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diff --git a/42391-0.txt b/42391-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..04bfc19 --- /dev/null +++ b/42391-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6695 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42391 *** + +[Illustration: Figure 1. An observation point for finding forest fires. +Vigilance is the watchword on the National Forests. During 1916 forest +officers extinguished 5,655 forest fires. Photo by the author] + + + + + OUR + NATIONAL FORESTS + + A SHORT POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE + WORK OF THE UNITED STATES FOREST + SERVICE ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS + + BY + + RICHARD H. DOUAI BOERKER, M.S.F., PH.D. + + Arboriculturist, Department of Parks, City of New York. + With the United States Forest Service from 1910 to 1917. + + NEW YORK + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + 1918 + _All rights reserved_ + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1918 + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + + Set up and electrotyped. Published, September, 1918 + + + + + _Whom should this humble volume + seek to honor but the father and + mother whose unselfish devotion made + possible both my education and my + profession?_ + + + + +The highest type of scientific writing is that which sets forth useful +scientific facts in language which is interesting and easily understood +by the millions who read. + + L. A. MANN. + + + + +PREFACE + + +Forestry is a vast subject. It has to do with farm and forest, soil and +climate, man and beast. It affects hill and valley, mountain and plain. +It influences the life of cities, states, and nations. It deals not only +with the manifold problems of growing timber and forest by-products, +such as forage, naval stores, tanbark, and maple sugar, but it is +intimately related to the navigability of rivers and harbors, the flow +of streams, the erosion of hillsides, the destruction of fertile farm +lands, the devastation wrought by floods, the game and birds of the +forest, the public health, and national prosperity. + +The practice of forestry has, therefore, become an important part in +the household economy of civilized nations. Every nation has learned, +through the misuse of its forest resources, that forest destruction is +followed by timber famines, floods, and erosion. Mills and factories +depending upon a regular stream flow must close down, or use other +means for securing their power, which usually are more expensive. +Floods, besides doing enormous damage, cover fertile bottom-lands with +gravel, bowlders, and débris, which ruins these lands beyond redemption. +The birds, fish, and game, which dwell in the forests, disappear with +them. Springs dry up and a luxurious, well-watered country becomes a +veritable desert. In short, the disappearance of the forests means the +disappearance of everything in civilization that is worth while. + +These are the lessons that some of the world's greatest nations have +learned, in some cases through sad experience. The French people, after +neglecting their forests, following the French Revolution, paid the +penalty. France, through her reckless cutting in the mountain forests, +has suffered and is still suffering from devastating floods on the +Seine and other streams. Over one million acres were cut over in the +mountains, and the slash and young growth that was left was destroyed +by fire. As a result of this forest destruction the fertility of over +8,000,000 acres of tillable land was destroyed and the population of +eighteen departments was impoverished or driven out. Now, although over +$40,000,000 has been expended, only a very small part of the damage has +been repaired. + +Our own country has learned from its own experiences and from the +experiences of nations like France. On a small scale we have endured the +same devastating floods. Forest fires in the United States have caused +an average annual loss of seventy human lives and from $25,000,000 to +$50,000,000 worth of timber. The indirect losses run close to a half +a billion a year. Like other nations, we have come to the conclusion +that forest conservation can be assured only through the public +ownership of forest resources. Other nations have bought or otherwise +acquired national, state, and municipal forests, to assure the people +a never-failing supply of timber. For this reason, mainly, our own +National Forests have been created and maintained. + +The ever-increasing importance of the forestry movement in this country, +which brings with it an ever-increasing desire for information along +forestry lines, has led me to prepare this volume dealing with our +National Forests. To a large extent I write from my own experience, +having come in contact with the federal forestry movement for more +than ten years. My connection with the United States Forest Service +in various parts of the West has given me ample opportunity to study +every phase of the problem. I am attempting to chronicle a wonderful +accomplishment by a wonderful organization of altruistic Americans,--an +accomplishment of which every American has reason to feel proud. + +Few people realize that the bringing under administration and protection +of these vast forests is one of the greatest achievements in the history +of forest conservation. To place 155,000,000 acres of inaccessible, +mountainous, forest land, scattered through our great western mountain +ranges and in eighteen Western States, under administration, to manage +these forests according to scientific forestry principles, to make them +yield a revenue of almost $3,500,000 annually, and to protect them from +the ravages of forest fires and reducing the huge annual loss to but a +small fraction of what it was before--these are some of the things that +have been accomplished by the United States Forest Service within the +last twenty years. + +Not only is this a great achievement in itself, but few people realize +what the solution of the National Forest problem has meant to the +millions of people who live near them; what it has meant to bring +civilization to the great forested empire of Uncle Sam; what it has +meant to change from a condition of unrestricted, unregulated misuse +with respect to the public domain, to a policy of wise, regulated use, +based upon the principle of the greatest good to the greatest number in +the long run. In the early days before the Forest Service organization +became established, the people were said to have "shot-gun titles" to +timber or grazing lands on the public domain, and "might made right" +in the truest sense of the word. This crude condition of affairs gave +way to wise, conservative use under government control. Just as the +farmer each year sets aside a certain amount of his seed for next year's +planting, just so the stockman saves his calves and cows and lambs +for greater growth and each year sees a part of his herd maturing for +market, and just so the forester, under the new system, cuts only the +mature trees and allows the young timber to remain for greater growth +and greater value in the future, or, in the absence of young trees, +plants small trees to replace those removed. + +The people of the West are convinced that a great work has been done +well and wisely. The people of the Eastern States will soon realize that +a similar forest policy, already inaugurated in the Appalachian and +White Mountains, will mean every bit as much to them. + +If I succeed only in a small degree to make my reader appreciate the +great significance of the National Forest movement to our national +economy, I will feel amply repaid for the time spent in preparing this +brief statement. I am indebted to the Forest Service for many valuable +illustrations used with the text, and for data and other valuable +assistance. To all those who have aided in the preparation of this +volume, by reading the manuscript or otherwise, I extend my sincere +thanks. I am especially grateful to Mr. Herbert A. Smith and others of +the Washington office of the Forest Service for having critically read +the manuscript and for having offered valuable suggestions. + + RICHARD H. DOUAI BOERKER. + + New York, N. Y., + July 7, 1918. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +FORESTRY AS A NATIONAL PROBLEM + + +The forest problem is, both locally and nationally, of vital +internal importance. Not only is wood--the chief product of the +forest--indispensable to our daily life, but the forest plays an +important rôle in regulating stream flow, thereby reducing the severity +of floods and preventing erosion. For these reasons the preservation of +forests ceases to be a problem of private or individual concern, but +forthwith becomes a governmental problem, or, at best, an enterprise +which should be jointly controlled by the National Government and the +individual States. + +_Our Consumption of Wood._ It is often said that wood enters into our +daily life from the time we are born until we die--from the cradle to +the coffin. It is difficult to imagine a civilization without wood. +In our country in a single year we use 90,000,000 cords of firewood, +nearly 40,000,000,000 feet of lumber, 150,000,000 railroad ties, nearly +1,700,000,000 barrel staves, 445,000,000 board feet of veneer, over +135,000,000 sets of barrel headings, over 350,000,000 barrel hoops, +over 3,300,000 cords of native pulp wood, 170,000,000 cubic feet of +round mine timbers, nearly 1,500,000 cords of wood for distillation, +over 140,000 cords for excelsior, and nearly 3,500,000 telephone and +telegraph poles. In short, we take from our forests yearly, including +waste in logging and manufacture, more than twenty-two billion cubic +feet of wood valued at about $1,375,000,000. This is enough lumber to +construct seven board walks twenty-five feet wide from the earth to the +moon, a distance of about 240,000 miles, or a board walk one-third of a +mile wide completely around the earth at the equator. These figures give +a little idea of the enormous annual drainage upon the forests of the +United States and immediately suggest an important reason that led to +the establishment of our National Forests. + +_The Lumber Industry._ Measured by the number of persons employed, +lumbering is the country's largest manufacturing industry. In its 48,000 +saw mills it employs more than 600,000 men. Its investment in these +plants is over $1,000,000,000, and the investment in standing timber is +$1,500,000,000 more. This industry furnishes the railroads a traffic +income of over $200,000,000 annually. If we include in these statistics +also the derived wood products, we find that over 1,000,000 wage earners +are employed, and that the products and derived products are valued at +over $2,000,000,000 annually. Most certainly we are dealing with a very +large business enterprise. + +_Our Future Lumber Supply._ You may ask, "What effect have the great +annual consumption of wood and these large business interests upon the +future supply of wood?" The most reliable statistics show that out of +5,200 billion feet of merchantable timber which we once possessed, only +2,900 billion feet are left. In other words, almost half of our original +supply of timber has been used. Besides, the present rate of cutting for +all purposes exceeds the annual growth of the forests. Even the annual +growth is considered by many experts of unknown quantity and quality, +to some extent offset by decay in virgin forests. The only logical +conclusion to draw from this condition of affairs, if the present rate +of consumption continues, is a timber shortage in so far as our most +valuable woods are concerned. In view of this it is fortunate that the +National Government began to control the lumber and forest situation +by the creation of National Forests and the institution of scientific +forestry practice. + +_Forests and Stream Flow._ But the forests not only supply us with wood. +For other reasons they deserve governmental consideration. The forests +in the mountains control our streams, vitally affect the industries +depending upon water power, reduce the severity of floods and erosion, +and in this way are intimately wrapped up with our great agricultural +interests. For this reason forestry is by nature less suited for private +enterprise. In agriculture and horticulture the influence of the farm +or the fruit crop rarely extends beyond the owner's fence. What I plant +in my field does not affect my neighbors; they share neither in my +success or failure. If by the use of poor methods I ruin the fertility +of my farm, this fact does not influence the fertility of my neighbor's +fields. But in forestry it is different. Unfortunately, just as the +sins of the fathers are visited upon their children, so the sins of the +mountains are visited upon the valleys. + +[Illustration: Map showing the National Forest areas in the West, +the location of the proposed National Forests in the East, and the +area which the present National Forests would occupy if they were all +consolidated into one body in some of the well-known Eastern States.] + +The mountainous slopes of the Appalachian ranges and the steep, broken, +granite ridges of the Rockies, the Sierras, and the Cascades are the +sites most suited in our country for forestry purposes. The Appalachian +ranges have been affected most by the reckless cutting of forests. When +these mountains were clothed with forests, the rivers ran bank full, +ships came to the harbors at low tide with ease, and factories and +cotton-mills ran steadily all year long. Since the destruction of these +forests the surrounding country has suffered from alternate floods and +droughts; great manufacturing centers have lost their steady supply of +water; harbors are filled with silt from the mountain sides; and fields, +once fertile, are covered with sand, gravel, and débris, deposited by +the ungovernable stream. These forests belonged to private individuals +who disposed of the timber and pocketed all the profits, while the +community below suffered all the loss. In other words, private ownership +is inadequate since private interest and private responsibility are not +sufficiently far-reaching and far-sighted. + +_Forests and Erosion._ Erosion is one of the most serious dangers that +threaten our farms both by transporting fertile soil and by covering +the bottom-lands with sand, gravel, and débris. Since we are largely an +agricultural people, the importance of this problem will be readily +appreciated. Over 50 per cent. of our population is rural, and the +annual production of farm crops has a value of over $5,500,000,000. +Farm uplands are washed away or eroded by high water, and high water is +largely caused by the destruction of the forests on the mountain slopes. +With the forest cover removed, there is nothing to obstruct the flow of +water down the mountain sides. Raindrops beating on the bare soil make +it hard and compact so that most of the water runs off instead of being +absorbed by the subsoil, with the result that a heavy rain storm rushes +down through the valleys in a few days instead of a few weeks, tears out +the river banks, floods the lowlands, and deposits upon them the rocks +and gravel carried down from the mountains. The most effective means for +preventing the erosion and destruction of our farmlands is by the wise +use of the forests at the headwaters of the rivers. + +[Illustration: Figure 2. A typical National Forest landscape in the high +mountains. Potosi Peak, 13,763 feet, from Yankee Boy Basin, Uncampahgre +National Forest, Ouray County, Colorado.] + +_Forestry a Public Enterprise._ From what has been said it will be +seen that forestry is a national business rather than an individual's. +Moreover, it is of such a protracted nature, reaching continuously +into such long periods of time, demanding so many years of time and +patience to see the expected and promised results, that an individual +would not live to see the success of his labors. The individual becomes +easily discouraged and is especially affected by financial conditions. +The Government, on the other hand, having unlimited resources at its +command can more readily afford to wait for results. In fact every +consideration of national welfare urges the Government to carry it on; +it is a sure source of revenue, there is none less fluctuating, and it +is closely connected with the manifold industries of life. Its chief +product is wood, without which the human race, so far, has not succeeded +in managing its affairs, and which will therefore always have a sale +value. + + +THE EXTENT AND CHARACTER OF OUR NATIONAL FORESTS + +_How the Government Obtained the National Forest Lands._ Probably the +first question that will occur to my reader concerning the National +Forests is, How did the Government acquire them? To answer this question +we have but to turn back the pages of history to the close of the +Revolutionary War. Following this war, our country started on its +career of continental conquest. This conquest was largely a peaceful +one because most of the western country was acquired by treaty or +purchase, thus: Louisiana Territory was purchased from France in 1803; +Texas applied for admission into the Union in 1845; Oregon Territory +was acquired by treaty from Great Britain in 1846; the present states +of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona were ceded to us +as a result of the Mexican War in 1848; and the Gadsden Purchase was +obtained from Mexico in 1853 and added to the territory of New Mexico. +Then also Alaska was finally purchased from Russia in 1867. These large +acquisitions, comprising together the western two thirds of the United +States, were gradually divided into territories. Later they became +States, and were opened up to settlement and development by means of +various land and mining laws and large railroad grants. The National +Forests are composed of the land most valuable for growing timber, that +has not been acquired in some way by private individuals, in the western +part of the United States. + +_The Romance of the National Forest Region._ This vast expanse west of +the Mississippi River boasts of some of the wildest and most romantic +scenery on the North American continent, and it is in the heart of this +picturesque country that the National Forests are located. This is the +country in which Owen Wister, Harold Bell Wright, Stewart Edward White, +Jack London, Theodore Roosevelt, and other authors have gotten their +inspirations and laid their plots. To one who knows "The Virginian," or +"When a Man's a Man," or "The Winning of Barbara Worth," or "The Valley +of the Moon," nothing more need be said. To others I might say that my +pen picture of that country is a very poor and very inadequate method +of description. It is the land of the cow-puncher, the sheep-herder, +and the lumber-jack; a land of crude customs and manners, but, withal, +generous hospitality. It is the country of the elk and the mule-tail +deer, the mountain lion and the rattlesnake. Its grandeur makes you +love it; its vastness makes you fear it; yet there is an irresistible +charm, a magic lure, an indescribable something that stamps an indelible +impression upon the mind and that makes you want to go back there after +you have sworn an oath never to return. + +This National Forest empire presents a great variety of scenery, of +forest, and of topography. The beautiful white pine forests of Idaho and +Montana, the steep pine- and spruce-clad granite slopes of the Colorado +Rockies, and the sun-parched mesas of the Southwest, with their open +park-like forests of yellow pine, all have their individual charm. And +after crossing the well-watered Cascades and Sierra Nevadas we find +forest scenery entirely different. The dense, luxuriant, giant-forests +of the coast region of Oregon and Washington, bathed in an almost +continual fog and rain, are without doubt the most wonderful forests in +the world. And lastly, California, so far as variety of forest scenery +is concerned, has absolutely no rival. The open oak groves of the great +valleys, the arid pine- and oak-covered foothills, the valuable sugar +pine and "big-tree" groves of the moist mountain slopes, and the dwarfed +pine and hemlock forests near the serrated crest of the Sierras, all +occur within a comparatively short distance of each other, and, in fact, +may be seen in less than a day on any one of the many National Forests +in these mountains. + +_Famous Scenic Wonders Near the Forests._ Many of the beautiful +National Parks that have been created by Congress are either entirely or +partly surrounded by one or more of the National Forests. These parks +are a Mecca to which hundreds of thousands of our people make their +annual pilgrimage. Most of these parks are already famous for their +scenery, and, in consequence, the National Forests surrounding them +have received greater patronage and fame. The Glacier National Park in +Montana, the Yellowstone in Wyoming, the Rocky Mountain in Colorado, the +Mount Rainier in Washington, the Crater Lake in Oregon, the Wind Cave in +South Dakota, and the Lassen Peak Volcanic Park, the Yosemite, General +Grant, and Sequoia parks in California, are all situated in the heart of +the National Forest region. + +The highest and best-known mountain peaks in the United States are +either located within or situated near the National Forests, as, for +example, Rainier and Olympus in Washington; Hood, Baker, St. Helens, +Jefferson, and Adams in Oregon; Shasta, Lassen, and Whitney in +California; and Pikes Peak in Colorado. + +Then there are the National Monuments, of which there are eleven, all +situated within one or more of the National Forests. These were created +under an act of Congress for the preservation of objects of historic or +scientific interest. The largest monument, and no doubt the most famous, +is the Grand Canyon National Monument located in the Tusayan and Kaibab +National Forests in Arizona, comprising over 800,000 acres. The next +largest is the Mount Olympus Monument on the Olympic National Forest in +Washington, comprising almost 300,000 acres. Other well-known monuments +are the Cinder Cone and the Lassen Peak Monuments on the Lassen National +Forest in California, and the Cliff Dwellings on the Gila National +Forest in New Mexico. + +_The Size and Extent of the National Forests._ With this brief +introduction of the nature of the country in which the National Forests +are located, the reader will be interested to know something of the size +of the Forests and their total area. The total area varies slightly +from time to time, due to the addition of lands that have been found +to have value for forestry purposes, or to the elimination of lands +found to be chiefly valuable for agricultural use. On June 30, 1917, +there were 147 National Forests with a total of 155,166,619 acres. +Thus the average National Forest comprises about one million acres +of government lands. The many private holdings scattered through the +Forests make the average gross area of each Forest much greater. These +Forests are located in Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, +Florida, Idaho, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New +Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Porto Rico, South Dakota, +Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. Besides these Forests there have been +acquired or approved for purchase under the Weeks Law over 1,500,000 +acres in the States of Georgia, Maine, New Hampshire, North Carolina, +South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. These lands are +now under protection and will gradually be consolidated into National +Forests. More lands are constantly being acquired in the Eastern States +in accordance with the Weeks Law. + +Few people have any conception of what a gigantic empire the National +Forest domain is. If consolidated into one large compact area, the 155 +million acres of National Forests would cover an area larger than the +combined areas of thirteen well-known Eastern States, viz.: Maine, +Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New +York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, and West +Virginia (see map). This area is also one fifth larger than the entire +area of France. We marvel sometimes at the ability of a ruler to rule +a country as large as France or Germany; why should we Americans not +marvel at the ability of the man who practically rules over our National +Forests, who keeps in perfect working order the great organization which +protects and administrates the Forests? + +_The Topography and Climate of the National Forest Region._ The +difficulty of the work of this organization is at once apparent when +we find that these Forests are located in wild, rugged, mountainous +country, in most cases many miles from the railroad and human +habitations, such as towns and cities. This country is usually far above +sea level--the average being between 3,000 and 8,000 feet in altitude. +But there are large areas in the National Forests of Colorado that lie +above 10,000 feet elevation. Such country as this has a very severe +climate. The climate is usually too cold and the growing seasons too +short for the production of crops such as wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, +etc. Therefore, practically all of this land is what the forester calls +"absolute forest land," that is, it is better adapted for growing timber +crops than any other. Another important fact about the National Forests +is that they are located, for the most part, on steep mountain slopes +and at the headwaters of mountain streams. This makes them of vital +importance in regulating the stream flow of our western rivers. In fact +it is no exaggeration to say that all our large western rivers have +their origin on National Forest land. + + +WHY THE NATIONAL FORESTS WERE CREATED + +Aside from the great economic reasons why a nation should possess +National Forests, there are local reasons which pertain to the welfare +of the home builder and home industries which are often of paramount +importance. The timber, the water, the pasture, the minerals, and all +other resources on the government lands in the West are for the use +of all the people. And only by a well-regulated policy of sale or +rental can these resources be disposed so as to give all individuals +an equal opportunity to enjoy them. These vast resources have been +estimated to have a value of over $2,000,000,000. But their value to +the local communities can hardly be overestimated. The welfare of every +community is dependent upon a cheap and plentiful supply of timber. +If lumber, fence posts, mine props, telephone poles, firewood, etc., +must be brought in from distant markets, the prices are usually very +much higher. The regulation of the cut on each National Forest assures +a never-failing supply of timber to the home builder and to home +industries. Then also the permanence of the great live stock industry +is dependent upon a conservative use of vast areas of government range. +Local residents are protected from unfair competition. Lastly, the +protection by the Forest Service of the forest cover in the western +mountains assures a regular stream flow which is of vital importance for +power, irrigation, and domestic purposes. + +[Illustration: Figure 3. The climate of most of the National Forests +is severe. This view was taken in the early summer and shows the high +mountains still covered with snow. Most of the National Forest lands are +therefore of small value for agriculture. Photo by Abbey.] + +[Illustration: Figure 4. On many high mountains on the National Forests +snow banks persist throughout the summer. This view was taken in the +latter part of August. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the +author.] + +Perhaps the most comprehensive statement upon the purposes of the +National Forests and the methods and general policy of administering +them is to be found in a letter by the Secretary of Agriculture to the +Forester, dated February 1, 1905, when the Forests were turned over +to the Department of Agriculture: + + "In the administration of the forest reserves it must be + clearly borne in mind that all land is to be devoted to its + most productive use for the permanent good of the whole people, + and not for the temporary benefit of individuals or companies. + All the resources of the forest reserves are for _use_, and + this use must be brought about in a thoroughly prompt and + businesslike manner, under such restrictions only as will insure + the permanence of these resources. The vital importance of + forest reserves to the great industries of the Western States + will be largely increased in the near future by the continued + steady advance in settlement and development. The permanence + of the resources of the reserves is therefore indispensable to + continued prosperity, and the policy of this Department for + their protection and use will invariably be guided by this fact, + bearing in mind that the _conservative use_ of these resources + in no way conflicts with their permanent value. + + "You will see to it that the water, wood, and forage of the + reserves are conserved and wisely used for the benefit of the + home builder first of all, upon whom depends the best permanent + use of lands and resources alike. The continued prosperity of + the agricultural, lumbering, mining, and live-stock interests + is directly dependent upon a permanent and accessible supply + of water, wood, and forage, as well as upon the present and + future use of these resources under businesslike regulations, + enforced with promptness, effectiveness, and common sense. In + the management of each reserve local questions will be decided + upon local grounds; the dominant industry will be considered + first, but with as little restriction to minor industries as + may be possible; sudden changes in industrial conditions will + be avoided by gradual adjustment after due notice, and where + conflicting interests must be reconciled the question will + always be decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of + the greatest number in the long run." + + +HOW THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICY HAS BENEFITED THE PEOPLE + +This general policy, which was laid down by the Secretary of +Agriculture, has been followed out, with the result that a great many +benefits have been derived by the nation as a whole, by the individual +States in which the National Forests are located, and, lastly, by the +local communities and users of the Forests. + +_The Remaining Timber Resources Were Saved._ First of all the timber, +the forage, and the water-power on the public domain has been reserved +for the whole people and not for a privileged few. Before the Forest +Reserve policy went into effect, the most valuable timber was being +withdrawn from government ownership by the misuse of the public land +laws, whose purpose and intent were fraudulently evaded. Many claims +were initiated apparently for the purpose of establishing a homestead +but in reality for the purposes of securing the timber on the land +and later to dispose of it to some large timber holder. Every citizen +is allowed to exercise his homestead right. Big timber operators +would secure the services of many dummy locators, pay the expenses of +locating, improving, and perfecting the patent, and then buy the claim +from these dummies for small sums. A large timber holder in California +secured his hundreds of thousands of acres of timber land in this way. +By instructing these men where to locate their claims he was able to +secure more or less solid blocks of timber made up originally of 160 +acre patches. These patches, which originally were bought by the lumber +barons for from $500 to $800 a claim, now have a value of from $8,000 +to as high as $20,000. The people of the United States have lost the +difference. + +It is difficult to say where or how this wholesale misuse of the public +land laws would have ended if it had not been for the inauguration +of the National Forest policy. Since the Government has taken full +charge of its forest domain, this misuse has stopped. In fact many of +the fraudulent claims located years ago are being investigated, and +if they are found to have been initiated with intent to defraud the +Government, the land and the timber is returned to the National Forest +in which it is located. To-day the National Forests contain about one +fifth of the standing timber in the United States, an amount which will +undoubtedly have a great effect upon the supply of timber available for +future generations, especially since under present lumbering methods the +privately owned timber lands are being practically destroyed, while the +National Forests are actually being improved by scientific management. +Four fifths of the standing timber is privately owned, and this is +usually of much higher quality than the publicly owned timber. + +[Illustration: Figure 5. The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in the +background. North Calaveras Grove, California.] + +_The Use of Forage and Water Resources Was Regulated._ The forage and +water resources of the public domain have been subject to similar abuse. +Before the National Forest policy was put into effect the large ranges +of the West were used indiscriminately by all. The range was subject +to considerable abuse because it was used very early in the spring +before the forage was mature, or too late in the fall, which prevented +the forage from ripening its seed and reproducing for the next season. +Not the small, local stockmen, however, but the large sheep and cattle +companies, many controlled by foreign capital, benefited by this +condition of affairs. These "big men," as they were called, illegally +fenced and monopolized large areas, varying in size from townships +to entire counties. What chance would a local rancher with fifty or +sixty cattle have against a million-dollar outfit with perhaps 40,000 +to 50,000 cattle? He was merely swallowed up, so to speak, and had no +chance whatever to get his small share. "Might made right" in those +days, and it is said that if a man held any title or equity on the range +it was a "shotgun" title. Also, the sheep and cattle men had innumerable +disputes about the use of the range which in many cases resulted in +bloodshed. If a sheep man arrived first on the range in the spring with +his large bands of sheep, he simply took the feed. The Government owned +the land and the forage but it had no organization in the field to +regulate the use of it. It was indeed a chaotic condition of affairs and +ended only after the inauguration of the present policy of leasing the +lands under the permit system. These permits are issued and charged for +upon a per capita basis. + +The conservative and regulated use of the grazing lands under Forest +Service supervision has resulted in better growth and better weights +on stock and more actual profit. There are ample data that show that +the National Forests produce some of the best lambs that are put upon +the market. Data secured from the Modoc National Forest, California, +in 1910, show that lambs brought 50 cents per head more and weighed +an average of 10 pounds more than lambs produced outside the Forest. +Weights taken of 10,000 head showed an average of 72 pounds for National +Forest lambs, while outside the Forest average weights on 3,000 lambs +showed only 62 pounds. The regulation of the length of the grazing +season, the introduction of better methods of handling sheep, and the +prevention of over-grazing are some of the Forest Service methods that +produce better lambs. + +Then also under the old system the valuable water-power sites were being +rapidly eliminated from government ownership by large corporations who +secured valuable property for a song. The National Forests, however, +still contain about one-third of the potential water-power resources +of the United States and over 40 per cent. of the estimated power +resources of the Western States. And this vast wealth will not pass from +the ownership of the United States but will be leased under long-term +leases from which the Government will receive yearly a fair rental. + +_The Forests Were Protected from Fire and Trespass._ But not only +have these large timber, forage, and power resources been put under +administration for the use of the people. The protection of the National +Forests, which goes hand in hand with their administration, means a +great deal to the local communities, the States, and the nation as +a whole. Until about twenty years ago the forests upon our public +lands--the timber of the Rocky Mountains from Montana to New Mexico +and of the Pacific Coast ranges from northern Washington to southern +California--seemed destined to be destroyed by fire and reckless, +illegal cutting. Nothing whatever was being done to protect them from +fire or trespass. They were simply left to burn. When the people living +near the public domain wanted any house logs, fence posts, or firewood, +they went into the public domain and took them. The best trees were +usually taken first. In California, especially, there was a common +practice of cutting down the finest sugar pine trees and cutting and +splitting them into shakes to make a roof covering. Then, too, much +government timber was stolen by lumber companies operating in the +vicinity of valuable government timber. After the land had been stripped +of everything of value a fire was started in the slashing, which among +other things burned the stumps and thus practically obliterated all +evidence of trespass. Had this destruction continued there would to-day +have been little timber left in the West, and the development of the +country which demands timber all the time, and not only at certain +intervals, would have been retarded, if not stopped altogether. + +[Illustration: Figure 6. A scene on one of the famous National Parks. +Upper Lake, Glacier National Park, Northern Rockies, Montana.] + +How terrible the forest fires were in this western country is well +illustrated by what an old California settler once told me, and what I +have heard repeatedly in many Western States. He said: "In the years +before the Forest Service took over the care and protection of the +forests around here, the mountains within view of my ranch were not +visible for many months at a time, being almost continually enveloped +in smoke from the big forest fires that were raging in the forests all +summer without ever being under control. They started in the spring as +soon as it became dry and were not suppressed until the late fall rains +and snows put them out." But he added with great enthusiasm, "Since +the Service has taken charge the sky around here is as clear as crystal +all summer. I never see any forest fires, not even smoke, because the +Rangers seem to get to them before they get to be of any size." Such +testimony as this speaks volumes for the efficiency of the present +system of protecting the Forests from fire. + +_The Watershed Cover Was Preserved._ The destruction of the forest cover +on the watersheds feeding thousands of streams which rise in the western +mountains would have had its bad effect on stream flow--low water +during the long dry periods, and destructive floods after heavy rains. +This condition of affairs would have meant disaster to the systems of +irrigation by which most of the western farmers raise their crops. It +would also have seriously impeded and in many cases prevented electric +power development, to say nothing of affecting the domestic water of +many of our large western cities whose drinking water comes from the +streams rising in the National Forests. The protection of these valuable +watersheds by the Forest Service from fire and destructive lumbering is +of such vital importance to the welfare of the nation that it has been +made one of the main reasons for establishing National Forests. + +_Civilization Brought to the Mountains._ What the National Forest +movement has done for settling and building up the Western States +can hardly be overestimated. It has brought civilization into +the wilderness. Roads, trails, telephone lines, and other modern +conveniences have been brought to remote corners of the mountains. It +has encouraged the settlement of the country by calling attention to +the agricultural lands within the National Forests. More important than +that, it has assured the West permanent towns, permanent civilization, +and not a temporary, careless, shiftless civilization which vanishes +with the exploitation of resources, as it did under the old régime. + +The improvements on the National Forests have benefited not only the +Forest officers for the administration of the Forests. They have helped +immensely the local population. The pleasure resorts as well as the +business of the Forests have been made more accessible. New trails have +opened up new and hitherto inaccessible country, where fishing, hunting, +and trapping are ideal. All the old and new roads and trails have been +well marked with sign boards giving the tourist detailed information +about distances between the various points of interest. Roads have +opened up new regions to automobiles and to the horse and wagon. In 1916 +it was estimated that more than 2,000,000 people visited the National +Forests for recreation and pleasure. They came in automobiles, in +horse and wagon, on horseback, on mules, on burros, and in all sorts +of made-to-order contrivances, and the writer has even seen those +that could not afford anything better, pack their camp outfits in a +wheelbarrow and push it before them in their effort to leave the hot, +dusty valleys below, and go to the refreshing and invigorating Forests +of Uncle Sam. In addition to the large numbers of tourists that visit +the National Forests every year, over 100,000 persons or companies use +the National Forests. Of these a little more than half are paid users, +who are charged a fair fee for timber, grazing, or other privileges and +a little less than half enjoy free use privileges. + +_Agricultural Lands Opened to Settlement._ The settlement of the +agricultural lands in the National Forests is a matter that has received +special attention at the hands of the Forest Service in late years. Land +more valuable for agriculture than for timber growing was excluded +from the National Forests before the boundaries were drawn, so far as +this was possible. Small tracts of agricultural land within the Forests +which could not be excluded are opened to settlement under the Forest +Homestead Act of June 11, 1906. The amount of land, however, that is +more valuable for agriculture than for timber is trifling, because the +greater part of the valuable land was already settled before the Forests +were created. The few small patches that are left inside of the National +Forest boundaries are rapidly being classified and opened to entry +for homesteads. Much of the land apparently adapted for agricultural +purposes has a severe climate because it lies at high altitudes and it +is often remote from roads, schools, villages, and markets. Therefore +the chance offered the prospective settler in the immediate vicinity of +the Forests is far better than in the Forests themselves. The Forest +Service is doing everything it can to encourage homesteaders on the +National Forests; it wants them because they help to report fires, help +to fight fires, and in many other ways assist the Forest officers. + +_Permanent and Not Temporary Civilization Resulted._ Only those people +who have been brought up near a large lumbering center can appreciate +what it means when a town vanishes; when all that is left of a thriving +town of 5,000 or more souls is empty streets, empty houses, and heaps of +tin cans. In the days of the Golden Age of lumbering in Michigan many +towns flourished in the midst of the forests. These towns had thrifty, +busy people, with schools, churches, banks, and other conveniences. +These people were engaged in exploiting the forests. The beautiful white +pine forests were converted into boards at the rate of thousands of feet +every day. When these magnificent forests were laid low, the lumbermen +left to seek virgin timber elsewhere. They left behind them empty towns +and barren lands; only a few charred stumps remained to show where the +forests once stood. But this is not an incident peculiar to the Golden +Age of lumbering in Michigan. Even to-day this very thing is happening. +The town of Crossfork, Potter County, Pennsylvania, had a population +of over 2,500 souls in 1909. When the nearby timber was exhausted, +practically the whole town was abandoned. In 1913 it had a population of +50. + +In direct contrast to this short-sighted policy of the State of Michigan +(and many others also) is the National Forest policy, which provides +for a future supply of forest products as well as a present supply; +which provides for work and homes and schools and churches for future +generations as well as for the present; which provides for a permanent +industry and not one that vanishes with the exploitation of the +resources of a region as snow vanishes under the warm rays of a spring +day. Lumbering even to-day is merely the removal of every vestige of +timber that has any sale value. But forestry, which is practiced on +the National Forests, removes only the mature trees, leaving the young +growth to be cut at some future time. Lumbering has been and is to-day +forest destruction; forestry is forest conservation under a system +of wise use. Lumbering is followed usually by fire, and often by an +entire impoverishment of the region in which it is carried on because +it destroys both the mature tree and the young growth; under a system +of forestry, cutting is followed by young, green forests which are +protected from fire for the benefit of future generations. Such a system +leaves the region and the industry in a permanent, good condition. The +county under the old system receives no more taxes after its wealth is +gone; but each county will receive taxes or money in lieu of taxes +every year as long as the National Forests shall endure. + +[Illustration: Figure 7. The remains of the old boiler house. The +town once had a sawmill, planning mill, lath mill, besides modern +conveniences. All these are now gone after the forests have been cut. +Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan.] + +[Illustration: Figure 8. Deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill +left. These are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. +Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan.] + +_Financial Returns._ All the benefits of which I have spoken are without +doubt great assets to the local community, to the State, and to the +nation as a whole. They are great contributions to the welfare of our +country even though they cannot be measured in dollars and cents. This +brings us then to the financial aspect of the National Forest movement. +Even though the fundamental purpose of the National Forests was in no +sense a financial one, it is interesting to look into the finances of +this great forestry enterprise. + +The total regular appropriation for salaries, general expenses, and +improvements for the fiscal year 1918 is $5,712,275. For 1917 it was +slightly less than this: $5,574,735. The receipts from the sale or +rental of National Forest resources in the fiscal year 1917 reached +$3,457,028.41. From these figures it will be seen that the expenditures +exceed the receipts by between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000 a year, +depending partly on the severity of the fire season and partly on the +activity of the general lumber market. When we consider that this is +really a newly established business scarcely twenty years old; that +large expenditure have been made and must necessarily be made every +year for equipment and improvements before the resources could even be +used; and that an efficient organization had to be built up to handle +the business, we must confess