diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/42388.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/42388.txt | 19228 |
1 files changed, 19228 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/42388.txt b/old/42388.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cd012b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/42388.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19228 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Solomon Islands and Their Natives, by H. +B. (Henry Brougham) Guppy + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Solomon Islands and Their Natives + + +Author: H. B. (Henry Brougham) Guppy + + + +Release Date: March 22, 2013 [eBook #42388] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOLOMON ISLANDS AND THEIR +NATIVES*** + + +E-text prepared by Steven Gibbs, Harry Lamé, Veronika Redfern, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page +images generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations and + some audio illustrations. + See 42388-h.htm or 42388-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42388/42388-h/42388-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42388/42388-h.zip) + + + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive. See + https://archive.org/details/cu31924028691149 + + +Transcriber's note: + + Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + + A carat character is used to denote superscription. A + single character following the carat is superscripted + (example: C^o). + + [T], [M] and [F] represent a T-shape and the male and + female symbols, respectively. + + [=o] and [=u] represent a letter "o" or a letter "u" + with a macron. + + Fractions are transcribed as, for example, 2-1/2 for + two and a half. Where this transcription might lead to + confusion, brackets have been added, as for example in + (2-1/2)-(2-3/4). + + An additional transcriber's note is at the end of this text. + + + + + +[Illustration: THE SOLOMON ISLANDS + +London: Swan Sonnenschein & C^o.] + + +THE SOLOMON ISLANDS +AND +Their Natives. + + +BY +H. B. GUPPY, M.B., F.G.S. +_LATE_ SURGEON, R.N. + + +[Illustration] + + +LONDON: +SWAN SONNENSCHEIN, LOWREY & CO., +PATERNOSTER SQUARE, +1887. + + + + +_S. Cowan & Co. Strathmore Printing Works, Perth._ + + + + +PREFACE. + + +WHEN, in the beginning of 1881, H.M.S. "Lark" was being prepared for her +commission as a surveying ship in the Western Pacific, I was selected by +Sir John Watt Reid, the Medical Director-General of the Navy, to be +appointed as Surgeon. For this selection I was also in some measure +indebted to the late Sir Frederick Evans, then Hydrographer, who was +desirous that a person possessing tastes for natural history should be +chosen. I subsequently received some instructions from Dr. Guenther, +Keeper of Zoology in the British Museum, to whom I may take this +opportunity of expressing my sincere thanks for the encouragement he +gave to me during the commission. Unfortunately there were no public +funds from which I could be assisted; and, as a matter of fact, I may +state that all expenses had to come out of my pay as a naval surgeon. At +the close of the commission I received, mainly through the influence of +Dr. Guenther, a promise of a grant of L150 from the Royal Society of +London for the exploration of the interior of the large island of +Guadalcanar; but a very serious illness prevented me from carrying out +my intention, and thus an expedition, which I had looked forward to as a +fitting completion of my work in these islands, was never undertaken. +However, my disappointment was in some measure diminished on my arrival +in England, after being invalided, by the important results arising from +the examination by Dr. John Murray, Director of the Challenger +Commission, of that portion of my geological collection which threw +light on the formation of coral reefs, and which exhibited the deep-sea +deposits of the Challenger Expedition as rocks composing islands in the +Solomon Group. To Dr. Murray I am indebted for much kindness in many +ways, and I gladly take this opportunity of expressing my sincerest +thanks. + +In this volume I have chiefly confined myself to my observations on the +anthropology, natural history, botany, and meteorology of the group, +having originally reserved my account of the geology and of the coral +reefs, together with my special descriptions of the islands, for another +volume, which I hoped to publish shortly, if my first undertaking proved +a success. My reasons for thus acting were to be found in a lack of +funds and in the necessity of not overlading my first venture, which, +like a ship carrying a heavy though perhaps a valuable cargo, might +founder within sight of the port of departure. This difficulty has been +met by a generous arrangement of my publishers, in consequence of which +both volumes will be brought out together. All my notes relating to +these islands are there embodied, with the exception of my coral reef +observations, which have been recently published by the Royal Society of +Edinburgh in their Proceedings (1885-1886). However, to make this volume +more complete, I have added a short introductory chapter containing a +general description of the islands. + +It is necessary that I should here briefly allude to the circumstances +under which my observations and collections were made. Had I been +previously aware of the difficulties and discomforts that would attend +me, I should have hesitated to have performed more than a tithe of what +I finally accomplished "per varios casus per tot discrimina rerum." +Inexperienced and deprived of any official support or recognition of +other than my professional duties, I was only urged on by the +consciousness of the importance of the work I had voluntarily +undertaken. At length my health began to give way, and it was with mixed +feelings of satisfaction and apprehension that I returned to the islands +for the third and last year. One cause of continual worry lay in the +fact that for two-thirds of the time spent in this region, I had only my +cabin for the disposal of my collections, the size of the ship (a +schooner of about 150 tons), and the arrangements made before leaving +England, not permitting of any other plan. + +Under these circumstances I received the greatest assistance from +Lieut.-Commander C. F. Oldham, who, notwithstanding that he had received +no instructions concerning myself, smoothed the way for me and gave me +the opportunities I desired, often, it should be added, at the expense +of much anxiety to himself. To the officers, Lieut. C. F. de M. Malan, +Lieut. T. H. Heming, and Lieut. A. Leeper, I am lastingly indebted, not +only for their constant aid, but also for the sympathy they evinced +towards myself and my pursuits. From the petty-officers and crew I +received much voluntary help, and I was often indebted to the services +of Mr. Samuel Redman and Mr. Albert Rowe. My right-hand man was Mr. +William Isabell who had been sent to the ship as Leading-Stoker to take +charge of the condenser. Without his aid in the packing away of my +collections and his cheerful readiness to assist me in every way +throughout the commission, I should have broken down long before I did. +To his careful attendance during my illness I owe my life. + +With reference to the different sections of this work, I should remark +that the anthropological notes are for the most part now published for +the first time. The translation of Gallego's Journal and the historical +sketch of the re-discovery of the group will, I hope, have a general as +well as a special interest. In my natural history notes it will be seen +that I am greatly indebted to the papers on my collections of shells and +reptiles by Mr. Edgar Smith and Mr. G. A. Boulenger. For the +identification of the greater part of my botanical collection, I am +indebted to the courtesy of the officials at Kew and particularly to +that of Prof. Oliver. I take this opportunity of acknowledging the kind +assistance I received at Melbourne from Baron Ferd. von Mueller. My +inexperience in botanical collecting considerably diminished the value +of my collections, which have further suffered from the fact that I have +been unable after repeated application to learn anything of a collection +of ferns that I presented to the British Museum. During the commission I +profited greatly by Lieut. Malan's previous experiences of the Pacific +Islands. To Lieut. Leeper I am greatly indebted, as shown in the +chapters on the vocabulary of Bougainville Straits and on the +meteorology of the group. The enumeration of the many disinterested +services I have received would carry me far beyond the limits of a +preface. Of all of them I shall retain a lasting remembrance. + + HENRY BROUGHAM GUPPY. + + 17 Woodlane, Falmouth. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +THE Solomon Islands cover an area 600 miles in length. They include +seven or eight large mountainous islands attaining an extreme height, as +in the case of Guadalcanar and Bougainville, of from 8,000 to 10,000 +feet, and possessing a length varying from 70 to 100 miles, and a +breadth varying between 20 and 30 miles. In addition, there are a great +number of smaller islands which range in size from those 15 to 20 miles +in length to the tiny coral island only half a mile across. The islands +fall naturally into two divisions, those mainly or entirely of volcanic +formations and those mainly or entirely of recent calcareous formations. + +In the first division, St. Christoval may be taken as a type of the +large mountainous islands possessing massive profiles, such as +Guadalcanar, Malaita, Isabel, etc. St. Christoval, which rises to a +height of 4,100 feet above the sea, is composed in the mass of much +altered and sometimes highly crystalline volcanic rocks (such as, in +their order of frequency, dolerites, diabases, diorites, gabbros, +serpentines, and saussuritic felspar-rock) which, as I learn from Mr. T. +Davies, have been both formed and altered at considerable depths and +indicate great geological age and extensive denudation. Recent +calcareous rocks, such as will be subsequently referred to in the +description of the second division of islands, flank the lower slopes at +the sea-border up to an elevation of 500 feet. Fragments of similar +diorites, dolerites, and other dense basic rocks, all much altered and +often schistose, have been transported by trees to the coral islets off +the coasts of Guadalcanar and afford evidence of the geological +structure of that island. Serpentines were obtained by Dr. Hombron in +1838[1] from St. George's Island, which is "ipso facto" a portion of +Isabel. Bougainville and New Georgia are largely of more recent origin, +as is indicated by their numerous symmetrical volcanic cones. However, +the geological evidence at present at our disposal points generally to +the great antiquity of the larger islands. The significance of this fact +will be subsequently referred to. There can be little doubt that some of +the mountainous islands will be found to yield in quantity the ores of +tin and copper. A resident trader, Captain John Macdonald, has +discovered arsenical pyrites and stream tin at the head of the Keibeck +River in the interior of St. Christoval. A sample of stream tin from the +south-east part of Bougainville was given to me by the Shortland chief. +Copper will not improbably be found in association with the serpentine +rocks of these islands. + + [1] "Voyage au Pole Sud et dans L'Oceanie," (D'Urville). Geologie: + part ii., p. 211. + +The smaller islands of volcanic formation group themselves into two +classes: + +(1.) Those which, like Fauro and some of the Florida Islands, are +composed partly of modern rocks, such as hornblende and augite-andesites +with their tuffs and agglomerates, and partly of ancient and often +highly crystalline rocks such as, as I am informed by Prof. Judd and Mr. +T. Davies, quartz-diorites, quartz-porphyries, altered dacites and +dolerites, serpentines, saussuritic felspar-rock, etc. + +(2.) Those that are composed entirely or in the main of recently erupted +rocks, islands which preserve the volcanic profile, possess craters, and +sometimes exhibit signs of latent activity. Eddystone Island, which I +examined, is probably typical of the majority of the islands of this +class, such as Savo, Murray Island, and many others. It is composed of +andesitic lavas of the augite type, is pierced by many fumaroles, and +has a crater in the solfatara stage. Savo, though quiescent in the +present day, has been in eruption within the memory of living men, and +was in a state of activity in 1567 when the Spaniards discovered the +group. Fumaroles and sulphur-deposits occur in Vella-la-vella. It may, +however, be generally stated that the volcanic forces in these regions +are in a quiescent condition at the present day, there being only one +vent in active eruption, viz., Mount Bagana in the interior of +Bougainville. Many small islands with volcanic profiles show no evidence +of a latent activity. Amongst them I may mention those of Bougainville +Strait, which are composed of andesitic lavas of the hornblende type. + +I now pass to those islands which are composed mainly or entirely of +recent calcareous formations.[2] Excluding the innumerable islets that +have been formed on the coral reefs at the present sea-level, we come +first to those small islands and islets less than 100 feet in height, +such as the Three Sisters and Stirling Island, which are composed +entirely of coral limestone. In the next place there are islands of +larger size and greater height, such as Ugi, which are composed in bulk +of partially consolidated bedded deposits containing numerous +foraminifera, and possessing the characters of the muds which were found +by the "Challenger" Expedition to be at present forming around oceanic +volcanic islands in depths probably of from 150 to 500 fathoms. Coral +limestones encrust the lower slopes of these islands and do not attain a +greater thickness than 150 feet. The next type is to be found in +Treasury Island which has a similar structure to that of Ugi, but +possesses in its centre an ancient volcanic peak that was once submerged +and is now covered over by these recent deposits. Then, there are +islands, such as the principal island of the Shortlands, in which the +volcanic mass has become an eccentric nucleus, from which line after +line of barrier-reef has been advanced based on the soft deposits. These +soft deposits contain amongst other organic remains, the shells of +pteropods and the tests of foraminifera in great abundance. In such +islands I did not find that the coral limestone had a thickness of as +much as 100 feet. In this island the upraised reefs are based upon hard +foraminiferal limestones. Lastly, we have the upraised atoll of Santa +Anna which within the small compass of a height of 470 feet displays the +several stages of its growth; first, the originally submerged volcanic +peak; then, the investing soft deposit resembling in character a +deep-sea clay and considered to have been formed in considerable depths, +probably from 1500 to 2000 fathoms; and over all, the ring of coral +limestone that cannot far exceed 150 feet in thickness. The islands +formed mainly of the soft foraminiferous deposits have long level +summits free from peaks. Judging from their profiles, the islands of +Ulaua and Ronongo will be found to possess the structure of Ugi and +Treasury. The western end of Choiseul has a very significant profile, +and I have little doubt from my examination of the lower slopes that +this extremity of the island is mainly composed of the recent soft +deposits. + + [2] _Vide_ my paper on this subject (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.: vol. + xxxii., p. 545), and my work on the geology of this group. + +I now proceed to refer very shortly to the coral reefs[3] of these +islands. The three principal classes are to be found in this region; +but of these, the fringing and barrier-reefs are more commonly +distributed, whilst the atolls are comparatively few in number and of +small size. A line of barrier-reefs, probably not much under 60 miles in +length and bearing innumerable islets on its surface, fronts the east +coasts of the islands of New Georgia at a distance of from one to three +miles from the shore. Extensive reefs of the same class, having a broad +deep-water channel inside them, lie off the large island of Isabel and +off the south-coast of Choiseul. Barrier-reefs, of smaller extent, also +skirt the west end of Guadalcanar and the southern end of Bougainville. +I have referred particularly to these reefs because at the time that Mr. +Darwin wrote his work on "Coral Reefs," fringing-reefs were alone +believed to exist in these islands. + + [3] _Vide_ my paper on this subject. (Proc. Roy. Soc., Edin., + 1885-86.) + +The larger islands of the Solomon Group are often separated from each +other by depths of several hundred fathoms. St. Christoval, for +instance, is separated from the neighbouring islands of Guadalcanar and +Malaita by straits in which casts of 200 fathoms fail to reach the +bottom. On the other hand, the same 100 fathom line includes both +Bougainville and Choiseul. Judging, however, from the soundings obtained +by Lieut.-Commander Oldham between the islands lying off the north coast +of St. Christoval, it would appear probable that depths of 400 fathoms +commonly occur between the islands of the Solomon Group. Although the +soundings hitherto made in this portion of the Western Pacific go to +show that this archipelago, together with New Ireland and New Britain, +are included within the same 1,000 fathom line, which extends as a loop +from the adjacent borders of New Guinea, we can scarcely urge this fact +as evidence of a former land connection, seeing that one of the most +interesting features in the geological history of this region is that of +the enormous elevation which these islands have experienced in recent +and probably sub-recent times. Independently of the character of the +deposits discovered by me in the Solomon Islands, I arrived at the +conclusion that there had been a recent upheaval of at least 1,500 feet. +The characters of some of the deposits, as examined by Dr. Murray in the +light of the "Challenger" soundings, however, afford indications of an +upheaval of a far more extensive nature. I am informed, in fact, by Mr. +H. B. Brady, that the foraminifera of some of the Treasury Island rocks +indicate depths of probably from 1500 to 2000 fathoms. Geologists may +look forward with the greatest interest to the results of the +examination by Mr. Brady of the foraminiferous deposits of the Western +Pacific. One of the most important results will be to establish the +great elevation which has occurred in this region during Post-Tertiary +times. We are therefore justified in regarding the island groups of the +Western Pacific as having always retained their insular condition, +situated, as they are, in a region of upheaval, and separated, as they +are, from each other and from the Australian continent by depths of from +1,000 to 2,400 fathoms. I have already pointed out that the volcanic +rocks of the large islands of the Solomon Group are geologically +ancient. Their elevation and the great subaerial denudation which they +have experienced afford indications of the insular condition having been +preserved from remote ages. It is this prolonged isolation that explains +the occurrence of the peculiar forms of the amphibia which I discovered +in Bougainville Straits, and that accounts for many of the peculiarities +of the fauna of this archipelago. + +Having thus briefly considered the leading geological and hydrological +features of this group, I pass on to consider these islands in the point +of view of an intending settler. They are for the most part clothed with +dense forest and rank undergrowth, and it is only here and there, as in +the western portion of Guadalcanar and in limited localities in St. +Christoval, that the forest gives place to long grass and ferns, a +change often corresponding with the passage from a clayey and calcareous +to a dry porous and volcanic soil. As a rule, the calcareous districts +of a large island possess a rich red argillaceous soil, often 5 or 6 +feet in thickness, and in such localities the streams are large and +numerous. In the districts of volcanic formation the soil is dry, +friable, and porous, whilst the streams are few in number and of no +great size. In the principal island of the Shortlands the difference in +the character of the soil between the volcanic north-west part and the +remaining calcareous portion is well exhibited. In the smaller islands +the soil varies in character according to the formation, those of +volcanic origin being singularly destitute of streams. + +In chapter XVII. I have dwelt with some detail on the climate. The +healthiest portion of the group would, as I think, be found in the +eastern islands, and the healthiest part of each island would be that +which is exposed to the blast of the south-east trade during a large +portion of the year. The excessive annual rainfall, the humid +atmosphere, together with the enervating season of the north-west +monsoon, are amongst the chief evils of the climate. Malarious districts +can be readily avoided by shunning the low-lying damp districts on the +lee sides of islands. Dysentery is rare on account of the general purity +of the water. But, if we believe native testimony, which I have found +most reliable and which in this instance agrees with my own, the streams +draining calcareous regions are least liable to suspicion. Should an +intending settler ask me whether the climate is suitable for the +European, I would reply that with proper precautions as to his habits +and the selection of a site, the white-man can here preserve his health +as well as in most other tropical islands in these latitudes. + +I will conclude this introduction with some remarks on the vexed +question of making annexations and forming protectorates in the Western +Pacific. From the eagerness of our Australian colonies to control them +and of France and Germany to possess them, the presumption arises that +the islands in this region are worth holding. Yet, how surprising have +been the changes within the last four years! When in 1882 I was in the +Solomon Islands, British influence was recognised as paramount in New +Guinea and throughout the Western Pacific. At the present time the +British flag has been almost squeezed out of the Western Pacific. In +April of this year (1886), the British and German Governments came to an +arrangement by which the northern side of New Guinea together with New +Britain, New Ireland, and the adjacent western half of the Solomon Group +passed under the protection, or in other words into the practical +possession, of Germany; whilst Great Britain by this arrangement was to +consider the remaining islands of the Western Pacific and the south +coast of New Guinea as her sphere of action. It is only in New Guinea +that Great Britain has exercised her right. Amongst the remaining +islands of the Western Pacific she has little scope either for acquiring +territory or for establishing a protectorate. France possesses New +Caledonia and in a geographical sense she can claim not only the Loyalty +Islands but the New Hebrides Group. There only remains then for Great +Britain the Santa Cruz Islands and the adjacent eastern half of the +Solomon Group, in which, if she chooses, she can exercise her rights +without dispute. + +England's wisest policy in the Western Pacific is to recognise the +existing condition of things, and to deal with France as generously as +she has dealt with Germany. Stifling my own patriotic regrets, I cannot +but think that the presence of Germany in these regions will be fraught +with great advantage to the world of science. When we recall our +spasmodic efforts to explore New Guinea and the comparatively small +results obtained, when we remember to how great an extent such attempts +have been supported by private enterprise and how little they have been +due to government or even to semi-official aid, we have reason to be +glad that the exploration of these regions will be conducted with that +thoroughness which can only be obtained when, as in the case of Germany, +geographical enterprises become the business of the State. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER I. + + INTRODUCTORY. + + A Traveller's Difficulties--Islands of which Science has no + ken--Bush-Walking a Tedious Process--Ascent of Stream-Courses--Heavy + Annual Rainfall--Native Companions--Mysterious Influence of the Fragrant + Weed--Odd-looking Party of Geologists--A Night on the Summit of + Treasury Island--Experiences in a Rob Roy Canoe--Narrow Escape from + Drowning--Nature of the Work performed by the Officers of Survey--An + Apparent Injustice pp. 1-12 + + + CHAPTER II. + + GOVERNMENT--HEAD-HUNTING--SLAVERY--CANNIBALISM. + + Hereditary Chieftainship--St. Christoval--Coast Tribes and Bush + Tribes--Their unceasing Hostility--Head-Hunting and Head-Money-- + Greater Power of the Chiefs of Bougainville Straits--Gorai, the + Shortland Chief--How the Treasury Islanders became our Friends--Fauro + and its Chief--Choiseul Bay--In the calmest Seas there are occasional + Storms--A Tragedy, in several Acts--Hostilities between Alu and + Treasury--_Vae Feminis!_--Tambu Ban--Slavery, an easy Servitude if + it were not for one grave Contingency--A Purveyor of Human Flesh-- + Cannibalism--A _Bea_--Fattening for the Market pp. 13-40 + + + CHAPTER III. + + THE FEMALE SEX--POLYGAMY--MODES OF BURIAL, &c. + + Position of the Female Sex--Infanticide--The Women are the Cultivators + --A Plea for Polygamy--Marital Establishments--Kaika, the principal + Wife of the Shortland Chief--Her Death--The Obsequies--Modes of Burial + --Superstitious Beliefs--Sorcerers--Method of Recording Time--The + Pleiades pp. 41-56 + + + CHAPTER IV. + + DWELLINGS--TAMBU-HOUSES--WEAPONS--TOOLS. + + Villages--Houses--Pile-Dwellings--Mat-Making--Domestic Utensils-- + Pottery Manufacture--Modes of Producing Fire--Torches--Tambu-Houses-- + Deification of the Shark--Weapons--Polished Stone Implements--Ancient + Worked Flints--Whence did they come?--Who were the Artificers? + pp. 57-80 + + + CHAPTER V. + + CULTIVATION--FOOD, &C. + + Cultivation--Sago Palm--Diet essentially Vegetarian--Common Vegetables + and Fruits--Modes of Cooking--Articles of Animal Food--Modes of + Cooking--Tobacco Smoking--Betel Chewing pp. 81-97 + + + CHAPTER VI. + + THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERS AND RACE-AFFINITIES OF THESE ISLANDERS. + + Race Affinities--Migrations of the Pacific Islanders--Evidence derived + from the Native Names of Littoral Trees--A Typical Solomon Islander-- + Variations in the Type--Physical Measurements--Height--Weight--Limbs-- + Skull--Features--Hair--Colour of Skin--Powers of Vision--Colour-sense + --Gestures and Expressions of the Emotions--Disposition--The + Estimation of Dumont D'Urville--My Own pp. 98-129 + + + CHAPTER VII. + + DRESS--TATTOOING--SONGS, &C. + + Dress--Personal Ornaments--Fondness for Decorating Themselves with + Flowers--Tattooing--Head Coverings--Ornamentation--Songs--Musical + Instruments--Dances--Boys' Games pp. 130-145 + + + CHAPTER VIII. + + CANOES--FISHING--HUNTING. + + Canoes--Paddles and Paddling--Fishing--Kite + Fishing--Fish-Spear--Nets--Hooks--Snares--Dynamite--Pig + Hunting--Wild Dogs--Opossums--Path-Finding pp. 146-162 + + + CHAPTER IX. + + PREVALENT DISEASES. + + Medicine-Men--Indifference to the Sick--Great Recuperative Powers + after Severe Injuries--The Hot-Stone Treatment--Nostalgic Melancholy-- + Ulcers--Solomon Island or Tokelau Ringworm--Very Widely-spread and + very Prevalent in the Western Pacific--Has spread Eastward from the + Indian Archipelago--Pustular Eruptive Disease of Children--Epidemics + of Influenza and Mumps--Elephantiasis--Congenital Deformities-- + Venereal Diseases--Susceptibility to Small Falls of Temperature-- + Mental Diseases rare pp. 163-179 + + + CHAPTER X. + + A VOCABULARY OF BOUGAINVILLE STRAITS. + + Vocabulary of Bougainville Straits--Divisions of the Solomon Island + Languages--Affinities of the Vocabulary--Important Clues afforded by + the Comparison of the Native Names of Common Littoral Trees in the + Indian Archipelago and in the Pacific Islands--Other similar + comparisons--Imitative Words pp. 180-191 + + + CHAPTER XI. + + THE JOURNAL OF GALLEGO. + + Prefatory Remarks--The Journal--Prologue--Voyage from Peru--Its Length + --Crew disheartened--Isle of Jesus--Candelaria Shoals--Arrival at + Estrella Harbour--Exploring Cruise of the Brigantine--Florida, + Sesarga, Guadalcanar--Ships proceed to Guadalcanar--Second Cruise of + the Brigantine--Malaita, Ulaua, Ugi, St. Christoval--Massacre of the + Spaniards at Puerto de la Cruz--Ships proceed to St. Christoval-- + Capture of a Town--Third Cruise of the Brigantine--Conflict at Santa + Anna--The Islands aroused--Council of the Captains and Pilots--Decide + to return to Peru--Heading Northward--Reflections on the Discoveries + and on the Conduct of the Spaniards--In the vicinity of the Gilbert + Group--San Bartolomeo identified with the Musquillo Islands--San + Francisco I. identified with Wake's I.--Perilous Voyage--Ships + separated--Storms and Squalls--Provisions failing--The Gambler's + Ration--Sickness--Despair--"We resolved to Trust that God Would Send + us Aid"--"He provided for us in His Great Mercy"--Old California--The + Ships meet at Santiago--Mexican Coast--A strange Scotch People-- + Peru pp. 192-245 + + + CHAPTER XII. + + THE STORY OF A LOST ARCHIPELAGO. + + A Pious Fraud--Drake's appearance in the South Sea--Jealousy of the + Spaniards--"It being considered better, as things were then, to let + these Islands remain unknown"--"Omne ignotum pro magnifico" Mendana's + Expedition to form a Colony in St. Christoval--An unsolved Mystery of + the Sea--A Colony formed at Santa Cruz--Mutiny and Disaster-- + Abandonment--Unsuccessful Attempt to find the Solomon Islands--"All + her sails set, and All her People Dead and Rotten"--Quiros leads + another Expedition from Peru to reach these Islands--They elude his + Search--Jealous Attitude of the Spaniards towards other Nations-- + Suppression and Destruction of Journals and Documents--Confusion of + Geographers--The Existence of the Solomon Islands treated as a Romance + --Fabulous Accounts--After Two Centuries--Carteret--Bougainville-- + Surville--Maurelle--Shortland--French and English Geographers-- + Dentrecasteaux--Jacobs--D'Urville--Boyd--Denham--Melanesian + Mission pp. 246-271 + + GEOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX. + + Gallego and Figueroa compared--Isle of Jesus--Candelaria Shoals-- + Gallego's Latitudes--Isle of Ramos--Islands between Cape Prieto and + Guadalcanar--Islands of San Bartolomeo and San Francisco--List of + Islands obtained by Quiros at Taumaco--Eddystone Rock, &c. pp. 272-279 + + + CHAPTER XIII. + + BOTANICAL NOTES IN BOUGAINVILLE STRAITS. + + Knowledge of Plants possessed by these Islanders--Ascent of a + Stream-Course--Interior of the Forest--Up to the Summit of + Faro Island--Littoral Vegetation---How a Coral Island is stocked + with Trees--List of Plants--Flotation of Fruits--Weeds and + Rubbish-Plants--Tuber regium pp. 280-307 + + + CHAPTER XIV. + + REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS. + + Unexpected Discoveries--List of Reptiles--Crocodiles--Lizards--Snakes + --Batrachians--A New Family--A region of great promise to future + collectors pp. 308-318 + + + CHAPTER XV. + + GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. + + Robber-Crab--Nut-cracking-Gizzard of the Nicobar Pigeon--Megapods-- + Edible Birds' Nest--Scorpions--Millipedes--Hermit-Crabs--Scypho-Medusae + --Legends of Anthropoid Apes--New Cetacean pp. 319-335 + + + CHAPTER XVI. + + LAND AND FRESHWATER SHELLS. + + Several New Species--Variation of Species--Bulimi--Neritinae--Mode of + Dispersal--Suggestion as to the Origin of Tree-Nerites--The capability + of Neritinae to adapt themselves to different climates--List of my + Collection of Shells--Description of New Species--Littorina + scabra pp. 336-351 + + + CHAPTER XVII. + + THE CLIMATE OF THE SOLOMON ISLANDS. + + Rainfall--The Black Squall--Rain Records of Ugi and Santa Anna--Ship + Record--Annual Rainfall of the Coasts and Higher Regions--Barometric + Pressure--Temperature--Humidity--Sun-burns--Winds--Table of + Meteorological Observations--Wind Record--The Effects of the Climate + on the Weight of the Body pp. 352-370 + + + INDEX 371 + + + + +THE SOLOMON ISLANDS. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +THOSE who have never been tempted "to seek strange truths in +undiscovered lands," will perhaps find it difficult to appreciate the +disappointments, inconveniences, and petty difficulties which beset the +traveller, however favourably circumstanced he may be. Patience and +perseverance enable him finally to disregard these lesser hindrances and +to devote his undisturbed attention to the principal objects he has in +view: and thus, when writing at some future time the narrative of his +experiences, he gives but little prominence to matters which affected +very materially at the moment both his personal comfort and his chances +of success. + +Amongst the Solomon Islands the student of nature may be compared to a +man who, having found a mine of great wealth, is only allowed to carry +away just so much of the precious ore as he can bear about his person. +For there can be no region of the world where he experiences more +tantalisation. Day after day he skirts the shores of islands of which +science has no "ken." Month after month, he may scan, as I have done, +lofty mountain-masses never yet explored, whose peaks rise through the +clouds to heights of from 7,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. He may +discern on the mountain-slopes the columns of blue smoke which mark the +abodes of men who have never beheld the white man. But he cannot land +except accompanied by a strong party; and he has therefore to be content +usually with viewing such scenes from the deck of his vessel. +Fortunately, however, there are some parts of the Solomon Group where +the hostility of the natives has been to a great extent overcome by the +influence of the missionaries and of the traders; but the interiors of +the larger islands are almost without exception inhabited by fierce and +treacherous tribes who forbid all approach. + +In this chapter I have endeavoured to give some idea of my experiences +during my rambles in different islands of the group. When geologising in +these islands, one labours under the very serious disadvantage of being +unable to get any view or form any idea of the surroundings, on account +of the dense forest-growth clothing both the slopes and summits of the +hills, which is often impassable except by the rude native tracks that +are completely hemmed in by trees on either side. Bush walking, where +there is no native track, is a very tedious process and requires the +constant use of the compass. In districts of coral limestone, such +traverses are equally trying to the soles of one's boots and to the +measure of one's temper. After being provokingly entangled in a thicket +for some minutes, the persevering traveller walks briskly along through +a comparatively clear space, when a creeper suddenly trips up his feet +and over he goes to the ground. Picking himself up, he no sooner starts +again when he finds his face in the middle of a strong web which some +huge-bodied spider has been laboriously constructing. However, clearing +away the web from his features, he struggles along until coming to the +fallen trunk of some giant of the forest which obstructs his path, he +with all confidence plants his foot firmly on it and sinks knee-deep +into rotten wood. With resignation he lifts his foot out of the mess and +proceeds on his way, when he feels an uncomfortable sensation inside his +helmet, in which, on leisurely removing it from his head, he finds his +old friend the spider, with body as big as a filbert, quite at its ease. +Shaking it out in a hurry, he hastens along with his composure of mind +somewhat ruffled. Going down a steep slope, he clasps a stout-looking +areca palm to prevent himself falling, when down comes the rotten palm, +and the long-suffering traveller finds himself once more on the ground. +To these inconveniences must be added the peculiarly oppressive heat of +a tropical forest, the continual perspiration in which the skin is +bathed, and the frequent difficulty of getting water. There are +therefore many drawbacks to the enjoyment of such excursions undertaken +without an aim. But let there be some object to be gained, and it is +astonishing how small a success amply repays the naturalist for all the +toil. As an example of the tedious nature of bush walking in these +regions, I may state that crossing the small island of Santa Anna from +south to north--a distance of 2-1/2 miles--occupied on one occasion five +hours. For nearly the whole distance my path lay either through a dense +forest-growth which had never been cleared since this little island +first rose as a coral-atoll above the waves, or amongst tangled +undergrowth which often succeeded effectually in barring the way. Rarely +could I obtain a glimpse of my surroundings, and in consequence it was +on my pocket-compass that I entirely depended. Coral-rock honeycombed +into sharp tearing edges covered the slopes, my way lying between the +large masses of this rock that lay about in strange confusion, the +smaller blocks swaying about under my weight as if eager to rid +themselves of their unusual burden. At one place the coral-limestone +over a space of about a hundred yards was perforated like a sieve by +numerous holes two to three feet across and five to ten feet deep: but +now and then a deep fissure appeared at the bottom of one of these +cavities--leading Heaven knows where--in all probability the +swallow-hole of some stream that once became engulphed in the solid +rock. The spreading roots of trees, together with ferns and shrubs, +often nearly concealed these man-traps from my view; and I found it +necessary to clear the way for every step, a very tedious process at the +close of a tiresome day's excursion. + +In many places that I visited, the ascent of the stream-courses afforded +the only opportunity of learning anything of the geological structure on +account of the thick forest and the depth of the soil on the +hill-slopes. Only at times are the sun's rays able to penetrate the +dusky ravines through which the streams flow, being usually intercepted +by the matted foliage overhead. Even in the hottest day, such a walk is +pleasantly cool, since the necessity of wading waist-deep and sometimes +of swimming is not unfrequent in the deeper parts of the stream. +However, I found on more than one occasion, after having been wading for +several hours along one of the streams in the cool damp air of the +ravine, that I experienced a sudden sensation of chilliness accompanied +by lassitude and nausea, the thermometer at the time registering 80 deg. +in the shade. Probably the depressing effects of the gloom and damp air +of the ravine, and the wading for several hours under these conditions, +may explain these symptoms. + +I should have before referred to another very frequent inconvenience +which, in more senses than one, dampened the ardour with which I set out +on many of my excursions amongst these islands. The annual rainfall in +these regions is probably about five times as much as the average annual +rainfall in England. The showers themselves are usually very heavy, and +often rain falls at the rate of an inch in the hour, which means a +thorough wetting in less than a minute. When in the eastern part of the +group, I rarely used to return on board without having had half-an-inch, +or an inch, of rain distributed over my person. Such wettings, however, +do but little harm as long as a flannel suit is worn, since the weather +generally clears up after each shower and the powerful rays of the sun +dry the clothes in a very few minutes without there being the necessity +of stopping to take them off. + +In spite of the numerous drawbacks, my excursions never lost their +interest. Although accustomed to traverse districts which have been +upheaved in recent times to elevations of several hundred feet above the +sea, the finding of an ancient coral-reef high up a densely-wooded +hill-slope, or the picking up of sand and recent sea shells in the +interior of an island now supporting a luxuriant vegetation, always +excited the same feelings of wonder and interest that I experienced on +first landing on one of the recently upheaved islands of the Solomon +Group. My thirst, fatigue, and bruises, were forgotten, as whilst +contemplating my surroundings over a pipe I attempted to picture to +myself the stages in the history of the island on which I was standing, +and reflected on the unwritten past of the natives sitting smoking on +the ground around me. + +I was rarely unaccompanied in my excursions, since with the prospect of +getting tobacco and pipes at the close of the day, natives were always +found eager to accompany me. Frequently the boys and lads of the village +were only too glad to assist me in carrying my bags. The young imps were +always full of fun and frolic, making themselves useful in all kinds of +ways, and enlivening the time by their singing, laughing, and continual +chattering. Many were the speculations made concerning the nature of my +pursuits, and many were the questions to which I had to give some reply. +Gorai, the chief of the Shortland Islands, was very desirous to know +what I made with the rocks I collected; but I found it somewhat +difficult to give him an explanation which he could understand. On one +occasion I was the cause of much amusement and perplexity to the natives +of the village of Sinasoro in Bougainville Straits. Hitherto I had been +known to them chiefly on account of my rock-breaking propensities, but +during that particular visit I was making a collection of plants. The +chief men of the village received me very civilly, made me sit down, and +began at once to speculate on the nature of my new pursuit, the +botanical line being a new object for wonder with them. "Patu, he +finish?" (_patu_ meaning stone) was the question put to me by more than +one of their number; and on my telling them that I was going to turn my +attention to "bulu-bulu"--their general name for plants they have no +name for--I had to explain to further inquirers that a particular fern, +named "sinimi" in the native tongue (a species of _Gleichenia_), which +flourished on the higher slopes of their island, was one of the objects +of my excursion. + +My usual plan on arriving at a village, which I had never visited +before, was to distribute a little tobacco amongst the curious throng +that pressed around, and then to light my pipe and look pleasant whilst +my guides were endeavouring to explain the character of my pursuits. A +white man without tobacco in these islands is worse off than a man +without any money in his purse in London: for very little is given for +nothing by these natives, and the acceptance of a gift binds you to give +an equivalent in return. I remember once when landing on the beach of a +village where the natives seemed a little uncertain as to what kind of +reception they should give me, what a rapid transformation was produced +by the gift of a little tobacco to the chief. Where there had been +scowls and sullen looks a few moments before, smiles and laughter now +prevailed. The chief led me into his house, introduced me to his +principal wife, and in another minute I was dangling his little son of +about two years old upon my knee. This pleasing transformation had been +effected by the expenditure of a halfpennyworth of tobacco; and I could +not resist framing at the time the following doggrel rhyme, the excuse +for which must be the occasion that gave rise to it. + + Shade of Exeter Hall! emerge from thy pall, + Learn the token of union 'twixt white man and black: + Not a brisk cannonade, nor the attractions of trade, + But the mysterious influence of the fragrant _tambak_.[4] + + [4] This is the manner of pronouncing "tobacco" amongst these + islanders. In the Malay Archipelago it is pronounced "tambaku." + ("Crawfurd's Malay Grammar and Dictionary.") + +Although I was rarely absent from the ship more than a couple of days at +a time, my excursions had occasionally, as regards the number of my +attendants, somewhat of an imposing appearance. Being anxious to visit a +district named Komalia, on the north-west side of Alu, the principal of +the Shortland Islands, that being the locality from which the natives +obtained their slabs of a hard, crystalline diorite, upon which they +used to sharpen their knives and axes, Gorai, the chief, volunteered to +take me there. Accordingly, he appeared alongside the ship the next +morning in a large war-canoe, fifty feet long, and manned by eighteen +paddle-men. We started, twenty-four all told, including Gorai, three of +his sons, and myself. The chief and I sat beside each other, on the +second bow thwart, the post, I believe, which is usually occupied by a +chief. Leaving the Onua anchorage shortly before ten A.M., we proceeded +easily along at about three miles an hour, coasting the north side of +Alu and passing numerous islets on the way. The day was fine but very +hot, and there was no protection from the glare of the sun on the water. +About half-past one, we reached the north-west point of Alu, where we +put into a small cove to get water. Here we saw the tracks of a +crocodile on the sand; and on proceeding on our way we saw another on +the beach, which, however, soon dived into the sea. Shortly after this, +two-thirds of the crew of the canoe jumped overboard after a small +turtle, which managed to evade them. The men in the water disturbed +another crocodile, which rushed boldly through the line of swimmers, +and, diving under our canoe, soon disappeared. Three dugongs came up to +the surface close to us; and the old chief fired a shot with his snider +at one of them, but without much apparent effect. About half-past two, +we reached our destination, and we at once proceeded in search of the +volcanic rocks, which we soon succeeded in finding. There was not the +slightest reason to question on what errand we were employed, and I +doubt if there was ever a more odd-looking party of geologists. The old +chief, distinguished from the rest of his men by a shirt, his only +article of apparel, led the way; and I followed with about a dozen of +his natives. Taking the cue from me, the whole party immediately began +breaking up the rocks, and I was in a very short time supplied with an +abundance of material to select from. Courtesy, however, compelled me to +take all the chief brought to me, which was somewhat inconvenient since +the old man displayed much energy in using my geological hammer. On +returning to the beach where the canoe had been drawn up, we found that +some of the natives had captured a wild boar by the aid of their dogs +and spears. The animal was already disembowelled and was being +quartered. Whilst we were preparing our evening meal, some of the men +made temporary couches for the chief, his three sons, and myself, these +couches being merely a layer of poles resting at their ends on two logs +and raised about six inches above the ground, the materials being +quickly obtained in the adjoining wood. As night fell, we lay down on +our couches and smoked, whilst the natives, who had lit about +half-a-dozen fires, were waiting for their roast pig, the quarters of +which had been placed on a large pile of burning logs, built up in +layers to a height of three feet, with three poles placed like a tripod +over the pile to draw the fire up. When it was quite dark, the numerous +fires lit up the wood around, whilst the natives made the place resound +with their singing and laughter. Over our pipes, Gorai and I had some +conversation on his ideas of a future state, which he summed up +concisely in the phrase "go ground." In the middle of the night heavy +rain came on; and since there was no shelter, I had simply to lie still +and let it come down. My companions, however, used their pandanus mats +to cover themselves from head to foot, and did not appear to be, in the +slightest degree, inconvenienced by the wet. + +On another occasion, I spent a night on the summit of Treasury Island, +in the company of four natives, one of whom, named Erosini, knew a +little English. Leaving the anchorage in the early morning, a three +hours' tramp brought us to the large stream named Tella-tella, on the +north-east side of the island. Another four hours were occupied in +wading up the stream, when we commenced to ascend the hill-slopes, +arriving at the summit late in the afternoon. From here we could see, at +a distance of about sixty miles, the lofty peaks of Bougainville, and +midway between us lay the white beaches of the Shortland Islands. As it +was getting dusk, we began to look around for what Erosini had described +to me as a house where we might pass the night. It turned out, however, +to be a very dilapidated "lean-to," which had been temporarily occupied +by a native who had come up to look after his sago palms a year or more +before. My men immediately set to work to make it habitable for the +night, and then they began to prepare their evening meal, consisting of +a two-pound tin of beef, three opossums, and a large fresh-water eel +which had been captured during the day. With the night-fall, the +concert of frogs, lizards, and insects began. One could readily +distinguish amongst the notes of the various contributors in the evening +chorus, the "kooroo" of the lizard, and the "appa-appa" of the frog, +sounds from which the native names for these creatures are derived, +viz., "kurru-rupu" and "appa-appa." Numerous fire-flies lit up the +recesses of the forest, as if to disclose the hiding-places of the +performers in the general discord, but to no purpose; and soon, rather +fatigued by our day's exertions, we fell asleep. So little had my +companions been used to wander over their island, that I found three out +of the four had never been in that locality before. + +Not unfrequently, after having carefully chosen my guides, I have found +it necessary to lead instead of to follow; but as a rule my men have +been very willing to trust to the directions of the compass, which I +have found absolutely necessary in crossing the smaller islands with no +track to guide the course. Some of my pleasantest memories are +associated with my traverses across these smaller islands. After forcing +my way during some hours through a tangled forest, irritated by the +numerous obstructions in my course and sweltering under the oppressive +heat, I have suddenly emerged from the trees on the weather coast of the +island, where the invigorating blast of the trade in a few moments +restores the equilibrium of mind and body as one drinks in the healthful +breeze. After such an experience, I have found myself with my native +companions standing on the brink of a bold line of coral-limestone cliff +with the surf breaking below us, which even in the calmest weather sends +up one continued roar, whilst away to seaward, across the blue expanse +of water, extended the horizon unbroken by any distant land. On the edge +of the cliff the pandanus and the cycad competed with each other for the +possession of the seaward margin of the island. The scene was peculiarly +Pacific; and as we sat alone on the brink of the cliffs enjoying a smoke +and contemplating the scene spread out below us, I fancied even the +minds of my natives shared with me that feeling of awe with which one +views the grander of nature's forces in actual operation. . . . . +Equally pleasant are my recollections of numerous tramps during fine +weather along the sandy beaches on the windward coasts of coral islands. +On such occasions the sea itself seemed to revel in the glory of the +day. Wave after wave, white-tipped with foam and reflecting the +brightest of the sun's rays, pursued each other merrily over the surface +of its unfathomable blue. Against the edge of the reef broke the surf +unceasingly, sending its whitened spray high into the air, and joining +its hoarse bass with the hum of insect life from the neighbouring wood. + +During the greater portion of our sojourn in the Solomon Islands, I had +a small Rob Roy canoe made for me by Mr. Oliver, boat-builder of +Auckland, N.Z. It was built of kauri pine, and measured 8-1/2 feet in +length and 3 feet in beam, being intended to combine compactness with +stability. This little craft turned out a great success and was +extremely handy, as I could haul it up on the beach with ease, and its +stowage capability was something surprising. Numerous and varied were my +experiences in this small canoe, but the most enjoyable were those when +in the loveliest of weather I paddled gently along from one coral islet +to another, admiring the variety in form and colour of the groves of +coral over which my little craft smoothly glided. At other times in the +sleepy hours of the afternoon I would tie up my canoe to the overhanging +branch of a tree, and would land to enjoy a cocoa-nut, a pipe, and +perhaps a nap. When lazy, I would get a tow from my native companions in +their larger canoe; and in this manner I was towed for more than a mile +up one of the large streams that empty into Choiseul Bay. I used to +penetrate into all kinds of solitary inlets, now disturbing the siesta +of some unsuspecting crocodile as I paddled through the dismal tract of +the mangrove swamp, or surprising a turtle in the shallow water of the +lagoons inside the coral-reefs. In the deeper water I have passed +through a shoal of clumsy porpoises, some of which I could have touched +with my paddle; whilst occasionally some huge shark, twice the length of +my canoe, would come almost within reach, and then, after satisfying its +curiosity, dive down into the depths again. Now and then my little craft +would be borne on the shoulders of natives to some inland lakelet which +I was anxious to explore. In its lightness I found this great advantage, +that I could sometimes considerably shorten my journey by what I may +describe as terrestrial navigation. On more than one occasion I have +crossed the weather edge of a coral-reef, watching for my chance between +the breakers, and keeping warily clear of the numerous coral nobs, any +one of which would have upset the canoe and its contents; but these are +experiments which I should not care to repeat. I was only twice upset, +and on both occasions my canoe displayed two other serviceable +qualities, shipping but little water and losing none of its contents +although bottom upwards. One of these upsets was rather ludicrous. I +was crossing Alu harbour in tow of a large native canoe, setting out on +a two days' excursion with all my stores on board, when my scientific +zeal induced me to lean over to pick up a piece of floating pumice. At +that moment the large canoe gave a sudden tug and I found myself in the +water with my canoe bottom upwards beside me. The men in the other canoe +turned her over on her keel, and I got in over the bow, finding very +little water inside, but quite sufficient to soak our store of biscuit. +However, nothing was lost, although my watch stopped half-an-hour +afterwards and refused duty during the rest of the season, and my +aneroid was never of any use again, both these articles having been +carried in my belt. + +On the weather coasts of cliff-girt islands exposed to the continuous +trade-swell, much caution is needed in skirting the shore, as every ten +minutes or more a huge roller suddenly rushes in, exposing rocks covered +usually by three or four fathoms of water, and rising up the face of the +cliffs to a height twice as high as the usual level reached by the +breakers. From my foolhardy disregard of this circumstance, I very +nearly lost my life in July, 1884, on the weather coast of Stirling +Island. Having stood for some moments on the edge of the cliff admiring +the magnificent breakers that broke at the foot, there having been a +strong south-easterly gale during the two preceding days, I commenced to +clamber down the face of the cliff to reach a ledge that rose about +twenty feet above the usual level of the breakers. Whilst I was pausing +in the descent to examine the numerous embedded corals in the +cliff-face, a huge wave rose over the ledge, swept up the face of the +cliff over my head, and carried me off as if I had been a feather. I +thought my last moments had come, knowing that if swept off the ledge +into the breakers below, I should be dashed by the next roller against +the base of the cliff. As I was being carried off, I clutched a +projecting point of coral-rock with all my energy, and in a few moments +the wave had left me lying flat on my face on the ledge within two yards +of its brink. The next roller was fortunately of much smaller size, and +in less than a minute I had clambered up the face of the cliff again to +a position of safety, pretty well bruised and scratched about the arms +and legs, but otherwise none the worse. My compass and other things had +fallen out of the pouches in my belt, showing that I had described a +somersault during the immersion. Whilst waiting to dry my clothes in +the sun, I noticed that another ten minutes elapsed before a breaker of +similar size rolled in. + +I will conclude this chapter with some observations on the nature of the +work performed by the officers of the survey. The usual experiences of a +nautical surveyor, when detached from his ship for periods varying from +a few days to a fortnight or more, are little known outside the circle +of those more immediately interested in the work of the Hydrographic +Department of the Admiralty. They would afford, as I have often thought, +materials for an interesting volume, the perusal of which would give the +general reader some idea of what nautical surveying really is. It is a +work often hazardous and tedious to those engaged in the boats, and +frequently full of anxiety for the commander who has to direct the +survey. + +The work in the Solomon Islands had its peculiar, and none the less +trying, features. To be detached in a boat for a week off a coast, on +which it was not considered prudent to land, except on particular points +selected for the establishment of theodolite-stations, was a not +uncommon experience with the surveying parties. The alternation of heavy +rain and scorching heat served to vary the experience, but not to +increase the comfort of those employed from sunrise to sunset in mapping +the intricacies of an unsurveyed coast; and the kindheartedness of the +surveying officer was often sorely tried, when, after a tedious day's +work under these conditions, he had to tell off his men to keep a +look-out for canoes, and a sharp eye on the land, to see that the boat +did not drag. There were, of course, other occasions when the detached +parties were engaged in surveying islands, the natives of which were +friendly disposed; and then, if the weather favoured them, the week's +absence from the ship partook almost of the nature of a pleasant picnic. +In the Solomon Islands, however, a considerable experience of the +inhabitants of an island is required before a boat can be sent away with +the certain assurance that its occupants will meet with no mishap. The +unfortunate massacre of Lieutenant Bower of H.M.S. "Sandfly," and of +most of his boat's crew in 1880, whilst employed in the survey of the +Florida Islands in this group, is but an example of the uncertainty that +there always will be in dealing with these races. Although similar +disasters have been recently almost of monthly occurrence in these +islands, during our intercourse of 21 months with the natives we did not +fire a single shot in anger, and in our turn we never witnessed a spear +hurled or an arrow discharged except in sport. + +The navigation of a sailing ship, such as H.M.S. "Lark," whilst engaged +in the survey of a passage dotted with unknown, sunken coral-reefs, and +skirted by islands inhabited by a race of savages who have obtained a +notorious reputation on account of the ferocity they display to the +white man, cannot but tax to the uttermost the capacity and nerve of the +officer in command. I can recall more than one anxious moment, and +probably there were others known only to those concerned in the +navigation of the ship, when on our suddenly getting soundings in the +middle of the night in a place where we expected to find "a hundred +fathoms and no bottom," I set about putting my journals together in +order not to lose what I had been at so much pains to obtain. Towards +the completion of the survey, however, it was ascertained by Lieutenant +Oldham that the ship might have sailed without danger over any of the +isolated reefs which were not indicated at the surface by either a +sand-key or an islet; but this was a character of the reefs that was +only ascertained by a process more pleasing to talk about than to +undergo. + +Before quitting this subject, I should refer to an apparent injustice +which exists in the apportioning of no extra pay to the men employed in +detached boat-work in the surveying service. With the exception of an +issue of clothing, gratis, the boats' crews receive little or nothing in +the form of a reward. I am strongly inclined to believe that the +recognition, even in a slight degree, of the arduous character of their +work, which is of quite an exceptional character as compared with the +routine-employment on board the ordinary man-of-war, would do much +towards increasing the interest usually displayed by the men employed in +such a service. