on a side, containing 36 sections. -Each section is divided into quarter sections containing 160 acres -each, which are further divided (though not by law) into forty-acre -squares. The problem, therefore, that confronts the lookout man upon -the discovery of a forest fire is to inform the Ranger or other Forest -officer where the fire is--that is, in what _section_ it is located, if -it cannot be located with reference to some well-known natural feature. - -In order to determine in what section or quarter section a fire is -located, each lookout point on the Supervisor's and Rangers' fire maps -has a transparent circular protractor mounted on it. (A protractor is -a device by which angles are marked off; it consists of a circle upon -whose arc the degrees from 0 to 360 are indicated, 0 degrees being -equivalent to North, 90° to East, 180° to South and 270° to West.) -The center of the protractor is the lookout point. A piece of black -thread is fastened to the center of each lookout point, so that it can -be stretched across the arc of the circle and the degrees read off. -The other end of the thread has fastened to it a thumb tack or similar -device, so that when the thread is stretched to read a certain angle, -it can be fixed at that angle. The maps of the lookout men are usually -fastened or permanently mounted upon a table which is oriented (that -is, the top of the map is turned toward the north). The lookout men -have sighting devices, usually alidades, which are placed on the map, by -means of which they sight at a fire; but the bearing of the fire is read -from the angles marked on the edge of the map, which is in reality a -large protractor. - -By these devices a fire is quickly and accurately located. When the -lookout man sees a fire, he gets its bearing from the map by means of -the sighting device. He telephones this bearing to the Ranger, or, in -many cases, to the Supervisor. Immediately the Supervisor goes to his -map, picks up the black thread attached to this lookout point, stretches -the string, and, having marked off the bearing, pushes the thumb tack -into the map. In the meantime, another lookout, perhaps two more, have -sighted the same fire. The black threads from the other lookout points -on the Supervisor's map are stretched and fixed in a similar manner. The -fire will be found to be at the point where two or more of these black -threads intersect. This is only one of the many ways which have been -devised to locate forest fires; there are other methods, but all are -based upon the same principle. - -[Illustration: Figure 42. A forest fire running in dense underbrush on -one of the National Forests in Oregon.] - -[Illustration: Figure 43. Men in a dense forest with heavy undergrowth -clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is running down hill. Crater -National Forest, Oregon.] - -_The Fire Fighting Organization._ The organization of men who do the -actual fire suppression must be an elastic one, adequate to meet -the needs of a Ranger district or of a whole National Forest, or, in -some cases, of an entire administrative district, comprising as many -as 25 to 30 National Forests. The Forest Guards and Forest Rangers are -known as the first line of defense in this war against forest fires. -Upon them falls the brunt of the work of fire suppression. The second -line is composed of local stockmen, ranchers, and logging and sawmill -crews. When these prove insufficient in number, the large villages and -towns are called upon, and the last resort is the labor of the cities -and the United States Army. Thus, in the case of a very large fire the -organization of the Forest Service is modified to cover not only each -and every National Forest, but also entire States. In case of a very -large fire, every available man from each Forest is sent to take his -place in the organization. Expert fire fighters are sent direct to the -fire. Other Forest officers are sent to the large towns and villages -to act as quartermasters. These men hire fire fighters, entrain them, -and fill orders for food, bedding, tools, and other equipment. Other -quartermasters at the scene of the fire check shipments of supplies, -check the time of fire fighters, approve accounts, hire transportation, -and perform similar duties. Special disbursing agents are sent to -the scene to pay the men. In short, everything is done to dispatch -as quickly as possible the necessary men, food and equipment to the -fire, and to do it in accordance with the prearranged plan for such -emergencies. - -_Forest Fire Coöperation._ A very important part of the plan of fire -protection on the National Forests are the coöperative agreements -entered into between the Forest Service and private individuals or -companies. Such coöperation may be in the form of building improvements -for fire suppression, furnishing men in case of fire, furnishing -lookouts or patrols, furnishing equipment, and, in fact, in connection -with any of the necessary means for fighting fire. This coöperation has -been of mutual benefit. One National Forest may coöperate with one or -more neighboring Forests or with sawmills, power plants, logging camps, -or railroad companies. Coöperation may also be with a well-organized -Forest Protection Association, of which there are a large number in the -Western States. These coöperative agencies agree to send a large force -of their men to fires on the National Forest in their vicinity, and the -Forest Service reciprocates by sending men for fires occurring on their -lands, which may threaten National Forest timber. Often coöperative -agencies enter into agreement to build jointly with the Forest Service -certain improvements, such as telephone lines, lookout towers, or -trails, which will benefit public fire protection as well as private. -Many sawmills and logging companies who operate on or near the National -Forests have agreements with the Service, by which they suspend all -operations and send all their help to fires which threaten National -Forest timber. All timber sale contracts of the Forest Service provide -for coöperative fire protection. - -_Fighting Forest Fires._ The most important requirements for successful -fire suppression are: quick arrival after discovery, adequate forces of -men, proper equipment, thorough organization on the fire line, skill in -attacking, and careful, systematic patrol after the fire is thought to -be out. All fires, whether large or small, require generals to lead the -attacking forces, and the strategy of fire fighting can only be learned -after long experience on the fire line. A cool, level-headed man is the -greatest necessity in an emergency, for it is as disastrous to get too -many men as it is too few. A few men that know how to attack a fire are -worth a great deal more than a great many that are inexperienced. - -[Illustration: Figure 44. Fire in a Lodgepole pine forest in Colorado. -Arapaho National Forest, Colorado] - -[Illustration: Figure 45. A mountain fire in "Chaparral," five hours -after it started. Pasadena, California] - -There are different kinds of fires, depending upon their size, their -intensity, and the nature of the country in which they are burning. -And there are as many different methods of fighting fire as there are -kinds of fires. Some fires, such as grass fires or those burning in -the needles and litter in the forest, can be extinguished directly by -being smothered or beaten out. For this purpose Rangers sometimes use -their saddle blankets, when nothing else is handy, but usually wet gunny -sacks, boughs, and tree branches are used. Often, if it is available, -sand or dirt is thrown on the fire with a shovel. Surface fires are a -little more difficult to extinguish. They are more intense and more -swift and consume brush, young growth, and fallen dry trees. These -usually cannot be attacked directly, but must be controlled indirectly -by the building of a trench or a fire break, or by a system of back -firing. Trenches are fire breaks in miniature, usually from one to -several feet wide. Fire breaks or fire lines are broad belts from 30 to -50 feet wide, which are cleared of inflammable material, not so much -to stop the fire when it reaches this belt as to furnish a safe area -from which fire can be fought and, most of all, from which back firing -can be started. These lines or belts are usually built along ridges. If -a fire starts on the lower slope of a mountain and the wind carries it -up the mountain toward the fire line, the only hope of stopping the fire -at the top of the ridge at the fire line is to start fires on the top -of the ridge, which will burn down the slope and meet the original fire -coming up. In rare cases, as, for instance, in the Idaho fires of 1910, -the fires get to be so large and swift that all methods of attack prove -futile and the only salvation is in natural barriers, such as rivers, or -a change of the wind, or rain, to extinguish them. - -In all fire fighting work, the plan is to surround the fire (if it -cannot be beaten or smothered out) by a trench, fire line, or fire -break, and to prevent the fire from spreading. In this kind of work, -shovels, spades, mattocks, rakes, and hoes are used to move the soil; -saws and axes are used to remove fallen trees from the fire line, and in -some cases plows, dynamite, and other implements are employed. - - -PROTECTION AGAINST TRESPASS, FOREST INSECTS, EROSION AND OTHER AGENCIES - -While the protection of the Forest resources from fire is probably the -most important phase of forest protection, it is not the only one by -any means. The National Forest force also protects the Forest resources -from trespass, from insect damages, and from tree diseases. Also water -supply for domestic use, for irrigation, water-power, and navigation -must be protected, and the public health must be safeguarded against -the pollution of the streams emerging from the Forests. It is also the -duty of Forest officers, in coöperation with the state authorities, to -protect game, fish, and birds from illegal practices. - -_Trespass._ The Act of June 4, 1897, authorizes the Secretary of -Agriculture to make rules and regulations for the occupancy, use and -protection of the National Forests, and provides that any violation of -such rules and regulations shall be punishable by a fine or imprisonment -or both. This and later acts provide for fines or imprisonment for all -violations of the regulations governing National Forests. The violation -of these regulations constitutes trespass, and these may be either -fire, timber, grazing, occupancy or property trespass, depending upon -the offense. Since the United States has all the civil rights and -remedies for trespass possessed by private individuals, it may bring -action to recover damages resulting from trespass or breach of contract. - -Fire trespass includes the following offenses: setting fire to timber, -brush or grass; building camp fires in dangerous places where they -are hard to extinguish; or leaving camp fires without completely -extinguishing them. The various railroads that cross the National -Forests are one of the most frequent offenders in that the sparks -issuing from the locomotives or the hot ashes dropping from the fire box -set fire to National Forest timber. The railroads are required to use -every precaution to prevent such fires, but many of them are started, -resulting in damage suits by the Government. The damages cover not only -the merchantable timber and forage destroyed, but damages are also -collected for young, immature growth, which at first thought might seem -to have little or no value. But the courts have held that while the -young, unmerchantable trees have very little value now, they have a -great value as the basis for a future crop of timber. Thus, in the case -of the United States versus the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, -in 1910, for fire trespass on the Black Hills National Forest, caused -by sparks from the locomotives operated by the company, the damages -included $17,900 for young growth. Also, in the case of the United -States versus the Great Northern Railroad, in 1911, in which suit was -brought upon the negligence (causing fires to start) of the defendant -company on their right-of-way, which fires subsequently spread to the -Blackfeet National Forest, damages included the destruction of a great -many immature trees, the value of which was estimated on the basis of -their value at maturity discounted to date. It is significant that this -case never went to trial; the defendant paid damages and costs without -argument. - -[Illustration: Figure 46. A few years ago this was a green, luxuriant -forest. Picture taken after the great fires of August 20, 1910, on the -Coeur d'Alene National Forest near Wallace, Idaho] - -Under timber trespass are included the following acts: the cutting, -killing, girdling, or otherwise damaging trees; the cutting of timber -under sale contract or permit before it is marked by a Forest officer; -the removal of timber before it is scaled, measured, or counted by a -Forest officer; and the fraudulent stamping of any timber belonging -to the United States with the regulation marking tools or similar -device. Under grazing trespass are included such acts as: grazing stock -on National Forest lands without permit; grazing stock on areas which -are designated as closed to grazing; driving stock across a National -Forest without permit; and refusal to remove stock upon instructions -from an authorized Forest officer when an injury is being done to the -National Forests by reason of the improper handling of the stock. The -use of National Forest land without a permit for any purpose for which -special use permits are required constitutes occupancy trespass. But -traveling, temporary camping, hunting, surveying, or prospecting may -be carried on without permit, and camp wood and forage for stock used -in connection with such activities may be taken free of charge. The -unauthorized appropriation, damage, or destruction of property belonging -to the United States, which is used in the administration of the -National Forests, also constitutes trespass. - -Innocent trespass is usually settled amicably between the trespasser -and the Supervisor. If the violation of the timber, grazing, or land -regulations was due to a misunderstanding and was not of a willful -character, a permit is issued and the trespasser pays for the timber -or special use, as under regulation. Fire and property trespass cases -seldom can be construed as innocent, hence in most cases such offenses -result in litigation. - -_Forest Insects._ Protection against forest insects is carried out -in coöperation with the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of -Agriculture. - -An essential part of good forest protection is the work of locating and -reporting evidences of insect depredations. There are scores of insects -which are constantly working in the forests, either injuring or killing -live trees or attacking the wood of trees after they have been killed. -Weevils kill young shoots on trees and destroy tree seeds; bark beetles -and timber beetles infest the bark, girdle the tree and destroy the -wood; and various borers and timber worms attack seasoned and unseasoned -forest products and destroy the wood in the forest after it has been -cut down and sawed into lumber. The greatest annual loss by insects is -caused not so much by conspicuous local outbreaks as in the sustained -annual loss of scattered merchantable trees. Local infestations often -kill a large percentage of trees on an area, but these outbreaks are -easily seen; the scattered infestations that kill a tree or two here -and there over large forest areas are not so noticeable, but, taken all -together, add up to a startling total. - -The task of locating and reporting insect infestations falls upon the -Forest Ranger and other field men of the Forest Service. Since the -Rangers are practically the only class of Forest officers that visit -all parts of a National Forest during each field season, the Supervisor -relies mostly on them to report upon insect infestations. In riding -to and from his work, while on fire patrol, while going for mail and -supplies, while attending to the timber, grazing and other business -of his district, the Ranger does a good deal of traveling and covers -practically every part of his district. These are good opportunities to -watch for fresh outbreaks of insects, and the wide-awake, progressive -Ranger never misses such chances. If he sees reddish-brown masses of -pitch and sawdust on the bark of a tree he immediately recognizes it -as the work of insects. Or perhaps he may see a pine or a spruce tree -with all its needles turned yellow. He knows then that this tree was -girdled by bark beetles very recently, probably during the previous -summer. A tree whose needles had turned red would indicate to him that -the infestation was more than a year old, since trees attacked in the -spring of one year usually do not show the results until the following -summer. These two stages are known by the trained entomologist as the -"yellow-top" and the "red-top" stages respectively. The latter is -followed by the "black-top" stage. In this stage, insect infested trees -stand out very conspicuously as leafless, gray or black snags, and they -tell the story of the work of bark beetles that happened years ago. - -[Illustration: Figure 47. The first evidence of insect attack are the -reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. Lodgepole pine infested by the -mountain pine beetle. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the -author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 48. The last stage of an insect-attacked tree. The -tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. Lassen National Forest, -California. Photo by the author.] - -Probably the first external evidence of the attack of a bark beetle upon -living trees with normal green foliage, is the presence of pitch tubes -upon the outer bark. These are small, reddish-brown (later becoming -grayish-white) masses of pitch and sawdust, which exude from the small -cylindrical entrance made by the adult beetle where it bores through the -bark to begin its egg tunnel. Each tube represents the entrance of one -or more of these beetles. But we must follow these egg tunnels further, -to learn how the actual damage is done to the tree. As soon as the bark -beetle has made its entrance through the bark, it starts to work up -through the live bark and cambium of the tree, forming a tunnel but -little larger than the diameter of the beetle, which is known as the egg -gallery, These egg galleries vary in shape from straight to winding, and -in length from ten to forty inches. As a rule, male and female beetles -work together in one gallery, and the eggs are deposited along the -sides of the gallery, often in little pockets. When the tunneling and -egg-laying process of the adult beetles is completed, their activity -ceases, and they are usually found dead at the upper end of their -galleries. The larvæ hatch and begin their work by burrowing across the -cambium at right angles to the egg galleries. The complete girdling of -the cambium layer is not accomplished until the larvæ have completed -their work, and the numerous larval galleries, by joining one another, -form a complete gallery around the cambium of the tree, thus cutting -off the food supply which is made in the leaves of the tree, from the -lower portion of the tree, namely the roots. Since the roots cannot live -without nourishment, the tree dies. As soon as the larvæ have completed -their development they pupate. Later they develop into adult beetles. -These adult beetles issue forth in swarms the following spring, to -attack new trees. - -The control of insect pests is a difficult matter. On areas where insect -depredations are conspicuous and are liable to spread to nearby valuable -timber, control measures are undertaken in coöperation with experts from -the Bureau of Entomology. In these control projects, crews of men fell -the infested trees, strip the bark from them, and burn the bark (usually -at a time of the year when the young broods of beetles are still in the -bark, namely, fall or winter). Trap trees are sometimes resorted to. -In this method, trees are girdled with an ax and thereby weakened to -such a degree that beetles are attracted to it. After such a tree has -become thoroughly infested in this manner, it is cut down and burned. In -the case of a large, conspicuous infestation, an insect reconnoissance -is made, in order to obtain an estimate of the percentage of trees -that have been killed by insects. When it is possible, the timber is -immediately sold. For example, on the Lassen National Forest, the writer -several years ago made such an estimate of an infestation caused by the -mountain pine beetle, covering over 100,000 acres. The reconnoissance -showed that about 35 per cent. of the trees above 12 inches in diameter -had been killed. The killed timber was subsequently utilized for -telephone and telegraph poles. - -There are many administrative measures which are practiced on the -National Forests, which aim to prevent insect infestation. The -prevention and suppression of forest fires, which form infection courts -for insects, is probably the most important one. In all timber sales, -old dead snags and slashing, which are breeding places for insects, are -disposed of. Through free use and timber sales, insect-killed timber is -disposed of and the loss due to insects is reduced to a minimum, besides -in many cases destroying the young insect broods. - -_Tree Diseases._ In almost every administrative district there is a -Consulting Pathologist, connected with the Bureau of Plant Pathology of -the Department of Agriculture, who has charge of all work dealing with -the eradication of tree diseases. - -A tree disease is really any condition that interferes with the normal -functioning of the tree, be this condition caused by fungi, mistletoe, -fumes, smoke, frost, sunscald, drought or excess of water in the soil. -Parasitic fungi and mistletoes cause most of the tree diseases. Leaf -diseases, by killing a greater part of the foliage, destroy the very -organs in which food for the growing tissues is prepared. Diseases -of the bark intercept the flow of food coming down in the bark from -the leaves. Diseases of the sapwood cut off the water supply, which is -pumped upward from the roots. Those that attack the roots also affect -the water supply of the tree. Diseases of flowers and seeds destroy the -faculty of reproduction. - -Certain parasites are able to enter the youngest parts of trees, twigs -and leaves directly, but the majority of the fungi causing decay of the -wood can get into the interior of the living tree only by way of a pin -knot or wound. For this reason, every wound caused by lightning, by -fire, by man, or by animals, constitutes a menace to infection. Many -coniferous trees cover their wounds by an aseptic coat of pitch, which -is very effective in preventing the germination and growth of fungus -spores. But the less resinous conifers and the hardwood trees do not -cover their wounds very effectively; large wounds are not covered at -all. Upon exposure by a wound, the sapwood just underneath the bark -dies, dries out, and checks. Spores of parasitic fungi enter the cracks, -germinate and infect the heartwood. The spores of a heartwood-inhabiting -fungus cannot germinate and thrive unless they fall upon the heartwood -of the tree. In this way certain diseases of the heartwood, which -result in rot or decay, can very frequently be traced directly to fire -scars, lightning scars, spike tops, broken limbs or branches, and other -mechanical destruction caused by lightning, fire, storms, cloudbursts, -or heavy snowfall. - -Fire as a cause of wounds is responsible for more cases of heartrot than -all other injuries taken together. For this reason the protection of -forests from fire is the most important preventive measure that can be -taken to eradicate tree diseases. In fact, the best way of controlling -diseases is by preventing them, and the Forest officers are endeavoring -to eliminate any danger to the health of the forest, to prevent the -injury of the trees, and to establish healthy conditions for their -growth. This is forest hygiene, and it bears the same relation to the -trees and forests as personal hygiene and community sanitation do to -persons and communities. - -It is impossible to grow a sound and thrifty forest for future -generations if there are unhealthful conditions in the forest that are -a constant menace to the trees. The first step in this hygienic work -is close observation on the part of the Forest officers. The next -important step is to prevent the infection and infestation of sound -trees by getting rid of all diseased and insect-infested living and -dying trees. By means of timber sales and free use, Forest officers -very materially help in establishing healthy conditions on the National -Forests. There is a clause in most timber sale contracts which requires -the cutting by the purchaser of all snags and other unhealthy trees -on the area. This measure not only eliminates undesirable trees from -a hygienic standpoint, but it also makes it possible to utilize the -merchantable timber left in undesirable trees, which would otherwise -go to waste. On timber sales, Forest officers who do the marking leave -for reproduction only such trees as are perfectly sound and healthy. -Mistletoe infested trees, especially, are marked for cutting, for -neither in plant nor in animal life can healthy offspring be expected to -develop under unhealthful conditions. - -[Illustration: Figure 49. Wrecked farm buildings due to flood of May 21, -1901, Nolichucky River, near Erwin, Tenn. This is one result of denuding -the Appalachian Mountains of their forest cover.] - -[Illustration: Figure 50. When steep hillsides are stripped of their -forest growth, erosion results. Erosion has been especially serious in -the Appalachian Mountains. View taken in Madison County, North Carolina.] - -_Water Supply._ Undoubtedly the greatest value of the mountain forests -of the West, most of which are within the National Forests, lies in -their influence upon the regularity of the water supply. In many States -these mountains afford the only water supply for domestic use, for -irrigation, and for the development of power. The future development -of the entire region depends, therefore, upon a regular water supply. -It is not so much the amount of water as the manner in which it flows -from the mountains that is important. To insure this regularity, the -vegetative covering is an important factor. For this reason, Congress -made the preservation of conditions favorable to stream flow one of -the principal objects in the establishment and administration of the -National Forests. - -Many of my readers who have lived out-of-doors a great deal have learned -by common observation the simple problem of how the forest regulates -stream flow. Any one who has been in a treeless region after a heavy -rainstorm can recall how suddenly the streams swell and flood their -banks, and how soon these same streams return to their former flow. On -the other hand, a severe rainstorm in a forested region will hardly have -an appreciable effect upon the streams. The difference is not very hard -to explain. In a treeless region there are no natural obstacles which -might delay or prevent the raindrops from reaching the ground. The soil -is usually hard and dry, and the water runs off as though from a gable -roof. In a forest, we well know, the crowns of the trees intercept -most of the rain that falls; very little strikes the ground directly. -The rain that strikes the crown is dissipated on the leaves or needles, -on the twigs and branches, and on the trunk. It must travel a long way -before it reaches the ground, and all this delay helps in preventing a -rapid run-off or flood. The soil in the forest is covered by a living -ground cover of flowers, shrubs and young trees, and by a dead cover -composed of leaves, twigs, dead branches, fallen trees, all of which -interrupt the raindrop's journey to the ground. Even after the rain -reaches the ground, only a small part of it goes off as surface run-off. -The soil in the forest is loose and full of holes and channels made by -decaying roots, earth worms, etc., so that the water is absorbed as fast -as it reaches the soil. Also the soil in the forest contains a large -amount of organic matter, resulting from decaying leaves and branches, -and this organic matter acts as a great sponge, because it is capable of -holding several times its own weight of water. As a result of the living -and dead ground cover, the crown cover, and the organic matter in the -soil, the rainfall is fed to the streams gradually through weeks and -months, instead of a few hours, and the nearby rivers have a steady, -equable flow, instead of alternate stages of floods and low water. - -Closely bound up with the protection of watersheds is the erosion -problem. Without a forest cover, rain runs off mountain slopes very -rapidly, often carrying with it silt and sand, and, in severe floods, -even rocks and bowlders. A well known physical law states that the -carrying capacity of a stream increases as the sixth power of its -velocity. In other words, double the velocity of a stream and you have -multiplied its carrying power by 64; increase its velocity ten times, -and you multiply its carrying power by a million. The delay caused by -the forest cover in each raindrop's journey down a mountain side not -only prevents floods, but also preserves the fertility of the fields in -the valleys below. - -Many streams in the West carry such enormous amounts of silt that the -storage capacity of reservoirs has been seriously impaired, even within -a comparatively short time. Then, also, there is the added difficulty -and expense of keeping the diversion works--the ditches and canals--free -from an excess of this material. Studies which have been carried on to -determine in what way the administration of the National Forests can -keep the destructive processes of erosion at a minimum have shown that -the balance between the stability of the soil and rapid erosion on many -slopes is so delicate that only a slight abuse may result in complete -loss of the fertile top soil and permanent changes in the character of -the vegetation. - -In August, 1909, the town of Ephraim, on the Manti National Forest, -Utah, experienced a disastrous flood from Ephraim canyon, which was -attributed in part to the overgrazed condition on the watershed. An -examination made the next spring clearly demonstrated that the severity -of the flood was a direct result of deterioration of forest, brush, -and grass cover, due to overgrazing during a long period of years. -The canyon was therefore closed to grazing as an immediate protective -measure. Plans were thereafter made to restore the forest cover of the -canyon by planting. - -[Illustration: Figure 51. A fertile corn-field covered with sand, -gravel, and débris brought down from the mountains by floods. These farm -lands are ruined beyond redemption. This could have been prevented by -preserving the forests on the watershed of this river.] - -In this kind of protection work, as in the case of forest fires, it has -been found that preventive measures are much more effective and much -less costly than remedial measures. The regulations under which the -Forests are administered give the Secretary of Agriculture power to -institute preventive measures. To insure the sufficiency and purity of -the water supply of a municipality or of an irrigation district, or -to prevent floods and snowslides, the use of watersheds for grazing, -timber, special uses, or settlement is especially restricted when such -restriction is found to be necessary. On steep grass or timber-covered -mountain slopes both grazing and timber sales are prohibited, if -necessary. - -_Public Health._ From the relation which the National Forests bear to -the streams that issue from them, it will be seen that they may exert a -great influence upon the health and general welfare of the communities -in the valleys below. All persons either permanently or temporarily -camped upon National Forest land are liable to trespass proceedings if -unsanitary conditions result from their presence. All camp refuse must -be disposed of either by burying or burning. This regulation applies -to hunting and fishing parties, as well as to large logging camps, -sawmills, and construction camps on National Forest lands. Thus the -regulations strictly guard against the pollution of the water supply -of the people who live in the large towns and cities, and also those -who live on the Forests or near them. The watersheds tributary to many -of the large western cities and towns are under special protection by -the Forest Service. Under this sanitary regulation, it is possible to -maintain such control of them as will greatly reduce the danger of -typhoid and other enteric diseases. - -_Violation of Game Laws._ Wild game, fish and birds add materially -to the enjoyment of the National Forests by the public, and their -protection and preservation is a duty of Forest officers. Although this -duty rests primarily with the State the Forest Service assists, as far -as practicable, in the protection of game on the National Forests from -illegal practices. Forest Service officials are at the same time State -Game Wardens. In the event of a violation of the state game laws, they -either apprehend the offender or report the matter to the proper state -official. - -Various kinds of game and bird refuges may be included within National -Forests, depending upon whether they are created by specific acts -of the State Legislature or by Acts of Congress. In these refuges, -hunting, trapping, willfully disturbing, or killing any game or bird is -prohibited. Whether the violation occurs in the state game refuge or the -national refuge, the Forest officer has authority to arrest the offender -without warrant. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE SALE AND RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES - - -The timber, the pasture, the water and mineral resources and the land -in the National Forests are for the use of the people, and they may -be obtained for legitimate use from the local Forest officers without -delay. In fact, the Forest Service is doing all it can to encourage all -kinds of business which depends upon National Forest resources. - - -THE SALE AND DISPOSAL OF NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER - -There has been a steady increase in the amount and value of the -timber cut on the National Forests. During the fiscal year 1917 over -700,000,000 feet of timber, valued at almost $1,500,000, was cut, while -almost three times as much was sold. Most of this was cut in the States -of Montana, Oregon, Idaho, Washington, California and Arizona. - -All mature timber on the National Forests which may be cut with benefit -and in accordance with certain well-established forestry principles, is -for sale and is advertised and offered as demand arises. The outstanding -feature of government timber sales is the fact that only the stumpage is -sold, the title of the land remaining with the Government. The timber -is sold in any quantity, so long as the sale is in accordance with -well-established policy. Large sales require a large initial investment -for constructing a railroad or other means for taking out the timber, -and may even require the construction of a common carrier from the -market to comparatively inaccessible regions. - -_Government Timber Sale Policy._ The National Forest timber sale policy, -first of all, aims to prevent the loss of this valuable public property -through forest fires. This phase of the policy, however, is covered -under the chapter on protection. Next, it aims to utilize the ripe -timber which can be marketed and to cut it in such a way as to insure -the restocking of the land with young timber and the continuance of -forest production. The price at which timber is sold represents, as -required by statute, the appraised market value and a proper return to -the public which owns it. It is disposed of in such a way as to prevent -its speculative acquisition and holding, and to prevent monopoly. - -National Forest timber has found its way into both the general, -far distant market, and the local market. But it is the aim of the -Forest Service to first of all provide for the requirements of local -communities and industries, including the free use and sale at cost to -settlers as authorized by statute. It is also the aim of the Forest -Service policy to make timberlands of agricultural value available for -settlement under conditions which prevent speculative acquisition but -encourage permanent and genuine farming. According to this policy, land -which at the present time is covered with a good stand of timber and -which has been shown to have a greater value for agricultural purposes -is cleared as soon as a bona fide sale can be consummated. And, lastly, -it is the aim of this policy to return as soon as possible the cost of -protection and administration of the National Forests, and to yield a -revenue to the States, since these are entitled by statute to 25 per -cent. of all gross receipts as an offset to the loss of local taxes -through the government ownership of the forests. - -[Illustration: Figure 52. A view towards Mt. Adams and the headwaters of -Lewis River. Council Lake in the foreground National Forest lands lie at -the headwaters of practically every large western river. This means that -the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water -power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction. -View taken on the Rainier National Forest.] - -_Annual Yield and Cut._ Each year the amount of timber which can be -cut from each National Forest, according to sound forestry principles, -is authorized by the Secretary of Agriculture. This cut is based upon -the best available data as to the amount of mature and over-mature -timber needing removal, and the amount of annual growth on each Forest. -At the present time only a small percentage of the authorized annual cut -of the Forests is taken. Most Forests cut a very small part of their -annual allotment, but a few Forests cut their full annual yield, or -nearly so. On some Forests, the entire annual yield is used by local -industries and no timber can be sent to the general market; on others -a very small part of the annual yield is used by local needs and most -of the cut can be sent to the general market. On the Cascade National -Forest, in Oregon, for instance, the annual production is estimated at -about 200,000,000 feet, while the present local needs can be supplied -by approximately 1,000,000 feet. From such a Forest a large annual cut -can be made for the general market. On the Deerlodge National Forest, in -Montana, on the other hand, the annual yield is estimated to be about -40,000,000 feet, all of which is needed to supply the large copper mines -near Butte. From Forests like this, no sales for the general market can -be made. - -Although the National Forests contain about six hundred billions of -board feet of timber, or about one-fifth of the standing timber in the -United States, only a small fraction of the available timber is actually -disposed of. This is due to the comparative inaccessibility of this -timber and the presence of large bodies of privately owned timber which -lie between it and the market. The result of this condition is that the -bulk of the salable timber on the Forests will be automatically saved -until such a time when most of the privately owned timber has been cut. -In this way, future generations will benefit and the public will receive -a much better price for it years hence than they could possibly obtain -now. - -_Timber Reconnoissance._ Before any timber can be sold to advantage, -however, it is necessary to take an inventory of the timber resources. -In other words, it is necessary to know where the timber is, how much -there is, and what can be done with it. This timber estimate, or timber -reconnoissance, as it is called, is also needed to settle questions of -title arising from the presence of patented lands or valid claims; to -determine if cutting is advisable on a given area, and, if so, under -what stipulations; and to fix the minimum price at which stumpage is to -be sold. The annual yield, or the amount of timber grown or produced -annually upon an area, must be the ultimate basis of the annual cut, and -this yield can only be computed after an inventory of the timber has -been made. - -Timber reconnoissance (valuation survey or valuation strips) involves an -estimate of the standing timber by small legal or natural subdivisions -of land, with the necessary land surveys, the preparation of an accurate -topographic and forest type map, and the compilation of detailed -descriptive notes. These notes deal with the condition and character -of the timber, the most practical methods of exploitation, the extent -and character of the young growth, and many other factors which affect -the management of timber lands. These data are secured at a cost of -from 3 to 10 cents per acre, depending upon the accessibility and the -topography of the region and the density of the timber. This work is -carried on both in the summer and in the winter. Up to date, about -21,000,000 acres have been covered by intensive reconnoissance and about -48,000,000 acres by extensive methods. - -_Logging the Timber._ In order that my reader may better understand -various matters connected with the disposal of National Forest timber, -it will be necessary to give a brief outline of how timber and other -forest products are taken from the woods, and the different steps -necessary before a green tree in the woods becomes a board or a railroad -tie. - -The methods of logging used in the National Forests are essentially -the same as those used on private lands, with the exception of certain -details, such as the protection of young growth, the cutting of snags, -and the disposal of the brush. The methods used, of course, vary with -the locality; they are different for the Pacific Coast, where donkey -engines are used, than for the Rocky Mountains, where horses are largely -employed. They vary with the climate, the topography, the size of the -timber, and the kind of product to be harvested. But a typical logging -operation, as carried on in the Sierras of California, will give an idea -of how logs are taken from the forest. - -[Illustration: Figure 53. A large storage reservoir used to irrigate the -ranches in the valley below. Elevation 10,500 feet. Battlement National -Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 54. A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by -Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10,000 feet. Battlement -National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author.] - -In the particular operation which I have in mind the timber was -located on the western slope of the mountains between 3,500 and 5,000 -feet in elevation. The slopes were of medium steepness and much of -the timber was on level benches. The large sawmill was located at the -lower edge of the timber and the logging camp was in the woods near -the cutting. The felling of the trees, which were from 3 to 6 feet in -diameter, was done by two men with a two-man saw. These men are the -"fallers." Two men then cut the tree into logs and still other men -called "swampers" cut the brush and fallen trees away so that the newly -cut timber can be "skidded" to the railroad. This "skidding" is done by -a powerful, steam-driven stationary donkey-engine, which is fitted up -with a long cable and a drum. After the log is attached to the cable -out in the woods by means of a "choker," the man in the woods gives the -signal and the engine starts, revolving the drum and winding up the -cable at the same time pulling the log towards the engine. Just beside -this engine is a platform from which the logs are loaded directly on -flat cars. When six or eight flat cars are loaded in this manner a -locomotive hauls them to the sawmill where they are sawed into boards. -In this case as soon as the boards were cut they were placed in a flume -in which there was a strong stream of water. In this they floated about -40 miles to a town in the valley below directly into the company's -lumber yard. - -In the Rocky Mountains one of the main forest products derived from the -National Forests is railroad ties. On the particular operation with -which the writer is familiar the Government had sold to a tie operator -about 3,000,000 railroad ties under a long term contract. This tie -operator had a large contract with a railroad company. The area of the -sale, several thousand acres, was divided or surveyed into long strips -each 100 to 150 feet wide and from one to one and a half miles long. A -large camp and commissary was established on the area. There were about -100 tie choppers and each man was assigned to a strip. On these strips -the trees to be cut were marked by a Forest officer. Trees too small to -make ties were left as a basis for a future tie operation in from forty -to fifty years. - -The tie choppers usually worked alone. They first felled the tree with -a saw, cut the lower limbs off, and marked off the ties on the bark to -see how many ties could be cut from the tree. The tree was then "scored" -with an ax on both sides in order to start making the two flat faces of -the tie. These sides were then chipped with a "broad ax," thus making -two smooth faces. The bark was then peeled from the other two faces and -the tree was then cut into finished ties. After the ties were made the -top of the tree was lopped, that is, the branches were cut from the -trunk. In this operation these branches were scattered evenly over the -ground. The tie chopper then cleared a road through the middle of his -strip and "parked" his ties on the road. He then stamped his private -mark on each tie. In the winter the ties were "hauled" on large sleds to -the river bank. Each tie chopper's ties were put in a separate pile so -that the company's scaler could count them and credit them to the man -that made them. In the spring, when the river's banks were full, the -ties were "driven" down the river to the shipping point, usually a town -on a railroad line. - -A Forest officer is detailed to an operation of this kind to inspect -the choppers' work and count and stamp the ties. He sees to it that -all trees that have been marked for cutting are cut, that no trees not -marked have been cut, that young growth is not unnecessarily injured, -that the stumps are not left too high, that the tops are fully -utilized, that the slashing or brush is disposed of according to the -contract, and that the operator is keeping all his agreements in the -contract. - -_The First Step in Purchasing Government Timber._ After the desired -body of timber has been located, the first step for any one desiring -to purchase government timber is to communicate with an officer of the -National Forest in which the timber is located. If only a small amount -is desired--less than $50 in value--the local Ranger can arrange to make -the sale without delay. Amounts valued at more than this can be sold -only by the higher officials of the Service, that is the Supervisor, -District Forester, or the Forester, according to the size of the sale. -The Supervisor can sell up to two million feet; larger sales are made -by the District Forester or the Forester. All sales exceeding $100 in -amount must be advertised, except those made to homestead settlers and -farmers in a private sale. Sales are advertised in order to secure the -largest number of bidders possible and thus prevent the monopoly of -large bodies of timber by large timber operators. - -[Illustration: Figure 55. View taken in the Coast Range mountains of -California where Sugar pine and Douglas fir are the principal trees. -Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 56. A typical mountain scene in the California -Coast Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital -importance. Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author.] - -_Procedure in an Advertised Sale._ After the applicant has selected -the body of timber he wishes to purchase, he is furnished by the -Supervisor with a sample application stating the area, estimated amount, -minimum stumpage price, period allowed for cutting and removing the -timber, and other conditions to be complied with, following as closely -as possible the form of the final sale agreement. Usually, also, the -purchaser is interested in the amount of timber which he may cut per -acre. For this reason he visits sample areas on which the trees have -been marked for cutting. A notice of the sale of the timber is then -published, the choice of mediums and number of insertions depending -upon whether the sale is of local, regional, or general interest. This -notice describes the timber, gives the minimum stumpage prices that -will be accepted, and specifies the date upon which sealed bids will -be received. The period of advertising is at least 30 days, and in -large sales from 3 to 6 months. Forms for bidding are furnished to the -original applicant and others who signify their intention to bid. A -deposit is required with all bids to show the good faith of the bidder. -In large transactions this deposit is usually from 3 to 5 per cent. of -the purchase price. On the date specified in the advertisement the -Supervisor (or District Forester) opens all bids received and awards -the sale to the highest bidder. The sale contract is then prepared and -executed by the purchaser. - -A specific statement of financial ability is required in all sales of -ten million feet or more, and in smaller sales in the discretion of the -approving officer. Such a statement may be required before the approval -of the sale application, either formal or tentative, and in any event -before the timber is awarded to the successful bidder. The contract must -be supported by a suitable bond given by two responsible sureties or by -a surety company authorized to do business with the United States. - -[Illustration: Figure 57. A forest officer at work on a high mountain -peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of National Forest -lands. Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 58. A government timber cruiser's summer camp. -These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle Sam's timber -resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. Photo by the author.] - -_Timber Sale Contract Clauses._ The sale contract contains in full all -the conditions under which the cutting is to be done. In all sales of -National Forest stumpage the contract provides that no timber shall be -cut until it has been paid for, and that it shall not be removed until -it has been scaled by a Forest officer. All live timber is marked or -otherwise designated before cutting, and any merchantable timber used -for logging improvements, such as houses, bridges, stables, etc., must -be scaled and paid for. In order to secure full utilization of the -timber the maximum stump height is ordinarily fixed at 18 inches, -and merchantable timber must be used to a specified diameter in the -tops, which is adjusted for each species in accordance with local -manufacturing and market conditions. The officer in charge of the sale -is authorized to vary the stump height and top diameter in individual -cases when those specified in the contract are not practicable. The -tops must be trimmed up and, as a rule, brush must be piled and burned, -or burned without piling under the direction of Forest officers. -Merchantable timber which is not cut and removed and unmarked trees -which are cut must be paid for at double the specified stumpage rates. -This extra charge serves as a penalty. - -All camps, buildings, railroads, and other improvements necessary in -logging and manufacturing the timber may be constructed upon National -Forest land without charge. Railroads which open up inaccessible regions -may be required to be made common carriers or to transport logs and -lumber for other purchasers or for the Government at reasonable rates. - -Since fire protection is one of the most important duties of the -Forest Service, provision is made in all contracts that the purchaser -must place himself and employees, as well as the employees of his -contractors, at the disposal of authorized Forest officers for fighting -fires. Reimbursement is made for such services at the wages in vogue -for fighting fires on the National Forest in question, unless the fire -threatens the timber of the purchaser or property of the operator, or -is started in connection with the operation. Under these conditions -the purchaser is expected to furnish his available employees to assist -the Government in fire fighting without charge. Efficient spark -arresters are required on wood and coal burning boilers or locomotives. -Inflammable material must be cleaned up in the vicinity of logging -engines, and other precautions taken to insure against fire spreading -from this source. Snags and diseased trees upon the sale area must -usually be felled, whether merchantable or not, in order to remove fire -menace and to check the spread of timber infestations and pests. - -[Illustration: Figure 59. Forest officers moving camp while engaged in -winter reconnaissance work. All food, beds, and clothing are packed on -"Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 60. A winter reconnaissance camp showing -snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the -webbing on the snow-shoes. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by -the author.] - -_Special Contract Clauses._ Special clauses are inserted in contracts -to meet peculiar and unusual conditions. These deal with the number -of men the company is to furnish for brush burning; the time of the -year this work is to be done; the construction of fire lines; the -manner of scaling timber; the manner of piling and the location of -piles of material to be scaled; the definition of a merchantable log; -the utilization of tops; the manner or method of logging to be used; -the location of improvements; the use of timber for the construction of -improvements; the disposal of improvements at the termination of the -contract; where cutting is to begin and how fast it is to proceed; the -percentage of merchantable timber to be reserved in marking; and other -special clauses recommended by the Bureau of Entomology for the sale of -insect infested timber. - -That the Forest Service timber sale policy and the various timber sale -clauses have met with the approval of the lumbermen and the timber -buyers of the Western States is attested by the fact that in the last -ten years (from July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1917) there have been nearly -75,000 purchasers of National Forest timber and that between these two -dates the annual number of timber sales has increased from 5,062 in the -fiscal year 1908 to 11,608 in the fiscal year 1917. No better evidence -could be cited of the confidence which the lumbermen have in the Forest -Service method of doing business. - -_When the Operation May Begin._ As soon as the contract has been -executed and the first payment has been made a portion of the timber -is marked for cutting and the purchaser may begin operations at once. -Sometimes cutting in advance of the execution of the contract is allowed -to prevent serious hardship and unnecessary delay and expense on the -part of the purchaser. - -[Illustration: Figure 61. A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz County, -California] - -_Marking the Timber for Cutting._ In order to insure a proper restocking -of the ground, all live trees must be marked or otherwise designated -by a Forest officer before cutting can commence. Usually from 1/10 to -1/3 of the stand is reserved, either scattered over the entire tract -or distributed in groups. These trees are left for various reasons, -depending upon circumstances. The most important consideration is, of -course, to leave enough seed trees to restock the cut-over area. On -steep slopes a certain number of trees must be left to protect the -watershed and to prevent the erosion of the soil. Many species of trees -are subject to windthrow when the stand is thinned out. To counteract -this tendency a sufficient number of trees must be left to prevent the -wind from getting an unobstructed sweep. In many semi-arid portions -of the West additional trees must be left standing to protect the forest -from excessive drying and to prevent the ground from being occupied by -useless tree weeds and brush. Often, especially along highways, trees -are left for their scenic effect. From an economic standpoint it is -important sometimes to leave trees in order to make a second cut worth -while. - -Where only dead timber is purchased, and no living trees are cut, or -where patches of forest are to be cut clean, Forest officers, instead -of marking every tree to be removed, blaze and mark a boundary of the -cutting area or patch and instruct the purchaser accordingly. Where -individual trees are marked they are blazed and stamped "U. S." next to -the ground on the lowest side of the stump. Additional blazes may be -made several feet above the ground whenever desired by the purchaser -for the convenience of his "fallers" or where deep snow may conceal the -lower mark from the "fallers." Where both kinds of blazes are used, one -man, in fairly dense pine timber, can mark from 500 to 1,000 trees in a -day. Under no condition may unmarked or undesignated trees be cut by the -purchaser. - -The system of marking and the proportion of the timber to be cut is -explained to purchasers by marking sample areas before the contract is -executed. The cost of logging under the methods of marking adopted is -compensated fully in the stumpage appraisal. - -_Scaling, Measuring, and Stamping._ Unless timber is sold by estimate, -it must be scaled, counted, or measured before it is removed from the -cutting area or place agreed upon for this purpose. In addition it must -be stamped by a Forest officer with a regulation marking ax or similar -instrument. Payment is made upon the actual scale, count or measure, -with due allowance for defect. - -All National Forest timber is sold under specifications which are in -accordance with those in commercial use, such as logs by the thousand -board feet, ties by the piece, poles by length and top diameter, shingle -bolts by the cord, and mining timbers by the linear foot. All logs are -scaled at the small end. - -[Illustration: Figure 62. A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in -diameter. This is the most valuable timber species in California. Photo -by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 63. A Western Yellow pine forest in California. -These trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200 -feet high. Note the Forest Service timber cruiser measuring the tree at -the left. Photo by the author.] - -All saw timber is scaled by the Scribner Decimal C log rule. In order to -permit scaling at reasonable cost to the Forest Service, purchasers may -be required, where the cost of logging may not be unduly increased, -to skid and pile the logs for scaling. Piles and skidways must be -constructed so as to permit economical scaling and when necessary and -practicable the purchaser is required to mark the small ends of the logs -to avoid misunderstanding when they are scaled on the pile. - -Logs or other material that has been scaled or measured are designated -by a "US" stamp impressed in the wood so that the material may not be -scaled again by mistake. Each merchantable log scaled is stamped on at -least one end and unmerchantable or defective logs are stamped "US" in a -circle. Material other than saw logs, such as mine timber, ties, posts, -poles, or piling, after scaling, is stamped on at least one end. Cord -wood is stamped at both the top and bottom of each rick. - -On all National Forests except those in Alaska and west of the summit -of the Cascades in Washington and Oregon, logs over 16 feet are scaled -as two or more logs as far as practicable in lengths of not less than -12 feet. In Alaska and parts of Oregon and Washington logs up to and -including 32 feet in length are scaled as one log; logs from 32 to 64 -feet inclusive are scaled as two logs as nearly equal in length as -possible in even feet. All diameters are measured inside the bark at -the top end of the log and diameters are rounded off to the nearest inch -above or below the actual diameter. - -In the case of logs each one is numbered and the number entered in a -scale book with the corresponding board foot scale of the log. In the -case of ties, posts, poles, mining timbers, etc., each pile or skidway -is numbered and the count or scale entered opposite the corresponding -number in the scale book. - -_Disposal of Slash._ One of the most important features in National -Forest timber sales is the disposal of the brush or slash after logging. -On account of the great diversity of conditions which obtain on the -Forests, the best way to dispose of brush is not everywhere the same. -Piling and burning is required where the fire risk is great; otherwise -the method promising the best silvicultural results is used. - -[Illustration: Figure 64. Logging in California. Powerful steam engines -pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars. -Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 65. The loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where -the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During the fiscal year 1917 -timber sales on the National Forests brought into the National Treasury -almost $1,700,000.00. Photo by the author.] - -When piling and burning is necessary, all tops and débris, including -large chips made from hewing ties, are piled at a safe distance from -standing trees. The piles are not allowed to be made in groups of -seedlings or young growth, against dead snags, near living trees, or on -stumps, large tops or logs, but wherever possible in openings. The -piles are adapted to the size of the opening in which they are made and -must be made sufficiently compact to kindle easily and burn cleanly. The -ideal pile is of medium size, conical in shape, compact, from 5 to 7 -feet in diameter at the base and from 4 to 5 feet high. Brush piling and -burning is an art which can only be acquired after long experience. - -Brush is scattered whenever this method promises the best silvicultural -results, unless there is serious danger from fire on account of dense -timber and reproduction. The scattered brush is intended to afford -protection to seedlings from excessive transpiration and from trampling -by stock and to protect the soil from erosion. - -Ground burning may be advisable where clean cutting has been employed, -to expose the loose mineral soil for better seed germination. When this -method is used the purchaser is required to clear a fire line around the -area to be burned and to furnish adequate help to the Forest officer who -supervises the burning. - -Frequently brush is burned as the cutting progresses. Fires are started -at convenient points and the brush is thrown on them as it is lopped. - -Where brush burning is necessary it is not advisable, ordinarily, to -burn over an entire sale area. It is frequently possible to burn the -brush so as to form broad fire lines, particularly along railroads or -wagon roads. The best times for brush burning are after a light fall -of snow or rain, early in the spring before the snow has melted or the -dry season has begun or during or immediately after summer rains. Brush -disposal must always keep pace with logging except when the depth of -snow or other reasons make proper disposal impossible. Often the brush -must lay in piles at least one season before it becomes dry enough to -burn. - -_Payment for Timber._ Payment must be made for all timber in advance of -cutting. This, however, does not imply that one advance payment must be -made to cover the stumpage value of all the timber included in the sale. -Frequent installments are allowed sufficient usually to cover the cut of -one or two months. - -[Illustration: Figure 66. Scene in Montana. Forest officers constructing -a telephone line through the Flathead National Forest.] - -[Illustration: Figure 67. Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, -marking National Forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. Coconino -National Forest, Arizona.] - -This arrangement makes it possible to secure large tracts of National -Forest timber at a very slight initial outlay and to hold them with -almost no interest charges. The other usual carrying charges, namely, -taxes and fire protection, are eliminated. The timber is protected -from fire by the United States throughout the life of the contract. The -money deposited to secure cutting in advance of the execution of the -contract may be credited towards the amount to accompany the bid. - -_Stumpage Rates._ The minimum stumpage rates applicable in each -proposed sale are determined by a careful study of the conditions in -the particular case. Stumpage rates are the actual market value of -the timber. They are based upon the quality of the timber and the -character of its commercial products; the estimated cost of logging, -transportation, and manufacture; the investment required on the part -of the operator; the selling value of the product; and a fair profit -to the purchaser. The estimated profit depends upon the size and the -permanency of the operation and the degree of risk involved. The cost of -brush disposal, protection of young growth, logging only marked timber -and other requirements of the Forest Service is fully considered in -appraising stumpage rates. - -Timber is ordinarily appraised at the rates indicated for the most -valuable products to which it is suited and for which an established -market exists. Merchantable dead timber is appraised at the same rate -as green timber of the same species unless it is clearly shown that -the products manufactured from it command a lower market price or that -logging costs are higher. - -_Cutting Period._ Ordinarily the cutting period allowed in each sale -is only sufficient to permit the removal of the timber at a reasonable -rate, approximately equivalent to the working capacity of the plant. -Sales of accessible timber usually do not exceed 5 years in length. -However, in the case of inaccessible tracts requiring a large investment -for transportation facilities an exception is made and periods of from -15 to 20 years may be granted. - -_Readjustment of Stumpage Rates._ In all sales exceeding 5 years in -length provision is made to have the stumpage rates readjusted by the -Forester at the end of three or five year intervals to meet changing -market and manufacturing conditions. - -[Illustration: Figure 68. An excellent illustration showing the -difference between unrestricted logging as practised by lumbermen, -and conservative logging as practised by the Forest Service. In the -foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every -stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the Forest -Service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future -supply of timber for the West. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana.] - -_Refunds._ Deposits to cover or secure advance cutting or to accompany -bids apply on the first payment if a sale is awarded to the depositor; -otherwise they will be refunded. Refunds are also made to the purchaser -if the last payment is in excess of the value of the timber that is -cut. - - -THE DISPOSAL OF TIMBER TO HOMESTEAD SETTLERS AND UNDER FREE USE - -Besides selling the timber and other forest products outright, as has -just been described, some timber is sold to settlers at cost and much -timber is given away to the local people under the free use policy. - -_Sales to Homestead Settlers and Farmers._ Sales to homestead settlers -and farmers are made without advertisement in any amount desired, at -the price fixed annually for each National Forest region of similar -conditions by the Secretary, as equivalent to the actual cost of making -and administering such sales. Only material to be used by the purchaser -for domestic purposes exclusively on homesteads or farms is sold in this -way. Such uses include the construction or repair of farm buildings, -fences, and other improvements and fuel. Such sales are restricted to -mature dead and down timber which may be cut without injury to the -forest. - -_Free Use._ Free use of timber is granted primarily to aid in the -protection and silvicultural improvement of the Forests. Hence the -material taken is, except in unusual cases, restricted to dead, -insect infested and diseased timber, and thinnings. Green material may -be taken in exceptional cases where its refusal would clearly cause -unwarranted hardship. The use of such material is granted freely: (1) -To bona fide settlers, miners, residents, prospectors, for fire wood, -fencing, building, mining, prospecting, and other domestic purposes; -and to any one in case its removal is necessary for the welfare of the -Forest; (2) for the construction of telephone lines when necessary for -the protection of forests from fire; (3) to certain branches of the -Federal Government. Free use is not granted for commercial purposes or -of use in any business, including sawmills, hotels, stores, companies or -corporations. Such persons are required to purchase their timber. - -[Illustration: Figure 69. View showing the Forest Service method of -piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how stump heights -are kept down to prevent waste. New Mexico.] - -[Illustration: Figure 70. A tie-cutting operation on a National Forest. -These piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted -by Forest rangers. From this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks -of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. Near Evanston, Wyoming.] - -The aggregate amount of free use material granted annually to any user -must not exceed $20 in value, except in cases of unusual need or of dead -or insect infested timber, the removal of which would be a benefit to -the forest, or in the case of any timber which should be removed and -whose sale under contract cannot be effected. In these cases the amount -may be extended to $100. Supervisors have authority to grant free use -permits up to $100, District Foresters up to $500, and larger amounts -must have the approval of the Forester. - -Free use material is appraised in the same manner and in accordance -with the same principles as timber purchased under sale agreements. The -valuation of such material is at the same rate as that prevailing for -similar grades of stumpage in current sales in the same locality. - -The magnitude of the free use business may be appreciated from the -fact that during the fiscal year 1917 there were 41,427 individuals or -companies who received timber under this policy. The total amount thus -given away was 113,073,000 board feet valued at over $150,000. - -Permits for this use are required for green material, but dead timber -may be taken without a permit. Supervisors designate as free-use areas -certain portions or all of any National Forest and settlers, miners, -residents, and prospectors may cut and remove from such areas free of -charge under Forest Service regulations any timber needed for their own -use for firewood, fencing, buildings, mining, prospecting, or other -domestic purposes. - -Material cut under free-use regulations must not be removed from the -cutting area until scaled or measured by a Forest officer. In some -cases this requirement is waived when by it the needs of the users are -met with greater dispatch and the cost of administration is thereby -reduced. The free-use applicant is required to utilize the trees cut -in accordance with local Forest Service practice and he is required to -avoid unnecessary damage to young growth and standing timber. - - -TIMBER SETTLEMENT AND ADMINISTRATIVE USE - -When timber on National Forest land is cut, damaged, killed, or -destroyed in connection with the enjoyment of a right-of-way or other -special use, it is not necessary to advertise it for sale, but payment -therefor is required at not less than the minimum rate established by -the Secretary of Agriculture. Timber removed in this way is usually -scaled, measured, or counted and the procedure is identical with that of -a timber sale. But where timber is destroyed or where it is not worked -up in measurable form or where the cutting is done in such a way that -scaling is impracticable, settlement is required on the basis of an -estimate. - -[Illustration: Figure 71. Brush piles on a cut-over area before burning. -Forest Service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that -forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. Bitterroot -National Forest, Montana.] - -[Illustration: Figure 72. At a time of the year when there is least -danger from fire the brush piles are burned. Missoula National Forest, -Montana.] - -In 1912 a new branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad was built across -a portion of the Lassen National Forest in California. The company -was going to use some of the timber, but most of it was to be destroyed -or disposed of in the easiest manner. Scaling was impossible, so the -company paid for the timber--about $10,000--on the basis of a careful -estimate made by the writer, then Forest Examiner. - -The charge for all such timber is made on the basis of the current -stumpage rates for timber of like quality and accessibility included in -sales for all classes of material which have to be cut or destroyed and -which are commonly salable on the Forest. - -Timber is often used by the Forest Service itself in the administration -of the National Forests. The Forester, District Foresters, and the -Supervisors are authorized to sell or dispose of under free use or -otherwise, within the amount each one is authorized to sell, any timber -upon the National Forests when such removal is actually necessary to -protect the Forest from ravages or destruction, or when the use or -removal of the timber is necessary in the construction of roads, trails, -cabins, and other improvements on the National Forests or in experiments -conducted by the Forest Service. - - -THE RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RANGE LANDS - -The forage crop on the National Forests is for the use of the sheep and -cattle of the western stockmen and it is procured by means of grazing -permits which are issued and charged for upon a per capita basis. The -primary objects of the administration of government grazing lands are: -the protection and conservative use of all National Forest land adapted -to grazing; the permanent good of the live stock industry through the -proper care and use of grazing lands; and the protection of the settler -and home builder against unfair competition in the use of the range. - -_Importance of the Live Stock Industry._ The grazing business, more than -any other feature of National Forest management, is immensely practical, -because it is immediately concerned with human interests. This industry -furnishes not only meat, but leather, wool, and many by-products. - -That the National Forests play a big part in the maintenance of this -industry there can be little doubt, for it has been estimated recently -that 30 per cent. of the sheep and 20 per cent. of the cattle of the far -Western States are grazed in the National Forests. The Forests contain -by far the largest part of the summer range lands in the far Western -States and hence are of paramount importance. The winter grazing lands -in the West are so much greater in area than the summer lands, that for -this reason also National Forest range lands are in great demand. - -_Permits Issued in 1917._ During the fiscal year 1917 more than 31,000 -permits to graze cattle, hogs, or horses, and over 5,500 permits to -graze sheep or goats were issued. These permits provided for 2,054,384 -cattle, 7,586,034 sheep, about 100,000 horses, about 50,000 goats, and -about 3,000 hogs. The total receipts for 1917 were over $1,500,000. The -gross receipts to the owners of the stock probably exceeded $50,000,000 -and the capital invested in the stock no doubt amounted to over -$200,000,000. - -An idea of the growth of the grazing business may be gotten from the -Forest Service statistics for the fiscal years 1908 and 1917. The -increase in the number of permits and the volume of the business is -due primarily to a better administration and better regulation of -grazing interests and more specifically to the increase in the carrying -capacity of government lands by wise and restricted use. Between these -two fiscal years there was no appreciable increase in the total area -of the Forests which would account for the increased business. In 1908 -there were issued 19,845 permits for 1,382,221 cattle, horses and hogs; -in 1917 there were issued 31,136 permits for 2,054,384 animals. In 1908 -there were issued 4,282 permits for 7,087,111 sheep and goats; in 1917 -5,502 permits were issued for 7,586,034 sheep and goats. The number of -cattle and horses grazed has increased therefore by 50 per cent. and -the number of sheep and goats by 7 per cent. The total receipts have -increased from $962,829.40 in 1908 to $1,549,794.76 in 1917. - -_Kinds of Range, Grazing Seasons, and Methods of Handling Stock._ For -the proper understanding of the grazing business on the National Forests -it is necessary to know something about the different kinds of range, -the length of grazing seasons, and the methods of handling different -classes of stock. Sheep and goat range differs materially from cattle -and horse range and the proper distribution of stock over a National -Forest cannot be effected unless this difference is recognized. Sheep -and goat range usually consists of low shrubs or brush and is known -collectively as "browse"; cattle and horses subsist mainly upon grass, -flowering plants and herbs. Sheep feel more at home on high mountain -slopes, while cattle and horses range usually on the lower slopes and -in the valleys, and especially in the broad meadows, around lakes and -along streams. Sheep are more apt to find feed in the forests, that is -under the trees; cattle prefer the open; they usually avoid the forest, -preferring to keep out on the open meadows and grassy slopes. - -Naturally some ranges have feed at some seasons of the year and other -ranges at other seasons. Some of the National Forests in California -extend from an elevation of a few hundred feet in the foothills of the -great valleys to an elevation of more than 10,000 feet at the crest -of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The lower foothills afford excellent -feed soon after the beginning of the fall rains in November and, due -to the very mild winter which this region enjoys, there is excellent -feed in February and March. This is known as winter range. The medium -high slopes of the mountains have a later growing season and the sheep -and cattle reach there about June and stay until August or September. -Still higher up the forage matures later and the grazing season extends -from August until November. At these elevations the snowbanks usually -lie until July and the growing season is very short, for the new snow -usually buries the vegetation about the first of November. Thus stockmen -have what they call "winter range," "summer range," and "fall range," -depending upon what seasons of the year the forage crop can be utilized. -The National Forests on the whole contain very little winter range, -hence stockmen must move their stock in the fall to private lands