that the receipts are really a wonderful +showing. + +When the Forest Reserves were taken over by the Government it could not +be expected that they would yield a revenue at the very outset, nor +could it be expected that even in the long space of twenty-five years +they could be made self-supporting. The reasons for this are many. +They are located for the most part in rugged, inaccessible mountains. +In the case of almost every Forest a great deal of money had to be +expended for roads, trails, telephone lines, fences, bridges, ranger +stations and other cabins, lookout structures, fire lines, and many +other improvements before the resources could even be used. Many of +the resources were practically locked up; there were no roads by which +to get them out of the wilderness. During the fiscal year 1916 alone +there were built 227 miles of roads, 1,975 miles of trails, 2,124 miles +of telephone lines, 89 miles of fire lines, 81 lookout structures, +40 bridges, 222 miles of fences, 545 dwellings, barns, and other +structures, and many other improvements. Up to date there have been +constructed over 3,000 miles of roads, over 25,000 miles of trails, +about 23,000 miles of telephone lines, 860 miles of firebreaks, about +360 forest fire lookout cabins and towers, and many other improvements. +Their total value is estimated at $7,000,000. And these vast +improvements are but a small percentage of the improvements which will +be necessary to be able to put these Forests to their highest use. + +Not only must enormous sums be spent for improvements. The huge sums +which are spent for the protection of the great resources bring no +tangible return in dollars and cents; yet the fire protection system +prevents the destruction of millions of dollars' worth of timber every +year. Then again, when government timber lands are cut over, only +the mature trees are taken; the smaller trees, although they have a +commercial value, are left on the ground to mature because they will +have a still greater value in from forty to fifty years. This is merely +foregoing a small present revenue for a larger future one. Also many +National Forests have on them large areas of steep mountain slopes +where not a stick of timber is allowed to be cut. These areas are +maintained intact for watershed protection. In fact many of the Forests +of southern California are maintained solely for this purpose. These +Forests are covered almost entirely by a low bush-like growth called +"chaparral," which has no value either as timber or as browse, but which +has great value to preserve an equable stream flow for domestic use, +irrigation, and water power. + +But there are still other reasons why the cash receipts from the +National Forests are not as large as they might be. In addition to the +cash receipts the equivalent of a large revenue is foregone every year +through the various forms of free use and the sale of timber to settlers +at cost instead of at its actual cash value. During the fiscal year +1917 approximately $150,000 worth of timber was given to settlers free +of cost. About 40,000 people were served under this policy. Also much +timber is sold at cost to settlers for domestic use. In this way over +4,400 persons received many millions of feet of timber whose cost value +was about $20,000, but whose sale value was much greater. The privilege +of grazing a small number of stock free of charge is granted to settlers +living on or near the Forests. The stock thus grazed amounts to about +125,000 animals every year. The Forests are also put to many special +uses for which no charge is made although their administration involves +some expense. Strict accounting should credit the fair value of such +uses to the receipts from the National Forests, for it is in effect +income which instead of being put into the treasury is made available +for the benefit of the people. + +From what has been said it will be seen that a large part of the +benefits derived from the systematic administration of the National +Forests cannot be measured in dollars and cents. These benefits are +in effect privileges extended to the people who in return assist in +the protection of the Forests from fire and thus more than repay the +Government for what they receive. Even under the rather unfavorable +revenue producing conditions mentioned above, it is interesting to note +that in 1917 the receipts of thirty-two National Forests exceeded their +total expenditures. On fifteen others the receipts exceeded the cost of +protection and administration. In other words, one-third of the National +Forests are practically self-supporting. + +_The New Eastern National Forests._ The great success with which the +National Forest policy was launched in the Western States was largely +responsible for the inauguration of a similar policy in the Appalachian +and White Mountains. The main purpose for which these forests are to be +acquired is to preserve a steady stream flow for water-power navigation +and domestic use, and to lessen the damage caused by floods and erosion. +These forests are of vital influence in controlling the flow of the +Merrimac, Connecticut, Androscoggin, Potomac, James, Santee, Savannah, +Tennessee, and Monongahela rivers. Some years ago the Merrimac drove +mills worth over $100,000,000, which employed over 80,000 people. Upon +these, it is said, 350,000 were dependent for support. In the Carolinas +and Georgia alone the cotton mills operated by water-power turn out an +annual product valued at almost $100,000,000. In these mills 60,000 +people are employed, upon whom 250,000 are dependent for support. These +mills utilize 106,000 horsepower. The forests which control these waters +are therefore of great pecuniary value. + +The Act of March 1, 1911, commonly known as the Weeks Law, made the +acquisition of forest lands in the Appalachian and White Mountains +possible. Up to June 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved +for purchase by the National Forest Reservation Commission. The Forest +Service has been designated as the bureau to examine and value such +lands as may be offered for purchase. The original appropriation was +$2,000,000 per year for five and one-half years, beginning the last half +of the fiscal year 1911. The Agricultural Appropriation Bill for the +fiscal year 1913 made the appropriation for 1912 and subsequent years +available until expended. A further appropriation of $3,000,000 was +provided later for the same purpose, to be expended during the fiscal +years 1917 and 1918. Under Section 2 of the same law coöperative fire +protection with the States was provided for. This section of the law +provided that the Forest Service should maintain a coöperative system +of forest fire protection with those States which have a law providing +for a system of fire protection for state and private forest lands upon +the watersheds of navigable streams. In no case was the amount to be +expended by the Forest Service to exceed the amount appropriated by +the State for the same purpose in any given fiscal year. The original +appropriation was $200,000 and subsequent appropriations have been for +$100,000 annually. Twenty-one States are coöperating with the Forest +Service in this way. + +By the passage of the Weeks Bill, Congress has voiced the sentiment that +the forest fire problem, _even on private land_, is not only no longer +a private problem, is not even exclusively a state problem, but a joint +problem and duty to be borne by the State and nation. Forest fires are +now rightfully looked upon as a public enemy rather than a private +menace. This is a big step in the right direction, and it is hoped that +this same principle will be applied in the not too distant future to all +other matters dealing with private timber lands. If the protection of +these private timber lands is a public and not a private problem, then +certainly their management for continuity is a public problem. A timber +owner should not be allowed to cut his timber without the consent of the +Government, and the Government should see to it that he leaves the young +growth as a basis for a future crop or provides a new growth of timber +by planting young trees. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + PAGE + PREFACE vii + + INTRODUCTION xiii + + Forestry as a National Problem xiii + Our consumption of wood xiii + The lumber industry xiv + Our future lumber supply xv + Forests and stream flow xvi + Forests and erosion xvii + Forestry a public enterprise xviii + The Extent and Character of Our National Forests xix + How the Government obtained the National Forest lands xix + The romance of the National Forest region xx + Famous scenic wonders near the Forests xxii + The size and extent of the National Forests xxiv + The topography and climate of the National Forest + region xxvi + Why the National Forests were Created xxvii + How the National Forest Policy has Benefited the People xxx + The remaining timber resources were saved xxx + The use of forage and water resources was regulated xxxii + The Forests were protected from fire and trespass xxxv + The watershed cover was preserved xxxvii + Civilization brought to the mountains xxxviii + Agricultural lands opened to settlement xxxix + Permanent and not temporary civilization resulted xl + Financial returns xliii + The new eastern National Forests xlvii + + + I THE CREATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS 1 + + Economic Conditions Which Led to Forest Conservation 1 + Prodigality leads finally to conservation 1 + The march of forest destruction 2 + Our lumber and water supply imperiled 5 + The First Steps in Federal Forest Conservation 6 + The upbuilding of the West 6 + The Lake States first to act 7 + The first federal steps 8 + The Act of August 16, 1876 9 + Further work under the Act 11 + The First Forest Reserves Established March 30, 1891 12 + The situation before 1891 12 + The need of the forest policy 13 + The Act of March 3, 1891 14 + An Anomalous Condition--Forest Reserves Without Forest + Administration 14 + The Need of Administration on the Reserves 14 + More Reserves created 16 + The Administration of the Reserves Under the General + Land Office 16 + The Act of June 4, 1897 16 + The Division of Forestry in 1898 18 + The Bureau of Forestry 19 + The Consolidation of the Forestry Work in the Department + of Agriculture in 1905 19 + The Act of February 1, 1905 19 + Early forestry education and literature 20 + Changes in the Forest Service personnel 21 + More National Forests created 21 + The growth of the Forest Service 22 + Recent modifications in the organization 23 + The Present Organization of the Forest Service 24 + The administrative districts 24 + The Washington office 26 + The district offices 28 + + + II THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS 30 + + Personnel 31 + Duties of forest officers 31 + The Forest Supervisor 32 + The Forest Assistant 34 + The Forest Ranger 35 + The Forest Clerk 38 + Forest Service Meetings 39 + How the Forest Service Appropriation is Allotted to the + National Forests 40 + Forest Service expenses 40 + The agricultural appropriation bill 42 + The ranger's protection and improvement plans 42 + The Supervisor's plans 43 + Approval of plans by the District Forester 44 + The district fiscal agent 45 + Tax money paid to the states 46 + The Equipment and Supplies for the National Forests 47 + The property auditor and property clerk 47 + Blank forms 48 + Supplies 48 + National Forest Improvements 49 + The need of improvements 49 + Transportation facilities 50 + Communication facilities 53 + Grazing improvements 56 + Protection improvements 57 + Appropriations for improvement work 58 + The Classification and Consolidation of National Forest + Lands 61 + Land classification 61 + The consolidation of National Forest lands 63 + How Young Forests are Planted to Replace Those Destroyed + by Fire 64 + Reforestation and the timber supply 64 + Reforestation and water supply 65 + Government reforestation policy 67 + Methods of reforestation 70 + Direct seeding work on the National Forests 72 + Planting on the National Forests 78 + The Organization and Scope of Forest Experiments and + Investigations 83 + The need of scientific experiments 83 + The science of growing timber 84 + Dendrological studies 86 + Seed studies 87 + Nursery studies 88 + Forestation experiments 89 + Studies of forest influences 89 + Meteorological observations 91 + Forest management studies 92 + Forest protection studies 94 + Protection from grazing damage 95 + Protection from insects and diseases 96 + Tree studies 97 + Grazing investigations 98 + Investigations dealing with poisonous plants and + predatory animals 102 + National Forest utilization experiments 104 + Forest Products Laboratory experiments 108 + Industrial investigations 116 + + + III THE PROTECTION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS 120 + + Protection from Fire 120 + Forest Fire danger on the National Forests 120 + Importance of fire protection 121 + Causes of forest fires on the National Forests 124 + Behavior of forest fires 126 + Losses by forest fires on the National Forests 126 + The forest fire problem stated 128 + Fire prevention 129 + Fire suppression 133 + How forest fire funds are distributed 134 + Forest fire history 136 + Relation of forest fires to the weather 137 + Improvements and equipment for protection 138 + Forest fire maps and charts 139 + Forest fire organization 140 + How fires are located 142 + The fire fighting organization 144 + Forest fire coöperation 146 + Fighting forest fires 147 + Protection Against Trespass, Forest Insects, Erosion, + and Other Agencies 150 + Trespass 150 + Forest insects 154 + Tree diseases 159 + Water supply 162 + Public health 167 + Violation of game laws 168 + + + IV THE SALE AND RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES 170 + + The Sale and Disposal of National Forest Timber 170 + Government Timber Sale Policy 171 + Annual yield and cut 172 + Timber reconnoissance 174 + Logging the timber 176 + The first step in purchasing government timber 180 + Procedure in an advertised sale 180 + Timber sale contract clauses 182 + Special contract clauses 184 + When the operation may begin 186 + Marking the timber for cutting 186 + Scaling, measuring, and stamping 188 + Disposal of slash 190 + Payment for timber 192 + Stumpage rates 193 + Cutting period 194 + Readjustment of Stumpage rates 194 + Refunds 194 + The Disposal of timber to Homestead Settlers and Under + Free Use 195 + Sales to homestead settlers and farmers 195 + Free Use 195 + Timber Settlement and Administrative Use 198 + The Rental of National Forest Range Lands 200 + Importance of the live-stock industry 200 + Permits issued in 1917 201 + Kinds of range, grazing seasons, and methods + handling stock 202 + Grazing districts and grazing units 205 + Who are entitled to grazing privileges 207 + Grazing permits 211 + Grazing fees 214 + Stock associations 215 + Protective and maximum limits 216 + Prohibition of grazing 218 + Protection of grazing interests 219 + Special Uses 220 + Claims and Settlement 223 + The National Forest Homestead Act 224 + The mining laws 229 + Coal-land laws 230 + Administrative Use of National Forest Lands 230 + Water Power, Telephone, Telegraph, and Power + Transmission Lines 230 + + APPENDIX 233 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Figure 1. An observation point for finding forest fires. + Vigilance is the watchword on the National Forests. During + During 1916 forest officers extinguished 5,655 forest + fires. Photo by the author _Frontispiece_ + + FACING + PAGE + + Figure 2. A typical National Forest landscape in the + high mountains. Potosi Peak, 13,763 feet, from Yankee Boy + Basin, Uncompahgre National Forest, Ouray County, Colorado xviii + + Figure 3. The climate of most of the National Forests + is severe. This view was taken in the early summer and + shows the high mountains still covered with snow. Most of + the National Forest lands are therefore of small value for + agriculture. Photo by Abbey xxviii + + Figure 4. On many high mountains on the National + Forests snow banks persist throughout the summer. This + view was taken in the latter part of August. Lassen + National Forest, California. Photo by the author xxviii + + Figure 5. The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in the + background. North Calaveras Grove, California xxxii + + Figure 6. A scene on one of the famous National Parks. + Upper Lake, Glacier National Park, Northern Rockies, + Montana xxxvi + + Figure 7. The remains of the old boiler house. The + town once had a sawmill, planing mill, lath mill, besides + modern conveniences. All these are now gone after the + forests have been cut. Lemiston, Montmorency County, + Michigan xlii + + Figure 8. Deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill + left. These are the remains of what was once a prosperous + town. Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan xlii + + Figure 9. Forest officers in front of the Forest + Supervisor's summer headquarters. Note the many telephone + wires that lead from the office. This is 50 miles from the + railroad. Lassen National Forest, California 32 + + Figure 10. Scene in front of the Forest Supervisor's + headquarters. Sheep leaving the National Forest summer + range in the fall to go to winter range in the valley. + Lassen National Forest, California 32 + + Figure 11. Forest officers and lumberjacks burning + the slash resulting from a timber sale. The snow on the + ground makes the burning less dangerous. Washakie National + Forest, Wyoming. Photo by the author 38 + + Figure 12. Forest officers at a winter timber-cruising + camp repairing snow shoes. Besides cruising the timber, + these men make a logging map of the government lands, to + show how the timber can best be taken out. Lassen National + Forest, California. Photo by the author 38 + + Figure 13. A forest fire lookout tower on Leek Springs + Mountain, Eldorado National Forest, California 50 + + Figure 14. A typical Forest Ranger's headquarters. + Idlewood Ranger Station, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 52 + + Figure 15. A typical view of the National Forest + country in Montana. Forest Service trail up Squaw Peak + Patrol Station, Cabinet National Forest 54 + + Figure 16. Forest Rangers repairing a bridge over a + mountain stream. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 56 + + Figure 17. A forest fire lookout station on the top + of Lassen Peak, elevation 10,400 feet, Lassen National + Forest, California. The cabin was first erected complete + in a carpenter's shop in Red Bluff, about 50 miles away. + It was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot of + Lassen Peak. On the last two miles of its journey it + was packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs + and finally reassembled on the topmost pinnacle of the + mountain. Photo by the author 58 + + Figure 18. Forest officers and laborers building a + wagon road through trap rock. Payette National Forest, + Idaho 58 + + Figure 19. Drying pine cones preparatory to extracting + the seed. Near Plumas National Forest, California 66 + + Figure 20. Extracting tree seed from the cones. The + dried cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out + through the wire mesh which forms the sides of the machine 66 + + Figure 21. Preparing the ground with a spring-tooth + harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. Battlement + National Forest, Colorado. This view was taken at + approximately 10,000 feet elevation. Photo by the author 70 + + Figure 22. A local settler delivering a load of + Lodgepole pine cones at the seed extractory, for which he + receives 45 cents per bushel. Forest officers receiving + them, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 70 + + Figure 23. In a forest nursery a trough is often used + for sowing seeds in drills. The seed scattered along the + sides of the trough rattles into position at the bottom + and is more even than when distributed by the ordinary + worker at the bottom of the trough. Pike National Forest, + Colorado 72 + + Figure 24. Uncle Sam grows the little trees by the + millions. These will soon cover some of the bare hillsides + on the National Forests of the West 72 + + Figure 25. One of the largest Forest Service nurseries + where the young trees are given the utmost care before + they are large and strong enough to endure the rigorous + climate of the National Forests. McCloud Nursery, Shasta + National Forest, California 76 + + Figure 26. A view of seed sowing with a corn planter. + San Isabel National Forest, Colorado 78 + + Figure 27. Sowing seed along contour lines on the + slopes. Pike National Forest, Colorado 78 + + Figure 28. A planting crew at work setting out small + trees. The man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind + plants the tree. Wasatch National Forest, Utah 82 + + Figure 29. At the Fort Valley Forest Experiment + Station, Coconino National Forest, Arizona. A typical + meteorological station. Forest officer measuring + precipitation. Note the shelter which contains + thermometers and also the electrically equipped + instruments to record the direction and velocity of the + wind 90 + + Figure 30. Forest officer ascertaining the amount of + evaporation from a free water surface. Fort Valley Forest + Experiment Station, Flagstaff, Arizona 90 + + Figure 31. Forest Ranger with his pack horses + traveling over his district. Meadow Creek, foot of Mt. + Wilson, Montezuma National Forest, Colorado 102 + + Figure 32. A plank of Incense cedar affected by a + disease known as "pin rot." By cutting the cedar timber + when it is mature this can be largely avoided. Lassen + National Forest, California. Photo by the author 114 + + Figure 33. The western pine forests will some day + be a great source for naval stores. By distilling + the crude resin of the Jeffrey pine a light volatile + oil--abietene--is secured which has great healing and + curative properties. Lassen National Forest, California. + Photo by the author 114 + + Figure 34. A forest fire lookout station at the summit + of Mt. Eddy. Mt. Shasta in the background. California 124 + + Figure 35. A forest fire lookout station on the + summit of Brokeoff Mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. Lassen + National Forest, California. Photo by the author 128 + + Figure 36. Turner Mountain lookout station, Lassen + National Forest, California. This is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. + cabin with a stove and with folding bed, table, and + chairs. The forest officer stationed here watches for + forest fires day and night throughout the fire season. + Photo by the author 128 + + Figure 37. A fire line cut through the low bush-like + growth of "Chaparral" on the Angeles National Forest, + California. This "Chaparral" is of great value for + regulating stream flow. The streams are used for water + power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of the + largest lemon and orange groves of southern California 132 + + Figure 38. A forest officers' temporary camp while + fighting forest fires. Near Oregon National Forest, Oregon 132 + + Figure 39. Putting out a ground fire. Even if the fire + does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young + trees and so weakens the larger ones that they are easily + blown over. Wallowa National Forest, Oregon 136 + + Figure 40. Forest officers ready to leave a tool + box for a forest fire in the vicinity. Such tool boxes + as these are stationed at convenient places on National + Forests ready for any emergency. Arapaho National Forest, + Colorado 136 + + Figure 41. A forest fire on the Wasatch National + Forest, Utah. Forest officers trying to stop a forest fire + by cutting a fire line. Note the valuable growth of young + trees which they are trying to save at the right 140 + + Figure 42. A forest fire running in dense underbrush + on one of the National Forests in Oregon 144 + + Figure 43. Men in a dense forest with heavy + undergrowth clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is + running down hill. Crater National Forest, Oregon 144 + + Figure 44. Fire in a Lodgepole pine forest in + Colorado. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado 148 + + Figure 45. A mountain fire in "Chaparral" five hours + after it started. Pasadena, California 148 + + Figure 46. A few years ago this was a green, luxuriant + forest. Picture taken after the great fires of August 20, + 1910, on the Coeur d'Alene National Forest near Wallace, + Idaho 152 + + Figure 47. The first evidence of insect attack are + the reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. Lodgepole pine + infested by the mountain pine beetle. Lassen National + Forest, California. Photo by the author 156 + + Figure 48. The last stage of an insect-attacked tree. + The tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. Lassen + National Forest, California. Photo by the author 156 + + Figure 49. Wrecked farm buildings due to flood of May + 21, 1901, Nolichucky River, near Erwin, Tenn. This is one + result of denuding the Appalachian Mountains of their + forest cover 162 + + Figure 50. When steep hillsides are stripped of + their forest growth, erosion results. Erosion has been + especially serious in the Appalachian Mountains. View + taken in Madison County, North Carolina 162 + + Figure 51. A fertile corn-field covered with sand, + gravel and débris brought down from the mountains by + floods. These farm lands are ruined beyond redemption. + This could have been prevented by preserving the forests + on the watershed of this river 166 + + Figure 52. A view towards Mt. Adams and the headwaters + of Lewis River. Council Lake in the foreground. National + forest lands lie at the headwaters of practically every + large western river. This means that the water supply for + the western people used for domestic use, water power, + and irrigation is being protected from pollution and + destruction. View taken on the Rainier National Forest, + Washington 172 + + Figure 53. A large storage reservoir used to irrigate + the ranches in the valley below. Elevation 10,500 feet. + Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author 176 + + Figure 54. A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by + Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10,000 + feet. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by + author. 176 + + Figure 55. View taken in the Coast Range mountains + of California where Sugar pine and Douglas fir and the + principal trees. Klamath National Forest, California. + Photo by the author 180 + + Figure 56. A typical mountain scene in the California + Coast Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of + vital importance. Klamath National Forest, California. + Photo by the author 180 + + Figure 57. A forest officer at work on a high mountain + peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of + National Forest lands. Photo by the author 182 + + Figure 58. A government timber cruiser's summer camp. + These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle + Sam's timber resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an + acre. Photo by the author 182 + + Figure 59. Forest officers moving camp while engaged + in winter reconnoissance work. All food, beds, and + clothing are packed on "Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men + themselves. Photo by the author 184 + + Figure 60. A winter reconnoissance camp showing + snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to + repair the webbing on the snow-shoes. Lassen National + Forest, California. Photo by the author 184 + + Figure 61. A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz + County, California 186 + + Figure 62. A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in + diameter. This is the most valuable timber species in + California. Photo by the author 188 + + Figure 63. A Western Yellow pine forest in California. + These trees are from four to six feet in diameter and + from 150 to 200 feet high. Note the Forest Service timber + cruiser measuring the tree at the left. Photo by the + author. 188 + + Figure 64. Logging in California. Powerful steam + engines pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and + load them on flat cars. Photo by the author 190 + + Figure 65. The loaded flat cars reach the sawmill + where the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During + the fiscal year 1917 timber sales on the National Forests + brought into the National Treasury almost $1,700,000.00. + Photo by the author 190 + + Figure 66. Scene in Montana. Forest officers + constructing a telephone line through the Flathead + National Forest 192 + + Figure 67. Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, + marking National Forest timber for cutting in a timber + sale. Coconino National Forest, Arizona 192 + + Figure 68. An excellent illustration showing the + difference between unrestricted logging as practiced by + lumbermen, and conservative logging as practiced by the + Forest Service. In the foreground is the unrestricted + logging which strips the soil of every stick of timber + both large and small; in the background is the Forest + Service logging area which preserves the young growth to + insure a future supply of timber for the West. Bitterroot + National Forest, Montana 194 + + Figure 69. View showing the Forest Service method of + piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how + stump heights are kept down to prevent waste. New Mexico 196 + + Figure 70. A tie-cutting operation on a National + Forest. These piles of railroad ties are being inspected, + stamped, and counted by Forest rangers. From this point + the ties are "skidded" to the banks of a stream to be + floated to the shipping point. Near Evanston, Wyoming 196 + + Figure 71. Brush piles on a cut-over area before + burning. Forest Service methods aim to clean up the forest + after logging so that forest fires have less inflammable + material to feed on. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana 198 + + Figure 72. At a time of the year when there is least + danger from fire the brush piles are burned. Missoula + National Forest, Montana 198 + + Figure 73. Counting sheep as they leave the corral. + Sheep and cattle are pastured on the National Forests at + so many cents per head, hence they must be counted before + they enter in the spring. Wasatch National Forest, Utah 208 + + Figure 74. Logging National Forest timber. Santa Fe + National Forest, New Mexico 208 + + Figure 75. Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National + Forest at the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. Over 7,500,000 + sheep and goats grazed on the National Forests during the + fiscal year 1917 216 + + Figure 76. Grazing cattle on a National Forest in + Colorado. Permits were issued during 1917 to graze over + 2,000,000 cattle, horses, and swine on the National + Forests 216 + + Figure 77. North Clear Creek Falls, Rio Grande + National Forest, Colorado. The National Forests contain + about one-third of all the potential water-power resources + of the United States 230 + + Figure 78. The power plant of the Colorado Power + Company, on the Grand River, Holy Cross National Forest, + Colorado. Every fiscal year there is a substantial + increase in water power development on the National + Forests 230 + + Figure 79. This is only one of the thousands of + streams in the National Forests of the West capable of + generating electric power. It has been estimated that over + 40 per cent. of the water resources of the Western States + are included in the National Forests. Photo by the author 232 + + Figure 80. View in the famous orange belt of San + Bernardino County, California. These orchards depend + absolutely upon irrigation. The watersheds from which + the necessary water comes are in the National Forests + and are protected by the Forest Service. Some of the + smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate + orchards valued at $10,000,000 232 + + + + +OUR NATIONAL FORESTS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE CREATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS + + +ECONOMIC CONDITIONS WHICH LED TO FOREST CONSERVATION + +In order that the reader may fully appreciate the gigantic task that +has been accomplished in bringing the National Forest administration +and organization to its present state of development, it is necessary +to briefly sketch the conditions that led up to the inauguration of the +Federal Forest Policy before we stop to consider that policy and the +establishment and organization of National Forests. + +_Prodigality Leads Finally to Conservation._ Every great movement, +which has for its object the betterment of the lot of mankind, lags far +behind the times. There must be an actual economic need before a new +movement can be expected to take root and flourish. Forest conservation +had no place in the household economy of nations that had forests in +superabundance. Their forests were used with prodigality. It seems to be +a great human failing to use natural resources lavishly when the supply +is apparently unlimited, and to practice frugality only when the end of +a resource is in sight. Thus we find in the pages of forestry history +that all nations have begun to husband their forest resources only after +having felt the pinch of want. In our country history repeats itself and +our federal policy of forest conservation properly begins at the time +that the national conscience was awakened to the realization that if we +did not practice economy with our forest resources we would some day be +without an adequate supply of timber and forage, and be confronted with +other dangers and calamities that follow the destruction of forests. + +_The March of Forest Destruction._ When the London Company settled at +Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607 it found that unlimited pine and hardwood +forests confronted it on every side. Nor did these early settlers ever +find a way out of this forested wilderness except by clearings made with +the ax. When the Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod in 1620 they found +similar forests stretching in all directions from their town-site. After +the Atlantic seaboard became pretty well settled the home-builders began +moving westward through New York, Pennsylvania, and what is now Ohio. +Still nothing but unbroken, virgin forests were encountered. Westward to +the Mississippi civilization advanced and still forests reigned supreme. +Then the Middle West, the Rocky Mountain region, and finally the Pacific +Coast regions were settled. During 140 years civilization has spread +from coast to coast and of that vast wilderness of forest there is left +only a remnant here and there. The giant pines that sheltered De Soto +and his thousand followers on their ill-fated expedition in 1541 to +the Mississippi River have long since disappeared. Along the Allegheny +and Appalachian ranges the vast forests that once harbored the hostile +Narragansetts and Iroquois are now but a memory. The giant oak, ash, and +cypress forests of the Mississippi Valley are rapidly being decimated +by the big sawmills that work night and day to outdo each other. In +the north the dense and magnificent forests of white pine that greeted +Father Marquette, when he planted his missionary station at Sault Ste. +Marie in 1668, have been laid low. Unproductive wastes, sandy barrens, +and useless underbrush now greet the eye. In fact the pine forests which +covered the greater part of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota have been +leveled by the woodman's ax. The army of lumbermen has moved now to the +Coast to again turn virgin timberlands into unproductive wastes. + +Thus forest destruction has followed civilization. Statistics show +very vividly how gradually one large lumbering center after another +has become exhausted, often leaving behind desolation and business +depression. In these large centers thriving towns sprang up only to +disappear again after the removal of the forest wealth. In 1850 about 55 +per cent, of the annual cut of lumber came from the New England States; +even as late as 1865 New York furnished more lumber than any State in +the Union. By 1890 Michigan had reached the zenith of its production and +in that year the Lake States furnished 36 per cent. of the lumber cut. +By 1909 the Southern States had increased their cut to over 50 per cent. +of the total of the country. In 1913 the cut of the State of Washington +was the largest ever recorded for that State or for any other State, +even outdoing Michigan during its Golden Age. In 1915 about 20 per cent. +of the cut came from the Coast but the South still furnished almost 50 +per cent. + +_Our Lumber and Water Supply Imperiled._ In our prodigal use of our +forest resources we have become the most lavish users of wood in the +world. While the annual consumption per capita for France is about 25 +cubic feet, and that of Germany about 40 cubic feet, our per capita +consumption is in the neighborhood of 250 cubic feet. And the most +terrible thing about our reckless methods has been that we have wasted +by crude lumbering methods and we have let great forest fires consume +many times as much lumber as we have used. There have been vast public +and private losses through unnecessary forest fires which not only +consumed millions of dollars' worth of timber every year, but which +also cost the lives of thousands of settlers. Then, as every one knows, +by being grossly negligent with our forests, our rivers have visited +their wrath upon the unfortunate people in the valleys. Many streams +have become raging torrents in the spring and only chains of stagnant +pools in the summer, thus destroying their value for water power and +irrigation. Cotton mills, which formerly used water power all the year +round, now must depend upon more expensive steam power generated by coal +to keep their mills running in times of water shortage, while during +high water there is the great danger that the entire factory might be +swept away. + + +THE FIRST STEPS IN FEDERAL FOREST CONSERVATION. + +Gradually the national conscience became awakened to the need of a more +rational use of our forest resources. But it was not until after the +Civil War that the first steps were taken. As was to be expected, the +States in which forest destruction had reached its worst stages were the +first to attempt to mend their ways, thus leading the way along which +the Federal Government was soon to follow. + +_The Upbuilding of the West._ The decade following the Civil War is +marked by the construction of some of our great trans-continental +railroads and the consequent development of the great western country. +In fact between 1865 and 1875 the railroad mileage of the United States +doubled. The first trans-continental railroad, the Union Pacific, was +completed in 1869. Others soon followed. To encourage construction and +settlement vast tracts of land were granted to the railroad companies +by the Government, and with the land much valuable timber passed from +government ownership. After the construction of the railroads towns +and villages sprang up like mushrooms. As was to be expected with this +increased development the destruction of our forests received an added +impetus. The Lake States, then the center of the lumber industry, began +to take alarm at the rapidity with which their hillsides were being +denuded. Destructive lumbering, usually followed by devastating forest +fires, was fast decimating the virgin pine forests. The young growth +that had escaped the lumberman's ax fell a prey to forest fires which +soon took the form of annual conflagrations. As the population increased +the new sections of the country were settled, and as manufacturing +operations were extended timber was getting higher in price. + +_The Lake States First to Act._ The first attempt to remedy the +situation was made by the State of Wisconsin. In 1867 the Wisconsin +legislature suggested a committee who should report upon the +destruction of Wisconsin's forests. The next year Michigan took a +similar step and in 1869 the Maine legislature began to look into their +waning supply by appointing a committee to estimate the standing timber +of the State. As early as this observations and calculations upon the +rate of consumption of lumber pointed to a not far distant wood famine. + +_The First Federal Steps._ The first step taken by the federal +authorities was at the urgent request of the Statistician of the +Department of Agriculture in 1870. At that time lands were recognized as +being either "improved" or "unimproved" farm lands. He recommended that +the category of "unimproved farm lands" be subdivided into "woodlands" +and "other unimproved lands." By thus dividing off woodlands from other +unimproved farm lands more attention was concentrated upon the former. +This attention was manifested in the investigations that followed +shortly in which it was estimated that 39 per cent. of the area of the +country was in woodland. This was the first and most logical step toward +taking an inventory of our forest resources. + +Another early attempt to assist in forest conservation was an attempt +to reforest the treeless plains of our Western States. On March 3, 1873, +the Timber Culture Act was passed by Congress by which the planting to +timber of 40 acres of land in the treeless territories conferred the +title to 160 acres of public domain. At first this act seemed to work +out as intended but it did not take very many years before it proved +a dismal failure. Settlers had no knowledge of planting trees; the +restrictions of the act could not be enforced, and the act was open to +other abuses. The act was finally repealed in 1891. Many similar laws +for encouraging the planting of timber were passed by the legislatures +of some of the Middle Western States, but all met with little success. +In 1874 Nebraska inaugurated Arbor Day. By this act of the legislature +the second Wednesday in April of each year was set aside for planting +trees. Other States have followed the example of Nebraska, so that +to-day almost every State provides one day in the year for planting +trees. Thus Arbor Day has become practically a national institution. + +_The Act of August 16, 1876._ The first constructive piece of +legislation enacted by the Congress of the United States was the Act +of August 16, 1876. This was the first of a series of Acts passed by +Congress which, although occurring many years apart in some cases, +put forest conservation upon a firm basis. Under the first act the +Commissioner of Agriculture was directed: + + "To appoint some man of approved attainments who is + practically well acquainted with methods of statistical inquiry + and who has evinced an intimate acquaintance with questions + relating to the national wants in regard to timber, to prosecute + investigations and inquiries with the view of ascertaining the + annual amount of consumption, importation, and exportation of + timber and other forest products; the probable supply for future + wants; the means best adapted to their preservation and renewal; + the influence of forests upon climate and the means that have + been successfully applied in foreign countries, or that may + be deemed applicable in this country for the preservation and + restoration or planting of forests, and to report upon the same + to the Commissioner of Agriculture, to be by him in a separate + report transmitted to Congress." + +Dr. Franklin B. Hough, an active, untiring, and intelligent scholar, was +the first man to be appointed by this act. As Commissioner of Forestry +he prepared the first report and submitted it to Congress. The next +year, in 1877, Congress granted its first appropriation of $6,000, "for +the purpose of obtaining other facts and information preparatory to +establishing a Division of Forestry." + +_Further Work Under the Act._ The office of Commissioner of Forestry +gradually enlarged the scope of its duties and functions. Five years +later, due to the ever-increasing importance of the subject, a distinct +division, the Division of Forestry, was established in the Department +of Agriculture. The duties and powers of this Division were "to devote +itself exclusively to such investigations of the subject as would +tend to the fullest development of the resources of the country in +that respect, to discover the best methods of managing and preserving +our waning forests and to maintain in all its bearings the universal +interest involved in that industry." + +In 1881 an agent of the Department was sent to Europe to study the work +of forestry there. In 1882 the American Forestry Congress was organized. +This organization had for its object the discussion and dissemination of +the important facts of forestry, and while strictly a private body, had +a considerable influence in later years in educating the people to the +needs of forestry and in helping to establish a rational forest policy +in the United States. Its first meeting took place in Cincinnati. At a +second meeting held the same year in Montreal the name was changed to +the American Forestry Association and since then has been the center +of all private efforts to advance the forestry movement. In 1898 this +association began the publication of a propagandist journal which is now +called _American Forestry_. In 1884 the duty of making experiments with +timber was added to the functions of the Division. The next year the +collecting and distribution of valuable economic tree seeds was begun. +In 1886 the study of the biology of some of our important timber trees +was taken up, while in the following year silvicultural problems first +engaged the attention of the Division. + + +THE FIRST FOREST RESERVES ESTABLISHED MARCH 30, 1891 + +_The Situation Before 1891._ Before 1891 the Division of Forestry was +simply a bureau of information. In general the information supplied +was of a twofold nature. It was technical in so far as it related +to the management of private woodlands and statistical in so far as +the knowledge of the conditions of our forest resources induced the +application of forestry principles. Up to that date Congress had +neither appropriated enough money for efficient outdoor work nor did +she attempt to put any government woodlands under the control of the +Division. Therefore there had been no management because there were no +forests to manage. This one-sided development of the forestry work of +the Division was greatly impeding a rational development of the forest +conservation movement. + +_The Need of a Forest Policy._ The need for a well-defined forest +policy with respect to the government forest lands now began to be +felt. Railroad land grants, the Homestead Act, Preëmption claims, and +the Timber and Stone Act were taking much valuable timberland out of +government ownership. People secured claims under these acts merely +for the timber that was on them. The purposes of the laws and acts +of Congress were being fraudulently evaded. Also the Government had +restrictive and protective laws in regard to its lands, but it could not +enforce them on account of lack of appropriations with which to maintain +an administrative and protective organization. The time was now ripe for +an executive policy to manage the woodlands that still remained in the +possession of the Government before it was too late to save what was +left. + +_The Act of March 3, 1891._ The Division of Forestry was designed by +the nature of its duties to be more than a bureau of information. +The existence of a governmental department to promulgate forestry +principles while the Government itself had made no provision to apply +such principles to its own permanent timberlands was an incongruity that +suggested further legislative action. This was in part supplied by the +law of March 3, 1891, which conferred upon the President the power to +establish Forest Reservations. The first exercise of power under this +act was the presidential proclamation creating the Yellowstone Park +Timber Land Reserve