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +GOVERNMENT--HEAD-HUNTING--SLAVERY--CANNIBALISM. + + +THE following anthropological notes are the result of my own personal +observation and research, and are necessarily of a somewhat fragmentary +character. I had no intention when I first visited these islands of +making any special observations on the habits and manners of their +inhabitants. When, however, I saw the apparent want of interest +displayed by those who had it in their power to enrich the world with +their accumulated experiences, I determined to jot down in my diary the +things which came in my way during my intercourse with the natives. I +cannot of course lay claim to the accuracy and more intimate knowledge +such as missionaries and traders resident in the group must possess; and +it is to be deplored that such valuable sources of materials for a +comprehensive work on the anthropology of this region should be allowed +to lie fallow. My lengthened intercourse with the natives of certain +parts of the group removed to some extent the disadvantages under which +the traveller must always labour when not actually resident among them. +My field of observation, however, was limited to but a small area of the +whole region: and the greater part has yet to be explored and described. + + * * * * * + +Commencing my remarks by referring to the system of government usually +adopted in these islands, it should be observed that the form of +hereditary chieftainship, which prevails throughout the Pacific, here +predominates. Every island that supports a number of natives may possess +as many distinct chiefs--each claiming independence of the others--as +there are villages in the island; and this statement holds equally good +whether applied to a large island like St. Christoval or to those of +small size as Santa Anna and Ugi. Yet there is not unfrequently to be +met a chief who, by the power of his wealth or by the number of his +fighting men, assumes a degree of suzerainty over the less powerful +chiefs in his vicinity. Thus, the influence of Gorai, the Shortland +chief, is not only dominant over the islands of Bougainville Straits, +but extends to the adjacent coast of the large islands of Bougainville +and Choiseul, and reaches even to Bouka, more than a hundred miles away. +The small island of Simbo or Eddystone, the Narovo of the natives, is +under the sway of a powerful chief who resides, together with nearly all +his fighting men, on an islet bordering its south-east side. His +influence extends to the neighbouring larger islands, and is probably as +despotic as that of any of the numerous chiefs with whom I was brought +into contact. I might mention other instances in this group where a +comparatively small island becomes the political centre of a large +district. Similar instances are familiar amongst the other Pacific +archipelagos, and notably in the case of Bau in Fiji; and they may all +be attributed to the fact that the coast-tribes are of more robust +physique and of more enterprising character than the inhabitants of the +interior of the larger island, or "bush men" as they are often termed. + +The large island of St. Christoval is divided amongst numerous tribes +between which there are constant feuds, each tribe having its own chief. +A wide distinction exists between the inhabitants of the interior and +those of the coast; and an unceasing hostility prevails between the one +and the other. The distinction often extends to language, a circumstance +which points to a long continuation of these feuds; and from it we may +infer that the isolation has continued during a considerable period. The +bush-tribes find their best protection on the summits of the high hills +and on the crests of the mountain-ridges which traverse the interior of +the island. I passed one night in the bush-village of Lawa, which is +situated on a hill-top about 1,400 feet above the sea near the north +coast of St. Christoval. As I was in a locality where probably no white +man had been before, the novelty of my situation kept me awake the +greater part of the night; and very early the next morning I rose up +from my mat in the tambu-house to view, undisturbed, the interior region +of the island. It was a gloomy morning. Thin lines of mist were still +encircling the loftier summits or lingering in the valleys below. Here +and there on the crest of some distant hill a cluster of cocoa-nut palms +marked the home of a bush-tribe effectually isolated by deep intervening +valleys from the neighbouring tribes. I gazed upon a region which had +for ages worn the same aspect, inhabited by the same savage races, the +signs of whose existence played such an insignificant part in the +panorama laid out before me. Standing alone on this hill-top, I +reflected on the deeds of barbarity which these silent mountains must +have witnessed "in the days of other years," deeds which are only too +frequent in our own day when the hand of every tribe is against its +neighbour, and when the butchery of some unsuspecting hamlet too often +supplies the captors with the materials for the cannibal feast. + +By the unusual success of their treachery and cunning--the two weapons +most essential to savage warfare in St. Christoval as well as in the +other islands--some chiefs have acquired a predominance over the +neighbouring villages, and their name inspires terror throughout the +island. Amongst them, I may mention Taki, the chief of the large village +of Wano on the north coast of this island. He has obtained the double +reputation of being a friend to the white man and of being the most +accomplished head-hunter in St. Christoval; and, as may be readily +imagined, the efforts of the Melanesian Mission, by whom a station has +been for many years established in this village,[5] have been greatly +retarded by the indifference of this powerful chief. The resident +teacher in the village was his own son, who had been selected by Bishop +Selwyn and had undergone the usual training of teachers in Norfolk +Island. I regret to write that he greatly lapsed during our stay in the +group, that he appears to have accompanied his father on a head-hunting +foray, and that he finally met with an untimely fate, being so severely +wounded by a shark when fishing on the reef that he died a few hours +afterwards. Taki, although not a Christian convert, was fond of +displaying his connection with the Mission. He showed me a certificate +which he received from Bishop Patteson in July, 1866; and in fact he is +always ready to do the honours of his village to the white man. Of his +head-hunting propensities, Captain Macdonald, an American trader +resident in Santa Anna, told us the following tale: Not long before the +arrival of H.M.S. "Lark" in the Solomon Islands, he was sailing along +the St. Christoval coast, when he met Taki in his war-canoe proceeding +on one of these expeditions. He endeavoured to place hindrances in the +chief's way by telling him that he had native-traders living at the +different places on the coast where he intended to land. But it was to +no purpose. Taki saw the ruse, and taking it in good part remarked to +Captain Macdonald that he had apparently a large number of natives +trading for him. Waiting patiently until some unfortunate bushmen +ventured down on the reefs to fish, the Wano chief surprised them, +slaughtered many and carried the living and the dead in triumph to his +village. When Mr. Brenchley visited this village in H.M.S. "Curacoa" in +1865, he saw evidence of a head-hunting foray, in which probably Taki +had taken part in his youthful days. The skulls of 25 bushmen were +observed hanging up under the roof of the tambu-house, all showing the +marks of the tomahawk.[6] In our time, this chief conducted his forays +less openly, and I saw no evidence of his work in the tambu-houses of +his village. + + [5] The Rev. J. Atkin was resident at Wano in 1871, shortly before + he met his death with Bishop Patteson in Santa Cruz. + + [6] "Cruise of H.M.S. 'Curacoa'" (p. 267); by J. L. Brenchley, M.A. + +The practice of head-hunting, above referred to, prevails over a large +extent of the Solomon Group. The chiefs of New Georgia or Rubiana extend +their raids to Isabel, Florida, and Guadalcanar; and thus perform +voyages over a hundred miles in length. Within the radius of these raids +no native can be said to enjoy the security of his own existence for a +single day. In the villages of Rubiana may be seen heaps of skulls +testifying to the success of previous expeditions. Captain Cheyne, when +visiting Simbo or Eddystone Island in 1844, found that the natives had +just returned from a successful expedition, bringing with them 93 heads +of men, women, and children. In these expeditions, he says, they +sometimes reached as far as Murray Island which lies about 135 miles to +the eastward.[7] Their reputation, however, had extended yet further, +since D'Urville, who visited Thousand Ships Bay in 1838, tells us that +the Isabel natives knew the land of Simbo and pointed to the west to +indicate its direction.[8] The Rev. Dr. Codrington, in referring to +these head-hunting raids,[9] remarks that the people of the south-west +part of Isabel have suffered very much from attacks made on them year +after year by the inhabitants of the further coast of the same island +and of neighbouring islands, the object of these attacks being to obtain +heads, either for the honour of a dead or living chief or for the +inauguration of new canoes. He observes that a new war canoe is not +invested with due _mana_, _i.e._, supernatural power, until some man +has been killed by those on board her; and any unfortunate voyagers are +hunted down for the purpose on the first trip or afterwards. The Rubiana +natives are said to have introduced head-hunting and human sacrifices +into the neighbouring islands. They carry off not only heads but living +prisoners, whom they are believed to keep, till on the death of a chief, +or launching of a canoe, or some great sacrifice, their lives are taken. + + [7] "A Description of Islands in the Western Pacific Ocean" (p. 66), + by Andrew Cheyne, London, 1852. + + [8] "Voyage au Pole Sud," Paris, 1843; tom. v., p. 31. + + [9] Journal of Anthropological Institute, vol. x., p. 261. + +White men have sometimes been the victims of these head-hunting +expeditions. As is well known, Lieutenant Bower, of H.M.S. "Sandfly," +met his death, together with the greater number of his boat's crew, on +the islet of Mandoleana, in 1880, at the hands of a similar expedition +undertaken by the Florida natives. Kalikona, the most influential chief +of the Florida Islands, was freed from implication in this tragedy +mainly through the efforts of Bishop Selwyn, to whose influence the +subsequent surrender of the five natives concerned in the raid was +chiefly due. More often than not, these head-hunting forays are +unconnected with cannibalism, the mere possession of skulls being the +principal object of the expedition. In some islands, there is a rude +idea of justice perceptible in this practice. It is the custom in the +eastern islands of the group to place out head-money for the head of any +man who may have rendered himself obnoxious to any particular village. +The money--a considerable amount of native shell-money--may be offered +by the friends of a murdered man for the head of the murderer. Months, +sometimes years, may elapse before the deed is accomplished and the +money paid. The task is generally undertaken by a professional +head-hunter, such as we met in the person of Mai, the second chief of +the village of Sapuna, in the island of Santa Anna. To make a thorough +examination of the home and surroundings of his victim, and to insinuate +himself into that intimacy which friendship alone can give him, are +necessary initiatory steps which only the cunning head-hunter can know +how to carry to a successful issue. Time is of no moment. The means +employed are slow, but the end is none the less secure; and when the +opportunity arrives, it is the friend of months, if not of years, who +gives the fatal blow. + +In the above description of the head-hunter, I have had before my mind +some of the reminiscences of Captain Macdonald, to whom I have before +alluded. By his judicious treatment of the natives in the eastern +islands, he has acquired a powerful influence for good amongst them; +and it is to his past discretion that many a white man, myself among the +number, has owed his safety when landing on St. Christoval. + +When this island was being surveyed by the officers of H.M.S. "Lark," in +1882, we learned that there was head-money out for a white man's head in +a district on the north side and nearly opposite Ugi. It appeared that +about a year before a fatal accident had occurred on board a +trading-vessel through a revolver going off unexpectedly and killing a +native belonging to the district. It was the current opinion of resident +traders that sooner or later the required head would be obtained. As +characteristic of a trader's experience in these islands, I may add that +on one occasion when visiting Mr. Bateman, a trader residing then on the +north coast of Ugi, I was told by him that about a month before a +friendly Malaita chief had arrived in a large canoe at Ugi with the +information that head-money had been offered by another Malaita chief +for the head of a white man. The chief who brought the news advised Mr. +Bateman to remove his residence to the interior of the island; and the +natives in his vicinity were very solicitous that the warning should be +heeded. + +I learned from Mr. Stephens, who has resided on Ugi for several years, +that on one occasion when he was resident on Guadalcanar, on returning +from an excursion up the bed of one of the streams, a message was +received from the chief of a village in the interior warning him not to +make any more similar excursions or he would take his life. The chief of +the village, under whose protection Mr. Stephens was residing, took up +the matter as an insult to himself; and sent a reply to the effect that +if the neighbouring chief wished to remain on terms of amity with him, +he should at once send a head in atonement for the threats directed +against the white man. A day or two afterwards, Mr. Stephens saw the +head, which had been duly sent. + +The little island of Santa Anna, although but 2-1/2 miles in length, +supports two principal villages, Otagara and Sapuna, which are as often +as not at war with each other, although only separated by the breadth of +the island. Such was the state of affairs during one of our visits to +Port Mary in this island; and the fact that the natives of the two +villages were connected by inter-marriages did not act as a deterrent in +the matter. Through the restless spirit of Mai, the head-hunter before +referred to, some old grievance had been dug up, the murder, I believe, +some years before of the brother of Mai by the Otagara natives. The +outcome of it was that in the middle of the night all the fighting men +of Sapuna assembled at the tambu-house of Mai, and started off along the +coast to pounce upon their fellow islanders on the other side. The +utmost that could have happened would have been the slaughter of some +unsuspecting man or woman on the skirts of the village: but, as it +chanced, a thunderstorm with heavy rain overtook the party when near +their destination; and this dampened their courage to such a degree that +they returned to their own village with the excuse that the rain, by +running down their faces, would have hindered them in throwing their +spears and avoiding those of their opponents. On the following day, Mai +led a party of Sapuna men to make another attack, and on returning in +the afternoon from one of my excursions into the interior of the island, +I learned that the party had returned triumphant, having killed one of +their neighbour's large pigs, an act which is regarded as a "casus +belli" in native politics. + +In the person of Mai, we have a typical example of a Solomon Island +head-hunter. The cunning and ferocity which marked his dealings, were +sufficiently indicated in his countenance and his mien. He had +established for himself the position of war-chief in his village of +Sapuna, the reigning chief being of a more peaceable disposition. During +one of our visits to this island we found that this war-chief had been +very recently displaying his heroism in the most approved native +fashion. He had led a war-party across to Fanarite on the opposite coast +of St. Christoval, to avenge the death of a fugitive from a labour +vessel who, having escaped at Santa Anna, subsequently found his way to +Fanarite where he was killed. The excuse, although somewhat circuitous, +was quite sufficient for Mai, who in his disinterestedness thought more +of this chance of gaining new laurels than of the untimely end of the +native whose death he was so eager to avenge. Having reached the part of +the coast where this man had been killed, the war-party lay in ambush +and slaughtered a chief and two women as they were returning from their +yam patches; whilst they severely wounded another woman who escaped into +the bush with a spear through her back. Having dipped their weapons in +the gore of their victims, Mai and his party returned to Santa Anna. I +was sorry to learn that a native, named Pukka-pukka who had served in +the "Lark" as an interpreter during the previous year, had taken an +active part in this expedition. It appeared that the chief had aimed at +him, but his musket missed fire, when Pukka-pukka shot him through the +back with his snider. The scene of the tragedy was familiar to me, as I +had landed there the year before. Pukka-pukka, who is a sensible young +man and of by no means a bloodthirsty disposition, did not like my +taking him to task for the part he took in this raid; and he protested +more than once in a somewhat injured tone that his people did not fight +without good cause. In his case, I felt confident that he was not +tempted by the mere love of bloodshedding, the truth being that through +the able tutorship of Mai, all old feuds are kept alive in the minds of +the young men of the village, who, in their desire to distinguish +themselves, come to regard such grievances as fair grounds for war. We +soon learned that the Fanarite natives would seize the first opportunity +to retaliate; and that head-money to a large amount had been offered for +the head of a native of Santa Anna, and particularly for the head of +Pukka-pukka. + +The chiefs of the islands of Bougainville Straits possess far greater +power over their peoples than that which is wielded by most of the +chiefs we encountered at the St. Christoval end of the group. At Santa +Anna and at Ugi, the position of the chief is almost an empty honour; +and some man of spirit, though not of principle, such as Mai in the +former island and Rora at Ugi, usurps by his fighting prowess a large +share of the power. On the St. Christoval coast I met several such +chiefs, who possess no influence beyond their own district, and often +very little in that. Occasionally, as I have before observed, a chief is +found who, like Taki at Wano, exercises a powerful influence over the +less pretentious chiefs of neighbouring islands and districts. Some of +the Guadalcanar chiefs are very powerful; but with them I had no +personal intercourse; and I prefer to confine my remarks to those +portions of the group with which I became acquainted. Returning, then, +to the chiefs of the islands of Bougainville Straits, I may enumerate +them in their order of importance--Gorai in the Shortland Islands, Mule +at Treasury, Kurra-kurra and Tomimas in Faro or Fauro, and Krepas at +Choiseul Bay. There is constant communication between the natives of +these islands, more particularly between those of Treasury, the +Shortlands, and Faro, the distances between the islands varying between +15 and 25 miles. Intermarriages are frequent between the natives of +these islands. They all speak the same language; and not uncommonly a +man shifts his home from one island to another. The chiefs are all +connected either by blood-relationship or by marriage, and together form +as powerful an alliance as might be found in the whole group. Visits of +condolence are exchanged in times of bereavement between the chiefs; and +presents are conveyed from one to another. On one occasion we carried a +present of sago from Mule to Gorai; and I have on more than one occasion +during our passages between these islands been made the bearer of a +message from chief to chief. + +[Illustration: 1 + +2 + +1. GORAI, HIS PRINCIPAL WIFE, AND HIS SON FERGUSON. + +2. FOUR OF THE WIVES OF MULE. + +(_To face page 21._)] + +Gorai, the well-known Alu chief, Alu being the name of his principal +island, exercises a kind of suzerainty over the neighbouring chiefs. But +his reputation and influence extend far beyond the islands directly or +indirectly under his rule. From Treasury northward and eastward, +throughout the Shortlands, across the straits to Choiseul Bay, through +Faro, and along the coast of Bougainville, extending even to Bouka, his +influence is predominant. Masters of vessels, recruiting labour on the +coast of Bougainville, have a sufficient guarantee for the good +behaviour of the natives of the places they visit, if they have been +fortunate enough to secure the presence on board of one of the sons of +Gorai. This chief has been the trusted friend of the white man for many +years. On our first visit to Alu we were therefore prepared to think +favourably of him. We found him on the beach, surrounded by a +considerable number of his people. Shaking hands with us, he told us in +his imperfect English that he was a friend of the white man. Rather +beyond middle age, and somewhat shorter than the average native, he has +an honest, good-humoured expression of countenance, which at once +prepossessed us in his favour. Whilst seated in the dingy interior of +one of his houses, surrounded by several of his wives, Gorai related to +us the story--well known to all acquainted with the Solomon Group--of +his reprisal a few years before on the natives of Nouma-nouma, a village +on the east coast of Bougainville, for the murder of Captain Ferguson of +the trading steamer "Ripple." The master of the "Ripple" was an old +friend of Gorai, and traded extensively with him. On hearing the news, +the chief mustered his men and despatched them in canoes, under the +command of his eldest son, to the scene of the massacre, about a hundred +miles away. The natives of the offending village were surprised, and +about twenty of them were killed, including men, women, and +children--"all same man-of-war," as Gorai too truthfully observed. One +of the chief's sons has received the name of the unfortunate master of +the "Ripple;" and I may here refer to the good name which Captain +Ferguson has left behind him, not only amongst the natives of the +Solomon Islands, but also amongst his fellow-traders in those seas. The +inhabitants of the Shortland Islands, Gorai's immediate rule, live in +great awe of their chief; and the number of natives who gathered round +us when we first met the chief showed us by their manner that in the +friendship of the chief the white man possessed the goodwill of his +subjects. We were unable to see very much of the mode of exercising his +power; but I suspect that Gorai, like other chiefs, places but little +value on the lives of his people. Punishment is summarily dealt by the +spear or the tomahawk; and I learned from natives of the adjoining +islands that the offence may be of a very trivial nature. + +On one occasion, Gorai took me in his war-canoe on a geological +excursion to the north-west side of Alu. During our return, the sun set +when we were about twelve miles from the ship, and left us to pursue our +way in the darkness. Seated alongside the chief on the second bow thwart +of the canoe, I could not help reflecting how many times he must have +occupied the same seat in his war-canoes when engaged in those +expeditions which have made his influence dominant on this part of the +group. On our way we skirted the beach of an islet on which were +squatting a party of Alu natives who had gone there to fish. Although we +passed a few yards from these men, not a word of recognition was +exchanged. The sight of a large war-canoe with Gorai and a white man in +the bow passing them in the dusk of evening must have been a novel one +to them, yet neither they nor our men exchanged a word. There they sat +squatting motionless on the beach, and we passed them in silence. Gorai +subsequently explained to me that the reason of this was that the men +were "too much fright," or rather awed, by the presence of their chief. + +The chief of the Shortland Islands has two or more elderly men who act +as his ministers. Many years ago he was living at Treasury, of which +island he was chief; but being unwilling to take part in the hostility +displayed by the Treasury natives towards the white men, he left the +island under the chieftainship of Mule, the present chief, who still +remained in some degree under the rule of Gorai. The Alu chief takes a +pleasure in asserting that he is "all same white man," at the same time +deprecating the inferior position of his race with the remark, "White +man, he savez too much. Poor black man! He no savez nothing." + +I now come to Mule, the Treasury chief, who numbers amongst his wives a +sister of Gorai, Bita by name; whilst the Alu chief has returned the +compliment by making Mule's sister, Kai-ka, the principal amongst his +hundred wives. Mule, also known as Mule-kopa, has rather the appearance +and build of a chief of one of the more eastern Pacific groups. He has a +sedate expression of countenance, a prominent chin, and strongly marked +coarse features. A large bushy head of hair adds to the dignity of his +appearance; and his powerful limbs, depth of chest, breadth of +shoulders, and greater height distinguish him pre-eminently from his +people. His rule is as despotic in Treasury as that of Gorai in the +Shortlands; and he maintains his sway rather by the fear he inspires +than by possessing any feeling of respect on the part of his subjects. +On more than one occasion I have heard the natives use threatening +language towards their chief, when he had made some arbitrary exercise +of his power. He had a habit of sending away to the bush any native who +from his superior knowledge of English seemed to be supplanting him in +the intercourse with the ships that visited the harbour. Even his +right-hand man, who prided himself on his name of Billy, experienced his +wrath on one occasion in this manner. Like other chiefs, Mule is +grasping and covetous, shortcomings which are rather those of the race +than of the individual. Although of the chiefs of Bougainville Straits I +liked him the least, the contrast was rather due to the exceptionally +good estimate we had formed of his fellow chiefs. The visits of H.M.S. +"Lark" to this island have been the means of removing the very bad +reputation which the natives had deservedly possessed: and I would +especially invite the attention of my readers to the history of this +change in the attitude of these natives towards the white man. + +Captain C. H. Simpson, who visited this island in H.M.S. "Blanche" in +1872, described its people in his report to the Admiralty,[10] as being +"the most treacherous and blood-thirsty of any known savages;" and the +officers employed in making a sketch of the harbour had ample evidence +of their ferocity. About seven years before, the natives had cut out a +barque and had murdered her crew of 33 men. Previously they had captured +several boats of whalers visiting the islands, and had massacred the +crews. The Treasury natives were always very reticent to us when we +tried to learn something more of the fate of the barque; but we learned +little except that she was American, and was named "Superior." The +captain, whose name the natives pronounced "Hoody," was carried away +into the interior of the island and killed, and the scene of his murder +was once pointed out to Lieutenant Oldham when crossing the island. As +Captain Simpson charges the natives with cannibalism, there can be +little doubt of the ultimate fate of the crew of the American barque. In +the interval between the occurrence of this event and the arrival of the +"Blanche," no vessel had anchored in the harbour, the ships always +heaving-to off the north coast, where the natives resided when Captain +Simpson visited the island. Treasury retained its bad reputation up to +the date of our visit; and but few traders had much knowledge of the +place, as they generally gave the island a wide berth. We met but one +man who spoke well of these natives, and he was Captain Walsch of the +trading schooner "Venture." All others gave them the worst of +characters: and led me to believe that my acquaintance with Treasury +would not extend beyond the deck of H.M.S. "Lark." When Lieutenant +Oldham first visited this island in May, 1882, he had every reason to +place but little confidence in the natives; and in truth we all thought +that the appearance and behaviour of the natives justified the +treacherous reputation which they had obtained. Only two days were spent +there, but no landing was effected: the chief made no response to the +invitations to visit the ship; and we left the harbour without much +feeling of regret. In June of the following year we again visited this +island; and if the same procedure had been followed we should have been +a very long time in gaining the confidence of the natives. Lieutenant +Oldham, however, paid an official visit to the chief, accompanied by +Lieutenant Malan and myself. Mule and one of his sons returned the visit +within a couple of hours. Presents were exchanged; and the foundation of +mutual confidence was thus laid. The result may be briefly stated. In a +few days I was rambling all over the island, usually accompanied by a +lively gathering of men and boys. An intimacy was established with the +natives, which lasted until we bade farewell to the group in the +following year; and the return of the "Lark" from her cruises was always +a cause of rejoicing amongst the natives. The men of the ship were known +by name to most of the people of the island: whilst Mr. Isabell, our +leading-stoker, made a deep impression upon them by his readiness to +employ his mechanical skill for their various wants, so much so that +Mule offered, if he would remain, to make him a chief with the usual +perquisite as to the number of his wives. For my own part, I reaped the +full benefit of our amicable relations with the natives; and for the +proof of this statement I must refer the reader to the remarks on my +intercourse with them, and to my observations on the geology, botany, +and other characteristics of the island. + + [10] "Hydrographic Notices, Pacific Ocean," 1856 to 1873 (p. 106). + +Coming now to the chiefs of Faro or Fauro Island, I must mention more +particularly Kurra-kurra the chief of Toma, and Tomimas the chief of +Sinasoro, Toma and Sinasoro being the two principal villages of the +island. Kurra-kurra is, I believe, a half-brother of Gorai. He has not, +however, the same dignity of manner, and has resigned most of his power +into the hands of his son Gorishwa, a fine strapping young man. Both +father and son are friends of the white man. Tomimas, the Sinasoro +chief, also related to Gorai, is somewhat taciturn even with his own +people, but a chief to be thoroughly trusted. On one occasion whilst +assisting Lieutenant Heming and myself in demolishing our dinners in a +tambu-house at his village, Tomimas broke a long silence by informing us +through a native interpreter that the men of Sinasoro were very good +people, that they did not kill white men, and that their chief was like +Gorai. It is needless to write that we appreciated the good intention, +though hardly the elegance of the chief's solitary remark. In the +following year, when I was returning from a botanical excursion to the +peak of Faro, I received an invitation from Tomimas to visit him on the +side of the harbour opposite to the village. The chief, who awaited me +on the beach, received me cordially, telling me through one of the +natives, who could speak a little English, that he had collected for me +the fruits and leaves of the "anumi"--a tree of the genus +_Cerbera_--which he had heard I had been anxious to find. The kindly +manner of the old chief attracted me towards him, and I sat down, as he +wished me, by his side on the log of a tree, having first presented him +with a large knife which greatly pleased him. Close by, stood his four +wives, to whom he introduced me, pointing out to me the mother of his +eldest son Kopana, an intelligent young man of about twenty-two. A bunch +of ripe bananas was laid beside me, of which I was bidden to partake. +This was followed in a short time by a savoury vegetable broth, which +the chief brought with his own hands in a cooking-pot. It was especially +prepared for me on their learning that I had found the plant (an aroid, +_Schizmatoglottis_) in my excursions. There was the spirit of true +politeness displayed in the manner of the chief and his wives, as they +endeavoured to show that in the exercise of their simple hospitality +they were receiving, instead of conferring, an honour. I felt that I was +in the presence of good breeding, although sitting attired in a dirty +flannel suit in the midst of a number of almost naked savages. My own +party of Sinasoro natives, who had been fasting for many hours, politely +asked me to partake of their meal which the generosity of the chief had +prepared, before they thought of touching it themselves. I of course +complied with their request by tasting a cooked banana, when, this piece +of etiquette having been duly observed, they attacked the victuals +without ceremony. + +Such was my pleasing experience of this Faro chief. During the survey of +this island, the natives showed every disposition to be friendly towards +us. In my numerous excursions I always met with civility, and frequently +with unexpected acts of kindness; and I soon became known to them by the +name given to me by the Treasury natives, "R[=o]kus" or "D[=o]kus." + +The principal chief of the district, immediately north of Choiseul Bay, +is named "Krepas." Several years before he had been living at Faro, +which he left on account of the death of all his wives. When we first +visited Choiseul Bay in September, 1883, we found the natives very coy +in approaching us, on account of the reprisal of H.M.S. "Emerald," two +years before, on the people of the neighbouring village of Kangopassa +for the cutting out of the trading-vessel "Zephyr," and the murder of a +portion of her crew. After two days, however, Lieutenant Oldham +succeeded in removing their suspicions, and the chief came on board. +Subsequently Krepas and his son, Kiliusi, accompanied me in a canoe +during my ascent of one of the rivers that empty themselves into this +bay. I found the chief and his son very useful guides, and was +prepossessed in their favour. On our return to Treasury, I was surprised +to learn from Billy, Mule's prime minister, as we termed him, that +Krepas was a practised cannibal, and would not think much of killing a +white man. Billy was deeply impressed by the circumstance of my having +shared my lunch with the chief of Choiseul Bay, about two miles up one +of the rivers. It was in this bay that the French navigator, +Bougainville, intended to anchor his ships in 1768, being opposed by the +hostility of the natives. The boats, which had been sent in to find an +anchorage, were attacked by 150 men in ten canoes, who were only routed +after the second discharge of fire-arms. Two canoes were captured, in +one of which was found the jaw of a man half-broiled. The number of +shoals, and the irregularity of the currents prevented the ships coming +up to the anchorage before night fell; and Bougainville, abandoning his +design, continued his course through the Straits.[11] The description +which the French navigator gave of these natives in 1768, applies +equally well to those of the present day. When H.M.S. "Lark" revisited +Choiseul Bay in October, 1884, not a single native was seen; so that it +would behove future visitors to be very cautious in their dealings with +these natives. Whilst off the coast north of this bay, a fishing-party +of half-a-dozen men came off to the ship from the village of Kandelai; +but they showed great suspicion of us. They would not come alongside for +some time; and when a present of calico was flung to them at the end of +a line, they were divided amongst themselves whether to come and take +it, some paddling one way and some another. At length they took the +present and came alongside, but did not stay long, and soon paddled +towards the shore, their suspicions by no means allayed. What had +happened to cause this change of attitude, we could not learn. +Evidently, the good impression which we had left behind us a year +before, had borne no fruit. Probably, some inconsiderate action on the +part of the crew of a trading-vessel had undone our work. + + [11] "Voyage autour du Monde," 2nd edit. augm. vol. II., Paris, + 1772. + +The professional head-hunter of the eastern islands of the group does +not appear to be represented amongst the islands of Bougainville +Straits. Raids are occasionally made on the villages of the adjoining +Bougainville coast, but more, I believe, for the purpose of procuring +slaves, than from the mere desire of fighting. There is, however, +frequent friendly communication between the natives of the islands of +the Straits and those of certain Bougainville villages, the former +usually exchanging articles of trade for spears and tortoise-shell, and +acting as middle-men in the traffic with the white men. It is however +singular that the natives of the Straits trade with different villages +on the Bougainville coast; and that, although on usually such friendly +terms with each other, they are often on terms of hostility with the +particular Bougainville village with which their neighbours trade. Thus, +Mule, the Treasury chief, trades with the people of the village of +Suwai, over which his brother Kopana is chief. Gorai, the Alu chief, on +the other hand, is at war with the natives of Suwai, but maintains +friendly communication with Daku, the chief of the village of Takura, +and with Magasa the chief of the harbour of Tonali. Whilst spending a +night at Sinasoro with Lieutenant Heming and his party, I with the rest +had to share the tambu-house with a party of ten natives from Takura. +They had come across for pigs and taro. The natives of the adjoining +coast of Bougainville, possessing a different language, are not able to +make themselves understood by the people of the Straits except by +interpreters. I have seen one of these natives just as little able to +make himself understood by the natives of Faro, as if he had been +suddenly removed to some very distant country instead of only 30 miles +away. + +I have previously referred to the close friendship which usually +prevails between the inhabitants of the islands of Bougainville Straits, +linked together as they are by inter-marriages and by the possession of +a common language. But in the calmest seas there are occasional storms; +and I will proceed to relate an extraordinary chain of events which came +more or less under our observation whilst in this portion of the group. +Shortly before our return to Treasury in April, 1884, there had been a +terrible domestic tragedy, which at one time threatened to embroil all +the chiefs of the Straits in actual war. It appeared that Kopana, the +eldest son of Gorai had, in a fit of temporary madness, shot one of his +wives dead with his rifle, the unfortunate woman being a daughter of +Mule, the Treasury chief. On hearing the news, Mule at once crossed over +to Alu to exact vengeance on Kopana; but Gorai would not permit him to +harm his son; and it was arranged between the two chiefs that Mule +should be allowed to shoot one of the other wives of Kopana, as the +price of blood. Early one morning the Treasury chief, armed with his +snider rifle, took his way in a canoe up a passage I had often traversed +in my Rob Roy, and surprising his selected victim at work in a taro +patch, he shot her dead. At the same time he wounded her male attendant, +an elderly native named Malakolo, the bullet passing through the left +shoulder-joint from behind. When I saw this man six or seven weeks +afterwards, he was fast recovering from the injury, although with a +useless limb. Kopana, who is a headstrong son and beyond his father's +control, naturally resented this act of Mule, and appears to have +meditated a descent on Treasury. Collecting his followers and the +remainder of his wives, he disappeared on what was given out as a +tortoise-shell expedition. We found the Treasury people in a great +dread of the daily arrival of Kopana; and I had some difficulty in +getting natives to accompany me in my excursions about the island. They +did not care to leave the vicinity of the village; and I found many of +the bush-paths familiar to me in the previous year partly overgrown. +Apparently through a sense of shame, Mule and his natives avoided +telling us anything about the act of retaliation; they were, however, +loud in their endeavours to cast aspersions on Kopana. On our arrival at +Alu, we learned the truth from Gorai to whom Mule had sent a native, who +took a passage with us, asking him not to be too communicative in case +we made inquiries. As it happened, however, the Treasury native was kept +on board, and Lieutenant Oldham, on landing, learned the part Mule had +played. Kopana was apparently quite conscious of his own responsibility +in the matter, as he had left a present with Gorai to be given to the +captain of any man-of-war who should come to punish him. Thus closed the +first scene of this tragedy. + +Whilst we lay at anchor off Gorai's village, it was evident that there +was trouble brewing. The natives accompanying me in my geological +excursions carried arms contrary to their usual practice. On the same +day the two principal villages were found deserted; and Gorai shifted +his residence to another islet. Rumours became rife that the Treasury +and Shortland natives had met with bloodshed; but the men we questioned +made so many wilful misstatements that it was impossible to learn what +had really happened. At length the truth came out. Being in Gorai's +house one morning, I was told by the chief that his son had been +attacked five days before by the Treasury natives on the islet of +Tuluba, off the west coast of Alu, that Kopana's canoe had returned +without his master, bringing a man and a woman badly wounded, and that +he shortly expected the return of two large war-canoes which he had sent +to the scene of the encounter. These two canoes returned whilst I was +talking to the chief on the beach, bringing a few more survivors but +without Kopana. The old chief then took it for granted that his eldest +son was dead, and in telling me so showed no emotion whatever. In the +evening, however, we learned, to our astonishment, that Kopana had +returned, having not been engaged in the fray. It seemed that at the +time of the encounter he was on a neighbouring islet. After some +difficulty, I was able to get an account of the affair. + +Two Treasury war-canoes, it appears, attempted to land at Tuluba Islet +one evening, where the crews were going to encamp for the night. +Ostensibly the Treasury men were on their way to Bougainville to buy +spears; but since they were led by Olega, the brother of Mule and the +fighting-chief of the island, it is probable that they were intending a +descent on Alu from this islet of Tuluba. When the Treasury men +discovered Kopana's party were already there, the fighting at once +began. During the conflict, for which the Alu natives were ill-prepared, +seeing that they were largely composed of Kopana's wives, one of the +Treasury canoes was dashed to pieces on a reef and all the occupants +were thrown into the water. In this unequal contest, the Alu natives had +a man and a woman killed and a man and a woman wounded, both the women +being wives of Kopana. In addition four other of Kopana's wives were +captured by the Treasury men, who returned to their own island in the +remaining canoe with a loss of four men wounded, of whom one +subsequently died. + +The unfortunate wives of Kopana had indeed borne the brunt from the very +beginning. Within two months, three of them had suffered violent death, +one of them was wounded apparently beyond recovery, and four had been +carried off prisoners to Treasury. The singular feature of this breach +between the Treasury and Alu natives, was that the animosity of the +former was directed against Gorai's eldest son and not against the old +chief, his father, who did not think it incumbent on him to interfere +except for the purpose of pacifying the two parties. + +I visited the two wounded brought back to Alu. Five days had already +elapsed since the fight, and I found the wounds of both in a horrible +condition. The wife of Kopana had a severe tomahawk wound of the thigh +just above the knee, smashing the bone and implicating the joint. The +man had a rifle-bullet wound through the fleshy part of the thigh and a +pistol-bullet wound in the opposite groin. Nothing had been done in +either case, and after the lapse of five days in a tropical climate, the +condition of the wounds could be scarcely described. I was allowed to do +but little, and considered recovery in either case most improbable. +Both, however, recovered to my great astonishment. I found afterwards, +on visiting the wounded at Treasury, that one man had been shot through +the elbow-joint by one of his own party. + +The subsequent events in connection with this outbreak of hostilities +in the Straits may be soon related. Although there was now open war +between Alu and Treasury, it assumed a passive character, each side +awaiting or expecting an attack from the other. Gorai was much concerned +at this turn of events, seeing that, as he told me, he thought he had +come to an amicable arrangement with Mule when he allowed him to take +the life of one of his son's wives. The canoe-houses at Alu were usually +filled during the day by a number of natives, all carrying their +tomahawks and debating on the topic of the day. In the midst of them I +once found Gorai talking in his quiet way to an attentive circle of +armed natives. In the meanwhile the Treasury natives held a feast in +celebration of their success; and the four wives of Kopana were +distributed about the village, but they experienced no ill treatment. In +a few weeks the animosity displayed between the peoples of the two +islands began to cool down; and it soon became evident that the war was +one only in name. At length peace was once more restored. In the +beginning of October a number of Treasury natives came over to the west +coast of Alu where Gorai was then residing, bringing with them Mule's +principal wife, Bita, the sister of the Alu chief, together with a large +present of bananas, taro, and other vegetables; and lastly, what was the +most significant act of all, they brought with them the four wives of +Kopana who had been captured on the islet of Tuluba. Gorai told me that +amity was now perfectly restored, and that he was going to exchange +visits with the Treasury chief to confirm the compact. Fortunately for +the happiness of the natives of Bougainville Straits, war rarely +disturbs the peaceful atmosphere in which they live. + +I cannot doubt that, in the lives of the natives of these straits, we +have the brighter side of the existence of the Solomon Islander; and +this result may, I think, be attributed in the main to the influence of +Gorai, the Alu chief, who in his intercourse with white men, not always +the best fitted to represent their colour, as I need scarcely remark, +has learned some lessons in his own crude way which he could hardly have +learned under any other conditions. Natives of the islands of the +Straits can count with some confidence on the tenure of their lives, but +this is simply due to the influence of the name of the Alu chief. And +yet, however secure the surroundings of a native may be, he will never +be entirely off his guard. Suspicion is a quality inherent in his mind, +and it shows itself in most of the actions of his life. Even of those +natives, who, in the capacity of interpreters, lived on board the ship +for weeks together, one was always keeping watch over his comrades +during the long hours of the night whenever we were at any anchorage +away from their own island; and I have been told by the officers in +charge of the detached surveying parties, that even after a hard day's +work in the boat, they have found their natives keeping a self-imposed +watch during the night. + +I pass on now to the subject of the power of the "tambu," or "taboo" as +it is more usually termed. The tambu ban constitutes the real authority +of a petty chief in times of peace. In the eastern islands, the tambu +sign is often two sticks crossed and placed in the ground. In such a +manner, the St. Christoval native secures his patch of ground from +intrusion. In the islands of Bougainville Straits, posts six to eight +feet in height, rudely carved in the form of the head and face, are +erected facing sea-ward on the beach of a village to keep off enemies +and sickness. Similar posts are erected on the skirts of a plantation of +cocoa-nut palms to warn off intruders. On one occasion, whilst ascending +the higher part of a stream in Treasury, my natives unexpectedly came +upon the faint footprint of a bushman; and my sheath-knife was at once +borrowed by the chief's eldest son, who happened to be one of the party, +to cut out a face in the soft rock as a tambu mark for the bushman, or +in other words to preserve the stream. I have only touched on the +exercise of the right of tambu in its narrowest sense. Scattered about +in the pages of this work will be found numerous allusions to customs +which would be comprised under this head in its widest meaning: for the +power of the tambu is but the power of a code which usually prohibits +and rarely commands; and in enumerating its restrictions and defining +its limits, one would be in reality describing a negative system of +public and private etiquette. It is worthy of note, that the term +"tambu" is not included in the vocabulary of the language of the natives +of Bougainville Straits, its equivalent being "olatu." + +It may be here apposite to make some observations on the slavery which +is practised in connection with the bush-tribes of these islands. As +already remarked, a wide distinction usually prevails in the Solomon +Group between the inhabitants of the coast and those of the interior; +and although this distinction is most evident in the case of the larger +islands, it also prevails, but to a less degree, in those of smaller +size. It is a noteworthy fact that the bushmen are always looked down +upon by their brethren of the coast. "Man-bush" is with the latter a +term of reproach, implying stupidity and crass ignorance. I have +frequently heard this epithet applied to natives who handled their +canoes in an awkward manner or who stumbled in their walk whilst +accompanying me in my excursions. On one occasion, when trying to obtain +stone axes from the natives of Alu, I was referred with a smile to the +bushmen of the neighbouring island of Bougainville, who still employ +these tools. In the larger islands the bush-tribes and the coast natives +wage an unceasing warfare, in which the latter are usually the +aggressors and the victors--the bushmen captured during these raids +either affording materials for the cannibal feast or being detained in +servitude by their captors. But there prevails in the group a recognized +system of slave-traffic, in which a human being becomes a marketable +commodity--the equivalent being represented in goods either of native or +of foreign manufacture. This custom which came under the notice of the +officers of Surville's expedition, during their visit to Port Praslin in +Isabel, in 1769,[12] obtains under the same conditions at the present +time. These natives were in the habit of making voyages of ten and +twelve days' duration with the object of exchanging men for "fine cloths +covered with designs," articles which were manufactured by a race of +people much fairer than their own, who were in all probability the +inhabitants of Ontong Java. + + [12] "Discoveries to the south-east of New Guinea," by M. Fleurieu, + p. 143, Eng. edit. + +The servitude to which the victims of this traffic are doomed is not +usually an arduous one. But there is one grave contingency attached to +his thraldom which must be always before the mind of the captive, +however lightly his chains of service may lie upon him. When a head is +required to satisfy the offended honour of a neighbouring chief, or when +a life has to be sacrificed on the completion of a tambu-house or at the +launching of a new war-canoe, the victim chosen is usually the man who +is not a free-born native of the village. He may have been bought as a +child and have lived amongst them from his boyhood up, a slave only in +name, and enjoying all the rights of his fellow natives. But no feelings +of compassion can save him from his doom; and the only consideration +which he receives at the hands of those with whom he may have lived on +terms of equality for many years is to be found in the circumstance that +he gets no warning of his fate. + +There are in Treasury several men and women who, originally bought as +slaves from the people of Bouka and Bougainville, now enjoy apparently +the same privileges and freedom of action as their fellow islanders. It +is sometimes not a matter of much difficulty to single out the slaves +amongst a crowd of natives. On one occasion I engaged a canoe of Faro +men to take me to a distant part of their island: and very soon after we +started I became aware from the cowed and sullen condition of one of the +crew that he was a slave. On inquiry I learned that this man had been +captured when a boy in the island of Bougainville, and I was informed +that if he was to return to his native place--a bush village named +Kiata--he would undoubtedly be killed. Although in fact a slave, I +concluded from the bearing of the other men towards him that his bondage +was not a very hard one; and he evidently appeared to enjoy most of the +rights of a native of the common class. Sukai, however, for such was his +name, had to make himself generally useful in the course of the day; and +when at the close of the excursion we were seated inside the house of a +man who provided us with a meal of boiled taro, sweet potatoes, and +bananas, he was served with his repast on the beach outside. + +Mule, the Treasury chief, had adopted a little Bougainville bush-boy, +named Sapeku, who was purchased when very young from his friends. In +1883 he was six or seven years old, and was the constant companion of +the sons of the chief. He was a fat chubby little urchin, with woolly +hair, and was known on board under the name of "Tubby." His wild +excitable disposition full of suspicion showed to great contrast with +the calmer and more confident demeanour of his companions. He was, +however, a general favourite with us, although I should add he did not +possess half the pluck of his associates. Mule also possessed, at the +time of our visit, a young girl, twelve or thirteen years old, who had +been not long before purchased from the Bougainville natives. + +I have previously referred to the existence of bushmen on some of the +smaller islands. In the interior of Treasury there are a few hamlets +containing each two or three families of bushmen, who live quite apart +from the other natives of the island. On more than one occasion I +experienced the hospitality of these bush families, who in matters of +dress are even less observant than the harbour natives. They are +probably the remnants of the original bushmen who occupied this island. +Over our pipes, I used frequently to converse with the natives on the +subject of the past history of their island; and I gleaned from them +that the enterprising race at present dominant in the Bougainville +Straits came originally from the islands immediately to the eastward, +using Treasury as a stepping-stone to the Shortlands and Faro, and +ousting or exterminating the bushmen they found in the possession of +these islands. + +I will turn for a moment to the subject of slavery in the eastern +islands of the group. In Ugi it is the practice of infanticide which has +given rise to a slave-commerce regularly conducted with the natives of +the interior of St. Christoval. Three-fourths of the men of this island +were originally bought as youths to supply the place of the natural +offspring killed in infancy. But such natives when they attain manhood +virtually acquire their independence, and their original purchaser has +but little control over them. On page 42, I have made further reference +to this subject. + +Connected in the manner above shown with the subject of slavery is the +practice of cannibalism. The completion of a new tambu-house is +frequently celebrated among the St. Christoval natives by a cannibal +feast. Residents in that part of the group tell me that if the victim is +not procured in a raid amongst the neighbouring tribes of the interior, +some man is usually selected from those men in the village who were +originally purchased by the chief. The doomed man is not enlightened as +to the fate which awaits him, and may, perhaps, have been engaged in the +erection of the very building at the completion of which his life is +forfeited. The late Mr. Louis Nixon,[13] one of those traders whose name +should not be forgotten amongst the pioneers who, in working for +themselves, have worked indirectly for the good of their successors in +the Solomon Group, once recounted to me a tragical incident of this kind +on the island of Guadalcanar, of which he was an unwilling spectator. +Whilst looking out of the window of his house one afternoon, he observed +a native walk up to another standing close to the window and engage him +in conversation. A man then stole up unperceived, and raising his heavy +club above his head, struck the intended victim lifeless to the ground. +Knowing too well the nature and purpose of the deed, Mr. Nixon turned +away quite sickened by the sight. + + [13] Mr. Nixon died at Santa Anna in the end of 1882. + +The natives of the small island of Santa Anna enjoy the reputation of +being abstainers from human flesh: but, inasmuch, as Mai the war-chief +has acquired a considerable fortune, in a native's point of view, by +following the profitable calling of purveyor of human flesh to the +man-eaters of the adjacent coasts of St. Christoval--a trade in which he +is ably assisted by those who accompany him on his foraging +expeditions--we can hardly preserve this nice distinction between the +parts taken by the contractor and his customers in this extraordinary +traffic. I learned from Captain Macdonald that in their abstinence from +human flesh, the Santa Anna natives are not actuated by any dislike of +anthropophagy in itself; but that the custom has fallen into abeyance +since the chief laid the tambu-ban on human flesh several years ago, on +account of a severe epidemic of sickness having followed a cannibal +feast. On one occasion through the instrumentality of this resident, +Lieutenant Oldham had the satisfaction of rescuing two St. Christoval +natives whom Mai was carefully keeping in anticipation of the wants of +the man-eaters of Cape Surville. As the result of an interview held with +this chief, the two prisoners were sent on board the "Lark;" but Mai +gave them up with a very bad grace, protesting that he was being robbed +of his own property. It is difficult to speculate on the reflections of +the victim as he lives on from day to day in constant expectation of his +fate. I am told that there is a faint gleam of tender feeling shown in +the case of a man who, by long residence in the village, has almost come +to be looked upon as one of themselves. He is allowed to remain in +ignorance of the dreaded moment until the last: and, perhaps, he may be +standing on the beach assisting in the launching of the very canoe in +which he is destined to take his final journey, when suddenly he is laid +hold of, and in a few moments more he is being ferried across to the +man-eaters of the opposite coast. All persons whom I have met that have +had a lengthened experience of the St. Christoval natives confirm these +cannibal practices. They may sometimes be observed with all the horrible +preliminaries which have been described in the cases of other Pacific +groups; whilst, on the other hand, it may be the habit to purchase and +partake of human flesh as an extra dainty in the daily fare. + +Captain Redlich, master of the schooner "Franz," who visited Makira on +the south side of St. Christoval in 1872, states that he found a dead +body in a war-canoe dressed and cooked whole. He was informed by Mr. +Perry, a resident, that he had seen as many as twenty bodies lying on +the beach dressed and cooked.