at -lower elevations either where the climate is considerably warmer or -where there is very little snowfall. A large part of the western winter -grazing lands are in regions of light snowfall, such as at the lower -elevations in Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, and Colorado. Here the stock feeds -on dry grass. Stockmen who cannot get winter range lands must feed their -stock at ranches. - -The characteristic habits of sheep and cattle require that they be -handled differently on the range. Sheep are herded in bands while -cattle are handled in scattered groups. The new and approved method of -handling sheep called the "burro system" calls for a burro with the -sheep to pack the herder's blankets and provisions. The herder camps -where night overtakes him. The herder and his band keep moving over the -allotted range from one camp to another until he has covered the whole -range. After leaving his last camp he is ready to begin all over again, -since the feed near the camp where he began has had two to three weeks' -time to grow a new crop. Cattle usually run loose singly or in groups -on their allotted range. Usually a range rider is camped on the range -to keep the cattle from straying to other ranges. He salts the cattle -to keep them on their own range, takes care of cattle that have gotten -sick, and takes care of the stock in other ways. - -_Grazing Districts and Grazing Units._ The Secretary of Agriculture not -only has the authority to regulate grazing and prescribe the schedule of -grazing fees to be charged but he also regulates the number and class of -stock which are allowed to graze on each National Forest annually. - -The ranges within the National Forests are used by the kind of stock for -which they are best adapted except when this would not be consistent -with the welfare of local residents or the proper protection of the -Forests. For convenience in administration Forests are divided into -grazing districts. A typical Forest is divided into from 4 to 6 -districts which may be natural grazing units, natural administrative -units (coinciding with the Ranger districts), or parts of the Forest -used by different classes of stock or parts of the Forest having -different lengths of grazing seasons. Each grazing district is also -subdivided into smaller divisions, units, or allotments. These are -usually natural divisions defined by topographic boundaries, such as -ridges, mountains, streams, etc., or more or less artificial divisions -determined by the class of stock which uses them. For example, cattle -and horses ordinarily graze in the valleys along the streams, while -sheep and goats graze the crests of ridges and the slopes of mountains -and will cross none but shallow streams. Each range division or unit -is usually given a well-known local name, such as "Duck Lake Unit" or -"Clover Valley Unit." One or more stockmen may be allotted to such a -unit, depending upon the size of the unit and the number of animals -it can feed. If only one stockman uses it, it becomes an individual -allotment. Usually a sheep owner with several large bands of sheep is -allotted one large unit adapted to sheep grazing, while a large unit -adapted to cattle and horses may be allotted to one large cattle owner -or to two or more smaller owners. The manner in which sheep and goats -are handled makes individual allotments both practicable and desirable. - -The boundaries of range allotments are usually well defined. In the -case of sheep they are marked with cloth posters. In most Forests range -allotments are fairly well settled. Each stockman gets with his permit -each spring a small map showing his own range and the surrounding ranges. - -_Who Are Entitled to Grazing Privileges._ The Secretary of Agriculture -has the authority to permit, regulate, or prohibit grazing on the -National Forests. Under his direction the Forest Service allows the use -of the forage crop as fully as the proper care and protection of the -National Forests and the water supply permit. The grazing use of the -National Forest lands is therefore only a personal and non-transferable -privilege. This privilege is a temporary one, allowable under the law -only when it does not interfere with the purposes for which the National -Forests were created. It is non-transferable because it is based upon -the possession of certain qualifications peculiar to the permittee. To -understand these qualifications it is necessary to briefly look into the -history of the grazing of live stock on the western grazing lands. - -[Illustration: Figure 73. Counting sheep as they leave the corral. Sheep -and cattle are pastured on National Forests at so many cents per head, -hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. Wasatch -National Forest, Utah.] - -[Illustration: Figure 74. Logging National Forest timber. Santa Fe -National Forest, New Mexico.] - -By long use of the public lands of the United States for grazing -purposes, long before the National Forests were created, stock owners -have been allowed to graze their stock upon such lands under certain -conditions of occupancy, residence, and ownership of improved lands and -water rights. This use, continuing through a long period of years, has, -in the absence of congressional legislation, been commonly accepted -in many communities, even receiving the recognition of certain of the -courts. It was allowed under "unwritten law," as it were, only by the -passive consent of the United States, but by force of the presidential -proclamation creating National Forests, such passive consent ceased, -being superseded by definite regulations by the Secretary of Agriculture -prescribed under the authority of Congress. Therefore grazing stock on -the Forests, as it was done before the Forests were created, is trespass -against the United States. Due to the fact that local stockmen have used -certain public ranges year after year by the passive consent of the -United States, these stockmen are recognized in these localities as -having preference rights or equities in the use of range lands. These -equities form the basis upon which grazing privileges are allowed. - -Grazing permits are issued only to persons entitled to share in the -use of the range within the National Forests by reason of their -fulfilling certain conditions or requirements. Prior use and occupancy -of National Forest lands for grazing purposes is the first and foremost -requirement. Local residence and ownership of improved ranch property -within or near the Forest and dependence upon government range are -also conditions that may entitle a stockman to grazing privileges. The -Forest Service also recognizes those stockmen who have acquired by -purchase or inheritance stock grazed upon National Forest lands under -permit and improved ranch property used in connection with the stock, -provided circumstances warrant the renewal of the permit issued to the -former owner. The regular use of a range during its open season for -several successive years before the creation of the National Forest -and under grazing permit thereafter is what is meant by "prior use" -or "regular occupancy." The longer the period or use the greater the -preference right. No one can acquire this right to the use of National -Forest range, nor can it be bought or sold, but stockmen may acquire a -preference in the allotment of grazing privileges. This preference right -does not entitle him to continued use of a certain part of a Forest, but -only to preference over other applicants less entitled to consideration -in the use of the ranges open to the class of stock which he wishes to -graze. Certain stockmen may be given preference in ranges secured by -prior use and occupancy supplemented by heavy investments in improved -property and water rights. - -Citizens of the United States are given preference in the use of the -National Forests, but persons who are not citizens may be allowed -grazing permits provided they are bona fide residents and owners of -improved ranch property either within or adjacent to a National Forest. -Regular occupants of the range who own and reside upon improved ranch -property in or near National Forests are given first consideration, but -will be limited to a number which will not exclude regular occupants -who reside or whose stock are wintered at a greater distance from the -National Forests. With this provision applicants for grazing permits -are given preference in the following order: - - - Class A. Persons owning and residing upon improved ranch - property within or near a National Forest who are dependent - upon National Forests for range and who do not own more - than a limited number of stock (known as the protective - limit). - - Class B. Regular users of National Forests range who do not own - improved ranch property within or near a National Forest, - and persons owning such ranch property but who own numbers - of stock in excess of the established limit. - - Class C. Persons who are not regular users of the National - Forest range and who do not own improved ranch property - within or near a National Forest. Such persons are not - granted permits upon Forests which are fully occupied by - classes A and B. Classes B and C are not allowed to increase - the number of stock grazed under permit except by the - purchase of other permitted stock. - -From this classification it is very evident that the small local -stockmen who own approximately from 30 to 300 head of cattle and from -500 to 2,000 head of sheep and who own and reside upon the ranches -near the Forests are given the preference in the allotment of grazing -privileges. - -_Grazing Permits._ Various kinds of grazing permits are required each -year on the National Forests. These are known as ordinary grazing -permits, on-and-off permits, private land permits, and crossing permits. - -All persons must secure permits before grazing any stock on a National -Forest except for the few head in actual use by prospectors, campers, -ranchers, stockmen, and travelers who use saddle, pack and work animals, -and milch cows in connection with permitted operations on the National -Forests. Under these conditions 10 head are allowed to graze without -permit. - -Persons owning stock which regularly graze on ranges partially included -within a National Forest, or upon range which includes private land may -be granted permits for such portions of their stock as the circumstances -appear to justify. This regulation provides for cases where only a -part of a natural range unit is National Forest land, and where the -economical use of the entire unit can be secured only by the utilization -of the Forest land in connection with the other land. The regulation -contemplates a movement of the stock governed by natural conditions, -between the Forest range and the adjoining outside range, or between -Forest land and intermingled private land. This is called an on-and-off -permit. - -Permits on account of private lands are issued to persons who own, or -who have leased from the owners, unfenced lands within any National -Forest which are so situated and of such a character that they may -be used by other permitted stock to an extent rendering the exchange -advantageous to the Government. The permits allow the permittees to -graze upon National Forest land, free of charge, the number of stock -which the private lands will support, by waiving the right to the -exclusive use of the private land and allowing it to remain open to -other stock grazed on National Forest land under permit. - -The regular grazing permit carries with it the privilege of driving the -permitted stock over National Forest lands to and from the allotted -ranges at the beginning and end of the grazing season and from the -range to the most accessible shearing, dipping, and shipping points -during the term of the permit. But crossing permits are necessary for -crossing stock over National Forest lands to points beyond the National -Forest, for crossing stock to private lands within a National Forest, -or for crossing stock to reach dipping vats or railroad shipping -points. Rangers sometimes are detailed to accompany the stock and see -that there is no delay or trespassing. No charge is made for crossing -permits, but it is absolutely necessary that persons crossing stock -comply with the regulations governing the National Forests and with the -quarantine regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture and -the state authorities. - -_Grazing Fees._ The full grazing fee is charged on all animals under 6 -months of age which are not the natural increase of stock upon which the -fees are paid. Animals under 6 months which are the natural increase of -permitted stock are not charged for. A reasonable fee is charged for -grazing all kinds of live stock on National Forests. The rates are based -upon the yearlong rate for cattle, which is from 60 cents to $1.50 per -head, depending upon conditions on the Forest. The yearlong rates for -horses are 25 per cent. more and the yearlong rate for swine 25 per -cent. less than the rate for cattle. The rate for sheep is 25 per cent. -of the yearlong rate for cattle. The rates for all kinds of stock for -periods shorter than yearlong are computed in proportion to the length -of the season during which the stock use National Forest lands. All -grazing fees are payable in advance. - -When notice of the grazing allowance, periods, and rates for the year -has been received by the Supervisor he gives public notice of a date on -or before which all applications for grazing must be presented to him. -These public notices are posted in conspicuous places, usually in the -post offices. Applications for grazing permits are submitted on blank -forms furnished by the Supervisor. As soon as an applicant for a grazing -permit is notified by the Supervisor that his application has been -approved, he must remit the amount due for grazing fees to the District -Fiscal Agent and upon receipt of notice by the Supervisor that payment -has been made a permit is issued allowing the stock to enter the Forest -and remain during the period specified. All grazing fees are payable in -advance and the stock is not allowed to enter the National Forest unless -payment has been made. - -_Stock Associations._ The thirty or more grazing regulations effective -on the National Forests are for the primary purpose of making the -National Forest range lands as useful as possible to the people -consistent with their protection and perpetuation. It is clearly -impossible to meet the wishes and needs of each individual user, but -it is often entirely possible to meet the wishes of the majority of -users if made known through an organization. The organization of stock -associations is encouraged by the Forest Service and the opinions and -wishes of their advisory boards are recognized when they represent -general rather than individual or personal interests. It is often -possible through these organizations to construct range improvements -such as corrals, drift fences, roads, trails, and sources of water -supply for the common good of the members of the organization and paid -for by them. - -_Protective and Maximum Limits._ In order to secure an equitable -distribution of grazing privileges, the District Forester establishes -protective limits covering the number of stock for which the permits of -Class A owners will be exempt from reduction in the renewal of their -permits. Permits for numbers in excess of the protective limits will be -subject to necessary reductions and will not be subject to increase in -number except through purchase of stock or ranches of other permittees. - -[Illustration: Figure 75. Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National Forest -at the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. Over 7,500,000 sheep and goats -grazed on the National Forests during the fiscal year 1917.] - -[Illustration: Figure 76. Grazing cattle on a National Forest in -Colorado. Permits were issued during 1917 to graze over 2,000,000 -cattle, horses, and swine on the National Forests.] - -Protective limits are established to protect permittees from reduction -in the number of stock which they are allowed to graze under permit -below a point where the business becomes too small to be handled at -a profit or to contribute its proper share toward the maintenance of a -home. The average number of stock which a settler must graze in order -to utilize the products of his farm and derive a reasonable profit is -determined upon each Forest or, if necessary, upon each grazing district -thereof, and serves as the basis for the protective limit. Protective -limits have been established for various Forests running from 25 to 300 -head of cattle and from 500 to 2,000 head of sheep and goats. - -Increases above the protective limit are allowed only to purchasers -of stock and ranches of permit holders and any such increase must not -exceed the maximum limit. Class A permittees owning a less number of -stock than the protective limit are allowed to increase their number -gradually. Whenever it is found necessary to reduce the number of stock -allowed in any National Forest, Class C stock is excluded before the -other classes are reduced. The reduction on a sliding scale is then -applied to Class B owners. Class A owners are exempt from reduction. -When new stock owners are allowed the use of National Forest range upon -a Forest already fully stocked, reductions in the number of permitted -stock of Class B and C owners is made in order to make room for the new -man. Thus it is seen that the matter of protective limits is actually a -protection to the small stock owner; he is protected from the monopoly -of the range by big corporations. - -When necessary to prevent monopoly of the range by large stock owners, -the District Forester establishes maximum limits in the number of stock -for which a permit may be issued to any one person, firm or corporation. - -_Prohibition of Grazing._ It often becomes necessary to prohibit all -grazing on an area within a National Forest or at least to materially -reduce the amount of stock which is allowed to graze on a given area. -Sheep may be excluded from a timber-sale area for a certain number -of years after cutting or until the reproduction has become well -established. Where planting operations are being carried on it is -usually necessary to exclude all classes of stock. If investigations -show that grazing is responsible for the lack of reproduction over -a considerable area, the area or a portion of it may be withdrawn -from range use until young growth has become established again. The -watersheds of streams supplying water for irrigation, municipal -or domestic purposes may be closed to grazing of any or all kinds -of domestic stock when necessary to prevent erosion and floods -or diminution in water supply. Camping grounds required for the -accommodation of the public may be closed to the grazing of permitted -stock. Limited areas which are the natural breeding or feeding grounds -of game animals or birds may be closed to grazing. Areas within National -Forests infested seriously by poisonous plants may be closed to grazing. - -_Protection of Grazing Interests._ The protection of National Forest -grazing interests is secured by the prevention of overgrazing, by the -prevention of damage to roads, trails, or water sources, by the proper -bedding of sheep and goats, by the proper disposition of carcasses, by -salting the stock and by the proper observation of the national and -state live stock and quarantine laws. - -When an owner, who has a permit, is ready to drive in his stock upon the -National Forest he must notify the nearest Forest officer concerning -the number to be driven in. If called upon to do so he must provide -for having his stock counted before entering a National Forest. Each -permittee must repair all damage to roads or trails caused by the -presence of his stock. Sheep and goats are not allowed to be bedded -more than three nights in succession in the same place (except during -the lambing season) and must not be bedded within 300 yards of any -running or living spring. The carcasses of all animals which die on the -National Forests from contagious or infectious diseases must be burned -and are not permitted to lie in the close vicinity of water. In order to -facilitate the handling of stock and prevent their straying off their -range, they must be salted at regular intervals and at regular places. - -In order to facilitate the moving of stock by stockmen from their home -ranches to their grazing allotments and to minimize the damage of -grazing animals to the Forests, stock driveways are established over -regular routes of travel. - - -SPECIAL USES - -All uses of National Forest lands and resources permitted by the -Secretary of Agriculture, except those specifically provided for in -the regulations covering water power, timber sales, timber settlement, -the free use of timber, and grazing, are designated "special uses." -Among these are the use or occupancy of lands for residences, farms, -apiaries, dairies, schools, churches, stores, mills, factories, hotels, -sanitariums, summer resorts, telephone and telegraph lines, roads and -railways; the occupancy of lands for dams, reservoirs and conduits not -used for power purposes; and the use of stone, sand, and gravel. No -charge is made for a large number of these permits, some of which are -the following: (1) agricultural use by applicants having preference -rights under the Act of June 11, 1906; (2) schools, churches, and -cemeteries; (3) cabins for the use of miners, prospectors, trappers, -and stockmen in connection with grazing permits; (4) saw mills sawing -principally National Forest timber; (5) conduits, and reservoirs for -irrigation or mining or for municipal water supply; (6) roads and trails -(which must be free public highways); (7) telephone lines and telegraph -lines with free use of poles and connections for the Forest Service. - -The occupancy and use of National Forest land or resources under a -special use permit (except those given free of charge) are conditioned -upon the payment of a charge and are based upon certain rates. -Agricultural use of land is given to permittees at a charge of from -25 cents to $1.00 an acre. Not over 160 acres are allowed to any one -permittee. Cabins cost from $3.00 to $5.00; hay cutting from 20 to 50 -cents an acre; hotels and roadhouses from $10.00 to $50.00; pastures -from 4 to 25 cents per acre; residences covering from one to three acres -cost from $5.00 to $25.00; resorts from $10.00 to $50.00; stores from -$5.00 to $50.00 for two acres or less; and other uses in proportion. - -Perhaps the use that is purchased most of all on the National Forests is -that for residences and summer homes. On many of the Forests they are -already in great demand. A large proportion of the population of the -far Western States seek the cool and invigorating air of the mountains -in the early summer because the heat of the valleys, especially in -California, is almost unbearable. - -There are many desirable pieces of land on the National Forests -that are being reserved by the Forest Service especially for this -purpose for the people of the neighboring towns. For example, on -the Angeles National Forest in California the Supervisor had about -250 suitable sites surveyed in one picturesque canyon and in six -months 226 of them were under special use permits as summer homes. -A large reservoir--Huntington Lake--was constructed on the Sierra -National Forest in California as the result of a dam constructed by a -hydro-electric power company. Immediately there was a keen demand among -the residents of San Joaquin Valley for summer homes on the shores of -the lake. In a few years it is expected there will be a permanent summer -colony of from 2,000 to 3,000 people. The Forest Service has already -authorized an expenditure of $1,500 in order to furnish an adequate -supply of domestic water for the colony. - - -CLAIMS AND SETTLEMENT - -Claims can be initiated upon National Forest lands under (1) the Act -of June 11, 1906, (2) under the mining laws, and (3) under the coal -land laws. In connection with these claims it is the duty of the Forest -Service to examine them, but the determination of questions involving -title is within the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior. - -It is the purpose of the Forest Service to protect the lands of the -United States within the National Forests from acquisition by those -who do not seek them for purposes recognized by law. When it is -apparent that an entry or a claim is not initiated in good faith and -in compliance with the spirit of the law under which it was asserted, -but is believed from the facts to be a subterfuge to acquire title to -timber land, or to control range privileges, water, a water-power site, -or rights of way; or if it otherwise interferes with the interests -of the National Forests in any way, the Forest Service recommends a -contest, even if the technical requirements of the law appear to have -been fulfilled. It is bad faith, for instance, to hold a mining or -agricultural claim primarily for the timber thereon or to acquire a site -valuable for water power development. - -_The National Forest Homestead Act._ At the present time there is very -little, if any, fraud connected with the Forest Homestead Act because -the land is classified before it is opened to entry. The greater part of -the work dealing with fraudulent claims is a relic of the old régime. -Before the Forests were established many Homestead and Timber and -Stone entries were made for the purpose of securing valuable timber. -A large number of persons resorted to settlement in order to secure -the preference right. It was the common custom in those days for land -cruisers to locate men on heavily timbered land either before or -immediately after survey and before the filing of the plats and the -opening of the land to entry. A cabin would be built upon the land and -some unsubstantial improvements made. When the National Forests were -created they contained great numbers of these squatters' cabins. Many -were abandoned but others attempted to secure title. Under the old -Timber and Stone Act timber could be secured for $2.50 per acre, but the -National Forests are not subject to entry under this act. So as a last -resort the squatters tried to prove up on the land under the Homestead -law. When the Forests were created the Service found a great many of -these fraudulent claims on their books, many of which were being brought -up annually for patent. Between December, 1908, and June 30, 1913, a -total of 498 entries for National Forest land were canceled in a single -administrative district. These entries represented fraudulent efforts -to secure title to 85,906 acres of National Forest land for speculative -purposes, involving nearly a billion feet of merchantable timber. During -the fiscal year 1913 alone 300,000,000 board feet of merchantable timber -in one district was retained in public ownership primarily because the -Forest officers brought out the facts. The lands in all cases were -covered with heavy stands of timber, very small portions of the land had -been cleared, the claimant's residence on the land was not in compliance -with the law, seldom was any crop raised on the land, and the claimant -in other ways did not carry out the intent of the law. - -The Act of June 11, 1906, known as the National Forest Homestead Act, -provides for the acquisition by qualified entrymen of agricultural -lands within National Forests. The Act is in effect an extension of -the general provisions of the Homestead laws to the agricultural lands -within the National Forests, with the essential difference that the land -must be classified by the Secretary of Agriculture as chiefly valuable -for agriculture. - -This Act authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture in his discretion to -examine and ascertain, upon application or otherwise, the location and -extent of lands both surveyed and unsurveyed in the National Forests, -chiefly valuable for agriculture, which may be occupied for agricultural -purposes without injury to the National Forests or public interests. He -is authorized to list and describe such lands by metes and bounds or -otherwise and to file such lists and descriptions with the Secretary of -the Interior for opening to entry in accordance with the provisions of -the Act. Agricultural lands listed by the Secretary of Agriculture are -opened by the Secretary of the Interior to homestead entry in tracts -not exceeding 160 acres at the expiration of 60 days from the filing of -the lists in the local Land Office. Notice of the filing of the list -is posted in the local Land Office and is published for a period of -not less than four weeks in a local newspaper. The Act provides that -the person upon whose application the land is examined and listed, if -a qualified entryman, shall have the preference right of entry. To -exercise this preference right, application to enter must be filed in -the local Land Office within 60 days after the filing of the list in -that office. The entryman can perfect his title to the land within a -certain period of years by fulfilling certain conditions of residence -and cultivation. - -By the Act of June 6, 1912, known as the "Three Year Homestead Act," the -period of residence necessary to be shown in order to entitle a person -to patent under the Homestead laws is reduced from 5 to 3 years and -the period within which a homestead entry may be completed is reduced -from 7 to 5 years. The new law requires the claimant to cultivate not -less than 1/16 of the area of his entry beginning with the second year -of entry and not less than 1/8 beginning with the third year and until -final proof, except that in the case of the enlarged Homestead laws, -double the areas given are required. On a 160-acre claim, therefore, it -is required that 1/8 or 20 acres be under cultivation. A mere breaking -of the soil does not meet the requirements of the statute, but such -breaking of the soil must be accompanied by planting and sowing of seed -and tillage for a crop other than native grasses. The period within -which the cultivation should be made is reckoned from the date of the -entry. The Secretary of the Interior, however, is authorized upon a -satisfactory showing therefor to reduce the required area of cultivation -on account of financial disabilities or misfortunes of the entryman -or on account of special physical and climatic conditions of the land -which make cultivation difficult. The entryman must establish an actual -residence upon the land entered, 6 months after the date of the entry. -After the establishment of residence the entryman is permitted to be -absent from the land for one continuous period of not more than 5 months -in each year following. He must also file at the local Land Office -notice of the beginning of such intended absence. - -_The Mining Laws._ Mineral deposits within National Forests are open to -development exactly as on unreserved public land. A prospector can go -anywhere he chooses and stake a claim wherever he finds any evidences of -valuable minerals. The only restriction is that mining claims must be -bona fide ones and not taken up for the purpose of acquiring valuable -timber or a town or a water power site, or to monopolize the water -supply of a stock range. Prospectors may obtain a certain amount of -National Forest timber free of charge to be used in developing their -claims. More than 500 mining claims are patented within the National -Forests every fiscal year. - -A good example of mining claims located for fraudulent purposes were -those located on the rim and sides of the Grand Canyon in Arizona to -prevent the people from gaining free access to the canyon and make them -pay to enter it. These claims were shown to be fraudulent since no -deposits of any kind were ever found on them. They were canceled by the -higher courts and the land reverted to the people. - -_Coal-Land