under President Harrison on March 30, 1891. This +was probably the wisest step yet taken in the development of a National +Forest policy; but, unfortunately, the act left the Division simply a +bureau of information as it was before. + + +AN ANOMALOUS CONDITION--FOREST RESERVES WITHOUT FOREST ADMINISTRATION + +_The Need of Administration on the Reserves._ At first thought it +will be seen that this piece of legislation must necessarily remain +inoperative unless it were followed by the establishment of a proper +administration of the Reserves based upon sound forestry principles. +Furthermore, the law withdrew from public use all such lands that might +be acquired under it. It was now easy for the Government to acquire +lands; the question that next presented itself was how to protect and +regulate the use of these new acquisitions. Forest protection cannot be +secured without forest rangers and forest guards; nor forest management +without technical foresters. The very reasons for establishing the +Reserves would point to the absolute need of a system of managing them. +These reasons were briefly: + + "to prevent annual conflagrations; to prevent useless + destruction of life and property by fires, etc.; to provide + benefit and revenue from the sale of forest products, fuels, + and timbers; to administer this resource for future benefit; to + increase the stock of game; to promote the development of the + country; to give regular employment to a professional staff; to + secure continuous supplies of wood and to get the maximum amount + of good from each acre." + +Such arguments as these assume the presence of a force of men to protect +and administrate these Reserves. + +_More Reserves Created._ In spite of this serious fault in the Act of +March 3, 1891, more Forest Reservations were created. By 1894 Presidents +Harrison and Cleveland had created about 17,500,000 acres and on a +single day, February 22, 1897, President Cleveland proclaimed over +20,000,000 acres. By the close of 1897 a total of almost 40,000,000 +acres of Forest Reserves had been established. + +During the six years following the law giving the President power +to establish Reserves, the Reserves were under the jurisdiction of +the General Land Office. The appropriations of Congress were small, +amounting to less than $30,000 annually. Such appropriations were used +mainly for testing timber strength and the conditions affecting quality. + + +THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE RESERVES UNDER THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE + +_The Act of June 4, 1897._ The Secretary of the Interior in 1896 +requested the National Academy of Sciences, the legally constituted +advisor of the Government in scientific matters, to investigate, report +upon, and recommend a National Forest policy. This resulted in the Act +of June 4, 1897, under which, with subsequent amendments, the National +Forests are now being administered. Under this act the Reserves remained +in the hands of the General Land Office, Department of the Interior. It +charged this office with the administration and protection of the Forest +Reservations. Later the Geological Survey was charged with surveying and +mapping them, and the Division of Forestry was asked to give technical +advice. It is very evident that the Division of Forestry containing all +the trained scientific staff had no relation to the government forestry +work except as the offices of the Department of the Interior might apply +for assistance or advice. It is true that an important step had been +taken, but the complete separation of the administration by the General +Land Office and the force of trained men in the Division of Forestry was +a serious defect. + +The Act of June 4 might be called the Magna Charta of national +forestry. The U. S. Geological Survey undertook the task of surveying, +classifying, and describing the Forest Reservations. At a cost of +about one and one-half million dollars over 70,000,000 acres of Forest +Reserves were mapped and described. The General Land Office undertook +the administration and Forest Superintendents and Rangers were appointed +to take charge of the Reservations. The rules and regulations for +administering the Reserves were formulated by the Commissioner of the +General Land Office. + +_The Division of Forestry in 1898._ On July 1, 1898, the Division of +Forestry employed 11 persons, 6 clerical and 5 scientific. There were +also some collaborators and student assistants. There was no field +equipment and no field work. But in the fall of 1898 an important +step was taken. From that time on the Division of Forestry offered +practical assistance to forest owners and thus it shifted its field of +activity from the desk to the woods. The lumbermen were met on their +own grounds and actual forest management for purely commercial ends was +undertaken by well known lumbermen. From that time dates the solution of +specific problems of forest management and the development of efficient +methods of attacking them. The work of the Division at this time, +therefore, consisted of activities along 4 distinct lines: (1) that of +working plans, (2) that of economic tree planting, (3) that of special +investigations, and (4) that of office work. Thus it will be seen, even +at this late date the Division had practically nothing to say about the +scientific forestry methods which should be used on the Reservations. + +_The Bureau of Forestry._ In 1901 the Division of Forestry was raised +to the rank of a Bureau, but this was a change in name only and carried +with it no change in the handling of the Government's vast forest +resources. + + +THE CONSOLIDATION OF THE FORESTRY WORK IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE +IN 1905 + +_The Act of February 1, 1905._ The necessity of consolidating the +various branches of government forest work became apparent and was urged +upon Congress by President Roosevelt and by the executive officers +concerned. This was finally accomplished by the act of February 1, 1905, +by which entire jurisdiction over the Forest Reserves was transferred +to the Secretary of Agriculture. Matters of surveying and passage of +title, however, were still kept under the jurisdiction of the General +Land Office. By this act the Division of Forestry for the first time in +its career became an administrative organization. On July 1 of the same +year the Bureau of Forestry became the Forest Service and in 1907 the +change of name from "Forest Reserves" to "National Forests" was made to +correct the impression that the forests were like reserves which had +been withdrawn from use. + +_Early Forestry Education and Literature._ The Act of February 1, +1905, was the final step which established the federal policy with +regard to our National Forests. At this stage it will be interesting +to note briefly the status of the science of American Forestry and +of forestry education. As late as the spring of 1898 there was no +science or literature on American Forestry, nor could education in +the subject be procured in the country. But soon thereafter several +forestry schools were established, namely, Cornell Forestry School in +1898, Yale School of Forestry and Biltmore Forest School in 1899, and +the University of Michigan Forestry School in 1903. The beginning of +the twentieth century saw the first professional foresters graduated +and taking upon themselves the task of applying scientific forestry +methods to the National Forests. Further evidence of the growth of the +profession of forestry was the organization of the Society of American +Foresters in 1900. The first professional journal was started in 1902 +as the _Forestry Quarterly_, and other scientific forestry literature +was issued by the Government. The scientific knowledge gathered in the +field work since 1898 has taken the form of a rapidly growing literature +on the subject which has formed the basis of the science of American +Forestry. + +_Changes in the Forest Service Personnel._ By 1905 the work of the +Forest Service had increased to such an extent that the number of +employees was increased to 821. With the opening of the forestry +schools, professional foresters became available and the National +Forests then began to be put into the hands of expert scientific men. +Gradually the old type of untrained, non-scientific woodsman is being +replaced by the trained forester. In addition, the entire force was +made a part of the classified Civil Service and the plan of political +appointees was banished forever. + +_More National Forests Created._ While the administration of the +National Forests was being adjusted the area of National Forests was +constantly being increased. To the 40,000,000 acres of Reserves set +aside by Presidents Harrison and Cleveland before 1897, President +McKinley added over 7,000,000 acres until 1901. When Roosevelt became +President the National Forest policy received an added impetus and +vigor. Being a great lover of the out-of-door-life and being especially +well acquainted, on account of his extensive travels, with the great +western country, President Roosevelt threw his powerful influence into +the balance. With the close coöperation of Mr. Gifford Pinchot, his warm +personal friend, and at that time the Chief Forester, Mr. Roosevelt +set aside between 1901 and 1909 over 148,000,000 acres of National +Forests, more than three times as much as had been set aside by all his +predecessors together. Since 1909 a careful adjustment of the boundaries +has been going on, both Presidents Taft and Wilson adding small areas +here and there, which were found valuable for forestry purposes, or +eliminating small areas found to have no value. Acts of Congress passed +since 1907 prohibit the addition by the President to the National +Forests already established in Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, +Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. Additions can be made in these States +only by special act of Congress. A number of such acts have been passed; +some of them upon petitions of the people in these States. + +_The Growth of the Forest Service._ The growth of the Forest Service +between 1897 and 1917 is little short of marvelous. The number of its +employees has increased from 61 in 1898 to 3,544 on June 30, 1917. The +annual appropriations have increased from less than $30,000 in 1897 to +$5,712,275 for the fiscal year 1918. But besides this appropriation +for 1918 the Weeks Law calls for an expenditure of $2,100,000 and the +Federal Aid Road Act for $1,000,000 more. The receipts of the National +Forests have also increased by leaps and bounds. In 1897 the receipts +were practically negligible in amount but by 1906 they had reached +approximately $800,000. In the fiscal year 1917 they were more than +$3,457,000. + +_Recent Modifications in the Organization._ Further slight modifications +in the organization, as established in 1905, were made since that +date. Before 1908 all the work of the Forests was supervised from the +main office in Washington and this arrangement caused much delay and +inconvenience in carrying on the business of the Forests. In the fall +of 1908 six administrative districts were established, to which another +was added in 1914. By this arrangement the National Forests are divided +into 7 groups and each group has a district headquarters in a large +city or town centrally located in the group. The District Office acts +as sort of clearing house for all National Forest business. All matters +in the administration and protection of the National Forests that +cannot be settled on the Forest or appear to be of general importance +to the district are taken to the District Office, which is in charge of +a District Forester and several assistants. Beginning in 1909 Forest +Experiment Stations were established in each district and in 1910 the +Forest Products Laboratory, the first one of its kind in the world, was +formally opened at Madison, Wisconsin. The Weeks Law, passed on March +1, 1911, provides for the acquisition of forest lands on the watersheds +of navigable streams in the Appalachian and White Mountains. Up to June +30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved for purchase in these +mountains. The Pisgah National Forest in North Carolina was recently +organized from purchased lands. + + +THE PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF THE FOREST SERVICE + +_The Administrative Districts._ The administration of the National +Forests and the conduct of all matters relating to forestry which +have been placed upon the Department of Agriculture are in charge of +the Forester whose office is in Washington, D. C. To facilitate the +administration of the Forests 7 districts have been established with +headquarters in the following places: + + + District 1. (Montana, northeastern Washington, northern Idaho, + and northwestern South Dakota) Missoula, Montana. + + District 2. (Colorado, Wyoming, the remainder of South Dakota, + Nebraska, northern Michigan, and northern Minnesota) + Denver, Colorado. + + District 3. (Most of Arizona and New Mexico) Albuquerque, New + Mexico. + + District 4. (Utah, southern Idaho, western Wyoming, eastern and + central Nevada, and northwestern Arizona) Ogden, + Utah. + + District 5. (California and western Nevada) San Francisco, + California. + + District 6. (Washington, Oregon, and Alaska) Portland, Oregon. + + District 7. (Arkansas, Florida, Oklahoma, and the newly + purchased areas in South Carolina, Georgia, North + Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, New + Hampshire, Maine, and Alabama,) Washington, D. C. + +Each administrative district embraces a number of National Forests and +is in charge of a Forest officer known as the District Forester who +is responsible to the Forester for all administrative and technical +work performed within the district. Each District Forester is aided +by several assistants and by specialists in various lines of work. +Each National Forest is in charge of a Forest Supervisor who may +have a Deputy and a Forest Assistant or Forest Examiner to assist +him if the amount of business on a National Forest warrants it. Each +National Forest is subdivided into Ranger districts for the purpose of +facilitating the protection work. Each Ranger district is in charge of a +Ranger who may be assisted by other Rangers or Forest Guards. + +_The Washington Office._ The work of the Forest Service in Washington is +organized under the Office of Forester and the Branches of Operation, +Lands, Silviculture, Research, Grazing, Engineering, and Acquisition +of lands under the Weeks Law. The Office of Forester includes the +Associate Forester, the Editor, the Dendrologist, the Chief of Accounts, +besides Inspectors and Lumbermen. The Branch of Operation administers +and supervises the business organization of the Forest Service and +has general supervision of the personnel, quarters, equipment, and +supplies of the Service and all the fire protection and permanent +improvement work on the National Forests. The Branch of Lands examines +and classifies lands in the Forests to determine their value for forest +purposes, conducts the work in connection with claims on the Forests +prior to proceedings before United States registers and receivers, +and assists the Chief Engineer of the Service in handling matters in +connection with the occupation and use of the National Forest lands for +hydro-electric power purposes. The Branch of Silviculture supervises +the sale and cutting of timber on the National Forests and coöperates +with States in protecting forest lands under Section 2 of the Weeks Law. +The Branch of Research has supervision over the investigative work of +the Service, including silvicultural studies, studies of state forest +conditions, investigations of the lumber and wood-using industries and +lumber prices, and the investigative work carried on at the Forest +Products Laboratory and the Forest Experiment Stations. The Branch of +Grazing supervises the grazing of live stock upon the National Forests, +allotting grazing privileges and dividing the ranges between different +owners and classes of stock. It is also charged with the work of +improving depleted grazing lands and of coöperating with the Federal and +state authorities in the enforcement of stock quarantine regulations. +The Branch of Engineering has to do with the proper designing and +planning of roads, trails, and bridges; with the engineering problems +involved in granting permits to hydro-electric plants in the Forests; +and with the making of forest maps, surveys, improving the forest atlas, +and other drafting work. The Branch of Acquisition of Lands under the +Weeks Law has charge of examining and evaluating such lands which are +offered for purchase and recommending suitable lands for purchase under +the act. + +_The District Offices._ Each District Office (of which there are 7) is +organized in the main along the same lines as the Washington office. +Each Branch in the Washington office is represented in the District +Office by an Assistant District Forester or some similar official. +The Office of the District Forester has in addition the Office of +Solicitor (Forest Service Branch), which is in charge of an assistant +to the Solicitor of the Department of Agriculture. He is the advisor +to the District Forester in all matters of law which arise in the +administration of the National Forests. His opinions are usually binding +except that, in urgent cases, appeal may be taken to the Solicitor of +the Department at Washington through the Forester. Many cases of law +arise on the National Forests such as cases of timber, fire, and grazing +trespass. All these are handled in the Office of the District Forester. +The Office of Accounts in the districts is in charge of the District +Fiscal Agent who is an assistant to the Chief of Accounts in the +Washington Office. Three of the districts have a Branch of Products. The +Experiment Stations in the districts are under the supervision of the +District Forester and the men in charge of them bear the same relation +to the District Office as the Supervisor of a National Forest. Most +of the districts also have in the Office of Silviculture a Consulting +Pathologist who has charge of all problems relating to tree diseases. + +The following scheme will illustrate in a general way the organization +of the Forest Service and show how the National Forests are administered +at the present time: + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS + + +Under the head of administration we must necessarily understand those +factors which are essential to carry on the business of the National +Forests. First of all we must consider the personnel, that is, the men +that make up the organization by means of which the work on the Forests +is done. Next we must learn how the money for this large enterprise is +appropriated each year to carry on the work, and how it is divided up +so that each National Forest gets an amount each year in proportion to +its needs. Then again men and money are of little avail without tools, +equipment, and supplies. The proper distribution of these to the 147 +National Forests is no small business organization in itself. Lastly +we must learn of the many permanent improvements which are made on +the National Forests which are absolutely necessary for their proper +administration, protection and use. No large constructive forestry +enterprise is complete without these. They consist of the construction +of means of transportation, means of communication, and living quarters +for the personnel; of extensive planting of young trees to reëstablish +forests which have been destroyed by fires; the carrying on of research +and experiments to aid in the development of the best methods of +forestry; and the classification and segregation of agricultural lands +and the establishment of permanent boundaries. All these matters +must necessarily be considered before we attempt to learn about the +protection and the utilization of the National Forests. + + +PERSONNEL + +_Duties of Forest Officers._ Forest officers are the servants of the +people and they are expected to assist in every way possible those who +wish to use the resources of the Forests. Their first duty is to enforce +the regulations under which all permits, leases, sales, and rentals are +made. These regulations cover every phase of National Forest activity +and in conducting business under them they must not let personal or +other interests weigh against the good of the Forests. For the good of +the Forest Service their conduct must be prompt and courteous and their +business methods sensible and effective. They make it their business to +prevent misunderstandings and violations of forest regulations rather +than to correct mistakes after they have been made. + +On the National Forests there are permanent employees and temporary +employees. Under the former heading come the Forest Supervisor, the +Deputy Supervisor, the Forest Assistant, the Forest Ranger, Lumbermen, +Sealers, Planting Assistants, and Forest Clerks. Under the latter +category come the Forest Guards, the Field Assistants, and the Temporary +Laborers. All permanent positions are in the classified Civil Service. +Vacancies are filled from a certified list of those who have passed a +Civil Service examination or by promotion from the lower ranks. + +[Illustration: Figure 9. Forest officers in front of the Forest +Supervisor's summer headquarters. Note the many telephone wires that +lead from the office. This is 50 miles from the railroad. Lassen +National Forest, California.] + +[Illustration: Figure 10. Scene in front of the Forest Supervisor's +headquarters. Sheep leaving the National Forest summer range in the fall +to go to winter range in the valley. Lassen National Forest, California.] + +_The Forest Supervisor._ A Forest Supervisor is in charge of each +National Forest and he plans the work of the Forest and supervises +its execution. He works, of course, under direct instruction from the +District Forester and is responsible to him. When the amount of business +on the Forest warrants it he is assisted by a Deputy Supervisor. +Both these positions are filled by the promotion of experienced men in +the classified Civil Service. The Forest Supervisor's headquarters are +located in towns conveniently situated with regard to the most important +points in his Forest. The town is usually located on a railroad and +centrally located with regard to the various Ranger districts of his +Forest. His headquarters are usually the center of the system of roads +and trails which covers his entire Forest. From his office also the +telephone system radiates in all directions to his various District +Rangers. In short, the Forest Supervisor's office is so situated that he +has at all times full knowledge of all the activities of his Forest; he +is therefore in a position to give advice and directions by telephone +to his Rangers and other subordinates almost at any time of the day or +night. Such intimate communication is of especial importance during the +fire season. + +Some Forests have two headquarters, one that is occupied in the winter +and the other that is occupied in the summer. The summer quarters is +usually most advantageously situated as far as the business of the +Forest is concerned, but owing to deep snow, which seriously interferes +with mail and telephone connections, a more accessible winter quarters +is occupied from October to May. + +The force of men the Forest Supervisor has working under him varies of +course with the amount of work to be performed. The permanent force is +usually from 10 to 15 men, which during the fire season may be increased +to from 25 to 40 and in cases of great fire emergency sometimes to +several hundred men, by the addition of temporary employees. + +_The Forest Assistant._ The other permanent men on a National Forest are +the Forest Assistant or Forest Examiner, Forest Rangers, and a Forest +clerk with his assistant, the Stenographer and Typewriter. The Forest +Assistant or Examiner ranks next to the Deputy and his work is directed +by the Forest Supervisor, to whom he makes his reports. The Forest +Assistant is the technical man of the Forest force, who upon making +good is promoted to Forest Examiner. He is employed upon such technical +lines of work as the examination and mapping of forest areas; reports on +applications for the purchase of timber; marking, scaling, and managing +timber sales; the survey of boundaries; and nursery and planting work. + +Not only is a Forest Assistant called upon to perform these various +lines of technical work. The very nature of the country he is in +indicates that he must be an all-round practical man. He must be able +to ride, pack, and drive. He must often live alone and therefore must +do his own cooking, washing, and take care of other personal needs. +He must be strong and healthy and capable of undergoing hardships, at +least be able to stand long days of walking, climbing, and horseback +riding. His various duties and the different situations that arise often +call for knowledge and practical ability as a carpenter, a mechanic, +a plumber, an engineer, a surveyor, and many other lines of work. +Perhaps more important than his education and ability are his personal +qualifications. His temperament must be such that he must feel satisfied +and contented under the most trying conditions. He must be able to do +without most of the comforts of modern civilization for most of the +time. For these reasons the country-bred western youths are more liable +to make a success of the work than the city-bred easterner. + +_The Forest Ranger._ The Forest Ranger's position is one of the most +important and at the same time the most difficult positions on our +National Forests. + +The Forest Ranger's headquarters are usually at the nearest business +center to his district and if that is not practicable permanent +headquarters are provided on the Forest. In any case his station +is located as near to the center of the business activity of his +district as possible. If his headquarters are centrally located in his +district, trails, roads, and telephone lines lead out from his cabin +to all parts of his district. His station is built and maintained at +government expense and usually has, besides his living quarters, a barn, +tool-house, pasture, corral, and other necessary improvements. + +The Forest Ranger performs such routine work as the supervision of +timber sales, grazing, free use, special use, and other contracts and +permits, the carrying out of the protection and improvement plans for +his district, and other administrative duties. The average Forest Ranger +has a territory of from 75,000 to 150,000 acres to take care of. On +June 30, 1917, there were about 1,100 Forest Rangers employed on the +National Forests who were assisted by over 900 Assistant Forest Rangers +and Forest Guards. The protective force was therefore about one man for +every 77,800 acres or about 121 square miles. + +The Forest Ranger must be a man who is physically sound and capable of +enduring great hardships. He is often required to do heavy manual labor +in fighting fire under the most trying conditions. For this reason he +must have great endurance. They are usually men who have been brought up +in timber work, on ranches or farms, or with the stock business. They +are therefore thoroughly familiar with the region in which they are to +be employed and especially acquainted with the rough, semi-primitive +life which is characteristic of remote places in the West. + +He must be able to take care of himself and his horses in regions remote +from settlement and supplies. He must be able to build trails, roads +and cabins; he must be able to ride, pack, and drive and deal tactfully +with all classes of people. He must know something about land surveying, +estimating, and scaling timber; of logging, mining laws, and the live +stock business. His duties include patrol to prevent fire and trespass; +estimating, surveying, and marking timber; the supervision of cutting +and similar work. He is authorized to issue permits, build cabins and +trails, oversee grazing business, investigate mining and agricultural +claims, report upon applications, and report upon and arrest for the +violation of Forest laws and regulations. + +_The Forest Clerk._ The Forest Clerk performs the clerical work and +the book-keeping in the Forest Supervisor's office. He sometimes has a +Stenographer and Typewriter to assist him and to do the mechanical work +of correspondence. Lumbermen are specialists who are thoroughly well +versed in all that pertains to logging, milling, scaling, and cruising +timber. They are assigned temporarily to Forests where need for their +work arises. Scalers are men thoroughly familiar with the art of scaling +or measuring logs, ties, poles, cord wood and other forest products. +Planting Assistants are specialists in nursery and planting work. Their +duties include the preparation of seed beds, seed sowing, transplanting +and care of seedlings, and field planting. They are assigned to the +Forest Service nurseries. + +[Illustration: THE WORK OF FOREST OFFICERS IN THE WINTER + +Figure 11. Forest officers and lumberjacks burning the slash resulting +from a timber sale. The snow on the ground makes the burning less +dangerous. Washakie National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 12. Forest officers at a winter timber-cruising +camp repairing snow shoes. Besides cruising the timber, these men make a +logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can best be +taken out. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author.] + +Temporary Laborers, Forest Guards, and Field Assistants are employed +during the field season when additional work on the National +Forests warrants it. Forest Guards perform temporary protection, +administrative, and improvement work; Field Assistants, usually students +of forestry serving their apprenticeships, are usually employed at minor +technical work and timber cruising; Temporary Laborers are employed by +the day or month at any kind of improvement or maintenance work. + +_Forest Service Meetings._ A general meeting of the Forest force is +usually held annually to give the Forest officers the benefit of each +other's experience, to keep in touch with the entire work of the Forest, +and to promote "esprit-de-corps." The time and place of the meeting +depends upon circumstances, but it is usually held at a time of the year +when there is least danger from fire. Often joint meetings are held with +the forces of adjacent Forests. This annual meeting idea is carried +through the entire Forest Service. The Forest Supervisors in each +administrative district usually meet at the district headquarters once +a year and the District Foresters of all the districts together with +representative officers from the Washington office usually meet annually +at some centrally located district office such as the one at Ogden, +Utah. These meetings assist greatly in keeping all the work in the +various branches of the Service up to the same standard of efficiency, +in avoiding mistakes by learning the experience of others, and in +correlating and summarizing work done on similar problems in widely +different regions. + + +HOW THE FOREST SERVICE APPROPRIATION IS ALLOTTED TO THE NATIONAL FORESTS + +It is, indeed, a great task to distribute the money that is each +year appropriated by Congress for the Forest Service so that the +Washington Office, the District Offices, and the 147 National Forests +each get their just share and so that each dollar buys the greatest +amount of good for the whole people without extravagance or waste. To +do this a large organization has been built up composed of business +men who have absolutely no selfish interest at heart and among whom +graft or favoritism is unknown and unheard of. It may be said without +exaggeration that the business of the National Forests is on a +thoroughly sound and efficient basis. + +_Forest Service Expenses._ While for reasons already spoken of, the cash +receipts are considerably below the expenses for running the Forests, +the rapidly increasing system of roads, trails and telephone lines +points not only to a constantly increasing use and service to the +public but also as a consequence to increased financial returns. + +The expenses of the Forest Service on the National Forests are of a +two-fold character. There are costs of administration and protection +on the one hand which might be called ordinary running expenses, and +the costs of improvements, reforestation, and forest investigations +on the other. The latter are really in the nature of investments, +and do not properly fall into the category of operating costs. Yet +they are absolutely necessary to the welfare of the Forests. They +comprise expenditures for roads, trails, telephone lines, and similar +improvements, the establishment of forests by the planting of young +trees which have been destroyed by past fires, the carrying on of +research and experiments to aid in the development of the best methods +of forestry, and expenses connected with the classification and +segregation of agricultural lands in the Forests. The establishment of +permanent boundaries and the cost of making homestead and other surveys +are also in the nature of investments. Such expenditures may be looked +upon as money deposited in the bank to bear interest; they will not +bring direct financial returns now but will produce great revenue many +years hence. + +_The Agricultural Appropriation Bill._ The fiscal year in the Forest +Service extends from July 1 of one year to June 30 of the next. Every +year, in the Agricultural Appropriation Bill that comes before Congress, +there is an appropriation for the Forest Service for its work. This +appropriation is not in a lump sum but by allotments or funds. There +is the fund for Fire Fighting, one for General Expenses, another for +Statutory Salaries, another for Improvements, another for Emergency Fire +conditions, and usually there are special appropriations for various +purposes. For the fiscal year 1918 (extending from July 1, 1917, to June +30, 1918) there are special appropriations for Land Classification, for +purchasing land under the Weeks Law, for coöperative fire protection +under the Weeks Law, and for the Federal Aid Road Act. + +_The Ranger's Protection and Improvement Plans._ Long before this bill +reaches Congress every Forest Ranger on every National Forest, every +Forest Supervisor, and every Branch of the Washington and the District +Offices have been estimating how much money they will need to carry +out the plans proposed for the next fiscal year. Each Forest Ranger +works and studies over his plans for the next year with which he hopes +to protect his district from fire. He plans and figures out what +improvements are urgently necessary to make the remote parts of his +district more accessible. He tries to arrive at a safe estimate of the +cost of so many miles of trails, roads, and telephone lines, so many +cabins, barns, corrals, etc., which he thinks are absolutely essential +to the proper administration of his district, and he estimates the +number of Forest Guards, lookout men, and patrol men he will need for +the protection of his territory. Usually these items are summed up under +his annual Improvement Plan and his Protection Plan respectively. + +_The Supervisor's Plans._ When the Forest Supervisor receives such +estimates and plans from each of his Forest Rangers he studies them over +carefully and tries to decide in an impartial way what improvements +are most necessary in each Ranger district and what additional men are +necessary for the adequate protection of the region in question. He +carefully weighs the arguments for and against each expenditure and +decides what improvements must be made now and which ones it would be +possible to postpone for one or more years without detriment to the work +of his Forest as a whole. For in most cases the amount of necessary +work to be done on each Ranger district is far in excess of the amount +which the Forest Supervisor could approve owing to the inadequacy of +the Forest Service funds. So, for the Forest Supervisor, it is merely a +question of how low he can keep his estimates for money for the ensuing +year until such a time when Congress will appropriate more money so +that all the important and necessary work can be done. In most cases +therefore the major part of all the expenditures recommended by the +Forest Ranger is warranted, but the Forest Supervisor knows that he must +cut all the estimates down considerably in order to bring the total +Forest estimate reasonably near the amount he is likely to get, basing +his judgment upon what he got the year before. + +_Approval of Plans by the District Forester._ The District Forester then +gets the National Forest estimate from every one of his 25 or 30 Forest +Supervisors and he in turn must decide what projects on each Forest are +immediately necessary and which ones can be postponed. The same process +is repeated in the Washington office when all the estimates from the +District Foresters are received, and the Forester in turn sends to the +Secretary of Agriculture his estimates by allotments or funds, which +in turn are put before Congress. While Congress sometimes makes minor +changes in the Forest Service appropriation, in most cases the bill is +passed as it stands. + +_The District Fiscal Agent._ The money appropriated by Congress is +allotted to each district, and in turn to each National Forest and +finally to each Ranger district by funds, such as General Expenses, +Fire Fighting, Improvements, etc. In each district the financial +matters are taken care of in the Office of Accounts by the District +Fiscal Agent. He is the Assistant of the Chief of the Forest Service +Branch of the Division of Accounts of the Department of Agriculture +and pays all the bills incurred by the district and receives all the +money which comes in from the sale of National Forest resources. The +amount of money appropriated for the district is credited to him and he +disburses this appropriation in accordance with the Fiscal Regulations +of the Department of Agriculture. No other officer is allowed to receive +money for the sale of timber, forage, or other resources; in fact no +other official in the District handles any of the Forest Service funds +whatsoever. + +All remittances by users of the National Forests are made to the U. S. +District Depository. If a rancher has bought some timber from a Forest +Ranger, he is given a letter of transmittal showing the amount of the +purchase which he must send to the District Fiscal Agent with the amount +necessary to pay for the timber. The letter of transmittal explains the +purpose of the remittance. + +_Tax Money Paid to the States._ Another interesting feature of the +National Forest business is the money paid each State out of the annual +receipts in lieu of taxes. It must be remembered that National Forests +do not pay taxes to the States in which they are located. On the other +hand, if the National Forests were private property they would bring +into the county and state treasuries yearly taxes. To compensate the +State for the taxes lost in this way each National Forest pays to each +county in proportion to the area of the National Forest lands located +in that county a sum of money equal to 25 per cent, of the total +gross receipts each fiscal year. From the receipts of the fiscal year +1917 this amounts to about $850,000. It is provided that this money +is to be expended for schools and roads in the county in which the +National Forests lie. Recently a law was passed giving the Secretary +of Agriculture authority to expend an additional 10 per cent. of the +National Forest receipts for the construction of roads and trails for +the benefit of local communities. From the fiscal year 1917 this amounts +to about $340,000. These moneys for roads, trails, and schools are of +course a great benefit to the mountain communities, since usually the +amount of taxable property in such remote localities is small and hence +the amount of taxes received is small. These allotments to the counties +have helped to develop the communication systems of local communities +and have also made the National Forests more accessible and useful. + + +THE EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES FOR THE NATIONAL FORESTS + +_The Property Auditor and Property Clerk._ The depot for equipment, +supplies, and blank forms is located at Ogden, Utah, and this office +furnishes all the Forests in all the districts with most of the +equipment necessary. The record of the property of the United States in +the custody of the Forest Service is kept by a man called the Property +Auditor. Requisitions for supplies and equipment are made by the Forest +Supervisor to the Property Clerk. Government property is considered +expendable or non-expendable depending upon its character. Each Forest +has a Property Custodian who has charge of all the property assigned +to the Forest. When property is received from the Property Clerk or if +property is transferred from one forest officer to another, the Property +Custodian must note the change on his records. + +_Blank Forms._ The blank forms which are supplied by the Property Clerk +are printed standard forms used in issuing permits, making contracts, +reports, examinations, timber sale agreements, in short, those used in +almost every business transaction of the Forest Service. Even timber +estimates, tree measurements, and other similar public records are kept +on standard printed forms for permanent uniform record. + +_Supplies._ Supplies such as stationery, typewriters, pencils, ink, +notebooks, paper for map work, compasses, measuring tapes, and a host +of other articles are furnished upon requisition by the Property +Clerk. Equipment such as filing cases, tables, chairs, typewriters, +tree-measuring instruments, tents, cooking utensils, surveying +instruments, snow shoes, skiis, knapsacks, water buckets, canteens, +kodaks, and many other forms of equipment are furnished by the Property +Clerk, although in cases of emergency some of these things may be +purchased locally by Forest officers by the authority of the Forest +Supervisor. + + +NATIONAL FOREST IMPROVEMENTS + +_The Need of Improvements._ It is but natural, from their situation, +that the National Forests represent pioneer conditions; conditions +that one might expect to find in a wild, rugged, mountainous country. +This was true to an extreme degree when the National Forests were +first established and it is true in a very large degree even to-day, +since the amount of time and money which it will be necessary to +expend on the construction of improvements on the 155,000,000 acres +of National Forests is something enormous. For a long time to come, +then, the National Forests will need improvements in order to make them +secure against fire and in order to make the resources, now locked +up, available. Proper protection and the fullest use of National +Forest resources depend mainly upon facilities for transportation, +communication, and control. All parts of the National Forests should be +accessible by roads and trails; there should be telephone communication +between settlements and Forest officers' headquarters and with the +lookout stations; and in most cases suitable living accommodations must +be provided for the field force. For the fullest use of the forage +resources, water for the live stock must be developed and range fences +constructed; to reduce the hazard and the cost and difficulty of +controlling forest fires, firebreaks and other works must be constructed. + +_Transportation Facilities._ Adequate facilities for travel and +transportation are of first importance. Steam roads, electric roads, and +boat lines are utilized in the National Forest transportation system +as well as the existing roads and trails. Added to this, new roads and +trails are being constructed every year to complete the already existing +network. + +[Illustration: Figure 13. A forest fire lookout tower on Leek Springs +Mountain. Eldorado National Forest, California.] + +The need for new roads and trails depends upon the number of them +already existing, the value of the resources that it is necessary to +make accessible, the fire liability, and the amount of unrealized +revenues due to lack of transportation facilities. If valuable +grazing land or timber land can be made accessible there is good reason +for building a new road. In many cases roads and trails are built to +facilitate the protection of large remote areas from fire. Such areas +may have large bodies of valuable timber which if destroyed by forest +fires would involve a heavy loss. Even aside from valuable timber on +an area, it is absolutely necessary when a forest fire breaks out to +get to it with men and fire-fighting equipment in the shortest possible +time before it spreads. If the fire gets to be a large one, many men +with provisions, tents, fire-fighting tools, and other equipment must be +transported to the scene of the fire. Any delay in the transportation +of these things may prove fatal and may result in an uncontrollable +conflagration. + +The transportation system that is proposed for a National Forest, if the +one that exists is inadequate, is usually planned many years ahead. The +ultimate or ideal system is always kept in mind so that every mile of +road or trail that is constructed is made a part of it. If not enough +money is available for a good road, a trail is built along the line of +the proposed road. Later this trail is widened into a permanent road. +The Engineer connected with each District Office usually has charge of +laying out big road projects. A few miles of permanent, good, dirt road +with good grade is always preferred to many miles of poor road with +heavy grade and improper drainage. A road and trail system is planned +for each National Forest which will eventually place every portion of +the Forest within a distance of at least 7-1/2 miles of a wagon road. A +pack-train can then transport supplies from the point to which they are +delivered on the wagon road to any field camp and return in a single day. + +In trail and road construction it is very often necessary to build +bridges. Sometimes a very simple log bridge meets the need, but in +bridging many large mountain torrents, which become very high and +dangerous in the spring, large bridges are necessary. Cable suspension +bridges and queen and king truss bridges are built where occasion arises +for them, but only after being planned in detail and after the District +Forester has approved their design and method of construction. + +[Illustration: Figure 14. A typical Forest ranger's headquarters. +Idlewood Ranger Station, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado] + +Very often navigable streams and lakes are used as a part of the +transportation system on a National Forest. On the Tahoe National Forest +in California launches are operated by the Forest Service on Lake +Tahoe to patrol the region around the lake for forest fires. Ferries, +boats, and launches belonging to private companies or individuals are +used by agreement or if necessary are bought by the Service from the +Improvement funds. Speeders, motor cars, and hand cars on railroads or +logging roads are often used when an agreement has been made with the +company. In this way railroads are made a part of the transportation +system of the Forest. + +_Communication Facilities._ The system of communication on the National +Forests is scarcely less important than the system of transportation. +This system includes telephone lines, signal systems, and mail +service. The telephone system, as can be readily seen, is of the +utmost importance for the transaction of all kinds of National Forest +business. In case a Forest Ranger wishes to speak to his Supervisor +about controlling a large fire, it makes a great difference whether he +can talk to him over the telephone or whether he must send a messenger +on horseback perhaps 60 or 70 miles. In the former case practically no +time is lost, in the latter it would take at least two days for the +messenger to reach the Forest Ranger, and in the meantime the fire would +continue to rage and spread. + +In the absence of a telephone system a signal system is used. The one +probably used the most in forest fire protection work is the heliograph, +by which code messages are sent from one point to another by means of a +series of light flashes on a mirror. The light of the sun is used and +the flashes are made by the opening and closing of a shutter in front of +the mirror. Very often these heliograph stations are located on mountain +tops in the midst of extremely inaccessible country. Where there are a +number of these stations at least one is connected by telephone to the +Forest Supervisor's office. When the Forest officer at the telephone +gets a heliograph message about a certain fire he immediately telephones +the news directly to the Forest Ranger in whose district the fire is +located, or if he does not happen to be in direct communication with +the Forest Ranger he notifies the Forest Supervisor, who then notifies +the officer concerned. Of course it is all prearranged who should be +notified in case a fire is reported to the heliograph man. + +[Illustration: Figure 15. A typical view of the National Forest country +in Montana. Forest Service trail up Squaw Peak Patrol Station, Cabinet +National Forest.] + +Unfortunately it has been found that this system of communication is +not satisfactory even under favorable conditions. This system depends +upon direct sunlight; without it is useless. When there is much smoke in +the air it is also of uncertain value. The heliograph system has perhaps +reached its greatest development upon the California National Forest, +but even here experience has shown that it is only a temporary makeshift +and the plan is to replace it by a telephone system as soon as possible. + +The Forest Supervisor, especially in his summer headquarters, depends +directly upon the mail service for communication with the District +Forester and the outside world. In many cases the fact that the Forest +Supervisor has his headquarters in a small mountain community in the +summer has made it possible for that community to receive a daily mail +service or mail at least three times a week. When the Forest Supervisor +becomes satisfied that mail service is desirable in certain mountain +communities he investigates local settlers' needs for mail facilities; +or he may coöperate with the people in the nearest village who are +petitioning for mail service. Often his influence proves the deciding +factor in getting it. + +As I have said before, telephone communication is indispensable to fire +protection and to quick and efficient methods of conducting National +Forest business. Not only do Forest Service lines enter into the +National Forest telephone system but all private lines are also made +use of. By coöperative agreements with private companies the National +Forest lines are used by private companies, in return for which private +lines are used by the Forest Service. In this way a complete network of +telephone lines is established connecting not only the Forest Supervisor +with all his Rangers and his forest fire lookout stations, but also +connecting each one of these with local communities and the large towns +at a distance. Thus, when a forest fire occurs and the available local +help is not sufficient to control the fire the telephone system is put +to use to call help from the nearest villages and towns. + +[Illustration: Figure 16. Forest Rangers repairing a bridge over a +mountain stream. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado] + +_Grazing Improvements._ It is often necessary for the complete and +economical use of the forage on a National Forest to coöperate with the +local stockmen to develop range by constructing improvements. Water +may have to be developed; fences, corrals, bridges, trails, and other +works may have to be constructed. Often cattle belonging to different +stockmen are grazed on adjacent areas which are not separated by natural +boundaries such as rivers, ridges, or swamps. If there is no obstacle to +prevent the cattle from drifting from one range into another, a drift +fence is built, thus definitely separating one stockman's range from the +other. Often good range would remain unused on account of lack of water +altogether or on account of lack of water during the dry season only. +In this case the Forest Service usually coöperates with the stockmen to +provide water. Roads, trails, and bridges are often necessary to enable +sheep and cattle to reach range lands. + +_Protective Improvements._ Ranger stations, cabins, lookout stations, +firebreaks and similar works are required to protect the forests from +fire and are known as protective improvements. Buildings are constructed +for the field force to afford necessary shelter and to furnish an office +for the efficient transaction of business. Land is often cultivated for +the production of forage crops and fences are built to insure necessary +pasturage for live stock used by the Forest officers in their work. The +buildings may be substantial houses to be used throughout the year or +they may be merely such structures as will afford the necessary shelter +and domestic conveniences for Forest officers in the summer. These +summer camps are constructed where needed for the use of patrolmen, +officers engaged in timber sale work or at such points as will serve the +needs of officers traveling through the forest. Barns, sheds, and other +small structures are constructed at the Ranger's headquarters when they +are needed. Office buildings are also constructed for the use of Forest +Rangers or for summer headquarters of the Forest Supervisor. + +[Illustration: Figure 17. A forest fire lookout station on the top of +Lassen Peak, elevation 10,400 feet, Lassen National Forest, California. +This cabin was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in Red +Bluff, about 50 miles away. It was then taken to pieces and packed to +the foot of Lassen Peak. On the last two miles of its journey it was +packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled +on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 18. Forest officers and laborers building a wagon +road through trap rock. Payette National Forest, Idaho.] + +_Appropriations for Improvement Work._ The money for the construction of +National Forest improvements is secured from various sources. The annual +Forest Service appropriation usually carries a considerable sum for this +purpose. In the fiscal year 1918 $450,000 has been appropriated for this +work, which divided among the 147 National Forests gives an average only +of about $3,000 per Forest. This is really a very small sum considering +the size of the average National Forest. Fortunately there are other +appropriations and funds and each year sees more money available for +this most important work. Under the law 25 per cent. of the receipts +are paid to the States in which the National Forests are located to be +expended for roads and schools. The amount to be paid to the States in +this way from the receipts in 1917 is about $848,874.00. By the acts of +Congress organizing them as States, Arizona and New Mexico also receive +for their schools funds an additional share of the receipts based on the +proportion that their school lands within the National Forests bear to +the total National Forest area in the States. The approximate amounts +due on account of the receipts for 1917 are $42,844.80 to Arizona and +$18,687.56 to New Mexico. Congress has also provided that 10 per cent, +of the receipts shall be set aside as an appropriation to be used +under the direction of the Secretary of Agriculture for road and trail +building in National Forests in coöperation with state authorities or +otherwise. The amount thus appropriated on account of the fiscal year +1917 receipts is $339,549.61. This added to the amount carried over +from the 1916 receipts fund, $136,981.23, and the amount appropriated +for improvements, in the regular Agricultural Appropriation Bill, +$450,000.00, brings the total available for the construction of roads, +trails, cabins, bridges, telephone lines, etc., on the National Forests +for the fiscal year 1918 to $926,530.84. + +There is still another fund recently appropriated which will enable +roads and trails to be built on a very much larger scale than hitherto +has been possible and will result in the rapid opening of forest regions +at present practically inaccessible. The Federal Aid Road Act, passed by +Congress in 1916, appropriated ten million dollars for the construction +and maintenance of roads and trails within or partly within National +Forests. This money becomes available at the rate of a million dollars +a year until 1927. In general, the States and counties are required to +furnish coöperation in an amount at least equal to 50 per cent. of the +estimated cost of the surveys and construction of projects approved +by the Secretary of Agriculture. The apportionment among the States +is based on the area of National Forest lands in each State and the +estimated value of the timber and forage resources which the Forests +contain. + +The total amount from all sources available for roads, trails, and other +improvements on the National Forests during the fiscal year 1918 is +therefore $1,926,530.84. + + +THE CLASSIFICATION AND CONSOLIDATION OF NATIONAL FOREST LANDS + +The classification and consolidation of National Forest lands is +a matter of great importance to their proper administration and +protection. If all the lands within the Forests are to be put to their +highest use for the permanent good of the whole people the lands +inside of their boundaries must be classified and permanent boundaries +established for each Forest. Through this kind of work the National +Forests gain in stability. The classification and segregation of the +agricultural lands is most important, for these lands are open to entry +under the Forest Homestead Act. + +_Land Classification._ The land classification work is organized in the +Washington and District Offices under the Branch of Lands. Crews of men +are sent out from the District Offices and the work of classification, +carefully planned ahead, is done by projects, that is, large contiguous +areas are examined together. For instance, the Hat Creek Project on the +Lassen National Forest consisted of a number of large areas containing +scattered parcels of agricultural lands along the Hat Creek valley in +that Forest. For the classification of the lands on a big project a +surveyor and a lineman, one or more timber cruisers, and an expert from +the Bureau of Soils constitute the crew. As a result of this work over +1,100 individual tracts within the Forests were made available for entry +under the Forest Homestead Act during the fiscal year 1916, because +this land was found to have a greater value for growing agricultural +crops than for growing timber. Under this same policy since 1912 about +12,000,000 acres were eliminated from the Forests, partly because they +were of greater value for agricultural use, or because they were not +suited for the purposes for which the National Forests were created. +Up to June 30, 1917, 127,156,610 acres of National Forest land have +been examined and classified. Such work as this, once and for all time, +will settle the controversy now and then waged in Congress by certain +Congressmen that the National Forests have large and valuable tracts +of agricultural lands locked up within their boundaries and therefore +should be abolished, or turned over to the States, or equally radical +disposition made of them. Such Congressmen usually are working for some +predatory private interests who want to secure the great wealth in the +National Forests that is being wisely conserved for the people. + +_The Consolidation of National Forest Lands._ There has also been a +great need for consolidating the National Forest lands where these were +interspersed with private or state lands. Congress has recognized this +need and from time to time has granted authority to exchange lands with +private owners or States where such an exchange would be advantageous +to the Government through the resulting consolidation of holdings. +Thus by getting the government lands into a more compact body their +administration and protection are materially facilitated in many ways. + +Before any exchange is made it must be ascertained that the land which +the Government is to receive has equal value with that relinquished, +also that the land is chiefly valuable for the production of timber and +the protection of stream flow. Recent additions to the Whitman National +Forest in Oregon consisted of privately owned cut-over timberland +rapidly reproducing to valuable timber trees. Title to this will be +secured by exchange for government owned lands. + + +HOW YOUNG FORESTS ARE PLANTED TO REPLACE THOSE DESTROYED BY FIRE + +_Reforestation and the Timber Supply._ More than 15,000,000 acres of +National Forest lands which are capable of producing timber and valuable +chiefly for that purpose have been denuded of their original tree +growth. These lands are not adapted to agriculture and possess but a +small value for grazing. In their present condition they are practically +unproductive barrens. + +It is probable that one-half of this area will reforest itself naturally +through the reseeding of burns, and the encroachment of tree growth upon +natural openings, parks, grass lands, and brush lands. This natural +extension of the forest on such areas is progressing at the estimated +rate of 150,000 acres annually. The remaining half of the denuded area, +7,500,000 acres, must be reforested by artificial means. This land +is unquestionably adapted to growing timber and useful to the nation +primarily for that purpose. Every year that it lies idle the country +suffers a great financial loss, for such an immense area is capable of +growing at least three-quarters of a billion feet of timber annually. +It was recently estimated that the timberlands on the National Forests +are producing between five and six billion feet of lumber annually by +growth. The complete restocking of the areas now denuded or sparsely +timbered will increase the annual production of wood at least 25 per +cent., an item certainly worth considering. + +_Reforestation and Water Supply._ Even more important than the value +of the timber which is lost annually is the part which these large +areas play in the conservation of water supply. Most of this area is on +the watersheds of western streams and rivers and the fact that it is +denuded is a dangerous menace to the equable flow of the rivers which +drain those areas. The National Forests contain over 1,175 watersheds +which supply many municipalities, 324 water-power projects, and 1,266 +irrigation projects, aside from many other outside power and irrigation +projects which are fed by watersheds within the Forests. The cities of +Salt Lake City, Utah; Denver and Colorado Springs, Colorado; Portland, +Oregon, and Seattle, Washington, all derive their municipal water supply +from streams arising in the National Forests. The proposed water system +for the city of San Francisco, California, is also to be taken from the +National Forest streams. A few years ago planting was undertaken on +the watershed of the Colorado Springs, Colorado, reservoir. This water +supply is worth annually from $80,000 to $100,000. Besides this the +2,000 horsepower hydro-electric plants are valued at $40,000 and the +40,000 undeveloped horsepower are said to have an additional value of +$400,000, making the total value of the watershed more than $500,000, +with the probability that a greater water supply having a far greater +value will be needed as the city grows. + +[Illustration: Figure 19. Drying pine cones preparatory to extracting +the seed. Near Plumas National Forest, California.] + +[Illustration: Figure 20. Extracting tree seed from the cones. The dried +cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh +which forms the sides of the machine.] + +And there are many evidences that the people of the West have begun to +realize that the National Forests are the key to the entire water-supply +situation in the West no matter for what purpose the water is used. The +public consideration now being given to flood control, the requests from +many western cities for special measures to protect their municipal +water supply, the concern expressed by irrigation associations in +Colorado and elsewhere, lest even the regulated cutting on the National +Forests may reduce stream flow, and the rapid rate at which unused +reservoir and power sites in the Forests are being developed, all are +evidences of the importance of Forests in protecting water supplies. +Reforestation is essential so that the National Forests can effectively +discharge this function. + +_Government Reforestation Policy._ The duty of the Forest Service to +put the denuded areas which will not be reforested naturally into +a condition of productivity admits of no further argument. But the +problem is not so easily solved as it is made clear. Under the semi-arid +conditions prevailing on many National Forests this work involves +uncertainties and unsolved problems. On the National Forests artificial +reforestation was an untried field when the Forest Service entered it. +The Government therefore had to develop its own practice in the face +of a great variety of conditions, largely unfavorable. The situation +still calls for intensive experiments to develop the best methods from +the standpoint of both cost and results. More than that, it calls for a +different set of methods for each forest region of the West which has +its peculiar trees, climate, and soils. Then, lastly, when the proper +methods have been demonstrated by experiment, the new methods can be +applied on a large scale with a very good chance for success. + +Therefore intensive experiments must come first. Business prudence +requires the development of all methods in detail and reasonable +certainty as to their results before large sums are expended upon field +operations. In the least favorable regions like the semi-arid mesas +of the Southwest, the work is restricted for the present to small, +carefully conducted experiments, the result sought being reliable +information upon how to proceed rather than the reforestation of many +acres. In the most favorable regions, as the western slopes of the Rocky +Mountains and the Cascade Ranges, the results already obtained have been +so excellent, due to an unusual combination of good growing conditions, +that operations upon a larger scale have been justified simultaneously +with continued intensive investigations. As the work is extended into +each new region or new National Forest, the most favorable sites are +always chosen first. After the possibilities and limitations of each +method have been ascertained by experience under the best conditions +of each locality the work can either be intelligently extended or +restricted. But the work is always conducted from the standpoint of the +maximum return for each dollar expended. + +In accordance with the policy outlined by the Forest Service watersheds +used for municipal supply or irrigation continue to receive first +consideration. Large sums are not, however, being spent on such +watersheds where any uncertainty as to the outcome exists; that is +before successful methods have been perfected by experiment. In addition +to watersheds, reforestation work is being conducted for the primary +object of producing timber only where climatic conditions and other +factors are extremely favorable. As far as possible these areas are +being selected with reference to the low cost of the work, natural +conditions which insure rapid tree growth, and urgent local need for +additional timber supplies. These favorable conditions generally obtain +in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Minnesota, and Michigan and it is +in these States that the best results have been obtained. In California, +Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and the Southwest the work is restricted to +intensive experiments on a small scale, until successful methods of +meeting the adverse local conditions have been perfected. + +[Illustration: Figure 21. Preparing the ground with a spring-tooth +harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. Battlement National +Forest, Colorado. This view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet +elevation. Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 22. A local settler delivering a load of Lodgepole +pine cones at the seed extractors, for which he receives 45 cents +per bushel. Forest officers receiving them. Arapaho National Forest, +Colorado.] + +_Methods of Reforestation._ Two general methods of reforestation have +been developed. The first is called the direct seeding method, in +which tree seed is sown upon the ground with or without simple forms +of cultivation. The other method is the planting method by which +seedlings are grown in nurseries under ideal conditions of soil, light, +and moisture until they are large enough to be transplanted and stand +the rigors of the open field. Direct seeding, where successful, is the +cheaper method, but is necessarily limited to sites whose soil and +moisture conditions are exceptionally favorable to tree growth. The +inability of the newly germinated seedling to establish itself except +in comparatively moist soil makes the success of this method on the +semi-arid mesas of the Southwest, for example, very problematical, +especially since these localities are subject to long dry seasons. In +such localities the use of the direct seeding method must be restricted +to experiments designed to determine the exact range of conditions +under which it is feasible. The main effort, however, of the Forest +Service has been given to direct seeding on areas where reasonable +success appears to be assured. The planting of 2 or 3 year old +seedlings or transplants largely overcomes the adverse soil and moisture +factors which appear to have made direct seeding unsuccessful in many +localities. This method, which is the general practice in European +forestry, must without doubt be employed to reforest a considerable +portion of the denuded lands. The growing and planting of nursery stock +is carried on simultaneously with direct seeding. The object of this is +to ascertain the comparative results of the two methods, the sites on +which the greater success will be obtained from each, and the proper +relation of the two methods in the future development of reforestation +work. + +Since reforestation work was begun on the National Forests about 135,500 +acres have been sowed or planted. The larger part of this acreage was +reforested by direct seeding. Until only a few years ago larger areas +were direct seeded each year than were planted to nursery stock, but at +the present time more planting is being done. During the fiscal year +1916 about 7,600 acres were planted and about 2,800 acres were seeded. +The average cost in that year of planting was about $10.00 per acre, +that of the seeding was about $4.50 per acre. The 1917 costs were +slightly higher, due to the increased cost of labor and supplies. + +The reforesting methods of the Forest Service mean the collection of +large quantities of seeds and the growing of large quantities of small +trees for planting. Since 1911 the Forest Service has collected over +175,000 pounds of seeds for its direct seeding and planting work. During +the fiscal year 1916 the Forest Service had 14 large tree-nurseries +and 7 small ones, which had in them over 37 million young trees which +would, in a short time, be planted in the field. From these figures it +is readily seen that the reforestation work on the National Forests is +conducted on a large scale. + +_Direct Seeding Work on the National Forests._ The direct seeding work +on the National Forests involves many more problems than one would at +first thought suppose. Seed must be collected and extracted; it must be +stored, if it is not used immediately; if the seed is sown it must be +protected from rodents and very often the ground must be prepared before +the seed is sown. + +[Illustration: Figure 23. In the forest nursery a trough is often used +for sowing seed in drills. The seed scattered along the sides of the +trough rattles into position at the bottom and is more even than when +distributed by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. Pike +National Forest, Colorado.] + +[Illustration: Figure 24. Uncle Sam grows the little trees by the +millions. These will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the +National Forests of the West.] + +Seeds are collected in various ways. Often cones are purchased at +advertised rates from persons who make a business of seed collecting. +The collectors deliver the cones to a specified Ranger station or +to some seed extracting plant. But such collectors are not always +available. Seed is collected by Forest officers by stripping cones +directly from standing trees or from those felled in logging operations. +Large quantities are also gathered from the vast stores or caches +assembled by squirrels. + +Seed extraction is usually done most economically by experienced Forest +officers. It requires drying by exposure to natural or artificial heat +to open the cones; threshing to separate the seed from the scales and +woody portions of the cone; and cleaning or fanning to remove chaff and +dirt. Much of the extraction has hitherto been done in small quantities +at a large number of stations and with very simple home-made appliances. +In view of the large amount of seed which must be handled each year +the cost of extraction has been materially reduced and seed of higher +average fertility has been obtained by concentrating the major part +of the work at central seed-extracting plants equipped with improved +machinery. + +A problem of great importance from the standpoint of final results +is that of having seed available at the season of the year when it is +needed. Past experiments have shown that fall sowing is essential to +success in most parts of the West where extensive seeding projects will +be conducted. Experience has also shown that seed on a large scale +cannot be extracted in time for use in the same season. Moreover, +every year is not a good seed year, so that Forest officers must take +advantage of the good years to collect large quantities and store +them for use during years of seed shortage. Purchased domestic or +foreign seed cannot be used to advantage to make up these deficiencies +because it is sometimes of poor quality and not adapted to the climatic +conditions in which it must be sown. For these reasons methods had to +be devised for storing large quantities of seeds for several years at +a time and in such a manner that their vitality would not be impaired. +Many storage tests have been made by the Forest Service to determine the +best way of storing seeds. The tests showed that the sealed glass jar +is the best container and that seed must be stored either in air-tight +receptacles or at low temperatures to be kept for any considerable +period without loss of fertility. + +Probably the greatest obstacle encountered in reforestation by direct +seeding is the destruction of the seeds by rodents. The failure of many +direct seeding projects has been due primarily to loss from this cause. +Failure has occurred on areas of practically every character regardless +of the time of the year the seed was sown. Success has been encountered +only where recent burns had largely eliminated the animals either +by outright destruction or by the loss of food supply. The rodents +which are most destructive to tree seeds are the ground squirrels, +the chipmunks, the mice, and the gophers. It is not strange that they +should seek out the seed that has been carefully sown by the Forest +officers. In many cases these seeds are their natural food and they are +wonderfully diligent and expert in searching it out. + +In coöperation with the Biological Survey, the Forest Service has +worked on the problem of destroying the rodents. Many methods have been +tried out in the field. The free use of grain poisoned with strychnine +has thus far produced the best results and has reduced the loss from +rodents sufficiently to secure satisfactory germination. The successful +elimination of such injury appears to lie in the thorough poisoning by +this method of areas to be seeded, once or oftener in advance of sowing. + +With successful germination assured by the collection of good seed and +the protection of it after it has been sowed from rodents, the next +problem lies in cheap methods of cultivation and sowing. This will +enable the young seedling to develop its root system early enough and +rapidly enough to withstand the first annual drought, the dominant +feature of the climate of all the western National Forests. + +[Illustration: Figure 25. One of the large Forest Service nurseries +where the young trees are given the utmost care before they are large +and strong enough to endure the rigorous climate of the National +Forests. McCloud Nursery, Shasta National Forest, California.] + +There are numerous methods used in sowing tree seed on the National +Forests. Three general methods are used in most of the work. Broadcast +sowing is practiced in the fall and spring or upon the snow in the +winter, both on ground that has not been prepared and on soil that has +been scarified by rough brush drags, harrowing, disking, or partial or +complete plowing. In seed-spot sowing the seed is planted at regular +intervals in small spots where the soil is cleared of vegetation and +worked up loose to a depth of from 5 to 6 inches. When corn planting +or dibbling is practiced the seed is thrust into the soil by a hand +corn-planter, or, in the case of large nuts, pressed into holes made +with a pointed stick. The corn-planter method is often combined with the +preparation of seed spots or the plowing of single furrows, in order to +plant the seed in loose soil free from vegetation. + +On a large majority of the Forests broadcast seeding on unprepared +ground has not succeeded. As a rule satisfactory stands have been +secured from broadcasting only after an expensive preliminary +cultivation which would be impracticable in extended operations and +which would exceed the cost of planting with nursery stock. But +broadcasting on prepared strips and upon recent burns has given some +success. The seed-spot method has been most successful if done at the +proper season. Late summer and early fall sowing has produced better +results than sowing in spring or winter. As a whole direct seeding +has not succeeded, especially when the results and costs of the work +are compared with the planting of nursery stock. Planting has thus +far yielded better results, especially on the less favorable areas. +Furthermore, from the standpoint of final results attained, planting has +actually been cheaper than seeding, in spite of the greater initial cost +of planting. While the major emphasis in reforestation work is placed +upon planting, considerable seeding is being done, but it is confined to +the most favorable localities and sites. + +_Planting on the National Forests._ Reforestation by planting young +trees has received much attention during the last few years principally +because it has produced better results. Much still remains to be said +for both methods and future experiments alone can decide which method +to use in a specified region and under given conditions of climate and +soil. Usually direct seeding has been tried first in any given locality +where reforestation work was to be done. In fact the policy of the +Forest Service in artificial reforestation on the National Forests has +been, first, to conduct experiments to find out what can be done and +what is the best way to do it; second, to reforest by direct seeding +wherever this is feasible; and third, to plant nursery seedlings where +direct seeding has been found too uncertain. + +[Illustration: Figure 26. A view of seed sowing with a corn planter. San +Isabel National Forest, Colorado] + +[Illustration: Figure 27. Sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. +Pike National Forest, Colorado] + +In selecting areas for planting, preference is usually given to the +watersheds of streams important for irrigation and municipal water +supply and to land which is capable of producing heavy stands of +a quick-growing species or of a specially valuable species. Next in +importance are areas which offer good opportunities for object lessons +to the public in the practice of forestry. Some areas offer combinations +of advantages. For instance, a burned-over tract may be suitable for +planting to some rapid-growing species which is also valuable for timber +and at the same time may be situated so that it will serve as an object +lesson also. It is on such areas in general that reforestation by +planting is being concentrated. + +While the reforestation of the watersheds of streams important for +irrigation and municipal water supply has a large financial value, this +value is hard to estimate because it involves not actual cash profit but +loss prevented. But when a favorable site is planted to a quick-growing, +valuable, species, it is comparatively easy to arrive at a fair estimate +of the possible profit on money invested. It has been estimated that +under many conditions it is highly profitable to reforest waste lands +on the National Forests by planting. From certain experiments made it +is estimated that a white pine forest artificially established on a +second-class forest soil in Minnesota, will yield about 46,500 board +feet per acre in 50 years, worth at least $10 per thousand feet, or +$465 per acre. Figuring the cost of planting and the cost of care and +protection per acre per year at 3 per cent. compound interest gives a +total cost of $34.07 per acre at the time the timber is cut and a net +profit of $8.62 per acre per year. Douglas fir in the Northwest will +produce 81,000 board feet in 80 years, worth at least $8.50 per thousand +feet. After deducting all expenses this would leave a net profit of +$555.30 in 80 years or about $6.94 per acre per year. These profits are +indeed large, considering that the land is not capable of producing +cereal or vegetable crops profitably. And it must be remembered that in +all the above calculations all the money invested is earning 3 per cent. +compound interest and that the net profits are the earnings in excess of +this 3 per cent. interest. + +The little trees that are set out on the National Forests every year +are produced in large nurseries, where they are grown by the millions. +In these nurseries the little trees receive the most expert care from +the time the seeds germinate until the time they are large enough to +withstand the rigors of wind and weather on the barren hillsides of +Uncle Sam's Forests. The seeds are first carefully sown in seed beds +and left to develop in these from one to three years. At the end of one +year they may be transplanted in nursery rows where they will have more +room to develop. Rapidly growing species like yellow pine are kept only +a year in the seed bed and perhaps one or two years in the transplant +beds; but slow growing species, like cedar, must remain in the seed beds +two years and usually two years in the transplant beds. All this depends +upon the species and the site upon which it is to be planted. + +If my reader were to visit the Pikes Peak region during spring or fall +he would doubtless encounter large gangs of men planting young trees +on the barren mountain slopes. Under the proper supervision of Forest +officers some of the men will be seen digging holes with a mattock while +others are coming directly behind them with bags or boxes with wet moss +or burlap, containing small trees. These men are called respectively the +diggers and planters. Two men will plant from 500 to 1,000 trees a day, +depending upon how deep the holes must be dug to accommodate the roots, +whether the ground is bare or covered with sod, whether the land is +mountainous or level, and many other factors. + +In this way Uncle Sam plants his denuded areas in the Forests, so +that they will be producing _timber_ for future generations instead +of useless _brush_ or _tree weeds_. The great variety of climatic and +topographic conditions included in the National Forest area makes the +problem of tree planting infinitely complex. Nursery stock must be +raised in each region having similar climatic conditions, and in each of +these regions different methods of planting must be used, depending upon +local conditions. The semi-arid mesas of Arizona and New Mexico present +different planting problems from the humid forest regions of Oregon and +Washington; the methods used in the sandhills of Nebraska and the sand +plains of Michigan cannot be applied in full on the high mountain slopes +of Colorado; nor are the planting problems in the vast chaparral areas +of northern California anything like those encountered in the mountains +of Idaho, or in the prairie States of the Middle West, or in the Black +Hills. Then, again, the reforestation problems of the chaparral fields +of southern California are more perplexing than any I have mentioned +above. + +[Illustration: Figure 28. A planting crew at work setting out small +trees. The man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind plants the tree. +Wasatch National Forest, Utah] + + +THE ORGANIZATION AND SCOPE OF FOREST EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS + +_The Need of Scientific Experiments._ No science can make progress +without intensive experiments and investigations, least of all a new +science like forestry. The science of forestry as it has developed +in Europe is several hundred years old, but the science of forestry +as applied to American conditions is still in the infancy of its +development--probably not over 20 years old. Therefore we know very +little about our trees, our forests, and the wood which they produce, +and the professional foresters who handle the scientific work on our +National Forests are very much handicapped. To supply the needed +information about the requirements of many of our tree species, the uses +to which their wood can be put, and many other related subjects, the +Forest Service has established 8 Forest Experiment Stations (recently +reduced to 6) and one Forest Products Laboratory. It has become the +business of these institutions to study the laws governing the life of +the tree and the forest and their effect upon the final product--wood. +The Experiment Stations are working on the solution of the many +problems which confront the Forest officers in the management and the +protection of the National Forests; while the Forest Products Laboratory +was organized to promote the most profitable utilization and the most +economical disposition of the forest products of the National Forests. +Both sets of institutions, in doing this, are helping materially to +build up the science of American Forestry, which even to-day can hardly +be said to exist. + +_The Science of Growing Timber._ In order to better understand the many +diversified problems which are being studied at the Forest Experiment +Stations, it is necessary to give the reader a few ideas concerning the +science of forest ecology. This science is the basis of all problems +dealing with the growing of timber and is therefore a study of the +utmost importance to forestry. Forest ecology is the study of the +relations of trees and forests to their surroundings. By surroundings +(or environment) we mean all the factors which influence their growth +and reproduction, such as soil temperature, soil moisture, soil +texture, rainfall, light, wind, air temperature, relative humidity, +altitude, slope, exposure, and surface. Forests, we must remember, are +not warehouses of standing logs; they are not merely aggregations of +individual trees; but they are complex communities of living organisms, +which are affected in many ways by climate and soil and which, in +turn, affect in no small degree the climatic and soil conditions in +their immediate vicinity. The forester cannot treat the forest as +an aggregation of individuals, for forests have laws which govern +their behavior which are entirely different from those that govern +the individual tree. Some foresters and botanists prefer to call this +science by the name of "tree sociology," and they compare it with human +sociology. Individuals, as we well know, are governed by different +natural laws than communities. Just so with trees and forests. In order, +therefore, to grow a never-failing supply of timber intelligently and +economically we must understand these complex organisms and communities, +we must study their behavior under different soil and climatic +conditions and ascertain the conditions under which they grow best. Only +by doing this can the forester achieve all the objects of forestry, +namely, to help Nature to produce more and better timber, in a shorter +length of time and at the smallest possible cost. + +The experimental work of the Forest Experiment Stations is grouped +under such categories as these: dendrological studies, forestation +studies, studies in forest influences, studies relating to forest +management, studies in forest protection, commercial tree studies, and +grazing studies. + +_Dendrological Studies._ Dendrological studies include studies in tree +distribution and wood identification. For each tree species growing in +the United States (and there are about 500 of them) it is desirable to +know its geographical distribution, its commercial distribution, and +its local distribution. The first of these deals with the entire range +of the tree by geographical divisions; the second of these with the +distribution of those bodies of timber that are of commercial quantity +or size; and the last deals with the distribution of the tree by +local divisions, such as lowlands, slopes, ridges, valleys, plateaus, +etc. This information is usually placed on maps for permanent record. +Observations by Forest officers on the many National Forests are +recorded by them and at the first opportunity sent to Washington. Very +often it happens that the range of a species of tree is considerably +extended and that a tree is found growing in a locality where it was +never reported from before. The identification of woods is done at +the Forest Products Laboratory. The distinguishing characteristics of +the woods of many American tree species have been determined. The wood +of different trees is studied under the microscope to discover in what +way it differs from other woods closely related. Many such results are +published for the benefit of both the lumber dealer and the general +public in the form of bulletins. Both the subject of dyewoods and that +of the many woods now sold as mahogany have been investigated in this +way. The resulting data have been used by many companies and have helped +to protect the public from frauds. + +_Seed Studies._ Experiments in reforestation are grouped under seed +studies, nursery studies, and sowing and planting. Considerable work +has been done in developing the best methods of seed-extraction. Much +valuable information has been gathered on the largest amount of seed +that may be extracted from pine cones of different species per unit +of time at different degrees of temperature; the maximum temperature +which may be applied to seeds of different species without impairing +their vitality; the germinating power of seed extracted at different +temperatures; the comparative length of time required for the +germination of seed extracted with or without artificial heat; and the +most economical type of seed-extracting plant. Studies have been made +upon the comparative germination of tree seeds in the field and the +greenhouse. The ultimate success of the plantations being established +on the National Forests in a large degree depends upon the character +of the seed used. Hence studies are being conducted of the effect of +altitude, soil, age of the tree, density of stand, insect damage and +disease infection, and other factors that affect the mother tree, upon +the character of the seed collected from those trees, and the growth and +form of the resulting seedling. Also tests to show the effect of the +source of seed on the form and growth of young seedlings have indicated +very clearly that with all species the seed grown in the locality where +the trees are to be planted give as a rule better results than seed +imported from another region. + +_Nursery Studies._ Nursery studies endeavor to show the most efficient +methods for growing young trees for field planting for each species +of trees. It is of great importance to know how much seed to sow per +foot in the nursery beds; what is the best time (spring or fall) for +sowing; to what depth the seed should be covered in order to give +the highest germination; whether better results are obtained by drill +sowing or by broadcast sowing; the best methods of shading, fertilizing, +watering, and cultivating the seed beds; the methods of securing the +best root development of the young seedlings; the best time and method +of transplanting from the nursery beds to the transplant beds; the best +methods for retarding spring growth in seedlings to be used at high +altitudes; and other problems of similar nature. + +_Forestation Experiments._ Experiments in forestation have, year after +year, proven that planting is much safer than direct seeding and +ultimately less expensive. For this reason a greater emphasis has been +placed upon planting studies. These studies have attempted to show the +best season for planting each species; the best methods of planting; the +most advantageous classes of stock to use; and what the most suitable +sites are for each species of tree. + +_Studies of Forest Influences._ Studies on the influence of forests upon +stream flow and erosion are attempting to furnish important data for +American conditions upon this subject. At the Wagon Wheel Gap Forest +Experiment Station in Colorado such a study is being carried on. The +purpose of the study for the first two or three years has been to +determine the character of the two streams which are to be measured. The +forest cover on the two watersheds is practically identical. The results +so far obtained indicate that the influence upon the stream flow must be +about the same in both cases, and, consequently, a comparison of these +streams after the denudation of one watershed will be a very fair test +of the influence of the forest cover upon the relative height of the +flood stage and low-water stage, the amount of erosion, and the rate of +melting of the snow. + +[Illustration: Figure 29. At the Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station, +Coconino National Forest, Arizona. A typical meteorological station +Forest officer measuring precipitation. Note the shelter which contains +thermometers and also the electrically equipped instruments to record +the direction and velocity of the wind.] + +[Illustration: Figure 30. Forest officer ascertaining the amount of +evaporation from a free water surface. Fort Valley Forest Experiment +Station, Flagstaff, Arizona.] + +Experimental observations which have been conducted since 1908 at the +various Forest Experiment Stations have shown that the forest exercises +a decided moderating influence upon temperature extremes, wind motion, +and evaporation. Likewise, the presence of a forest cover retards the +melting of snow in the spring, and in this way huge snowbanks in the +forests feed the nearby streams until late in the summer. Forests +therefore have been shown to conserve the water supply and also causing +this water to run off slowly rather than in sudden floods. Studies