[14] In 1865, Mr. Brenchley noticed at +Wano, on the north coast of this island, the skulls of twenty-five +bushmen hanging up under the roof of the tambu-house, all of which +showed the effects of the tomahawk and all had been eaten.[15] At the +present time it is not an easy matter for any person not resident in the +group to obtain ocular evidence of cannibalism, since the natives have +become aware of the white man's aversion to the custom. I have, however, +frequently seen the arm and leg bones of the victim consumed at the +opening of a new tambu-house, as they are usually hung up over the +entrance or in some other part of the building. The natives, however, +are generally reluctant to talk much about these matters; and I believe +the residents, in such matters, prefer to trust more to the testimony of +their own eyes than to the statements of the natives. + + [14] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society for 1874 (vol. 44), + p. 31. + + [15] "Cruise of H.M.S. 'Curacoa,'" by J. L. Brenchley. + +I have previously referred to the death of the son of Taki the Wano +chief, who was attacked by a shark whilst fishing on the St. Christoval +reefs. When we arrived at Ugi in April, 1883, shortly after this event, +we learned that his death would probably lead to a further sacrifice of +life, and that a human victim from some neighbouring hill-tribe would be +required to remove the tambu-ban, or in other words to propitiate the +shark-god. At the completion of the time of mourning, a gathering of the +tribes of the district known as a _bea_ was to be held at Wano; and I +obtained from Mr. Stephens of Ugi the following particulars of this +singular custom. From a raised staging some fifteen feet in height, each +of the warriors of any renown addresses in turn the assembled people. +The gathering is composed not only of his own tribesmen but also of +parties of fighting men from all the neighbouring villages, each party +standing aloof from the others. The orator, declaiming on the valour of +his own people and on his individual prowess, soon works himself into a +condition of excitement, and should any tribe be there represented with +whom there may have been some recent cause of ill-feeling, it is +probably made the object of the taunts of the speaker. The assembled +natives, who are all armed, soon participate in the excitement. The +people of the village support their champion, and openly display their +ill will against those at whom the diatribes of the orator have been +directed. The suspected strangers return the taunts; and the feeling of +irritation reaches its acme when a threatening gesture or the throwing +of a spear sets ablaze the suppressed passions. Every man darts into the +bush and the village is empty in a moment. A desultory contest then +ensues in which the people of the village, who have generally the best +of it, pursue their visitors to the outskirts of their district; and +from henceforth a long period of hostility begins. + +Such is not an uncommon sequence of a _bea_, and I am told that the +natives of the district, in which such a gathering is to be held, look +forward to it with considerable apprehension. A human body is usually +procured for these occasions; and the payment of the persons who +procured it is made from contributions collected at the _bea_. Each +leading chief endeavours to surpass his rival in the sum he gives; and +flinging his string of shell money down from the stage on which he +stands, he looks contemptuously at his rival's party. The body is +apportioned out after the gathering is over; and if no contention has +arisen, all assembled partake of the feast. Taki told Mr. Stephens that +in order to obtain a body for his son's _bea_, he would have to start on +another man-hunting expedition. A _bea_ was also soon to be held in Ugi +by Rora, the fighting chief of the village of Ete-ete, on behalf of his +brother who had died about two years before. Cannibalism is however +dying out in Ugi; and in this case a pig was to supply the place of a +human body. + +Whilst the ship was anchored at Sulagina Bay on the north coast of St. +Christoval, I visited the village of that name and saw the chief who is +named Toro. He received me civilly and shook hands. Outside the front of +his house five skulls were hanging which belonged to some unfortunate +bushmen who had fallen at his hands. On inquiring of a native who spoke +a little English, I ascertained that their bodies had been +"kaied-kaied," _i.e._, eaten, although it was with a little hesitation +that he admitted the fact. Numerous spears were thrust in among the pole +overhead which supported the roof, one or two of them being broken at +the point with some suspicious-looking dried-up substance still +adherent. The same native explained to me, in a matter-of-fact way, that +the points had broken off in the bellies of the victims. + +Cannibalism is rarely if ever practised at the present day in the +islands of Bougainville Straits. The people of the western extremity of +Choiseul Island in the vicinity of Choiseul Bay are reputed by the +Treasury Islanders to be still cannibals. During our stay in this bay we +had no opportunity of satisfying ourselves in this matter. Bougainville, +however, who visited this bay in 1768, records, as I have previously +observed, that a human jaw, half-broiled, was found in one of the canoes +which had been deserted by the natives after the repulse of their +attack upon the French boats.[16] The Shortland natives accredit the +Bougainville people who live around the active volcano of Bagana with +the regular practice of cannibalism; and there can be little doubt that +this custom is extensively practised amongst the scarcely known +bush-tribes in the interior of this large island. Of the natives of New +Georgia or Rubiana, Captain Cheyne avers that human flesh forms their +chief article of diet; they were in his opinion, when he visited this +part of the group in 1844, the most treacherous and bloodthirsty race in +the Western Pacific.[17] These natives have of late years come more +under the direct influence of the traders and probably would merit now a +better name. + + [16] "Voyage autour du Monde"; 2nd edit, augment; vol. ii., Paris, + 1772. + + [17] "A Description of Islands in the Western Pacific Ocean." by A. + Cheyne (London, 1852). + +I will close this chapter with a short account, to some extent +recapitulative, of the history of three natives of St. Christoval after +they were recruited by the boats of the Fiji labour-vessel "Redcoat" in +1882. It will serve to illustrate some points already alluded to. +Amongst the occupants of a tambu-house in which I slept on one occasion +in the village of Lawa, in the interior of St. Christoval, were five men +who were intending to offer themselves as recruits to the +government-agent of the "Redcoat." Three of these men, one of whom was +the chief's son, came under my observation again not many weeks after +they had been received on board the labour-vessel. They escaped from the +ship at Santa Anna, and seizing a canoe reached the adjoining coast of +St. Christoval. Here they were pursued by Mai, in his capacity of +purveyor of human flesh to the Cape Surville natives. Two of them were +captured; but the third, who was the chief's son, had died at the hands +of a local chief, who, wishing to remove the tambu-ban arising from the +recent death of his wife, had effected his object by spearing his guest. +Mai returned to Santa Anna with his two captives, and immediately became +imbued with the idea that he had been insulted by the chief who, in +successfully removing the tambu-ban from the shade of his departed +spouse, had deprived him of one of his victims. Then the raid was +carried out, which I have already described, as having resulted in the +slaughter of three women and the chief of Fanarite. Mai now devoted his +attention to preparing his two prisoners for the market on the opposite +coast, and was thus employed when H.M.S. "Lark" arrived at Port Mary and +rescued the prisoners When these two natives were brought on board, I +at once recognised my tambu-house companions in the village of Lawa; and +I learned to my regret that the chief's son, who had been killed, was +the sprightly young native who had on one occasion carried my geological +bag. It is but just to remark that under Mai's care the condition of the +two prisoners had considerably improved since I last saw them. However, +their troubles were not all over. They were landed at Ugi; but the older +of the two, on hearing that his life would be probably required by the +people of his own village to atone for the death of the chief's son, +preferred to remain at Ugi. A report reached me in the following year, +whether true or not I was unable to ascertain, that he had been killed +on returning to his village. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE FEMALE SEX--POLYGAMY--MODES OF BURIAL, ETC. + + +THE position of the female sex amongst the natives of the eastern +islands of the Solomon Group would appear to differ but little from the +position which it holds amongst races in a similar savage state. The +women are without doubt the drudges of the men, and pitiable examples of +this often came under my observation. On one occasion, when I was +returning to the coast from an excursion into the interior of St. +Christoval, I was accompanied by some half-a-dozen natives of both sexes +who were bringing down yams to sell to the traders on the beach. The men +were content with carrying their tomahawks; whilst the women followed up +with heavy loads of yams on their heads. When a feast is in preparation, +it is the work of the women to bring in the yams and taro from the +"patches," which may be one or two miles away. In my excursions, I +frequently used to see at work in their "patches" these poor creatures, +whom drudgery had prematurely deprived of all their comeliness. + +Women are excluded from the tambu-house. They are not permitted to +remain in the presence of a chief at his meal; and even the wife after +preparing her husband's meal leaves her lord alone, returning to partake +of what remains after he has finished his repast. In the island of Santa +Catalina we found that we had temporarily received the rank of chief +when a bevy of young girls, who had been following us all the morning, +walked solemnly away as we began our lunch; but no sooner had we lit our +pipes than back came the little troop with smiling faces. In Ugi, a man +will never, if he can help it, pass under a tree that has fallen across +the path, for the reason that a woman may have stepped over it before +him. On one occasion, in the village of Sapuna, in Santa Anna, I saw a +man, whilst lighting his pipe, throw the piece of smouldering wood +contemptuously on the ground, when a woman, in order to light her own +pipe, stretched out her hand to take it from him. + +The custom of infanticide throws a shade over not a few of these +islands. During my frequent walks over the island of Ugi, where one may +pass through a village without seeing a single child in arms, I often +experienced a feeling of relief in leaving behind such a village where +the prattle of children is but rarely heard. In Ugi, infanticide is the +prevailing custom. When a man needs assistance in his declining years, +his props are not his own sons but youths obtained by purchase from the +St. Christoval natives, who, as they attain to manhood, acquire a +virtual independence, passing almost beyond the control of their +original owner. It is from this cause that but a small proportion of the +Ugi natives have been born on the island, three-fourths of them having +been brought as youths to supply the place of offspring killed in +infancy. Yet some bright experiences, brighter, perhaps, in the +contrast, recur to my mind. In the small island of Orika (Santa +Catalina) the visitor will be followed about by a little train of +children, of both sexes, with smiling, intelligent faces, and clad only +in the garb which nature gave them. Whilst having an evening pipe in +front of the house of Haununo, the young chief, Mr. W. Macdonald and I +were surrounded by a varied throng of the natives of the village, both +old and young. Numerous young children, from babes in arms to those +three or four years old, formed no inconsiderable proportion of the +number around us. Bright-looking lads, eight or nine years of age, stood +smoking their pipes as gravely as Haununo himself; and even the smallest +babe in its father's arms caught hold of his pipe and began to suck +instinctively. The chief's son, a little shapeless mass of flesh, a few +months old, was handed about from man to man with as much care as if he +had been composed of something brittle. It would have taken many +shiploads of "trade," as Mr. Macdonald remarked to me, to have purchased +the hopeful heir of the chief of Orika. + +But to return to the subject of the position held by the women. When +away with a recruiting party from the labour-ship "Redcoat," on the St. +Christoval coast, I was present at the parting on the beach of six +natives, who had elected to proceed to Fiji to work for a term of three +years on the plantations. But little regret was observable in the faces +of those whose friends were leaving them. Son parted with father, and +brother with brother with apparently as little concern as if they were +merely parting for the hour. The mother or sister played no part in +this scene, a characteristic negative feature of the social life of +these natives. However, amongst the six natives was an elderly woman who +was following her husband to Fiji; and her departure was evidently +keenly felt by a small knot of female companions on the beach. One poor +creature stood at the edge of the water, looking wistfully towards the +boat as it was being pulled away, and crying more after the manner of a +fretful child. It was the bond of a true affection that knit together +the heart of these poor women. In this episode I saw, to employ those +beautiful lines of Milton, + + "The sable cloud + Turn forth her silver lining on the night." + +In it was evinced the only sign of the tenderer feelings which was +displayed in the whole of that day's proceedings. + +It is necessary for me to touch lightly on a subject, which, although +less pleasing, is none the less essential to the short sketch which I +have presented to my readers of the domestic relations of the natives in +the eastern islands. Female chastity is a virtue that would sound +strangely in the ear of the native. Amongst their many customs which +when narrated strike with such a discordant note on the ears of the +European reader, the inhabitants of St. Christoval and the adjacent +islands have a usage which sufficiently enlightens us as to the +unrestrained character of their code of morality. For two or three years +after a girl has become eligible for marriage, she distributes her +favours amongst all the young men of the village. Should she be +unwilling to accept the addresses of anyone, it is but necessary for her +admirer to make her parents some present. Fathers offer their daughters +to the white man in the hope of a remunerative return; and the white +men, sometimes less scrupulous in their advances, provoke the hostility +of the natives, and not unfrequently a lamentable massacre results. +Conjugal fidelity is usually preserved in the limits of the same +community; but the men of Santa Anna, when they exchange their wives for +those of the men of the adjoining St. Christoval coast, see in such a +transaction no loosening of the marriage-tie, and restore their wives to +their original position on their return to their homes. + +In considering the domestic relations of the inhabitants of Bougainville +Straits, we enter upon a more agreeable topic. The white man on first +visiting these islands is struck with the shyness of the women as +compared with those of St. Christoval and its adjacent islands. The +unmarried girls are rarely seen; whilst, on the other hand, in Santa +Anna and Santa Catalina there appears to be no restriction placed on +their movements. The following incident in the island of Faro will serve +to illustrate this shyness. Whilst following a path in the interior of +the island, unattended by any companion, I suddenly surprised a woman +sitting on a log with a child in her lap. She bolted away into the wood +leaving the child, a little boy three or four years of age, on the +ground in the middle of the path. The little urchin at once set up a +terrific yell; but a present of a gilt necklace softened the tone of his +distress, although it did not remove his fears. However, I passed along +and soon had the satisfaction of hearing the mother returning to her +child. + +This fear of the white man is soon dispelled by kindly treatment. When I +first visited Treasury Island my entrance into the village was the +signal for every woman to rush into her house, and I could only catch a +glimpse of their retreating figures. This shyness soon wore away during +the lengthened visits of the "Lark;" and in a short time when I walked +through the village I was surrounded by a troop of young boys shouting +out my name of "Dokus" or "Rokasy" at the top of their voices. This was +the signal for all who were indoors to turn out to greet me. The old +people would hobble out to the door; and the married women with their +babes in their arms would walk up to me calling me by name and holding +up their little ones for me to see, as if only too proud to show me the +confidence the visit of the "Lark" had inspired. + +The females in these islands of the Straits perform most of the work in +the "patches" or plantations. Towards the evening, they may usually be +seen returning in their canoes from the more distant "patches" bringing +home a goodly quantity of taro, bananas, and other vegetables. There is +generally a man in the stern who steers with a paddle; whilst the crew +of eight or ten women, sitting in pairs, paddle briskly along with their +light paddles. + +The powerful chiefs of the islands of Bougainville Straits usually +possess a large number of wives of whom only the few that retain their +youth and comeliness enjoy much of the society of their lord. The +majority, having been supplanted in the esteem of their common husband, +have sunk into a condition of drudgery, finding their employment and +their livelihood in toiling for the master whose affections they once +possessed. I learned from Gorai, the Shortland chief, who has between +eighty and a hundred wives, that the main objection he has against +missionaries settling on his islands is, that they would insist on his +giving up nearly all his wives, thereby depriving him of those by whose +labour his plantations are cultivated and his household supplied with +food. A great chief, he remarked, required a large staff of workers to +cultivate his extensive lands; or, in other words, numerous women to +work in his plantations and to bring the produce home. Such a plea for +polygamy is in this condition of society somewhat plausible. The +domestic establishment of such a chief may be compared in its internal +economy to a social community of bees. The head of the society is, in +this case, a male who, whilst living on the fat produce of his lands and +increasing his species, performs no active office for the good of the +community. The workers consist of his numerous cast-off wives, who +having been supplanted in their lord's affections as their personal +attractions diminished in the course of years, have at length subsided +into the position of drudges to procure food for the king and his +progeny. + +Mule's marital establishment is on a smaller scale than that of the more +powerful Shortland chief. This Treasury chief possesses between +twenty-five and thirty wives, and has numerous young sons who were my +frequent companions during my excursions in this island. In both +establishments there is a favourite wife who exercises some authority +over the others, and is known among white men as the queen. The +principal wives are generally distinguished from the others by a more +dignified deportment, a slim graceful figure, and more delicate +features. The coarser features, bigger limbs, and more ungainly persons +of many of the wives at once mark the women of more common origin. The +chief secures the fidelity of his wives by the summary punishment of +death, suspicion being tantamount to proof, and an unwary action being +held presumptive of guilt. Many of their wives are obtained by purchase +from the Bougainville natives; whilst others represent the tribute owed +by some of the smaller chiefs. + +The majority of the Treasury men have two wives who are usually widely +separated by age. They are originally obtained by making a handsome +present to the parents. Each wife in working on her husband's land has +her own patch allotted to her to which she confines her labours. My +association with the natives of Treasury gave me some insight into their +social life, in which, I should add, the women occupy a somewhat better +position than in the islands we visited to the eastward. Men have +introduced me to their wives with an air of politeness which supplied an +index of the social status of their helpmates: and to show that the +position of authority may be reversed--although from the absence of +clothing one cannot employ the expressive phrase applied to those women +who rule their husbands in more civilized lands--I may here observe that +on one occasion an able-bodied man complained to me that his wife +chastised him on the previous night. + +I had one very pleasing experience of the domestic establishment of the +Treasury chief. Having informed Mule that I was desirous to witness the +manufacture of the cooking-pots employed by the natives, he despatched +four of his wives into the interior of the island to get the clay; and +in due time I was summoned to his house where I found myself in the +midst of a dozen of his wives who were already hard at work, for the +women are the potters here as in other parts of "savagedom." Mule's +wives received me with much politeness, and made me sit down on a mat to +watch the proceedings, being evidently much pleased with the idea of +exhibiting their skill. For about five minutes there was but little work +done as my curiosity led me to look more closely into the different +steps of the process, a proceeding which caused much hilarity and +elicited frequent exclamations of "tion drakono," often preceded by +"Dokus," which implied that the doctor was a very good man. At last, +after I had smiled on them to the best of my ability, and had gained +their further approbation by taking on my knee a little well-scrubbed +urchin that could hardly toddle, who in the most matter-of-fact manner +made a vigorous onslaught on my chin and then went tooth-and-nail at my +shirt-cuff, all in the best of humour and seemingly in an absent-minded +kind of fashion as though its little mind was already occupied by far +weightier matters--after all this, the more serious part of the +entertainment became fairly under way. At its conclusion, I gave the +principal wife a quantity of beads and a number of jews-harps to be +distributed among her companions. + +The marital establishment of Tomimas, one of the principal Faro chiefs, +is small as compared with those of Gorai and Mule. He has only four +wives who are named respectively, Domari, Duia, Bose, and Omakau, the +first being the mother of the chief's eldest son, Kopana, an intelligent +young man about twenty-two years of age. + +In connection with the names of the women of Bougainville Straits, I +should observe that there was always some reluctance on the part of the +men to give me such names; and that when they did so, they usually +uttered them in a low tone as though it was not the proper thing to +speak of the women by name to others. This is especially noticeable when +a man of the common class is asked the name of one of the chief's wives. +On more than one occasion, when referring by name to the chief's +principal wife in the course of a conversation with a native, I learned +from the look of surprise, which the mention of the name elicited, that +I had, unwittingly, been guilty of a breach of etiquette. + +During the surveying season of 1883, which we passed among the islands +of Bougainville Straits, we were witnesses of the mourning ceremonials +that were observed in connection with the death of Kaika, the principal +wife of the Shortland chief, or the queen as Gorai was pleased to call +her. It was in the beginning of July that I first made the acquaintance +of Kaika, Gorai having asked me to visit her as she was suffering from +some indisposition. A month passed away before I again saw my royal +patient, and on this occasion the chief accompanied me to his house. +Here I found Kaika quite recovered from her illness, a result which she +attributed to some medicine which I had given her. She was reclining in +a broken down easy-chair, the gift of a trader, engaged in working +an armlet of beads, and clad only in the usual "sulu" or +waist-handkerchief. In age Kaika was probably between 25 and 30, her +general appearance being that of a woman superior in caste to most of +her fellow-wives. For a native, her features were good and regular, her +figure slim but well proportioned, her carriage graceful. Her clean skin +and bushy head of hair, dyed a magenta hue by the use of red ochreous +earth, added to the general effect of her appearance. + +Whilst sitting down beside Gorai and his spouse, the latter showed me +her little boy who was nearly blind. I was much struck with the +tenderness displayed in the manner of both the parents towards their +little son, who, seated on his mother's lap, placed his hand in that of +his father, when he was directed to raise his eyes towards the light for +my inspection. + +The work of the ship took us away from Alu; and when we returned after +an absence of five weeks, we learned that Kaika was dying. Landing on +the ensuing day to see if I could be of any service, I was told that +Kaika was dead; and as I stepped out of my Rob Roy, I received a message +from Gorai to come and visit him. I found the old chief seated on the +ground in front of his house, looking very dismal. Near by, there were +nine or ten of his wives all well past the prime of life, withered and +haggish, with heads shaven and faces plastered with lime as a token of +mourning. They were squatting on the ground, and were engaged in droning +out a dismal chant, reminding me of a group of witches. Accompanying +Gorai into his house, I found there a numerous gathering of his wives +all with their faces plastered with lime; their dead-white features, +peering strangely at us through the gloom of the building, gave the +whole scene quite an uncanny look. The old chief appeared to feel the +loss of his favourite wife and broke down more than once when talking to +me of her. He told me that the end came when we dropped our anchor in +the bay, and he excused himself on account of his grief from coming off +to the ship--"too much cry," as he remarked of himself to me. When I was +leaving him, he asked me on the arrival of the ship at Treasury to +inform Mule of his loss, Kaika being the sister of the Treasury chief, +and to request that his own sister, Bita, who was Mule's principal wife, +should come and visit him. Returning to my canoe I passed some of +Gorai's head-men who had plastered their foreheads and a part of their +cheeks with lime, an observance, however, which was not followed by +either the chief or his sons. + +The next morning most of the men of the village were engaged in fishing +on the reef to obtain material for a great funeral feast that was to be +held in the afternoon. When I landed with Lieutenant Leeper in the +latter part of the day, we found ourselves on the beach in the midst of +about a hundred men carrying their tomahawks, and assembled together on +the occasion of the queen's demise. On entering the chief's grounds, +which are tabooed to all the men of the village except those on the +staff of the chief, we came upon about eighty women performing a funeral +dance. Some of them were Gorai's wives; whilst others were the principal +women of the neighbouring villages. With their faces white with lime +they formed a large circle, in the centre of which were four posts +placed erect in the ground, each about ten feet high, charred on one +side and rudely carved in imitation of the human head, two of them +painted red and two white. Enclosed in the ring and grouped around the +posts were six women bearing in their hands the personal belongings of +the deceased, such as her basket, cushion, &c. To the slow and measured +time of the beats of a wooden drum, a hollowed log struck by a man +outside the circle, the dancers of the ring adapted their movements, +which consisted merely in raising the feet in turns and gently stamping +on the ground. The central group of women danced around the posts, +partly skipping, partly hopping, each woman holding up before her the +article she bore, and regulating her steps to the beats of the drum. Now +and then the man at the drum quickened his time, and the movements of +the women of the ring became more spirited; whilst the central group of +dancers skipped more actively around, the foremost woman sprinkling at +each bound handfuls of lime over the dancers of the ring. As the weather +was rainy, many of the women--all of whom wore a "sulu" reaching down to +the knees--had their shoulders covered by their mats of pandanus leaves. +This dance was repeated on the following day but with a smaller number +of dancers. I was anxious to ascertain the manner in which the body had +been disposed; but beyond the fact that interment had taken place in the +ground some distance away, I could learn but little. It is, however, +very probable that the body was first burned between the charred posts, +around which the dance was performed, which would have served as +supports for the funeral pyre. Further reference to this custom will be +found on page 51. + +In making inquiries as to the obsequies paid to the dead queen, I was +much struck with the reluctance of the natives to refer to the event. +They mentioned the name of the deceased in a low subdued tone as if it +were wrong to utter the names of the dead. This mysterious dread which +is associated with the mention of the names of the dead is found, as Dr. +Tylor points out in his "Early History of Mankind" (3rd edit., p. 143), +amongst many races of men. The example of the Australian native who +_refuses_ to utter them may be here cited as an extreme instance of this +superstition. + +Three days after the death of Kaika, all the men of Alu, with the +exception of the chief and his sons, cut off their hair close to the +scalp as a symbol of mourning for the deceased, an observance which +produced a surprising change in the appearance of men whom I had been +familiar with as the owners of luxuriant bushy periwigs. A similar +custom of either shaving the scalp or of cutting the hair close +prevailed in other islands of the group which we visited, as at Simbo +and Ugi. In the latter island the shaving is restricted to the posterior +half of the scalp. With this digression I will continue my account of +the mourning ceremonials observed at the death of Kaika. + +The news of the death of the principal wife of the Alu chief was soon +carried to the other islands of Bougainville Straits. Visits of +condolence were paid to Gorai by Tomimas and Kurra-kurra, the two Faro +chiefs; and parties of the women of Faro went to display in person their +sympathy with the Alu chief on the occasion of his bereavement. We were +the first to convey the news to Treasury; and as Mule stepped on deck +shortly after the ship had come to an anchor in Blanche Harbour, I +informed him of his sister's death and of Gorai's request that his own +sister Bita should go and visit him at Alu. The news of Kaika's death +was received by her brother with much composure. Several weeks passed +away before Bita could accomplish the long canoe voyage to her brother's +island, as it is only practicable for a canoe in settled weather. There +was a sudden demand for pairs of scissors in Treasury when the news of +the death of Gorai's wife became generally known. Mule, his sons, and +several of the men of the island showed their regard for the deceased by +neatly trimming their bushy periwigs, not cropping their hair close as +in the case of the Alu natives; and in accordance with custom the wives +of the chief plastered their faces with lime. + +A week after our arrival at Treasury feasts were prepared as offerings +to the Evil Spirit--the _nito paitena_ of the natives--to appease the +wrath of that deity. For to his anger, as I was informed by an +intelligent native named Erosini, the death of Kaika was attributed. +Whilst walking through the village one evening, I came upon the +"remains" of one of these feasts. The essence of the viands had +doubtless been extracted by this direful spirit, inasmuch as I learned +on the authority of Erosini that the "devilo," as he termed him, had +already satiated his appetite; but to the eyes of ordinary mortals like +myself, the dishes had not been touched. However, it was not long before +numerous natives were helping themselves freely to the roasted opossums, +boiled fish, taro, bananas, etc., which formed the feast. Although +pressed to join in the banquet, I did not take to the idea of eating a +vicarious meal for his infernal majesty; and I resisted the persuasion +of one of my would-be hosts who, having scooped up with his hands a +mixture of mashed taro and cocoa-nut scrapings, licked his fingers well +and remarked it was very good "kai-kai." On the following day an old +rudely carved tambu-post that had been erected on the beach was used as +a target, at which, from a distance of about fifteen paces, the natives +fired their muskets and discharged their arrows. This proceeding, so +we learned, was to intimidate the "devilo" in case the feasts of the +previous day had not propitiated him. + +[Illustration: MEMORIAL OF A TREASURY CHIEF. + +(_To face page 51._)] + +The mode of burial employed by the natives of the islands of +Bougainville Straits varies according to the position of the deceased. +The bodies of the chiefs and of any members of their families are +usually burned; and the ashes are deposited together with the skull and +sometimes the thigh-bones in a cairn on some sacred islet, or are placed +in charge of the reigning chief. The natives were always reticent on +this subject, a circumstance which prevented my ascertaining how the +skull and thigh-bones were preserved from the flames. In the village of +Treasury there are some memorials of departed chiefs, one of which is +shown in the accompanying engraving. The one in best condition is that +of the late chief, whose skull and thigh-bones were deposited on one of +the islets in the harbour. They evidently mark the site of the funeral +pyres. A wooden frame of the dimensions of a large coffin is placed on +the ground and contains some young plants and the club of the deceased +chief. Four posts charred on their inner sides and decorated on their +outer sides with patterns in red, white, and black, are placed one at +each corner of the frame. They are rudely carved at the top in the form +of a face, and in all respects resemble those around which the funeral +dance was performed at Alu, as described on page 49. A sprouting +cocoa-nut is placed at one end of the frame, and a club is placed erect +in the ground at the other end. + +In the vicinity of Gorai's house, I noticed three small enclosures, +apparently graves, two of them round and one oblong, and all fenced in +by a paling of sticks. Lying on the ground within each enclosure were +such articles as strings of trade-beads, clay-pipes, betel-nuts long +since dried up, and dishes of palm leaves such as the natives use for +serving up their food. A communicative old man informed me that a few +months before a woman and a girl belonging to the chief's household had +died, and that their bodies had been first burned between four posts and +the ashes had been placed in the oblong enclosure. They bore, so he told +me, the pretty names of Evenu and Siali. On my asking the reason of +placing articles such as beads and betel-nuts on the grave, he told me +that in addition cocoa-nuts and other food had been placed there +previously in accordance with the native custom, which the old man +endeavoured to explain by pointing his fingers towards the skies. I +should here mention that on the spot, where the body of Kaika had been +burned some months before, there was placed a wooden framework in the +form of a long box, the materials being obtained from a ship's fittings. +Inside it were placed some beads and coloured calico. + +The custom of depositing skulls in cairns on the points of islands, +which is prevalent in the eastern portion of the Solomon Group, is not +generally practised amongst the islands of Bougainville Straits: and I +rarely came upon them in my excursions. However, on an islet in Choiseul +Bay, I found two cairns, one of which was tenanted only by hermit-crabs +with their cast-off shells, and the other contained two skulls that had +apparently lain for years in their resting-place to which they were +attached by the tendrils of creeping plants. On the summit of Oima, I +came upon a heap of stones under which was supposed to be the remains of +a Bougainville native killed in a fight, but I failed to find any of his +bones after examining the heap. + +The sea is generally chosen as the last resting-place for the natives +below the rank of chief in the islands of Bougainville Straits. +Lieutenant Malan, whilst engaged in sounding at the entrance of the Alu +anchorage, passed two large canoes in one of which were being conveyed, +for burial in deep water, the remains of a woman who had died during the +previous night. The relatives of the deceased accompanied the corpse, +but took no share in the paddling, being employed in wailing and +bemoaning their loss after the conventional manner of the Chinese. A +peculiar style of paddling was adopted by the funeral party; each man, +pausing after every stroke, partially arrested the motion of the canoe +by a backwater movement of his paddle. + +In Simbo or Eddystone Island, the bodies of the dead are sometimes +placed amongst the large masses of rock which lie at the base of Middle +Hill on the west coast of the island. My attention was first attracted +to this custom by the stench that came from this spot as I passed it in +a canoe. Some human bones were observed on the reef which lies off the +anchorage. In the eastern islands the dead are often buried at sea. In +Ugi and in Florida the skulls are sometimes preserved in a cairn of +stones built on the edge of a sea cliff, or at the extremity of a point, +or in some remote islet. A dwarf cocoa-nut, which attains a height of +from eight to twelve feet, frequently marks the grave of the chief in +the island of Ugi. In one of the villages of this island I was shown the +shrine of a chief, a small house in which suspended from the roof in a +basket were the skulls of the chief and his wife concealed from view by +a screen of palm leaves. Some articles of food, including a portion of +an opossum, together with a large wooden bowl, were hung up before the +screen. + +The burial place for men in the village of Sapuna in Santa Anna is an +oblong enclosure in the midst of the village which measures 24 by 18 +feet, and is surrounded by a low wall of fragments of coral limestone. +In this space all the bodies are buried at a depth of five or six feet; +and after some time the skulls are exhumed and placed inside the wooden +figure of a shark about three feet in length, which is deposited in the +tambu-house. One of these wooden fish, which lay on the surface of the +burial ground at the time of my visit, had recently been removed from +the tambu-house on account of its being rotten through age, and the +skull was to be re-interred. The body of a chief is placed at once in +the tambu-house in a wooden shark of sufficient size. Women are buried +in another ground, and the wooden sharks containing their skulls are +deposited in a small house by the side of the tambu-house. + +Into the subject of the superstitions and religious beliefs which are +held by the natives of the Solomon Islands I shall barely enter, as only +those who have become familiar with the natives by long residence among +them, and who have acquired an intimate knowledge of their language, can +hope to avoid the numerous pitfalls into which the unwary observer is so +likely to fall. I would, therefore, refer the reader for information on +this subject to a paper by the Rev. R. H. Codrington, entitled +"Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia," which was published in +the Journal of the Anthropological Institute (vol. x., p. 261). Through +Lieutenant Malan's knowledge of the Fijian tongue, a language understood +by the men who had served their term on the Fiji plantations, I learned +that the natives of Treasury and the Shortlands believe in a Good Spirit +(_nito drekona_) who lives in a pleasant land whither all men who have +lived good lives go after death, and that all the bad men are +transported to the crater of Bagana, the burning volcano of +Bougainville, which is the home of the Evil Spirit (_nito paitena_) and +his companion spirits. That the natives of the Shortlands really believe +in some future state is shown in the following singular superstition +which came under my notice at Alu. I was returning one night in Gorai's +war canoe from one of my excursions, when I noticed that the chief and +his men were looking towards the coral island of Balalai which lies a +few miles distant from the anchorage. They told me they were looking for +a bright light which was sometimes to be seen shining at night in this +island in the winter months of the year. This light they believed to be +the spirit of Captain Ferguson of the "Ripple," who had been killed some +years before by the natives of Nouma-nouma on the Bougainville coast. I +suggested that it might be the watch-fire of a party of the Faro natives +who had gone there to fish, or to hunt turtle; but my suggestion was +pooh-poohed. Balalai was evidently a haunted island in the minds of my +companions, and I desisted from making any further remarks which would +be likely to disabuse them of this idea. Often and often when we were +anchored within sight of this island I remembered the story, but never +saw the light. + +The natives of Ugi believe that the souls of the dead pass into +fireflies: and should one of these insects enter a house, those inside +quickly leave it. The spirits of the dead in human shape are believed to +frequent certain islets in Treasury Harbour, where they are occasionally +seen by the women. Certain spirits, who are usually accredited with the +power of sending sickness or other calamities, are said to take up their +abodes in particular districts. Such a spirit haunts the picturesque +glen of Tetabau on the northern slope of the summit of Treasury, if we +may accept the statement of one of the islanders; and any native who is +bold enough to enter this glen will, according to the general belief, +provoke the anger of its invisible occupant. The party of natives who +accompanied me to the summit of Tarawei Hill in the island of Faro +refused to go further than the brink of the hill, because, as they said, +there dwelt on the top some evil spirits who would send sickness and +death on any intruder. I had therefore to walk along the crest of the +hill alone. The echoes which the shouts of my men awakened as we +descended the steep slopes to the west were, as I was told, but the +voices of the spirits who haunted the summit of the hill. + +In the island of Ugi the superstition of "ill-wishing" is very +prevalent. When a man cuts off his hair, as in mourning, he buries it +unobserved so that it may not fall into the hands of any one who may by +sorcery bring sickness or some other calamity upon him; and he adopts +the same precaution with reference to the husks of betel-nuts and +similar refuse. Whilst I was obtaining some samples of hair from the +natives of this island, I was told that if in the immediate future any +sickness should befall those who had parted with their hair, they would +assign the cause to me; yet, native-like, they allowed me to take a +sample with their free consent, for it is their custom never to refuse +to each other anything that is asked. The professions of the sorcerer +and medicine-man are usually combined in the same individual. These men +in the Shortlands have a great reputation in the minds of the natives, +being accredited by them with a knowledge almost universal; and the +precincts of their dwellings are tabooed even to the chief. One of them +named Kikila, a sinister-looking individual with but one eye, had +obtained much repute in the practice of his profession. When on one +occasion Lieutenant Oldham complained to the chief that some of the +calico had been removed by the natives from the surveying-marks, the +services of Kikila were employed to bring about the death of the unknown +culprit. The sorcerer was not himself aware who the man was; but we were +told that for one of so much repute this was quite unnecessary. We never +learned the result of his incantation; but in all probability they +effected their purpose soon enough by working on the fears of the +unfortunate offender. How it was to be done we could not satisfactorily +ascertain; but there was no doubt as to the efficacy of the means +employed in the minds of the natives. + +Amongst the powers of the sorcerers are those of influencing the +weather. But such powers are not confined to men of this class alone. In +Ugi, different natives are accredited with being able to bring wind and +rain; and I knew one man who had earned for himself a considerable +reputation as a "wind-prophet." These powers are claimed by Mule, the +Treasury chief, amongst his other prerogatives. + +As far as I could ascertain, these natives keep no record, even in the +memory, of the lapse of years. Nor are they acquainted with their own +age. More than once when trying to obtain the date of particular events, +I received the wildest replies. The safest method to employ in making +such inquiries is to get the native to refer a recent event to some +epoch in his own life, or in the case of earlier occurrences to +associate them with his boyhood, manhood, or marriage. When he asserts +that a certain event occurred whilst his father was a child, he is +probably to be trusted; but when he goes back to the time of his +grandfather, no further reliance can be placed on his statements, except +as implying an indefinite number of years. I have observed elsewhere +(page 76) that a grandfather is deemed a personage of such a high +antiquity that these islanders, when referring to past events, seldom +care to go beyond. + +The only method of reckoning that came under my notice was in the +instance of a Treasury native, who, whilst serving as interpreter on +board the "Lark," kept a register of the time he was away from his +island by tying a knot daily on a cord and marking Sunday by a piece of +paper, the knots being about an inch apart. I learned from a Faro man +that this is the method of recording days which is commonly employed by +the inhabitants of Bougainville Straits, the "moons" or months being +alone distinguished by a piece of native tobacco tied in the knot. Such +a practice, however, would appear to be followed only during the +temporary absences from their islands, as when they are away on canoe +expeditions. A native, captured in 1769 by Surville, whilst at Port +Praslin, in Isabel, kept count of the days of absence from his country +by tying knots in a "lacet."[18] It is scarcely necessary for me to +point out that in the "knotted cord" of the Solomon Islanders we have +the elementary form of the "quipu" of the Incas. + + [18] From an extract of this voyage given in "Voyage de Marion." + Paris, 1783: p. 274, _circa_. + +Amongst the constellations, the Pleiades and Orion's Belt seem to be +those which are most familiar to the natives of Bougainville Straits. +The former, which they speak of as possessing six stars, they name +"Vuhu;" the latter, "Matatala." They have also names for a few other +stars. As in the case of many other savage races, the Pleiades is a +constellation of great significance with the inhabitants of these +straits. The Treasury Islanders hold a great feast towards the end of +October, to celebrate, as far as I could learn, the approaching +appearance of this constellation above the eastern horizon soon after +sunset. Probably, as in many of the Pacific Islands, this event marks +the beginning of their year. I learned from Mr. Stephens that, in Ugi, +where of all the constellations the Pleiades alone receives a name, the +natives are guided by it in selecting the times for planting and taking +up their yams. + +[Illustration: VILLAGE OF SUENNA IN UGI. + +(_To face page 57._)] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +DWELLINGS--TAMBU-HOUSES--WEAPONS--TOOLS. + + +THE villages in the eastern islands of the group vary much in size. They +usually contain between 25 and 40 houses, and between one and two +hundred inhabitants. There are however some much larger, as in the case +of Wano on the north coast of St. Christoval, which probably does not +possess a population much under five hundred. In the larger villages the +houses are generally built in double rows with a common thoroughfare +between; and the tambu-house occupies usually a central position. In the +village of Suenna, as shown in the engraving, which is one of the +largest villages in Ugi, the houses are built around a large open space +free of buildings. The usual dimensions of the dwelling-houses are as +follows: length 25 to 30 feet, breadth 15 to 20 feet, height 8 to 10 +feet. The gable-roof, which is made of a framework of bamboos thatched +with the leaves of pandanus trees, or of cocoa-nut or areca palms, is +supported on a central row of posts. The sides are low and made of the +same materials as the roof. The only entrance is by an oblong aperture +in the front of the building, which is removed 2-1/2 to 3 feet above the +ground, so that one has literally to dive into the interior, which from +the absence of any other openings, is kept very dark. Such are the +dimensions and mode of structure of an ordinary dwelling-house in the +eastern islands. The chiefs, however, have larger buildings, which in +some instances, as in those of the more powerful chiefs, rival in size +and in style the tambu-houses themselves. Many houses have a staging in +front, which is on a level with the lower edge of the aperture that +serves as the entrance. On this staging, protected by the projecting +roof the inmates are wont to sit and lie about during the day; and the +men occasionally pass the night there. In the houses of the chiefs and +principal men, there are generally spaces partitioned off for sleeping +and containing a raised stage for the mats; but in the dwelling-house +of an ordinary man no such partitions usually occur. Single men sleep on +the ground on a mat, which may be nothing more than the leaves of two +branches of the cocoa-nut palm rudely plaited together. Each man lays +his mat by the side of a little smouldering wood-fire, which he +endeavours to keep up during the night, and for this purpose he gets up +at all hours to fan it into a flame. + +There is but little attempt made to please the eye in the way of +external or internal decoration in the ordinary dwelling-house of a +native in the eastern islands. Rows of the lower jaws of pigs with the +skeletons of fishes and the dried skins of the flying-fox are to be seen +suspended from the roof over the entrance; whilst the spears, clubs, and +fishing implements are either thrust between the bamboos of the roof or +slung in a bundle over the entrance. Of furniture there is but little +except the large cooking-bowls, the mats, and a circle of cooking-stones +forming a rude hearth in the centre of the floor. I have seen in +temporary sheds or "lean-tos," erected by fishing parties on the +southern island of the "Three Sisters," fire-places formed of a circle +two to three feet across of medium-sized _Tridacna_ shells, the enclosed +space being strewn with small stones. + +The houses of the chiefs usually display more decoration. Amongst others +I recall to my mind the brightly-coloured front of the residence of +Haununo, the intelligent young chief of Santa Catalina. I am not aware +how long a native house will last. The white residents, however, tell me +that houses built for their own use, which are more substantial than the +ordinary native dwellings, will stand some five or six years; and that, +notwithstanding the heavy rainfall of this region, the thatch remains +admirably waterproof. + +I now come to the description of the houses in the islands of +Bougainville Straits. In the villages of Treasury and the Shortlands, +the houses are arranged in a long straggling row; and although close to +the beach they are for the most part concealed by the trees from the +view of those on board the ships in the anchorage. In the materials +used, in their style, and in their general size, these houses resemble +those of St. Christoval and the adjacent smaller islands. A thatch made +of the leaves of the sago-palm or of the pandanus, covers the gable-roof +and the framework of the walls. The usual dimensions of a dwelling-house +are: length 25 to 30 feet, breadth 12 to 15 feet, height 10 to 12 feet. +Since there are no means of admitting light except by the door, the +interiors are very dark, insomuch that on entering one of these houses +from the bright sunlight the eyes require some time before they can see +at all. In the out-lying hamlets in the interior of these islands, the +houses are often smaller and more rudely constructed; and the owner +supplies the place of a door by placing a couple of large plantain +leaves or a branch of a cocoa-nut palm before the entrance. Many of +these small hamlets are only occupied during the planting season. + +There is a far greater difference in size between the dwellings of the +chiefs and those of the ordinary natives than exists in the eastern +islands of the group, a distinction which might have been expected on +account of the greater power of the chiefs of Bougainville Straits. +Gorai, the powerful Shortland chief, has appropriated to himself more +than an acre of ground on which stand the several buildings required for +the accommodation of his numerous wives, children, and dependents. Its +precincts are tabooed to the ordinary native; but the old chief is +always ready to extend to the white man a privilege which he denies to +his own people. His own residence when we first met him, had no great +pretensions in size or appearance, measuring 40 by 20 feet in length and +breadth, and possessing a very dingy interior from the absence of any +opening except the entrance to admit light. There was, however, a larger +and better constructed building situated near his own for the +accommodation of his female establishment. It measured 60 by 30 by 20 +feet in length, breadth, and height; and was subsequently appropriated +by the chief for his own use. + +The residence of Mule, the Treasury chief, was one of the largest native +edifices that I saw in the Solomon Group. It is a gable-roofed building, +measuring about 80 feet in length, 50 feet in breadth, and 25 to 30 feet +in height. The front of the house, which is at one of the ends of the +building, has a singular appearance from the central part or body of the +building, being advanced several feet beyond the sides, a style which is +imitated in some of the smaller houses of the village. Its interior is +very imperfectly lighted by small apertures in the walls. I should here +refer to the large and neatly built house of the powerful chief of +Simbo, who, contrary to the usual practice, prefers light to darkness in +his residence. + +[Illustration: PILE-DWELLINGS IN FAURO ISLAND. + +(_To face page 60._)] + +In the two principal villages of Faro or Fauro which are named Toma and +Sinasoro, a number of the houses are built on piles and raised from 5 to +8 feet above the ground, as shown in the accompanying plate. But this +custom is by no means universal in the same village, and depends, as far +as I could learn, on the personal fancy of the owner. Both these +villages are situated on low level tracts bordering the sea; but their +sites are free from moist and swampy ground, to the existence of which +one might have attributed this practice. The houses built on the ground +are about 30 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 12 or 13 feet high; whilst +those raised on piles are considerably smaller, measuring 22 by 15 feet +in length and breadth, the building itself being supported on a +framework of stout poles lashed on the tops of the piles by broad +stripes of rattan. These pile-dwellings are reached by rudely +constructed steps made after the style of our own ladders. The roofs of +the houses in these villages have a higher pitch than I have observed in +houses of the other islands of the Straits. Their eaves project +considerably beyond the walls, and the roof is often prolonged at the +front end of the building forming a kind of portico. A neat thatch of +the leaves of the sago palm covers the sides and roof of each building. + +After remarking that the houses in the Florida Islands are often +similarly built on piles not only at the coast, but also on the +hill-slopes some distance from the sea, I pass on to briefly refer to +the purpose of these pile-dwellings on land. It seemed to me probable +that in previous years, when the natives of Faro were not on such +friendly terms with their neighbours, the houses were built on piles for +purposes of defence against a surprise; and that when comparative peace +and order reigned, some persons preferred the more commodious house on a +ground site to the smaller and less convenient building on piles. +Various explanations have been advanced with reference to this custom of +building pile-dwellings on dry land, some of which I will enumerate. It +is held by some that this custom is but the survival of "the once +purposeful habit of building them in the water." The exclusion of pigs +and goats and the protection against wild animals have been suggested as +probable objects of this practice; whilst by others it is urged that the +purpose of these pile-dwellings is to obviate the effects of excessive +rain and to guard against damp exhalations from a tropical soil. +Whatever may be the cause or causes of this custom, it is one which is +widely spread, being found in New Guinea, in the Philippines, amongst +the tribes on the north-eastern frontier of India, and in Guiana.