Laws._ Coal lands are mineral lands and as such are subject -to entry the same as other mineral lands in the National Forests. - - -ADMINISTRATIVE USE OF NATIONAL FOREST LANDS - -Lands within National Forests may be selected for administrative -uses such as Supervisor's and Ranger's headquarters, gardens, -pastures, corrals, planting or nursery sites or rights-of-way. These -administrative sites are necessary for the present and probable -future requirements of the Forest Service for fire protection and the -transaction of business on the National Forests. - - -WATER POWER, TELEPHONE, TELEGRAPH, AND POWER TRANSMISSION LINES - -Along the streams within the National Forests are many sites suitable -for power development. These are open to occupancy for such purposes and -have the advantage of being on streams whose headwaters are protected. -The aggregate capacity of the water power sites on the National Forests -is estimated at 12,000,000 horsepower. - -[Illustration: Figure 77. North Clear Creek Falls, Rio Grande National -Forest, Colorado. The National Forests contain about one-third of all -the potential water-power resources of the United States.] - -[Illustration: Figure 78. The power plant of the Colorado Power Company, -on the Grand River, Holy Cross National Forest, Colorado. Every fiscal -year there is a substantial increase in water power development on the -National Forests.] - -The Government does not permit the monopolization of power in any region -or allow sites to be held for speculative purposes. The objects of -the regulations are to secure prompt and full development and to obtain -a reasonable compensation for the use of the land occupied and the -beneficial protection given the watershed. - -Permits for power development on the National Forests usually run for a -term of 50 years and may be renewed at their expiration upon compliance -with the regulations then existing. Such permits, while granting liberal -terms to applicants, contain ample provision for the protection of the -public interests. - -Applications for power permits are filed with the District Forester -of the Forest Service District in which the desired site is located. -Preliminary permits are issued to protect an applicant's priority -against subsequent applicants until he has had an opportunity to study -the proper location and design of the project and to obtain the data -necessary for the final application. Operation is allowed under the -final permit only. The permittee is required to pay an annual rental -charge under the preliminary and final power permits and definite -periods are specified for the filing of the final application, beginning -of construction and of operation. The rental charges are nominal in -amount, the maximum being about 1/16 of a cent per kilowatt hour. The -amount of annual payment for transmission lines is $5.00 for each mile -or fraction thereof if National Forest land is crossed by the line. No -rental charges are made for small power projects (under 100 horsepower -capacity), or for transmission lines used in connection therewith, or -for transmission lines which are part of a power project under permit -or for any power project in which power is to be used by a municipal -corporation for municipal purposes. - -The Secretary of Agriculture has authority to permit the use of -rights-of-way through the National Forests for conduits, reservoirs, -power plants, telephone and telegraph lines to be used for irrigation, -mining, and domestic purposes and for the production and transmission -of electric power. No rental charges are made for the telephone and -telegraph rights-of-way, but the applicant must agree to furnish such -facilities to Forest officers and to permit such reasonable use of its -poles or lines as may be determined or agreed upon between the applicant -and the District Forester. - -[Illustration: Figure 79. This is only one of the thousands of streams -in the National Forests of the West capable of generating electric -power. It has been estimated that over 40 per cent. of the water power -resources of the western states are included in the National Forests. -Photo by the author.] - -[Illustration: Figure 80. View in the famous orange belt of San -Bernardino County, California. These orchards depend absolutely upon -irrigation. The watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in -the National Forests and are protected by the Forest Service. Some of -the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate orchards -valued at $10,000,000.] - - - - -APPENDIX - - -TABLE OF LAND AREAS WITHIN THE NATIONAL FOREST BOUNDARIES - -June 30, 1917 - - Key: DN=District Number - - -------------------+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | Headquarters | National | Patented | Total - State and | of | Forest | and other | area - Forest | Forest | Land | lands | (acres) - DN | Supervisor | (acres) | (acres) | - -------------------+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------- - ALASKA | | | | - Chugach 6 |Ketchikan | 5,418,753 | 113,682 | 5,532,435 - Tongass 6 |Ketchikan |15,451,716 | 29,284 | 15,481,000 - ARIZONA | | | | - Apache 3 |Springerville | 1,182,782 | 93,618 | 1,276,400 - Chiricahua[1] 3 |Tucson | 348,157 | 10,691 | 358,848 - Coconino 3 |Flagstaff | 1,601,598 | 161,799 | 1,763,397 - Coronado 3 |Tucson | 959,304 | 39,676 | 998,980 - Crook 3 |Safford | 870,130 | 14,870 | 885,000 - Dixie[1] 4 |St. George, | | | - | Utah | 17,680 | | 17,680 - Kaibab 4 |Kanab, Utah | 1,072,375 | 525 | 1,072,900 - Manzano[1] 3 |Albuquerque, | | | - | N. M. | 27,708 | 29,724 | 57,432 - Prescott 3 |Prescott | 1,433,366 | 186,589 | 1,619,955 - Sitgreaves 3 |Snowflake | 659,337 | 234,883 | 893,720 - Tonto 3 |Roosevelt | 1,994,239 | 39,521 | 2,033,760 - Tusayan 3 |Williams | 1,602,750 | 186,068 | 1,788,818 - ARKANSAS | | | | - Arkansas 7 |Hot Springs | 626,746 | 331,544 | 958,290 - Ozark 7 |Harrison | 291,840 | 237,338 | 529,178 - CALIFORNIA | | | | - Angeles 5 |Los Angeles | 820,980 | 240,723 | 1,061,703 - California 5 |Oriental | 807,444 | 255,178 | 1,062,622 - Cleveland 5 |Escondido | 547,981 | 265,635 | 813,616 - Crater[1] 6 |Medford, Ore. | 46,977 | 10,045 | 57,022 - Eldorado[1] 5 |Placerville | 549,392 | 286,408 | 835,800 - Inyo[1] 5 |Bishop | 1,269,980 | 67,800 | 1,337,780 - Klamath[1] 5 |Yreka | 1,470,841 | 263,824 | 1,734,665 - Lassen 5 |Red Bluff | 936,877 | 384,466 | 1,321,343 - Modoc 5 |Alturas | 1,182,986 | 399,873 | 1,532,859 - Mono[1] 5 |Gardnerville, | | | - | Nev. | 784,620 | 90,241 | 874,861 - Monterey 5 |King City | 316,058 | 44,436 | 360,494 - Plumas 5 |Quincy | 1,144,835 | 288,025 | 1,432,860 - Santa Barbara 5 |Santa Barbara | 1,688,571 | 239,723 | 1,928,294 - Sequoia 5 |Bakersfield | 2,194,926 | 274,344 | 2,469,270 - Shasta 5 |Sisson | 803,448 | 783,432 | 1,586,880 - Sierra 5 |Northfork | 1,489,934 | 172,626 | 1,662,560 - Siskiyou[1] 6 |Grants Pass, | | | - | Ore. | 349,069 | 52,726 | 401,795 - Stanislaus 5 |Sonora | 810,399 | 294,013 | 1,104,412 - Tahoe 5 |Nevada City | 542,226 | 666,851 | 1,209,077 - Trinity 5 |Weaverville | 1,430,547 | 315,600 | 1,746,147 - COLORADO | | | | - Arapaho 2 |Hot Sulphur | | | - | Springs | 634,903 | 46,371 | 681,274 - Battlement 2 |Collbran | 651,227 | 26,113 | 677,340 - Cochetopa 2 |Saguache | 905,723 | 24,497 | 930,220 - Colorado 2 |Fort Collins | 847,328 | 302,266 | 1,149,594 - Durango 2 |Durango | 614,129 | 89,871 | 704,000 - Gunnison 2 |Gunnison | 908,055 | 43,255 | 951,310 - Hayden[1] 2 |Encampment, | | | - | Wyo. | 65,598 | 6,402 | 72,000 - Holy Cross 2 |Glenwood | | | - | Springs | 576,905 | 28,795 | 605,700 - La Sal[1] 4 |Moab, Utah | 27,444 | 176 | 27,620 - Leadville 2 |Leadville | 934,017 | 122,503 | 1,056,520 - Montezuma 2 |Mancos | 700,082 | 112,018 | 812,100 - Pike 2 |Denver | 1,080,381 | 175,731 | 1,256,112 - Rio Grande 2 |Monte Vista | 1,136,884 | 84,256 | 1,221,140 - Routt 2 |Steamboat | | | - | Springs | 833,459 | 86,487 | 919,946 - San Isabel 2 |Westcliffe | 598,912 | 52,288 | 651,200 - San Juan 2 |Pagosa Spgs. | 617,995 | 127,005 | 745,000 - Sopris 2 |Aspen | 596,986 | 59,014 | 656,000 - Uncampahgre 2 |Delta | 790,349 | 77,511 | 867,860 - White River 2 |Meeker | 848,018 | 23,012 | 871,030 - FLORIDA | | | | - Florida 7 |Pensacola | 308,268 | 367,152 | 675,420 - IDAHO | | | | - Boise 4 |Boise | 1,058,941 | 59,173 | 1,118,114 - Cache[1] 4 |Logan, Utah | 513,617 | 31,447 | 545,064 - Caribou[1] 4 |Montpelier | 681,540 | 30,090 | 711,630 - Challis 4 |Challis | 1,259,237 | 10,753 | 1,269,990 - Clearwater 1 |Orofino | 785,103 | 122,743 | 907,846 - Coeur d'Alene | | | | - d'Alene 1 |Coeur d'Alene | 662,611 | 127,623 | 790,234 - Idaho 4 |McCall | 1,193,439 | 15,841 | 1,209,280 - Kaniksu[1] 1 |Newport, | | | - | Wash. | 198,757 | 260,220 | 458,977 - Lemhi 4 |Mackay | 1,095,924 | 4,638 | 1,100,562 - Minidoka[1] 4 |Oakley | 509,536 | 21,584 | 531,120 - Nezperce 1 |Grangeville | 1,624,582 | 41,497 | 1,666,079 - Palisade[1] 4 |St. Anthony | 283,495 | 9,820 | 293,315 - Payette 4 |Emmett | 831,926 | 31,748 | 863,674 - Pend Oreille 1 |Sandpoint | 676,014 | 198,724 | 874,738 - St. Joe 1 |St. Maries | 493,925 | 481,743 | 975,668 - Salmon 4 |Salmon | 1,621,707 | 21,653 | 1,643,360 - Sawtooth 4 |Hailey | 1,203,387 | 16,743 | 1,220,130 - Selway 1 |Kooskia | 1,693,711 | 108,289 | 1,802,000 - Targhee[1] 4 |St. Anthony | 283,495 | 9,820 | 293,315 - Weiser 4 |Weiser | 562,609 | 98,291 | 660,900 - MICHIGAN | | | | - Michigan 2 |East Tawas | 89,466 | 74,412 | 163,878 - MINNESOTA | | | | - Minnesota 2 |Cass Lake | 190,602 | 121,874 | 312,476 - Superior 2 |Ely | 857,255 | 411,283 | 1,268,538 - MONTANA | | | | - Absaroka 1 |Livingston | 842,467 | 145,243 | 987,710 - Beartooth 1 |Billings | 662,537 | 19,393 | 681,930 - Beaverhead 1 |Dillon | 1,337,223 | 27,777 | 1,365,000 - Bitterroot 1 |Missoula | 1,047,012 | 108,856 | 1,155,868 - Blackfeet 1 |Kalispell | 865,077 | 202,013 | 1,067,090 - Cabinet 1 |Thompson | | | - | Falls | 830,676 | 195,874 | 1,026,550 - Custer 1 |Miles City | 428,922 | 83,888 | 512,810 - Deerlodge 1 |Anaconda | 833,178 | 130,822 | 964,000 - Flathead 1 |Kalispell | 1,802,905 | 285,815 | 2,088,720 - Gallatin 1 |Bozeman | 564,855 | 344,575 | 909,430 - Helena 1 |Helena | 687,983 | 232,497 | 920,480 - Jefferson 1 |Great Falls | 1,039,766 | 135,919 | 1,175,685 - Kootenai 1 |Libby | 1,336,061 | 287,279 | 1,623,340 - Lewis and | | | | - Clark 1 |Chouteau | 811,161 | 15,199 | 826,360 - Lolo 1 |Missoula | 850,677 | 330,341 | 1,181,018 - Madison 1 |Sheridan | 958,691 | 77,169 | 1,035,860 - Missoula 1 |Missoula | 1,031,529 | 336,662 | 1,368,191 - Sioux[1] 1 |Camp Crook, | | | - | S. D. | 96,743 | 17,798 | 114,541 - NEBRASKA | | | | - Nebraska 2 |Halsey | 206,074 | 11,744 | 217,818 - NEVADA | | | | - Dixie[1] 4 |St. George, | | | - | Utah | 282,543 | 7,807 | 290,350 - Eldorado[1] 5 |Placerville, | | | - | Cal. | 400 | | 400 - Humboldt 4 |Elko | 690,562 | 35,978 | 726,546 - Inyo[1] 5 |Bishop, Cal. | 72,817 | 2,513 | 75,330 - Mono[1] 5 |Gardnerville | 464,315 | 19,204 | 483,519 - Nevada 4 |Ely | 1,220,929 | 39,871 | 1,260,800 - Ruby 4 |Elko | 342,405 | 91,165 | 433,570 - Santa Rosa 4 |Elko | 269,658 | 30,302 | 299,960 - Tahoe[1] 5 |Nevada City, | | | - | Cal. | 14,853 | 47,274 | 62,127 - Toiyabe 4 |Austin | 1,907,286 | 17,514 | 1,924,800 - NEW MEXICO | | | | - Alamo 3 |Alamogordo | 603,779 | 269,877 | 866,656 - Carson 3 |Taos | 856,647 | 68,654 | 925,301 - Chiricahua[1] 3 |Tucson, Ariz. | 126,478 | 2,674 | 129,152 - Datil 3 |Magdalena | 2,670,412 | 270,790 | 2,941,202 - Gila 3 |Silver City | 1,463,708 | 136,292 | 1,600,000 - Lincoln 3 |Alamogordo | 551,427 | 81,540 | 632,967 - Manzano[1] 3 |Albuquerque | 754,772 | 488,007 | 1,242,779 - Santa Fé 3 |Santa Fe | 1,354,545 | 122,148 | 1,476,693 - NORTH DAKOTA | | | | - Dakota 1 |Camp Crook, | | | - | S. D. | 6,054 | 7,866 | 13,920 - OKLAHOMA | | | | - Wichita 7 |Cache | 61,480 | 160 | 61,640 - OREGON | | | | - Cascade 6 |Eugene | 1,021,461 | 73,024 | 1,094,485 - Crater[1] 6 |Medford | 793,044 | 286,281 | 1,079,325 - Deschutes 6 |Bend | 1,292,423 | 217,437 | 1,509,860 - Fremont 6 |Lakeview | 884,494 | 86,782 | 971,366 - Klamath[1] 5 |Yreka, Cal. | 4,401 | 4,492 | 8,893 - Malheur 6 |John Day | 1,057,682 | 205,158 | 1,262,840 - Minam 6 |Baker | 430,757 | 49,056 | 479,813 - Ochoco 6 |Prineville | 716,564 | 102,466 | 819,030 - Oregon 6 |Portland | 1,031,926 | 108,994 | 1,140,920 - Santiam 6 |Albany | 607,099 | 112,884 | 719,983 - Siskiyou[1] 6 |Grants Pass | 998,044 | 257,206 | 1,255,250 - Siuslaw 6 |Eugene | 544,178 | 289,263 | 833,441 - Umatilla 6 |Pendleton | 485,786 | 79,199 | 564,985 - Umpqua 6 |Roseburg | 1,011,097 | 210,294 | 1,221,391 - Wallowa 6 |Wallowa | 964,601 | 104,810 | 1,069,411 - Wenaha 6 |Walla Walla, | | | - | Wash. | 425,504 | 36,540 | 461,954 - Whitman 6 |Sumpter | 884,485 | 115,008 | 999,493 - PORTO RICO | | | | - Luquillo 7 |None | 12,443 | 53,507 | 65,950 - SOUTH DAKOTA | | | | - Black Hills[1] 2 |Deadwood | 483,403 | 118,608 | 602,011 - Harney 2 |Custer | 548,854 | 79,093 | 627,947 - Sioux[1] 1 |Camp Crook | 75,524 | 7,744 | 83,268 - UTAH | | | | - Ashley[1] 4 |Vernal | 982,493 | 9,607 | 992,100 - Cache[1] 4 |Logan | 265,594 | 53,987 | 319,581 - Dixie[1] 4 |St. George | 432,784 | 26,106 | 458,890 - Fillmore 4 |Ritchfield | 699,579 | 79,711 | 779,290 - Fishlake 4 |Salina | 661,245 | 62,145 | 723,390 - La Sal[1] 4 |Moab | 519,384 | 16,286 | 535,670 - Manti 4 |Ephraim | 781,800 | 65,070 | 846,870 - Minidoka[1] 4 |Oakley, Idaho | 72,123 | 20,157 | 92,280 - Powell 4 |Escalante | 689,927 | 14,773 | 704,700 - Sevier 4 |Panguitch | 729,061 | 73,599 | 802,660 - Uinta 4 |Provo | 988,602 | 54,533 | 1,043,135 - Wasatch 4 |Salt Lake City| 607,492 | 56,913 | 664,405 - WASHINGTON | | | | - Chelan 6 |Chelan | 677,429 | 46,681 | 724,110 - Columbia 6 |Portland, Ore.| 784,498 | 157,702 | 942,200 - Colville 6 |Republic | 754,886 | 61,114 | 816,000 - Kaniksu[1] 1 |Newport | 257,859 | 118,904 | 376,763 - Okanogan 6 |Okanogan | 1,486,325 | 54,675 | 1,541,000 - Olympic 1 |Olympia | 1,534,689 | 117,311 | 1,652,000 - Rainier 6 |Tacoma | 1,315,891 | 245,579 | 1,561,470 - Snoqualmie 6 |Seattle | 698,043 | 343,957 | 1,042,000 - Washington 6 |Bellingham | 1,454,214 | 35,786 | 1,490,000 - Wenaha[1] 6 |Walla Walla | 313,434 | 8,397 | 321,831 - Wenatchee 6 |Leavenworth | 665,276 | 491,724 | 1,157,000 - WYOMING | | | | - Ashley[1] 4|Vernal, Utah | 5,987 | 73 | 6,060 - Bighorn 2|Sheridan | 1,119,725 | 16,475 | 1,136,200 - Black Hills[1] 2|Deadwood, S.D.| 144,759 | 34,362 | 179,121 - Bridger 2|Pinedale | 710,570 | 7,407 | 717,977 - Caribou[1] 4|Montpelier, | | | - | Idaho | 6,547 | 813 | 7,360 - Hayden[1] 2|Encampment | 322,175 | 43,445 | 365,620 - Medicine Bow 2|Laramie | 469,786 | 41,596 | 511,382 - Palisade[1] 4|St. Anthony, | | | - | Idaho | 250,501 | 3,119 | 253,620 - Shoshone 2|Cody | 1,576,043 | 32,957 | 1,609,000 - Targhee[1] 4|St. Anthony, | | | - | Idaho | 84,970 | 480 | 85,450 - Teton 4|Jackson | 1,922,947 | 48,245 | 1,971,192 - Washakie 2|Lander | 852,653 | 12,220 | 864,873 - Wyoming 4|Afton | 899,980 | 12,020 | 912,000 - | | | - Aggregate for the 147 National | | | - Forests |155,166,619|21,085,541 |176,252,160 - ----------------------------------+-----------+-----------+----------- - - [1] Area of National Forest in more than one State. - - -PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber's Notes: - -Simple typographical errors were corrected. - -Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. - -This text uses both 'Uncampahgre' and 'Uncompahgre'; the latter -currently is the preferred spelling. - -Page 55 "sunlight; without it is useless." Probably should be "sunlight; -without it, it is useless." - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Our National Forests, by Richard H. Douai Boerker - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR NATIONAL FORESTS *** - -***** This file should be named 42391-8.txt or 42391-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/3/9/42391/ - -Produced by Greg Bergquist, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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