have +also been conducted on determining the effect of cutting timber upon +the climate within the forest. + +_Meteorological Observations._ The climatic requirements of forest types +have been studied at the Fremont Experiment Station since January 1, +1910, through experimental observations, and other stations have taken +up the same problem since that date. The first step in this work at the +Fremont has been to obtain a complete meteorological record as a basis +for determining what climatic conditions are most important in limiting +the natural range of such important species as Yellow pine, Douglas fir, +and Engelmann spruce. The data collected so far have shown that soil +moisture and soil temperature are the controlling factors in determining +the existence of the three forest types. It has also been shown what +climatic conditions each of the three types of forest must have in order +to succeed. This work has since been extended to include other types of +forest and a meteorological station has been established at timber line +on Pikes Peak. This station, which is at approximately 11,500 feet, is +equipped with self-recording instruments to measure the climatic factors +which obtain at that elevation and which mark the uppermost altitudinal +limit of tree growth in that locality. + +Such studies as these, based upon systematic meteorological +observations, have an important bearing on all other forest problems. +The data secured in this way especially assist the technical foresters +in solving the various problems in forest management, reforestation, +fire protection, and land classification, besides giving positive +knowledge of the environment in which our trees live and of the factors +affecting their growth and reproduction. These systematic observations +are of prime importance if we ever hope to have a science of American +Forestry. + +_Forest Management Studies._ Experiments in forest management are +carried on to determine the best methods of cutting National Forest +timber to secure natural reproduction and at the same time to improve +the quality and productivity of the remaining stand. These studies +are carried on by means of permanent sample plots, on which all the +trees are carefully measured and recorded. First the timber is cut +on the plots under different systems of management, or thinnings or +improvement cuttings are made. An exact record is kept of the amount +of timber removed and of the size and distribution of the remaining +trees. Measurements taken at regular intervals show the precise effect +of the method used on each plot. Close observations of the reproduction +which takes place, brush and other forms of cover which may establish +themselves, and changes in soil conditions are recorded. On similar +sample plots methods of brush disposal, methods of marking timber for +cutting, and thinning methods are studied. After logging there are +several ways in which the resulting slash may be disposed, depending +upon surrounding conditions. In some localities the brush must be +burned immediately on account of the fire danger which its presence +involves; in other places it must be removed because it interferes with +reproduction; in still other places the brush may be scattered over the +area because there is little fire danger and, in fact, the brush has +been found to assist and protect reproduction. All these possibilities +must be determined by experiments. Likewise in marking timber for +cutting and in thinning practice various methods are possible, depending +upon circumstances, the most important of which are the requirements of +the species and the density of the forest. + +Other management studies deal with the determination by actual +measurement of the volumes of trees and stands, and the growth of trees +and the yields of whole forests. Reliable growth and yield data for the +different species and types are necessary to properly handle timber +sales as well as for forest management. They are also essential for +determining damages caused by fires and trespass. + +_Forest Protection Studies._ Studies in forest protection endeavor to +find the best methods of protecting the National Forests from fire, +grazing, disease, insects, wind, snow, hail, and animals. The most +efficient protection of the National Forests from fire calls for an +accurate, scientific knowledge of all the factors that enter into the +problem. Comprehensive studies are undertaken to secure the basis for a +more scientific method of distributing National Forest fire-protecting +funds. The aim has been to find the degree of intensiveness in fire +protection warranted by timber, forage, and watershed values, as +modified by their susceptibility to damage by fire. Under the ideal +system of allotting fire-protecting funds, the most valuable resources, +which at the same time are most in danger of destruction by fire, +should receive the largest amount of funds and therefore the greatest +amount of protection. Less valuable resources, less susceptible to +fire danger, should receive protection in proportion. Other classes +of fire protection studies have to do with the various phases of +fire prevention, fire detection, and fire control. Studies have also +been carried on to determine the rapidity with which fire spreads in +different forest types, and under a given set of climatic conditions. + +_Protection from Grazing Damage._ Studies of the effects of grazing +upon the natural reproduction of forests are conducted with a view to +devising a system of range control which would minimize such injury +without requiring the total exclusion of the stock from the range. +Studies have shown that serious damage occurs to seedlings under +four feet in height during the dry season, on areas containing poor +forage, or which have been overgrazed, or where there was little or no +underbrush. It was found that sheep do twice as much damage as cattle. +Some of the measures that have been adopted to lessen the injury to +reproduction by sheep and cattle are: the revegetation of overgrazed +areas, reductions in the amount of stock, provisions for the better +distribution of stock by the regulation of watering places, and +the exclusion of sheep from cut-over areas on which reproduction is +deficient until the seedlings reach a sufficient height to be out of the +reach of the animals. + +_Protection from Insects and Diseases._ In coöperation with the Bureau +of Entomology and the Bureau of Plant Industry the Forest Service is +conducting a large number of studies and investigations dealing with the +insects and diseases that do destructive damage to forests. The direct +result of these studies will be the gradual eradication of predaceous +insects and dangerous tree diseases from the valuable timber forests +of the Government. Control measures already taken have shown the value +of exact scientific information. On the Klamath National Forest some +years ago about 900 acres were treated for insect infestation. The cost +was about $3,000 and the amount of timber saved by the eradication of +the insects was worth over $600,000. Other studies are carried on to +identify and describe certain classes of insects, such, for instance, +as those that destroy the seeds of trees in the cones. The various +families, genera, and species of forest insects are studied and +described, and the results are published in the form of monographs. +Many of these insects are difficult to identify and concerning others +very little is known. Investigations on tree diseases have not made +such good progress, because tree diseases are much more difficult to +control. Tree diseases, like human diseases, must be prevented instead +of controlled. A general survey of the tree diseases prevalent in the +National Forests has been made, especially in California. Further +studies have brought to light little known or even unknown diseases. In +California, studies have shown that a certain relation exists between +old age and disease. Incense cedar, for example, seems to become +infested after it reaches maturity at an age of about 150 years. + +_Tree Studies._ Commercial tree studies are made of important tree +species. The results are published in the form of monographs dealing +with the range, silvicultural characteristics, growth, yield and +management of each tree. These studies bring together all the important +facts known about the tree described, such as: the industrial uses +of the wood, the conditions under which the tree succeeds, the rate +of growth in different situations, and the most suitable methods of +management to secure the highest returns. Tables are included to show +the volume of the trees at different ages and sizes, in cubic feet, in +cords, in board feet, etc. Studies are also made of the life history +and requirements of important forest trees, often in connection with +commercial studies. Such studies cover: local, geographical, and +commercial occurrence of the species, the species which are associated +with it, the habit of the tree, its soil and climatic requirements for +germination and growth, and the various matters connected with its +reproduction. Such publications as these give the Forest officers much +valuable information about the trees with which they are dealing, and +also furnish the only sources of information to students in forest +schools on the characteristics and requirements of the trees important +in forestry in this country. + +_Grazing Investigations._ Grazing investigations, being intimately +connected with a great national industry, have received a considerable +amount of attention. These studies are confined at present to grazing +reconnoissance, the reseeding of depleted mountain grazing lands, +studies in the best methods of handling sheep on the range, studies of +the effect of grazing on the forest, identification of range plants, +and the systematic elimination of poisonous range plants and predatory +animals. + +Grazing reconnoissance is a stock taking of the forage possibilities of +a certain piece of range land. This work is usually done by organized +parties, but a small amount is done also by Forest officers in spare +time. This study aims to collect all the important grazing information, +such as: the area of grazing lands, the kind of forage, the species of +forage plants, the location of streams, springs, and other watering +places for stock, the location of stock driveways, drift fences, and +cabins, the location of timber lands that do and those that do not +contain forage, and many other matters pertaining to the grazing of +stock. The maps and field data secured furnish the basis for range +improvement and more intensive range management. Up to date, over +12,288,885 acres of range lands have been covered in this way. + +All intensive forage and range experiments are conducted at the Great +Basin Experiment Station on the Manti National Forest. Here intensive +problems are carried on under controlled conditions and under constant +and careful observation and the necessary care and thoroughness is +given to them which could only be given them at a fully equipped +experiment station. All grazing investigations on the National Forests +are carried on under the direct supervision of this station. + +The seeding of depleted grazing lands is accomplished either by direct +artificial seeding or through rotation grazing. Under the former method +the seed of native or foreign grasses and other range plants are sown +on the range, in the attempt to increase the forage crop. By rotation +grazing, that is, permitting the stock to feed first on one area and +then on another, the grasses and forage plants are allowed to recuperate +from the effect of grazing and allowed to reproduce. The stock is +excluded from one area while the seed is maturing, and after the seed +has matured and become scattered on the area the stock is allowed to +graze on it. As the stock feeds on the plants it tramples the seed +into the ground and thereby furnishes favorable conditions for the +germination of the seed. There are few parts of the National Forests +that cannot be completely regenerated by the adoption of either one or +the other of these two methods. + +To reduce interference with the natural processes of reforestation, +damage to tree growth and watersheds, depletion of grazing lands, and +the waste of valuable forest resources, it is important to develop +improved methods of managing different kinds of live stock on different +types of land. These new methods of handling stock have been applied +only to sheep. The lambing of sheep in small inclosures on the open +range has resulted in the saving of a large percentage of the lambs. The +new method of bedding sheep where they happen to be at nightfall has +been found to have many advantages over the old system of returning them +to an established bedding ground a number of nights in succession. The +results have been better sheep, less damage to range, and more feed. + +It was not so many years ago that practically nothing was known about +the various plants which make up the forage crop on the National +Forests. Forest officers could not identify the plants or say whether +they were of value for forage or not. This made it difficult to secure +the use of each range by the class of stock to which it was best +adapted, to apply deferred and rotation grazing and to eliminate losses +from poisonous plants. This obstacle to efficient range management +was overcome when a system of plant collection and identification +was started by the Forest Service. Some 23,000 specimens of about +3,000 different species have been collected on the National Forests, +identified by specialists and the collector informed as to the value +of each species. The identification of range plants is the first step +toward securing an intimate knowledge of the life history of the +plant. Such information as the soil and moisture requirements, date of +flowering and seeding, requirements for reproduction, and its relation +to other range plants is of the utmost importance if the maximum forage +crop is to be produced on the range each year. This constitutes the +latest stage in the development of grazing studies. + +[Illustration: Figure 31. Forest Ranger with his pack horses travelling +over his district. Meadow Creek, foot of Mt. Wilson, Montezuma National +Forest, Colorado] + +_Investigations Dealing with Poisonous Plants and Predatory Animals._ +In coöperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry the study of poisonous +plants and the means for reducing the losses from them has been +undertaken. The death camas, the lupines, the larkspurs, some of the +wild cherries, locoweed, and practically all species of zygadenus are +plants that have been found to cause death among stock. While the +handling of stock to avoid the poison areas can eliminate the losses +to a small extent, it has been found that the most expeditious remedy is +in digging out and destroying the poisonous plants. On the Stanislaus +National Forest in California, a cattle range of about 14,000 acres, +containing about 67 acres of larkspur, was cleared of this weed at a +cost of about $695. The average loss of cattle in previous years had +been about 34 head. Following the eradication of the larkspur the loss +was 4 head. The net saving was valued at $1,800. Similar operations are +conducted on other Forests. + +The work of the destruction of predatory animals has been transferred to +the hands of the Bureau of Biological Survey. Formerly special Forest +Service hunters were detailed to hunt the animals, and these men used to +kill about 4,000 a year. The Biological Survey, however, still furnishes +traps, ammunition and poison for the destruction of predatory animals +to Forest officers, who do this work in connection with their regular +duties. Bears, coyotes, mountain lions, lynxes, wildcats, and wolves are +the animals that do the most of the damage. What makes the problem a +difficult one is that the wolf and the coyote, the two species which do +the greatest damage to game and domestic stock, are transient visitors +on the Forests which frequent the Forests only when game and stock is +most abundant. They are bred, born, and spend the greater portion of +their lives in the foothills outside of the National Forests. Under +these conditions the animals killed on the Forests are quickly replaced +by others from outside. For this reason the matter was handed over to +the Biological Survey, which will destroy these animals throughout the +public domain and the results will be much more permanent and effective. + +Besides the investigations carried on by the Forest Experiment Stations +many studies are carried on dealing with forest products. The purpose of +the Branch of Forest Research of the Forest Service is to promote the +most profitable and economical utilization of forest products by means +of experiments and investigations. The work of the Branch falls into +three divisions: National Forest utilization, the work of the Forest +Products Laboratory, and industrial investigations. + +_National Forest Utilization Experiments._ The work of the proper +utilization of the products of the National Forests is under the +supervision of the District Forester and the Assistant District +Forester in charge of Forest Products in the districts. Only three out +of the seven districts have such an organization. These men have charge +of all problems connected with the use and marketing of National Forest +timber, the construction of improvements on the Forests, and related +administrative questions. The following problems are included: studies +of existing industries, covering methods and costs of manufacture, +grades, and other specifications of manufactured products and the +prices obtained for such products; the collection of market prices, +mill scale studies to determine grades and overrun, and investigations +in kiln drying; waste in existing industries and closer utilization +possible through improved methods; new uses for National Forest species +through wood preservation; introduction of industries which will +result in closer or more profitable utilization, as the manufacture of +pulp and paper, wood distillation, turpentining, and the manufacture +of secondary wood products; overcoming prejudices against particular +species or classes of material; general questions of timber supply +and demand, markets and freight rates; advice and assistance in the +construction of National Forest improvements, particularly in the +use of wood preservatives; advice and assistance to persons on any +matter connected with the utilization of National Forest timber; the +preparation of publications upon subjects covered by investigations +which have practical or scientific value; and demonstrations of methods +or processes developed by the Forest Service for the benefit of local +communities. + +The presence on a Forest of large quantities of unmarketable timber, +or dead timber, or of material not used in current sales would mean +an investigation of methods for its utilization. Local problems +affecting wood-using industries in manufacturing or marketing timber, +such as sap stain in lumber, difficulties in seasoning lumber, and +the effect of different silvicultural methods upon the average grades +of lumber manufactured, are also taken up with the Products experts +at the District Office. Also in the construction of National Forest +improvements the Forest Supervisor may need assistance in applying wood +preservatives to telephone poles, fence posts, and other material. +Sometimes timber treating plants are erected, if necessary, to treat not +only material used on the National Forests, but also material used by +local residents near a Forest. + +One of the important problems which confronts the Office of Products +in the various National Forest districts is the utilization of the +so-called low grade or inferior tree species. The terms "high grade" +and "low grade" or "inferior," as used at present, merely indicate the +lumberman's valuation of the timber from his point of view and according +to his standards of value. If a certain species will not produce clear +lumber, which is straight-grained, easily worked, and not subject to +splitting or warping, it is at once classed as inferior. But the Forest +Products specialists each year are making progress in demonstrating that +wood, in order to be of marketable value, does not necessarily need to +be cut in the form of lumber. It is also being shown that proper methods +of drying lumber make possible the use of inferior woods for lumber and +manufacturing purposes. + +The Office of Forest Products in California has made considerable +progress in overcoming the lumberman's prejudices against the inferior +species in the California National Forests and the species are beginning +to find wider use and to command better prices. The discovery that +Incense cedar was valuable for making lead pencils caused the price of +this so-called "inferior" species to jump from an average of $10 per +thousand feet in logs f. o. b. cars to as high as $16. White fir, a +species religiously avoided by lumbermen in the woods, was found to have +special properties which make it very valuable as a pulpwood. One mill +in California now uses annually upwards of 30,000 cords of it for making +paper. Lodgepole pine has been shown to have a great value for telephone +and telegraph poles when treated with preservatives. It was found to be +12 per cent. stronger than Western Red cedar, the standard pole timber, +has a more desirable taper and can be shipped for less money. Many other +cases could be cited from this and other National Forest Districts. + +_Forest Products Laboratory Experiments._ The work of the Forest +Products Laboratory includes investigations on the mechanical properties +of wood; the physical and chemical characteristics and properties of +wood; air seasoning and artificial drying of wood; agencies destructive +to wood; wood preservation; wood distillation; production of naval +stores; and the production of pulp and paper and other chemical +products of wood. This work is carried on at the Laboratory and +sometimes in coöperation with the National Forests and district experts. +At the Laboratory there is a director and a large staff of technical and +scientific men, such as chemists, physicists, and engineers, each of +whom is an expert in his particular line of work. + +A good deal of attention is given to testing the strength of woods +grown in the United States, as a means of assisting users to select the +species best adapted to a given purpose, or to find substitutes for +species which are becoming difficult to obtain. The strength of a good +many species used for structural timbers has been tested. The species +most used for this class of timber are the Southern pines, Douglas fir, +Norway pine, Tamarack, and Red spruce. An important discovery was made +several years ago that Western hemlock, generally considered an inferior +timber, showed an average strength 88 per cent. as great as that of +Douglas fir, one of the best construction timbers in the United States. +Strength tests have also been made on fire-killed timber and these have +shown that timber killed by fire is almost as strong as green timber. +Other tests have been made to determine the effect of preservative +treatment upon the strength of timber. As a result of the large number +and variety of strength tests carried on by this Laboratory the United +States Government now has a more thorough and comprehensive collection +of data on the mechanical properties of wood than any other nation. + +Many studies are also conducted to determine the physical properties +and the structure of the different kinds of wood grown in this country. +The minute structure of the wood of many of our native species has been +studied by means of microscopic slides. A study has also been made of a +large number of species to determine the specific gravity of the actual +wood substance. Other tests are made to determine the specific heat of +woods. + +The drying or seasoning of woods, more especially of certain species +which have been found difficult to season, has received a good deal of +attention. A new type of kiln, invented by a Forest Service man, has +been devised to season such woods as the eucalyptus, which has always +been very difficult to handle in drying. Western larch has been seasoned +with a loss of only 5 per cent., whereas the loss in ordinary commercial +kilns usually ran between 60 and 70 per cent. As a result, many +manufacturers have remodeled their old kilns to embody the new Forest +Service methods. A new method has also been developed for the rapid +dry-kilning of Eastern hemlock, which has great commercial possibilities. + +Experiments in wood preservation have to do with the kind of +preservatives it is best to use, the character of the wood to be +treated, and the methods of injection. Experiments have developed the +best methods for treating railroad ties, mine timbers, fence posts, +wood paving blocks, telephone and telegraph poles, and wharf piling. +Untreated mine timbers have been found to last only from 1 to 2 years, +while treated ones are usually entirely sound at the end of 4 years. +Untreated railroad ties last from 5 to 10 years, while treated ones will +last over 15. Such experiments as these have shown the advisability +of treating all kinds of timbers with creosote or zinc chloride, or +some other preservative. Many new preservatives are being proposed or +marketed each year by various companies or individuals. These are all +tested to determine their value to prevent the growth of fungi in the +wood. Their efficiency varies greatly and many of them have been shown +to have very small value. + +Studies in wood distillation seek to find new woods which can be used +for this industry, new and more efficient methods which can be employed, +and new uses for wood waste and stumps. Charcoal, wood alcohol, acetate +of lime, and tar are derived from the distillation of such woods as +beech, birch, and maple, to which tar oils and turpentine are added +for the pines and other resinous woods. These by-products of wood +distillation have many uses, as well as the many products which are, in +turn, made from these by-products. Charcoal is used in the manufacture +of black powder, acetic acid is used in the manufacture of explosives, +and wood alcohol is converted into formaldehyde for disinfection against +contagious diseases. By means of temperature control methods developed +at the Laboratory in the destructive distillation of hardwoods, the net +gain per annum of one company's plant was over $17,000. About one-half +of the plants of the country have adopted the new method developed by +the Forest Products Laboratory. + +Experiments have been conducted by the Laboratory in the distillation +of the needles of coniferous trees and the distillation of the crude +gum of some of the important timber trees of the South and West. The +oils distilled from many trees in this way have found great use for +various purposes. Shoeblacking owes its peculiar aromatic odor, faintly +suggestive of the deep spruce and hemlock woods, to an oil which is +distilled from these same kind of needles. Evergreen tree leaf oils +are used for the perfume of soap, and in the manufacture of liniments, +insecticides, and medicinal preparations. + +Investigations have been carried on at the Forest Products Laboratory +in making artificial silk from sawdust. The industry has already +attained considerable proportions. It consists principally of converting +cellulose into viscose, which, in turn, is manufactured into an almost +endless number and variety of silk and other goods varying from sausage +casings to silk hose and tapestries. Sawdust is used also in the +manufacture of inlaid linoleum and dynamite. + +Experiments in naval stores are attempting to improve the old methods +of harvesting turpentine, which have proven very destructive to the +forests. With the approaching exhaustion of the Southern Pinery as +a field for the naval stores industry, it has become more and more +important to find other species for this purpose. Consequently the +Laboratory has conducted experiments with the various pines on the +National Forests in California, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. + +[Illustration: Figure 32. A plank of Incense cedar affected by a disease +known as "pin rot." By cutting the cedar timber when it is mature this +can be largely avoided. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the +author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 33. The western pine forests will some day be a +great source for naval stores. By distilling the crude resin of the +Jeffrey pine a light volatile oil--abietene--is secured which has great +healing and curative properties. Lassen National Forest, California. +Photo by the author.] + +A great many pulp and paper investigations are also conducted by this +Laboratory. The large size of the industry and the threatened exhaustion +of the native spruce forests which furnish the principal supply are +circumstances which call for intensive investigations. About nine-tenths +of the paper which we use is made from wood, and the amount of wood +which is converted into paper annually has reached almost 5,000,000 +cords. There are over 2,500 newspapers in the United States, and it +is said that a single issue of a New York Sunday paper consumes the +trees on about 15 acres of forest. The main object of the work at the +Laboratory has been to use other species of wood for the manufacture of +paper to offset the fast waning supplies of spruce. Poplar, hemlock, +pine and balsam are now being used in considerable quantities. News +and wrapping paper has also been successfully made from many National +Forest species, including Sitka spruce, Western hemlock, Engelmann +spruce, Red fir, White fir, and Lodgepole pine. Kraft paper has been +made and manufactured into suitcases, bags, wall coverings, twine, and +similar articles. Not only has the Forest Products Laboratory brought +into use species of trees never before tried for paper making, but it +has also improved some of the old methods of paper making to such an +extent that the results have been adopted by various large paper mills. + +Many strength tests are conducted with packing boxes. The railroad +companies of the United States are paying annually claims amounting to +many millions of dollars because of goods damaged in shipment. Much of +the damage is preventable through properly constructed boxes. Tests +conducted at the Laboratory have shown for canned-food boxes an increase +in strength of 300 per cent, by the use of four additional nails in each +end of the box. The results of these tests are being rapidly adopted by +manufacturers and canners. + +The dyeing principle of the Osage orange wood was not used prior to the +investigations conducted by the Laboratory. The value of this material +has been so conclusively shown that about one million dollars' worth +of the dye is now being manufactured annually in the United States and +practically all from material which was formerly wasted. + +The discovery that sodium fluoride is superior to sodium carbonate in +preventing sap stain in lumber promises to reduce materially the present +estimated loss of $7,000,000 from this cause. + +_Industrial Investigations._ The function of the Office of Industrial +Investigations of the Branch of Forest Research is to conduct +statistical and industrial studies of uses of wood in the United States. +The aim of these investigations is to determine methods and conditions +under which wood is now used; the marketable products obtained from +it; tendencies in methods of manufacture; and improved methods +possible, especially in the utilization of waste. When practicable, +such investigations are followed by the commercial application of their +results. This office also conducts all statistical investigations of the +production and use of forest products. + +The work of industrial investigations includes the following: collection +and compilation of statistics on the production and consumption of +forest products, prevailing market and stumpage prices, imports +and exports, and transportation rates; the compilation and study of +specifications of rough and manufactured forest products; studies of +lumber manufacture and wood-using industries as to methods, forms +of material, waste, costs, equipment, substitution of one species +for another, and improvements through a more conservative use of +raw material; studies of special problems or features of wood-using +industries; advice and assistance to States, industries and individuals +along such lines of work; and the dissemination of results by +publications. + +Many studies in wood utilization are made not only of certain industries +like the shingle, or the lumber industry, but also dealing with the +industries of particular sections of the country and with the various +States. These investigations in the States show the kinds and amounts +of woods required by the various industries, the purposes for which the +various species are employed, and the extent of their use. So far the +wood-using industries of 35 States have been studied and the results +published. + +Records of lumber prices for important woods are compiled quarterly. +These figures are useful in establishing timber sale prices on the +National Forests. Statistics as to the annual consumption of lumber in +the country are also compiled by this office. + +The wood waste exchange was established in 1914 by the Forest Service. +It consists of two lists of manufacturers, which are sent out quarterly +to persons desiring them. One of these is of "Opportunities to Sell +Waste" and contains the names of firms which use sawdust and small +pieces of wood. This list is sent to people having waste for sale. The +other list is of "Opportunities to Buy Waste," and gives the names of +concerns which have waste to dispose of. This list is sent to people who +wish to buy material. No charge is made for this service, and at the +present time over 500 coöperators are using this exchange. + +By the use of this exchange, makers of wooden novelties have been +successful in finding supplies of material near their plants. Other +wood-working industries have been able to dispose of their waste at +higher prices than they could otherwise have obtained. Many firms were +located within short distances of each other, but until recently have +had no way of getting together. A Philadelphia firm, engaged in the +manufacture of composition flooring, has been able to obtain a portion +of its sawdust from a New York lumber company. A New York woodworking +establishment disposed of its waste pieces of white oak and sugar maple +to a maker of wooden novelties in Connecticut for use in the manufacture +of furniture knobs. A clock maker of Connecticut secured waste material +for making clock boxes from the planing mill of a New York lumber +company. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE PROTECTION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS + + +The resources of the National Forests may be injured or destroyed in +many ways. Fire may burn the timber and young growth; insects and tree +diseases may damage or kill timber, and certain persons may innocently +or willfully commit trespass on National Forest land and use the +resources without permit. Then also, the fish and game of the Forests +must be protected from unlawful shooting and trapping, and the water +issuing from National Forest streams must be kept free from pollution, +to protect the public health. + + +PROTECTION FROM FIRE + +_Forest Fire Danger on the National Forests._ Practically all the +resources of the National Forests are subject to severe injury or +even to entire destruction by fire. It is an ever-present danger on +the National Forests, due to their great inaccessibility, their dry +climate, and to other unfavorable conditions. There are probably few +forest regions in the world where the danger of fire is greater than +on the National Forests. The great size of the individual Forests, +as compared with the size of the available patrolling force, the +difficulty of reaching remote areas across miles of wilderness, the dry +air and light rainfall in most parts of the western United States, the +prevalence of lightning storms in the mountains, the sparseness of the +population, and the constant use of fire in the industries and the daily +life of the people, all combine to make the hazard exceptional. + +_Importance of Fire Protection._ Forest fires when uncontrolled mean +the loss of human lives, the destruction of homes, live stock, forage, +timber and watershed cover. Besides the direct damage to the National +Forest resources it defeats all attempts to practice forestry; it +nullifies all efforts of forest management, such as regulation of +cutting to insure a second crop of timber, the planting of denuded +areas, and the restriction of grazing to assist reproduction. Fire +destroys the very improvements which are constructed annually at great +expense. In other words, protection from fire is the first and most +important problem on the National Forests without which no operation or +transaction, however small, can be undertaken. + +If the problem of fire protection is the most important task confronting +a Forest officer on the National Forests, then certainly fire prevention +is next in importance. Obviously it is easier to prevent fires than +to fight them. All large conflagrations have their origin in small +fires which if they could be reached in time could probably be put out +by one man. But in regions remote from water and supplies fires may +start and reach vast proportions before a party of fire fighters can +get to the scene, no matter how promptly the start is made. By far the +best plan, therefore, is to prevent fires rather than to depend upon +fighting them after they get started. To this end the Forest Service has +given the most earnest consideration. During the dangerous season the +main attention of Forest Supervisors and Forest Rangers is devoted to +preventing fire. Extra men are employed, the Forests are systematically +patrolled, and a careful lookout is maintained from high points. Roads +and trails are so built that every part of the Forests may be quickly +reached with pack animals. Tools and food for fire fighters are +stored at convenient places. The Ranger stations and lookout houses +are connected with the office of the Forest Supervisor by telephone, +so that men may be quickly assembled to fight a dangerous fire which +the patrolman cannot subdue alone. Each Forest Supervisor endeavors to +secure the coöperation of all forest users in the work of preventing +fires and in reporting and helping to fight them in case they get +started. + +Probably the beginning point of any discussion of forest fires is a +consideration of their causes. The Forest Service has kept careful +records year after year (by calendar and not fiscal years) concerning +the cause, the damage, the area burned over, the cost of fighting and +many other matters. During the calendar year 1917 there were 7,814 +forest fires on the National Forests. Of these the National Forests of +California had to contend with 1,862. Of the total number of forest +fires 40 per cent. were confined to less than 1/4 of an acre, 28 per +cent. to less than 10 acres, while 32 per cent. spread over areas +greater than 10 acres. The large percentage of small fires shows how +efficiently the National Forest fire protection organization works in +keeping the area burned over to the lowest possible acreage. + +_Causes of Forest Fires on the National Forests._ Forest fires on the +National Forests originate in many different ways. In 1917, lightning +caused 27 per cent.; unknown agencies, 17 per cent.; campers, 17 per +cent.; incendiaries, 12 per cent.; railroads, 13 per cent.; brush +burning, 7 per cent.; saw mills, 3 per cent., and all other causes, 4 +per cent. Thus it will be seen that a very large percentage, at least +60 per cent., of the fires are attributable to human agencies and +are therefore preventable. At least 27 per cent, of the fires, those +attributed to lightning, are not preventable, and the only way to combat +those is for the Forest officer to get to them as soon as possible after +they get started. The preventable fires, however, may be arrested at +their source, that is, by popular education dealing with the use of fire +in the woods these causes can be greatly reduced and, in time, no doubt, +eliminated. Therefore, the fire protection problem immediately resolves +itself into two almost distinct phases of action--fire prevention and +fire control. + +[Illustration: Figure 34. A forest fire lookout station at the summit of +Mt. Eddy. Mt. Shasta in the background, California] + +Just how these various agencies start fires may be of interest. +Railroads cause fires by their locomotives sending out sparks through +the smokestack or dropping hot ashes along the right-of-way. These +sparks alight in inflammable material, such as dry grass and leaves, +and start a fire. Lightning sets fire to trees, especially dead and dry +ones. In the California mountains, lightning storms without rain are +frequent and these do great damage. The author has seen as many as nine +forest fires started by a single lightning storm inside of half an hour. +Incendiary fires are set by people with varying intent. How many are set +with malicious intent, just to see the forests burn, is not known, but +many fires are started by people setting fires to drive game, to improve +the pasture, to make traveling through the woods easier, or for other +reasons. Brush burning includes those fires which start from settlers +clearing land and burning the brush and thickets. Campers cause a large +percentage of the fires by leaving their camp fires burning. Instead +of extinguishing them before they leave camp, careless people let them +burn; a wind blows a few sparks into some dry leaves or grass nearby, +and the fire is started. Many forest fires also start around logging +camps by sparks escaping from logging engines, or by setting fire to +the slash that is left after logging and allowing these fires to get +beyond control. + +_Behavior of Forest Fires._ Fires behave differently, once they get +started, depending upon the character of the timber, the amount of wind, +and the degree of inflammability of the forest cover. Ground fires burn +the inflammable dry grass, needles, dead twigs, etc., on the ground; +crown fires are much more severe and, being usually fanned by a heavy +wind, run through the tops or crowns of the trees; brush fires burn the +bushes and dry shrubs from 5 to 10 feet high; timber fires consume the +entire forest--crown, stem, ground cover, and undergrowth--and usually +occur in timber that stands close together. + +_Losses by Forest Fires on the National Forests._ The results of forest +fires naturally vary with the kind and intensity of the fire. Crown and +timber fires do the most damage, and ground and brush fires do less. +While the ground fires and brush fires seem to do very little damage to +the valuable timber, still they may greatly reduce the productive power +of the soil and destroy the watershed cover. Severe ground fires may +kill valuable timber by girdling the trees. The great fires of August, +1910, which swept northern Idaho and western Montana destroyed millions +of dollars' worth of timber and 85 human lives, and cost the United +States $839,000 for fire fighting. These were timber fires and they +occurred for the most part in valuable stands of dense timber. + +The forest fire losses on the National Forests for the last 9 years +show a very great and gradual reduction of losses due to forest fires. +In 1908, the total loss through fires was $451,188 and in 1909 it was +$297,275. In 1910, the year of the great fires in Montana and Idaho, +there were very heavy losses in timber and human lives, due to an +unusual combination of dry weather and high winds. But in that year +the fire organization was not complete; it had never really been tried +out. In this year the organization received its first severe test, and +while it did the best it could with the available men and equipment, +the situation in Idaho pointed out conclusively the weak points and the +short-comings. The proof of these statements is found in the statistics +of the next 5 years, when the average total loss for 1911 to 1915, +inclusive, was $293,000, and, it must be remembered, several of these +years were equally as unfavorable, so far as dry weather and high winds +were concerned, as the year 1910. During these years, however, the fire +fighting organization had a good chance to be tried out thoroughly; for, +as is quite evident, experience is the greatest teacher in this kind of +work. During the calendar year 1916 the fire losses reached a new low +level, compared to other years, the losses amounting to only $198,599. +In 1917 they were higher. + +[Illustration: Figure 35. A forest fire lookout station on the summit +of Brokeoff Mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. Lassen National Forest, +California. Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 36. Turner Mountain lookout station, Lassen +National Forest, California. This is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. cabin with +a stove and with folding bed, table, and chairs. The forest officer +stationed here watches for forest fires day and night throughout the +fire season. Photo by the author.] + +_The Forest Fire Problem Stated._ Having seen a little of the causes, +behavior and results of forest fires on the National Forests, it is +comparatively easy to state the forest fire problem as it occurs on +the National Forests. Briefly stated, it is this: With the funds, +organization and equipment that are available, the aim of the Forest +Service is to keep the area burned over each year (and therefore the +damage done) down to an accepted reasonable minimum. But the problem +is not as easily worked out as it is stated, due, largely, to a great +many uncontrollable and variable factors which cannot be foreseen in +advance, the most important of which are the weather conditions. As +has been said before, there are two general ways of keeping the area +burned over down to an accepted reasonable minimum: either prevent the +fires from getting started (as in the case of those started by human +agencies) or, after they get started, to get to them with men and fire +fighting implements in the shortest possible time after they are found. +The former is called fire prevention, and the latter fire suppression or +control. How the organization of the National Forests solves these two +problems is of the greatest interest. + +_Fire Prevention._ The measures employed for fire prevention may be +either administrative, legislative or educative in nature. + +The most important administrative measures employed to prevent fire +are those that aim to reduce the amount of inflammable material in +the National Forests. This is done in many different ways. The free +use timber policy enables Rangers to give away much dead timber, both +standing and down. Timber operators cutting on the National Forests are +required by the Forest Service contract to remove dead snags, which are +a fire menace, from the timber sale area. Where there is fire danger, +all slashing resulting from such sales must be burned or otherwise +disposed of. While grazing is usually not considered a measure to +prevent fires, still grass lands that have not been grazed over become +very dry in the fall and are a dangerous fire menace. Wherever it is +feasible, old slash left by lumbermen on private lands adjacent or +near to the National Forests are burned, when the fire can be confined +to a small area. Another administrative measure is the reduction of +the causes of fires by a patrol force. Forest Guards travel along the +highways where there is most traffic and most danger. Their presence +often is enough to remind campers, hunters and fishermen to put their +camp fires out before leaving them. These patrolmen mix with the people +and, if necessary, remind them in a courteous way to be careful to +extinguish their camp fires before breaking camp. + +Most of the necessary legislative measures for preventing forest fires +already exist. The National Forest force is seeking merely to obtain +a strict enforcement of existing laws. Railroads are required to use +spark-arresters on their locomotives and to provide for keeping their +rights-of-way free from inflammable material. Logging camps must also +prevent the destruction of National Forest timber by fire by using +spark-arresters on all logging engines. The Forest officers are ever +on the alert for the detection and apprehension of campers for leaving +fires unextinguished and incendiaries for starting fires willfully. +These careless individuals are arrested by them without warrant, either +under the Federal laws, if the fire occurred on National Forest lands, +or under the State law, if it occurred outside of government lands. + +Educational measures are for the purpose of educating both the local +forest-using public and the general public who may travel through the +Forests in the careful use of fires in the forests. Forest officers, +especially Rangers, come into personal touch with local residents and +users, that is, the ranchers, stockmen, business men, loggers, campers, +hunters, fishermen and others. Such people are often reminded by +personal appeals by the Forest officers. Most of them have learned by +this time, because of having been called upon to help fight fires at +one time or another, and having gotten a taste of the result of other +people's carelessness. Many written appeals are also sent out by the +Supervisor and are slipped into the envelopes when grazing permits and +other official documents are mailed. One of these written appeals, and +probably the one that has been used most widely, is known as the six +rules for the prevention of fires in the mountains: + + + 1. Matches.