[19] + + [19] Those of my readers who desire further information on this + subject should refer to the works of Tylor, Mosely, etc., and to + "Nature" for the last few years. + +With regard to the internal arrangements of the houses in this part of +the Solomon Group, but little remains to be said. In many houses a +portion of a space is partitioned off for sleeping purposes, usually one +of the corners; in others, again, the interior is divided into two +halves by a cross-partition. More attention is here paid to the comfort +of repose than in the eastern islands. In the place of the single mat +laid on the ground, they have low couches, raised a foot to eighteen +inches above the floor, on which they lay their mats; whilst a round +cylinder of wood serves them as a pillow. These couches, which the +natives can improvise in the bush in a few minutes, are usually nothing +more than a layer of stout poles, such as the slender trunks of the +areca palms, resting at their ends on two logs. + +Mat-making is one of the occupations of the women of the Straits, the +material employed being the thick leaves of a species of _Pandanus_ +which is known by the natives as the _pota_. The leaves are first +deprived of their thin polished epidermis by being rubbed over with the +leaves of a plant, named _sansuti_, which have a rough surface giving a +sensation like that caused by fine emery paper when passed over the +skin. The pandanus leaves are then dried in the sun, when they become +whitened and leathery, and are then sewn together into mats. These mats +are not only used to lie upon, but are also worn by the women over their +shoulders as a protection in wet weather. They are especially useful, as +I have myself found, when sleeping out in the open in wet weather. They +are sufficiently long to cover the whole length of a native; and when he +is sleeping out in the bush, he lies down on his couch formed, as above +described, from the slender trunks of areca palms ready at his hand, and +covering himself completely with his mat, he may sleep through a deluge +of rain without being touched by the wet. The mat has a crease along the +middle of its length, so that when placed over the body it resembles a +"tente d'abri;" and the rain runs off as from the roof of a house. To +intending travellers in these islands, I strongly recommend this form of +couch. A native mat and a blanket are all he requires to carry. Almost +anywhere in the bush he can find the areca palms, the slender trunks of +which, when placed as a layer of poles on two logs, will serve him as an +excellent couch. + +With regard to the domestic utensils in use amongst the natives of +Bougainville Straits, I should observe that cocoa-nut shells pierced by +a hole of about the size of a florin, are employed as drinking-vessels. +The outer surface of the shell is usually coated over with a kind of red +cement formed of a mixture of red ochreous earth and the resinous +material, obtained from the fruit of the "tita" (_Parinarium laurinum_), +which is employed for caulking the seams of the canoes. The exterior of +these vessels is frequently ornamented by double chevron-lines of native +shell-beads. Sometimes a tube of bamboo is fitted into the orifice of +the vessel to form a neck, the whole being plastered over with the red +cement and looking like some antique earthen jar. Both of these kinds of +drinking-vessels are shown in the accompanying plate. Drinking water is +always kept at hand in a house in a number of these cocoa-nut shells +which, being hung up overhead, keep the water pleasantly cool, a plug of +leaves being used as a stopper. The native, in drinking, never puts the +vessel to his mouth, but throwing his head well back, he holds the +vessel a few inches above his lips and allows the water to run into his +mouth. The milk of the cocoa-nut is drunk in the same manner. The scoops +or scrapers used in eating the white kernels of the cocoa-nuts are +generally either of bone or of pearl-shell. Sometimes for this purpose a +large _Cardium_ shell is lashed to a handle, a small hole being made in +the shell for this purpose. . . . . Wooden hooks of clumsy size, though +showing some skill in their design and workmanship, are employed as +hanging-pegs in the houses. + +[Illustration: 1 + +2 + +1. MODEL CANOE MADE BY A ST. CHRISTOVAL NATIVE. + +2. PAN-PIPES. COCOANUT DRINKING VESSELS. COOKING-POT WITH CUSHION AND +TROWEL. FAN. + +(All these Articles are from Treasury Island.) + +(_To face page 63._)] + +The cooking-vessels in use in the islands of Bougainville Straits are +circular pots of a rough clay ware, usually measuring about nine inches +in depth and breadth, but sometimes more than double this size. +Cleansing these vessels out between the meals is deemed an unnecessary +refinement. These cooking-pots, one of which is shown in the +accompanying plate, are made by the women in the following manner: A +handful of the clay, which is dark-reddish in colour and would make a +good brick-clay, is first worked together in the hands into a plastic +lump; and this is fashioned rudely into a kind of saucer to form the +bottom of the vessel by basting the mass against a flat smooth pebble, +three or four inches across, held in the left hand, with a kind of +wooden trowel or beater held in the right hand. (One of these wooden +trowels is figured in the plate.) Whilst one woman is thus engaged, a +couple of her companions are occupied in flattening out, by means of a +flat-sided stick, strips of the clay six to twelve inches in length and +an inch in breadth, their length increasing as the making of the vessel +progresses. One of these strips is then placed around the upper edge of +the saucer; and the potter welds or batters it into position, employing +the same tools in a similar manner, the pebble being held inside. The +cooking vessel is thus built up strip by strip; and to enable the worker +to give symmetry to the upper part of the pot, a fillet of broad grass +is tied around as a guide. An even edge is given to the lip by drawing +along the rim a fibre from the cocoa-nut husk, and the interior and neck +are finished off by the fingers well moistened. Whilst being made, the +cooking-pot is rested on a ring-cushion of palm leaves, as shown in the +same engraving. The time occupied in making one of the ordinary sized +pots is about three-quarters of an hour. Thus made, they are kept in the +shade for three or four days to become firm; and they are finally +hardened by being placed in a wood-fire. No glaze appears to be used, +and the vessels themselves show no signs of its employment. Their outer +surfaces are indistinctly marked by odd-looking patterns in relief, +reminding one somewhat of hieroglyphics, which are produced by the same +patterns cut into one of the surfaces of the wooden beater (as shown in +the engraving) for the purpose of giving the tool a better hold on the +clay. Some cooking-pots, as in the case of the one illustrated, are +ornamented with a chevron-line in relief below the neck and partly +surrounding the vessel.[20] This ware compares but poorly with the +finish and variety of design displayed by the glazed pottery of Fiji. +The Fijian women, however, employ similar tools and accessories, namely, +a flat mallet, a small round flat stone, and a ring-like cushion of palm +leaves; but they do not appear from the accounts given of the process by +Commodore Wilkes,[21] Messrs. Williams and Calvert,[22] and Miss Gordon +Cumming,[23] to fashion the clay in the first place into strips. I may +here refer the reader to the illustration, given by Commodore Wilkes in +his narrative (vol. iii. p. 348), of pottery-making in Fiji, as it +exactly suits my description of pottery-making in these islands of +Bougainville Straits. + + [20] Specimens of the pots, the implements, the clay, and the other + accessories, have been placed in the Ethnographical Collection of + the British Museum. + + [21] "Narrative of the U.S. Explor. Exped.:" vol. iii., p. 348. + + [22] "Fiji and the Fijians:" 3rd edit., 1870, p. 60. + + [23] "A Lady's Cruise in a French Man-of-War:" London, 1882, p. 247. + +It will be interesting, perhaps, to briefly notice some of the +gradations in the art of pottery manufacture amongst the savage races in +this quarter of the globe. A very simple method, as recorded by Captain +Forrest[24] more than a century ago, was employed by the women of Dory +Harbour, New Guinea. They formed "pieces of clay into earthen pots; with +a pebble in one hand to put into it, whilst they held in the other hand, +also a pebble, with which they knocked, to enlarge and smooth it." The +natives of the Andaman Islands[25] advance another step in the process. +We learn from Mr. Man that the only implements employed are, an _Arca_ +shell, a short pointed stick, and a board. The clay is rolled out into +strips with the hand. One of these strips is twisted to form the +cup-like base; and the pot is then built up strip by strip. The method +employed by the natives of Bougainville Straits in the Solomon Group, +may be considered to be an improvement on the plan adopted by the +Andaman Islanders. As already described, they also fashion the clay into +strips and build up the vessel in a similar manner, but in the +employment of a special implement as the wooden beater, in the use of +the ring-cushion, and probably in the more artistic details of the +process, they make a nearer approach than do the Andaman Islanders to +the pottery-making of the Fijians. Then we come in the ascending scale +to the method employed by the women of the Motu tribe around Port +Moresby, New Guinea. By the Rev. Dr. W. Turner,[26] we are informed that +they use a round smooth stone and a wooden beater but no cushion, the +vessel being made without the aid of strips of clay into two pieces, the +body and the mouth, which are moulded together. This method, as employed +by the Motu women, may not be superior to that followed amongst the +women of Bougainville Straits; but inasmuch as the former manufacture +three kinds of vessels, one for holding water, another for cooking, and +a third to be used as a plate, whilst the latter confine their art to +the cooking-pot, I have assigned the first place to the former.[27] +From the work of the Motu women to the pottery of the Fijians, and +between the different processes employed, there is a considerable +advance in the art of pottery manufacture, as already described in the +case of Fiji. There, a glaze is for the first time employed; whilst in +their finish, their comparative elegance of design, in their +multiplicity of pattern, and in the various purposes for which they are +employed from the cooking-pot up to the ornamental jar, these Fijian +vessels are greatly superior to all I have referred to, whether the work +of a woman of Port Dory, of an Andaman Islander, of a woman of +Bougainville Straits, or of a woman of the Motu tribe in New Guinea.[28] + + [24] "A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas," by Captain T. + Forrest: London, 1779, p. 96. + + [25] Journal of the Anthropological Institute: vol. xii., p. 69. + + [26] Ibid: vol. vii., p. 470. + + [27] In the Ethnological Collection of the British Museum there are + specimens from this quarter of New Guinea of the wooden beaters + employed in the pottery making. They are highly carved and much more + finished than those of Bougainville Straits, being labelled "blocks" + in the collection, as if their chief use was for imprinting patterns + on the clay. It seems to me, however, that their principal purpose + is as beaters, the simply cut patterns of the beater of Bougainville + Straits, which serve to give the tool a better hold on the clay, + being elaborated in the case of the New Guinea beater into + ornamental patterns which have the same purpose. + + [28] Two kinds of earthen pots from the Admiralty Islands are + figured in the official narrative of the cruise of the "Challenger" + (figs. 242 and 243). They differ in shape from those of Bougainville + Straits and are probably made in a different manner. + +The Polynesian plan of producing fire, which is known as the +"stick-and-groove" method, was that which was occasionally employed by +my native guides during my excursions in St. Christoval and in the +island of Simbo. At the risk of being charged with undue prolixity, I +will briefly describe it as I saw it performed. A dry piece of wood is +first taken, and one side of it is sliced so as to form a flat surface. +A small bit of the same wood is then pointed at one end and worked +briskly along a groove which it soon forms in the flat surface. The +friction in some three or four minutes produces smoke; and finally a +fine powder, which has been collecting in a small heap at the end of the +groove, begins to smoulder. After being carefully nursed by the breath +of the operator, the tiny flame is transferred to a piece of touch-wood, +and the object is attained. In most native houses in districts not often +visited by the trader, pieces of the wood used for this purpose are left +lying about on the floor. Wax matches, however, form an important item +in the large quantities of trade-articles which pass into the hands of +the natives of some of the islands; and in such islands any other method +of producing fire is not generally employed. In most cases, when I had +omitted to take matches with me in my excursions, my natives, although +very desirous of getting a light for their pipes, were too lazy to +obtain it by making use of the more laborious method of the +"stick-and-groove." When making their own journeys in the bush, they +carry along with them a piece of smouldering wood, a precaution which I +used to encourage them to adopt when accompanying me, in order to save +myself being pestered every few minutes for a light for their pipes. + +Burning-glasses are in common use amongst the natives of some of the +islands, as at Simbo. The reason of their being not always favourite +articles of trade in other islands, I was at a loss to understand. The +numerous fumaroles varying in temperature between 160 deg. and 200 deg. +Fahr. which pierce the hill-sides of the volcanic island of Simbo, are +employed by the natives for the purposes of cooking, as I have elsewhere +observed (p. 86). + +Fans serve the double purpose of nursing a fire and of cooling the +person. Those in use in Treasury are made of the extremities of two +branches of the cocoa-nut palm, the midribs forming the handle, whilst +the long "pinnae" are neatly plaited together to form the fan. One of +these fans is figured in the pottery engraving. Although more coarsely +made, they are of a pattern similar to the fans of Fiji and Samoa. The +shape appears to have originated from the nature of the materials +employed; and I suspect that in Fiji and Samoa, where different +materials are used, the original shape which depended on the plaiting of +the cocoa-nut leaves has been retained, whilst the material itself has +been discarded. + +The natives of Bougainville Straits burn torches during their fishing +excursions at night and during festivals. For this purpose they use +resins obtained from the "anoga,"[29] probably a species of _Canarium_, +and the "katari," a species of _Calophyllum_, two tall trees which rank +among the giants of the forest in this region. The resin of the "anoga" +should be more properly described as a resinous balsam. It is white, is +easily pulverised, and has a powerful odour, as if of camphor and +sandal-wood combined. It concretes in mass inside the bark and in tears +on the outer surface of the tree, and is usually obtained by climbing up +and knocking it off the bark; but sometimes the tree is ringed at a +height of four feet from the ground, a process which drains it of its +resin but causes its death. The torch of this material is simply +prepared by wrapping up compactly the powdered resin in a palm-leaf, +which although outside answers the purpose of a wick. . . . The "katari" +resin, which is less frequently used, is a dark-coloured material that +burns with a tarry and somewhat fragrant odour. Other resins and gums +are yielded by the trees, one of which somewhat resembles the "kauri" +gum of New Zealand, and occurs in a similar situation beneath the soil; +but I was unable to find the tree. + + [29] From Surville's description of his visit to Port Praslin in + Isabel in 1769, it would appear that the natives burned torches made + of this resin. ("Voyage de Marion." Paris, 1783; p. 274.) + +In the tambu-houses of St. Christoval and the adjoining islands we have +a style of building on which all the mechanical skill of which the +natives are possessed has been brought to bear. These sacred buildings +have many and varied uses. Women are forbidden to enter their walls; and +in some coast villages, as at Sapuna in the island of Santa Anna, where +the tambu-house overlooks the beach, women are not even permitted to +cross the beach in front. The tambu-houses of the coast villages are +employed chiefly for keeping the war-canoes, each chief being allowed, +as an honourable mark of his position, the privilege of there placing +his own war-canoe;[30] but in the inland villages, these buildings are +of course no longer employed for this purpose. Another use to which +these buildings may be put is described on page 53, in connection with +the tambu-house of Sapuna in Santa Anna, in which are deposited, +enclosed in the wooden figure of a shark, the skulls of ordinary men and +the entire bodies of the chiefs. + + [30] Mr. C. F. Wood, in his "Yachting in the South Seas" (London, + 1875), gives, as the frontispiece of his book, an autotype + photograph of the tambu-house of Makira in St. Christoval, in which + the war-canoes are well shown. + +The front of the tambu-house in his native village is, for the Solomon +Islander, a common place of resort, more especially towards the close of +the afternoon. There he meets his fellows and listens to the news of his +own little world; and it is to this spot that any native who may be a +stranger to the village first directs his steps, and on arriving states +his errand or particular business. In my numerous excursions, when +thirsty or tired, I always used to follow the native custom in this +matter, being always treated hospitably and never with any rudeness. The +interior of these buildings is free to any man to lie down in and sleep. +On one occasion, when passing a night in an island village of St. +Christoval, I slept in the tambu-house, the only white man amongst a +dozen natives. Bloodshed, I believe, rarely occurs in these buildings; +and they are for this reason viewed somewhat in the light of a +sanctuary. + +The completion of a new tambu-house is always an occasion of a festival +in a village. The festival is often accompanied by the sacrifice of a +human life; and the leg and arm bones of the victim may be sometimes +seen suspended to the roof overhead. In the tambu-house of the village +of Makia, on the east coast of Ugi, I observed hanging from the roof the +two temporal bones, the right femur, and the left humerus of the victim +who had been killed and eaten at the opening of the building; and +similarly suspended in the tambu-house of the hill-village of Lawa on +the north side of St. Christoval, in which I passed the night, I noticed +over my head as I lay on my mat the left femur, tibia, and fibula, and +the left humerus of the unfortunate man who had been killed and eaten on +the completion of the building twelve months before. At these feasts +there is a great slaughter of pigs that have been confined for some +previous time in an enclosure of strong wooden stakes, which may be +allowed to remain long after the occasion for its use has passed away. +After the feast, the lower jaws of all the pigs consumed are hung in +rows from the roof of the building. In one tambu-house I remember +counting as many as sixty jaws thus strung up. + +The style of building and the size and relative dimensions of the +tambu-houses are very similar in all the coast-villages of the eastern +islands, a correspondence which may be explained from the necessity of +the structure being long enough to hold the large war-canoes. As a type +of these buildings, I will describe somewhat in detail the tambu-house +of the large village of Wano, on the north coast of St. Christoval. Its +length is about 60 feet and its breadth between 20 and 25 feet. The +gable roof is supported by five rows of posts, the height of the central +row being some 14 or 15 feet from the ground; whilst on account of its +high pitch the two outer lateral rows of posts are only 3 or 4 feet +high. The principal weight of the roof is borne by the central and two +next rows, each of which supports a long, bulky ridge-pole. The two +outer lateral rows of posts are much smaller and support much lighter +ridge-poles. In each row there are four posts, two in the middle and one +at each gable-end. These posts, more particularly those of the central +row, are grotesquely carved, and evidently by no unskilled hand, the +lower part representing the body of a shark with its head upwards and +mouth agape, supporting in various postures a rude imitation of the +human figure which formed the upper part of the post. In one instance, a +man was represented seated on the upper lip or snout of the shark, with +his legs dangling in its mouth, and wearing a hat on his head, the crown +of which supported the ridge-pole. In another case the man was inverted; +and whilst the soles of his feet supported the ridge-pole, his head and +chest were resting in the mouth of the shark.[31] Long after the +tambu-house has disappeared, the carved posts remain in their position +and form a not uncommon feature in a village scene as shown in the +engraving of a village in Ugi. . . . The roof of the Wano tambu-house is +formed of a framework of bamboo poles covered with palm-leaf thatch, the +poles being of equal size, whether serving as rafters or cross-battens, +the latter affording attachment for the thatch. The same materials +are used in the sides of the building. . . . . With reference to +tambu-houses generally in this part of the group, I should remark that +they are open at both ends, with usually a staging at the front end +raised about four feet from the ground, which may be aptly termed "the +village lounge." + + [31] Mr. Brenchley, who visited Wano, or Wanga as he names it, in + 1865, refers briefly in his "Cruise of H.M.S. 'Curacoa'" to these + carved posts (p. 267). + +The tambu-house of the interesting little island of Santa Catalina or +Orika--the Yoriki of the Admiralty chart--is worthy of a few special +remarks. Its dimensions are similar to those of like buildings in this +part of the group, the length being between 60 and 70 feet. Placed in +front of each of its ends are three circles of large wooden posts driven +into the earth, each circle of posts being 4 or 5 feet in height and +enclosing a space of ground a few feet across, into which are thrown +cocoa-nuts and other articles of food to appease the hunger of the +presiding deity or devil-god. The ridge-poles and posts are painted with +numerous grotesque representations in outline of war-canoes and +fishing-parties, of natives in full fighting equipment, of sharks, and +of the devil-god himself, with a long, lank body and a tail besides. On +a ridge-pole there was drawn in paint the outline of some waggon or +other vehicle with the horses in the shafts: whether this was a +reminiscence of some native who had been to the colonies, or was merely +a copy from a picture, I did not learn. Some of the representations on +the ridge-poles were of an obscene character. The central row of posts +were defaced by chipping, which I was informed was a token of mourning +for the late chief of the island, who had died not many months before. +Mr. C. F. Wood met with a similar custom in 1873 in the case of a native +of a village at the west end of St. Christoval, who on the death of his +son broke and damaged the carved figures of birds and fish in his +house.[32] I am inclined to think that this house was a sacred building +of some kind. . . . . Mr. William Macdonald, through whose kindness I +had the opportunity of visiting this island, pointed out to me that two +or three of the posts of the building had been carved into the figures +of women, an innovation in the interior of a tambu-house which I +observed in no other building of this kind. + + [32] "A Yachting Cruise in the South Seas:" London, 1875 (p. 133). + +The tambu-house of the village of Sapuna in Santa Anna, which is shown +in the accompanying plate, is higher, broader, and more massive in +structure than the other buildings which I have visited in the adjacent +islands. As in other tambu-houses, the forms of the shark and of the +human figure are given to parts of the posts; and in the hollow cavities +of wooden representations of the shark on the sides of the interior of +the building are enclosed the entire bodies of departed chiefs and the +skulls of ordinary men. The carved central post, which is seen in the +accompanying engraving, affords a superior specimen of native +workmanship. It was originally brought, as I was informed by one of the +natives of Santa Anna, from Guadalcanar. The walls of this building are +made more rain-proof by long slabs, measuring 36 by 6 by 2 inches, which +are cut out from the dense matted growth of fibres and rootlets that +invests the base of the bole of the cocoa-nut palm. + +The principal tambu-house in the village of Ete-ete, on the west side of +Ugi, is between 60 and 70 feet in length, from 25 to 30 feet broad, and +11 or 12 feet in height. Here also the sculptured posts represent the +body of a shark with its head uppermost and supporting in the gape of +its mouth the figure of a man, on whose head rests the ridge-pole of the +roof. The front of the building is decorated with red and black bands, +some straight, some wavy, and others of the chevron pattern. Mr. +Brenchley in his account of the "Cruise of the '_Curacoa_'" gives a +sketch of this tambu-house, which he visited in 1865 (p. 258). Forming +the frontispiece of his work is a chromo-lithograph showing the two +sides of an ornamental tie-beam from the roof of a "public hall" at Ugi, +which he presented to the Maidstone Museum. It represents on one side +sharks, bonitos, and sea-birds supposed to be frigate-birds, and on the +other side four canoes with sharks attacking the crew of one of them, +which is bottom upwards. + +[Illustration: TAMBU-HOUSE IN THE ISLAND OF SANTA ANNA. + +(Preparations for a Feast.) + +(_To face page 70._)] + +The deification of the shark appears to arise from the superstitious +dread which this fish inspires. Its good-will may be obtained by leaving +offerings of food on the rocks before undertaking a long journey in a +canoe. The natives of the neighbouring island of Ulaua, or Ulawa, +propitiate the shark with offerings of their own shell-money and of +porpoise teeth, which they prize even more than money; and, if a sacred +shark has attempted to seize a man who has been able to finally escape +from its jaws, they are so much afraid that they will throw him back +into the sea to be devoured.[33] We learn from Mr. Ellis[34] and from +Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet,[35] that in the Society Islands sharks were +deified, that temples were erected for their worship in which the +fisherman propitiated the favour of the shark-god, and that almost every +family had its particular shark as its tutelary deity to which it bowed +and made oblations. + + [33] "Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia," by the Rev. R. + H. Codrington, M.A. "Journal of the Anthropological Institute." Vol. + x. + + [34] "Polynesian Researches:" London, 1853. Vol. i., pp. 167, 329. + + [35] "Voyages and Travels of the Rev. D. Tyerman and George Bennet, + Esq.:" London, 1831. Vol. i., p. 247. + +At Alu and Treasury in Bougainville Straits, the tambu-house, which is +such a prominent feature in the villages of the eastern islands, is +represented by a mere open canoe-shed, for the most part destitute of +ornament, and apparently held in but little veneration. Rows of the +lower jaws of pigs, which are strung up inside the buildings, signify, +as in the eastward islands, the number of animals slaughtered for the +feast that was held to celebrate the completion of the canoe-shed. In +the island of Faro, the canoe-houses are only temporary sheds built over +the large war-canoes, and can have no sacred character in the mind of +the native, the tambu-houses in the two principal villages of Toma and +Sinasoro having no connection with the war-canoes. The tambu-house of +the village of Toma is a neat-looking building about 18 feet high, 45 +feet long, and 25 feet broad. It is open at the ends and partly open at +the sides, and is built of much the same materials as the +dwelling-houses. The roof, which is neatly thatched with the leaves of +the sago-palm, is supported on stout ridge-poles by a central and two +lateral rows of posts. There is no carving and but little decoration +about the building; and from the circumstance of its being sometimes +converted into a temporary drying-house for copra, we may draw some +inference as to the degree of sanctity in which such a building is held. + + * * * * * + +The weapons in common use in these islands are spears, clubs, bows and +arrows, and tomahawks. An indication of the disposition of the natives +may be usually obtained by observing whether arms are habitually +carried. In islands where the men go unarmed, the white man, from the +absence of intertribal conflicts, has an additional guarantee for his +own safety. On the other hand, amongst natives who never leave the +vicinity of their villages without a spear or a club, he will require to +be very cautious in all that concerns his safety. + +The spears are usually 8 to 9 feet in length, with no foreshaft, and are +made of a hard palm wood. Those of the natives of Bougainville Straits +are very formidable weapons. They are armed with long points or barbs of +bone, some of them 4 or 5 inches in length, and they are coloured white +and red, are curiously carved, and are ornamented with bands of the same +plaited material of which the armlets are made. The barbs and bands are +imitated in the colouring of the head of the spear. These spears are +made by the natives of Bougainville, and are exchanged with the people +of the Straits for European articles of trade. I have seen them in the +hands of the men of Simbo. In St. Christoval and the adjacent islands at +the other end of the group, the spears are of dark wood, with carved +heads and blunt wooden points and are uncoloured. As compared with those +of Bougainville Straits, they are not very formidable weapons. They are +only armed with blunt barbs cut out of the wood, which are rather more +ornamental than useful. + +In throwing a spear, the men of Bougainville Straits, whilst poising the +weapon, extend the left arm in the direction of the object and often +point the forefinger as well. None of the contrivances for assisting the +flight of the spear, such as the throwing-stick or the amentum, were +employed by the natives of the islands we visited. These weapons are +used both as hand-weapons and as missiles. The natives of St. Christoval +spear their victims through the abdomen, and as a mark of their prowess +they often allow the gore to dry on the point of the weapon. A man in +this island usually keeps his spears slung in a bundle under the +projecting eaves of the roof in front of the entrance to his house. + +Bows and arrows are much more commonly employed by the natives of +Bougainville Straits than by the St. Christoval natives. The bows are +stoutly made, and are from 6 to 7 feet in length. The string is of a +strong cord. The arrows used in the first-mentioned locality are usually +4-1/2 to 4-3/4 feet in length. They have a long reed shaft, with a +pointed foreshaft of a hard heavy palm wood inserted into the end, and +measuring about one-fourth the length of the arrow Although most of the +arrows have simple pointed foreshafts, destitute of barbs, a few +terminate in arrow-heads carved out of the hard wood. A kind of dart, +much shorter than the arrow and armed with points of bone, is also used. +About nine out of every ten arrows are notched for the bowstring. +Feathers are not used; but the hinder shaft of each arrow is decorated +with etchings as if in imitation of plumes. These arrows are essentially +Melanesian in character, and much resemble those in the British Museum +Collection from New Guinea and the New Hebrides.[36] At short distances +of 25 or 30 yards, the natives make good shooting with the bow and +arrow; but on account of the length of the arrow it is not to be +depended on at greater ranges. For shooting fish and pigeons, the +natives of these Straits sometimes employ small arrows fashioned out of +the large leaf of a kind of reed. The midrib serves as the shaft, and a +narrow strip of the blade of the leaf, which is left attached on each +side of the shaft, serves the purpose of the plume. The end is pointed +and hardened by fire. Such arrows are easily made, and are not generally +sought for after they have been shot away.[37] On one occasion I +observed a boy of Alu shooting a pigeon with an arrow terminating in +fine points like a miniature fish-spear. + + [36] To those who have never had their interest specially engaged in + the subject of savage weapons, the above detailed description of + these arrows may seem unnecessary; but, as Colonel Lane Fox + originally pointed out, it is in the absence or presence of the + feather and notch, in the length and formation of the shaft and its + point, and in other characters, that the arrows of different races + are distinguished from each other. Thus, in many parts of New + Guinea, in Melanesia generally, and throughout the Pacific, the + arrows are destitute of feathers; while those from Europe and Asia + are always feathered. (_Vide_ "Catalogue of the original Lane Fox + Collection," pp. 87-95; also, paper on "Primitive Warfare." "Journ. + Unit. Ser. Inst.," 1867-68, for a general treatment of the subject.) + Prof. Morse has shown that in the different methods of releasing the + arrow from the bow, important race-distinctions are to be found. An + abstract of his interesting paper is given in "Nature," Nov. 4th, + 1886. + + [37] Mr. Mosely in his "Notes by a Naturalist," p. 381, describes + and figures very similar arrows which are used by the Ke Islanders + for the same purposes. + +Poisoned spears and arrows are rarely employed by the natives of the +Solomon Group. They did not come under our observation in any of the +islands that we visited. In the island of Savo, however, the natives are +said to poison their spears and arrows by thrusting them into a +decomposing corpse, where they are allowed to remain for some days. + +The clubs vary in form in different parts of the group. In St. +Christoval, they have flat recurved blades cut out of the flange-like +buttresses of a tree having very hard wood which bears a polish like +that of mahogany. In other islands, as in those of Florida, they have +flattened oval blades like that of a paddle. Other clubs again, like +those of Guadalcanar, are more cylindrical, and have their ends but +slightly enlarged; they are often ornamented with the so-called "dyed +grass." No weapons of the character of maces came under my observation. +Most clubs are pointed at the butt-end to enable them to be stuck +upright in the ground. These weapons are rarely seen in the hands of the +natives of Bougainville Straits, if I may except an ornamental club +which is carried at the dances.[38] The St. Christoval club is also a +defensive weapon. Its flat recurved blade is used to turn aside a spear +or an arrow just as the bat is employed to slip a cricket-ball. Some +have considered that these weapons are merely paddles. I never saw them +put to this use, and I should add that they are most unsuited for such a +purpose, being very heavy and sinking in water. I have frequently met +natives, when away from the coast, carrying them on their shoulder; and +I often learned from them of the true character of the weapon. Traders, +who had been years in this part of the group, spoke of them to me as +war-clubs. Together with their spears, the St. Christoval natives carry +them during their hostile incursions against the bushmen. A singular W +pattern that occurs on the flat blades of these St. Christoval clubs was +for a long time a puzzle to me. However a very probable explanation of +its origin has been given by Major-General Pitt-Rivers.[39] It is one +which goes to show that these curved flat-bladed clubs originated as +paddles, and that in proportion as they came to be employed also for +purposes of defence, their form and material were in time changed, until +their original use was either lost or forgotten. In the early forms of +this paddle-club, the swell of the blade suggested the shape of the body +of a fish; and the profile of a fish's head with the jaws agape was +added to complete the resemblance. In course of time the blade lost its +fish-like form, but the outline of the snout with jaws agape was still +retained as an ornament. In this manner the W pattern of the present +clubs originated. The steps in the production of this pattern may be +illustrated in a series of clubs from those with most marked fish-like +form to those where the profile of the fish's snout in the form of a W +alone remains; and this again by the omission of the mouth is often +replaced by a triangular nob. + + [38] These ornamental clubs exactly resemble, both in form and + decoration, some clubs from New Ireland in the British Museum. + + [39] "Nature," July 14th, 1881. I differ from the writer in + considering these articles as clubs, not paddles. + +[Illustration: + + 1. Fish-Spear. + 2. Spears from Bougainville Straits. + 3. St. Christoval Spears. + 4. Head of a Florida Club. + 5. St. Christoval Clubs. + 6. Dance-Club of Treasury. + 7. Canoe-Ornament, placed on the prow. + 8. Hanging-Hook (Treasury I.). + 9. Fish-Float. + 10. Canoe-God, lashed to the stem. + +(_To face page 74._)] + +Tomahawks and muskets, which have been introduced by the trader, are +frequently possessed by natives of the coast. The owner of the tomahawk +fits it with a long straight handle which he often decorates with inlaid +pearl-shell. It is a formidable weapon in the hands of a native, and it +is one which he usually employs very effectively, whether against his +fellow islanders or against the white man. The muskets are often of +little use on account of the lack of percussion caps and powder. + +The defensive arm carried by these islanders is usually a narrow shield +measuring 3 feet in length by 9 or 10 inches in breadth. With the +exception apparently of St. Christoval, these shields are to be observed +amongst the natives of most of the larger islands of the group. They +appear usually to be made of a layer of light reeds or canes lashed +together by rattan. In some islands, as in Florida and in Guadalcanar, +they are worked over with fine wicker-work, and are ornamented with +beads in the case of a chief. In other islands, as in Isabel and +Choiseul, they are often more rudely constructed and have no +wicker-work. In the two last islands they are rectangular in form. In +Florida and Guadalcanar they are more oval and are slightly contracted +in the middle. Mr. Brenchley figures one of the Florida shields in his +"Cruise of H.M.S. 'Curacoa,'" (p. 281); whilst a sketch of a shield of +the Port Praslin (Isabel) natives is to be found in the narrative of +Surville's visit to this group.[40] The Port Praslin shield is deeply +notched at one end. I did not observe these shields amongst the +inhabitants of St. Christoval and the adjacent islands, a circumstance +which may be explained by the fact that spears, and not bows and arrows, +are the offensive weapons usually carried by these islanders. Yet we +learn that three centuries ago it was with their bows and arrows that +the St. Christoval natives usually assailed the Spaniards (_vide_ pages +228, 231.) It should be remembered that the flat-bladed curved clubs of +these natives also serve the purpose of a defensive weapon. + + [40] Fleurieu's "Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769." + +The tactics employed in war are those which treachery and cunning +suggest. Very rarely, I believe, does a fair, open fight occur. In their +sham fights, one of which we witnessed on the beach at Santa Anna, two +parties confront each other in open and irregular order and hurl their +spears with all the excitement of a real contest. Every man keeps +constantly on the move as in dancing a jig, in order to be able to more +easily avoid the missiles hurled at him. The boys of Treasury sometimes +amuse themselves with a game of the same character, when they use as +their weapons the stalk and bulb of the large taro. I was on one +occasion much surprised at their skill in aiming apparently at one boy +and hitting the one next to him. + +The polished stone implements of their fathers have been to a large +extent discarded by the natives of the coasts; but the natives of the +interiors of the large islands, such as Bougainville, who may have been +rarely, if ever, in communication with the trader, are said to be still +in a large degree dependent on their stone axes and adzes. On account of +the extensive introduction of trade axes, adzes, and knives, it was +often difficult to obtain the polished stone implements from the people +of a coast village, and natives were wont to express their surprise at +my wanting such inefficient and old-fashioned tools. My inquiries as to +when these stone implements were used usually received some such reply +as the following: "Father, belong father, belong me, he all same"--the +purport of which was that they were in use a long time ago, the native's +grandfather being deemed a person of so high antiquity, that in +referring to past events he seldom cares to go beyond. These stone axes +and adzes are generally made of the hard volcanic rocks of this region. +A few are fashioned out of the thick portion of the shell of _Tridacna +gigas_. + +The upper surface of a large mushroom-coral (_Fungidae_), serves as an +effective rasp for scraping canoes; and the large shell of a _Cyrena_ +and the sharper edge of a boar's tusk are similarly used for scraping +spears and bows, which are ultimately rubbed smooth with powdered +pumice. + +The "bow-drill," armed with a steel point, was employed by Mule, the +Treasury chief, in piercing the holes for the rattan-like thongs in the +planks of his canoes. This was the only "bow-drill" that came under my +notice, and I could not tempt its owner to part with it. In the British +Museum Collection, however, there are two smaller tools of this kind +from other islands of the group. Without describing it, I may remark +that a similar "bow-drill" is figured in Commodore Wilkes' account of +the Bowditch Islanders,[41] by Dr. G. Turner[42] in his account of the +Samoans, and by Signor D'Albertis in his book on New Guinea.[43] The +history of the "bow-drill," as we learn from Dr. Tylor,[44] is an +interesting one. It originated with the "fire-drill," which is simply a +pointed piece of wood that is twirled between the hands. This was then +made more efficacious by winding a cord around it, when it became a +"cord-drill." By substituting for the cord a bow with a loose string, a +still more useful tool was obtained: and from this simple form of +"bow-drill" the Pacific islanders have obtained the improved boring-tool +they now employ. + + [41] "Narr. U. S. Expl. Exped.," vol. v., p. 17. + + [42] "Nineteen years in Polynesia," p. 273. + + [43] Vol. ii., p. 378. + + [44] "Early History of Mankind:" pp. 237-246. + +I should here allude to the round stones, rather larger than a +cricket-ball, which are employed as "cooking-stones" and for cracking +the hard kanary-nuts. They are to be seen in the majority of the +dwellings in the eastern islands; and they often mark the sites of old +villages and the temporary homes of fishing-parties. + +The grinding slabs and blocks of rock, which were used for rubbing down +the stone axes, are still to be seen in the coast villages, their +surfaces being sometimes worn into a hollow. At present these blocks are +used for grinding down the shell bead-money and for sharpening the iron +tools. I have sometimes come upon them marking the position of an old +village, the site of which had been long concealed by the growth of +trees and scrub. In some islands where it is not possible to obtain +stones of a sufficient hardness, these blocks have been transported from +considerable distances. A large block of a crystalline trap-rock, more +than a third of a ton in weight, which now lies on the reef-flat in the +vicinity of the village of Vanatoga on the east side of Santa Anna, was +originally brought down from the summit of the island to be used as a +grinding block. Slabs of a quartz-diorite, which is found in the +north-west part of Alu, and which is much valued for its hardness, have +been transported in canoes to Treasury Island more than twenty miles +away and to the other islands of the Straits. From their size, they +would weigh usually five or six hundredweight. + +Amongst the interesting discoveries which I have made in the Solomon +Group, I should refer to that of the occurrence of worked flints, which +are commonly found in the soil when it is disturbed for purposes of +cultivation, and are frequently exposed after heavy rains. My attention +was first directed to this matter on noticing a specimen of flint in the +possession of Mr. Howard at Ugi, and I soon obtained a number of +specimens from this island, and from the adjacent large island of St. +Christoval. The majority of them were of common flint, but fragments of +chalcedony and cornelian were frequent, and a jasper also occurred. The +largest specimen, which was nearly 4 lbs. in weight, clearly showed +traces of artificial working, and, as I am informed by Professor +Liversidge, was evidently a large, stone axe or tomahawk. Of the rest, +some were cores, others were flakes, resembling in their form, and often +in their white colour, the flakes of the post-tertiary gravels; whilst +one specimen possessed the shape of an arrow-head. Some of these flints +presented the appearance of having been re-fashioned after lying disused +for ages. In such specimens, there were two sets of facets or fractured +surfaces, the one whitened by weathering or exposure, the other +displaying the natural colour of recently broken flint. All were, in +fact, of the palaeolithic type. The specimens, that I obtained in the +islands of Treasury and Alu in Bougainville Straits, were usually of +chalcedonic flint, and possessed the form of hammer-stones, scrapers, +etc. Worked flints will probably be found in most of the islands of the +Solomon Group, except, perhaps, in those of purely volcanic formation +(_vide_ page 80). They are said to occur in Santa Anna, and I had a +specimen given to me from Ulaua. + +There are two interesting circumstances in connection with these flints +to which I should allude. In the first place, the inhabitants of these +islands are ignorant of their nature and their source. I was gravely +informed by the natives of Treasury Island, that the flints which they +brought me from the disturbed soil of their plantations had tumbled from +the sky, a superstition which reminds one of a similar belief prevalent +in some rural districts of our own country as to the origin of the +polished stone implements or celts. In a similar way the men of the +Shortland Islands explained to me the occurrence beneath the soil of +lumps of gum, which, like the masses of the _kauri_ gum of New Zealand, +mark the original position of the trees from which they were derived. + +Concerning these flint implements, we may fitly ask: Who were the race +of men that formed and used them? How long a period has elapsed since +these men inhabited this region? Whence did they come? Where are their +descendants to be sought? Are they to be found amongst the present +inhabitants of this group, who, having discarded the rude flint +implements for polished stone tools of volcanic rock, regard, with +ignorant contempt, the handiwork of their ancestors? To these queries we +may with some confidence reply that the original inhabitants of these +islands belonged to the once widely spread Negrito race, of which we +find the remnants in our own day in the aborigines of the Andaman and +Philippine Islands, and that their characters, both physical and +linguistic, have been fused with those of other races which have reached +the Solomon Islands both from the Malay Archipelago to the west, and +from the islands of Micronesia and Polynesia to the east. The present +natives of this group may, in truth, be considered as the result of the +fusion of the Negrito aborigines with the Malayan, Micronesian, and +Polynesian intruders. + +The second interesting point with reference to these ancient flint +implements is concerned with their original source. Professor +Liversidge, in drawing attention to my specimens, which he exhibited at +a meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales in December, 1883, +remarked that this discovery of flints in these regions afforded a very +strong proof of the probable presence of true chalk of cretaceous age in +the South Sea Islands, and he alluded to a soft white limestone +undistinguishable from chalk, which had been previously brought from New +Ireland by Mr. Brown, the Wesleyan missionary.[45] Chalk-rocks came +under my observation in the Solomon Islands; but in no case was I able +to find embedded flints (_vide_ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. 32, Part +3). I think it, however, highly probable that when the interior of one +of the large islands such as Guadalcanar has been explored, older chalk +formations containing flints will be discovered. The island of Ulaua, +which I was unable to visit, would probably afford some clue as to the +source of these flints. Although in all likelihood this island possesses +the general geological structure of the neighbouring island of Ugi, +which is described on page vii. yet it possesses one peculiar feature. +Mr. Brenchley,[46] when landing on the beach of this island of Ulaua in +1865, picked up a great many pieces of flint scattered about among the +broken-up coral, and he wondered where they came from. Captain +Macdonald, a resident trader in this part of the group, informed me that +flints are abundant on the beaches of this island, together with +fragments of a white chalk-like rock.[47] + + [45] "Journal of the Royal Society of New South Wales:" vol. xvii., + p. 223; _vide_ also "Geolog. Mag." Dec., 1877. Mr. H. B. Brady is at + present engaged in working out the Foraminifera of this New Ireland + rock. Its age, though still _sub judice_, is probably comparatively + recent. + + [46] "Cruise of the 'Curacoa,'" p. 255. + + [47] Should any of my readers in the Western Pacific have the + opportunity of visiting the island of Ulaua, it would be well worth + their while to pay careful attention to the mode of occurrence of + these flints. I am of the opinion that imbedded flints will be found + in the _recent_ rocks of this island. + +In the island of Faro, which is entirely of volcanic formation, flints +are not known to the natives, and it would be interesting to ascertain +whether they are similarly absent from other islands of the same +character. When in search of the source of these flints, I was more than +once led off on a false scent. It was on one such occasion, when +accompanying Gorai, the Shortland chief, on an excursion in his +war-canoe to the north-west part of the island of Alu, that I +experienced a great disappointment. Learning from the chief that he +could direct me to the place where the flints ("kilifela") were found, I +was in great hope of at last finding them imbedded. The locality, +however, proved to be of volcanic formation, and a pit or cave in which +the flints were to be found, successfully eluded our efforts to discover +it. I would, however, recommend future visitors to endeavour to find +this pit which lies a little way in from the beach and close to the +north-west point of Alu. Its examination might throw some fresh light on +the aborigines of these regions. + +The occurrence of flints on the south-east coast of New Guinea has +been recorded by Mr. Stone.[48] He tells us that the small island +of Tatana at the head of Port Moresby is "strewn with pieces of a +cornelian-coloured flint, called by the natives _vesika_, and used for +boring holes through shell, bone, or other hard substances." In 1767, +Captain Carteret found spears and arrows pointed with flint in use +amongst the natives of the Santa Cruz Group and of Gower Island, one of +the Solomon Islands.[49] M. Surville, when anchored in Port Praslin in +the Solomon Group in 1769, observed that the natives employed "a sort of +flint" as knives and razors and for obtaining fire.[50] In my own +intercourse with these islanders I did not find flints in use among +them; but it is very probable that in some islands the ancient flint +implements are occasionally employed for cutting purposes.[51] + + [48] "A few months in New Guinea," by O. C. Stone. London, 1880, p. + 72. + + [49] Hawkesworth's "Voyages": vol. i., pp, 296, 297. + + [50] Fleurieu's "Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769," etc: + p. 144. + + [51] In Raffles' "History of Java" (1830; vol i., pp. 25, 33) it is + stated that common flints, hornstone, chalcedony, jasper, cornelian, + etc., are frequently found in the beds of the streams of this + island. If not already inquired into, further information should be + sought concerning the shape and the source of these flints. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +CULTIVATION--FOOD, ETC. + + +THE inhabitants of the islands of Bougainville Straits display far more +interest in the cultivation of the soil than do those of St. Christoval +and its adjacent islands. Whether this circumstance may be attributed to +the greater powers wielded by the chiefs of these islands, and to the +consequent tranquillity which their peoples enjoy, or whether it is due +to the comparatively isolated position of these islands of the Straits +which has secured to their inhabitants a freedom from the attacks of +neighbouring tribes, I can scarcely distinguish. It is, however, +probable that the explanation of the extensive cultivated tracts with +the consequent abundance of food in the one region, and of the meagre +patches of cultivation with the resulting dearth of food in the other, +lies more in the surroundings than in the individual character of the +natives. + +In the island of Treasury acres and acres of taro and banana plantations +lie in the immediate vicinity of the village; and I passed through +similarly cultivated tracts in the east and west districts of the +island. The wide and level region, which constitutes the margin of the +island, is covered with a deep productive soil. Cultivation is not +confined, however, to the more level districts. Large cultivated patches +lie on the hill-slopes behind the village; and in other places fire and +the axe are constantly employed in the preliminary work of clearing the +hill-side. The islands of the Shortlands exhibit a corresponding degree +of industry on the part of their inhabitants. When crossing the eastern +part of the island of Morgusaia, I traversed for nearly a mile one +continuous tract of cultivation. In the midst of the taro and banana +plantations stood groves of the stately sago palm and clumps of the +betel-nut palm. An occasional bread-fruit tree towered over all; and now +and then a lime tree was pointed out by my guides. This extensive tract +belonged to the chief. Some of the cultivated patches in the Shortlands +are marked out by lines of poles laid flat on the ground into long, +narrow divisions, about twenty feet in width, each wife of the owner of +the patch confining her labours to her own division. + +On the east side of the island of Fauro, the interval between the +villages of Toma and Sinasoro is to a great extent under cultivation, +and is occupied chiefly by banana and taro plantations. Similar +indications of the prosperity of the inhabitants are displayed in the +number of cocoa-nut palms and bread-fruit trees, with here and there a +grove of sago palms, which occupy the low tract of land on which the +village of Toma stands. In the planting season natives of the Straits +spend weeks in their distant plantations in the interior of their +islands; and in the instance of Fauro Island, many of them possess other +plantations in the small outlying uninhabited islands which they visit +in parties at the regular periods. + +In the islands of Bougainville Straits, the banana, taro, and the sweet +potato are the vegetables which are grown in greatest quantity. The yam +does not appear to be such a favourite article of food as in the eastern +islands. I observed in Treasury that the natives protect the short stems +of the large taro against the depredations of the large frugivorous bats +(_Pteropidae_) by lashing them round with sticks. + +Here, as in the eastern islands, the following method of climbing the +cocoa-nut palm and other trees prevailed. A lashing or thong around the +ankles supports much of the weight of the body, and serves as a fulcrum +for each effort of the climber towards the top. When the cocoa-nut palm +is rather inclined to one side, I have seen a native adopt the mode of +the West Indian negro, and walking up the trunk on all fours, after the +style of monkeys. . . . . It is a singular circumstance, as residents in +the group inform me, that natives never seem to be struck by a falling +cocoa-nut, notwithstanding that they must be frequently exposed to +injury from this cause. I have often, when sitting amongst a group of +natives in a village under the shade of the cocoa-nut trees, been warned +by those around me that the nuts might fall on us. On two occasions I +have had heavy cocoa-nuts fall to the ground within reach of my arm, +which, if they had struck my head with the momentum imparted by a drop +of some fifty feet, would undoubtedly have stunned me. + +I may here refer to the sago palm, which is grown in far greater numbers +in the islands of Bougainville Straits than in St. Christoval and its +vicinity. It furnishes not only the vegetable-ivory nut of these islands +and the sago, which is an important item in the native dietary, but its +leaves supply the thatch for the roofs and sides of the houses. Although +belonging to the same genus, _Sagus_, it is evidently distinct in +species from the sago palm of Fiji (_Sagus vitiensis_), which, according +to Mr. Home, grows on the low-lying swampy land, and attains a height of +about 35 feet.[52] In the Solomon Islands, the height of full-grown sago +palms varies between 60 and 70 feet; whilst the situations in which they +are usually found, lie on the hill-slopes and in the drier districts of +the islands. In the islands of Fauro and Treasury groves of sago palms +occur both on the lower slopes and in the higher districts. They occur +on the summit of Treasury at a height of a thousand feet above the sea; +and I observed a few at Fauro at a height of 1400 feet. I found them in +the middle of the breadth of St. Christoval, between Wano and Makira. +. . . . The sago palm in these islands is the finest specimen of the +_Palmaceae_. I often used to admire its heavy bole terminating above in +its handsome crown of massive branches.[53] + + [52] "A Year in Fiji," by John Horne, F.L.S. London, 1881, p. 68. + + [53] Although this palm, when full grown, has the appearance of + great age and durability, it does not live for more than 20 years, + when it flowers, bears, and dies. + +In the extraction and preparation of the sago, the natives of +Bougainville Straits employ the following method. After the palm has +been felled and all the pith removed, either by scooping it out or +splitting the trunk, the pith is then torn up into small pieces and +placed in a trough extemporised from the broad sheathing base of one of +the branches of the felled tree. The trough is then tilted up and is +kept filled with water, which running away at the lower end passes +through a kind of strainer, made of a fold of the vegetable matting that +invests the bases of the branches of the cocoa-nut tree, and is then +received in another trough of similar material. The fibrous portion of +the pith is thus left behind, and the sago is deposited as a sediment in +the lower trough. When this trough is full of sago, the superfluous +water is poured off, and the whole is placed over a fire so as to get +rid of the remaining moisture. This method of sago-washing is similar to +that which is employed in the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The sago +is now fit for consumption, and is wrapped up in the leaves in the form +of cylindrical packages 1-1/2 to 2 feet in length. For the convenience +of the water-supply, sago-washing is carried out usually on the side of +a stream. The refuse is afterwards allowed to decay on the banks, and +the water of the stream is contaminated for a long time after, whilst +the air in the vicinity is impregnated with the unpleasant sour odour of +the decaying debris. + +The diet of these islanders is essentially a vegetable one, and most of +the common articles of food have already been referred to. Yams, sweet +potatoes, two kinds of taro,[54] cocoa-nuts, plantains, and sugar-cane +form the staple substances of their diet. In St. Christoval and the +adjacent islands the yam is more extensively cultivated; whilst in the +islands of Bougainville Straits the taro and the sago-palm are more +usually grown and the yam is less preferred. The bread-fruit appears to +be but an occasional article of food; and it was only now and then, as +in the vicinity of the village of Toma in Fauro Island, that I observed +the tree in any numbers. In Bougainville Straits there appears to be but +one variety of the bread-fruit tree (_Artocarpus incisa_) which ripens +in August. Its leaves are deeply lobed (_pinnatisect_) and have an even +surface; and the fruit are stalked, seedless, rough, and of a somewhat +oval shape. In Santa Anna there is another variety of the _Artocarpus +incisa_, the fruit of which has seeds and ripens in October. In the +plantations of Treasury Island I came upon a tree which is apparently a +variety of the Jack-fruit tree (_Artocarpus integrifolia_); it is known +to the natives as the "tafati," whilst the bread-fruit tree is known in +this part of the group as the "balia." Two cucurbitaceous fruits are +commonly grown in the islands of Bougainville Straits. One is a large +pumpkin, and the other is an oval "pepo," about six inches long, known +to the natives as the "kusiwura;" it is a variety of _Cucumis melo_, and +is a very good substitute for the ordinary cucumber. Amongst other +vegetables grown in the cultivated patches of this region are two +varieties of a species of _Solanum_, probably _repandum_, which are +known to the natives as "kobureki" and "kirkami;" and a second species +of yam, _Dioscorea sativa_ ("alapa").[55] + + [54] The small taro, which also grows wild on the sides of the + streams and is called "koko" in Bougainville Straits, is apparently + _Colocasia esculenta_. The large taro, which grows to a height of 7 + or 8 feet, and is known as the "kalafai," may be the same as the + "via kana" of Fiji (_Cyrtosperma edulis_). I cannot, however, speak + with any authority on this subject, as I collected no specimens. + + [55] Traders occasionally introduce foreign vegetables. Gorai, the + Shortland chief, grows a little maize in one of his plantations. + +Amongst the fruit-trees grown by the natives of Bougainville Straits in +their plantations are the Papaw-tree (_Carica Papaya_): a species of +Lime which the Alu chief grows in his extensive cultivated patches; a +Mango, probably _Mangifera indica_ ("faise"); the "borolong," a species +of _Barringtonia_ (probably _B. edulis_) which, when in flower, is at +once known by its handsome pendent yellow spikes 2-1/2 feet in length; +the kernel of the fruit is eaten, but it is not equal in flavour to the +similar kernels of the "saori" (_Terminalia catappa_) and the "ka-i" +(_Canarium_ sp.); the "sioko," is apparently another species of +_Barringtonia_, the fruit of which ripens in May; the "usi," a tall tree +60 or 70 feet high (not determined), the fruits of which are juicy, +seedless, and have a pleasant flavour; the leaves have an acid taste and +are eaten by the natives. + +Such are the principal fruits and vegetables cultivated by the natives +of this part of the group; but before proceeding to the methods of +cooking and of serving them up, I should refer to the white kernels of +the "ka-i," a species of _Canarium_, which form one of the staple +articles of vegetable food throughout the Solomon Group. My specimens +sent to Kew were only sufficient for generic identification. It is, +however, probable that this tree is identical with, or closely allied +to, _Canarium commune_, which is the familiar "kanarie" of the Malay +Archipelago, and the "kengar" of the Maclay-Coast, New Guinea.[56] This +tree is mainly indebted to the fruit pigeon for its wide dispersal. The +fruit is of a dark purple colour, oval in shape, and 2 to 2-1/2 inches +in length. Its fleshy covering, which is also eaten by the natives, +invests a triangular stony nut inclosing the white kernel which +sometimes rivals the almond in delicacy of flavour. It requires a little +practice to crack the nut readily. For this purpose the natives employ a +rounded stone of the size of a cricket ball, the nut being placed in a +little hollow on the surface of a flat stone. The fruit-pigeons are very +fond of the fleshy covering of this fruit; and it is their disgorgement +of the hard nuts which collect at the foot of the trees, that often +saves the native the necessity of climbing up and picking the fruit for +himself. This nut, which is familiarly known in this group as the +Solomon Island Almond, and in the Malay Archipelago as the Kanary Nut, +is in fact an article of considerable importance in the dietary of the +inhabitants of these regions, and it is often stored up in large +quantities. In order to keep them, the natives of Treasury Island hang +the nuts up in leaf-packages from the branches of the cocoa-nut palms. +The Spanish discoverers of the Solomon Islands under Mendana, seized +and carried off to their ships the stores of these almonds, as they +called them, which they found in the houses of the unfortunate natives. +According to Miklouho-Maclay, the inhabitants of the Maclay Coast of New +Guinea store up the nuts of the _Canarium commune_ between May and +July.[57] Labillardiere, writing at the end of last century, tells us +that the natives of Amboina lay in a large stock of the kernels of the +_Canarium_ for their voyages.[58] + + [56] "Proceedings, Linnean Society, N.S.W." Vol. x., p. 349. + + [57] "Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W.," Vol. x., p. 349. + + [58] "Account of a Voyage in Search of La Perouse." London. 1800 + (Vol. i., p. 377). + +With reference to the mode of cooking employed, I should remark that it +varies in different parts of the group. In St. Christoval and the +adjacent islands very palatable cakes are produced by mashing together +the taro, cocoa-nut, plantain, and kanary-nut. Portions of the paste are +placed between leaves in a pit in the ground in the midst of hot ashes +and heated cooking-stones, and the whole is covered over with earth and +left undisturbed for some time. The vegetables may be also cooked entire +in this manner. Stone-boiling is also employed in this part of the group +in cooking vegetables and fish. A large wooden bowl, about two feet long +and containing water, is filled with yams, breadfruit, and other +vegetables. Red hot cooking-stones of the size of the two fists are then +taken out of the fire and dropped into the bowl until the water begins +to boil. The top is then covered over with several layers of large +leaves which are weighed down by stones placed on them. The heat is thus +retained in the bowl, and after an hour the leaves are removed when the +contents are found to be daintily cooked.[59] In volcanic islands, such +as Simbo, the natives utilise the steam-holes or fumaroles for cooking +their food. Whilst I was examining a solfatara in this island, I found +that I had unconsciously trespassed within the precincts of a public +cooking-place; and in order to silence the clamour of the native women, +I had to distribute necklaces to all. + + [59] This method of cooking, aptly termed "stone-boiling" by Dr. + Tylor ("Early History of Mankind:" 3rd edit., p. 263), which is + often employed by savage races unacquainted with the art of pottery, + is represented in our own day by the old-fashioned tea-urn. As late + as 1600, the wild Irish are said to have warmed their milk with a + stone first cast into the fire. ("Tylor's Primitive Culture:" vol. + i., p. 40.) + +In the islands of Bougainville Straits, where the art of pottery is +known, the vegetables are usually boiled in the cooking-pots which are +not cleaned out after use. The leaves of the small taro are thus cooked +and make an excellent substitute for spinach. The plantains are boiled +in their skins, and are to the European palate when thus cooked most +insipid. The sago, which is a common article of food in this part of the +group, is not sufficiently dried during its preparation and it soon +turns sour; but this is no objection with the native who devours it with +the same eagerness whether it is rancid or sweet. It is usually only +half-cooked in a little packet of leaves; but when required for keeping, +it is well baked, and in the form of cakes is a favourite food with +children. The Solomon Islander, however, has not the forethought of the +inhabitants of the Malay Archipelago in laying by a store of sago for +future use. When a sago palm is felled, there is usually no lack of +friends to assist the owner in consuming the sago. The native of +Bougainville Straits serves up the cooked vegetables in trays made of +plaited palm leaves or of the sheathing base of the branch of the "kisu" +palm. A pleasantly flavoured dish is made of mashed taro,[60] covered +with cocoa-nut scrapings; and in such mixed dishes the kanary-nut +("ka-i") often occurs. + + [60] The taro and other vegetables are often pounded in a mortar + made from the hollowed trunk of a small tree and pointed at its + lower end so that it can be implanted in the ground. + +Although the native of Bougainville Straits to a great extent subsists +on the produce of his plantations, there are a great number of edible +wild fruits and vegetables which he also employs as food, and which in +times of scarcity would supply him with ample sustenance. I have already +referred to the kanary-nut, the fruit of the _Canarium_, as forming a +staple article in his diet. The nuts of the "saori" (_Terminalia +catappa_) have a small edible kernel which has an almond-like flavour +and is much appreciated by the natives. It is the "country almond" of +India and, as Mr. Horne tells us, it is extensively eaten in Fiji where +the tree is known as the Fijian almond tree.[61] In Tanna in the New +Hebrides, as we learn from Mr. Forster, it is also eaten.[62] The fruit +of the common littoral tree _Ochrosia parviflora_ ("pokosola") contains +an edible flat kernel. The three common littoral species of _Pandanus_ +also furnish sustenance in times of dearth; the seeds of the drupes of +the "sararang" and the "pota" contain small edible kernels, and the +pulpy base of the "darashi" is also eaten. The pulpy kernels of the +fruit of _Nipa fruticans_ are occasionally eaten as in the Malay +Archipelago; but the natives of Bougainville Straits do not seem to be +acquainted with the alcoholic liquor which this palm yields to the +inhabitants of the Philippines. The fruit of the "aligesi" +(_Aleurites ?_), a stout climber common in the woods of Treasury, has a +pleasantly flavoured kernel like that of the kanary-nut; and on one +occasion my party and I lunched on these kernels; the outer pulp of the +fruit has a dry scented but by no means unpleasant flavour. The kernels +of the fruit of a stout tree that grows on the verge of the +mangrove-swamps in Fauro Island, and which is probably _Sapium indicum_, +are said to be edible by the natives; my natives and I partook of them +on one occasion when one man became very sick for some time, and I +afterwards found that it was an euphorbiaceous tree, a circumstance +which explained his illness; I should therefore doubt the edibility of +these nuts. This tree is known by the same native name ("aligesi") as +the preceding, which apparently belongs to the same order. The white +kernels of the "kunuka," a species of _Gnetum_, are cooked and eaten by +the inhabitants of Fauro; this tree grows to a height of sixty feet and +has a cylindrical prominently ringed trunk. + + [61] "A Year in Fiji." London, 1881: (p. 88). + + [62] "Observations made during a Voyage round the World." London, + 1778. + +The growing tops of several species of palms are much appreciated by the +natives of Bougainville Straits; and on several occasions I have largely +made my lunch off them. They are usually eaten uncooked. The top of the +common _Caryota_ palm ("eala") is often preferred. Mr. Marsden[63] and +Mr. Crawfurd[64] inform us that in the Malay Archipelago the growing top +of the same or of an allied species of _Caryota_ (_C. urens_) is a +favourite article of food. It is there known as the true "mountain +cabbage," and Mr. Marsden tells us that in Sumatra it is preferred to +the cocoa-nut. Amongst other palms which in Bougainville Straits supply +in their growing tops the so-called cabbage are the "momo," a species of +_Areca_, the "sensisi," a species of _Cyrtostachys_, and the "kisu." + + [63] "History of Sumatra." London, 1811: p. 89. + + [64] "History of the Indian Archipelago." Edinburgh, 1820: vol. i., + p. 447. + +I have already referred to the fact that the small taro grows wild in +the ravines and on the banks of the streams in this region. A very +savoury vegetable soup is made from the leaves and unopened spathe of a +small arum that grows wild on the banks of the streams in Fauro Island. +It is a species of _Schizmatoglottis_ and is known to the natives as the +"kuraka." I should here allude to a wild yam which I found during one of +my excursions in this island. The mountain-plantain, which grows on the +sides of the valleys, and in moist, sheltered situations as high as a +thousand feet above the sea, furnishes in its small seeded fruits, when +cooked, an occasional substitute for those of the cultivated plantain; +it grows to a height of 35 feet, and on account of its striking +appearance it often forms a conspicuous feature in the vegetation at the +heads of the valleys. It is known as the "kallula." + +Amongst the wild fruits which are eaten by the natives in this part of +the group, are those of two trees named the "natu" and the "finoa." As +my specimens were insufficient for the determination at Kew of the +characters of these trees, I may add that the "natu" grows to a height +of a hundred feet, its fruit being of the size of a small melon and +having a pleasant flavour. The "finoa" grows to a height of fifty feet; +it is occasionally found in the plantations. + +The natives of the Shortland Islands informed me that the neighbouring +people of Rubiana were accustomed to eat the fruits of the common +littoral tree _Morinda citrifolia_ ("urati"), but that they did not +themselves eat it. The shoots of a tree named "poporoko," which belongs +probably to the _Olacineae_, are eaten by the inhabitants of Fauro, who +also consider as edible the tiara-like cones (?) of the _Gnetum Gnemon_ +("meriwa"). + +The fronds of ferns are in some species edible; amongst them, I may +particularly refer to the "quaheli" (unfortunately not identified), +which is eaten by the natives of Treasury Island. Fungi, which are +generally known in this part of the group as "magu," are often cooked +and eaten; but through inadvertence I am now unable to refer +particularly to the edible species. A delicacy with the natives of +Treasury is an alga, a species of _Caulerpa_, which grows in the +sheltered waters just below the low-tide level at the western end of the +harbour. They eat it with keen relish, when freshly picked from the +rocks, holding it over the mouth and munching at it just as if it were a +bunch of grapes, which it somewhat resembles in appearance. There is +another non-edible species of _Caulerpa_ which grows in the broken water +on the weather or outer side of the reef-flats.[65] + + [65] I am indebted to Mr. Moore of Sydney, for the identification of + the genus. + +_Tacca pinnatifida_ ("mamago"), commonly known as the South Sea or +Tahiti Arrowroot, is often seen on the coral islets in Bougainville +Straits. The natives, though acquainted with the nutritious qualities of +the plant, make little if any use of it. Mr. Horne,[66] writing of it in +Fiji, says that the arrowroot obtained from the roots of this and +another species of _Tacca_ (_T. sativa_) is even more nutritive than the +ordinary arrowroot which is obtained from a very different plant +(_Maranta arundinacea_). This leads me to remark on the singular fact +that the inhabitants of one Pacific group are often unacquainted with, +or make but little use of, sources of vegetable food which in other +groups afford a staple diet. Whilst the Fijians and the Society +Islanders make use of the arrowroot obtained from _Tacca pinnatifida_, +the inhabitants of the Radack Archipelago, as Chamisso informs us,[67] +seldom use it, although the plant is very frequent on the islands; and I +have already remarked that the natives of Bougainville Straits make +little if any use of the same plant. The Fijians were unacquainted with +the nutritious qualities of their sago palm (_Sagus vitiensis_) until +Mr. Pritchard and Dr. Seemann extracted the sago.[68] On the other hand +we have seen that the natives of Bougainville Straits largely consume +the sago of their palm which belongs to another species of _Sagus_ +growing not in the swamps as in Fiji, but in more elevated and drier +situations. In the instance of _Cycas circinalis_, one of the common +littoral trees in the Pacific, we find considerable variation in the +knowledge possessed by the inhabitants of different regions of its value +as a source of food. Its growing top produces a cabbage which, as we +learn from Mr. Marsden, is much esteemed by the people of Sumatra.[69] +Its fruits, when their noxious qualities have been removed by maceration +or by cooking, are largely consumed in seasons of scarcity by the +inhabitants of the Moluccas, New Ireland,[70] south-east part of New +Guinea, and North Queensland.[71] Its central pith yields an inferior +kind of sago to the inhabitants of some of the islands of the Eastern +Archipelago; and a gummy exudation resembling tragacanth, which is +yielded by this tree, has probably a medicinal value. The natives of +Bougainville Straits are not acquainted with the sago-producing +character of this tree nor with the fact that its fruits are edible; +they, however, prepare an application for the ulcers from which they +often suffer by macerating the fruits in question. Mr. Horne observes +that the Fijians do not make use of the _Cycas circinalis_ as a +sago-yielding plant:[72] we learn, however, from Dr. Seemann, that its +sago is reserved for the use of the chiefs.[73]. . . . . I may here +refer to the fact that the Treasury Islanders, although acquainted with +the common _Caryota_ palm ("eala") as yielding a kind of sago, do not +often avail themselves of it. + + [66] "A Year in Fiji," p. 104. + + [67] "A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea," by Otto von + Kotzebue: London, 1821: vol. III., pp. 150, 154. + + [68] "A Mission to Viti," by Dr. Berthold Seemann; p. 291. + + [69] "History of Sumatra," p. 89. + + [70] Labillardiere's "Voyage in search of La Perouse:" London, 1800: + vol. I., p. 254. + + [71] "Work and Adventure in New Guinea," by Messrs. Chalmers and + Gill; p. 310. + + [72] Horne's "Fiji," p. 104. + + [73] Seemann's "Viti," p. 289. + +Fish,[74] opossums (_Cuscus_), and pigs supply the natives of +Bougainville Straits with the more nitrogenous elements of food. But as +with vegetable so with animal food, the term "kai-kai"[75] is a very +comprehensive one with the Solomon Islander. Shellfish furnish +occasional sustenance. Amongst them I may mention _Tridacna gigas_, and +species of _Hippopus_, _Cardium_, _Turbo_, and of many other marine +genera. The _Cyrenae_, that lie sunk in the black mud of the mangrove +swamps, are much esteemed: and those natives who have their homes in +these gloomy and unwholesome regions employ as food _Pyrazus palustris_ +which thrives in little clusters on the mud, and in the puddles around +the mangrove roots. The Unios and the freshwater Nerites are also eaten. +The flesh of the large monitor-lizard, _Varanus indicus_, is much +prized. The crocodile is not rejected; and, as the following anecdote +will show, the past misdeeds of all its tribe are heaped upon it, whilst +the victors at the same time satisfy their sense of hunger, and glut +their feelings of revenge. . . . . The freshwater lake of Wailava in +Santa Anna is frequented by crocodiles which occasionally attack natives +fishing on the banks. At the end of 1882, one of these animals was shot +by Mr. Charles Sproul, an American resident. The news of its death +caused great rejoicing amongst the people of the village; and Mr. +Sproul, who was looked upon as a great hero, received presents of yams +as an acknowledgment of his prowess. After he had skinned it, he gave +the carcase to the village, and a feast was held. One old man, who had +been nearly carried off by a crocodile at the lake a few years before +and had had his leg broken, was positive that this was the identical +animal, and he was so delighted at its death, that, as Mr. Sproul told +me, there was nothing he would not have done for him. The old man +claimed as his share the portion of the head attached to the carcase, +and bones and all were eaten with that additional relish which the +sensation of feasting on his enemy would naturally produce. + + [74] I came upon some bushmen from the interior of Bougainville, + who, although they were staying some time at a village on the coast + of Fauro, would not eat fish; and I learned from the Fauro natives + that the Bougainville bushmen abstained from fish, even when they + were able to get it. + + [75] "Kai-kai" is a term for "food": but, like "tambu," it has been + introduced by traders. + +The Solomon Islanders are very fond of fatty food. They have been +observed to drink the liquid fat of pigs with the same gusto with which +a white man would quaff an iced drink on a hot day. They much appreciate +the fat in the abdomen of the Cocoa-nut Crab (_Birgus latro_); and, +without much regard for the feelings of the crab, they may throw it +alive on the hot cinders of a fire in order to cook its fat. + +A depraved taste for decaying flesh would appear not to be peculiar to +the upper classes of civilized nations. Mr. Stephens of Ugi tells me +that he has known natives of Ontong-Java, which lies off the Solomon +Group, to allow the carcase of a pig to remain buried in the ground +until it was rotten, when they dug up their treasure and enjoyed their +feast under cover of the night as though conscious of the depravity of +the act. It was the strong odour which penetrated his dwelling that +attracted the attention of Mr. Stephens to their proceedings. + +The methods of cooking animal food may be here referred to. In the +eastern islands of the group, it may be boiled in a wooden bowl by means +of hot-stones as described on page 86. In Bougainville Straits, when a +fishing-party returns towards nightfall with their capture of fish, they +erect on posts a large framework or grating of sticks, which is raised +about three feet from the ground. On this the fish is placed, a large +fire is kindled beneath, and, by a combined process of scorching and +smoking, the fish is cooked. As the portion of the grating on which the +fish lies is usually almost burned away, the framework is made some ten +feet in length by five feet in breadth, and the next fish to be cooked +is placed on a fresh part of it. On a framework of this size a +considerable number of fish may be thus cooked. Fish such as eels are +cut up into pieces, and each piece after being compactly wrapped around +with leaves is kept on the wood-fire for about half an hour. When an +opossum is to be cooked, it is first placed for a short time on the fire +in order to singe the hair off. It is then cut open, and the viscera are +removed: of these, the intestines are subsequently cleaned and eaten. +The body is then placed, without any further process, on top of the +fire; and there it remains until, after being well scorched as well as +roasted, it is considered to be cooked: when thus prepared, the flesh +is juicy and tender, but has a strong flavour. Pigs are first quartered, +and then placed on a pile of logs built up in layers to a height of +about three feet, over which three poles are placed like a tripod about +six feet in height, in order to draw the fire up. When thus roasted, the +flesh of the wild pig is very good eating, and may be thought by some +white men to be superior in flavour to the flesh of our farm-bred pigs. + +There are usually two meals in the day (viz., at its commencement and at +its close) in the case of those who are working in the cultivated +patches; whilst those who remain in the village may indulge in a mid-day +repast. Often during my excursions I have been glad to take advantage of +the simple hospitality of the natives; and I have found a light meal of +boiled bananas or of partly cooked sago, when taken in the middle of the +day, a convenient, though not a palatable, form of nourishment for a +hard day's work in these islands. + +I was once present at a feast in the village of Sapuna in Santa Anna. +Each man's contribution was added to the general store. Heaped up in +large black wooden bowls, such as are in common use in St. Christoval +and the adjacent islands, the materials for the feast were first placed +in front of the tambu-house, and then carried to the house of the chief, +where they were distributed. For several days before, the women had been +engaged in bringing in the yams and other vegetables from the "patches" +in the interior of the island, whilst their indolent spouses had been +lounging about with empty pipes in the village. The feast was held at +night, and was accompanied by much shouting. The natives gave vent to +the exuberance of their spirits, and mingled the most demoniacal yells +with their peals of laughter. The feast may be fitly described as a +"gorge." When it was concluded at an early morning hour, silence came +over the village, and everyone retired to their homes, where they +remained in a torpid condition during the rest of the day; and, in fact, +for some days afterwards the men were incapacitated for active labour. + +I should have previously referred to a kind of wild honey ("manofi"), +the work of a bee about the size of the ordinary housefly, which is much +esteemed by the natives of Bougainville Straits. It is more fluid than +our own honey, and has a scented flavour. It is drunk off like water by +these natives. The honeycomb is merely a collection of bags of brown wax +of the size of a walnut and aggregated together in an irregular mass, +which is often found in a hollow in the lower part of the trunk of a +tree. The inhabitants of this region have apparently no acquaintance +with the uses of wax, and thus differ from the Andaman Islanders, who +employ it for caulking the leaks in their canoes and for waxing their +bowstrings.[76] + + [76] Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. VII., p. 463. + +The Solomon Islanders are inordinarily fond of tobacco-smoking, a habit +which prevails with both sexes and almost at all ages. Tobacco has in +fact established itself as the principal currency between the trader and +the native; and without it a white man would be as destitute in these +islands as the beggar is in more civilized lands. In a village the +visitor will sometimes be followed by a knot of little urchins five or +six years of age who have slipped down from their mothers' backs to +pester him for tobacco; and I have seen a child in its mother's arms +allowed to take the pipe from its parent's lips and puff away with +apparent enjoyment. Should there be a scarcity of tobacco in a village +when a ship arrives, the trader may drive a cheap bargain, and the +curiosity-seeker may readily purchase anything he desires. We were able +on such occasions to obtain, for a piece of tobacco of the size of the +thumb-nail, articles, such as fish-hooks, which required for their +manufacture days of tedious labour. In the waste-ground of villages a +few tobacco plants are often grown. This is very frequently the case in +the villages of the islands of Bougainville Straits, where native-grown +tobacco is often preferred to the trade-tobacco. This home-grown tobacco +is there known as "brubush." The leaves are never cut up for smoking, +but are usually rolled roughly into twists; and when the native is going +to smoke, he stuffs two or three large pieces into his pipe. Claypipes +obtained from the traders are always used. These islanders very rarely +make wood pipes for themselves, although they must often see them in the +mouths of white men. I never met with a native who, having broken or +lost his clay pipe, had the energy to manufacture a pipe of wood. There +is, however, such a specimen of native work in the British Museum +collection. I could not ascertain any information relative to the +introduction of tobacco-smoking. It was, however, probably introduced +from the West independently of the influence of the trader. The natives +of the Maclay Coast and of the South Coast of New Guinea allege that the +habit was unknown two generations ago, and that the seeds of the plant, +with the knowledge of tobacco-smoking, have been introduced from the +West. In the Louisiade Archipelago and in South-East New Guinea, tobacco +was unknown until the last few years.[77] + + [77] Miklouho-Maclay in Proc. Lin. Soc., N. S. W., vol. X., p. 352. + +Crawfurd makes some interesting remarks on the introduction of tobacco +into the Malay Archipelago, whence, as I have shown above, the plant has +been evidently introduced into the Western Pacific. The Java annals +affirm that tobacco was introduced in 1601; and, as supporting this +statement, Crawfurd observes that the plant is not mentioned by European +travellers in this region before the beginning of the 17th century. +(Malay Grammar and Dictionary, vol. I., p. 191.) + +The practice of chewing the betel-nut is prevalent through the group, +and is accompanied by the usual accessories, the lime and the +betel-pepper (_Piper Betel_). In St. Christoval and the neighbouring +small islands, the lime is carried in bamboo boxes, which are decorated +with patterns scratched on their surface. In the islands of Bougainville +Straits, gourds are employed for this purpose, the stoppers of which are +ingeniously made of narrow bands of the leaf of the sago palm wound +round and round in the form of a disc and bound together at the margin +by fine strips of the vascular tissue of the "sinimi" fern (_Gleichenia_ +sp.). Plain wooden sticks, like a Chinese chop-stick, are used for +conveying the lime to the mouth; but frequently the stick is dispensed +with, when the fingers are used or the betel-nut is dipped into the +lime. + +The Piper Betel, which is known in Bougainville Straits as the "kolu," +is grown in the plantations, where it is trailed around the stems of +bananas and the trunks of trees. In these straits, as on the Maclay +Coast of New Guinea,[78] the female spike, or so-called fruit, is more +usually chewed with the betel-nut. Around St. Christoval the leaves are +generally preferred. + + [78] Miklouho-Maclay: Proc. Lin. Soc., N. S. W., vol. X., p. 350. + +The betel palm, the "olega" of the natives, which is apparently +identical with, or closely allied to, _Areca catechu_, the common +betel-nut tree, is grown in clumps and groves in the vicinity of +villages. The fruits of other species of _Areca_, which grow wild, are +occasionally used as substitutes for the ordinary betel-nut; in +Bougainville Straits the fruits of the "niga-solu," "niga-torulo," and +"poamau" are thus employed, those of the "poamau" being appropriated by +the women. + +Betel-chewing is practised by both sexes. It has a marked stimulant +effect; but the natives allege that no harm results from its constant +use. The betel-pepper gives the betel-juice the "bite" of a glass of +grog; by the natives it is considered to remove the taint of the +breath. The betel-juice is the active agent in the production of the red +colour which stains the saliva and the mouth of the betel-chewer. I +satisfied myself that the saliva was not necessary for producing this +colour, which may be readily obtained by mixing the betel-nut and lime +in rain water. + +When away on an occasion with a party of natives, I once was tempted by +curiosity to chew a betel-nut which I afterwards swallowed in order to +experience its full effect. Very shortly afterwards my head began to +feel heavy, and I had an inclination to lie down, whilst my sight was +sensibly dimmed. These effects passed away in about twenty minutes. In +my cabin I tried the effect on my circulation of merely chewing a single +nut. Five minutes afterwards I found my pulse had increased in force and +in frequency from 62 to 92 beats per minute. There was a sensation of +fulness in the head and temples, but no perceptible effect on the +vision. The pulse retained this frequency for another five minutes; but +it did not resume its previous rate until more than half-an-hour had +elapsed since the beginning of the experiment. Subsequently I tried the +effect of chewing two betel-nuts. The first increased the pulse by +twenty beats per minute, and gave rise to restlessness and a feeling of +fulness in the head. The second sustained, but did not increase the +frequency of the pulse. On account of nausea I chewed the second nut +with difficulty. No effect was produced on locomotion by these two nuts; +but my sight was sensibly dimmed. On turning-in for the night soon +afterwards, I experienced during the first hour rather vivid dreams +characterised by rapid shifting of the scene and change in the "dramatis +personae." Some of the crew who, at my desire, tried the effect of +chewing a single nut, informed me that it affected them much the same as +a glass of spirit would. The natives themselves are usually content with +chewing one nut at a time, two nuts, as they told me, produced +unpleasant symptoms, and a bad head. + +The betel-nut, in truth, possesses far greater stimulating properties +than I had previously suspected. A single nut had much the same effect +on me as a glass of sherry would have had. I believe that the extent of +its intoxicating qualities is not generally known. + +I may here remark that I did not come upon the custom of kava-drinking +in these islands. According to the Rev. Mr. Lawes, the kava plant +(_Piper methysticum_) grows wild in the forests of the South-Coast of +New Guinea, but its use is unknown. It may similarly be found in the +Solomon Islands. On the Maclay Coast, as we are informed by +Miklouho-Maclay, the custom of kava-drinking has been introduced not +very long ago.[79] + + [79] Proc. Lin. Soc., N.S.W., vol. X., pp. 350, 351. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERS AND RACE-AFFINITIES OF THESE ISLANDERS.[80] + + [80] My observations on the physical characters of these islanders + were embodied in a paper read before the Anthropological Institute + in July, 1885. They were to be published in the Journal of that + society. + + +I WILL in the first place briefly refer to the position assigned to +these islanders in the classification of the different races of man. +Professor Flower, in a recent address,[81] divided the different +varieties of the human species into three principal divisions, the +Ethiopian, the Mongolian, and the Caucasian, a system of classification +which, although often advanced and as often disputed, has now been +preferred to other more complicated methods of classifying the different +varieties of man. Around or between these three types all existing +varieties can be ranged. + + [81] The President's Anniversary Address to the Anthropological + Institute, Jan. 27th, 1885. + +The Solomon Island natives are usually referred to the Melanesian group +of the Ethiopian division, a group which includes the Papuans of New +Guinea and the majority of the inhabitants of the islands of the Western +Pacific; but my observations on the physical characters of these natives +have shown that the type of a Solomon Island native varies considerably +in different parts of the group, in some islands approaching the pure +Papuan, in others possessing Polynesian affinities, and in others +showing traces of the Malay. The _prevailing characters_, however, are +distinctly Melanesian or Papuan. The Melanesians, who, according to +Professor Flower, are chiefly distinguished from the African negroes by +the well developed _glabella_ and supra-orbital ridges in the male, +greatly excel the true African negroes, the Hottentots and Bushmen, and +the Negritos of the Andaman and Philippine Islands, who are included in +the Ethiopian division, in all that affects their social condition. In +their usuages, their rites, their dwellings, their agriculture, their +canoes, and in many other respects, the Melanesian or Papuan peoples +display a far greater intellectual capacity than we find exhibited by +the other members of the Ethiopian division. + +I cannot here enter at length into the question of the peopling of the +various groups of islands in the Pacific. It is a question on which +conclusions drawn from the linguistic and physical characters of the +inhabitants of these islands do not always agree. Professor Keane[82] +holds that the three principal divisions of the varieties of man are +represented in this region; the _Caucasian_ in the Polynesians +inhabiting the islands of the south-central Pacific (Marquesas, Samoa, +Tonga, &c.); the _Mongolian_ in the Micronesians of the islands of the +north-central Pacific (Gilbert, Marshall, Caroline, Ladrone Islands); +and the _Ethiopian_, or as he terms it the Dark Type, in the Papuans of +the Western Pacific (to whom he restricts the name Melanesian), New +Guinea, and the adjacent islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is to the +different mingling of these three principal types, that the widely +varying characters of the peoples dwelling in the several regions of the +Pacific are attributed. According to Professor Keane, the Polynesians of +the south-central Pacific are almost purely Caucasian, without a trace +of Mongolian blood. This view, however, is not supported by Professor +Flower who contends that the combination of the Mongolo-Malayan and +Melanesian characters, in varying proportions and under varying +conditions, would probably account for all the modifications observed +among the inhabitants of the Pacific Islands. + + [82] _Vide_ a series of three papers in vol. XXIII. of "Nature" on + the Indo-Chinese and Oceanic Races. + +The theory advanced by Professor Keane with reference to the peopling of +the Pacific Islands, is one on which some of my observations in the +Solomon Islands, although not directly connected with the subject, have +some bearing. The primitive Negrito race, as now exhibited in the +Andaman Islander, according to this view is the original stock of all +the dark races. From its home in the Indian Archipelago, it extended +westwards to Africa across the now lost continent of Lemuria, and +eastwards "across a continent of which the South Sea Islands are a +remnant--to become slowly differentiated into the present Papuan or +Melanesian peoples of those islands." Subsequently, the Caucasians of +southern Asia, impelled before the southerly migration of the Mongols +from higher Asia, occupied the islands of the Indian Archipelago and +extended eastwards to their present homes in the south-central Pacific +(Samoa, Tonga, the Marquesas, Society Islands, &c.). The Mongols +following close upon them, finally reached the groups of islands +together known as Micronesia in the north-central Pacific (Ladrone, +Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert Islands, &c.). + +The reference to the supposed sunken continents in the Indian and +Pacific Oceans, which served as stepping-stones in these migrations, +merits my attention. From our most recent knowledge of the geological +structure of tropical islands, to which my observations in the Solomon +Islands have in some measure contributed, it may be inferred that there +is but little geological evidence to support the view of the existence +of these submerged continents. The theory of subsidence, on which Mr. +Darwin's explanations of atolls was based, cannot now be urged in +support of prolonged periods of subsidence in the tropical regions of +the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The groups of atolls, which there occur, +were formed, as shown by recent investigations, around and over oceanic +peaks of volcanic formation, and independently of any movement of +subsidence.[83] + + [83] _Vide_ the writings of Murray, Agassiz, Geikie, and others. In + my volume of geological observations, to be shortly published, I + have referred at length to this subject. + +With reference to the migration eastwards of the Eastern Polynesians, I +would allude to a piece of evidence which was advanced by Mr. Hale in +support of the view that the island of Bouro in the Malay Archipelago +was the starting-point of the migration. Quiros, the Spanish navigator, +was informed in 1606 by a native captured at Taumaco, near the Santa +Cruz Group, that there was a large country named Pouro in the vicinity +of that region. This _Pouro_, however, was without doubt the +neighbouring island of St. Christoval (one of the Solomon Group) which +retains the native name of _Bauro_ at the present day, and as we learn +from Gallego's journal,[84] was called by the natives _Paubro_ rather +over three centuries ago. Mr. Hale, however, who of course was not +acquainted with the native name of St. Christoval, endeavours to +identity this Pouro, of which Quiros was informed, with the distant +Bouro of the Indian Archipelago. (_Vide_ note xv. of the Geographical +Appendix). . . . The foregoing remarks have not been offered with any +object of criticising a view on which I am not competent to speak. The +misconception having come under my notice, I considered it my duty to +refer to it. + + [84] _Vide_ page 229 of this work. + +In the course of my researches I came upon a circumstance which appears +to point in an unmistakeable manner to the Indian Archipelago as being +the highway by which the Eastern Polynesians have reached the Pacific. +The circumstance, to which I refer, is that it is possible to trace the +native names of some of the common littoral trees, such as the +_Pandanus_, _Barringtonia speciosa_, &c., from the Indian Archipelago +across the central Pacific to the Austral and Society Islands. In +illustration, I will take _Barringtonia speciosa_, referring the reader, +however, for the other trees to page 186 of this work. In the Indian +Archipelago, I find the native names of this tree to be _Boewa boeton_ +and _Poetoen_.[85] In the islands of Bougainville Straits in the Solomon +Group, it is known as _Puputu_. In Fiji, it is known as _Vutu_;[86] in +the Tongan Group, as _Futu_;[87] and in the Hervey and Society Islands +as _E-Hoodu_[88] or _Utu_.[89] It is interesting to notice the +modifications which the name of this tree undergoes, as one follows it +eastward from the Indian Archipelago to the centre of the Pacific Ocean, +a distance of between 4,000 and 5,000 miles; and it is equally +instructive to reflect that without the intermediate changes, +intermediate it should be added in a geographical as well as in an +etymological sense, the names at the end of the series would scarcely +seem to be related. The Indian Archipelago would appear to be the home +of this littoral tree, which on account of the buoyancy of its fruits +has not only been spread over Polynesia, but has reached Ceylon and +Madagascar.[90] From its home in the Indian Archipelago, it has +therefore extended to the eastward as far as the central Pacific, and to +the westward nearly across the Indian Ocean. . . . It is obvious that +much information of this kind might be collected which would be of +considerable value to philologists; and even in the case of this single +tree I have only, so to speak, broken the ground. The tedious character +of the research necessary to collect the scanty information I have +obtained on this subject, will be amply compensated for, if my remarks +should prove suggestive to residents in the different islands of the +Indian and Pacific Oceans. + + [85] "De Inlandsche Plantennamen," by G. J. Filet (_vide_ reference + on page 186). + + [86] "Year in Fiji," by J. Horne: p. 70. (1881.) + + [87] "Ten years in South-Central Polynesia," by the Rev. T. West: p. + 146. (1865.) + + [88] "Observations made during a Voyage round the World," by J. R. + Forster. (1778.) + + [89] "Jottings from the Pacific," by Wyatt Gill: p. 198. (1885.) + + [90] "Report on the Botany of the Challenger," by W. Botting + Hemsley: vol. I., part iii., p. 152. + +_The physical characters of a typical Solomon +Islander._--Notwithstanding the variety in some of the characters of +these natives, it is not a difficult matter to describe a typical +individual who combines their most prominent and most prevalent +characteristics. Such a man would have a well-proportioned physique, a +good carriage, and well-rounded limbs. His height would be about 5 feet +4 inches; his chest-girth between 34 and 35 inches; and his weight +between 125 and 130 pounds. The colour of his skin would be a deep +brown, corresponding with number 35 of the colour-types of M. Broca;[91] +and he would wear his hair in the style of a bushy periwig in which all +the hairs are entangled independently into a loose frizzled mass. His +face would have a moderate degree of subnasal prognathism, with +projecting brows, deeply sunk orbits, short, straight nose, much +depressed at the root but sometimes arched, lips of moderate thickness +and rather prominent, chin somewhat receding. His hairless face would +have an expression of good humour, which is in accord with the cheerful +temperament of these islanders. The form of his skull would be probably +mesocephalic. The proportion of the length of the span of the extended +arms to the height of the body, taking the latter as 100, would be +represented by the index 106.7. The length of the upper limb would be +exactly one-third the height of the body; and the tip of his middle +finger would reach down to a point about 3-1/3 inches above the patella. +The length of the lower limb would be slightly under one-half (49/100) +of the height of the body; and the relations of the lengths of the upper +and lower limbs to each other would be represented by the intermembral +index 68. I was only able to obtain the measurement of six women who +belonged to the small islands of Ugi and Santa Anna, off the St. +Christoval coast. Their average height was 4 feet 10-1/2 inches, which +corresponds with the rule given by Topinard in his "Anthropology," that +for a race of this stature 7 per cent of the height of the man (5 feet +3-1/2 inches, in this part of the group) must be subtracted to obtain +the true proportional height of the woman. The hair of the women has the +same characters as that of the men. Their figures have not usually that +breadth of hip which the European model would possess. The general +appearance of the younger women is not unattractive, but they soon lose +their good looks after marriage. In Bougainville Straits, it was often +possible to notice amongst the wives of the chiefs two castes of +women of very different appearance, the one with elegant figure and +carriage, slim limbs and more delicately cut features, the other more +clumsily proportioned with stout ungainly limbs and a coarse type of +features. + + [91] The colour-types employed were those given in the + "Anthropological Notes and Queries," published by the British + Association in 1874. + +[Illustration: 1 + +3 + +2 + +4 + +1. WOMEN OF SANTA ANNA. + +2. MEN OF UGI WEARING SUNSHADES. + +3. MAN OF UGI. + +4. MAN OF UGI. + +(_To face page 102._)] + +I found that two constant variations in the type of the Solomon Island +native are presented by the natives of the islands of Bougainville +Straits (including Choiseul Bay), and the natives of St. Christoval and +its adjoining islands at the opposite end of the group. In the former +region there exists a taller, darker, more robust, and more +brachycephalic race; whilst in the latter locality the average native is +shorter, less vigorous, of a lighter hue, and his skull has a more +dolichocephalic index. From 35 to 40 natives were examined in each +region, and some of the principal distinctions may be thus tabulated: + + Average Colour of Skin. Cephalic Index + Height. of living subject. + + St. Christoval, 5 ft. 3-1/2 in. Colour-types, 35 & 28 76 + Bougainville + Straits, 5 " 4-1/4 " " " 35 & 42 80.7 + +In the districts of Urasi and the Uta Pass on the north coast of +Malaita,[92] there would appear to exist an almost brachycephalic race, +of a lighter hue than is possessed by the natives of Bougainville +Straits. Differences are in fact constant in their localities throughout +the group, the most marked that came under my observation being between +the natives of Bougainville Straits and those of St. Christoval at the +opposite end of the group, as already alluded to. D'Urville, the French +navigator, who visited this group in 1838, contrasts in a similar way +the natives of St. Christoval and Isabel with those of Bougainville. The +former appeared to him small and feeble in comparison with the more +vigorous, sturdier, and much blacker natives of the latter island. He +was particularly struck with the diminutive and wretched appearance of +the natives of Isabel around "Thousand-Ships Bay," as compared with the +vigorous well-made natives of Bougainville.[93] . . . . . In some +islands of small size, we find the natives markedly different from those +around them. In the small island of Santa Catalina, off the eastern end +of St. Christoval, the natives are distinguished from all others in +this part of the group, by their finer physique, lighter colour, and +greater height. They do not appear to intermarry much with the +surrounding tribes; but they are, strange to relate, in friendly +communication with the natives of some district on the coast of Malaita, +with whom they probably intermarry. On the coasts of Guadalcanar there +would appear to be some of the finest types of the Solomon Islander. +Unfortunately, I had but little opportunity of observing them. + + [92] I was indebted to the Hon. Curzon-Howe, Government Agent of the + labour schooner "Lavina," for the opportunity of examining these + Malaita natives. + + [93] "Voyage au Pole Sud et dans l'Oceanie," (Tome V., p. 105, hist. + du voyage.) + + * * * * * + +Having briefly referred to some of the general facts resulting from my +observations on the physical characters of these islanders, I now come +to refer to the observations themselves. They were confined for the most +part to the natives of the opposite extremities of the group--at the +eastern extremity to the natives of St. Christoval and of the adjoining +small islands of Ugi, Santa Anna, and Santa Catalina; and towards the +opposite extremity to the natives of the islands of Bougainville +Straits, which include Treasury Island, the Shortland Islands, Faro +Island, together with Choiseul Bay. Observations, although fewer in +number, were also made on the natives of the following intermediate +islands, viz., Malaita, the Florida Islands, and Simbo or Eddystone +Island. + +All the measurements, unless otherwise stated, refer to male adults. + + +STATURE. + + Height in feet and inches. Number of + Measurements. + + 4 feet 11-1/2 inches to 5 feet 0 inches. 2 + 5 " 0 " -- 5 " 1 " 5 + 5 " 1 " -- 5 " 2 " 6 + 5 " 2 " -- 5 " 3 " 13 + 5 " 3 " -- 5 " 4 " 18 + 5 " 4 " -- 5 " 5 " 9 + 5 " 5 " -- 5 " 6 " 10 + 5 " 6 " -- 5 " 7 " 6 + 5 " 7 " -- 5 " 8 " 2 + 5 " 8 " -- 5 " 8-1/2 " 1 + -- + Total, 72 + +The foregoing table includes all the measurements of height which I +obtained in the various parts of the group. The range of these 72 +measurements is 4 feet 11-1/2 inches to 5 feet 8-1/2 inches. Fifty of +these are gathered together between 5 feet 2 inches and 5 feet 6 inches. +Arranging the whole series in order, I find that the value of the +central number (36th) is 5 feet 4 inches; of the quarter-points, the +value of the 18th is 5 feet 3 inches, and of the 54th, 5 feet 5-1/2 +inches; and the values of the 9th and 63rd in the scale are 5 feet 1-1/4 +inches, and 5 feet 6 inches respectively. There is a disturbing element +in this series, which is probably the result of combining in the same +series the natives of the Bougainville Straits islands and those of St. +Christoval, the latter being rather shorter, as noticed below. We may, +however, take the value of the median as representing the average height +of a native of the Solomon Islands, viz., 5 feet 4 inches, or 1.625 +metres, which is somewhat below the medium height of the human race, as +stated by Topinard at 1.65 metres. It is, however, in a marked degree in +excess of the height which Mayer gives for the Papuans, viz., 1.536 +metres (_vide_ Topinard's Anthropology). + +Deviations of a constant character are found in different parts of the +group, and often in different districts of the same island. The natives +of the islands of Bougainville Straits, for instance, are noticeably +taller than those of St. Christoval at the opposite end of the group, +the averages of about thirty measurements in each region, differing by +from one half to three quarters of an inch. This difference of height in +these two localities is accompanied by other important changes in the +physical characters which will be subsequently referred to. + +The range of my measurements may be contrasted with those obtained by +Miklouho-Maclay on the coast of New Guinea (_vide_ "Nature," Dec. 7th, +1882). + + Papua-Koviay coast, 1.75 to 1.48 metres. + Maclay coast, 1.74 to 1.42 " + Solomon Islands, 1.74 to 1.51 " + + +CHEST-GIRTH. + + The range of the eighteen measurements given in the subjoined table + is 31-1/2 to 37 inches: and since half of these are included between + 34 and 35 inches, we may consider these as the limits of the average + chest-girth of the natives in the portions of the group in which the + measurements were made, viz., the islands of Bougainville Straits + and St. Christoval, with its adjoining islands. + + Girth in Number of Stature taken + inches. Measurements. as 100. + + 50...1 + 31-1/2 to 32 1 52-53...3 + 32 to 33 3 53-54...7 + 33 to 34 3 54-55...3 + 34 to 35 9 55-56...2 + 35 to 36 0 56-57...1 + 36 to 37 2 57.2 ...1 + -- -- + Total, 18 Total, 18 + + Taking the average height (5 feet 4 inches) as 100, the proportion, + which a chest girth of 34-1/2 inches would bear, would be 53.9. This + very closely corresponds with the values of the median of the + accompanying series, which itself agrees with the value of the + average of the indices. This index of chest-girth may be compared + with results given by Topinard: + + Englishmen, 54.0 + Negroes, 52.3 + New Zealanders, 51.4 + Solomon Islanders, 53.9 + + +WEIGHT OF BODY.