--Be sure your match is out. Break it in two before + you throw it away. + + 2. Tobacco.--Throw pipe ashes and cigar or cigarette stumps in + the dust of the road and stamp or pinch out the fire before + leaving them. Don't throw them into the brush, leaves, or + needles. + + 3. Making camp.--Build a small camp fire. Build it in the open, + not against a tree or log, or near brush. Scrape away the + trash from all around it. + + 4. Leaving camp.--Never leave a camp fire, even for a short + time, without quenching it with water or earth. + + 5. Bonfires.--Never build bonfires in windy weather or where + there is the slightest danger of their escaping from + control. Don't make them larger than you need. + + 6. Fighting fires.--If you find a fire try to put it out. If you + can't, get word of it to the nearest United States forest + ranger or State fire warden at once. Keep in touch with the + rangers. + +Besides these kinds of appeals, many kinds of fire warnings are posted +at conspicuous places along roads and trails to remind the public to be +careful with fire in the Forests. + +[Illustration: Figure 37. A fire line cut through the low bush-like +growth of "Chaparral" on the Angeles National Forest, California. This +"Chaparral" is of great value for regulating stream flow. The streams +are used for water power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of +the largest lemon and orange groves of southern California.] + +[Illustration: Figure 38. A forest officers' temporary camp while +fighting forest fires. Near Oregon National Forest, Oregon.] + +An attempt is also made to reach the general public, that is, those +living outside the local communities, but who occasionally travel +through and use the National Forests. Many hundreds of thousands +travel through the Forests every year by automobile or by other +conveyances. These people camp in the Forests, fish, hunt, and enjoy the +cool climate and beautiful scenery. Before they start on their trips, +that is, while they are still in their home towns, and also while they +are on their way, many means have been devised to reach them. They +are confronted with newspaper advertisements, folders, booklets, and +other printed matter. In towns and cities, public meetings, lectures, +exhibits, expositions, county fairs, commercial clubs, and the chambers +of commerce, all help, either directly or indirectly, by one means or +another, to inform the people of the great fire danger on the National +Forests. Even the letters sent out by the District Forester and the +Supervisors have written appeals affixed to the outside of the envelopes +by means of a rubber stamp. In short, every possible means is used to +educate the public that uses the National Forests and in whose interest, +in fact, the Forests are being maintained and protected. + +_Fire Suppression._ So much for the problem of fire prevention. In +case a fire does get started, and there are thousands of them on the +National Forests every year, the problem, as has been said before, +consists of getting men and tools to it in the shortest possible time, +in order to keep the damage down to the lowest possible point. To do +this, a vast organization has been formed by the Forest Service, which +is not unlike the Minute Man organization of Revolutionary days. A brief +outline of this organization and how it works when a fire starts will +give my reader a still better idea of what the Forest Service is doing +in forest fire protection. But before speaking of this organization, a +few preliminary matters are of interest; they deal with the manner of +distributing fire protection funds, forest fire history, and the study +of weather conditions. + +_How Forest Fire Funds Are Distributed._ It devolves upon the Forest +Supervisor and also the District Forester to apportion the appropriation +allotted for fire protection in the most economical and efficient +manner. First of all, the money is allotted to the various Forests in +proportion to their needs. These needs are measured by the size of the +Forest, the value of its resources, the length of the dangerous dry +season, the fire liability or the amount of money loss in case of fire, +the fire hazard or the degree to which an area is subject to fire +danger, the difficulty of prevention and control and many other factors. +These same factors are employed to apportion the Supervisor's allotment +of money to the various Ranger districts on his Forest. + +Probably the most difficult factors for the Forest Supervisor to +appraise on each Ranger district are the fire liability and the fire +hazard. Fire liability has to do with the amount of damage a fire could +do if it got started. Valuable timber needs protection most of all, and +the value of the forest is determined by the kind of trees in it and the +density of the stand. Fire hazard is usually expressed in terms of risk. +The Supervisor asks his Ranger if the risk on a certain area in his +district is high, low, or medium. Risk depends, of course, largely upon +the character and inflammability of the forest cover and the presence of +human causes. Dense forests involve greater risk than open, scattering +trees; government forests interspersed with private holdings containing +much old slash have a high risk factor; and government forests near +sawmills, large towns, and along railroad rights-of-way also have high +risk factors. All these matters must be considered, in order that each +area on each Ranger district gets just enough money for fire protection +and not a bit more. + +[Illustration: Figure 39. Putting out a ground fire. Even if the +fire does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young trees and +so weakens the larger ones that they are easily blown over. Wallowa +National Forest, Oregon.] + +[Illustration: Figure 40. Forest officers ready to leave a tool box for +a forest fire in the vicinity. Such tool boxes as these are stationed at +convenient places on National Forests ready for any emergency. Arapaho +National Forest, Colorado.] + +_Forest Fire History._ Very important also in fire protection are the +studies which the Forest Service is carrying on, dealing with forest +fire history. For many years back, records have been kept on all fires: +their causes, area burned over, date of the fire, damage caused, the +exact location of each fire, the cost of fighting it, the total number +each month and each calendar year, and many other data. More recently +records have been kept upon still further details connected with each +fire, such as: the time elapsed between the start and the discovery of +a fire, between the discovery and the report to the proper official, +between the report and the beginning of the actual work of fighting, and +the time required to put the fire out. Intensive studies have been made +also upon the length and character of the fire season on each Forest, +for it is important to know the maximum length, the minimum length and +the average length of the fire season. These data show how much extra +help must be hired for fire patrol and fire fighting, and during what +periods the greatest damage is done, based both on acreage burned +over and by the number of fires. Studies of this kind yield positive +information on what areas of each Forest are particularly liable to +lightning fires, to camp fires, and to incendiary fires. With this +knowledge the Forest Supervisor can plan and distribute his men and +funds more intelligently; they tell him during what period he can expect +the most trouble, and therefore must have the greatest number of fire +fighters at his command. It is scientific study like this that is doing +more than anything else to solve the fire protection problem in the +Western States. + +_Relation of Forest Fires to the Weather._ In coöperation with the +United States Weather Bureau, the Forest Service studies weather +conditions in relation to forest fires. Weather forecasts have been sent +to each Forest Supervisor throughout the fire season, informing him of +the probable weather conditions. The velocity and duration of the wind, +the temperature, the precipitation, and the relative humidity are all +factors which greatly affect the inflammability of the forest. Forest +Supervisors have been informed in these forecasts of what are known as +emergency conditions, that is, an unusual and abnormal combination of +weather conditions which make fire danger very great. These conditions +may be a high wind, low relative humidity, high temperatures, or a +combination of the three. When a Forest Supervisor is informed by the +District Forester that emergency conditions are likely to exist during +the next ten days or so, he immediately sends an alarm to all his +Rangers to be especially watchful. + +_Improvements and Equipment for Protection._ After the preliminaries +of fire protection finance, forest fire history, and the study of +weather and emergency conditions have been worked out, probably the +first and most important prerequisite to forest fire protection is a +matter already spoken of, namely, the improvements and the equipment. +The construction and maintenance of improvements and the possession of +suitable equipment is second in importance only to the organization +which is to do the actual fire suppression. Roads, trails, telephone +lines, fire lines, lookout stations, Ranger stations, tool and food +caches, a central supply depot, and many other things are necessary +before men can be effective. Each Forest Ranger has use for the +following equipment: fire fighting tools, water bags and pails, teams, +pack horses, wagons, automobiles, saddle horses, tents, portable +telephone lines, riding and packing equipment, and many other special +equipment, which must be hired when occasion for its use arises. If a +Forest Ranger has not access to this equipment, and few of them have, he +has hanging by his telephone a complete list of all the stores, stables, +garages, etc., in the neighboring towns and how much equipment each can +furnish when called upon. + +_Forest Fire Maps and Charts._ Not the least important bit of equipment, +by any means, is the fire map or maps. The Forest Supervisor has a fire +map of his whole forest in his office and the Forest Ranger has one +of his district (sometimes including the neighboring districts, too) +hanging in his cabin, usually posted conspicuously, so that it can be +referred to any time of the day or night without delay. These maps have +upon them all the available information regarding the country which is +to be protected. They show physiographic features, such as topography, +creeks, springs, meadows, water, swamps, etc.; vegetative features, such +as timber, forage, brush, reproduction, planted areas, regenerating +areas, slashings, etc.; such man-made features as roads, trails, cabins, +ranger stations, corrals, pastures, Supervisor's headquarters, sheep +camps, cattle camps, ranches, camp sites, railroads, logging railroads +and camps, sawmills, power plants, towns, villages, etc.; and special +protective features, such as locations of men, tools, equipment, tool +and food caches, local help, emergency help, fire lines, fire breaks, +lookouts, government and private telephone lines, instruments and +switchboards, locations of stores, state Fire Wardens, livery stables, +pack trains, garages, stage routes, etc. All these features and data +are not put upon one map; usually a series of maps are used or some of +the information is put on charts or on the border of the maps. In short +all this information is put in such form that it is available at the +shortest notice for emergency conditions. It makes little difference how +it is recorded, so long as the information is available when needed. + +[Illustration: Figure 41. A forest fire on the Wasatch National Forest, +Utah. Forest officers trying to stop a forest fire by cutting a fire +line. Note the valuable growth of young trees which they are trying to +save on the right.] + +_Forest Fire Organization._ The forest fire organization, whether it +be on the whole National Forest or upon the Ranger district, consists +of three agencies: the fire detection agencies, the fire reporting +agencies, and the fire fighting agencies. All these must work in +absolute harmony without interruption of any kind, to obtain the maximum +of efficiency. The detection agencies consist of the lookout men, +stationed at high, advantageous points which overlook large areas, and +the moving patrolmen, who are assigned to definite beats or territory +which cannot be adequately reached by the lookouts. Lookout men live in +small cabins on the tops of high mountains, and they watch for fires +constantly. In regions which have very few high points and which are +not suited to that method of detection, moving patrolmen are employed. +These men move about on foot, on horseback, on railroad speeders, in +automobiles, or in any other conveyance adapted to the country they are +in. + +When the detectors find a fire they report it immediately to the +nearest Forest Ranger or the Forest Supervisor. The Forest Ranger in +whose district the fire is located is logically the first man to be +informed, but telephone connections and other conditions sometimes alter +this procedure. Just because a fire is found in, we will say, Ranger +district number one, does not necessarily mean that the Forest Ranger +of this district is the proper man to be notified. The fire may be at +the very outer boundary of his district and may be much more easily +accessible to the Forest Ranger in district number two. In any case +it is all arranged beforehand just exactly who shall be notified in +case of a fire in each and every corner of a National Forest. Each man +in the organization has his duties and responsibilities determined for +him in advance and he does his part without being prodded or reminded. +The location of a fire in the wild and inaccessible forest regions of +the West, which may seem a very simple matter, is determined in a very +ingenious manner. + +_How Fires Are Located._ The lookout man, as well as the Forest Rangers +and the Forest Supervisor, is provided with identical maps of the +Forest. These maps show most of the important features useful in fire +protection work, including also the private lands, all government +holdings, and the public land survey. This public land survey has +divided the land surface into legal subdivisions known as townships, +sections, and quarter sections, and it is by these and with reference +to these that all features, both natural and artificial, are located. A +township is usually a square 6 miles on a side, containing 36 sections. +Each section is divided into quarter sections containing 160 acres +each, which are further divided (though not by law) into forty-acre +squares. The problem, therefore, that confronts the lookout man upon +the discovery of a forest fire is to inform the Ranger or other Forest +officer where the fire is--that is, in what _section_ it is located, if +it cannot be located with reference to some well-known natural feature. + +In order to determine in what section or quarter section a fire is +located, each lookout point on the Supervisor's and Rangers' fire maps +has a transparent circular protractor mounted on it. (A protractor is +a device by which angles are marked off; it consists of a circle upon +whose arc the degrees from 0 to 360 are indicated, 0 degrees being +equivalent to North, 90° to East, 180° to South and 270° to West.) +The center of the protractor is the lookout point. A piece of black +thread is fastened to the center of each lookout point, so that it can +be stretched across the arc of the circle and the degrees read off. +The other end of the thread has fastened to it a thumb tack or similar +device, so that when the thread is stretched to read a certain angle, +it can be fixed at that angle. The maps of the lookout men are usually +fastened or permanently mounted upon a table which is oriented (that +is, the top of the map is turned toward the north). The lookout men +have sighting devices, usually alidades, which are placed on the map, by +means of which they sight at a fire; but the bearing of the fire is read +from the angles marked on the edge of the map, which is in reality a +large protractor. + +By these devices a fire is quickly and accurately located. When the +lookout man sees a fire, he gets its bearing from the map by means of +the sighting device. He telephones this bearing to the Ranger, or, in +many cases, to the Supervisor. Immediately the Supervisor goes to his +map, picks up the black thread attached to this lookout point, stretches +the string, and, having marked off the bearing, pushes the thumb tack +into the map. In the meantime, another lookout, perhaps two more, have +sighted the same fire. The black threads from the other lookout points +on the Supervisor's map are stretched and fixed in a similar manner. The +fire will be found to be at the point where two or more of these black +threads intersect. This is only one of the many ways which have been +devised to locate forest fires; there are other methods, but all are +based upon the same principle. + +[Illustration: Figure 42. A forest fire running in dense underbrush on +one of the National Forests in Oregon.] + +[Illustration: Figure 43. Men in a dense forest with heavy undergrowth +clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is running down hill. Crater +National Forest, Oregon.] + +_The Fire Fighting Organization._ The organization of men who do the +actual fire suppression must be an elastic one, adequate to meet +the needs of a Ranger district or of a whole National Forest, or, in +some cases, of an entire administrative district, comprising as many +as 25 to 30 National Forests. The Forest Guards and Forest Rangers are +known as the first line of defense in this war against forest fires. +Upon them falls the brunt of the work of fire suppression. The second +line is composed of local stockmen, ranchers, and logging and sawmill +crews. When these prove insufficient in number, the large villages and +towns are called upon, and the last resort is the labor of the cities +and the United States Army. Thus, in the case of a very large fire the +organization of the Forest Service is modified to cover not only each +and every National Forest, but also entire States. In case of a very +large fire, every available man from each Forest is sent to take his +place in the organization. Expert fire fighters are sent direct to the +fire. Other Forest officers are sent to the large towns and villages +to act as quartermasters. These men hire fire fighters, entrain them, +and fill orders for food, bedding, tools, and other equipment. Other +quartermasters at the scene of the fire check shipments of supplies, +check the time of fire fighters, approve accounts, hire transportation, +and perform similar duties. Special disbursing agents are sent to +the scene to pay the men. In short, everything is done to dispatch +as quickly as possible the necessary men, food and equipment to the +fire, and to do it in accordance with the prearranged plan for such +emergencies. + +_Forest Fire Coöperation._ A very important part of the plan of fire +protection on the National Forests are the coöperative agreements +entered into between the Forest Service and private individuals or +companies. Such coöperation may be in the form of building improvements +for fire suppression, furnishing men in case of fire, furnishing +lookouts or patrols, furnishing equipment, and, in fact, in connection +with any of the necessary means for fighting fire. This coöperation has +been of mutual benefit. One National Forest may coöperate with one or +more neighboring Forests or with sawmills, power plants, logging camps, +or railroad companies. Coöperation may also be with a well-organized +Forest Protection Association, of which there are a large number in the +Western States. These coöperative agencies agree to send a large force +of their men to fires on the National Forest in their vicinity, and the +Forest Service reciprocates by sending men for fires occurring on their +lands, which may threaten National Forest timber. Often coöperative +agencies enter into agreement to build jointly with the Forest Service +certain improvements, such as telephone lines, lookout towers, or +trails, which will benefit public fire protection as well as private. +Many sawmills and logging companies who operate on or near the National +Forests have agreements with the Service, by which they suspend all +operations and send all their help to fires which threaten National +Forest timber. All timber sale contracts of the Forest Service provide +for coöperative fire protection. + +_Fighting Forest Fires._ The most important requirements for successful +fire suppression are: quick arrival after discovery, adequate forces of +men, proper equipment, thorough organization on the fire line, skill in +attacking, and careful, systematic patrol after the fire is thought to +be out. All fires, whether large or small, require generals to lead the +attacking forces, and the strategy of fire fighting can only be learned +after long experience on the fire line. A cool, level-headed man is the +greatest necessity in an emergency, for it is as disastrous to get too +many men as it is too few. A few men that know how to attack a fire are +worth a great deal more than a great many that are inexperienced. + +[Illustration: Figure 44. Fire in a Lodgepole pine forest in Colorado. +Arapaho National Forest, Colorado] + +[Illustration: Figure 45. A mountain fire in "Chaparral," five hours +after it started. Pasadena, California] + +There are different kinds of fires, depending upon their size, their +intensity, and the nature of the country in which they are burning. +And there are as many different methods of fighting fire as there are +kinds of fires. Some fires, such as grass fires or those burning in +the needles and litter in the forest, can be extinguished directly by +being smothered or beaten out. For this purpose Rangers sometimes use +their saddle blankets, when nothing else is handy, but usually wet gunny +sacks, boughs, and tree branches are used. Often, if it is available, +sand or dirt is thrown on the fire with a shovel. Surface fires are a +little more difficult to extinguish. They are more intense and more +swift and consume brush, young growth, and fallen dry trees. These +usually cannot be attacked directly, but must be controlled indirectly +by the building of a trench or a fire break, or by a system of back +firing. Trenches are fire breaks in miniature, usually from one to +several feet wide. Fire breaks or fire lines are broad belts from 30 to +50 feet wide, which are cleared of inflammable material, not so much +to stop the fire when it reaches this belt as to furnish a safe area +from which fire can be fought and, most of all, from which back firing +can be started. These lines or belts are usually built along ridges. If +a fire starts on the lower slope of a mountain and the wind carries it +up the mountain toward the fire line, the only hope of stopping the fire +at the top of the ridge at the fire line is to start fires on the top +of the ridge, which will burn down the slope and meet the original fire +coming up. In rare cases, as, for instance, in the Idaho fires of 1910, +the fires get to be so large and swift that all methods of attack prove +futile and the only salvation is in natural barriers, such as rivers, or +a change of the wind, or rain, to extinguish them. + +In all fire fighting work, the plan is to surround the fire (if it +cannot be beaten or smothered out) by a trench, fire line, or fire +break, and to prevent the fire from spreading. In this kind of work, +shovels, spades, mattocks, rakes, and hoes are used to move the soil; +saws and axes are used to remove fallen trees from the fire line, and in +some cases plows, dynamite, and other implements are employed. + + +PROTECTION AGAINST TRESPASS, FOREST INSECTS, EROSION AND OTHER AGENCIES + +While the protection of the Forest resources from fire is probably the +most important phase of forest protection, it is not the only one by +any means. The National Forest force also protects the Forest resources +from trespass, from insect damages, and from tree diseases. Also water +supply for domestic use, for irrigation, water-power, and navigation +must be protected, and the public health must be safeguarded against +the pollution of the streams emerging from the Forests. It is also the +duty of Forest officers, in coöperation with the state authorities, to +protect game, fish, and birds from illegal practices. + +_Trespass._ The Act of June 4, 1897, authorizes the Secretary of +Agriculture to make rules and regulations for the occupancy, use and +protection of the National Forests, and provides that any violation of +such rules and regulations shall be punishable by a fine or imprisonment +or both. This and later acts provide for fines or imprisonment for all +violations of the regulations governing National Forests. The violation +of these regulations constitutes trespass, and these may be either +fire, timber, grazing, occupancy or property trespass, depending upon +the offense. Since the United States has all the civil rights and +remedies for trespass possessed by private individuals, it may bring +action to recover damages resulting from trespass or breach of contract. + +Fire trespass includes the following offenses: setting fire to timber, +brush or grass; building camp fires in dangerous places where they +are hard to extinguish; or leaving camp fires without completely +extinguishing them. The various railroads that cross the National +Forests are one of the most frequent offenders in that the sparks +issuing from the locomotives or the hot ashes dropping from the fire box +set fire to National Forest timber. The railroads are required to use +every precaution to prevent such fires, but many of them are started, +resulting in damage suits by the Government. The damages cover not only +the merchantable timber and forage destroyed, but damages are also +collected for young, immature growth, which at first thought might seem +to have little or no value. But the courts have held that while the +young, unmerchantable trees have very little value now, they have a +great value as the basis for a future crop of timber. Thus, in the case +of the United States versus the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, +in 1910, for fire trespass on the Black Hills National Forest, caused +by sparks from the locomotives operated by the company, the damages +included $17,900 for young growth. Also, in the case of the United +States versus the Great Northern Railroad, in 1911, in which suit was +brought upon the negligence (causing fires to start) of the defendant +company on their right-of-way, which fires subsequently spread to the +Blackfeet National Forest, damages included the destruction of a great +many immature trees, the value of which was estimated on the basis of +their value at maturity discounted to date. It is significant that this +case never went to trial; the defendant paid damages and costs without +argument. + +[Illustration: Figure 46. A few years ago this was a green, luxuriant +forest. Picture taken after the great fires of August 20, 1910, on the +Coeur d'Alene National Forest near Wallace, Idaho] + +Under timber trespass are included the following acts: the cutting, +killing, girdling, or otherwise damaging trees; the cutting of timber +under sale contract or permit before it is marked by a Forest officer; +the removal of timber before it is scaled, measured, or counted by a +Forest officer; and the fraudulent stamping of any timber belonging +to the United States with the regulation marking tools or similar +device. Under grazing trespass are included such acts as: grazing stock +on National Forest lands without permit; grazing stock on areas which +are designated as closed to grazing; driving stock across a National +Forest without permit; and refusal to remove stock upon instructions +from an authorized Forest officer when an injury is being done to the +National Forests by reason of the improper handling of the stock. The +use of National Forest land without a permit for any purpose for which +special use permits are required constitutes occupancy trespass. But +traveling, temporary camping, hunting, surveying, or prospecting may +be carried on without permit, and camp wood and forage for stock used +in connection with such activities may be taken free of charge. The +unauthorized appropriation, damage, or destruction of property belonging +to the United States, which is used in the administration of the +National Forests, also constitutes trespass. + +Innocent trespass is usually settled amicably between the trespasser +and the Supervisor. If the violation of the timber, grazing, or land +regulations was due to a misunderstanding and was not of a willful +character, a permit is issued and the trespasser pays for the timber +or special use, as under regulation. Fire and property trespass cases +seldom can be construed as innocent, hence in most cases such offenses +result in litigation. + +_Forest Insects._ Protection against forest insects is carried out +in coöperation with the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of +Agriculture. + +An essential part of good forest protection is the work of locating and +reporting evidences of insect depredations. There are scores of insects +which are constantly working in the forests, either injuring or killing +live trees or attacking the wood of trees after they have been killed. +Weevils kill young shoots on trees and destroy tree seeds; bark beetles +and timber beetles infest the bark, girdle the tree and destroy the +wood; and various borers and timber worms attack seasoned and unseasoned +forest products and destroy the wood in the forest after it has been +cut down and sawed into lumber. The greatest annual loss by insects is +caused not so much by conspicuous local outbreaks as in the sustained +annual loss of scattered merchantable trees. Local infestations often +kill a large percentage of trees on an area, but these outbreaks are +easily seen; the scattered infestations that kill a tree or two here +and there over large forest areas are not so noticeable, but, taken all +together, add up to a startling total. + +The task of locating and reporting insect infestations falls upon the +Forest Ranger and other field men of the Forest Service. Since the +Rangers are practically the only class of Forest officers that visit +all parts of a National Forest during each field season, the Supervisor +relies mostly on them to report upon insect infestations. In riding +to and from his work, while on fire patrol, while going for mail and +supplies, while attending to the timber, grazing and other business +of his district, the Ranger does a good deal of traveling and covers +practically every part of his district. These are good opportunities to +watch for fresh outbreaks of insects, and the wide-awake, progressive +Ranger never misses such chances. If he sees reddish-brown masses of +pitch and sawdust on the bark of a tree he immediately recognizes it +as the work of insects. Or perhaps he may see a pine or a spruce tree +with all its needles turned yellow. He knows then that this tree was +girdled by bark beetles very recently, probably during the previous +summer. A tree whose needles had turned red would indicate to him that +the infestation was more than a year old, since trees attacked in the +spring of one year usually do not show the results until the following +summer. These two stages are known by the trained entomologist as the +"yellow-top" and the "red-top" stages respectively. The latter is +followed by the "black-top" stage. In this stage, insect infested trees +stand out very conspicuously as leafless, gray or black snags, and they +tell the story of the work of bark beetles that happened years ago. + +[Illustration: Figure 47. The first evidence of insect attack are the +reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. Lodgepole pine infested by the +mountain pine beetle. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the +author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 48. The last stage of an insect-attacked tree. The +tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. Lassen National Forest, +California. Photo by the author.] + +Probably the first external evidence of the attack of a bark beetle upon +living trees with normal green foliage, is the presence of pitch tubes +upon the outer bark. These are small, reddish-brown (later becoming +grayish-white) masses of pitch and sawdust, which exude from the small +cylindrical entrance made by the adult beetle where it bores through the +bark to begin its egg tunnel. Each tube represents the entrance of one +or more of these beetles. But we must follow these egg tunnels further, +to learn how the actual damage is done to the tree. As soon as the bark +beetle has made its entrance through the bark, it starts to work up +through the live bark and cambium of the tree, forming a tunnel but +little larger than the diameter of the beetle, which is known as the egg +gallery, These egg galleries vary in shape from straight to winding, and +in length from ten to forty inches. As a rule, male and female beetles +work together in one gallery, and the eggs are deposited along the +sides of the gallery, often in little pockets. When the tunneling and +egg-laying process of the adult beetles is completed, their activity +ceases, and they are usually found dead at the upper end of their +galleries. The larvæ hatch and begin their work by burrowing across the +cambium at right angles to the egg galleries. The complete girdling of +the cambium layer is not accomplished until the larvæ have completed +their work, and the numerous larval galleries, by joining one another, +form a complete gallery around the cambium of the tree, thus cutting +off the food supply which is made in the leaves of the tree, from the +lower portion of the tree, namely the roots. Since the roots cannot live +without nourishment, the tree dies. As soon as the larvæ have completed +their development they pupate. Later they develop into adult beetles. +These adult beetles issue forth in swarms the following spring, to +attack new trees. + +The control of insect pests is a difficult matter. On areas where insect +depredations are conspicuous and are liable to spread to nearby valuable +timber, control measures are undertaken in coöperation with experts from +the Bureau of Entomology. In these control projects, crews of men fell +the infested trees, strip the bark from them, and burn the bark (usually +at a time of the year when the young broods of beetles are still in the +bark, namely, fall or winter). Trap trees are sometimes resorted to. +In this method, trees are girdled with an ax and thereby weakened to +such a degree that beetles are attracted to it. After such a tree has +become thoroughly infested in this manner, it is cut down and burned. In +the case of a large, conspicuous infestation, an insect reconnoissance +is made, in order to obtain an estimate of the percentage of trees +that have been killed by insects. When it is possible, the timber is +immediately sold. For example, on the Lassen National Forest, the writer +several years ago made such an estimate of an infestation caused by the +mountain pine beetle, covering over 100,000 acres. The reconnoissance +showed that about 35 per cent. of the trees above 12 inches in diameter +had been killed. The killed timber was subsequently utilized for +telephone and telegraph poles. + +There are many administrative measures which are practiced on the +National Forests, which aim to prevent insect infestation. The +prevention and suppression of forest fires, which form infection courts +for insects, is probably the most important one. In all timber sales, +old dead snags and slashing, which are breeding places for insects, are +disposed of. Through free use and timber sales, insect-killed timber is +disposed of and the loss due to insects is reduced to a minimum, besides +in many cases destroying the young insect broods. + +_Tree Diseases._ In almost every administrative district there is a +Consulting Pathologist, connected with the Bureau of Plant Pathology of +the Department of Agriculture, who has charge of all work dealing with +the eradication of tree diseases. + +A tree disease is really any condition that interferes with the normal +functioning of the tree, be this condition caused by fungi, mistletoe, +fumes, smoke, frost, sunscald, drought or excess of water in the soil. +Parasitic fungi and mistletoes cause most of the tree diseases. Leaf +diseases, by killing a greater part of the foliage, destroy the very +organs in which food for the growing tissues is prepared. Diseases +of the bark intercept the flow of food coming down in the bark from +the leaves. Diseases of the sapwood cut off the water supply, which is +pumped upward from the roots. Those that attack the roots also affect +the water supply of the tree. Diseases of flowers and seeds destroy the +faculty of reproduction. + +Certain parasites are able to enter the youngest parts of trees, twigs +and leaves directly, but the majority of the fungi causing decay of the +wood can get into the interior of the living tree only by way of a pin +knot or wound. For this reason, every wound caused by lightning, by +fire, by man, or by animals, constitutes a menace to infection. Many +coniferous trees cover their wounds by an aseptic coat of pitch, which +is very effective in preventing the germination and growth of fungus +spores. But the less resinous conifers and the hardwood trees do not +cover their wounds very effectively; large wounds are not covered at +all. Upon exposure by a wound, the sapwood just underneath the bark +dies, dries out, and checks. Spores of parasitic fungi enter the cracks, +germinate and infect the heartwood. The spores of a heartwood-inhabiting +fungus cannot germinate and thrive unless they fall upon the heartwood +of the tree. In this way certain diseases of the heartwood, which +result in rot or decay, can very frequently be traced directly to fire +scars, lightning scars, spike tops, broken limbs or branches, and other +mechanical destruction caused by lightning, fire, storms, cloudbursts, +or heavy snowfall. + +Fire as a cause of wounds is responsible for more cases of heartrot than +all other injuries taken together. For this reason the protection of +forests from fire is the most important preventive measure that can be +taken to eradicate tree diseases. In fact, the best way of controlling +diseases is by preventing them, and the Forest officers are endeavoring +to eliminate any danger to the health of the forest, to prevent the +injury of the trees, and to establish healthy conditions for their +growth. This is forest hygiene, and it bears the same relation to the +trees and forests as personal hygiene and community sanitation do to +persons and communities. + +It is impossible to grow a sound and thrifty forest for future +generations if there are unhealthful conditions in the forest that are +a constant menace to the trees. The first step in this hygienic work +is close observation on the part of the Forest officers. The next +important step is to prevent the infection and infestation of sound +trees by getting rid of all diseased and insect-infested living and +dying trees. By means of timber sales and free use, Forest officers +very materially help in establishing healthy conditions on the National +Forests. There is a clause in most timber sale contracts which requires +the cutting by the purchaser of all snags and other unhealthy trees +on the area. This measure not only eliminates undesirable trees from +a hygienic standpoint, but it also makes it possible to utilize the +merchantable timber left in undesirable trees, which would otherwise +go to waste. On timber sales, Forest officers who do the marking leave +for reproduction only such trees as are perfectly sound and healthy. +Mistletoe infested trees, especially, are marked for cutting, for +neither in plant nor in animal life can healthy offspring be expected to +develop under unhealthful conditions. + +[Illustration: Figure 49. Wrecked farm buildings due to flood of May 21, +1901, Nolichucky River, near Erwin, Tenn. This is one result of denuding +the Appalachian Mountains of their forest cover.] + +[Illustration: Figure 50. When steep hillsides are stripped of their +forest growth, erosion results. Erosion has been especially serious in +the Appalachian Mountains. View taken in Madison County, North Carolina.] + +_Water Supply._ Undoubtedly the greatest value of the mountain forests +of the West, most of which are within the National Forests, lies in +their influence upon the regularity of the water supply. In many States +these mountains afford the only water supply for domestic use, for +irrigation, and for the development of power. The future development +of the entire region depends, therefore, upon a regular water supply. +It is not so much the amount of water as the manner in which it flows +from the mountains that is important. To insure this regularity, the +vegetative covering is an important factor. For this reason, Congress +made the preservation of conditions favorable to stream flow one of +the principal objects in the establishment and administration of the +National Forests. + +Many of my readers who have lived out-of-doors a great deal have learned +by common observation the simple problem of how the forest regulates +stream flow. Any one who has been in a treeless region after a heavy +rainstorm can recall how suddenly the streams swell and flood their +banks, and how soon these same streams return to their former flow. On +the other hand, a severe rainstorm in a forested region will hardly have +an appreciable effect upon the streams. The difference is not very hard +to explain. In a treeless region there are no natural obstacles which +might delay or prevent the raindrops from reaching the ground. The soil +is usually hard and dry, and the water runs off as though from a gable +roof. In a forest, we well know, the crowns of the trees intercept +most of the rain that falls; very little strikes the ground directly. +The rain that strikes the crown is dissipated on the leaves or needles, +on the twigs and branches, and on the trunk. It must travel a long way +before it reaches the ground, and all this delay helps in preventing a +rapid run-off or flood. The soil in the forest is covered by a living +ground cover of flowers, shrubs and young trees, and by a dead cover +composed of leaves, twigs, dead branches, fallen trees, all of which +interrupt the raindrop's journey to the ground. Even after the rain +reaches the ground, only a small part of it goes off as surface run-off. +The soil in the forest is loose and full of holes and channels made by +decaying roots, earth worms, etc., so that the water is absorbed as fast +as it reaches the soil. Also the soil in the forest contains a large +amount of organic matter, resulting from decaying leaves and branches, +and this organic matter acts as a great sponge, because it is capable of +holding several times its own weight of water. As a result of the living +and dead ground cover, the crown cover, and the organic matter in the +soil, the rainfall is fed to the streams gradually through weeks and +months, instead of a few hours, and the nearby rivers have a steady, +equable flow, instead of alternate stages of floods and low water. + +Closely bound up with the protection of watersheds is the erosion +problem. Without a forest cover, rain runs off mountain slopes very +rapidly, often carrying with it silt and sand, and, in severe floods, +even rocks and bowlders. A well known physical law states that the +carrying capacity of a stream increases as the sixth power of its +velocity. In other words, double the velocity of a stream and you have +multiplied its carrying power by 64; increase its velocity ten times, +and you multiply its carrying power by a million. The delay caused by +the forest cover in each raindrop's journey down a mountain side not +only prevents floods, but also preserves the fertility of the fields in +the valleys below. + +Many streams in the West carry such enormous amounts of silt that the +storage capacity of reservoirs has been seriously impaired, even within +a comparatively short time. Then, also, there is the added difficulty +and expense of keeping the diversion works--the ditches and canals--free +from an excess of this material. Studies which have been carried on to +determine in what way the administration of the National Forests can +keep the destructive processes of erosion at a minimum have shown that +the balance between the stability of the soil and rapid erosion on many +slopes is so delicate that only a slight abuse may result in complete +loss of the fertile top soil and permanent changes in the character of +the vegetation. + +In August, 1909, the town of Ephraim, on the Manti National Forest, +Utah, experienced a disastrous flood from Ephraim canyon, which was +attributed in part to the overgrazed condition on the watershed. An +examination made the next spring clearly demonstrated that the severity +of the flood was a direct result of deterioration of forest, brush, +and grass cover, due to overgrazing during a long period of years. +The canyon was therefore closed to grazing as an immediate protective +measure. Plans were thereafter made to restore the forest cover of the +canyon by planting. + +[Illustration: Figure 51. A fertile corn-field covered with sand, +gravel, and débris brought down from the mountains by floods. These farm +lands are ruined beyond redemption. This could have been prevented by +preserving the forests on the watershed of this river.] + +In this kind of protection work, as in the case of forest fires, it has +been found that preventive measures are much more effective and much +less costly than remedial measures. The regulations under which the +Forests are administered give the Secretary of Agriculture power to +institute preventive measures. To insure the sufficiency and purity of +the water supply of a municipality or of an irrigation district, or +to prevent floods and snowslides, the use of watersheds for grazing, +timber, special uses, or settlement is especially restricted when such +restriction is found to be necessary. On steep grass or timber-covered +mountain slopes both grazing and timber sales are prohibited, if +necessary. + +_Public Health._ From the relation which the National Forests bear to +the streams that issue from them, it will be seen that they may exert a +great influence upon the health and general welfare of the communities +in the valleys below. All persons either permanently or temporarily +camped upon National Forest land are liable to trespass proceedings if +unsanitary conditions result from their presence. All camp refuse must +be disposed of either by burying or burning. This regulation applies +to hunting and fishing parties, as well as to large logging camps, +sawmills, and construction camps on National Forest lands. Thus the +regulations strictly guard against the pollution of the water supply +of the people who live in the large towns and cities, and also those +who live on the Forests or near them. The watersheds tributary to many +of the large western cities and towns are under special protection by +the Forest Service. Under this sanitary regulation, it is possible to +maintain such control of them as will greatly reduce the danger of +typhoid and other enteric diseases. + +_Violation of Game Laws._ Wild game, fish and birds add materially +to the enjoyment of the National Forests by the public, and their +protection and preservation is a duty of Forest officers. Although this +duty rests primarily with the State the Forest Service assists, as far +as practicable, in the protection of game on the National Forests from +illegal practices. Forest Service officials are at the same time State +Game Wardens. In the event of a violation of the state game laws, they +either apprehend the offender or report the matter to the proper state +official. + +Various kinds of game and bird refuges may be included within National +Forests, depending upon whether they are created by specific acts +of the State Legislature or by Acts of Congress. In these refuges, +hunting, trapping, willfully disturbing, or killing any game or bird is +prohibited. Whether the violation occurs in the state game refuge or the +national refuge, the Forest officer has authority to arrest the offender +without warrant. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE SALE AND RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RESOURCES + + +The timber, the pasture, the water and mineral resources and the land +in the National Forests are for the use of the people, and they may +be obtained for legitimate use from the local Forest officers without +delay. In fact, the Forest Service is doing all it can to encourage all +kinds of business which depends upon National Forest resources. + + +THE SALE AND DISPOSAL OF NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER + +There has been a steady increase in the amount and value of the +timber cut on the National Forests. During the fiscal year 1917 over +700,000,000 feet of timber, valued at almost $1,500,000, was cut, while +almost three times as much was sold. Most of this was cut in the States +of Montana, Oregon, Idaho, Washington, California and Arizona. + +All mature timber on the National Forests which may be cut with benefit +and in accordance with certain well-established forestry principles, is +for sale and is advertised and offered as demand arises. The outstanding +feature of government timber sales is the fact that only the stumpage is +sold, the title of the land remaining with the Government. The timber +is sold in any quantity, so long as the sale is in accordance with +well-established policy. Large sales require a large initial investment +for constructing a railroad or other means for taking out the timber, +and may even require the construction of a common carrier from the +market to comparatively inaccessible regions. + +_Government Timber Sale Policy._ The National Forest timber sale policy, +first of all, aims to prevent the loss of this valuable public property +through forest fires. This phase of the policy, however, is covered +under the chapter on protection. Next, it aims to utilize the ripe +timber which can be marketed and to cut it in such a way as to insure +the restocking of the land with young timber and the continuance of +forest production. The price at which timber is sold represents, as +required by statute, the appraised market value and a proper return to +the public which owns it. It is disposed of in such a way as to prevent +its speculative acquisition and holding, and to prevent monopoly. + +National Forest timber has found its way into both the general, +far distant market, and the local market. But it is the aim of the +Forest Service to first of all provide for the requirements of local +communities and industries, including the free use and sale at cost to +settlers as authorized by statute. It is also the aim of the Forest +Service policy to make timberlands of agricultural value available for +settlement under conditions which prevent speculative acquisition but +encourage permanent and genuine farming. According to this policy, land +which at the present time is covered with a good stand of timber and +which has been shown to have a greater value for agricultural purposes +is cleared as soon as a bona fide sale can be consummated. And, lastly, +it is the aim of this policy to return as soon as possible the cost of +protection and administration of the National Forests, and to yield a +revenue to the States, since these are entitled by statute to 25 per +cent. of all gross receipts as an offset to the loss of local taxes +through the government ownership of the forests. + +[Illustration: Figure 52. A view towards Mt. Adams and the headwaters of +Lewis River. Council Lake in the foreground National Forest lands lie at +the headwaters of practically every large western river. This means that +the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water +power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction. +View taken on the Rainier National Forest.] + +_Annual Yield and Cut._ Each year the amount of timber which can be +cut from each National Forest, according to sound forestry principles, +is authorized by the Secretary of Agriculture. This cut is based upon +the best available data as to the amount of mature and over-mature +timber needing removal, and the amount of annual growth on each Forest. +At the present time only a small percentage of the authorized annual cut +of the Forests is taken. Most Forests cut a very small part of their +annual allotment, but a few Forests cut their full annual yield, or +nearly so. On some Forests, the entire annual yield is used by local +industries and no timber can be sent to the general market; on others +a very small part of the annual yield is used by local needs and most +of the cut can be sent to the general market. On the Cascade National +Forest, in Oregon, for instance, the annual production is estimated at +about 200,000,000 feet, while the present local needs can be supplied +by approximately 1,000,000 feet. From such a Forest a large annual cut +can be made for the general market. On the Deerlodge National Forest, in +Montana, on the other hand, the annual yield is estimated to be about +40,000,000 feet, all of which is needed to supply the large copper mines +near Butte. From Forests like this, no sales for the general market can +be made. + +Although the National Forests contain about six hundred billions of +board feet of timber, or about one-fifth of the standing timber in the +United States, only a small fraction of the available timber is actually +disposed of. This is due to the comparative inaccessibility of this +timber and the presence of large bodies of privately owned timber which +lie between it and the market. The result of this condition is that the +bulk of the salable timber on the Forests will be automatically saved +until such a time when most of the privately owned timber has been cut. +In this way, future generations will benefit and the public will receive +a much better price for it years hence than they could possibly obtain +now. + +_Timber Reconnoissance._ Before any timber can be sold to advantage, +however, it is necessary to take an inventory of the timber resources. +In other words, it is necessary to know where the timber is, how much +there is, and what can be done with it. This timber estimate, or timber +reconnoissance, as it is called, is also needed to settle questions of +title arising from the presence of patented lands or valid claims; to +determine if cutting is advisable on a given area, and, if so, under +what stipulations; and to fix the minimum price at which stumpage is to +be sold. The annual yield, or the amount of timber grown or produced +annually upon an area, must be the ultimate basis of the annual cut, and +this yield can only be computed after an inventory of the timber has +been made. + +Timber reconnoissance (valuation survey or valuation strips) involves an +estimate of the standing timber by small legal or natural subdivisions +of land, with the necessary land surveys, the preparation of an accurate +topographic and forest type map, and the compilation of detailed +descriptive notes. These notes deal with the condition and character +of the timber, the most practical methods of exploitation, the extent +and character of the young growth, and many other factors which affect +the management of timber lands. These data are secured at a cost of +from 3 to 10 cents per acre, depending upon the accessibility and the +topography of the region and the density of the timber. This work is +carried on both in the summer and in the winter. Up to date, about +21,000,000 acres have been covered by intensive reconnoissance and about +48,000,000 acres by extensive methods. + +_Logging the Timber._ In order that my reader may better understand +various matters connected with the disposal of National Forest timber, +it will be necessary to give a brief outline of how timber and other +forest products are taken from the woods, and the different steps +necessary before a green tree in the woods becomes a board or a railroad +tie. + +The methods of logging used in the National Forests are essentially +the same as those used on private lands, with the exception of certain +details, such as the protection of young growth, the cutting of snags, +and the disposal of the brush. The methods used, of course, vary with +the locality; they are different for the Pacific Coast, where donkey +engines are used, than for the Rocky Mountains, where horses are largely +employed. They vary with the climate, the topography, the size of the +timber, and the kind of product to be harvested. But a typical logging +operation, as carried on in the Sierras of California, will give an idea +of how logs are taken from the forest. + +[Illustration: Figure 53. A large storage reservoir used to irrigate the +ranches in the valley below. Elevation 10,500 feet. Battlement National +Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 54. A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by +Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10,000 feet. Battlement +National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author.] + +In the particular operation which I have in mind the timber was +located on the western slope of the mountains between 3,500 and 5,000 +feet in elevation. The slopes were of medium steepness and much of +the timber was on level benches. The large sawmill was located at the +lower edge of the timber and the logging camp was in the woods near +the cutting. The felling of the trees, which were from 3 to 6 feet in +diameter, was done by two men with a two-man saw. These men are the +"fallers." Two men then cut the tree into logs and still other men +called "swampers" cut the brush and fallen trees away so that the newly +cut timber can be "skidded" to the railroad. This "skidding" is done by +a powerful, steam-driven stationary donkey-engine, which is fitted up +with a long cable and a drum. After the log is attached to the cable +out in the woods by means of a "choker," the man in the woods gives the +signal and the engine starts, revolving the drum and winding up the +cable at the same time pulling the log towards the engine. Just beside +this engine is a platform from which the logs are loaded directly on +flat cars. When six or eight flat cars are loaded in this manner a +locomotive hauls them to the sawmill where they are sawed into boards. +In this case as soon as the boards were cut they were placed in a flume +in which there was a strong stream of water. In this they floated about +40 miles to a town in the valley below directly into the company's +lumber yard. + +In the Rocky Mountains one of the main forest products derived from the +National Forests is railroad ties. On the particular operation with +which the writer is familiar the Government had sold to a tie operator +about 3,000,000 railroad ties under a long term contract. This tie +operator had a large contract with a railroad company. The area of the +sale, several thousand acres, was divided or surveyed into long strips +each 100 to 150 feet wide and from one to one and a half miles long. A +large camp and commissary was established on the area. There were about +100 tie choppers and each man was assigned to a strip. On these strips +the trees to be cut were marked by a Forest officer. Trees too small to +make ties were left as a basis for a future tie operation in from forty +to fifty years. + +The tie choppers usually worked alone. They first felled the tree with +a saw, cut the lower limbs off, and marked off the ties on the bark to +see how many ties could be cut from the tree. The tree was then "scored" +with an ax on both sides in order to start making the two flat faces of +the tie. These sides were then chipped with a "broad ax," thus making +two smooth faces. The bark was then peeled from the other two faces and +the tree was then cut into finished ties. After the ties were made the +top of the tree was lopped, that is, the branches were cut from the +trunk. In this operation these branches were scattered evenly over the +ground. The tie chopper then cleared a road through the middle of his +strip and "parked" his ties on the road. He then stamped his private +mark on each tie. In the winter the ties were "hauled" on large sleds to +the river bank. Each tie chopper's ties were put in a separate pile so +that the company's scaler could count them and credit them to the man +that made them. In the spring, when the river's banks were full, the +ties were "driven" down the river to the shipping point, usually a town +on a railroad line. + +A Forest officer is detailed to an operation of this kind to inspect +the choppers' work and count and stamp the ties. He sees to it that +all trees that have been marked for cutting are cut, that no trees not +marked have been cut, that young growth is not unnecessarily injured, +that the stumps are not left too high, that the tops are fully +utilized, that the slashing or brush is disposed of according to the +contract, and that the operator is keeping all his agreements in the +contract. + +_The First Step in Purchasing Government Timber._ After the desired +body of timber has been located, the first step for any one desiring +to purchase government timber is to communicate with an officer of the +National Forest in which the timber is located. If only a small amount +is desired--less than $50 in value--the local Ranger can arrange to make +the sale without delay. Amounts valued at more than this can be sold +only by the higher officials of the Service, that is the Supervisor, +District Forester, or the Forester, according to the size of the sale. +The Supervisor can sell up to two million feet; larger sales are made +by the District Forester or the Forester. All sales exceeding $100 in +amount must be advertised, except those made to homestead settlers and +farmers in a private sale. Sales are advertised in order to secure the +largest number of bidders possible and thus prevent the monopoly of +large bodies of timber by large timber operators. + +[Illustration: Figure 55. View taken in the Coast Range mountains of +California where Sugar pine and Douglas fir are the principal trees. +Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 56. A typical mountain scene in the California +Coast Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital +importance. Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author.] + +_Procedure in an Advertised Sale._ After the applicant has selected +the body of timber he wishes to purchase, he is furnished by the +Supervisor with a sample application stating the area, estimated amount, +minimum stumpage price, period allowed for cutting and removing the +timber, and other conditions to be complied with, following as closely +as possible the form of the final sale agreement. Usually, also, the +purchaser is interested in the amount of timber which he may cut per +acre. For this reason he visits sample areas on which the trees have +been marked for cutting. A notice of the sale of the timber is then +published, the choice of mediums and number of insertions depending +upon whether the sale is of local, regional, or general interest. This +notice describes the timber, gives the minimum stumpage prices that +will be accepted, and specifies the date upon which sealed bids will +be received. The period of advertising is at least 30 days, and in +large sales from 3 to 6 months. Forms for bidding are furnished to the +original applicant and others who signify their intention to bid. A +deposit is required with all bids to show the good faith of the bidder. +In large transactions this deposit is usually from 3 to 5 per cent. of +the purchase price. On the date specified in the advertisement the +Supervisor (or District Forester) opens all bids received and awards +the sale to the highest bidder. The sale contract is then prepared and +executed by the purchaser. + +A specific statement of financial ability is required in all sales of +ten million feet or more, and in smaller sales in the discretion of the +approving officer. Such a statement may be required before the approval +of the sale application, either formal or tentative, and in any event +before the timber is awarded to the successful bidder. The contract must +be supported by a suitable bond given by two responsible sureties or by +a surety company authorized to do business with the United States. + +[Illustration: Figure 57. A forest officer at work on a high mountain +peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of National Forest +lands. Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 58. A government timber cruiser's summer camp. +These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle Sam's timber +resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. Photo by the author.] + +_Timber Sale Contract Clauses._ The sale contract contains in full all +the conditions under which the cutting is to be done. In all sales of +National Forest stumpage the contract provides that no timber shall be +cut until it has been paid for, and that it shall not be removed until +it has been scaled by a Forest officer. All live timber is marked or +otherwise designated before cutting, and any merchantable timber used +for logging improvements, such as houses, bridges, stables, etc., must +be scaled and paid for. In order to secure full utilization of the +timber the maximum stump height is ordinarily fixed at 18 inches, +and merchantable timber must be used to a specified diameter in the +tops, which is adjusted for each species in accordance with local +manufacturing and market conditions. The officer in charge of the sale +is authorized to vary the stump height and top diameter in individual +cases when those specified in the contract are not practicable. The +tops must be trimmed up and, as a rule, brush must be piled and burned, +or burned without piling under the direction of Forest officers. +Merchantable timber which is not cut and removed and unmarked trees +which are cut must be paid for at double the specified stumpage rates. +This extra charge serves as a penalty. + +All camps, buildings, railroads, and other improvements necessary in +logging and manufacturing the timber may be constructed upon National +Forest land without charge. Railroads which open up inaccessible regions +may be required to be made common carriers or to transport logs and +lumber for other purchasers or for the Government at reasonable rates. + +Since fire protection is one of the most important duties of the +Forest Service, provision is made in all contracts that the purchaser +must place himself and employees, as well as the employees of his +contractors, at the disposal of authorized Forest officers for fighting +fires. Reimbursement is made for such services at the wages in vogue +for fighting fires on the National Forest in question, unless the fire +threatens the timber of the purchaser or property of the operator, or +is started in connection with the operation. Under these conditions +the purchaser is expected to furnish his available employees to assist +the Government in fire fighting without charge. Efficient spark +arresters are required on wood and coal burning boilers or locomotives. +Inflammable material must be cleaned up in the vicinity of logging +engines, and other precautions taken to insure against fire spreading +from this source. Snags and diseased trees upon the sale area must +usually be felled, whether merchantable or not, in order to remove fire +menace and to check the spread of timber infestations and pests. + +[Illustration: Figure 59. Forest officers moving camp while engaged in +winter reconnaissance work. All food, beds, and clothing are packed on +"Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 60. A winter reconnaissance camp showing +snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the +webbing on the snow-shoes. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by +the author.] + +_Special Contract Clauses._ Special clauses are inserted in contracts +to meet peculiar and unusual conditions. These deal with the number +of men the company is to furnish for brush burning; the time of the +year this work is to be done; the construction of fire lines; the +manner of scaling timber; the manner of piling and the location of +piles of material to be scaled; the definition of a merchantable log; +the utilization of tops; the manner or method of logging to be used; +the location of improvements; the use of timber for the construction of +improvements; the disposal of improvements at the termination of the +contract; where cutting is to begin and how fast it is to proceed; the +percentage of merchantable timber to be reserved in marking; and other +special clauses recommended by the Bureau of Entomology for the sale of +insect infested timber. + +That the Forest Service timber sale policy and the various timber sale +clauses have met with the approval of the lumbermen and the timber +buyers of the Western States is attested by the fact that in the last +ten years (from July 1, 1907, to June 30, 1917) there have been nearly +75,000 purchasers of National Forest timber and that between these two +dates the annual number of timber sales has increased from 5,062 in the +fiscal year 1908 to 11,608 in the fiscal year 1917. No better evidence +could be cited of the confidence which the lumbermen have in the Forest +Service method of doing business. + +_When the Operation May Begin._ As soon as the contract has been +executed and the first payment has been made a portion of the timber +is marked for cutting and the purchaser may begin operations at once. +Sometimes cutting in advance of the execution of the contract is allowed +to prevent serious hardship and unnecessary delay and expense on the +part of the purchaser. + +[Illustration: Figure 61. A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz County, +California] + +_Marking the Timber for Cutting._ In order to insure a proper restocking +of the ground, all live trees must be marked or otherwise designated +by a Forest officer before cutting can commence. Usually from 1/10 to +1/3 of the stand is reserved, either scattered over the entire tract +or distributed in groups. These trees are left for various reasons, +depending upon circumstances. The most important consideration is, of +course, to leave enough seed trees to restock the cut-over area. On +steep slopes a certain number of trees must be left to protect the +watershed and to prevent the erosion of the soil. Many species of trees +are subject to windthrow when the stand is thinned out. To counteract +this tendency a sufficient number of trees must be left to prevent the +wind from getting an unobstructed sweep. In many semi-arid portions +of the West additional trees must be left standing to protect the forest +from excessive drying and to prevent the ground from being occupied by +useless tree weeds and brush. Often, especially along highways, trees +are left for their scenic effect. From an economic standpoint it is +important sometimes to leave trees in order to make a second cut worth +while. + +Where only dead timber is purchased, and no living trees are cut, or +where patches of forest are to be cut clean, Forest officers, instead +of marking every tree to be removed, blaze and mark a boundary of the +cutting area or patch and instruct the purchaser accordingly. Where +individual trees are marked they are blazed and stamped "U. S." next to +the ground on the lowest side of the stump. Additional blazes may be +made several feet above the ground whenever desired by the purchaser +for the convenience of his "fallers" or where deep snow may conceal the +lower mark from the "fallers." Where both kinds of blazes are used, one +man, in fairly dense pine timber, can mark from 500 to 1,000 trees in a +day. Under no condition may unmarked or undesignated trees be cut by the +purchaser. + +The system of marking and the proportion of the timber to be cut is +explained to purchasers by marking sample areas before the contract is +executed. The cost of logging under the methods of marking adopted is +compensated fully in the stumpage appraisal. + +_Scaling, Measuring, and Stamping._ Unless timber is sold by estimate, +it must be scaled, counted, or measured before it is removed from the +cutting area or place agreed upon for this purpose. In addition it must +be stamped by a Forest officer with a regulation marking ax or similar +instrument. Payment is made upon the actual scale, count or measure, +with due allowance for defect. + +All National Forest timber is sold under specifications which are in +accordance with those in commercial use, such as logs by the thousand +board feet, ties by the piece, poles by length and top diameter, shingle +bolts by the cord, and mining timbers by the linear foot. All logs are +scaled at the small end. + +[Illustration: Figure 62. A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in +diameter. This is the most valuable timber species in California. Photo +by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 63. A Western Yellow pine forest in California. +These trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200 +feet high. Note the Forest Service timber cruiser measuring the tree at +the left. Photo by the author.] + +All saw timber is scaled by the Scribner Decimal C log rule. In order to +permit scaling at reasonable cost to the Forest Service, purchasers may +be required, where the cost of logging may not be unduly increased, +to skid and pile the logs for scaling. Piles and skidways must be +constructed so as to permit economical scaling and when necessary and +practicable the purchaser is required to mark the small ends of the logs +to avoid misunderstanding when they are scaled on the pile. + +Logs or other material that has been scaled or measured are designated +by a "US" stamp impressed in the wood so that the material may not be +scaled again by mistake. Each merchantable log scaled is stamped on at +least one end and unmerchantable or defective logs are stamped "US" in a +circle. Material other than saw logs, such as mine timber, ties, posts, +poles, or piling, after scaling, is stamped on at least one end. Cord +wood is stamped at both the top and bottom of each rick. + +On all National Forests except those in Alaska and west of the summit +of the Cascades in Washington and Oregon, logs over 16 feet are scaled +as two or more logs as far as practicable in lengths of not less than +12 feet. In Alaska and parts of Oregon and Washington logs up to and +including 32 feet in length are scaled as one log; logs from 32 to 64 +feet inclusive are scaled as two logs as nearly equal in length as +possible in even feet. All diameters are measured inside the bark at +the top end of the log and diameters are rounded off to the nearest inch +above or below the actual diameter. + +In the case of logs each one is numbered and the number entered in a +scale book with the corresponding board foot scale of the log. In the +case of ties, posts, poles, mining timbers, etc., each pile or skidway +is numbered and the count or scale entered opposite the corresponding +number in the scale book. + +_Disposal of Slash._ One of the most important features in National +Forest timber sales is the disposal of the brush or slash after logging. +On account of the great diversity of conditions which obtain on the +Forests, the best way to dispose of brush is not everywhere the same. +Piling and burning is required where the fire risk is great; otherwise +the method promising the best silvicultural results is used. + +[Illustration: Figure 64. Logging in California. Powerful steam engines +pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars. +Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 65. The loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where +the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During the fiscal year 1917 +timber sales on the National Forests brought into the National Treasury +almost $1,700,000.00. Photo by the author.] + +When piling and burning is necessary, all tops and débris, including +large chips made from hewing ties, are piled at a safe distance from +standing trees. The piles are not allowed to be made in groups of +seedlings or young growth, against dead snags, near living trees, or on +stumps, large tops or logs, but wherever possible in openings. The +piles are adapted to the size of the opening in which they are made and +must be made sufficiently compact to kindle easily and burn cleanly. The +ideal pile is of medium size, conical in shape, compact, from 5 to 7 +feet in diameter at the base and from 4 to 5 feet high. Brush piling and +burning is an art which can only be acquired after long experience. + +Brush is scattered whenever this method promises the best silvicultural +results, unless there is serious danger from fire on account of dense +timber and reproduction. The scattered brush is intended to afford +protection to seedlings from excessive transpiration and from trampling +by stock and to protect the soil from erosion. + +Ground burning may be advisable where clean cutting has been employed, +to expose the loose mineral soil for better seed germination. When this +method is used the purchaser is required to clear a fire line around the +area to be burned and to furnish adequate help to the Forest officer who +supervises the burning. + +Frequently brush is burned as the cutting progresses. Fires are started +at convenient points and the brush is thrown on them as it is lopped. + +Where brush burning is necessary it is not advisable, ordinarily, to +burn over an entire sale area. It is frequently possible to burn the +brush so as to form broad fire lines, particularly along railroads or +wagon roads. The best times for brush burning are after a light fall +of snow or rain, early in the spring before the snow has melted or the +dry season has begun or during or immediately after summer rains. Brush +disposal must always keep pace with logging except when the depth of +snow or other reasons make proper disposal impossible. Often the brush +must lay in piles at least one season before it becomes dry enough to +burn. + +_Payment for Timber._ Payment must be made for all timber in advance of +cutting. This, however, does not imply that one advance payment must be +made to cover the stumpage value of all the timber included in the sale. +Frequent installments are allowed sufficient usually to cover the cut of +one or two months. + +[Illustration: Figure 66. Scene in Montana. Forest officers constructing +a telephone line through the Flathead National Forest.] + +[Illustration: Figure 67. Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, +marking National Forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. Coconino +National Forest, Arizona.] + +This arrangement makes it possible to secure large tracts of National +Forest timber at a very slight initial outlay and to hold them with +almost no interest charges. The other usual carrying charges, namely, +taxes and fire protection, are eliminated. The timber is protected +from fire by the United States throughout the life of the contract. The +money deposited to secure cutting in advance of the execution of the +contract may be credited towards the amount to accompany the bid. + +_Stumpage Rates._ The minimum stumpage rates applicable in each +proposed sale are determined by a careful study of the conditions in +the particular case. Stumpage rates are the actual market value of +the timber. They are based upon the quality of the timber and the +character of its commercial products; the estimated cost of logging, +transportation, and manufacture; the investment required on the part +of the operator; the selling value of the product; and a fair profit +to the purchaser. The estimated profit depends upon the size and the +permanency of the operation and the degree of risk involved. The cost of +brush disposal, protection of young growth, logging only marked timber +and other requirements of the Forest Service is fully considered in +appraising stumpage rates. + +Timber is ordinarily appraised at the rates indicated for the most +valuable products to which it is suited and for which an established +market exists. Merchantable dead timber is appraised at the same rate +as green timber of the same species unless it is clearly shown that +the products manufactured from it command a lower market price or that +logging costs are higher. + +_Cutting Period._ Ordinarily the cutting period allowed in each sale +is only sufficient to permit the removal of the timber at a reasonable +rate, approximately equivalent to the working capacity of the plant. +Sales of accessible timber usually do not exceed 5 years in length. +However, in the case of inaccessible tracts requiring a large investment +for transportation facilities an exception is made and periods of from +15 to 20 years may be granted. + +_Readjustment of Stumpage Rates._ In all sales exceeding 5 years in +length provision is made to have the stumpage rates readjusted by the +Forester at the end of three or five year intervals to meet changing +market and manufacturing conditions. + +[Illustration: Figure 68. An excellent illustration showing the +difference between unrestricted logging as practised by lumbermen, +and conservative logging as practised by the Forest Service. In the +foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every +stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the Forest +Service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future +supply of timber for the West. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana.] + +_Refunds._ Deposits to cover or secure advance cutting or to accompany +bids apply on the first payment if a sale is awarded to the depositor; +otherwise they will be refunded. Refunds are also made to the purchaser +if the last payment is in excess of the value of the timber that is +cut. + + +THE DISPOSAL OF TIMBER TO HOMESTEAD SETTLERS AND UNDER FREE USE + +Besides selling the timber and other forest products outright, as has +just been described, some timber is sold to settlers at cost and much +timber is given away to the local people under the free use policy. + +_Sales to Homestead Settlers and Farmers._ Sales to homestead settlers +and farmers are made without advertisement in any amount desired, at +the price fixed annually for each National Forest region of similar +conditions by the Secretary, as equivalent to the actual cost of making +and administering such sales. Only material to be used by the purchaser +for domestic purposes exclusively on homesteads or farms is sold in this +way. Such uses include the construction or repair of farm buildings, +fences, and other improvements and fuel. Such sales are restricted to +mature dead and down timber which may be cut without injury to the +forest. + +_Free Use._ Free use of timber is granted primarily to aid in the +protection and silvicultural improvement of the Forests. Hence the +material taken is, except in unusual cases, restricted to dead, +insect infested and diseased timber, and thinnings. Green material may +be taken in exceptional cases where its refusal would clearly cause +unwarranted hardship. The use of such material is granted freely: (1) +To bona fide settlers, miners, residents, prospectors, for fire wood, +fencing, building, mining, prospecting, and other domestic purposes; +and to any one in case its removal is necessary for the welfare of the +Forest; (2) for the construction of telephone lines when necessary for +the protection of forests from fire; (3) to certain branches of the +Federal Government. Free use is not granted for commercial purposes or +of use in any business, including sawmills, hotels, stores, companies or +corporations. Such persons are required to purchase their timber. + +[Illustration: Figure 69. View showing the Forest Service method of +piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how stump heights +are kept down to prevent waste. New Mexico.] + +[Illustration: Figure 70. A tie-cutting operation on a National Forest. +These piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted +by Forest rangers. From this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks +of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. Near Evanston, Wyoming.] + +The aggregate amount of free use material granted annually to any user +must not exceed $20 in value, except in cases of unusual need or of dead +or insect infested timber, the removal of which would be a benefit to +the forest, or in the case of any timber which should be removed and +whose sale under contract cannot be effected. In these cases the amount +may be extended to $100. Supervisors have authority to grant free use +permits up to $100, District Foresters up to $500, and larger amounts +must have the approval of the Forester. + +Free use material is appraised in the same manner and in accordance +with the same principles as timber purchased under sale agreements. The +valuation of such material is at the same rate as that prevailing for +similar grades of stumpage in current sales in the same locality. + +The magnitude of the free use business may be appreciated from the +fact that during the fiscal year 1917 there were 41,427 individuals or +companies who received timber under this policy. The total amount thus +given away was 113,073,000 board feet valued at over $150,000. + +Permits for this use are required for green material, but dead timber +may be taken without a permit. Supervisors designate as free-use areas +certain portions or all of any National Forest and settlers, miners, +residents, and prospectors may cut and remove from such areas free of +charge under Forest Service regulations any timber needed for their own +use for firewood, fencing, buildings, mining, prospecting, or other +domestic purposes. + +Material cut under free-use regulations must not be removed from the +cutting area until scaled or measured by a Forest officer. In some +cases this requirement is waived when by it the needs of the users are +met with greater dispatch and the cost of administration is thereby +reduced. The free-use applicant is required to utilize the trees cut +in accordance with local Forest Service practice and he is required to +avoid unnecessary damage to young growth and standing timber. + + +TIMBER SETTLEMENT AND ADMINISTRATIVE USE + +When timber on National Forest land is cut, damaged, killed, or +destroyed in connection with the enjoyment of a right-of-way or other +special use, it is not necessary to advertise it for sale, but payment +therefor is required at not less than the minimum rate established by +the Secretary of Agriculture. Timber removed in this way is usually +scaled, measured, or counted and the procedure is identical with that of +a timber sale. But where timber is destroyed or where it is not worked +up in measurable form or where the cutting is done in such a way that +scaling is impracticable, settlement is required on the basis of an +estimate. + +[Illustration: Figure 71. Brush piles on a cut-over area before burning. +Forest Service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that +forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. Bitterroot +National Forest, Montana.] + +[Illustration: Figure 72. At a time of the year when there is least +danger from fire the brush piles are burned. Missoula National Forest, +Montana.] + +In 1912 a new branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad was built across +a portion of the Lassen National Forest in California. The company +was going to use some of the timber, but most of it was to be destroyed +or disposed of in the easiest manner. Scaling was impossible, so the +company paid for the timber--about $10,000--on the basis of a careful +estimate made by the writer, then Forest Examiner. + +The charge for all such timber is made on the basis of the current +stumpage rates for timber of like quality and accessibility included in +sales for all classes of material which have to be cut or destroyed and +which are commonly salable on the Forest. + +Timber is often used by the Forest Service itself in the administration +of the National Forests. The Forester, District Foresters, and the +Supervisors are authorized to sell or dispose of under free use or +otherwise, within the amount each one is authorized to sell, any timber +upon the National Forests when such removal is actually necessary to +protect the Forest from ravages or destruction, or when the use or +removal of the timber is necessary in the construction of roads, trails, +cabins, and other improvements on the National Forests or in experiments +conducted by the Forest Service. + + +THE RENTAL OF NATIONAL FOREST RANGE LANDS + +The forage crop on the National Forests is for the use of the sheep and +cattle of the western stockmen and it is procured by means of grazing +permits which are issued and charged for upon a per capita basis. The +primary objects of the administration of government grazing lands are: +the protection and conservative use of all National Forest land adapted +to grazing; the permanent good of the live stock industry through the +proper care and use of grazing lands; and the protection of the settler +and home builder against unfair competition in the use of the range. + +_Importance of the Live Stock Industry._ The grazing business, more than +any other feature of National Forest management, is immensely practical, +because it is immediately concerned with human interests. This industry +furnishes not only meat, but leather, wool, and many by-products. + +That the National Forests play a big part in the maintenance of this +industry there can be little doubt, for it has been estimated recently +that 30 per cent. of the sheep and 20 per cent. of the cattle of the far +Western States are grazed in the National Forests. The Forests contain +by far the largest part of the summer range lands in the far Western +States and hence are of paramount importance. The winter grazing lands +in the West are so much greater in area than the summer lands, that for +this reason also National Forest range lands are in great demand. + +_Permits Issued in 1917._ During the fiscal year 1917 more than 31,000 +permits to graze cattle, hogs, or horses, and over 5,500 permits to +graze sheep or goats were issued. These permits provided for 2,054,384 +cattle, 7,586,034 sheep, about 100,000 horses, about 50,000 goats, and +about 3,000 hogs. The total receipts for 1917 were over $1,500,000. The +gross receipts to the owners of the stock probably exceeded $50,000,000 +and the capital invested in the stock no doubt amounted to over +$200,000,000. + +An idea of the growth of the grazing business may be gotten from the +Forest Service statistics for the fiscal years 1908 and 1917. The +increase in the number of permits and the volume of the business is +due primarily to a better administration and better regulation of +grazing interests and more specifically to the increase in the carrying +capacity of government lands by wise and restricted use. Between these +two fiscal years there was no appreciable increase in the total area +of the Forests which would account for the increased business. In 1908 +there were issued 19,845 permits for 1,382,221 cattle, horses and hogs; +in 1917 there were issued 31,136 permits for 2,054,384 animals. In 1908 +there were issued 4,282 permits for 7,087,111 sheep and goats; in 1917 +5,502 permits were issued for 7,586,034 sheep and goats. The number of +cattle and horses grazed has increased therefore by 50 per cent. and +the number of sheep and goats by 7 per cent. The total receipts have +increased from $962,829.40 in 1908 to $1,549,794.76 in 1917. + +_Kinds of Range, Grazing Seasons, and Methods of Handling Stock._ For +the proper understanding of the grazing business on the National Forests +it is necessary to know something about the different kinds of range, +the length of grazing seasons, and the methods of handling different +classes of stock. Sheep and goat range differs materially from cattle +and horse range and the proper distribution of stock over a National +Forest cannot be effected unless this difference is recognized. Sheep +and goat range usually consists of low shrubs or brush and is known +collectively as "browse"; cattle and horses subsist mainly upon grass, +flowering plants and herbs. Sheep feel more at home on high mountain +slopes, while cattle and horses range usually on the lower slopes and +in the valleys, and especially in the broad meadows, around lakes and +along streams. Sheep are more apt to find feed in the forests, that is +under the trees; cattle prefer the open; they usually avoid the forest, +preferring to keep out on the open meadows and grassy slopes. + +Naturally some ranges have feed at some seasons of the year and other +ranges at other seasons. Some of the National Forests in California +extend from an elevation of a few hundred feet in the foothills of the +great valleys to an elevation of more than 10,000 feet at the crest +of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The lower foothills afford excellent +feed soon after the beginning of the fall rains in November and, due +to the very mild winter which this region enjoys, there is excellent +feed in February and March. This is known as winter range. The medium +high slopes of the mountains have a later growing season and the sheep +and cattle reach there about June and stay until August or September. +Still higher up the forage matures later and the grazing season extends +from August until November. At these elevations the snowbanks usually +lie until July and the growing season is very short, for the new snow +usually buries the vegetation