[94] + + [94] Mr. Evered, ships-steward assistant, obtained these weights for + me. + + Twelve natives of the Shortland Islands were taken promiscuously and + weighed, the following being the results, stated in pounds:--100, + 103, 116, 117, 120, 120, 123, 130, 148, 148, 150, 154. The mean of + these numbers is 127; and the average weight would probably vary + between 125 and 130 pounds, or between 57 and 59 kilogrammes. This + probable average weight is quite in accordance with the size and + build of a typical Solomon Island native; and agrees with the + general rule that the weight in pounds ought to be about twice the + height in inches; the average height being 64 inches, and the + average weight 125 to 130 lbs. + + +LENGTH OF LIMBS. + + The points of measurement employed were:-- + + (_a_) _For the upper extremity_: (1) a point half an inch outside, + and on the level with the apex of the coracoid process of the + scapula; (2) the centre of the hollow of the elbow on a line drawn + from the interspace between the head of the radius and the external + condyle of the humerus (indicated by a dimple when the fore-arm is + extended) to immediately below the internal condyle; (3) the centre + of a line joining the apices of the styloid processes of the radius + and ulna on the front of the wrist. + + (_b_) _For the lower extremity_: (1) a point on the middle of the + front of the thigh on a level with another point midway between the + anterior superior spinous process of the ilium and the upper edge of + the great trochanter; (2) a point on the "ligamentum patellae" on a + level with the upper edge of the external tuberosity of the tibia; + (3) the centre of the front of the ankle on a level with the base of + the internal malleolus. + + (1) _The intermembral index_, or the ratio between the length of the + upper and lower limbs, taking the latter as 100. From the table + subjoined, it will be seen that the range of 26 indices is 64 to + 73. Eleven of these lie between 67 and 68: and since the average of + my numbers, which is 68, corresponds with the value of the median of + the series, we will take this index of 68 as representing the + average ratio of the lengths of the two limbs compared together. + + Intermembral Number of + index. measurements. + + 64 1 + 65 2 + 66 3 + 67 6 + 68 5 + 69 3 + 70 1 + 71 3 + 72 1 + 73 1 + -- + Total, 26 + + (2) _The index of the fore-arm and arm_, or the ratio between the + lengths of the fore-arm and arm, taking the latter as 100. The range + of 27 indices is 79 to 100. Of these 16 are included between 87 and + 91; and the average of the numbers is 88. + + Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 79 1 + 80 1 + 82 2 + 83 2 + 84 1 + 86 1 + 87 6 + 88 2 + 89 1 + 91 7 + 95 1 + 100 2 + -- + Total, 27 + + (3) _The index of the leg and thigh_, or the ratio between the + lengths of the leg and thigh, taking the latter as 100. The range of + 27 indices, as shown in the subjoined table, is 68 to 97. Of these, + two-thirds are included between 74 and 83: and since the value of + the median, which is 80, corresponds nearly with the average of the + numbers, we may take it as representing the average proportion which + the leg bears to the thigh amongst these natives. + + Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 68 1 + 69 1 + 70 1 + 72 1 + 73 1 + 74 2 + 75 2 + 78 1 + 79 1 + 80 3 + 81 2 + 82 2 + 83 4 + 88 3 + 92 1 + 97 1 + -- + Total, 27 + + (4) _The index of the arm and thigh_, or the ratio between the + lengths of the arm and thigh, taking the latter as 100. The range of + 27 indices is 56 to 73. Of these, three-fourths are grouped between + 61 and 69. The average of the figures is 65, and the median of the + series is 66. + + Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 56 1 + 57 1 + 60 1 + 61 2 + 62 2 + 63 3 + 64 2 + 65 1 + 66 3 + 67 4 + 69 3 + 70 1 + 71 1 + 73 2 + -- + Total, 27 + + (5) _The proportion of the length of the upper limb to the height of + the body_, taking the latter as 100. + + Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 32 1 + 32-33 10 + 33-34 10 + 34-35 4 + 35-36 2 + -- + Total, 27 + + These 27 indices range between 32 and 36: three-fourths of them are + included between 32 and 34. Since the average of the numbers, which + is 33.3, nearly corresponds with the value of the median, we may + take it as representing the proportion which the length of the upper + limb bears to the height of the body amongst these natives. + + (6) _The proportion of the length of the lower limb to the height of + the body_, taking the latter as 100. The range of these 27 indices + is 46.9 to 51.6. Two-thirds of the total number are included between + 48 and 50; and since the average of the numbers, which is 49.1, + corresponds nearly with the value of the middle index of the series, + we may take it as representing the proportion that the lower limb + usually bears to the height of the body amongst these natives. + + Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 46.9 1 + 47-48 4 + 48-49 8 + 49-50 10 + 50-51 3 + 51.6 1 + -- + Total, 27 + + (7) _The span of the outstretched arms._--The following indices--69 + in all--show the ratio of the span of the arms to the height of the + body, taking the latter as 100:-- + + Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 100 1 + 101-102 4 + 102-103 2 + 103-104 4 + 104-105 5 + 105-106 5 + 106-107 18 + 107-108 11 + 108-109 6 + 109-110 9 + 110-111 3 + 112.6 1 + -- + Total, 69 + + The range of these indices is 100 to 112.6; and the indices of + greatest frequency are those included between 106 and 107. Placing + all the indices in their order, I find that the value of the central + of the series is 106.7, and of the quarter-points 105.2 and 108.6 + respectively. Taking 106.7 as representing the average proportion + which the span of the arms bears to the stature amongst these + natives, I may compare it with similar results given for other races + in Topinard's Anthropology:-- + + American soldiers (10,876), 104.3 + Solomon Islanders (69), 106.7 + Negroes (2020), 108.1 + + (8) _Distance of the tip of the middle finger from the upper edge of + the patella._ + + Distance. Number of + Measurements. + + 2 inches. 2 + 2 to 3 " 6 + 3 to 4 " 11 (9 of these at 3-1/2 inches). + 4 to 5 " 2 + -- + Total, 21 + + From this table it will be seen that amongst 21 natives the tip of + the finger never approached the patella nearer than two inches, and + was never farther removed than five inches. The value of greatest + frequency is 3-1/2 inches, and it may be taken as approximating to + the average distance. Comparing it with the average stature (64 + inches) taken as 100, we obtain the index 5.46; but by comparing the + distance of the middle finger above the patella with the stature as + 100 in each individual measurement, we obtain a more reliable + average index somewhat smaller than the preceding. + + Indices. Number. + + 3.12-4.00 4 + 4.00-5.00 5 + 5.00-6.00 9 + 6.00-7.00 1 + 7.00-7.94 2 + -- + Total, 21 + + In this table the indices range between 3.12 and 7.94: nearly half + are included between 5.00 and 6.00; the value of the median is 5.24, + and the average of the numbers is 5.19. Accepting the value of the + median as our average index for these natives, it may be compared + with similar results for other races given in Topinard's + Anthropology: + + American soldiers (10,876), 7.49 + Negroes (2020), 4.37 + Solomon Islanders (21), 5.24 + + * * * * * + + I will conclude my remarks on the length of the limbs by giving from + the preceding "data" the limb measurements of a Solomon Island + native of average height: + + Height of body, 64 in. } Index of height, and + } length of upper limb, + {Length of upper limb, 21-1/3 " } 33.3. + { } + {Length of arm, 11-1/3 " } + Intermembral { }Index of arm and + {Length of fore-arm, 10 " }fore-arm, 88. + index, 68. { } + {Length of lower limb 31-1/3 " } Index of height, and + { } length of lower limb, + { } 49. + Length of thigh 17-1/3 " }Index of thigh and + }leg, 80. + Length of leg 14 " } + +_The form of the skull as indicated by the relation to each other of +its length and breadth._--A hundred measurements, which I made of the +heads of natives in this group,[95] in order to obtain their +proportional breadth, taking the length as 100, gave indices varying +between 69.2 and 86.2. The whole series, however, displays a tendency to +grouping around different medians, and thus points to the important +inference that we cannot accept one type of the skull as a distinctive +character of the Solomon Islander. As shown in the subjoined table, +which gives the indices corrected to actual skull-measurements by +subtracting two units as proposed by M. Broca, there would appear to be +a marked preponderance of mesocephaly; but from my measurements being +limited both in number and locality, the safest conclusion to draw will +be the most general one, viz., that all types of skulls, brachycephalic, +mesocephalic, and dolichocephalic, are to be found prevailing amongst +the islands of the Solomon Group, the particular type being often +constant in the same locality.[96] If my measurements had been five +times as numerous, and had been spread equally over the group, I might +somewhat narrow my conclusions; and in truth brachycephaly might have +formed a more important factor in the series, if I had measured the +heads of the same number of natives from the north coast of Malaita +which I measured in the districts of St. Christoval and of Bougainville +Straits. In the subjoined table I have accepted all indices below 75 as +dolichocephalic, those between 75 and 80 as mesocephalic, and those +above 80 as brachycephalic. + + [95] The localities were--St. Christoval and the adjoining islands + of Ugi and Santa Anna, Florida Islands, north coast of Malaita + (Urasi and Uta Pass), Simbo or Eddystone Island, the islands of + Bougainville Straits, including the west end of Choiseul. + + [96] This conclusion is in accordance with the extensive + observations of Miklouho-Maclay in New Guinea and in the Melanesian + Islands. He found brachycephaly common in the New Hebrides, indices + of 81, and even of 85, not being rare. The indices of several + hundred measurements of New Guinea natives varied between 62 and 86. + This eminent traveller therefore arrived at the conclusion that no + classification of these natives can rest on the form of the skull. + ("Nature," xxvii., pp. 137, 185. Proc. Lin. Soc, N.S.W., vol. VI., + p. 171.) + +_Cephalic indices which have been reduced to actual skull-measurements +by the subtraction of two units._ + + Dolichocephalic indices 29 + Mesocephalic 52 + Brachycephalic 19 + -- + 100 + +I now come to consider more in detail the series of measurements given +below. In this series, which ranges from 69.2 to 86.2, there is a want +of uniformity arising from the fact that the numbers tend to gather +together around three centres, one between the indices 75 and 76, +another between the indices 80 and 81, and the third between the indices +82 and 83. We have thus in this series of a hundred indices, obtained by +measurement of the head of the living subject, evidence of different +prevailing types of skull amongst the natives of the Solomon Group; and +it will be subsequently shown that each locality has usually one +prevailing type. + + Cephalic Indices Number of + (Living Subject.) Measurements. + + 69.2 to 70 2 + 70 " 71 1 + 72 " 73 3 + 73 " 74 3 + 74 " 75 6 + 75 " 76 8 + 76 " 77 6 + 77 " 78 6 + 78 " 79 11 + 79 " 80 12 + 80 " 81 16 + 81 " 82 7 + 82 " 83 10 + 83 " 84 7 + 85 " 86 1 + 86 " 86.2 1 + --- + Total, 100 + + (1) _St. Christoval and the adjoining islands of Ugi, Santa Anna, + and Santa Catalina._ As shown in the subjoined table, this series of + 35 indices has a wide range between 69.2 and 86.2. The value of the + median index of the series is 75.9; and the average of the numbers + is 76.6. Out of the 35 indices, 11 are included between 74 and 76. + On the whole, however, I should take 76 as representing the average + cephalic index in this part of the group, although even here, as + shown in the series, there is some disturbing element. + + Cephalic Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 69.2 to 70 2 + 70 " 71 1 + 72 " 73 2 + 73 " 74 2 + 74 " 75 6 + 75 " 76 5 + 76 " 77 3 + 77 " 78 2 + 78 " 79 4 + 79 " 80 3 + 80 " 81 1 + 82 " 83 2 + 83 " 84 1 + 86 " 86.2 1 + -- + Total, 35 + + (2.) _The Islands of Bougainville Straits_, which include Treasury + Island, the Shortland Island, Faro Islands, and the western + extremity of Choiseul. + + The range of the subjoined forty indices is 75.9 to 85.2. The + contrast between this and the preceding St. Christoval series, as + shown in the grouping in the indices, well illustrates the + prevalence of distinct types in these two regions of the group. The + indices of greatest frequency are included between 80 and 81: the + average of the figures is 80.6, and the value of the median index is + 80.7, which may be accepted as the typical index. + + Cephalic Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 75.9 to 76 2 + 76 " 77 1 + 77 " 78 2 + 78 " 79 6 + 79 " 80 3 + 80 " 81 9 + 81 " 82 5 + 82 " 83 5 + 83 " 84 6 + 85 " 85.2 1 + -- + Total, 40 + + (3.) _The North Coast of Malaita._--Through the kindness of the Hon. + Curzon-Howe, government-agent of the labour schooner "Lavina," I was + enabled to measure ten natives who had been recruited from the + districts of Urasi and the Uta Pass on the north coast of Malaita. + + Cephalic Indices. Number of + Measurements. + + 79.3 to 80 2 + 80 " 81 4 + 81 " 82 1 + 82 " 83 3 + -- + Total, 10 + + This series, though small, is compact, its range being 79.3 to 83. + The average of the numbers is 81.2, which I will take as typical of + these localities. + + (4.) _The Island of Simbo or Eddystone._--From the head-measurements + of nine natives I obtained the following cephalic indices--72.9, + 73.8, 75.8, 76.6, 77.0, 78.0, 78.7, 79.3, 80.4--the average of which + just falls short of 77, which however may be taken as an + approximation of the prevailing index. + + (5.) _The Florida Islands._--Measurements of six natives of Mboli + Harbour gave the following cephalic indices,. . . . 77.2, 79.3, + 79.3, 80.0, 80.7, 81.4,. . . . the average of the numbers being + 79.6. + +I will now proceed to sum up briefly the results of the foregoing +hundred measurements of the head of the living subject. It will first be +necessary to reduce them to the form of measurements of the actual skull +by subtracting two units from the index, as proposed by M. Broca. The +effect of this correction is shown in the following table: + + Number of Living + Measurements. Subject. Skull. + + St. Christoval and adjoining islands, 35 76.0 74.0 + The islands of Bougainville Straits, 40 80.7 78.7 + The north coast of Malaita, 10 81.2 79.2 + The island of Simbo or Eddystone, 9 77.0 75.0 + The Florida Islands, 6 79.6 77.6 + +Accepting all indices below 75 as dolichocephalic, those between 75 and +80 as mesocephalic, and those above 80 as brachycephalic, we find +therefore that mesocephaly, as represented by an average index of 78.7, +prevails amongst the natives of the islands of Bougainville Straits; +whilst dolichocephaly, as represented by an average index of 74, +prevails amongst the natives of St. Christoval and its adjoining islands +at the opposite end of the group. On the north coast of Malaita exists a +type of native with an almost brachycephalic index. The foregoing +remarks refer only to the average in each locality. When we apply the +same correction to the table of the hundred measurements as given on +page 112, we find, as stated on a previous page, that 29 are +dolichocephalic, 52 are mesocephalic, and 19 brachycephalic. It would, +therefore, appear from these observations that, whilst brachycephaly is +not uncommon, dolichocephaly is more frequent, and mesocephaly prevails. +Although this result may give an indication of the truth, at present it +would be safer, for reasons given on page 111, to accept the general +conclusion that these three types of skulls prevail in the Solomon +Group. + +As confirmatory of the foregoing corrected measurements of the head of +the living subject, I will add the indices of nine skulls procured +amongst the eastern islands of the group.[97] + + [97] I take this opportunity of expressing my indebtedness to my + messmates Lieut. Leeper and Lieut. Heming, and to my friend Dr. + Beaumont, staff-surgeon of H.M.S. "Diamond," for the majority of the + skulls in this small collection. The officers of the survey, whilst + away in their boats, had more opportunities than I had of obtaining + those specimens. As I was usually accompanied by natives, I was + often unable to take advantage of occasions. + + 74.1 } Rua Sura Islets, off north coast of Guadaleaner. + 74.1 } + 74.1 Ugi Island. + 74.5 Port Adam, Malaita. + 75.5 } + 75.9 } Ugi Island. + 80.0 } + 80.0 } + 84.9 Kwahkwahru, Malaita. + + _Measurements of Women._--I was only able to obtain measurements of + six women, all of them from the small islands of Ugi and Santa Anna, + off the St. Christoval coast. + + Span of Arms. Intermembral Distance + Height. (Stature--100.) Index. between + middle finger + and patella. + + 4 ft. 8 in. 100.8 65 3-1/2 in. + 4 " 9 " 102.1 68 3-1/2 " + 4 " 9-3/4 " 104.3 68 4 " + 4 " 10 " 104.7 71 ----- + 5 " 0 " 106.9 -- Average, 3-2/3 " + 5 " 3 " 108.3 Average, 68 + --------------- ----- + Average, 4 ft. 10-1/2 in. Average, 104.5 + + + Arm and Height Leg and Height Cephalic + Index. Index. Index. + + 32.5 48.5 71 + 33 48.5 75 + 33 50 76.8 + 33.5 51.5 76.8 + 34.5 ---- 79.6 + 35.5 Average, 49.6 82.1 + ---- + Average, 33.7 + +Considering the paucity of the observations, the average indices of the +limb-measurements agree closely with those obtained for the men. The +average height of the women would appear from these few measurements to +be that which they ought to possess as compared with the height of the +men. This conclusion is based on the rule given by Topinard in his +"Anthropology" that for a race of this stature 7 per cent. of the man's +height must be subtracted to obtain the proportional height of the +woman. + + +_The Features._ + +The facial angle taken was that between a line dropt from the forehead +to the alveolar border of the upper jaw, and another line drawn from the +external auditory meatus through the central axis of the orbit, the +angle being taken with a goniometer. Amongst eighty natives from +different parts of the group, the angle varied between 87 deg. and 98 +deg. Seventy-five of the natives had facial angles between 90 deg. and +95 deg.; and the average of the whole number of angles was 93 deg. On +applying the method for obtaining the facial angle of Cloquet to two +large photographs of the faces in profile of two typical natives, I +find the angles to be 63 deg. and 67 deg. respectively. + +The common characters of the features may be thus described: face rather +angular, with often a beetle-browed aspect from the deeply sunk orbits +and projecting brows; forehead of moderate height and breadth, and +somewhat flattened; middle of face rather prominent on account of the +chin receding; moderate subnasal prognathism as indicated by Cloquet's +facial angles of 63 deg. and 67 deg.; lips rather thick and often +projecting; nose usually coarse, short, straight, and much depressed at +the root, with broad nostrils and extended alae; in about one man out of +five the nose is arched in a regular curve, giving a Jewish cast to the +face. + + +_The Hair, Colour of Skin, Powers of Vision, &c._ + +Amongst the natives of the Solomon Group, there are four common styles +of wearing the hair, which I may term the woolly, the mop-like, the +partially bushy, and the completely bushy: these prevail with both +sexes, the fashion varying in different islands. From frequent +observations of the different modes of wearing the hair, I am of the +opinion that their variety is to be attributed more to individual +caprice than to any difference in the character of the hair. According +to his taste, a man may prefer to wear his hair close and uncombed, when +the short matted curls with small spiral give it a woolly +appearance,[98] somewhat resembling that of the hair of the African +negro. Should he allow his hair to grow, making but little use of his +comb, the hair will hang in narrow ringlets three to eight inches in +length, a mode which is more common amongst the natives of the eastern +islands of the group, and which is best described as the "mop-headed" +style. More often, from a moderate amount of combing, the locks are +loosely entangled, and the hair-mass assumes a somewhat bushy +appearance, the arrangement into locks being still discernible, and the +surface of the hair presenting a tufted aspect.[99] The majority of +natives, however, produce by constant combing a large bushy periwig in +which all the hairs are entangled independently into a loose frizzled +mass, the separate locks being no longer discernible. Of these four +styles of wearing the hair, I am inclined to view the "mop-headed" style +as the result of the natural mode of growth, it being the one which the +hair would assume if allowed to grow uncombed and uncut. The native of +these islands unfortunately makes such a constant use of his comb that +one rarely sees his hair as nature intended it to grow. When, however, a +man with bushy hair has been diving for some time, the hairs, +disentangling themselves to a great extent, gather together into long +narrow ringlets, nature's "coiffure" of the Solomon Islander. I was +pleased to find that Mr. Earl[100] and Dr. Barnard Davis,[101] in +writing on the subject of the hair of the Papuans, also consider that +the hairs would naturally arrange themselves in long narrow ringlets if +left uncombed, and that the bushy frizzled periwig is produced by +teasing out the locks by means of the comb. This bushy frizzled mass of +hair is sometimes referred to, as if it were one of the natural +characters of the Papuans: but since it is also characteristic of other +dark races of Africa and South America, and may be produced in +Europeans, it has but little distinguishing value.[102] Mr. Prichard in +his "Physical History of Mankind" (vol. v. p. 215), expresses himself to +be in doubt whether the bushy frizzled hair affords any racial +distinction, but he seems to have lost the point of the remarks of Mr. +Earl (to whom he refers) concerning the natural mode of growth of the +hair in long narrow ringlets. The term "mop-headed" is often applied to +the Papuan with a bushy frizzled periwig: but since a mop is neither +bushy nor frizzly, the term is more appropriately employed as I have +used it, and as I see Dr. Barnard Davis uses it, in connection with that +style in which the hair hangs in long drawn-out ringlets. The tendency +of the hair to roll itself into a spiral of small diameter is attributed +to the thin flattened form of the hair in section. According to Dr. +Pruner-Bey, the hair in the Papuan is implanted perpendicularly and not +obliquely, as in the great majority of the races of man.[103] + + [98] With the bushmen of the interior, the hair appears to be + permanently woolly (_vide_ p. 121). + + [99] My experience, however, goes to prove that of Miklouho-Maclay + that the hair grows uniformly over the scalp and not in little tufts + separated by bald patches as described by Topinard. + + [100] "The Papuans" by G. W. Earl (page 2). London, 1853. + + [101] _Vide_ a paper by Dr. J. Barnard Davis in vol ii. (p. 95), of + Journ. of Anthrop. Inst. + + [102] These bushy periwigs are found also among the Kaffirs in + Africa and among the Cafusos of South America. Dr. Pruner-Bey, who + appears to view these bushy periwigs as resulting from the natural + growth of the hair, remarks that he has met in Europe three + individuals whose hair had the same aspect. I have seen a + characteristic Papuan periwig produced in England in the case of a + fair-haired girl. (Anthropological Review: Feb. 1864.) + + [103] The Anthropological Review for February 1864 (p. 6). + +The hue of the hair in adults varies usually in accordance with the +changes in the colour of the skin. Amongst the St. Christoval natives it +agrees with the numbers 35 and 42 of the colour-types of M. Broca: +whilst amongst the darker-hued natives of the islands of Bougainville +Straits the hair is of a deeper hue, corresponding with the colour-types +34 and 49. The average thickness of eleven samples of hair from the +former locality is from 1/260 to 1/270 of an inch; whilst in the latter +locality, where the hair is of a darker hue, the hairs are individually +coarser, ten samples giving an average thickness of 1/210 to 1/220 of an +inch. The diameter of the spiral, when measurable, varies between 5 and +10 millimetres,[104] its usual range throughout the group; but on +account of the practice of combing, it is often difficult to measure it +with any degree of accuracy. These measurements, however, are double the +size of the curl (2 to 4 mm.) which Miklouho-Maclay[105] has determined +to be characteristic of the Papuan. The difference may be due to the +greater intermingling of the eastern Polynesian element amongst the +Solomon Islanders. + + [104] In young boys in different parts of the group, the hair + sometimes grows in larger flat spirals having a diameter of from 12 + to 15 millimetres. + + [105] "Nature." Dec. 21st, 1882. + +The natives of the eastern islands of this group frequently stain their +hair a light-brown hue by the use of lime, a practice which frees the +hair of vermin. The passing visitor might easily carry away with him the +impression that such light-brown hair was a permanent character; but on +examining adults, he would usually find that the hair is much darker at +the roots. The natives (women and boys) of the islands of Bougainville +Straits, and according to Labillardiere,[106] those of the adjacent +island of Bouka, stain the hair by the use of a red ochreous earth, the +colour of which, blended with the deep colour of the hair, produces a +striking magenta hue. + + [106] Labillardiere's "Voyage in search of La Perouse," vol. i. p. + 246. London 1800. + +With regard to the amount of hair on the face, limbs, and trunk, great +diversity is observed even amongst natives of the same village. +Epilation is commonly employed, a bivalve shell being used as a pair of +pincers; but there can be no doubt that the development of the hair +varies quite independently of such a custom. Out of ten men taken +promiscuously from one of the villages on the north coast of St. +Christoval, perhaps, five would have smooth faces; three would possess +a small growth of hair on the chin and upper lip; the ninth would +possess a beard, a moustache, and whiskers of moderate growth; whilst +the tenth would present a shaggy beard, and a hairy visage. With the +majority of the Solomon Islanders, the surfaces of the body and limbs +are comparatively free from hair; but hairy men are to be found in most +villages, and in rare and exceptional cases, the hairy-bodied, +hairy-visaged men are the rule. It would appear that in this group, the +qualities of treachery and ferocity are possessed in a greater degree by +those communities in which hairy men prevail. Hairy-visaged men are +commonly found amongst the natives of the Florida Islands. In +Bougainville Straits, the great majority of the men keep their faces and +chins free from hair, which the chiefs and the older men usually permit +to grow. + +With age the hair generally assumes an iron-grey hue, as if the +decoloration was incomplete. In one old man, however, who was the +patriarch of Treasury Island, the hair was completely grey. Baldness +usually commences over the fore-head; and is not uncommonly observed +beginning amongst middle-aged men. The old women apparently regard hair +as an unnecessary encumbrance, the little that remains in later life +being generally removed. + +I have not yet referred to an almost straight-haired element which has +been infused amongst the inhabitants of Bougainville Straits. The +individuals, thus characterised, have very dark skins, the hair being +even darker, and corresponding in hue with the colour-types 34 and 49. +With such natives the face is flatter, and the nose is more _ecrase_ +than usual. The hair may be almost straight: and, if not very long, it +is often erect, giving the person a shock-headed appearance; whilst in +some cases it tends to gather into curls of a large spiral. Other +natives possess hair which combines the straight and frizzly characters, +giving the whole mass, when combed out, an appearance partly wavy and +partly bushy. Small boys in this part of the group have frequently curly +heads of hair with large flattened spirals. Traders tell me that +straight-haired individuals are found amongst the hill-tribes of St. +Christoval at the opposite end of the group. I have seen two such +natives, one a woman, and the other a man whom I met near Cape Keibeck +on the north coast of the island. + +A few remarks with reference to the prevailing hues of the skin may be +here interesting. It would seem to be a general rule that the +darker-skinned natives occur in the western islands of the group, such +as New Georgia, Bougainville Straits, and Bougainville; whilst the +lighter-coloured natives are more restricted to the eastern islands such +as St. Christoval, Guadalcanar, &c. In different parts of the Solomon +Group, the colour of the skin, as may have been already inferred, varies +considerably in shade from a very deep brown, exemplified by colour-type +42 of M. Broca, to a copperish hue, best typefied by colour-type 29. The +prevailing darker hue of the western islands is represented by type 42, +and the prevailing lighter hue of the eastern islands by type 35. Where +there is no means of comparison, the darker hues of the skin might be +called black. The lightest hues, such as would appear to characterise +natives in isolated localities, as in Santa Catalina, and on the north +coast of Guadalcanar opposite the Rua Sura Islets, would be best +exemplified by colour-type 28. The elderly natives are, as a rule, more +dark-skinned than those of younger years, the difference in shade being +attributable partly to a longer exposure by reason of their age to the +influence of sun and weather, and partly to those structural changes in +the skin which accompany advancing years. The colour is usually fairly +uniform over the person, but in the case of the Malaita natives, before +referred to, the colour of the face and chest was of a lighter hue than +that of the limbs and body, as exemplified by contrasting the +colour-types 28 and 35.[107] + + [107] _Vide_ page for remarks on the effect of the prevailing + skin-disease, an inveterate form of body-ringworm, on the colour of + the skin. + +I would draw attention to the circumstance that my observations were +confined to the coast tribes of these islands. The larger islands, which +may be compared in size to the county of Cornwall, are but thinly +populated in their interior by tribes of more puny physique and less +enterprising character, who are ill-suited to cope with their more +robust and more war-like fellow-islanders of the coast. These "bushmen," +as they are called, are accredited by the coast-natives with inferior +mental capabilities as compared with their own. To call a man of the +coast a "bushman" is equivalent to calling him a stupid or a fool, a +taunt which is commonly employed amongst the coast-natives. The stone +adzes and axes, which have been discarded by the inhabitants of the +coast, are said to be still employed by the bushmen. I was unable to +make any measurements of these natives; but those I saw were usually of +short stature and of a more excitable and suspicious temperament. The +hair is worn in the woolly style, is short like that of the African +Negro, and its surface has often a peculiar appearance from the hairs +arranging themselves in little knobs. I believe that these bushmen, and +at the present time I am recalling to my mind those of the interior of +Bougainville, have naturally shorter hair than those of the coast, and +that the peculiar character of the hair just described is a permanent +one.[108] These bushmen probably represent the original Negrito stock of +these islands, which, at the coast, often loses many of its characters +on account of the intermingling with Eastern Polynesian and Malayan +intruders. + + [108] Mr. Earl, who well describes this knobby appearance of the + surface of the hair of some Papuan tribes, also believes that these + tribes may sometimes have naturally short hair. ("Papuans," p. 2.) + +With the object of testing the powers of vision possessed by the natives +of these islands, I examined the sight of twenty-two individuals who +were in all cases either young adults or of an age not much beyond +thirty. For this purpose I employed the square test-dots which are used +in examining the sight of recruits for the British army, and I obtained +the following results. Two natives could distinguish the dots clearly at +70 feet, one at 67 feet, two at 65 feet, three at 62 feet, four at 60 +feet, two at 55 feet, three at 52 feet, four at 50 feet, and one at 35 +feet. I roughly placed the average distance at which a native could +count the dots at about 60 feet, which is a little beyond the standard +distance for testing the normal vision of recruits, viz., 57 feet; but I +laid no stress on this difference, and briefly noted in my journal that +these natives possessed the normal powers of vision. The quickness of +the natives in perceiving distant objects, such as ships at sea, was a +matter of daily observation to us; and I was often much surprised by +their facility in picking out pigeons and opossums, which were almost +concealed in the dense foliage of the trees some 60 or 70 feet overhead. +I was therefore impressed with the greater discriminating power +possessed by these savages; but the results of my observations on their +far-seeing powers were not such as would justify the conclusion that +they excelled us very greatly in this respect. + +Having read an interesting correspondence in "Nature" during February +and March, 1885, on the subject of "civilisation and eyesight," I +forwarded the results of my observations to that journal (_vide_, April +2nd). A fortnight afterwards there appeared a communication from Mr. +Charles Roberts, in which he added greatly to the value of my +observations by comparing them with results obtained by the use of the +army test-dots in the case of English agricultural and out-door +labourers, results which were extracted from the Report for 1881 of the +Anthropometric Committee of the British Association. After making this +comparison Mr. Roberts remarked that _the figures gave no support to the +belief that savages possess better sight than civilised peoples_; and he +pointed out that my average of 60 feet, which, however, I had only +roughly estimated, was somewhat excessive and should have been 57.5 +feet, which is only half a foot more than the distance at which +Professor Longmore has determined these test-dots ought to be seen by a +recruit with normal powers of vision. My observations were comparatively +few, but, as above shown, they give no support to the view that savages +possess superior powers of vision as compared with civilised races. + +In the correspondence in "Nature," above referred to, Mr. Brudenell +Carter supported the "commonly received view" that the savage possesses +greater acuteness of vision; but Lord Rayleigh held that it would be +inconsistent with optical laws to hold that the eyes of savages, +considered merely as optical instruments, are greatly superior to our +own; and he observed that it appeared to him that the superiority of the +savage is a question of attention and practice in the interpretation of +minute indications. The same opinion was expressed by Mr. Roberts, when +he referred to the common mistake of travellers in confounding acuteness +of vision with the results of special training or education of the +faculty of seeing, results which, as he remarked, are quite as much +dependent on mental training as on the use of the eyes. + +There is a circumstance which may influence the powers of vision +possessed by these islanders; and it is this. With the object, I +believe, of excluding flies and other insects from their dwellings, the +natives keep the interiors dark, the door being usually the only +aperture admitting light. Coming in from the direct sunlight, I have +often had to wait a minute or two before my eyes became accustomed to +the change; but the natives do not experience this inconvenience. Some +hours of the day they commonly spend in their houses; whilst at night +they use no artificial light except the fitful glare of a wood fire. It +would seem probable that the influence of the opposite conditions +presented by the darkness of their dwellings and the bright sunlight, +would be found in the increased rapidity of the contraction and +dilation of the pupil with the enlargement, perhaps, of the retinal +receiving area. It is, however, a noteworthy circumstance that these +natives are able to pass from the bright tropical glare outside their +dwellings to the dark interiors, and _vice versa_, without showing that +temporary derangement of vision which the white man experiences whilst +the iris is adapting itself to the new condition. + +My attention was not attracted by the size of the pupils; but I paid no +especial attention to this point. Mr. J. Rand Capron in the +correspondence in "Nature," above alluded to, refers to the circumstance +that the pupil varies in size in individual cases; and he instances the +case of one of his assistants possessing unusually large pupils who had +a singularly "sharp" eye for picking up companions to double stars, +small satellites, &c., and who could read fine print with a light much +less bright than is usually required. "The peculiarity affecting my +assistant's eyes," as Mr. Capron writes, "may be more common with the +savages than with us." I am inclined myself to believe that, on a +careful comparison being made, the pupils of the savage will be +generally found to be larger. If such should be the case, we shall have +a ready explanation of his better discriminating powers of vision. + +The eyes of these natives have usually a soft, fawn-like appearance with +but little expression. Of the twenty-two individuals whose sight I +examined, I came upon only one whose powers of vision seemed at all +defective. In this instance--that of a man about thirty years old--the +nature of the cause was sufficiently indicated by the prominence of the +eyes and the nipping of the lids, especially when the sight was strained +by trying to count the test-dots at a distance. The limit of distance at +which this man could count the test-dots was 35 feet. The question which +presented itself to my mind in this case was, whether a white man, who +could count the dots at the same limit of distance, would exhibit to the +same degree the external signs of myopia. + +I also made some observations on the colour-sense of the inhabitants of +Bougainville Straits. Although able to match the seven colours of the +spectrum, viz., red, orange, yellow, green, Prussian blue, indigo, and +violet, they have only, as far as I could ascertain, distinctive names +for white, red, yellow, and sometimes blue; whilst all the other +colours, including black, indigo, dark blue, violet, green, &c., are +included under one or more general names for dark hues, as shown in the +list below. Some of the names of the colours have been suggested by the +colours of objects with which the natives are familiar. Thus, one of the +names of dark hues is evidently taken from that of charcoal (_sibi_). +Again, one of the names for red is but the native term for blood +(_masini_); whilst the commonest word for yellow (_temuli_) is also the +name of a scitamineous plant, the bulbous root of which possesses a +yellow juice. Yellow must be a familiar colour to these natives, as they +sometimes decorate their persons with the yellow juice that exudes from +incisions into the fruits of _Thespesia populnea_, one of the commonest +of littoral trees. They possess also the _Morinda citrifolia_, the roots +of which supply a bright yellow dye that is employed in other Polynesian +groups, such as in the Society Islands, for staining purposes. The +circumstance that different men often applied different names to the +same test-colour, shows that they have no recognised list of +colour-names; and it would appear probable that all the names are of a +suggestive nature, or in other words that they are derived from the +names of objects with the conspicuous hues of which the natives are +familiar. + + NATIVE NAMES FOR COLOURS. + + WHITE, Anaa; Ana-anaa. + RED, ORANGE, Alec; Masi-masini; Loto. + YELLOW, Temuli; Samoi; Latili. + BLUE, Totono. + BLACK, INDIGO, VIOLET, GREEN (dark), + BLUE (dark), Soipa; Kia; Sivi-sivi; Malai. + +The pigments employed in decorating the posts of houses, +canoe-ornaments, carved clubs, &c., are white, red, and black. Blue is a +favourite colour with the natives of Bougainville Straits when choosing +beads and other articles of trade; and, in fact, blue is the favourite +colour for beads in most of the islands. + +In the eastern islands, pigments of white, red, and black are also those +which are commonly employed for decorative purposes. In the island of +Ugi, as Mr. Stephens informed me, the same word is used to indicate all +the dark colours. A native of this island cannot distinguish the +different colours in the rainbow: and it should be here remarked that he +views the appearance of a bow with a large arc as a warning of the +approach of hostile canoes, and he retires accordingly to his house. + +The following notes on the gestures and the expressions of the emotions +of the Solomon Islanders, which I was led to make after a perusal of Mr. +Darwin's well-known work on these subjects, occur scattered about the +pages of my journals; and I must crave the indulgence of my reader if +they are, from this reason, of a somewhat disconnected character. + +The natives of Bougainville Straits and of other parts of the group +_beckon_ with the hand, in a manner almost the reverse of our own. +Instead of holding out the hand with the palm uppermost and motioning +with the forefinger, they beckon with the palm downwards, and motion +with all the fingers. On several occasions, when motioning a native to +approach by means of our own gesture, I have had to adopt his own mode +of beckoning before he could understand me. . . . . Clapping the hands +is a common means of evincing _astonishment_ and _delight_, the hands +being usually held up before the face as in the attitude of prayer, but +little noise being made. Mule, the Treasury chief, clapped his hands +before his face, when Lieutenant Leeper showed him some of his +paintings; and surprise was exhibited in a similar manner by the men of +Alu, whilst I was taking a sample of hair from the head of one of their +number. Some young lads of Fauro clapped their hands noiselessly during +their laughter when I gave them a tune on the Jews-harp: whilst a party +of Treasury boys, who accompanied me on one of my rambles, thus evinced +their pleasure when some matches for lighting our pipes were +unexpectedly found in my bag. + +The following mode of signifying _hunger_ was often adopted by my +youthful native companions in my excursions, when the sun was near its +meridian altitude, in order to remind me of the biscuit I generally +carried for them; and the little imps used to repeat the gesture in an +exaggerated form for my amusement. The belly is drawn in to a surprising +degree by the powerful contraction of the abdominal muscles; and, +assuming a dismal expression of countenance, the hungry individual +points with his finger to this unmistakeable sign of the apparently +empty condition of his stomach, and says "kai-kai, muru" (food for +stomach). Labillardiere tells us that the natives of New Caledonia +signified their hunger in a similar manner by pointing to their bellies, +and contracting the abdominal muscles as much as they could.[109] +. . . . The natives of Bougainville Straits make use of the exclamation, +"Agai," to indicate _pain_ and _suffering_. This cry often rang +pitifully in my ears when, from the prejudices of the natives, I was +unable to render much surgical aid in the case of the severe gunshot +injuries, which resulted from the conflicts between the Treasury and +Shortland islanders. + + [109] "Voyage in search of La Perouse" (Eng. edit.: London 1800) + vol. ii., p. 213. + +Elevation of the eyebrows with a slight throwing backward of the head is +the gesture of _assent_. A native sometimes raises his eyebrows slightly +to indicate _caution_ or _reticence_ under circumstances in which we +should employ a cough or a wink; and, by the same sign, a _question_ may +be asked, and as silently answered by a similar movement of the +eyebrows, accompanied by a throwing up of the head. A native of Simbo, +on one occasion, because I would not give him tobacco, signified his +_contempt_ for me by spitting on the ground. A woman of Alu informed me +that she was the _mother_ of two girls standing near, by first pointing +to her daughters, and then touching her breasts. When _puzzled_, a +native sometimes adopts our sign of perplexity by frowning, and +scratching his head. + +On one occasion, I was much amused by the behaviour of some of the +Treasury boys, lively young imps who used frequently to accompany me on +my excursions. One of their number had been offended by his companions, +who immediately began to caper round him, distorting their faces in a +peculiar manner by drawing the eyes and mouth towards each other with +their fingers, and producing an appearance reminding me of the human +faces on the dance-clubs of Bougainville Straits and New Ireland. +Sometimes they would only go through the motions by scraping their +fingers down their cheeks. The object was evidently to create terror, +but only in a mimic fashion. + +But little gesticulation is used in ordinary conversation. A native of +Cape Keibeck, on the north coast of St. Christoval, who went through the +motions of throwing a spear in time of battle, assumed a hideous +expression of countenance with eyes starting and knitted brows, much as +Mr. Mosely describes in the instance of a native of Humboldt Bay, New +Guinea.[110] A native, who is planning the performance of an act of +treachery, usually exhibits during his conversation an excited, restless +manner, with a slight trembling of the limbs and a partial loss of +control over the facial muscles. It is in this manner that white men, +resident in the group, when approaching a village with which they are +unacquainted, often find an indication of the hostility or friendliness +of the inhabitants by observing the unconscious bearing of the first men +they meet. + + [110] "Naturalist on the Challenger," p. 441. + +These islanders converse in a low, monotonous voice; and are +unaccustomed to loud, stentorian tones, such as those in which words of +command are given. I was told a story of a white man who had engaged +some natives to take him out in a canoe to the site of a sunken rock, +which he intended to blow up with dynamite as it obstructed the channel. +Immediately on dropping the charge, he shouted out to his crew to paddle +away as quickly as possible and at the same time gesticulated wildly. +The men opened their eyes wide and stared at him with astonishment, but +never moved; and before they could recover themselves, off went the +charge, and the canoe and its occupants were blown into the air. +However, but little damage was caused except to the canoe. My informant +told me that if the men had been told quietly to paddle away, the +accident would never have happened. + +I now come to the subject of the disposition of these islanders. There +is a generosity between man and man, which I often admired, although it +was easy to perceive that there was a singular relation between the +giver and the recipient. A native rarely refuses anything that is asked; +but, on the other hand, he is not accustomed to offer anything +spontaneously except when he expects an equivalent in return. His +generosity is, in truth, constrained by the knowledge of the fact that +by a refusal he will incur the enmity of the person who has made the +request. Often when during my excursions I have come upon some man who +was preparing a meal for himself and his family, I have been surprised +at the open-handed way in which he dispensed the food to my party of +hungry natives. No gratitude was shown towards the giver, who apparently +expected none, and only mildly remonstrated when my men were unusually +voracious. I was often amused at noticing how a native's friends would +gather around when there was a sago palm to be felled. + +But there is one occasion when the existence of friends must be very +trying to a Solomon Islander, and that is when he returns to his island +after his term of service in the plantations of Fiji or Queensland has +expired. He brings with him his earnings of three years in the shape of +a musket, a couple of American axes, and a large box filled with calico, +coloured handkerchiefs, tobacco, pipes, knives, beads, &c. On landing at +the beach, he is greeted by the greater portion of the village. The +chief at once appropriates the musket, as his way of welcoming the +wanderer on his return. His father selects, with due deliberation, the +best tempered of the axes. The chief's son relieves him of one of the +largest knives. His numerous relations and friends assist themselves to +some of the more valuable articles in the box; whilst the calico and +beads are evenly appropriated by the different ladies of the village, as +their manner of evincing their pleasure at his safe return. The unhappy +man dares not refuse, and he finally leaves the beach for his own house +with a very light box and a heavy heart. But his friends in the +neighbourhood think it their duty to convey their congratulations in +person; and in a few days the box alone remains, which it is very likely +that the chief has already secured "in prospectu." The foregoing is by +no means an exaggerated account of the reception which awaits a Solomon +Islander when he returns from his term of service in the colonies. + +The natives of this group have obtained for themselves the reputation of +being the most treacherous and bloodthirsty of the Pacific Islanders. +Here, however, as in other groups, the inhabitants have been judged +according to the circumstances attending the visit of the navigator. If +he has come into collision with them, he paints their conduct in the +darkest colours; but if, as has rarely been the case, there has been +nothing to interrupt the harmony of his intercourse, he is apt, in his +description of the peaceful character of the natives, to reflect on the +want of humanity which marked the dealings of his predecessors. But for +us a middle course would seem preferable; and in approving the mild +measures of the one, we must not forget that the harsh treatment of the +other may have arisen in circumstances over which he had little control. +The early intercourse between civilized and savage peoples must of +necessity be fraught with peril, until the latter cease to look upon +every stranger as a probable foe. It is not often that we have the +pleasure of reading such accounts as are given by Kotzebue and Chamisso +of their intercourse with the Radack Islanders; yet we must remember +that the humane principles of La Perouse led, unfortunately, to the +massacre of M. de Langle and eleven others in the Navigator Islands. +Here again the middle course is to be followed; and the traveller most +successful in his dealings with these races will be he who obtains for +himself their fear as well as their affection. + +The early intercourse of the Solomon Islanders with the Spaniards, and +with the first French navigators, was too often marked by bloodshed to +enable us to form a correct estimation of the disposition of these +natives. We therefore turn without regret to the more pleasing +experience of a later voyager in these seas. In his account of his +intercourse with the natives of Isabel in 1838, D'Urville thus refers to +these islanders: "Nous sommes les premiers a inscrire dans l'histoire +des habitants de ces iles, une page en faveur de leur caractere: ils +auraient pu, presque sans dangers, massacrer ceux de nos officiers qui +sont alles chercher l'hospitalite aux villages d'Opihi et Toitoi, et +j'aime a croire qu'ils n'auraient pas resiste a la tentation, si dans +leur caractere il n'y avait pas eu quelques sentiments d'affection ou de +probite."[111] + + [111] "Voyage au Pole Sud," etc. Vol. V., p. 106. + +In recalling my own experiences, I can scarcely remember a single +instance in which I was aught but kindly treated by a race of savages +who have been so often characterised as the most treacherous and +bloodthirsty in the Pacific. I was constantly in their power, since, in +my excursions, I very rarely had any other companions. I will, +therefore, frame my estimate of their character in the words of the +French navigator, that they would not have been able to resist the +temptation of harming me, if there was not in their disposition +something of the sense of honour and affection. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +DRESS--TATTOOING--SONGS, ETC. + + +THE dress worn by the men of these islands is generally of the scantiest +description. A narrow band of cloth, worn like a [T] bandage, often +constitutes their only garment. In some islands visited by traders, +waist-cloths are worn. Often, however, and especially amongst the bush +tribes, the Solomon Islander presents himself as guiltless of clothing +as did our original parents. The dress of the women varies considerably +in different islands of the group. The married women of St. Christoval +and the adjacent small islands wear the scantiest of fringes, which +cannot be dignified by the name of dress: whilst the unmarried girls +dispense with clothing altogether. In the Florida Islands, the women are +more decorously clad, and wear a longer fringe. In the eastern islands, +however, the influence of the missionary and the trader have caused a +more general employment by the women of the "sulu" (a large coloured +handkerchief), which is fastened around the waist, and is very becoming. +The women of the islands of Bougainville Straits commonly wear the +"sulu;" but they frequently discard it for a time, as when they are +wading on the reefs, and then they are content with an improvised apron +of long leaves ("bassa"), the stalks of which are passed under a narrow +waist-band. On one occasion at Alu, when arriving at the beach after one +of my excursions into the interior of the island, I came upon a party of +women who were bathing in the sea. They at once came out of the water, +and began to interrogate my guides, having first provided themselves in +the most unabashed manner with temporary aprons of fern fronds and the +leaves of trees. They then gathered round me to learn where I had been, +and what I had been doing; and after I had satisfied their curiosity, I +sent them away, highly pleased with some tobacco and beads. + +The men of these islands are always very anxious to become the +possessors of European articles of clothing, such as shirts, coats, +hats, etc.; but the happy owners seldom don them except during the visit +of a ship, when they strut about clad in some solitary garment, such as +a shirt or a waistcoat, or often only a hat. I had often some difficulty +in preserving my gravity when I met some sedate individual, as naked as +on the day when he was born, wearing a round hat on his head, and +carrying his shirt on his arm. The fortunate possessor of a shirt +usually regards it as a kind of light overcoat, to be worn on especial +occasions; and in some islands the possessors seem to prefer carrying +their shirts on their arms wherever they go. A few men, who have these +articles of clothing, never take them off after they have begun to wear +them. Such a practice, however, is quite opposed to the usual cleanly +habits of these islanders. Whilst we were in Bougainville Straits, three +natives were employed on board as interpreters, who were dubbed by the +men, Jacket, Waistcoat, and Trousers, as they used to wear a suit +between them. On one occasion, when I had induced some Faro men to take +me in their canoe to an island some distance away, I was amused at the +appearance of my crew, to whom I had previously given shirts. We were, +for all the world, like a party of nigger-minstrels. Following the +waggish advice of the quartermaster, the natives turned up their large +collars. Off we started, and the sight of their serious countenances, +half buried in their collars, was too much for my gravity: but when we +landed, and my men proceeded in a dignified manner to disembark, they +looked so ludicrously sedate in their long-tailed shirts, that I roared +with laughter. + +The most picturesque of the personal ornaments of the natives of the +eastern islands is a frontlet of the handsome white cowries (_Ovulum +ovum_). About a dozen of these shells, rather small in size, are strung +together, and bound across the forehead. A single shell is sometimes +worn on the front of the leg just below the knee. Many men possess large +crescent-shaped plates of the pearl shell found in these seas, and which +they wear on the breast. Resident traders, such as Captain Macdonald at +Santa Anna, have largely supplied the natives with these ornaments. +Necklaces made of the teeth of dogs, porpoises, fruit-bats, and +phalangers (_Cuscus_), are commonly worn. The seeds of the _Coix +Lachryma_ are also employed for this purpose. Various articles are used +as necklace-pendants, such as _Bulla_ shells, the pretty _Natica +mamilla_, beans, the hard palate of a fish (probably a ray), and other +things. One native was very proud of a fragment of a willow-pattern +plate, which he had smoothed off and ground down to a convenient size +for his necklace. + +Shell armlets[112] are in general use, and their number and size +frequently denote the rank of their owner. Those most prized are +fashioned out of the thickest part of the shell of _Tridacna gigas_ +towards the hinge. On one occasion, in the island of Simbo, I had an +opportunity of observing the tedious process of making these _Tridacna_ +armlets: A hole is first bored through the solid thickness of the shell, +and in it is inserted a piece of hoop iron, with one edge roughly +jagged, after the fashion of a saw. This is worked with the hands, and +after much labour the ring is sawn out of the shell. It is then rubbed +down and polished with sand. On account of the tedious nature of the +process of making them, these _Tridacna_ armlets are much prized by +their possessors. Amongst the numerous articles employed in trading with +these natives is a very good imitation of this armlet made of tough +white porcelain, and valued at about half a dollar. Smaller armlets are +also cut out of large shells belonging to the genera _Trochus_ and +_Turbo_. The shell armlets of these islanders are often first placed on +during youth, or at the first attainment of manhood; and, as the wearer +grows older these ornaments become too small to pass over the elbow, and +are permanently worn. Armlets are also made of native shell-money worked +into patterns. Sometimes a couple of curved boar's-tusks are joined +together for this purpose. Excluding the shell armlets, those most +frequently worn are made of what is commonly known as "dyed grass." This +material, however, consists, for the most part, of the strips of the +vascular tissue of ferns, belonging to _Gleichenia_ and other genera, +which are neatly plaited together in patterns (_vide_ page 281.) The +prettiest specimens of this work are to be obtained at Savo. The same +plaited armlets are worn by the Admiralty Islanders.[113] In some parts +of New Guinea, strips of rattan are worked in with this material.[114] +. . . In the Solomon Islands, armlets are usually worn on the left arm. +The native usually carries his pipe or his tobacco tucked inside them. +They are often worn very tight, especially in the case of the plaited +armlets, which actually constrict the limb. + + [112] By "armlet," I mean an ornament encircling the arm above the + elbow. + + [113] There is a chromo-lithograph of these ornaments in the + "Narrative of the Cruise of the 'Challenger.'" + + [114] Specimens in British Museum collection. + +Nose ornaments are not commonly worn in the eastern islands, though the +nasal septum is generally pierced by a hole for the appendage which may +be of tortoise-shell, bone, shells, &c. Youths keep the hole patent by +retaining in it a small piece of wood of the thickness of a lead pencil, +and between one and two inches in length. The tip of the nose is +frequently pierced by a small hole about half an inch deep, in which a +small peg of wood is sometimes placed which projects beyond the nose and +gives the face an odd appearance. + +The lobes of the ears are perforated by holes, which by continual +distension become of the size of a crown-piece and often larger. In some +islands, as in Santa Anna, a disc of white wood 1-1/2 to 2 inches in +diameter is placed in these holes. Sometimes they are kept in shape by +the insertion of a shaving of wood rolled into a spiral; but more +frequently they are left empty. Singular uses are made of these holes in +the lobes of the ear, pipes and matchboxes being sometimes placed in +them. On one occasion, Taki, the Wano chief, came on board with a heavy +bunch of native shell-money hanging from each ear, a sign of mourning, +as he informed us, for a recently deceased wife. In some instances, more +particularly amongst the elder men, the pendulous loop formed by the +distended hole in the lobe becomes severed and hangs in two pieces. I am +told that when these loops break, the two parts are readily joined by +paring the torn surfaces obliquely and binding them together. + +The natives of the islands of Bougainville Straits pay less attention to +personal decoration than do those of St. Christoval and the adjacent +islands. The large _Tridacna_ armlets are not often worn, the small +shell armlets being those generally preferred, and as in the case of +those worn in the eastern islands, their number indicates the rank and +wealth of the wearer. The plaited arm-bands described on page 132 are +frequently worn. Armlets made of trade beads are favourite ornaments of +the women: when visiting the houses of the chiefs, I have sometimes +found their wives employed in this kind of fancy-work, small red, blue, +and white beads being tastefully worked together in the common zig-zag +pattern. Here, as in the eastern islands, the septum of the nose is +pierced by a hole, but I rarely saw any ornament suspended from it. The +women of Treasury Island, however, sometimes wear in this aperture a +tusk-like ornament, 1-1/2 to 2 inches long, which is made from the shell +of the giant clam. Occasionally I have observed clay pipes carried in +this perforation in the nasal septum. Here, also, the lobes of the ears +are pierced by large holes, and in the older men they hang in loops 2 to +3 inches in length. + +The men of Simbo (Narovo Island) streak their countenances with lime, +whilst the boys of Treasury Islands sometimes paint their faces around +the eyes with the red ochreous earth that they employ for staining the +hair. The young lads of Faro occasionally adorn their faces with silvery +strips of a fish's swimming-bladder which they plaster on their cheeks. + +In the matter of personal decoration I should observe that the men +usually wear the plumes, not that the women dislike decorations, but +because they do not often have the opportunity of wearing them. If a +trade necklace or some similar ornament is given to a woman, it will +very soon be observed adorning the person of her husband. An incident of +this sort particularly annoyed me on one occasion in the island of St. +Christoval; but I might as well have tried to persuade a pig that it was +a glutton as have attempted to convince a native that such a transaction +was ungallant. In some islands it is the custom for the husband on the +occasion of a festival to load his favourite wife with all his worldly +wealth in the form of the native bead money; and, as at Santa Anna, the +wives of the headmen parade about the village thus heavily attired and +presenting such a picture of "portable property" as would have gladdened +the heart of Mr. Wemmick himself. This shell-money, to which I have +frequently referred in this work, and which is so often employed in +personal decoration, consists of small pieces of shells of different +colours shaped and strung together like beads. In the eastern islands, +this money is largely derived from the natives of Malaita. Six fathoms +of it are said to be sufficient for the purchase of a pig. The same kind +of money is used by the inhabitants of the Admiralty Islands, New +Ireland, New Guinea, and the New Hebrides. In the last two localities it +is worked into armlets.