about the first of November. Thus stockmen +have what they call "winter range," "summer range," and "fall range," +depending upon what seasons of the year the forage crop can be utilized. +The National Forests on the whole contain very little winter range, +hence stockmen must move their stock in the fall to private lands at +lower elevations either where the climate is considerably warmer or +where there is very little snowfall. A large part of the western winter +grazing lands are in regions of light snowfall, such as at the lower +elevations in Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, and Colorado. Here the stock feeds +on dry grass. Stockmen who cannot get winter range lands must feed their +stock at ranches. + +The characteristic habits of sheep and cattle require that they be +handled differently on the range. Sheep are herded in bands while +cattle are handled in scattered groups. The new and approved method of +handling sheep called the "burro system" calls for a burro with the +sheep to pack the herder's blankets and provisions. The herder camps +where night overtakes him. The herder and his band keep moving over the +allotted range from one camp to another until he has covered the whole +range. After leaving his last camp he is ready to begin all over again, +since the feed near the camp where he began has had two to three weeks' +time to grow a new crop. Cattle usually run loose singly or in groups +on their allotted range. Usually a range rider is camped on the range +to keep the cattle from straying to other ranges. He salts the cattle +to keep them on their own range, takes care of cattle that have gotten +sick, and takes care of the stock in other ways. + +_Grazing Districts and Grazing Units._ The Secretary of Agriculture not +only has the authority to regulate grazing and prescribe the schedule of +grazing fees to be charged but he also regulates the number and class of +stock which are allowed to graze on each National Forest annually. + +The ranges within the National Forests are used by the kind of stock for +which they are best adapted except when this would not be consistent +with the welfare of local residents or the proper protection of the +Forests. For convenience in administration Forests are divided into +grazing districts. A typical Forest is divided into from 4 to 6 +districts which may be natural grazing units, natural administrative +units (coinciding with the Ranger districts), or parts of the Forest +used by different classes of stock or parts of the Forest having +different lengths of grazing seasons. Each grazing district is also +subdivided into smaller divisions, units, or allotments. These are +usually natural divisions defined by topographic boundaries, such as +ridges, mountains, streams, etc., or more or less artificial divisions +determined by the class of stock which uses them. For example, cattle +and horses ordinarily graze in the valleys along the streams, while +sheep and goats graze the crests of ridges and the slopes of mountains +and will cross none but shallow streams. Each range division or unit +is usually given a well-known local name, such as "Duck Lake Unit" or +"Clover Valley Unit." One or more stockmen may be allotted to such a +unit, depending upon the size of the unit and the number of animals +it can feed. If only one stockman uses it, it becomes an individual +allotment. Usually a sheep owner with several large bands of sheep is +allotted one large unit adapted to sheep grazing, while a large unit +adapted to cattle and horses may be allotted to one large cattle owner +or to two or more smaller owners. The manner in which sheep and goats +are handled makes individual allotments both practicable and desirable. + +The boundaries of range allotments are usually well defined. In the +case of sheep they are marked with cloth posters. In most Forests range +allotments are fairly well settled. Each stockman gets with his permit +each spring a small map showing his own range and the surrounding ranges. + +_Who Are Entitled to Grazing Privileges._ The Secretary of Agriculture +has the authority to permit, regulate, or prohibit grazing on the +National Forests. Under his direction the Forest Service allows the use +of the forage crop as fully as the proper care and protection of the +National Forests and the water supply permit. The grazing use of the +National Forest lands is therefore only a personal and non-transferable +privilege. This privilege is a temporary one, allowable under the law +only when it does not interfere with the purposes for which the National +Forests were created. It is non-transferable because it is based upon +the possession of certain qualifications peculiar to the permittee. To +understand these qualifications it is necessary to briefly look into the +history of the grazing of live stock on the western grazing lands. + +[Illustration: Figure 73. Counting sheep as they leave the corral. Sheep +and cattle are pastured on National Forests at so many cents per head, +hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. Wasatch +National Forest, Utah.] + +[Illustration: Figure 74. Logging National Forest timber. Santa Fe +National Forest, New Mexico.] + +By long use of the public lands of the United States for grazing +purposes, long before the National Forests were created, stock owners +have been allowed to graze their stock upon such lands under certain +conditions of occupancy, residence, and ownership of improved lands and +water rights. This use, continuing through a long period of years, has, +in the absence of congressional legislation, been commonly accepted +in many communities, even receiving the recognition of certain of the +courts. It was allowed under "unwritten law," as it were, only by the +passive consent of the United States, but by force of the presidential +proclamation creating National Forests, such passive consent ceased, +being superseded by definite regulations by the Secretary of Agriculture +prescribed under the authority of Congress. Therefore grazing stock on +the Forests, as it was done before the Forests were created, is trespass +against the United States. Due to the fact that local stockmen have used +certain public ranges year after year by the passive consent of the +United States, these stockmen are recognized in these localities as +having preference rights or equities in the use of range lands. These +equities form the basis upon which grazing privileges are allowed. + +Grazing permits are issued only to persons entitled to share in the +use of the range within the National Forests by reason of their +fulfilling certain conditions or requirements. Prior use and occupancy +of National Forest lands for grazing purposes is the first and foremost +requirement. Local residence and ownership of improved ranch property +within or near the Forest and dependence upon government range are +also conditions that may entitle a stockman to grazing privileges. The +Forest Service also recognizes those stockmen who have acquired by +purchase or inheritance stock grazed upon National Forest lands under +permit and improved ranch property used in connection with the stock, +provided circumstances warrant the renewal of the permit issued to the +former owner. The regular use of a range during its open season for +several successive years before the creation of the National Forest +and under grazing permit thereafter is what is meant by "prior use" +or "regular occupancy." The longer the period or use the greater the +preference right. No one can acquire this right to the use of National +Forest range, nor can it be bought or sold, but stockmen may acquire a +preference in the allotment of grazing privileges. This preference right +does not entitle him to continued use of a certain part of a Forest, but +only to preference over other applicants less entitled to consideration +in the use of the ranges open to the class of stock which he wishes to +graze. Certain stockmen may be given preference in ranges secured by +prior use and occupancy supplemented by heavy investments in improved +property and water rights. + +Citizens of the United States are given preference in the use of the +National Forests, but persons who are not citizens may be allowed +grazing permits provided they are bona fide residents and owners of +improved ranch property either within or adjacent to a National Forest. +Regular occupants of the range who own and reside upon improved ranch +property in or near National Forests are given first consideration, but +will be limited to a number which will not exclude regular occupants +who reside or whose stock are wintered at a greater distance from the +National Forests. With this provision applicants for grazing permits +are given preference in the following order: + + + Class A. Persons owning and residing upon improved ranch + property within or near a National Forest who are dependent + upon National Forests for range and who do not own more + than a limited number of stock (known as the protective + limit). + + Class B. Regular users of National Forests range who do not own + improved ranch property within or near a National Forest, + and persons owning such ranch property but who own numbers + of stock in excess of the established limit. + + Class C. Persons who are not regular users of the National + Forest range and who do not own improved ranch property + within or near a National Forest. Such persons are not + granted permits upon Forests which are fully occupied by + classes A and B. Classes B and C are not allowed to increase + the number of stock grazed under permit except by the + purchase of other permitted stock. + +From this classification it is very evident that the small local +stockmen who own approximately from 30 to 300 head of cattle and from +500 to 2,000 head of sheep and who own and reside upon the ranches +near the Forests are given the preference in the allotment of grazing +privileges. + +_Grazing Permits._ Various kinds of grazing permits are required each +year on the National Forests. These are known as ordinary grazing +permits, on-and-off permits, private land permits, and crossing permits. + +All persons must secure permits before grazing any stock on a National +Forest except for the few head in actual use by prospectors, campers, +ranchers, stockmen, and travelers who use saddle, pack and work animals, +and milch cows in connection with permitted operations on the National +Forests. Under these conditions 10 head are allowed to graze without +permit. + +Persons owning stock which regularly graze on ranges partially included +within a National Forest, or upon range which includes private land may +be granted permits for such portions of their stock as the circumstances +appear to justify. This regulation provides for cases where only a +part of a natural range unit is National Forest land, and where the +economical use of the entire unit can be secured only by the utilization +of the Forest land in connection with the other land. The regulation +contemplates a movement of the stock governed by natural conditions, +between the Forest range and the adjoining outside range, or between +Forest land and intermingled private land. This is called an on-and-off +permit. + +Permits on account of private lands are issued to persons who own, or +who have leased from the owners, unfenced lands within any National +Forest which are so situated and of such a character that they may +be used by other permitted stock to an extent rendering the exchange +advantageous to the Government. The permits allow the permittees to +graze upon National Forest land, free of charge, the number of stock +which the private lands will support, by waiving the right to the +exclusive use of the private land and allowing it to remain open to +other stock grazed on National Forest land under permit. + +The regular grazing permit carries with it the privilege of driving the +permitted stock over National Forest lands to and from the allotted +ranges at the beginning and end of the grazing season and from the +range to the most accessible shearing, dipping, and shipping points +during the term of the permit. But crossing permits are necessary for +crossing stock over National Forest lands to points beyond the National +Forest, for crossing stock to private lands within a National Forest, +or for crossing stock to reach dipping vats or railroad shipping +points. Rangers sometimes are detailed to accompany the stock and see +that there is no delay or trespassing. No charge is made for crossing +permits, but it is absolutely necessary that persons crossing stock +comply with the regulations governing the National Forests and with the +quarantine regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture and +the state authorities. + +_Grazing Fees._ The full grazing fee is charged on all animals under 6 +months of age which are not the natural increase of stock upon which the +fees are paid. Animals under 6 months which are the natural increase of +permitted stock are not charged for. A reasonable fee is charged for +grazing all kinds of live stock on National Forests. The rates are based +upon the yearlong rate for cattle, which is from 60 cents to $1.50 per +head, depending upon conditions on the Forest. The yearlong rates for +horses are 25 per cent. more and the yearlong rate for swine 25 per +cent. less than the rate for cattle. The rate for sheep is 25 per cent. +of the yearlong rate for cattle. The rates for all kinds of stock for +periods shorter than yearlong are computed in proportion to the length +of the season during which the stock use National Forest lands. All +grazing fees are payable in advance. + +When notice of the grazing allowance, periods, and rates for the year +has been received by the Supervisor he gives public notice of a date on +or before which all applications for grazing must be presented to him. +These public notices are posted in conspicuous places, usually in the +post offices. Applications for grazing permits are submitted on blank +forms furnished by the Supervisor. As soon as an applicant for a grazing +permit is notified by the Supervisor that his application has been +approved, he must remit the amount due for grazing fees to the District +Fiscal Agent and upon receipt of notice by the Supervisor that payment +has been made a permit is issued allowing the stock to enter the Forest +and remain during the period specified. All grazing fees are payable in +advance and the stock is not allowed to enter the National Forest unless +payment has been made. + +_Stock Associations._ The thirty or more grazing regulations effective +on the National Forests are for the primary purpose of making the +National Forest range lands as useful as possible to the people +consistent with their protection and perpetuation. It is clearly +impossible to meet the wishes and needs of each individual user, but +it is often entirely possible to meet the wishes of the majority of +users if made known through an organization. The organization of stock +associations is encouraged by the Forest Service and the opinions and +wishes of their advisory boards are recognized when they represent +general rather than individual or personal interests. It is often +possible through these organizations to construct range improvements +such as corrals, drift fences, roads, trails, and sources of water +supply for the common good of the members of the organization and paid +for by them. + +_Protective and Maximum Limits._ In order to secure an equitable +distribution of grazing privileges, the District Forester establishes +protective limits covering the number of stock for which the permits of +Class A owners will be exempt from reduction in the renewal of their +permits. Permits for numbers in excess of the protective limits will be +subject to necessary reductions and will not be subject to increase in +number except through purchase of stock or ranches of other permittees. + +[Illustration: Figure 75. Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National Forest +at the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. Over 7,500,000 sheep and goats +grazed on the National Forests during the fiscal year 1917.] + +[Illustration: Figure 76. Grazing cattle on a National Forest in +Colorado. Permits were issued during 1917 to graze over 2,000,000 +cattle, horses, and swine on the National Forests.] + +Protective limits are established to protect permittees from reduction +in the number of stock which they are allowed to graze under permit +below a point where the business becomes too small to be handled at +a profit or to contribute its proper share toward the maintenance of a +home. The average number of stock which a settler must graze in order +to utilize the products of his farm and derive a reasonable profit is +determined upon each Forest or, if necessary, upon each grazing district +thereof, and serves as the basis for the protective limit. Protective +limits have been established for various Forests running from 25 to 300 +head of cattle and from 500 to 2,000 head of sheep and goats. + +Increases above the protective limit are allowed only to purchasers +of stock and ranches of permit holders and any such increase must not +exceed the maximum limit. Class A permittees owning a less number of +stock than the protective limit are allowed to increase their number +gradually. Whenever it is found necessary to reduce the number of stock +allowed in any National Forest, Class C stock is excluded before the +other classes are reduced. The reduction on a sliding scale is then +applied to Class B owners. Class A owners are exempt from reduction. +When new stock owners are allowed the use of National Forest range upon +a Forest already fully stocked, reductions in the number of permitted +stock of Class B and C owners is made in order to make room for the new +man. Thus it is seen that the matter of protective limits is actually a +protection to the small stock owner; he is protected from the monopoly +of the range by big corporations. + +When necessary to prevent monopoly of the range by large stock owners, +the District Forester establishes maximum limits in the number of stock +for which a permit may be issued to any one person, firm or corporation. + +_Prohibition of Grazing._ It often becomes necessary to prohibit all +grazing on an area within a National Forest or at least to materially +reduce the amount of stock which is allowed to graze on a given area. +Sheep may be excluded from a timber-sale area for a certain number +of years after cutting or until the reproduction has become well +established. Where planting operations are being carried on it is +usually necessary to exclude all classes of stock. If investigations +show that grazing is responsible for the lack of reproduction over +a considerable area, the area or a portion of it may be withdrawn +from range use until young growth has become established again. The +watersheds of streams supplying water for irrigation, municipal +or domestic purposes may be closed to grazing of any or all kinds +of domestic stock when necessary to prevent erosion and floods +or diminution in water supply. Camping grounds required for the +accommodation of the public may be closed to the grazing of permitted +stock. Limited areas which are the natural breeding or feeding grounds +of game animals or birds may be closed to grazing. Areas within National +Forests infested seriously by poisonous plants may be closed to grazing. + +_Protection of Grazing Interests._ The protection of National Forest +grazing interests is secured by the prevention of overgrazing, by the +prevention of damage to roads, trails, or water sources, by the proper +bedding of sheep and goats, by the proper disposition of carcasses, by +salting the stock and by the proper observation of the national and +state live stock and quarantine laws. + +When an owner, who has a permit, is ready to drive in his stock upon the +National Forest he must notify the nearest Forest officer concerning +the number to be driven in. If called upon to do so he must provide +for having his stock counted before entering a National Forest. Each +permittee must repair all damage to roads or trails caused by the +presence of his stock. Sheep and goats are not allowed to be bedded +more than three nights in succession in the same place (except during +the lambing season) and must not be bedded within 300 yards of any +running or living spring. The carcasses of all animals which die on the +National Forests from contagious or infectious diseases must be burned +and are not permitted to lie in the close vicinity of water. In order to +facilitate the handling of stock and prevent their straying off their +range, they must be salted at regular intervals and at regular places. + +In order to facilitate the moving of stock by stockmen from their home +ranches to their grazing allotments and to minimize the damage of +grazing animals to the Forests, stock driveways are established over +regular routes of travel. + + +SPECIAL USES + +All uses of National Forest lands and resources permitted by the +Secretary of Agriculture, except those specifically provided for in +the regulations covering water power, timber sales, timber settlement, +the free use of timber, and grazing, are designated "special uses." +Among these are the use or occupancy of lands for residences, farms, +apiaries, dairies, schools, churches, stores, mills, factories, hotels, +sanitariums, summer resorts, telephone and telegraph lines, roads and +railways; the occupancy of lands for dams, reservoirs and conduits not +used for power purposes; and the use of stone, sand, and gravel. No +charge is made for a large number of these permits, some of which are +the following: (1) agricultural use by applicants having preference +rights under the Act of June 11, 1906; (2) schools, churches, and +cemeteries; (3) cabins for the use of miners, prospectors, trappers, +and stockmen in connection with grazing permits; (4) saw mills sawing +principally National Forest timber; (5) conduits, and reservoirs for +irrigation or mining or for municipal water supply; (6) roads and trails +(which must be free public highways); (7) telephone lines and telegraph +lines with free use of poles and connections for the Forest Service. + +The occupancy and use of National Forest land or resources under a +special use permit (except those given free of charge) are conditioned +upon the payment of a charge and are based upon certain rates. +Agricultural use of land is given to permittees at a charge of from +25 cents to $1.00 an acre. Not over 160 acres are allowed to any one +permittee. Cabins cost from $3.00 to $5.00; hay cutting from 20 to 50 +cents an acre; hotels and roadhouses from $10.00 to $50.00; pastures +from 4 to 25 cents per acre; residences covering from one to three acres +cost from $5.00 to $25.00; resorts from $10.00 to $50.00; stores from +$5.00 to $50.00 for two acres or less; and other uses in proportion. + +Perhaps the use that is purchased most of all on the National Forests is +that for residences and summer homes. On many of the Forests they are +already in great demand. A large proportion of the population of the +far Western States seek the cool and invigorating air of the mountains +in the early summer because the heat of the valleys, especially in +California, is almost unbearable. + +There are many desirable pieces of land on the National Forests +that are being reserved by the Forest Service especially for this +purpose for the people of the neighboring towns. For example, on +the Angeles National Forest in California the Supervisor had about +250 suitable sites surveyed in one picturesque canyon and in six +months 226 of them were under special use permits as summer homes. +A large reservoir--Huntington Lake--was constructed on the Sierra +National Forest in California as the result of a dam constructed by a +hydro-electric power company. Immediately there was a keen demand among +the residents of San Joaquin Valley for summer homes on the shores of +the lake. In a few years it is expected there will be a permanent summer +colony of from 2,000 to 3,000 people. The Forest Service has already +authorized an expenditure of $1,500 in order to furnish an adequate +supply of domestic water for the colony. + + +CLAIMS AND SETTLEMENT + +Claims can be initiated upon National Forest lands under (1) the Act +of June 11, 1906, (2) under the mining laws, and (3) under the coal +land laws. In connection with these claims it is the duty of the Forest +Service to examine them, but the determination of questions involving +title is within the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior. + +It is the purpose of the Forest Service to protect the lands of the +United States within the National Forests from acquisition by those +who do not seek them for purposes recognized by law. When it is +apparent that an entry or a claim is not initiated in good faith and +in compliance with the spirit of the law under which it was asserted, +but is believed from the facts to be a subterfuge to acquire title to +timber land, or to control range privileges, water, a water-power site, +or rights of way; or if it otherwise interferes with the interests +of the National Forests in any way, the Forest Service recommends a +contest, even if the technical requirements of the law appear to have +been fulfilled. It is bad faith, for instance, to hold a mining or +agricultural claim primarily for the timber thereon or to acquire a site +valuable for water power development. + +_The National Forest Homestead Act._ At the present time there is very +little, if any, fraud connected with the Forest Homestead Act because +the land is classified before it is opened to entry. The greater part of +the work dealing with fraudulent claims is a relic of the old régime. +Before the Forests were established many Homestead and Timber and +Stone entries were made for the purpose of securing valuable timber. +A large number of persons resorted to settlement in order to secure +the preference right. It was the common custom in those days for land +cruisers to locate men on heavily timbered land either before or +immediately after survey and before the filing of the plats and the +opening of the land to entry. A cabin would be built upon the land and +some unsubstantial improvements made. When the National Forests were +created they contained great numbers of these squatters' cabins. Many +were abandoned but others attempted to secure title. Under the old +Timber and Stone Act timber could be secured for $2.50 per acre, but the +National Forests are not subject to entry under this act. So as a last +resort the squatters tried to prove up on the land under the Homestead +law. When the Forests were created the Service found a great many of +these fraudulent claims on their books, many of which were being brought +up annually for patent. Between December, 1908, and June 30, 1913, a +total of 498 entries for National Forest land were canceled in a single +administrative district. These entries represented fraudulent efforts +to secure title to 85,906 acres of National Forest land for speculative +purposes, involving nearly a billion feet of merchantable timber. During +the fiscal year 1913 alone 300,000,000 board feet of merchantable timber +in one district was retained in public ownership primarily because the +Forest officers brought out the facts. The lands in all cases were +covered with heavy stands of timber, very small portions of the land had +been cleared, the claimant's residence on the land was not in compliance +with the law, seldom was any crop raised on the land, and the claimant +in other ways did not carry out the intent of the law. + +The Act of June 11, 1906, known as the National Forest Homestead Act, +provides for the acquisition by qualified entrymen of agricultural +lands within National Forests. The Act is in effect an extension of +the general provisions of the Homestead laws to the agricultural lands +within the National Forests, with the essential difference that the land +must be classified by the Secretary of Agriculture as chiefly valuable +for agriculture. + +This Act authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture in his discretion to +examine and ascertain, upon application or otherwise, the location and +extent of lands both surveyed and unsurveyed in the National Forests, +chiefly valuable for agriculture, which may be occupied for agricultural +purposes without injury to the National Forests or public interests. He +is authorized to list and describe such lands by metes and bounds or +otherwise and to file such lists and descriptions with the Secretary of +the Interior for opening to entry in accordance with the provisions of +the Act. Agricultural lands listed by the Secretary of Agriculture are +opened by the Secretary of the Interior to homestead entry in tracts +not exceeding 160 acres at the expiration of 60 days from the filing of +the lists in the local Land Office. Notice of the filing of the list +is posted in the local Land Office and is published for a period of +not less than four weeks in a local newspaper. The Act provides that +the person upon whose application the land is examined and listed, if +a qualified entryman, shall have the preference right of entry. To +exercise this preference right, application to enter must be filed in +the local Land Office within 60 days after the filing of the list in +that office. The entryman can perfect his title to the land within a +certain period of years by fulfilling certain conditions of residence +and cultivation. + +By the Act of June 6, 1912, known as the "Three Year Homestead Act," the +period of residence necessary to be shown in order to entitle a person +to patent under the Homestead laws is reduced from 5 to 3 years and +the period within which a homestead entry may be completed is reduced +from 7 to 5 years. The new law requires the claimant to cultivate not +less than 1/16 of the area of his entry beginning with the second year +of entry and not less than 1/8 beginning with the third year and until +final proof, except that in the case of the enlarged Homestead laws, +double the areas given are required. On a 160-acre claim, therefore, it +is required that 1/8 or 20 acres be under cultivation. A mere breaking +of the soil does not meet the requirements of the statute, but such +breaking of the soil must be accompanied by planting and sowing of seed +and tillage for a crop other than native grasses. The period within +which the cultivation should be made is reckoned from the date of the +entry. The Secretary of the Interior, however, is authorized upon a +satisfactory showing therefor to reduce the required area of cultivation +on account of financial disabilities or misfortunes of the entryman +or on account of special physical and climatic conditions of the land +which make cultivation difficult. The entryman must establish an actual +residence upon the land entered, 6 months after the date of the entry. +After the establishment of residence the entryman is permitted to be +absent from the land for one continuous period of not more than 5 months +in each year following. He must also file at the local Land Office +notice of the beginning of such intended absence. + +_The Mining Laws._ Mineral deposits within National Forests are open to +development exactly as on unreserved public land. A prospector can go +anywhere he chooses and stake a claim wherever he finds any evidences of +valuable minerals. The only restriction is that mining claims must be +bona fide ones and not taken up for the purpose of acquiring valuable +timber or a town or a water power site, or to monopolize the water +supply of a stock range. Prospectors may obtain a certain amount of +National Forest timber free of charge to be used in developing their +claims. More than 500 mining claims are patented within the National +Forests every fiscal year. + +A good example of mining claims located for fraudulent purposes were +those located on the rim and sides of the Grand Canyon in Arizona to +prevent the people from gaining free access to the canyon and make them +pay to enter it. These claims were shown to be fraudulent since no +deposits of any kind were ever found on them. They were canceled by the +higher courts and the land reverted to the people. + +_Coal-Land Laws._ Coal lands are mineral lands and as such are subject +to entry the same as other mineral lands in the National Forests. + + +ADMINISTRATIVE USE OF NATIONAL FOREST LANDS + +Lands within National Forests may be selected for administrative +uses such as Supervisor's and Ranger's headquarters, gardens, +pastures, corrals, planting or nursery sites or rights-of-way. These +administrative sites are necessary for the present and probable +future requirements of the Forest Service for fire protection and the +transaction of business on the National Forests. + + +WATER POWER, TELEPHONE, TELEGRAPH, AND POWER TRANSMISSION LINES + +Along the streams within the National Forests are many sites suitable +for power development. These are open to occupancy for such purposes and +have the advantage of being on streams whose headwaters are protected. +The aggregate capacity of the water power sites on the National Forests +is estimated at 12,000,000 horsepower. + +[Illustration: Figure 77. North Clear Creek Falls, Rio Grande National +Forest, Colorado. The National Forests contain about one-third of all +the potential water-power resources of the United States.] + +[Illustration: Figure 78. The power plant of the Colorado Power Company, +on the Grand River, Holy Cross National Forest, Colorado. Every fiscal +year there is a substantial increase in water power development on the +National Forests.] + +The Government does not permit the monopolization of power in any region +or allow sites to be held for speculative purposes. The objects of +the regulations are to secure prompt and full development and to obtain +a reasonable compensation for the use of the land occupied and the +beneficial protection given the watershed. + +Permits for power development on the National Forests usually run for a +term of 50 years and may be renewed at their expiration upon compliance +with the regulations then existing. Such permits, while granting liberal +terms to applicants, contain ample provision for the protection of the +public interests. + +Applications for power permits are filed with the District Forester +of the Forest Service District in which the desired site is located. +Preliminary permits are issued to protect an applicant's priority +against subsequent applicants until he has had an opportunity to study +the proper location and design of the project and to obtain the data +necessary for the final application. Operation is allowed under the +final permit only. The permittee is required to pay an annual rental +charge under the preliminary and final power permits and definite +periods are specified for the filing of the final application, beginning +of construction and of operation. The rental charges are nominal in +amount, the maximum being about 1/16 of a cent per kilowatt hour. The +amount of annual payment for transmission lines is $5.00 for each mile +or fraction thereof if National Forest land is crossed by the line. No +rental charges are made for small power projects (under 100 horsepower +capacity), or for transmission lines used in connection therewith, or +for transmission lines which are part of a power project under permit +or for any power project in which power is to be used by a municipal +corporation for municipal purposes. + +The Secretary of Agriculture has authority to permit the use of +rights-of-way through the National Forests for conduits, reservoirs, +power plants, telephone and telegraph lines to be used for irrigation, +mining, and domestic purposes and for the production and transmission +of electric power. No rental charges are made for the telephone and +telegraph rights-of-way, but the applicant must agree to furnish such +facilities to Forest officers and to permit such reasonable use of its +poles or lines as may be determined or agreed upon between the applicant +and the District Forester. + +[Illustration: Figure 79. This is only one of the thousands of streams +in the National Forests of the West capable of generating electric +power. It has been estimated that over 40 per cent. of the water power +resources of the western states are included in the National Forests. +Photo by the author.] + +[Illustration: Figure 80. View in the famous orange belt of San +Bernardino County, California. These orchards depend absolutely upon +irrigation. The watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in +the National Forests and are protected by the Forest Service. Some of +the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate orchards +valued at $10,000,000.] + + + + +APPENDIX + + +TABLE OF LAND AREAS WITHIN THE NATIONAL FOREST BOUNDARIES + +June 30, 1917 + + Key: DN=District Number + + -------------------+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------- + | Headquarters | National | Patented | Total + State and | of | Forest | and other | area + Forest | Forest | Land | lands | (acres) + DN | Supervisor | (acres) | (acres) | + -------------------+--------------+-----------+-----------+----------- + ALASKA | | | | + Chugach 6 |Ketchikan | 5,418,753 | 113,682 | 5,532,435 + Tongass 6 |Ketchikan |15,451,716 | 29,284 | 15,481,000 + ARIZONA | | | | + Apache 3 |Springerville | 1,182,782 | 93,618 | 1,276,400 + Chiricahua[1] 3 |Tucson | 348,157 | 10,691 | 358,848 + Coconino 3 |Flagstaff | 1,601,598 | 161,799 | 1,763,397 + Coronado 3 |Tucson | 959,304 | 39,676 | 998,980 + Crook 3 |Safford | 870,130 | 14,870 | 885,000 + Dixie[1] 4 |St. George, | | | + | Utah | 17,680 | | 17,680 + Kaibab 4 |Kanab, Utah | 1,072,375 | 525 | 1,072,900 + Manzano[1] 3 |Albuquerque, | | | + | N. M. | 27,708 | 29,724 | 57,432 + Prescott 3 |Prescott | 1,433,366 | 186,589 | 1,619,955 + Sitgreaves 3 |Snowflake | 659,337 | 234,883 | 893,720 + Tonto 3 |Roosevelt | 1,994,239 | 39,521 | 2,033,760 + Tusayan 3 |Williams | 1,602,750 | 186,068 | 1,788,818 + ARKANSAS | | | | + Arkansas 7 |Hot Springs | 626,746 | 331,544 | 958,290 + Ozark 7 |Harrison | 291,840 | 237,338 | 529,178 + CALIFORNIA | | | | + Angeles 5 |Los Angeles | 820,980 | 240,723 | 1,061,703 + California 5 |Oriental | 807,444 | 255,178 | 1,062,622 + Cleveland 5 |Escondido | 547,981 | 265,635 | 813,616 + Crater[1] 6 |Medford, Ore. | 46,977 | 10,045 | 57,022 + Eldorado[1] 5 |Placerville | 549,392 | 286,408 | 835,800 + Inyo[1] 5 |Bishop | 1,269,980 | 67,800 | 1,337,780 + Klamath[1] 5 |Yreka | 1,470,841 | 263,824 | 1,734,665 + Lassen 5 |Red Bluff | 936,877 | 384,466 | 1,321,343 + Modoc 5 |Alturas | 1,182,986 | 399,873 | 1,532,859 + Mono[1] 5 |Gardnerville, | | | + | Nev. | 784,620 | 90,241 | 874,861 + Monterey 5 |King City | 316,058 | 44,436 | 360,494 + Plumas 5 |Quincy | 1,144,835 | 288,025 | 1,432,860 + Santa Barbara 5 |Santa Barbara | 1,688,571 | 239,723 | 1,928,294 + Sequoia 5 |Bakersfield | 2,194,926 | 274,344 | 2,469,270 + Shasta 5 |Sisson | 803,448 | 783,432 | 1,586,880 + Sierra 5 |Northfork | 1,489,934 | 172,626 | 1,662,560 + Siskiyou[1] 6 |Grants Pass, | | | + | Ore. | 349,069 | 52,726 | 401,795 + Stanislaus 5 |Sonora | 810,399 | 294,013 | 1,104,412 + Tahoe 5 |Nevada City | 542,226 | 666,851 | 1,209,077 + Trinity 5 |Weaverville | 1,430,547 | 315,600 | 1,746,147 + COLORADO | | | | + Arapaho 2 |Hot Sulphur | | | + | Springs | 634,903 | 46,371 | 681,274 + Battlement 2 |Collbran | 651,227 | 26,113 | 677,340 + Cochetopa 2 |Saguache | 905,723 | 24,497 | 930,220 + Colorado 2 |Fort Collins | 847,328 | 302,266 | 1,149,594 + Durango 2 |Durango | 614,129 | 89,871 | 704,000 + Gunnison 2 |Gunnison | 908,055 | 43,255 | 951,310 + Hayden[1] 2 |Encampment, | | | + | Wyo. | 65,598 | 6,402 | 72,000 + Holy Cross 2 |Glenwood | | | + | Springs | 576,905 | 28,795 | 605,700 + La Sal[1] 4 |Moab, Utah | 27,444 | 176 | 27,620 + Leadville 2 |Leadville | 934,017 | 122,503 | 1,056,520 + Montezuma 2 |Mancos | 700,082 | 112,018 | 812,100 + Pike 2 |Denver | 1,080,381 | 175,731 | 1,256,112 + Rio Grande 2 |Monte Vista | 1,136,884 | 84,256 | 1,221,140 + Routt 2 |Steamboat | | | + | Springs | 833,459 | 86,487 | 919,946 + San Isabel 2 |Westcliffe | 598,912 | 52,288 | 651,200 + San Juan 2 |Pagosa Spgs. | 617,995 | 127,005 | 745,000 + Sopris 2 |Aspen | 596,986 | 59,014 | 656,000 + Uncampahgre 2 |Delta | 790,349 | 77,511 | 867,860 + White River 2 |Meeker | 848,018 | 23,012 | 871,030 + FLORIDA | | | | + Florida 7 |Pensacola | 308,268 | 367,152 | 675,420 + IDAHO | | | | + Boise 4 |Boise | 1,058,941 | 59,173 | 1,118,114 + Cache[1] 4 |Logan, Utah | 513,617 | 31,447 | 545,064 + Caribou[1] 4 |Montpelier | 681,540 | 30,090 | 711,630 + Challis 4 |Challis | 1,259,237 | 10,753 | 1,269,990 + Clearwater 1 |Orofino | 785,103 | 122,743 | 907,846 + Coeur d'Alene | | | | + d'Alene 1 |Coeur d'Alene | 662,611 | 127,623 | 790,234 + Idaho 4 |McCall | 1,193,439 | 15,841 | 1,209,280 + Kaniksu[1] 1 |Newport, | | | + | Wash. | 198,757 | 260,220 | 458,977 + Lemhi 4 |Mackay | 1,095,924 | 4,638 | 1,100,562 + Minidoka[1] 4 |Oakley | 509,536 | 21,584 | 531,120 + Nezperce 1 |Grangeville | 1,624,582 | 41,497 | 1,666,079 + Palisade[1] 4 |St. Anthony | 283,495 | 9,820 | 293,315 + Payette 4 |Emmett | 831,926 | 31,748 | 863,674 + Pend Oreille 1 |Sandpoint | 676,014 | 198,724 | 874,738 + St. Joe 1 |St. Maries | 493,925 | 481,743 | 975,668 + Salmon 4 |Salmon | 1,621,707 | 21,653 | 1,643,360 + Sawtooth 4 |Hailey | 1,203,387 | 16,743 | 1,220,130 + Selway 1 |Kooskia | 1,693,711 | 108,289 | 1,802,000 + Targhee[1] 4 |St. Anthony | 283,495 | 9,820 | 293,315 + Weiser 4 |Weiser | 562,609 | 98,291 | 660,900 + MICHIGAN | | | | + Michigan 2 |East Tawas | 89,466 | 74,412 | 163,878 + MINNESOTA | | | | + Minnesota 2 |Cass Lake | 190,602 | 121,874 | 312,476 + Superior 2 |Ely | 857,255 | 411,283 | 1,268,538 + MONTANA | | | | + Absaroka 1 |Livingston | 842,467 | 145,243 | 987,710 + Beartooth 1 |Billings | 662,537 | 19,393 | 681,930 + Beaverhead 1 |Dillon | 1,337,223 | 27,777 | 1,365,000 + Bitterroot 1 |Missoula | 1,047,012 | 108,856 | 1,155,868 + Blackfeet 1 |Kalispell | 865,077 | 202,013 | 1,067,090 + Cabinet 1 |Thompson | | | + | Falls | 830,676 | 195,874 | 1,026,550 + Custer 1 |Miles City | 428,922 | 83,888 | 512,810 + Deerlodge 1 |Anaconda | 833,178 | 130,822 | 964,000 + Flathead 1 |Kalispell | 1,802,905 | 285,815 | 2,088,720 + Gallatin 1 |Bozeman | 564,855 | 344,575 | 909,430 + Helena 1 |Helena | 687,983 | 232,497 | 920,480 + Jefferson 1 |Great Falls | 1,039,766 | 135,919 | 1,175,685 + Kootenai 1 |Libby | 1,336,061 | 287,279 | 1,623,340 + Lewis and | | | | + Clark 1 |Chouteau | 811,161 | 15,199 | 826,360 + Lolo 1 |Missoula | 850,677 | 330,341 | 1,181,018 + Madison 1 |Sheridan | 958,691 | 77,169 | 1,035,860 + Missoula 1 |Missoula | 1,031,529 | 336,662 | 1,368,191 + Sioux[1] 1 |Camp Crook, | | | + | S. D. | 96,743 | 17,798 | 114,541 + NEBRASKA | | | | + Nebraska 2 |Halsey | 206,074 | 11,744 | 217,818 + NEVADA | | | | + Dixie[1] 4 |St. George, | | | + | Utah | 282,543 | 7,807 | 290,350 + Eldorado[1] 5 |Placerville, | | | + | Cal. | 400 | | 400 + Humboldt 4 |Elko | 690,562 | 35,978 | 726,546 + Inyo[1] 5 |Bishop, Cal. | 72,817 | 2,513 | 75,330 + Mono[1] 5 |Gardnerville | 464,315 | 19,204 | 483,519 + Nevada 4 |Ely | 1,220,929 | 39,871 | 1,260,800 + Ruby 4 |Elko | 342,405 | 91,165 | 433,570 + Santa Rosa 4 |Elko | 269,658 | 30,302 | 299,960 + Tahoe[1] 5 |Nevada City, | | | + | Cal. | 14,853 | 47,274 | 62,127 + Toiyabe 4 |Austin | 1,907,286 | 17,514 | 1,924,800 + NEW MEXICO | | | | + Alamo 3 |Alamogordo | 603,779 | 269,877 | 866,656 + Carson 3 |Taos | 856,647 | 68,654 | 925,301 + Chiricahua[1] 3 |Tucson, Ariz. | 126,478 | 2,674 | 129,152 + Datil 3 |Magdalena | 2,670,412 | 270,790 | 2,941,202 + Gila 3 |Silver City | 1,463,708 | 136,292 | 1,600,000 + Lincoln 3 |Alamogordo | 551,427 | 81,540 | 632,967 + Manzano[1] 3 |Albuquerque | 754,772 | 488,007 | 1,242,779 + Santa Fé 3 |Santa Fe | 1,354,545 | 122,148 | 1,476,693 + NORTH DAKOTA | | | | + Dakota 1 |Camp Crook, | | | + | S. D. | 6,054 | 7,866 | 13,920 + OKLAHOMA | | | | + Wichita 7 |Cache | 61,480 | 160 | 61,640 + OREGON | | | | + Cascade 6 |Eugene | 1,021,461 | 73,024 | 1,094,485 + Crater[1] 6 |Medford | 793,044 | 286,281 | 1,079,325 + Deschutes 6 |Bend | 1,292,423 | 217,437 | 1,509,860 + Fremont 6 |Lakeview | 884,494 | 86,782 | 971,366 + Klamath[1] 5 |Yreka, Cal. | 4,401 | 4,492 | 8,893 + Malheur 6 |John Day | 1,057,682 | 205,158 | 1,262,840 + Minam 6 |Baker | 430,757 | 49,056 | 479,813 + Ochoco 6 |Prineville | 716,564 | 102,466 | 819,030 + Oregon 6 |Portland | 1,031,926 | 108,994 | 1,140,920 + Santiam 6 |Albany | 607,099 | 112,884 | 719,983 + Siskiyou[1] 6 |Grants Pass | 998,044 | 257,206 | 1,255,250 + Siuslaw 6 |Eugene | 544,178 | 289,263 | 833,441 + Umatilla 6 |Pendleton | 485,786 | 79,199 | 564,985 + Umpqua 6 |Roseburg | 1,011,097 | 210,294 | 1,221,391 + Wallowa 6 |Wallowa | 964,601 | 104,810 | 1,069,411 + Wenaha 6 |Walla Walla, | | | + | Wash. | 425,504 | 36,540 | 461,954 + Whitman 6 |Sumpter | 884,485 | 115,008 | 999,493 + PORTO RICO | | | | + Luquillo 7 |None | 12,443 | 53,507 | 65,950 + SOUTH DAKOTA | | | | + Black Hills[1] 2 |Deadwood | 483,403 | 118,608 | 602,011 + Harney 2 |Custer | 548,854 | 79,093 | 627,947 + Sioux[1] 1 |Camp Crook | 75,524 | 7,744 | 83,268 + UTAH | | | | + Ashley[1] 4 |Vernal | 982,493 | 9,607 | 992,100 + Cache[1] 4 |Logan | 265,594 | 53,987 | 319,581 + Dixie[1] 4 |St. George | 432,784 | 26,106 | 458,890 + Fillmore 4 |Ritchfield | 699,579 | 79,711 | 779,290 + Fishlake 4 |Salina | 661,245 | 62,145 | 723,390 + La Sal[1] 4 |Moab | 519,384 | 16,286 | 535,670 + Manti 4 |Ephraim | 781,800 | 65,070 | 846,870 + Minidoka[1] 4 |Oakley, Idaho | 72,123 | 20,157 | 92,280 + Powell 4 |Escalante | 689,927 | 14,773 | 704,700 + Sevier 4 |Panguitch | 729,061 | 73,599 | 802,660 + Uinta 4 |Provo | 988,602 | 54,533 | 1,043,135 + Wasatch 4 |Salt Lake City| 607,492 | 56,913 | 664,405 + WASHINGTON | | | | + Chelan 6 |Chelan | 677,429 | 46,681 | 724,110 + Columbia 6 |Portland, Ore.| 784,498 | 157,702 | 942,200 + Colville 6 |Republic | 754,886 | 61,114 | 816,000 + Kaniksu[1] 1 |Newport | 257,859 | 118,904 | 376,763 + Okanogan 6 |Okanogan | 1,486,325 | 54,675 | 1,541,000 + Olympic 1 |Olympia | 1,534,689 | 117,311 | 1,652,000 + Rainier 6 |Tacoma | 1,315,891 | 245,579 | 1,561,470 + Snoqualmie 6 |Seattle | 698,043 | 343,957 | 1,042,000 + Washington 6 |Bellingham | 1,454,214 | 35,786 | 1,490,000 + Wenaha[1] 6 |Walla Walla | 313,434 | 8,397 | 321,831 + Wenatchee 6 |Leavenworth | 665,276 | 491,724 | 1,157,000 + WYOMING | | | | + Ashley[1] 4|Vernal, Utah | 5,987 | 73 | 6,060 + Bighorn 2|Sheridan | 1,119,725 | 16,475 | 1,136,200 + Black Hills[1] 2|Deadwood, S.D.| 144,759 | 34,362 | 179,121 + Bridger 2|Pinedale | 710,570 | 7,407 | 717,977 + Caribou[1] 4|Montpelier, | | | + | Idaho | 6,547 | 813 | 7,360 + Hayden[1] 2|Encampment | 322,175 | 43,445 | 365,620 + Medicine Bow 2|Laramie | 469,786 | 41,596 | 511,382 + Palisade[1] 4|St. Anthony, | | | + | Idaho | 250,501 | 3,119 | 253,620 + Shoshone 2|Cody | 1,576,043 | 32,957 | 1,609,000 + Targhee[1] 4|St. Anthony, | | | + | Idaho | 84,970 | 480 | 85,450 + Teton 4|Jackson | 1,922,947 | 48,245 | 1,971,192 + Washakie 2|Lander | 852,653 | 12,220 | 864,873 + Wyoming 4|Afton | 899,980 | 12,020 | 912,000 + | | | + Aggregate for the 147 National | | | + Forests |155,166,619|21,085,541 |176,252,160 + ----------------------------------+-----------+-----------+----------- + + [1] Area of National Forest in more than one State. + + +PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Simple typographical errors were corrected. + +Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant +preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. + +This text uses both 'Uncampahgre' and 'Uncompahgre'; the latter +currently is the preferred spelling. + +Page 55 "sunlight; without it is useless." Probably should be "sunlight; +without it, it is useless." + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Our National Forests, by Richard H. Douai Boerker + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42391 *** |