[115] + + [115] The natives of the Solomon Islands also occasionally employ as + money the teeth of fish, porpoises, fruit-eating bats (_Pteropidae_), + and of other animals. + +The men of the Solomon Islands are very fond of placing in their hair a +brightly-coloured flower such as that of _Hibiscus tiliaceus_, or a +pretty sprig, or the frond of a fern. My native companions in my +excursions rarely passed a pretty flower without plucking it and placing +it in their bushy hair; and they were fond of decorating my helmet in a +similar fashion. Sometimes one individual would adorn himself to such an +extent with flowers, ferns, and scented leaves, that a botanist might +have made an instructive capture in seizing his person. In addition to +the flowers placed in his bushy mass of blackish-brown hair, he would +tuck under his necklace and armlets sprigs and leaves of numerous +scented plants, such as _Evodia hortensis_ and _Ocymum sanctum_. He +would take much pleasure in pointing out to me the plants whose scented +leaves are employed in the native perfumery, most of which are of the +labiate order, and are to be commonly found in the waste ground of the +plantations. The women seldom decorate themselves in this manner. Those +of Bougainville Straits make their scanty aprons of the leaves of a +scitamineous plant named "bassa" which, when crushed in the fingers, +have a pleasant scent. + +The fondness for decorating the person with flowers and scented herbs +has been frequently referred to by travellers in their accounts of the +natives of other parts of the Western Pacific. Mr. George Forster tells +us that the people of Tanna and Mallicolo in the New Hebrides place +inside their shell armlets bunches of the odoriferous plant, _Evodia +hortensis_, together with the leaves of crotons and other plants.[116] +We learn from Mr. Macgillivray,[117] and from Mr. Stone,[118] that the +natives of the south-east part of New Guinea are similarly fond of +decorating themselves with flowers and scented leaves which they place +in the hair and inside their armlets and necklaces. + + [116] "A Voyage round the World," by George Forster, London, 1777; + (page 276.) + + [117] "Voyage of H.M.S. 'Rattlesnake,'" by John Macgillivray; + London, 1852. + + [118] "A few months in New Guinea," by O. C. Stone; London, 1880. + +Tattooing is practised amongst both sexes in many islands; but the +process differs from that ordinarily employed in the circumstance that +the pigment is frequently omitted, and for this reason the marks are +often faint and only visible on a close inspection. In this manner the +natives of St. Christoval and the adjacent islands have their cheeks +marked by a number of shallow grooves arranged in a series of +chevron-lines, and differing but little if at all from the general +colour of the skin. On the trunk the lines are of a faint blue hue, and +here a pigment is more frequently used. The process, as employed in the +island of Santa Anna, consists in deeply abrading the skin with such +instruments as a piece of a shell, the flinty edge of the bamboo, the +tooth of a large fruit-eating bat (_Pteropidae_), or even by the long +finger-nails. The older lads have to submit themselves to this operation +before they obtain the rights of manhood; and I was informed that during +its progress they are kept isolated in a house and fed on the blood of a +certain fish (?). After it is completed, they are at liberty to marry, +and they are allowed to take part in the fighting and in the fishing +expeditions. + +Tattooing is not generally practised amongst the people of the islands +of Bougainville Straits. I only observed it in a few instances, more +particularly amongst the women, when it resembles that which has been +above described. A party of men from the village of Takura on the coast +of Bougainville, whom I met on one occasion, had their faces marked with +shallow linear grooves of much the same colour as the skin, which +commenced at the "alae nostri," and, curving over the cheek-bones, +terminated above the eyebrows. These lines were more distinct than those +which mark the faces of the natives in the eastward islands, although +they were probably produced in a similar manner. Another pattern of +tattooing, which may be described as a branching coil, is to be found in +the representation of the head of a native of Isabel Island, which was +obtained from a mould taken in D'Urville's expedition in 1838.[119] Some +men of the districts of the Uta Pass and Urasi on the north coast of +Malaita, whom I met on one occasion, had their faces marked with a +double or a single row of blueish dots commencing on the cheek-bones and +meeting on the forehead. + + [119] Plate vi.: Atlas Anthropologie; "Voyage au Pole Sud et dans + l'Oceanie." + +In the place of tattooing, the inhabitants of the islands of +Bougainville Straits ornament their bodies with rows of circular and +somewhat raised cicatrices which are usually about the size of a +fourpenny piece and about a third of an inch apart. In the case of the +men, the shoulders, upper arms, and chest are thus marked: a double row +of cicatrices commences on the shoulder-blade of either side, and +crossing the upper arms near the apex of the insertion of the deltoid +muscle these rows arch over the armpits and meet at the lower part of +the sternum. The chiefs and their sons often have an additional row of +these marks. Although this is the common fashion, one sometimes meets +men who have the cicatrices confined to the chest or to the shoulders, +or to only one side of the body. Amongst the women, the shoulders, upper +arms, and breasts are similarly marked as shown in the engraving here +given, and in addition they have these rows of cicatrices across the +inside of the thigh. A triple row across the left breast distinguished +the principal wife of the chief of Treasury Island. This method of +ornamenting the body with raised cicatrices, which I also observed in +the case of the party of Takura natives above referred to, would appear +to be a sign of manhood and womanhood, as it is not to be found amongst +the younger of either sex. With regard to the mode of producing these +marks, I could only ascertain that they were made by placing the +powdered dust of touchwood on the skin and then igniting it. To produce +such a permanent and indelible cicatrix, I should think it probable that +means were employed to convert the burn into a festering sore. The light +colour of these scars would appear to indicate that no pigment is used +in the process. I should remark that this custom of raising the skin in +cicatrices, especially on the shoulders, breasts, and thighs, is very +prevalent among the Papuans of the south and south-west coasts of New +Guinea.[120] Mr. Mosely describes the same method of ornamenting the +body as he observed it amongst the men of the Admiralty Islands.[121] + + [120] "Papuans" by G. W. Earl; (p. 5.) + + [121] Journ. Anthrop. Inst. vol. vi., p. 379. + +It may be here noticed, that the practice of circumcision is apparently +not to be met with in these islands, except, as observed by Dr. +Codrington, in the pure Polynesian settlements,[122] with which, +however, I did not come into contact. + + [122] Ibid., vol. x., p. 261. + +I have previously described the modes of wearing and of decorating the +hair (pages 116, 134), and can only make a few remarks here. In some +islands, as at Ugi, the young boys have the entire scalp shaven with the +exception of two tufts on the top of the head. Then again, at the other +extreme of life, it is often the custom for old women to assist the +natural falling-off of the hair and remove it altogether. As a sign of +mourning, the hair may be trimmed, cut close, or shaved off. + +The Solomon Islander often carries his comb stuck in his bushy hair. As +shown in the figure in this work, the comb in common use throughout this +group resembles very much in pattern and mode of workmanship that which +is in use in parts of New Guinea, the Admiralty Islands, the Tonga +Group, and other islands of the Western Pacific. The combs of different +islands may vary somewhat in details, but they belong all to this +pattern, being usually made of a hard dark wood, the teeth consisting of +separate pieces either bound tightly or glued together by a kind of +resin. The handles and upper parts are often prettily decorated with the +plaited "dyed grass," so-called (_vide_, page 132). An excellent +coloured illustration of an Admiralty Island comb is to be found in the +official narrative of the cruise of the "Challenger." In the islands of +Bougainville Straits, the native often carries in his hair an instrument +of three prongs rudely fashioned out of bamboo, as shown in one of the +figures. It is used as much for scratching the head as for combing the +hair. + +Head-coverings are rarely to be found in this group, except in +Bougainville and Bouka. A native of Treasury showed me a singular +conical hat which he had brought from Bouka. It really was a double hat, +one inside the other, the inner hat being made of the leaf of the +"kiari," a species of _Heliconia_, and the outer of the fan-shaped leaf +of the "firo," a palm of the genus _Licuala_. A band of the so-called +plaited "dyed grass" encircles the base and keeps the hat on the head. A +similarly shaped hat but smaller and shorter, and made of the leaf of +the "kiari," was worn by some Bougainville natives from the village of +Takura, whom I met in Fauro Island. It was placed towards the back of +the head; and as it covered only a small portion of the crown, it was +evidently more ornamental than useful. In addition, these natives wore a +little bunch of feathers on each temple. Their appearance in this +grotesque head-dress was rather ludicrous. + +It is a remarkable circumstance that although the Solomon Islanders, as +a rule, wear no protective covering for the head, the carved figures of +their tambu-posts are usually represented with very European-looking +hats. These carved tambu-posts have various uses (_vide_, page 32). In a +similar manner in Bougainville Straits, the hat is to be noticed in the +case of the little wooden figures which are fastened on the stems of +canoes as protective deities. . . . . . . Where these islanders first +obtained their idea of a hat of this shape is a matter for speculation. +It may have been originally suggested by the hats of the Spanish +soldiers three centuries ago, who by means of their musketry seldom +failed to make a lasting impression of their visit during the six months +spent by the expedition in the group. + +[Illustration: Hanging-hook. + +Comb. + +Fish-float. + +Series of patterns, derived from the chevron or zig-zag line, which are +used for decorative purposes by the Solomon Islanders. The principal +steps in the series are alone indicated, the intermediary stages being +often exemplified in the ornamental designs of these natives. (The +dotted lines are my own).] + +Sunshades in the form of a peak of plaited grass bound to the forehead +and projecting over the eyes are occasionally worn by the natives of +Bougainville Straits, whilst fishing in canoes, in order to protect +their eyes from the sun's glare on the water. In Ugi, these sunshades +are sometimes worn on gala days. They did not, however, appear to be in +constant use in any part of the group which we visited. + +The common decorative pattern employed by the natives of the islands +that we visited was the chevron line. It is the pattern used in +tattooing the face in the eastern islands; and it is represented in +alternating hues of red, white, and black, on the fronts of +tambu-houses. It is rudely cut on the outer border of the small shell +armlets of St. Christoval, and ornaments the cooking-pots and +drinking-vessels of Bougainville Straits. (_See Illustration._) In some +of the shell armlets a continuous lozenge or diamond-shaped design is +produced by the arrangement of the chevron lines as shown in the +woodcut. The advance from this design to the disconnected lozenge +pattern is then but an easy gradation. These chevron lines are often +curiously transformed. The Z pattern of inlaid mother-of-pearl, which is +shown in the illustration of the canoe-god, is apparently but a broken +chevron line. On the heads of the Treasury spears fantastic patterns are +cut out in which the chevron design is adapted to the human skeleton +(_See illustration_). . . . . . I may here add that the bamboo boxes +used for the betel lime are ornamented with rectilinear patterns +(scratched on their surfaces) which resemble those used in ornamenting +the similar lime boxes of New Guinea, Borneo, and Sumatra.[123] The +ornamental dance-clubs of Bougainville Straits exactly resemble the +clubs from New Ireland and possess those singular distorted +representations of the human face which characterise New Ireland +ornamentation. + + [123] Exhibited in the British Museum Ethnological collection. + +Caution is required in studying the modes of ornamentation of these +islanders. The remark made by the Rev. Mr. Lawes, in reference to the +women of the Motu tribe in New Guinea,[124] that they are glad to get +new tattooing patterns from the printed calicoes, is equally applicable +to some of the Solomon Island natives. On one occasion I was gravely +informed by a native, as a fact likely to add to their interest, that +some designs I was copying had this origin. + + [124] Journ. Anthrop. Inst. vol. VIII., p. 369. + +The Solomon Island songs, although often monotonous to the cultivated +ear, appeared to me to be in consonance with the wild character of these +islanders. Often when I have stopped to rest and enjoy a pipe in the +midst of my excursions, it may have been beside a stream in the wood or +on the edge of a tall cliff overlooking the sea, my native companions +have sat down and commenced their monotonous chanting, which, discordant +as it may have sometimes seemed to me, appeared to be in unison with my +surroundings. Now raised to a high key, now sinking to a low, subdued +drone, now hurried, now slow and measured, these rude notes recalled to +my mind rather the sounds of the inanimate world around me, such as the +sighing of the wind among the trees or the shrill whistle of the gale, +the noise of the surf on the reef or the rippling of the waves on the +beach, the rushing of a mountain torrent or the murmuring of a rivulet +in its bed. My thoughts at such times recurred to those unpolished ages +in the history of nations when the bard attuned his melody to the voices +of the waves, the streams, and the wind, and found in the mist or in the +cloud his expression for the shadowy unknown. At no time have the poems +of Ossian appeared to my mind to be invested with greater beauty than +when I have been standing in solitude in some inland dell or on some +lofty hill-top in these regions. The song of the bard of Selma, despite +its ruggedness, on such occasions, appealed more powerfully to my +imagination than many more finished verses, and seemed more in keeping +with scenes that owed to man nothing, remaining as they had been for +ages, Nature's handiwork. + +Frequently whilst descending some steep hill-slope or whilst following +the downward course of a ravine, my natives were wont to make the woods +echo with their shouts and their wild songs. The natural impulse to make +use of the vocal organs whilst descending a mountain is worth a moment's +remark. Often I found myself involuntarily shouting with my savage +companions, when their loud peals of laughter attracted my attention. +Some years ago, when visiting the Si-shan Mountains which lie behind the +city of Kiukiang on the south bank of the Yang-tse, I remember listening +to the cries of the Chinese wood-cutters as they returned in the evening +down the narrow gorges that led to their homes. As their shouts died +away in the higher parts of the mountain, the echo was caught by the +wood-cutters below, and was answered back in such a manner that the men +further down the gorges took up the cry. + +[Illustration: WAR DANCE and CANNIBAL SONG. + +_Tempo di marcia._ + +(Music) + + Ko-pi-e-e Ko-pi-e-e ta-li Sor-si-o + u-la mu-la ta-li Ko-pi-e-e-e Ko-pi-e-e-e + ta-li Sor-si-o u-la mu-la ta-li + +No. 2. + +(Music) + +No. 3. + +(Music) + + Li-li a-ma-lo-o Li-li a-ma-lo-o A- + -ma-lo na-va-ka-ro ka-ro Si-si na-ka-ri-e. + +NOTE.--The vowels to be pronounced as follows: _a_ as in "tar," _e_ as +in "obey," _i_ as in "ici," _o_ as in "so," _u_ as in "rule."] + +The training of natives of these islands by the Melanesian Mission at +Norfolk Island has shown that the compass of their voices and their ear +for music are capable of much cultivation. When staying with Bishop +Selwyn at Gaeta in the Florida Islands, I heard familiar hymn-tunes sung +with as true an appreciation of harmony as would be found in the Sunday +School of an English village, and sung by a congregation of natives of +both sexes, who, with the exception of their teachers, had never left +their island. + +During our lengthened sojourn in Bougainville Straits, we became very +familiar with the popular tunes of the natives; and through the +exertions of Mr. Isabell, I have been able to reproduce in this work +three of the commonest airs.[125] The songs are usually sung in chorus, +and a droning accompaniment is often introduced by some of the men which +is especially well given in the second tune. There appear to be four or +five common airs. All are short and most of them have refrains which are +repeated over and over again. The first tune is a cannibal song and is +sung at the war dances. Its words, as I learned from Gorai, the +Shortland chief, are the address of a man to his enemy, in which he +informs him of his intention to kill and eat him. The second tune, +though not possessing words, is often sung or rather chanted by the men. +When sung by a number of persons, its wild music is to an imaginative +mind very suggestive of the savage life. I have heard it sung by about +forty men whilst passing the night with them in the village of Sinasoro +in Faro Island. The tambu-house, in which we were, was dimly lighted, +and the natives were squatting around a wood-fire chanting their wild +song in chorus, and terminating it in a fashion that sounded very abrupt +to the white man's ear. The third tune is a pretty air which the men of +the "Lark" used to play with the concertina in waltz time. The words, +accompanying it, have a music of their own. I learned from the natives +of Treasury Island that this tune was brought from Meoko (Duke of York +Islands) not long since. + + [125] Mr. Isabell was indebted for assistance to Mr. Tremaine of + Auckland, N.Z. + +The Pandean pipe is the musical instrument in common use amongst the +natives of the Islands of Bougainville Straits. I did not notice it in +St. Christoval and the adjacent islands at the other end of the group, +where it is either not known or but rarely used. The distribution of +this instrument in the Pacific is interesting. It is figured by +D'Albertis in his work on New Guinea, and there are specimens in the +British Museum Collection from Brumer's Island off this coast, as well +as from the Admiralty Islands, the New Hebrides, the Tonga Group, and +New Zealand. The instruments from all these localities are distinguished +from the Solomon Island pan-pipe by the reeds being arranged in a single +row and being of a much smaller size. They are also more neatly made. +Those used by the Treasury and Shortland natives are composed of a +double row of from 6 to 8 reeds, the second row being merely added to +give support to the instrument. The longest reed is usually a foot in +length and three quarters of an inch in bore; whilst the shortest reed +is about 5 inches long and rather less than half an inch in bore. Some +natives prefer instruments having twice this length. The Pandean pipes, +played at the public dances of Alu, are of very large size, the length +of the longest reed of one which I measured being between 3-1/2 and 4 +feet. At such performances, the air is given by the smaller pipes; +whilst the bass notes of the larger pipes form a droning but harmonious +accompaniment. The music of these instruments, being in the usual +contracted compass, is of a somewhat monotonous character. Those of +Treasury Island are said to be only adapted for playing one tune, which +is the second air given on the page. I learn from Mr. Isabell, who was +interested in this matter, that the natives vary the number of reeds in +the instrument according to the air it is intended to play. The musician +accompanies his melody with a nodding of the head and a swaying of the +body on the hips, movements which are anything but expressive and are in +fact rather ludicrous. + +Jew's harps of foreign manufacture are much in demand amongst persons of +both sexes and all ages throughout the Solomon Group. In the eastern +islands they fashion them of bamboo, as in the New Hebrides and New +Guinea;[126] but I did not observe any native-made instruments amongst +the people of Bougainville Straits. The women of Treasury Island produce +a similar though softer kind of music by playing, somewhat after the +fashion of a Jew's harp, on a lightly made fine-stringed bow about 15 +inches long. This is held to the lips and the string is gently struck +with the fingers, the cavity of the mouth serving as a resonator. . . . +That school-boy's delight, the "paper-and-comb instrument," finds its +counterpart in these islands. On one occasion, when I was enjoying a +pipe and watching the surf on the south coast of Stirling Island, a +young lad, who accompanied me, amused himself with some rude music by +holding in front of his lips, as he hummed a native air, a thick leaf in +which he had made a hole about half an inch wide, leaving the thin +transparent epidermis intact on one side; the vibration of this thin +membrane gave a peculiar twang to his voice. + + [126] Mr. Mosely in his "Notes by a Naturalist" gives an + illustration of a Jew's harp from the New Hebrides. + +The drum in common use in the different islands we visited was made of a +portion of the trunk of a tree, 8 to 10 feet long, hollowed out in its +interior and possessing a slit in the middle. It is placed lengthways on +the ground, and is struck by two short sticks. Similar drums are +employed by the inhabitants of the New Hebrides[127] and the Admiralty +Islands.[128] This pattern may therefore be described as the Melanesian +drum. A kind of sounding-board, placed in a pit in the ground and struck +by the feet of the dancers, is described in my account of the dances of +these islanders (_vide_ page 144). + + [127] "A year in the New Hebrides" by F. A Campbell, p. 108. The + drums are placed erect in the earth. + + [128] Mosely's "Notes by a Naturalist on the 'Challenger,'" p. 471. + +As conches, the two large shells, _Triton_ and _Cassis_ are commonly +used. For this purpose, a hole is pierced for the lips on the side of +the spire. + +Dancing is performed on very different occasions in these islands. +Besides the war, funeral, and festal dances, there are others which +partake of a lascivious character both in the words of the accompanying +chant and in the movements of the hands and body. Whilst visiting the +small island of Santa Catalina, I saw one of these dances performed by +young girls from 10 to 14 years of age. An explanation of their +reluctance to commence, which at first from my ignorance of what was to +follow I was at a loss to understand, soon offered itself in the +character of the dance, and evidently arose from a natural sense of +modesty that appeared strange when associated with their subsequent +performance. There are, however, other dances, purely sportive in their +nature. Of such a kind were some which were performed for my benefit at +the village of Gaeta in the Florida Islands. About twenty lads, having +formed a ring around a group of their companions squatting in the +centre, began to walk slowly round, tapping the ground with their left +feet at every other step, and keeping time with a dismal drone chanted +by the central group of boys. Every now and then the boys of the ring +bent forward on one knee towards those in the middle, while at the same +time they clapped their hands and made a peculiar noise between a hiss +and a sneeze: the chant then became more enlivening and the dancing more +spirited. On the following day the women of the village took part in a +dance which was very similar to that of the boys, except that there was +no central group, and that they wore bunches of large beans around the +left ankle which made a rattling noise when they tapped the ground at +every other step with the left foot. Bishop Selwyn, to whom I was +indebted for the opportunity of witnessing these dances in the village +of Gaeta, informed me that in the Florida Islands, dancing is often more +or less of a profession, troupes of dancers making lengthened tours +through the different islands of this sub-group. + +[Illustration] + +During a great feast that was held in the island of Treasury, the +following dance was performed. Between thirty and forty women and girls +stood in a ring around a semi-circular pit, 5 feet across, which was +sunk about 4 feet in the ground. A board, which was fixed in the pit +about half way down, covered it in with the exception of a notch at its +border. On this board stood two women, and as they danced they stamped +with their feet, producing a dull hollow sound, to which the women of +the circle timed their dancing, which consisted in bending their bodies +slightly forward, gently swaying from side to side, and raising their +feet alternately. All the while, the dancers sang in a spirited style +different native airs. Now and then, a pair of women would dance slowly +round outside the circle, holding before them their folded pandanus mats +which all the performers carried.[129] + + [129] The employment of a hole in the ground as a resonator does not + appear to be common. Mr. Mosely in his "Notes by a Naturalist," p. + 309, refers to a somewhat similar use of holes in the ground by the + Fijians who place a log-drum of light wood over three holes and + strike it with a wooden mallet. + +I was present at a dance given on one occasion at Alu, preparatory to a +great feast which was about to be held. Soon after sunset the natives +began to assemble on the beach, and when Gorai, the chief, arrived on +the scene, between thirty and forty men arranged themselves in a circle, +each carrying his pan-pipe. They began by playing an air in slow time, +accompanying the music by a slight swaying motion of the body, and by +alternately raising each foot. Then the notes became more lively and the +movements of the dancers more brisk. The larger pipes took the part of +the bass in a rude but harmonious symphony, whilst the monotonous air +was repeated without much variation in the higher key of the smaller +instruments. At times one of the younger men stopped in the centre of +the ring, tomahawk in hand, and whilst he assumed a half-stooping +posture, with his face looking upwards, the musicians dwelt on the same +note which became gradually quicker and louder, whilst the dancing +became more brisk, until, when the tip-toe of expectation was apparently +reached, and one was beginning to feel that something ought to happen, +the man in the centre who had been hitherto motionless, swung back a +leg, stuck his tomahawk in the ground, and one's feelings were relieved +by the dull monotone suddenly breaking off into a lively native air. . . +On another occasion, I was present at a funeral or mourning dance, which +was held in connection with the death of the principal wife of the Alu +chief. It will be found described on page 48. + +I will conclude this chapter by alluding to a favourite game of the +Treasury boys which reminded me somewhat of our English game of +peg-tops. An oval pebble about two inches long is placed on a leaf on +the ground. Each boy then takes a similar pebble, around which a piece +of twine is wound; and standing about eight feet away, he endeavours in +the following manner to throw it so as to fall on the pebble on the +ground. The end of the twine is held between his fingers; and as the +twine uncoils, he jerks it backwards and brings his pebble with +considerable force on top of the other. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +CANOES--FISHING--HUNTING. + + +IN the eastern islands of the Solomon Group there is a considerable +uniformity in the construction of the canoe. "Dug-out" canoes are rarely +to be seen, except in the sheltered waters of some such harbour as that +of Makira, when they are provided with outriggers. In the case of the +built canoes, outriggers are not employed, and, in truth, the general +absence of outriggers is characteristic of this group. The small-sized +canoe, which is in common use amongst the natives of St. Christoval and +the adjacent islands, measures fifteen or sixteen feet in length and +carries three men. The side is built of two planks; whilst two narrower +planks form the rounded bottom. Both stem and stern are prolonged +upwards into beaks which are rudely carved; whilst the gunwale towards +either end is ornamented with representations both of fishes, such as +sharks and bonitos, and of sea-birds. The planks are sewn together, and +the seams are covered over with a resinous substance that is obtained +from the fruit of the _Parinarium laurinum_ which is a common tree +throughout the group. This resinous material takes some weeks to dry, +when it becomes dark and hard. + +Of the larger canoes, which are similarly constructed, I will take as +the type the war-canoe. Its length is usually from 35 to 40 feet: its +sides are of three planks; and the keel is flat, the stem and stern +being continued upwards in the form of beaks. Native decorative talent +is brought into play in the decoration of the war-canoe. Its sides are +inlaid with pieces, usually triangular in form, of the pearl-shell of +commerce (_Meleagrina margaritifera_); and the small and large +_opercula_ belonging to shells of the _Turbinidae_ with flat spiral discs +produced by grinding down ordinary Cone-shells (_Conidae_) are similarly +employed. Along the stem and beak there is usually attached a string of +the handsome white cowries (_Ovulum ovum_), or of the pretty white +_Natica_ (_Natica mamilla_). In the island of Simbo or Eddystone, where +these shells are used in a similar manner to decorate the large canoes, +the white cowry marks the canoes of the chiefs; whilst the _Natica_ +shell decorates those of the rest of the people. + +The pretty little outrigger canoes of Makira on the St. Christoval coast +are only nine inches across; and the native sits on a board, resting on +the gunwales of his small craft. From one side there stretch out two +slender poles four or five feet in length and supporting at their outer +ends a long wooden float which runs parallel with the canoe. + +The war-canoes have the reputation amongst resident traders of being +good sea-boats. They frequently make the passage between Malaita and +Ugi, traversing a distance of about thirty miles exposed to the full +force of the Pacific swell. A similarly exposed but much longer passage +of ninety miles is successfully accomplished by the war-canoes of Santa +Catalina, when the natives of this small island pay their periodical +visits to a friendly tribe on the coast of Malaita. + +Skilfully managed, even the smaller canoes, which carry two or three +persons, will behave well in a moderately heavy sea. I frequently used +them and had practical experience of the dexterity with which they are +handled. On one occasion I was coasting along the west side of the +island of Simbo in an overladen canoe; and there was just enough "lop" +and swell to make the chances even as to whether we should have to swim +for it or not. It was astonishing to see the various manoeuvres +employed by my natives to keep our little craft afloat--now smoothing +off with the blade of the paddle the top of the wave as it rose to the +gunwale, now dodging the swell and taking full advantage of its onward +roll, now putting a leg over each side to increase the stability of the +canoe; by such devices, in addition to continuous baling, I managed to +escape the unpleasantness of a ducking. + +Although the larger canoes of the Solomon Islanders are apparently +suited to the requirements of the natives, yet the want of an outrigger +must be often felt, especially in making the unprotected sea passages +from one island to another. The natives of Bougainville Straits who, as +referred to below, occasionally fit their war-canoes, when heavy laden, +with temporary outriggers of stout bamboo poles, must evidently be aware +of the deficiencies of their canoes, unless thus provided: yet for some +reason or other they make no general use of this contrivance. Bishop +Patteson in 1866 was surprised to see on the St. Christoval coast an +outrigger canoe which had been built by the natives after the model of a +canoe that had been drifted over from Santa Cruz some years before.[130] +He says that the natives found it more serviceable than their own canoes +for catching large fish: yet in 1882 after a lapse of sixteen years, we +found no signs of this style of canoe having been adopted by the St. +Christoval natives. It seems to me that the explanation of the outrigger +canoe not being generally employed by the natives of these islands lies +in the arrangement of the larger islands of this group in a double line +enclosing a comparatively sheltered sea 350 miles in length, which is, +to a great extent, protected from the ocean swell. Thus, the +head-hunting voyages of the New Georgia natives to the eastward, which +may extend to Malaita 150 miles distant, are entirely confined to these +sheltered waters. The passages between Malaita and the eastern islands, +which I have referred to above, are, however, in great part exposed; but +they are only undertaken in very settled weather. + + [130] "Life of Bishop Patteson," p. 126 (S.P.C.K. pub.). + +On account of the frequent communication which is kept up between the +different islands of Bougainville Straits, where open-sea passage of +from 15 to 25 miles have to be performed, the larger canoes are in more +common use and in greater number than in the eastern islands of the +group. These large canoes vary in length between 40 and 50 feet, are +between 3-1/2 and 4 feet in beam, can carry from 18 to 25 men, and are +paddled double-banked. They are stoutly built with three lines of +side-planking and two narrow planks forming the bottom of the canoe: all +the planks are bevelled off at their edges and are brought, or rather +sewn, together by narrow strips of the slender stems of a pretty +climbing fern (_Lygonia_ sp.), the "asama" of the natives, which have +the pliancy and strength of rattan. The seams are caulked with the same +resinous material that is employed for this purpose in the eastern +islands, and is obtained from the brown nearly spherical fruits of the +"tita" of the native, the _Parinarium laurinum_ of the botanist.[131] + + [131] The resin of this fruit is used for the same purpose in Isabel + and probably throughout the group. It is similarly used in the + Admiralty Islands. Narrative of the "Challenger," page 719. + +The natives of Bougainville Straits do not decorate their canoes to any +great extent; and in this they differ from those of St. Christoval, who, +as I have remarked, ornament the prows and gunwales with carvings of +fish and sea-birds, and inlay the sides with pearl-shell. The stems and +sterns of the large canoes of Faro and of Choiseul Bay are continued up +in the form of high beaks, which rise 12 to 15 feet above the water. I +was at first at a loss to find the explanation of these high beaks, +which give the canoes of Bougainville Straits such a singular +appearance. In the narratives of the voyages of Bougainville and +Surville who observed those high-beaked canoes, the former at Choiseul +Bay in 1768,[132] and the latter at Port Praslin, in Isabel, in +1769,[133] we find the explanation required, which is, that these high +prows, when the canoe is turned end on to the enemy, afford shelter +against arrows and other missiles. + + [132] "Voyage autour du Monde:" 2nd edit. augment. Paris, 1772; Vol. + II., p. 187. In this work there is an engraving of one of these + canoes. + + [133] "Discoveries of the French to the South-East of New Guinea," + by M. Fleurieu. London, 1791 (p. 139). + +For sea-passages, greater stability is sometimes given to the large +canoes of the Straits, by temporarily fitting them with an outrigger on +each side, in the form of a bundle of stout bamboos lashed to the +projecting ends of three bamboo poles placed across the gunwales of the +canoe. The large canoes, in crossing from one island to the other in the +Straits, employ often a couple of small lug-sails which are made from +calico or light canvas obtained from the traders. I never saw any sails +of native material: but it was worthy of remark that in 1792, when +Dentrecasteaux approached close to the west coast of the Shortland +Islands, he noticed "large canoes under sail," which, to quote directly +from the narrative, "annoncoient une navigation active dans cet archipel +d'iles extremement petites."[134] Why the natives of these Straits no +longer employ sails of their own manufacture, it is difficult to say. +The very recent introduction of trade calico cannot have caused them to +be set aside for those of the new material, since when a native wants to +have a sail, and has no calico, he has no recourse to sails of his own +manufacture. Rather, it would appear, that the canoes under sail, which +navigated these Straits a century ago, belonged to a people more +enterprising than the present inhabitants of these islands. + + [134] "Voyage de Dentrecasteaux," redige par. M. de Rossel, Paris, + 1808: tom. I, p. 117. + +To the stem of the canoe, just above the water-line, is sometimes +attached a small misshapen wooden figure, which is the little tutelar +deity that sees the hidden rock, and gives warning of an approaching +foe. One of these figures is shown in the accompanying illustration. +They are similarly employed by the natives of the adjacent island of +Simbo, and of other islands in this part of the group. Often they are +double-headed, so that the little deity may keep a watchful look-out +astern as well as ahead; and then they are placed on the tops of the +high beaks of the Faro canoes. Probably the Chinese custom of painting +eyes on the sides of the bows of the junks, and the similar practice of +the Maltese, in the case of their boats, may date back to the little +gods of wood that were attached to the bows and stems of the canoes of +their barbarous predecessors. The origin of the figure-heads of our +ships may perhaps be traced back to times of savagery when a similar +superstitious practice prevailed. + +"Dug-out" canoes are only to be found in the sheltered waters of +Treasury Harbour. They are from 16 to 18 feet long, are provided with an +outrigger, and are so narrow that the occupant sits on a board placed on +the gunwales with only his feet and legs inside the canoe. In the quiet +waters of the anchorage at Simbo, the natives make use of a raft of +poles lashed together somewhat after the manner of a catamaran, such as +I have seen on the coast of Formosa. + +A few remarks on the mode of paddling, and on the paddles employed, may +be here fitting. The long tapering blade,[135] which is in common use in +the eastward islands, gives place in Bougainville Straits to the oval +and sub-circular blades. All the paddles which I saw had cross-handles. +Those used by the women of the Straits are unusually light, more +finished, and are sometimes decorated with patterns in red and black. +According to the length of the journey, one or other of two styles of +progression is adopted. In short distances, they often proceed by a +succession of spurts with a stroke of 60 and more to the minute, each +spurt lasting a few minutes, and being followed by a short interval of +rest. In longer distances they employ a slower stroke of from 40 to 50 +to the minute, which is varied by occasional spurts. On one occasion +when taking a journey of 12 miles in a war canoe, I was much struck with +the different kinds of strokes by which my crew of eighteen men varied +their exertions. They usually paddled along easily at about 50 strokes +to the minute: but every ten or fifteen minutes they began a series of +spurts, each spurt beginning with a short sharp stroke of about 60 to +the minute, and passing into a slow strong stroke of about 28 to the +minute. After a succession of these spurts, which occupied altogether +about five minutes, they settled down again into their previous easy +stroke of 50 to the minute. Frequent stoppages occur during the course +of a long journey, either for enjoying a chew of the betel-nut or for +smoking a pipe; and the average speed, from this reason, would not +exceed three miles an hour, whilst a day's run, between daylight and +dusk, in fine weather would be from 25 to 30 miles. + + [135] See illustration. + +When a corpse is being transported in a canoe to its last resting-place +in the sea by the natives of the Shortlands, they adopt a funeral +stroke, pausing between each stroke of the paddle, and by a slight +back-water movement partly arresting the progress of the canoe. I +remember on one occasion, whilst watching a large canoe starting from +Ugi to the opposite coast of St. Christoval, remarking their singular +style of paddling. At every other stroke each man raised his arm and +paddle much higher in the air, and gave a vigorous dig into the water, a +very effective style as regards speed, and one likely to impress a timid +enemy with fear. . . . Before leaving this subject, I should refer to +the paddling-posture of these natives. All of them in the different +islands we visited squat down with their legs crossed, facing the bow. +The New Guinea practice of standing up to paddle a canoe did not come +under my observation except in the case of outrigger canoes, and in such +canoes it was not the rule. I should infer that the posture of sitting +or standing to paddle a canoe varies in accordance with the use of or +non-employment of an outrigger. If, as in the case of the Solomon Island +canoes, outriggers are rarely used, then the sitting posture will be +found to be the one adopted, since the unaided stability of the canoe +does not permit of the standing posture. If, on the other hand, +outriggers are usually employed, it follows that, as in certain parts of +New Guinea, the more effective posture of standing is preferred. + +As fish form a staple diet of a large proportion of these islanders, +much ingenuity is shown in the methods devised for catching them. In the +eastern part of the archipelago, kite-fishing is commonly employed. A +kite[136] is flown in the air from the end of a canoe, and to it a +fishing-line is attached in place of the usual tail. Whilst the man in +the canoe paddles slowly ahead, the movement of the kite whisks the bait +about on the surface of the water; and when the fish bites, the kite +goes down. Instead of a hook and bait, the natives usually employ for +this mode of fishing some stout spider-web, which gets entangled around +the teeth and snout of the fish, and can be used several times. The +explanation of this plan of catching fish is probably as follows. The +kite swaying in the air offers some resemblance to an aquatic bird +hovering over the water where a shoal of small fish occurs. It thus +attracts the larger fish, who are said to follow the movements of these +birds, and are thus guided in the pursuit of the smaller fry. It is with +this object that the natives of the Society Group tie bunches of +feathers to the extremities of the long-curved poles which, projecting +from the fore-part of the canoe, support the lines.[137] As bearing on +this subject, I may remark that it is not uncommon in these seas to +observe porpoises, large fish, and sea-birds joining together in the +pursuit of small fry. On one occasion, when in my Rob Roy canoe, I got +into the thick of the fray. A large number of sea-birds were hovering +over the water, which was alive with fish, about a foot in length, +which, in pursuit of small fry, were themselves pursued by a shoal of +porpoises, and were pecked at by the birds as, in their endeavour to +escape, they leapt out of the water. It was a lively spectacle. The fish +jumped out of the water all around me, whilst the birds hovering within +reach of my paddle swooped down on them; and the huge porpoises, joining +lazily in the sport, rose quietly to the surface within a few feet of +the canoe, showed their dorsal fins, and dived again in pursuit of their +prey. I stupidly fired three shots with my revolver into the hovering +flock of birds; but it was not until after the third report that they +temporarily suspended the chase. . . . Another common method of fishing +in the eastern islands, which resembles in its idea that of the +kite-fishing, consists in the use of a float of wood about three feet in +length and rather bigger than a walking-stick. It is weighted by a stone +at one end, so that it floats upright in the water, a fishing-line with +the spider-web bait being attached to its lower end. The upper end of +the float, which is out of the water, is rudely cut in imitation of a +wading-bird; and here we have the same idea exhibited which I have +described above in the case of kite-fishing, the figure of the bird +being _supposed_ to attract the larger fish. There is, however, this +difference. A glance at one of these floats, one of which is figured +elsewhere, will convince anyone that a fish is not likely to be deceived +by such a sorry representation of a bird. Doubtless we have here an +instance of the survival of a more effective method of fishing, in which +the idea has been retained, but the utility has been lost. This plan is +in fact nothing more than the employment of a float, which is thrown +into the water by the fisherman, who follows it up in his canoe and +looks out for its bob. + + [136] Some of these kites, which I saw, had a form rudely + representing a bird with expanded wings. Others had a squarish form + and were made of palm leaf. + + [137] Ellis's "Polynesian Researches," Vol. I., p. 149-50. + +In the eastern islands the fishing spear is frequently employed. With +this weapon in his hand, the native wades in the shallow water on the +flats of the reefs, and hurls it at any passing fish. The night-time is +often chosen for this mode of fishing. A party of natives provided with +torches, spread themselves along the edge of the reef and stand ready to +throw their spears as the fish dart by them. During the day, when the +reef-flats at low-tide are covered only by a small depth of water, the +fishermen advance in a semicircle until a fish is observed, when the two +wings close in, and the fish is surrounded. The kind of fish-spear which +they use much resembles that which Mr. Ellis describes in his account of +the Society Islands.[138] As shown in the engraving (p. 74), the head of +the fish-spear is composed of five fore-shafts of hard wood, notched at +their sides, and arranged around a similar fore-shaft. These are bound +together, and the whole is fitted into the end of a stout bamboo, giving +the weapon a total length of about seven feet. . . . . The fish-spear +does not appear to be so commonly used by the natives of Bougainville +Straits. There, its place is often taken by the bow and arrow, which are +weapons that are not in use amongst the natives of St. Christoval and +the adjacent islands at the eastern end of the group. + + [138] "Polynesian Researches," vol. I., p. 143. + +I should here remark that, when fishing on the reefs, natives are +sometimes struck by the gar-fish with such force that they die from the +wound. The possibility of this occurrence has recently been doubted. But +that such is the case, we incidentally learned from the natives of the +Shortlands. The people of Wano, on the north coast of St. Christoval, +believe that the ghosts which haunt the sea, cause the flying-fish and +the gar-fish to dart out of the water and to strike men in the canoes; +and they hold that any man thus struck will die.[139] This superstitious +belief could only have arisen from the circumstance of natives having +met their death in this manner; and it is probable that in this respect +the larger flying-fish would be quite as much to be feared as the +gar-fish. Mr. Moseley, in his "Notes by a Naturalist," p. 480, refers +to such an event as not of uncommon occurrence in some of the Pacific +Islands.[140] + + [139] "Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia," by the Rev. R. + H. Codrington, M.A. Journal of Anthropological Institute, vol. X. + + [140] _Vide_ also "Nature," index of vol. XXVIII., for some further + correspondence on this subject. + +The material, from which the natives of Bougainville Straits manufacture +the twine for their fishing-nets and lines, is usually supplied by the +delicate fibres lining the bark of the young branches of a stout +climber, which is known to the natives as the "awi-sulu." This climber, +which is probably a species of _Lyonsia_, has a main stem of the size of +a man's leg, which embraces a tree, whilst it sends its offshoots for a +distance of some 40 or 50 feet along the ground. It is the delicate +fibres lining the inside of the skin of the young procumbent branches +that the native selects for his purpose. By scraping the thin bark or +skin with the edge of a pearl-shell, the fibres are first cleared of +other material: they are then dried in the sun; and when dry, they are +arranged in small strands, three of which are twisted together into a +fine line by rolling them with the palm of the hand on the thigh. The +natives sometimes obtain the material for their nets and lines from the +common littoral tree, the _Hibiscus tiliaceus_, which they name +"dakatako." + +In making their nets, our common netting-stitch is employed, the needle +being of plain wood, 18 inches long, and forked at each end; whilst the +mesh employed is a piece of tortoise-shell, having for a width of an +inch a length of 2-1/2 inches. The method of netting familiar to +ourselves appears to be generally employed amongst the native races of +this portion of the globe. We learn from the Rev. George Turner that in +Samoa the same stitch and the same form of needle are employed which are +in use in Europe.[141] The natives of Port Moresby, in New Guinea, net +"so precisely in our mode that the seamen of H.M.S. "Basilisk" took up +their shuttles and went on with their work."[142] The needle employed at +Redscar Bay, on the coast of the same island, is more like our own, the +mesh being of tortoise-shell, two to three inches long.[143] When +Captain Bowen, of the ship "Albemarle," was visited in 1791 by some +natives of the Solomon Islands who came off to him in their canoes, he +thought he had found in the apparently European workmanship of their +nets a clue to the fate of La Perouse, a very pardonable error which +receives its explanation from the above facts.[144] + + [141] "Nineteen Years in Polynesia" (London, 1861), p. 272. + + [142] Moresby's "New Guinea" (1876), p. 156. + + [143] These specimens are in the British Museum Ethnological + collection. + + [144] Dillon's "Discovery of the Fate of La Perouse" (1829), vol I., + p. lxix. + +[Illustration] + +Fishing on the reef-flats with large hand-nets is a common occupation of +the men in the islands of Bougainville Straits. Some five or six men +form a party, each man carrying a pair of long hand-nets in which the +netting is stretched on a long bamboo some 20 feet in length and bent +like a bow, as shown in the accompanying figure. The fishing party wade +about on the flat near the edge of the reef, each man being about 20 +paces apart, and dragging behind him a pair of these clumsy-looking +nets, one in each hand. When a fish is perceived they close round; and +every man spreads out his nets, one on each side like a pair of wings, +thus covering an extent of some 40 feet. By skilfully dropping his nets, +when it makes a rush in his direction, the native secures the fish, +which, dashing head first against one of the nets, gets its snout caught +in the meshes; and a couple of blows on the head complete the capture. I +have seen fish of the size of an ordinary bass caught in this manner. +Smaller nets, 4 to 6 feet in length, with a finer mesh, are used for +catching fish of less size. The large hand-net is known as the "sorau," +and the small hand-net as the "saiaili." Such is one of the commonest +methods of fishing in the Straits. For this purpose, fishing parties +often visit the uninhabited small islands and coral islets that lie off +the coasts. There they erect temporary sheds and remain for one or two +weeks. In the numerous uninhabited islets and small islands which I +visited, I frequently came on the temporary habitations erected by +fishing parties; whilst propped up against the trees were the long +bamboo poles on which the nets are stretched. The natives of St. +Christoval and the adjacent islands employ a similar method in fishing +on the reef-flats. Fishing parties often spend a week or two on the +small islands and reefs which lie off the St. Christoval coast; thus +the men of Wano visit for this purpose the islet of Maoraha, about 12 +miles down the coast; whilst those of Sulagina cross over to the Three +Sisters, which are about the same distance away. + +Dip-nets, such as I have seen in common use on the banks of the Chinese +rivers, are here employed, though on a smaller scale, for catching small +fish. They are usually 7 or 8 feet across, and are stretched on two +crossed bamboos. Seine-nets, much prized by the natives on account of +the labour expended in making them, and buoyed up with floats of the +square fruits of the _Barringtonia speciosa_, are commonly employed. +There are other modes of net-fishing, of which I am ignorant, some of +which probably came under the notice of the officers of the survey: and +I hope that in reading these remarks they may be induced to supplement +them with additional information. + +The fish-hooks employed vary in form and workmanship in different parts +of the group. In the sheltered harbour of Makira, the natives whiff in +small outrigger-canoes for a small fish of the size of a smelt, using +very fine lines and small delicately made hooks of mother-of-pearl. +During our stay at the island of Simbo or Eddystone, one of the +principal articles of exchange between the natives and ourselves was a +somewhat clumsy kind of fish-hook used for catching large fish. The +shank is of pearl-shell cut in the shape of the body of a small fish, 2 +to 2-1/2 inches long, and rather less than half an inch wide. The hook +itself, which is destitute of barbs and is made of tortoise-shell, is +bound by strong twine to the tail-end of the shank. Considerable labour +must be expended in making one of these hooks: but so eager were the +natives for tobacco, that we were able to obtain them for small pieces +of this article which could not have been worth more than half a +farthing. It is worthy of note that in the island of Treasury, about 80 +miles to the north-west, these hooks are not made by the natives, who +were anxious to obtain from us those which we had brought from Simbo. +Very similar, though larger, hooks are used by the natives of other +Pacific groups; amongst them I may refer to those employed by the +Society Islanders[145] for catching dolphins, albicores, and bonitos. +These hooks, wherever they are used, as I need scarcely add, answer the +purpose of both hook and bait. The fish-hooks of European manufacture, +which are one of the articles used in trading with the natives, are in +demand in many islands, though not in all. In some islands, in fact, the +native fish-hook is preferred. + + [145] Ellis's "Polynesian Researches," vol. I. p. 146. + +The various ingenious methods of ensnaring and decoying fish, which are +employed by the natives of this archipelago, would alone afford, to a +true enthusiast in the sport of fishing, materials for a small volume. A +plan which I saw employed at Ugi consisted in tying a living fish to the +end of a bamboo float and using it as a decoy for other fish. The +fisherman repairs to the reef when it is covered by a depth of between 2 +and 3 feet of water. Placing the fish and bamboo float in the water, he +follows them up either in his canoe or on foot. The fish swims along, +drawing the bamboo float after it: it soon decoys some other fish from +its retreat, when the fisherman watches his opportunity and catches his +fish in a hand-net which he carries with him. + +A singular mode of fishing, which Mr. Stephens of Ugi described to me as +being sometimes employed in that part of the group, may be here alluded +to. A rock, where fish resort, which lies 3 or 4 feet below the surface, +is first selected. On the surface of the water is placed a ring of some +supple stem so as to include within its circumference the rock beneath. +No fish on the rock will pass under this ring, which is gradually +contracted in size until the fish become crowded together, when they are +scooped up with a hand-net. + +The following ingenious snare was employed on one occasion by my natives +in Treasury, when I was anxious to obtain for Dr. Guenther some small +fish that frequented one of the streams on the north side of the island. +I was very desirous to have some of these fish, and my natives were +equally anxious to display their ingenuity in catching them. They first +bent a pliant switch into an oval hoop, about a foot in length, over +which they spread a covering of a stout spider-web which was found in +the wood hard by. Having placed this hoop on the surface of the water, +buoying it up on two light sticks, they shook over it a portion of a +nest of ants, which formed a large kind of tumour on the trunk of a +neighbouring tree, thus covering the web with a number of the struggling +young insects. This snare was then allowed to float down the stream, +when the little fish, which were between 2 and 3 inches long, commenced +jumping up at the white bodies of the ants from underneath the hoop, +apparently not seeing the intervening web on which they lay, as it +appeared nearly transparent in the water. In a short time one of the +small fish succeeded in getting its snout and gills entangled in the +web, when a native at once waded in, and placing his hand under the +entangled fish secured the prize. With two of these web-hoops we caught +nine or ten of these little fish in a quarter of an hour. + +As in other Pacific groups, the natives sometimes catch fish by throwing +small bits of some poisonous fruit on the water, when in a short time +the fish rise dead to the surface. The crushed kernels of the fruits of +the common littoral _Barringtonia_ (_B. speciosa_) are thus employed by +the natives. I tried them on one occasion in a fresh-water lake in +Stirling Island, which abounded with fish, but after the lapse of two or +three hours, no dead fish appeared at the surface. + +The use of dynamite for destroying fish, by white men in the group, has +led to its occasional employment for a similar purpose by the natives, +whenever white men have been thoughtless enough to give them this +substance. In August, 1882, I visited a village in the Bauro district on +the north coast of St. Christoval, which had lost its chief, a few days +before, from an injury to the hand, resulting from an accidental +explosion of dynamite whilst fishing. Such occurrences must not be +uncommon in these and other islands. In the previous April, we met with +a native teacher at Mboli Harbour who had lost one of his hands from a +similar cause.[146] At the end of May, 1884, I removed the left hand of +Captain Smith, the master of the labour-schooner "Lavina," who had +received a very serious injury of the hand whilst fishing with dynamite +on the coast of Malaita. Some of the fresh-water fish which I sent to +Dr. Guenther were obtained in this way through the kindness of Mr. +Curzon-Howe, the Government agent of the "Lavina;" and as I witnessed +the operation, I am in a position to pronounce on the hazardous nature +of the mode in which the dynamite was employed. . . . . With reference +to the natives, there are two very obvious reasons why this explosive +substance should not be permitted to get into their hands, even if we +disregard the hazard that would attend its use. In the first place, they +might employ it against white men and against their fellows; and in the +next place, its employment for obtaining fish would tend to encourage +the already too indolent habits of these islanders. + + [146] Since writing the above, I have learned from my friend, Dr. + Luther, late of H.M.S. "Dart," that he had to amputate on two + occasions in the cases of natives who had sustained severe injuries + of the hand whilst fishing with dynamite. + +I pass on now to the subject of pig-hunting in these islands. Wild pigs +occurred in most, if not all, of the islands which we visited. I was +frequently warned by the natives, when undertaking a solitary excursion, +to look out for the boars, who attain a ferocity which, on account of +their powerful curved tusks, it would be dangerous to provoke unarmed. +On more than one occasion when alone, I came unexpectedly in the bush on +one of these boars, who are in appearance by no means despicable +antagonists. When they stand their ground, it is necessary to be +prepared for their onset; but as a rule they only indicate their +presence by the noise which they make when scampering away. In the +islands of Bougainville Straits, where there are numerous plantations of +sago palms, the wild pigs are very fond of the fruit of this palm before +the albumen of the seed attains its stony hardness. They often select as +their retreats the hollow trunks of the palms which have been felled and +emptied of the sago. Their habit of frequenting the plantations of sago +palms, and of feasting on the remains of the palms that have been lately +cut down and the pith removed, was observed by Captain Thomas Forrest in +the island of Gilolo, in the Indian Archipelago.[147] On the approach of +any special occasion of feasting, pig-hunting becomes a necessary sport +with the natives; but in addition, they frequently take to it for the +sake of replenishing their larders. With his spear and a couple of dogs, +a man is usually successful in getting his pig. The dogs bring the +animal to bay, when he is speared by the hunter, who, if alone, at once +sets to work to quarter and roast his quarry, and thus considerably +lightens the weight he has to carry back. During my excursions, my +natives used to frequently leave me when their dogs had roused a pig in +the bush; and on one occasion, when, much to my indignation, they had +been absent for an hour, they came back triumphantly with two large +boars. Captain Forrest, in his account of his voyage to New Guinea, +gives an illustration of "Papua men in their canoes hunting wild +hogs"[148] off the island of Morty, near the large island of Gilolo. +These men are represented with the spear, bow, and arrow, and a dog. +Such a method of hunting pigs never came under my notice in the Solomon +Islands and must necessarily be rarely employed. + + [147] "A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas." London, 1779 (p. + 39). + + [148] Ibid., Plate XI. of book of plates. + +Wild dogs are numerous in the bush in the interior of Alu. They never +attack the natives or the pigs and, as they always slink away when +alarmed, they are not often seen. They subsist on the opossums +(_Cuscus_), waiting to catch them at the foot of the trunks of the trees +as they descend to the ground at nightfall. When I was away on an +excursion with Gorai the Alu chief, the native dogs that were with us +ran down a wild dog and worried it to death. I came in at the death, and +was not very much pleased with the spectacle which afforded much +amusement to Gorai and his men. The unfortunate dog was apparently of +the native breed. How these animals have come to prefer this mode of +life I could not learn. + +My native companions during my excursions rarely returned to their homes +without bringing back an opossum (_Cuscus_). Usually this animal was +caught without much trouble, as it slumbers during the day and may be +then surprised amongst the foliage of the tree where it finds its home. +Sometimes, however, when the keen eyes of my natives discovered an +opossum amongst the leafy branches overhead, we were enlivened by an +exciting hunt. On such occasions, one man climbs the tree in which the +animal is esconced whilst three or four other men climb the trees +immediately around. By dint of shouting and shaking the branches, the +opossum is started from its retreat, and then the sport commences. This +clumsy looking creature displays great agility in springing from branch +to branch, and even from tree to tree. Suspended by its prehensile tail +to the branch above, the _Cuscus_ first tests the firmness of the branch +next below, before it finally intrusts its weight to its support. It +runs up and down the stouter limbs of the tree like a squirrel; but its +activity and cunning are most displayed in passing from the branches of +one tree to those of another. At length, scared by the shaking of the +branches, and by the cries of the natives who have clambered out on the +limbs as far as they can get with safety, the opossum runs out towards +the extremity of the limb, proceeding cautiously to the very terminal +branchlets, until the weight of its body bends down the slender +extremities of the branch, and it hangs suspended by its tail in mid-air +about ten feet below. The gentle swaying of the branches in the wind, +aided probably by its own movements, swings the opossum to and fro, +until it approaches within grasp of the foliage of the adjoining tree. +Then the clever creature, having first ascertained the strength of its +new support, uncoils its tail. Up goes the branch with a swish when +relieved of its weight; and in a similar manner the opossum swings by +its tail from the slender branches of the tree to which it has now +transferred its weight. Finally the opossum reaches the ground, where +its awkward movements render it an easy capture. It is then tied to a +stick and carried home alive on the shoulder of a native. + +The _Cuscus_ is a common article of food with these islanders; and in +some islands, as in Simbo or Eddystone, it is kept as a pet by the +natives. Out of seven opossums that were kept as pets on board the +"Lark," all died within a few weeks, being apparently unable to +withstand captivity. Most of them, however, were young. The cause of the +death of one of them was rather singular. Immediately after its death +the skin of the animal was literally covered with small ticks about the +size of a pin's head and distended with blood, whilst the body presented +the blanched appearance of an animal bled to death. It had been ailing +for a day or two before and was incessantly drinking all liquids it +could get, even its own urine: but the ticks had not been sufficiently +numerous to be observed; and in fact they appeared to have covered the +animal in the course of a single night. As I was informed by the natives +of Simbo, these animals subsist on the shoots and young leaves of the +trees: on board the "Lark" they cared for little else than bananas. They +make a curious clicking noise when eating, and often hold the substance +in their fore-paws. When taken out in the day-time from their boxes they +were half asleep, and at once tried to get out of the bright light into +the shade. In the night-time they were very restless in their prisons, +making continual efforts to escape between the bars, and as soon as they +were let out they moved about with much activity. The older animals are +sometimes rather fierce. One of them which belonged to the men used to +spend a considerable portion of its time up aloft; and, when in want of +food, it would descend the rigging and go down to the lower deck. Their +naked tails have a cold clammy feeling; and with them they were in the +habit of swinging themselves from any object. When the _Cuscus_ was +about to be taken up by its master, it moored itself to the nearest +object by means of its tail. It always descended a rope head first, but +kept its tail twined round the rope during its descent so as to be able +to withdraw itself at once if necessary, the tail supporting the greater +portion of its weight. + +Although the natives, who accompanied me in my various excursions, +usually displayed their skill in following a straight course through a +pathless wood where they could only see a few yards on either side of +them, yet on more than one occasion they were, to use a nautical +phrase, completely out in their reckoning, and I had to bring my compass +into use and become the guide myself in order to avoid passing the night +in the bush. When in the interior of the north-west part of Alu +accompanied by Gorai, the chief, and a number of his men, I was +astonished at the readiness with which, in the absence of any tracks, +they found their way to the coast. Gorai led the way; and on my asking +him how he managed to know the right direction in a thick forest with +neither sun nor trade-wind to guide him, he merely remarked that he +"saveyed bush," and pointing with his hand in a particular direction, he +informed me that "Mono stopped there," Mono being the native name for +Treasury. There was a little uncertainty among the natives as to whether +the old chief was guiding us aright; but there was no hesitation on the +part of Gorai, whose course as tested by my compass was always in the +same direction; he, however, disdained the use of the compass and +ultimately brought us back to the coast. When passing through a district +with which he is but little acquainted, the native frequently bends the +branches of the bushes as he passes, in order to strike the same path on +the way back. He must be frequently guided in his course through the +forest by noticing the bearing of the sun and the swaying of the upper +branches of the trees in the trade-wind, guides which were often +employed by myself when alone in the bush: but when, as not uncommonly +happens, there is such a dense screen of foliage overhead, that neither +the sun nor the upper branches of the trees can be seen, he must employ +other means of guidance. Rude tracks, usually traversed the least +frequented districts of the islands which we visited; and their +persistence appeared to be sometimes due to the fact that they were used +by the wild pigs. + +Fallen trees commonly obstruct the most frequented paths in the vicinity +of villages: and there they remain until decay removes them, for the +native has no idea of doing an act for the public weal: with him, in +such and kindred matters, what is everybody's business is nobody's. +Captain Macdonald, in his capacity as a chief in Santa Anna, adopted the +serviceable method of employing natives, who had committed petty +offences, in making good walks in the vicinity of the houses of the +white residents. The example however was not followed by the natives for +the approaches to their own village of Sapuna. Being quite content with +their narrow footpaths, they probably could not understand that whatever +contributed to the public good was also to the advantage of the +individual. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +PREVALENT DISEASES. + + +I HAVE previously remarked that in these islands the duties of the +sorcerer and the medicine-man are frequently combined. The same man, who +can remove a disease by exorcism and by ill-wishing can bring sickness +and death upon any obnoxious individual, may also be able in the +estimation of the people to procure a fair wind for an intended voyage, +or to bring about rain in a season of drought. I had more than one +opportunity of satisfying myself of the fact that the medicine-man often +trades upon the credulity of his patients, and that he is himself aware +that all his charms and incantations are mere trickery. In Santa Anna +his services are often employed to procure the recovery of a sick man, +and by some form of incantation he pretends to appease the anger of the +offended spirit to whom the illness is attributed. Captain Macdonald, +who has long resided in this island, informed me that when on one +occasion he had relieved by medicine the sufferings of a native who had +in vain employed the exorcisms of the village physician to effect his +cure, the success of his treatment did not detract in any way from the +reputation of the medicine-man, who, having informed himself of the +progress of the patient, after Captain Macdonald had given his remedy, +foretold his recovery and took to himself the whole credit of the cure. + +In the island of Ugi chunam (burnt lime) is one of the domestic remedies +employed in sickness, being rubbed into the skin of the patient by his +friends. The chunam of some men is supposed to be more efficacious than +that of others, and messengers may be sent from one end of the island to +the other to procure it. One of our Treasury natives, who was employed +on board, had a reputation as medicine-man. His method of treatment in +the case of one of his own comrades consisted in tying a particular leaf +around the limbs and joints to localize the pain, and in striking the +affected part with the same leaf. On one occasion this man was himself +laid up with a large abscess in the buttock, which he attempted to cure +by tying a strip of the leaf around the thigh and by placing another for +a few moments over the seat of the abscess. He would not let me do much +for him; and from absorption of the purulent matter into the blood, a +number of abscesses began to form in other parts of the body which +brought him into a serious hectic condition. The poor fellow's cries of +"Agai" "Agai," corresponding to our exclamations of pain, made me feel +acutely for him; but he placed little faith in our offices, his great +desire, as intimated by his frequent cries of "Feli" (Fire), was to be +placed beside a large wood fire. He was sent on shore and given in +charge of his wife on our arrival off Treasury. When I landed to see him +a few hours after, I found him with his wish at last gratified; there he +lay beside a roasting fire, the very last condition that seemed likely +to promote his recovery. However he slowly regained his health, and I +did what I could for him in buying sago and other articles of food from +his own people who were not very ready with their supplies for the sick +man. + +This brings me to the subject of the indifference often displayed +towards the sick and invalids. The natives view these things in a very +matter-of-fact way. On more than one occasion when in the house of +sickness, the son or the brother of the sick man has remarked to me, in +the coolest manner, "Him too much sick. I think by-and-by finish;" and +it is astonishing to hear of the manner in which they allow the sick to +shift for themselves. In the islands of Bougainville Straits the very +aged, who are unable to get about or to be of any service to themselves, +are placed in a house in which they are left alone although supplied +with food; and there they remain until they die. Two old and decrepit +men, who were both fast hastening to their ends, being the subjects of +chronic lung affections, were placed together in a house in Treasury +where they were supplied with food but rarely if ever visited. They were +placed there to die as the relations informed us; and there they +remained day after day until the end arrived. Mr. Stephens told me that +in his island of Ugi, if a cocoa-nut is placed by the side of the sick +man, his friends consider they have done all in their power. No attempt +is made to alleviate pain, or to soothe by companionship the tedious +hours of the sick. He lies deserted on his roughly plaited mat of +palm-leaves, in his wretched home where the sunlight rarely enters; and +there he awaits, perhaps without regret, his approaching death. When +consciousness leaves him, his friends regard him as already dead, +attributing the spasmodic breathing and the convulsive efforts of the +dying man to the agency of some evil spirit. + +The influence of superstition probably explains the indifference which +prevails as to the welfare of the sick and aged. Those afflicted with +such an infirmity as blindness are kindly treated by their fellows. I +was particularly struck, whilst looking on at a feast in the village of +Treasury, by the attention that was paid to the wants of a young blind +man who sat aloof from the rest. He was blind from his birth, and I +particularly pleased him by sitting down beside him and giving him a +stick of tobacco. + +In the case of those who have received some severe injury, such as a +gunshot wound, considerable care is shown by the friends in their +welfare. I saw much of the natives who were wounded during the +hostilities carried on between the natives of Treasury and the +Shortlands, and was astonished at the ease with which they recovered +from apparently hopeless injuries. My experience goes to support the +opinion laid down by Professor Waitz in his "Anthropology of Primitive +Peoples,"[149] that the healing power of nature is greater among savage +than among civilized races. The principle of non-interference was +literally carried out in defiance of the laws of hygiene and of the +experience of modern surgery. After the unfortunate conflict on the +islet of Tuluba, off the west coast of Alu, I visited the wounded man +and woman who had been brought back to their homes. I found the woman +lying in a dingy little house in which I had to stand still for a few +minutes before I could see my patient. Five days had elapsed since the +fight; and the condition of a wound, which has been left alone for this +period in a tropical climate, may be well imagined. She had received a +severe tomahawk wound just above the right knee, smashing the bone and +implicating the joint. The parts were much swollen and there was profuse +suppuration. No attempt had been made to wash the wound, and in +consequence it stunk horribly. A few pieces of split bamboo, less than a +foot in length, were lashed in a slack fashion around the joint by means +of rattan; but they could have given little or no support. Under the +couch, which was merely a layer of poles raised about a foot from the +ground, were placed hot stones wrapped up in leaves, from which the +warmth ascended to the injured limb which was left uncovered and exposed +to the flies and other insects. The poor woman was moaning terribly; and +her cries of "Agai" were painful to listen to, especially as I was +permitted to do but little. They would neither wash nor cover the wound, +and persisted in keeping up the hot air treatment by means of the hot +stones wrapped in leaves, which were placed under the couch. I +pronounced her recovery as hopeless; and was after a time obliged to +discontinue my visits, upon being told by one of the medicine-men that +as he could make her well, my presence was not required. I never saw the +woman again, but sometime after I learned that she was nearly well. + + [149] English edition: translated by J. F. Collingwood: London, + 1863: p. 126. + +The man who was wounded at the same time had received a rifle-bullet +through the thigh without injuring the bone, and another through the +groin. I found his wounds in the same horrible condition, with the wound +of exit in the thigh as large as my fist. Nothing whatever had been done +except placing hot stones in leaves under the limb on the ground +beneath; and nothing more was done. There the man lay for several weeks +with his wounds unwashed and exposed to the air. In course of time he +recovered. One of the Treasury natives had been shot by one of his own +party, the rifle-bullet passing through the right elbow from behind, and +apparently disorganising the joint. I saw him a month after he had +received the injury, lying in a very emaciated condition on his couch, +with the wounded limb stretched out beside him quite unprotected and +displaying an extensive flesh-wound in front of the joint. The hot-stone +treatment had been the only one employed. In another month or five weeks +he was up and about, but of course with a useless elbow. One of the Alu +natives, who had been shot through the left shoulder from behind by the +Treasury chief, had nearly recovered when I saw him six or seven weeks +after, although the arm was useless. + +Reflecting on the hot-stone treatment which the natives employed for +these severe injuries, I came to think that it was really efficacious. +They said themselves that the hot air eased the pain, and this was +probably effected, as I hold, by the warmth relaxing the parts after +suppuration had begun and thus assisting the escape of the purulent +discharges. The surgeon of our own time may take a hint from this +practice of the Solomon Islander. It would certainly scarcely accord +with the principles of modern surgery if a gunshot injury of one of the +larger joints was to be treated in one of our general hospitals by being +constantly kept in a current of heated air, uncovered and even unwashed. +The experiment, however, would be worth a trial in cases where +amputation is unpracticable and where death is the probable result. + +It is a common saying amongst white men who have had to deal with these +natives, that when a man makes up his mind to die he assuredly will, +even although apparently in robust health. Such cases are not unusual on +board labour-ships on their way to the Queensland and Fiji plantations, +and they may be regarded as of the nature of nostalgic melancholy or +home-sickness. It is in truth hard to imagine the train of thoughts +which must pass through the simple mind of a native when his island-home +disappears below the horizon, and he is borne away to a strange land +from which, it may be, some of his acquaintances have never returned. +Even the attractions of the box of trade that his servitude will earn +may be insufficient to keep down the undefined apprehensions which fill +his breast; and the knowledge of the impossibility of seeking his +friends or his island again for what must appear to him an indefinite +period may only serve to strengthen his longing for home. Here we have +that disease with which the army surgeons of Europe were familiar, and +which has been most recently exhibited amongst the Italian troops +stationed at Masowah on the coast of the Red Sea. It is that "strange +disease" which Dr. Livingstone so pathetically describes in his "Last +Journals," as affecting the victims of the slave-trade in the lake +region of Africa. I remember on one occasion, when visiting a +labour-vessel that had arrived in Treasury Harbour, my attention was +drawn by the mate to a native of New Ireland who had eaten little for +some days and was looking over the side of the ship towards the shore in +a depressed and moody manner. I saw that the thoughts of the poor fellow +were in reality far away; and I passed on to see some of the other sick +men. The next morning this New Ireland native was missing, and in the +evening his body was found washed up on the beach. . . . I would refer +my readers to some interesting remarks on this subject from the pen of +Mr. Romilly,[150] whose official experience in the Western Pacific +enables him to write with authority. The Solomon Islanders, according to +this author, are less affected by this disease than those of other +groups; whilst the New Hebrides natives appear to be most subject to +it. Not only do natives often die of nostalgia before they are landed, +but many die from this cause after their arrival in Fiji; and the only +way to cure those affected is the one least likely to be followed, that +is, "to send them home." + + [150] "The Western Pacific and New Guinea." London, 1886: pp. + 16,177. + +In the eastern part of the Solomon Group, one commonly meets natives +limping along with large ulcerous sores on the soles of the feet, seated +usually near the base of the toes. They are often caused by stepping on +the sharp corals when fishing on the reefs, or by splinters of wood +piercing the skin of the soles of the feet when walking in the bush. As +a rule, the native pays no attention to these sores, and from neglect +the ulceration extends both on the surface and to the deeper tissues, +exposing the tendons and the metatarsal bones. Ultimately some or all +the toes may be lost, and an unshapely clubbed foot arises from the +subsequent contraction of the cicatrised surface. At other times, where +the ulceration has been superficial but has extended between the toes, +adhesion and perfect union of the lateral surfaces of the toes ensue, +and a continuous covering of skin bridges over the intervening spaces. +Mr. Nisbet, the government agent of the labour-schooner "Redcoat" from +Fiji, showed me a Solomon Island native with a foot of perfect form but +with apparently no toes. A continuous covering of skin covered the whole +foot like a thin sock, and the toes were only recognisable by the touch. +The man appeared to be but little incommoded by this obliteration of the +toes. Among the natives of New Britain, as we learn from Mr. +Romilly,[151] "the toes are not unfrequently joined together by a tough +membrane," a defect which does "not seem to impair their activity." This +evidently results from superficial ulceration in the manner I have above +described. + + [151] "The Western Pacific and New Guinea." London, 1886, p. 21. + +These ulcerous sores, if left exposed to the irritation of sand, dirt, +and flies, may last for years and may ultimately cause death. Dr. +Livingstone in his "Last Journals" (vol. ii. chaps. 2 and 3) speaks of +the ulcers of the feet from which many of the slaves die in the region +west of Tanganyika. They eat through everything muscle, tendon, and +bone, and often lame permanently. "The wailing of slaves tortured with +these sores is one of the night sounds of a slave camp." These ulcers, +however, as they affect the Solomon Islanders, have a natural tendency +to heal. When staying with Bishop Selwyn at Gaeta in Florida, I +accompanied him on his morning round of visits to his patients, most of +them being the subjects of these large ulcerous sores on the feet and +legs. He tells me that with rest and cleanliness they soon take on a +healing action. Carbolic oil was the application he used, and it seemed +well suited for these discharging, loathsome sores. Several of the men +of the "Lark" were laid up with these ulcers of the feet for many weeks. +The ulcers in their case assumed a circular form with raised callous +edges and an irritable inflamed surface, being attended by much pain in +the surrounding parts. The free application of lunar caustic every two +or three days followed by poulticing, I found to be the most effectual +treatment. Dr. Livingstone, who was himself laid up with these sores for +eighty days in the interior of Africa, found the best of all topical +applications to be malachite rubbed down with water on a stone and +applied with a feather. The natives of Treasury Island in the Solomon +Group use an application prepared by pounding the fruit of the _Cycas +circinalis_, which grows near the edge of the cliffs on the south coast +of the adjacent Stirling Island. + +There is a loathsome skin disease very prevalent amongst the inhabitants +of this group, which is generally known as the Solomon Island or Tokelau +ringworm. I should estimate that two-fifths of the total population of +these islands are thus affected. We found it more prevalent in some +islands than in others. In Treasury, for instance, four-fifths of the +people are the subjects of this disease, and half of the chief's wives +who number about thirty are almost covered with it. In the southern +large island of the Florida Islands, it appears to affect quite one half +of the population. It ranges from one end of the group to the other, +neither sex nor age affording any immunity. The chiefs and their +families, however, seem to be less liable to this disease. The skin of +every man does not appear to afford a suitable nidus for the growth of +the fungus which is the cause of the eruption; and this is evident from +the circumstance that one parent may be covered with the disease while +the other is entirely free from it. This skin-eruption, although so +repulsive in appearance in the eyes of the European when he first visits +the group, is not viewed with any feelings of disgust by the natives; +and even the European after spending some time in the group learns to +disregard its repulsiveness. Those affected show no anxiety to be quit +of it and evince great indifference when any offer is made to them to +cure it. It is to them only an inconvenience; and apparently causes no +irritation except when the skin is hot and perspiring, as after +exertion. + +When this disease first came under my notice in the early part of 1882, +I was unacquainted with what had been previously written on the subject. +I accordingly made a microscopical examination of the affected skin and +arrived at the conclusion, previously formed by those far more competent +to express an opinion than myself, that the eruption was an inveterate +form of body-ringworm. As it is to be seen affecting the skin of young +children in the form of limited circular patches, which usually commence +on the belly, it displays all the essential characters of _Tinea +circinata_ or body-ringworm. Spreading all over the trunk and limbs, the +eruption assumes a chronic character and its typical characters become +obscured. The whole skin, with the exception of that of the face and +scalp which are not attacked by the disease, is covered by a great +number of wavy desquamating lines partly concentric in their +arrangement; and on account of the intervals between the lines being of +a paler hue, the whole skin obtains a singular marbled appearance. + +To such a degree is the skin implicated in some cases of the disease +that the rapid desiccation and desquamation of the epidermal cells lead +to a partial decoloration of the deeper parts of the cuticle, as though +the rate of the production of pigment was less rapid than the rate of +its removal in the desquamative process. This disease, in other words, +tends to decolorize the skin. From this cause, one occasionally meets +with a native whose skin as compared with that of his fellows is of a +pale sickly hue. The tendency to produce a lighter colour by the too +rapid destruction of the pigment is especially noticeable in those cases +where the body is only partially covered with the eruption, there being +a marked contrast between the paleness of the affected surfaces and the +dark hue of the healthy skin. The influence of this cutaneous disease on +the colour was remarked by Commodore Wilkes amongst the natives of the +Depeyster Islands in the Ellice Group. He refers to the skin of those +affected as much lighter than in any Polynesian race he had hitherto met +with.[152] The same effect of this disease was noticed by Mr. Wilfred +Powell amongst the natives of New Britain.[153] + + [152] "Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition," London, 1845; + vol. V. p. 40. + + [153] "Three years amongst the Cannibals of New Britain," London, + 1883, p. 86. + +I have entered somewhat at length into the subject of the partial +decoloration produced by this eruption, because it has a bearing on that +"quaestio vexata," the causes of race-colour. Pathology, in fact, affords +more than one instance of changes, almost of a permanent character, +produced in the colour of the skin through the influence of abnormal +action. Dr. Tylor in one of his lectures[154] alludes to "the morbid +appearance of race-character" produced by the bronzing of the skin in +Addison's disease, which is shown to be immediately due to a deposit of +pigment in the _rete mucosum_ closely resembling that of the negro. "The +importance of the comparison," he says, "lies in its bridging over the +physiological differences of race, by showing that morbid action may +bring about in one race results more or less analogous to the normal +type in another." To the partial decoloration of the skin in Tokelau +ringworm and to the bronzing of the skin in Addison's disease, these +remarks equally apply. + + [154] Delivered at Oxford on Feb. 15th, 1883: ("Nature" vol. + xxviii., p. 9). _Vide_ also Topinard's "Elements d'Anthropologie + generale:" Paris 1885, p. 325. + +This disease has been variously spoken of by different authors and +travellers as Leprosy, Icthyosis, Psoriasis, Pityriasis versicolor, and +Tokelau Ringworm, of which it is needless to remark that the last is the +only name which is correct. The medical officers of the United States +Exploring Expedition, under Commodore Wilkes in 1841, were the first to +recognise the nature of the eruption in the case of the inhabitants of +the Depeyster Islands in the Ellice Group.[155] In 1874 Dr. Tilbury Fox, +after having examined some scrapings of the skin which had been sent to +him from Samoa, published in the "Lancet" (August 29th) a paper on +"Tokelau Ringworm and its Fungus," in which he established the true +character of the disease, and disposed of a view held by the Rev. Dr. G. +Turner of the Samoan Medical Mission and by Dr. Mullen, R.N. of H.M.S. +"Cameleon," that its origin may have been connected with the occurrence +of numerous dipterous insects found in scrapings of the skin after the +use of sulphur ointment. This last he showed to be only an accidental +feature of the eruption. Two years afterwards, Dr. Fox in connection +with Dr. Farquhar wrote an account of "Certain Endemic Skin and other +Diseases in India and Hot Climates generally" (London 1876), in which +further reference was made to this disease. It was there shown that +Tokelau ringworm, Burmese ringworm, Chinese ringworm, and the Indian +ringworms known familiarly as "dhobie itch," "washerman's itch," +"Malabar itch," etc., are all of them forms of _Tinea circinata tropica_ +variously modified by such circumstances as the personal habits, the +nature of the apparel, and the character of the climate. A proof of the +correctness of this conclusion came under my observation in the Solomon +Islands, where the white men in taking this disease from the natives +suffer from it frequently in the form of "dhobie itch." The parasitic +disease _Tinea circinata tropica_ to which, as above shown, all tropical +ringworms should be referred is, as Dr. Fox remarks in his work on "Skin +Diseases" (3rd edit., 1873, p. 451), "nothing more or less than ordinary +ringworm of the body (_tinea circinata_), such as we have in Europe, +determined in its occurrence to certain parts of the body by peculiar +circumstances, and assuming characters somewhat different from those +observed in the disease as it exists in colder climates, in consequence +of the greater luxuriance of the parasite consequent upon the presence +in one case of a greater amount of heat and moisture, which are +favourable to the development and speed the growth of fungi." + + [155] "Narrative of the U. S. Explor. Exped.": vol. v., p. 40. + +The particular form of the disease to which the name Tokelau Ringworm +should be applied has a very wide distribution. Mr. G. W. Earl in his +work on "The Papuans" (London, 1853; p. 37) speaks of this disease under +the name of "icthyosis" as being very prevalent amongst all the coast +tribes of the Indian Archipelago: but I gather from some references made +by Mr. Wallace to this affection in his account of the Malay Archipelago +(3rd edit., 1872, p. 449) that it is not to be found so much amongst the +pure Malays as amongst the tribes of mixed origin. Mr. Marsden in his +"History of Sumatra" (London 1811, p. 190) refers to it as being very +common amongst the inhabitants of Pulo Nias, an island which lies off +the west coast of Sumatra. His description of the disease leaves no +doubt as to its true character, but he himself is uncertain as to +whether it is an "impetigo" indicating a mild type of leprosy, or +whether it is not ordinary "shingles" or a confirmed stage of ringworm. +The same disease was recently observed by Mr. H. O. Forbes amongst the +natives of Timor-laut and of the island of Buru, islands which lie at +the opposite end of the Indian Archipelago.[156] Two centuries since, +Dampier well described this disease in the case of the inhabitants of +Mindanao in the Philippines and of those of Guam in the Ladrones.[157] + + [156] "A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago;" pp. + 331, 402; London, 1885. + + [157] "Voyage round the World." London 1729, vol. i., p. 334. + +Coming to New Guinea, I find that this disease prevails all along its +coasts and in many of the off-lying islands, such as the Ki and Aru +Islands, Teste Island, Woodlark Island, etc. The authorities on which I +have founded this general statement are numerous and include, Modera, +Bruijn Kops, Wallace, Mosely, Miklouho-Maclay, Comrie, W. Turner, +Chalmers, Wyatt Gill, Romilly, Lyne, and others, whose descriptions, +though they often did not recognise the true character of the eruption, +leave no reasonable doubt on the matter. + +This disease was observed by Mr. Wilfred Powell to be very frequent +amongst the natives of New Britain and the Duke of York Islands, where +it is called "buckwar."[158] Dr. Comrie, R.N., when serving in H.M.S. +"Dido," found it to be very frequent amongst the natives of New +Ireland.[159] Through the islands of the Solomon Group it is widely +spread, as I have already shown: and from them it has extended to the +different groups to the eastward, reaching the Gilbert, Ellice, Tonga +and Samoa Groups. + + [158] "Three years among the Cannibals in New Britain," London, + 1883, p. 54. + + [159] Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. vi. p. 102. + +In the Western Pacific we are able in some instances to trace the +eastward extension of this disease during the last half century. Dr. G. +Turner in his annual report of the Samoan Medical Mission, dated +October, 1869, refers to the recent introduction of the Tokelau Ringworm +amongst the Samoan Islanders as the introduction of a new disease. It +was brought to Samoa from Bowditch or Tokelau Island where it had been +also unknown until about ten years before, when it was introduced by a +native of the Gilbert Group who had been landed by a whaler. The Gilbert +or Kingsmill Islanders, according to the narrative of Commodore Wilkes, +believed that the disease came from the south-west, and called it the +"south-west gune," the nearest islands in that direction being those of +the Solomon and Santa Cruz groups, between 800 and 900 miles away. +Commodore Wilkes, however, was of opinion that this disease had reached +the Kingsmill Group from the Depeyster Islands in the Ellice Group to +the south-south-east; and he refers to the circumstance that the disease +was most prevalent in the southern islands of the Kingsmill Group, being +apparently absent from Makin the northernmost island;[160] but this +distribution of the disease may be also urged in support of the more +probable view of the natives that it came from the south-west. We are +thus able to trace one probable track of this disease from the Solomon +Islands, or one of the groups immediately adjacent to them, across a +wide tract of sea to the Gilbert and Ellice Groups, and from there to +Tokelau Island, and thence to Samoa. The French navigator, +Dentrecasteaux,[161] found the same disease to be very prevalent amongst +the inhabitants of the Tonga Islands towards the end of last century; +and it seems strange that it did not reach the Samoa Group until about +seventy years after. The Tonga natives, however, may have derived it by +another and more direct course from the westward, namely through the New +Hebrides and the Fiji Groups. + + [160] "Narrative of the U. S. Explor. Exped." vol. v. p. 105. + + [161] "Voyage de Dentrecasteaux," par M. de Rossel, tom. I. p. 329, + Paris 1808. + +I may appear to have entered with unnecessary detail into this subject, +but it is apparent that this fungoid skin disease, disseminated as it is +by personal contact and other similar agencies, would have reached these +sub-central Pacific Groups long ago if they had been occupied through +ages by their present inhabitants. The same evidence, therefore, which +can be brought forward to prove the recent appearance of this disease +amongst the natives of these groups may also be advanced in support of +the recent occupation of these islands by the eastern Polynesians. + +From the previous remarks on the distribution of Tokelau Ringworm it may +be inferred that in New Guinea and in the islands of the Malay +Archipelago we have the home of the disease. From this region it has +spread eastward towards the centre of the Pacific; and we may also infer +that this eastward extension of the disease has occurred within the last +three hundred years, since in the accounts which Gallego and Quiros give +of the natives of the Solomon, Santa Cruz, and New Hebrides Groups at +the time of their first discovery by the Spaniards, there is no +reference to the prevalence of any cutaneous disease, which, if it had +existed, would most certainly have attracted the notice of these early +navigators. + +I only had one opportunity of treating this affection, and that was in +the person of a native of Guadalcanar, who was shipped on board as an +interpreter, and who had been the subject of the disease for about five +months. Partly from its obstinacy, and partly from the difficulty of +ensuring that the remedies were regularly and thoroughly employed, my +experience was not very satisfactory. Sulphur ointment, mercurial +ointment, tincture of iodine, and a lotion of hyposulphite of soda (1 in +12) were severally used, and after about three weeks the skin was almost +clean. Some weeks afterwards, the eruption re-appeared on the forearms +in the form of the characteristic small circumscribed patches of +body-ringworm. The local remedy, which I found most rapid in its effect +as a parasiticide in the treatment of this case, was the tincture of +iodine of which two applications completely removed the disease from the +fore-arms. The lotion of the hyposulphite of soda and the mercurial +ointment had apparently but little influence on the disease. The sulphur +ointment, however, had a gradual curative action. To many of the vessels +which leave Queensland and Fiji to recruit labour in the Solomon and New +Hebrides groups, sulphur ointment is supplied; and the government-agents +are instructed to use it in all cases of this disease amongst the +natives recruited. I learned from some of these gentlemen that, when the +remedy is applied thoroughly, and under superintendence, they usually +succeed in thoroughly cleansing the skin from the eruption before the +ships return to the colonies. + +A pustular eruptive disease peculiar to children, which has been +referred to by various authors as prevalent in the New Hebrides, Fiji, +Tonga, and Samoa groups, affects many of the young children of the +Solomon Islands, usually occurring about the age of five. A number of +large papules, twice the size of a split pea, which subsequently become +filled with a pustular fluid, appear on the face. These pustules by +rupturing tend to unite and form unhealthy-looking sores of the size of +a florin. The disease pursues a regular course of papule, pustule, and +sore; and is said never to recur. As far as I could learn, the natives +interfere but little with its progress; and, as in Fiji where it is +known as _coko_,[162] they regard the disease as having a salutary +influence on the future health of the child. + + [162] "Fiji and the Fijians," by Messrs T. Williams and J. Calvert. + 3rd edit. 1870, p. 151. + +That peculiar spinal disease, which produces so many hunch-backs in the +Society and Samoan groups, and which is so well described by Mr. Ellis +in his "Polynesian Researches" (2nd edit., 1831, vol. iii. pp. 39, 40), +does not prevail among the Solomon Islanders. I can only recall one +instance of spinal deformity which came under my observation. It was in +the person of a little boy about ten or eleven years old, who was the +subject of lateral and posterior curvature of the spine. The little +fellow, who was a native of Simbo, apparently experienced no +inconvenience from the deformity, since a firm ankylosis had occurred. +He was able to accompany me in my ascents to the summit of his island, +which is elevated about 1,100 feet above the sea. + +An epidemic catarrhal disease, which is allied to influenza, is very +prevalent amongst the natives of these islands. It is commonly followed +by lung-complications, which not infrequently cause the death of the +sufferer. Such an epidemic in running through a village sometimes +carries off several of the inhabitants. The elderly natives are, in +fact, very liable to pulmonary affections; such diseases usually +terminate their lives. + +From the occurrence of an epidemic of this catarrhal disease, a village +often obtains an unhealthy reputation; and the natives abandon it for +some other situation, which is selected rather for the convenience of +its position than for its freedom from unhealthy influences. A +generation ago, one of the principal villages in the island of Ugi was +situated on the level summit of a hill overlooking Selwyn Bay on the +west coast, a site which would have at once been chosen both for its +salubrity and for its capability of defence. However, a number of deaths +occurred in the village from epidemic catarrhal disease; and the +inhabitants shifted their homes to the low-lying unhealthy situation +where the village of Ete-ete now stands. + +Epidemics of mumps occur occasionally amongst these islanders. In +October, 1882, whilst we were taking to Ugi the crew of the "Pioneer," a +schooner which had been wrecked off the coast of Guadalcanar, some cases +of this disease appeared among the natives belonging to that ship, +affecting ten out of the twenty on board, and pursuing its usual course. +It was evident that the disease had been originally brought from +Brisbane, as the ship which was engaged in returning natives from the +Queensland plantations, had had three cases previously, the first having +occurred on her arrival at Makira harbour, just a week after she left +Brisbane. That mumps is sometimes a fatal disease amongst these races, +there is no reason to doubt. Mr. Stephens of Ugi informed me that a few +years since, some natives of Lord Howe Islands, whom he was employing on +his premises, rapidly succumbed to this disease. + +Men who were the subjects of _Elephantiasis arabum_ were occasionally +seen in the different islands we visited. Instances of "lymph-scrotum" +most frequently typify this disease, but now and then cases of "swollen +leg" occur. In the island of Faro or Fauro in Bougainville Straits, the +natives attribute this disease to the water of particular streams. There +is a stream on the west side of the island, the water of which when +drunk is said to produce "swollen legs." For this reason the water is +never employed; and the ban is even extended to the cocoa-nut trees on +its banks. + +Natives, who are the subjects of such congenital deformities as +"hare-lip," are rarely seen. Very probably in such cases life is +destroyed by the parents soon after birth. I only observed one instance +of "hare-lip" which occurred in the case of a man of Simbo. This +malformation, which was of the single character, was associated with +abnormal development of crisp hair on the body and more particularly on +the back. As an instance of another kind of congenital deformity, which +however came but rarely under my observation, I may refer to a man of +Ugi who had six perfect toes on the right foot, both fifth and sixth +toes being provided with nails and apparently arising from a common +metatarsal bone. None of his family had the same deformity, which in his +case was probably inconvenient in more ways than one, as the print of +his foot was familiar to every native in the island.[163] + + [163] Mr. Romilly, in the work referred to on page 168, alludes to + the strange prevalence of these congenital deformities of the hands + and feet in New Britain. + +Strabismus is not uncommon amongst the natives of these islands, and +appears to occur with the same relative frequency as amongst more +civilised people. + +Venereal diseases, both constitutional and local, are said by traders to +be very frequent in certain islands, as in Ugi, which have had most +intercourse with the outer world. I rarely however came upon unequivocal +evidence of the constitutional form of these diseases, those cases which +came under my immediate observation being of the non-constitutional +types which, as in other tropical regions, are often of a rapidly +destructive character. The natives of Ugi assert that these diseases +have not been introduced within the memory of any living man, and no +tradition prevails with reference to their origin. I shall scarcely +enter into the question of the introduction of these diseases into the +more central groups of the Pacific, a subject which is discussed in most +of the narratives of the early expeditions to those regions, but in a +spirit of unfairness and mutual recrimination which goes far to +invalidate the conclusions arrived at. Negative evidence, however, must +be of a very exhaustive character before it would warrant the inference +that to the licence, so freely permitted to the crews of the English and +French expeditions during the latter half of the last century, must be +attributed the presence of these diseases among the Polynesian races. +M. Rollin, who, as surgeon of the frigate "Boussole," accompanied La +Perouse on his ill-fated voyage, adduces evidence to show the +probability of these diseases having existed in the Pacific before the +discoveries of the French and English navigators in that region;[164] +and La Perouse himself approaches very near the truth when he suggests +that the free intercourse, which prevailed between the natives and the +crews during those expeditions, may have increased the activity and +destructive tendency of the pre-existing diseases.[165] For, not only +has M. Parrot of Paris demonstrated from an examination of the skulls of +some South American aborigines the existence of Syphilis in the New +World before Columbus set foot on its shores, but he affirms without +hesitation, after examining three fragments of infant skulls from a +dolmen in central France, that this disease existed in prehistoric times +("Lancet," May 10th, 1879). We are not therefore surprised at finding +references to venereal diseases in the ancient literature of China, +India, Arabia, Greece and Rome (Aitken's "Medicine," 6th edit, 1872, vol +i. p. 859); and having regard to the ethnological past of the Pacific, +we can with some confidence assume that the original stock, derived in +the first place from the Asiatic continent, brought with them these +diseases. + + [164] "Voyage round the World, by La Perouse," edit. by + Milet-Mureau: London: vol. iii., p. 180. + + [165] Ibid. vol. ii. p. 52. + +The susceptibility of these islanders to comparatively small falls of +temperature is an element in their predisposition to disease which +should not be disregarded. This susceptibility was strikingly shown to +me on one occasion, at the end of August 1882, when I was following up +the course of a stream at Sulagina on the north coast of St. Christoval. +Accompanied by a party of natives, I was wading up the stream for +several hours, the water often reaching the waist, whilst a steady +deluge of rain completed the wetting. Although the air was merely +comparatively cool for this latitude (10 deg. 30' S.), the thermometer +in the shade standing at 80 deg. Fahr, my natives were shivering with the +cold; whilst I myself felt only the inconvenience of having been soaked +through for so many hours. As soon as we returned to the coast, all my +party huddled themselves together around their wood-fires in a little +hut and warmed their hands and feet as eagerly as we should in +winter-time at home. As I stood in the hut looking comfortably on at my +naked companions who, shivering and with their teeth chattering, were +endeavouring to warm themselves around the fires, I recalled to my mind +an incident which Mr. Darwin relates in his "_Journal of the Beagle_" +(p. 220), which although analogous, illustrates the converse of these +conditions. "A small family of Fuegians"--he writes--"soon joined our +party round a blazing fire. We were well clothed, and though sitting +close to the fire were far from too warm; yet these naked savages, +though further off, were observed, to our great surprise, to be +streaming with perspiration at undergoing such a roasting." + +Instances of mental weakness or of insanity amongst the natives of these +islands rarely came under my notice. However, more than one of the +chiefs whom we met had a half-witted individual on his staff, who made +himself generally useful to his master. The chief's fool, as we called +him, was frequently my guide in the island of Santa Anna. He was the +general butt of the village; and I was told the girls would sometimes +seize hold of him and roll him about in the sand. Insanity would appear +to be of uncommon occurrence amongst these islanders; but I suspect that +such individuals are not permitted to live. Whilst the "Lark" was +engaged in the survey of Faro Island in Bougainville Straits, I learned +that there was a madman, who was partially dumb, living in the bush in +the interior of the island. Having murdered his wife about five months +before our visit, he had taken to the forest where he led a solitary +life at enmity with his fellow-islanders, who would have killed him, as +they told me, if they found him. He frequently used to steal from the +plantations; and during our stay in the island he was observed by a +woman near one of the yam patches. The chief's son came up to me one +afternoon, after I had returned to the coast from an ascent of one of +the principal summits, to advise me to shoot this unfortunate being if +ever I saw him; and he added that if this madman should see me, +unobserved, he would either run away or take his opportunity of killing +me. However, I made several excursions into the interior afterwards; but +I never fell in with him. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +VOCABULARY OF THE ISLANDS OF BOUGAINVILLE STRAITS--TREASURY ISLAND, THE +SHORTLAND ISLANDS, FARO OR FAURO ISLAND, WITH CHOISEUL BAY. + + +THIS vocabulary was formed in great part by Lieutenant A. Leeper, to +whom I may take this opportunity of expressing my thanks for his +kindness, in thus placing it at my disposal. I have supplemented this +list from smaller vocabularies made by Lieutenant C. F. de M. Malan and +by myself. It is to be regretted that, owing to Lieutenant Malan taking +up a Colonial appointment in Fiji during the last year of the +commission, we were unable to avail ourselves in a further degree of his +knowledge of the Fijian tongue, and of his general acquaintance with the +construction of the Polynesian languages. We are, however, especially +indebted to him for the recognition of the pronominal suffixes. + +The spelling follows to a great extent the mode adopted in the +missionary alphabet of Professor Max Mueller, as given on page 116 of the +Anthropological Notes and Queries drawn up at the request of the British +Association. The vowels and diphthongs are pronounced as in the +following examples;--_a_ as _a_ in father, _e_ as _a_ in fate, _i_ as +_i_ in marine, _o_ as _o_ in note, _u_ as _oo_ in moon, _ai_ as _ai_ in +aisle, _au_ as _ou_ in proud. Where there has been an evident want of +agreement in the three vocabularies, I have given the different words or +the different spellings, as the case may have occurred. We have thus +been, in some degree, "checks" to each other: and I hope we have +avoided, in this manner, many of those errors into which the unassisted +framer of a vocabulary is so liable to fall. The accented syllable is +thus indicated (') in most instances where it is needed, the accent +being usually placed on the penultimate. + + +_Miscellaneous Words_ + + Afraid Fulau. + Angry Fangolu; Gafolu. + Armlet Pago. + Arrow Iliu. + Ashes Oafu. + Awl Nila. + Axe Libba-libba; Levo-levo. + + Back Aro. + Bad Paitena. + Bag Ko-isa. + Basket Koko; Besa. + Beat (to) Lapu. + Before Gaga. + Behind Arogu. + Big Yolulla; Kana-kana. + Blood Masini. + Blow Ifu. + Bow Lili. + Boy Taui. + Break (to) Taposha. + Bring Galomi. + Brother Manai-ina. + Bury (to) Nafu. + Buy F[=u]na-aili. + + Calico Bauro. + Canoe Obuna. + Cap So-so. + Capsize (to) Igomo. + Charcoal Sibi. + Chew Tatau. + Chief Lalafa; Yolona. + Chief's eldest son Natuna. + Clean Lapu; Sapolu. + Club Peko. + Club (dancing) Toko; Toku. + Cold Lulu-gulu. + Comb Supi. + Cut Ausi. + + Dance Gatu. + Dark Lali. + Day Boi. + Dead Mate; Imati. + Deaf Kipau. + Devil (_i.e._, bad spirit) Nito paitena. + Dig (to) Eli. + Dirty Mati. + Drift (to) Ali. + Drink (to) Atali aoa. + Drinking-vessel (a cocoanut). + with neck of bamboo Dogo. + without neck Droo. + Dry D[=u]gga-d[=u]gga. + + Earthquake Nono. + Eat (to) A-am. + Egg I-au. + Empty Golu. + Enough Sumana. + + Fall Kappa. + Fan Etif. + Far De-apina. + Fat Hatutu. + Father Apa. + Few Alua-tapoina. + Fight Tala. + Finish (end) Egafulu. + Finished Sumana. + Fire Feli. + Fish-hook A-ili. + Flint Kilifela. + Fly (to) Lofu. + Food Doromi; Darami. + " (cooked) Selo-selo. + Full Forna. + + Gift Teletafala. + God (_i.e._, good spirit) Nito drekona. + Good Drekona; Dekona. + Great Yolulla; Kana-kana. + + Half Koputi. + Heaven Lavia. + Heavy Mamma. + Hot Posella. + House Numa; Fale-fale. + " (tambu) Olatu. + Hungry Belu. + + Inside Uni; Fakoria. + + Jew's harp Mako-mako. + Jump (to) Subolosa. + + Kick (to) Savulu. + Kill (to) So-orti. + Kneel (to) Fasiliki. + Knife Papalana. + Know (to) Atai. + + Lick (to) Damiti. + Lift (to) Ikoti. + Light (in weight) Dugga-dugga. + Live (to) Peoka. + Long Deapa. + + Mad Kipau. + Man Kaniga; Tium; Kaniga-tium. + Many Tapoina. + Mat Sararang; Pota. + (The names of the two pandanus trees, from the leaves of which the + mats are made.) + Match Sararang (_vide_ preceding). + Moon Ilala; Ilella. + Mother Unka. + + Naked Ampea-paiia. + Net (fishing) Sorau (large). + Sai-aili (small). + Awi-sulu. + (The plant supplying the fibre is named awi-sulu, probably a species + of "Lyonsia.") + New Faolu. + Night Lali. + No Api; Apea. + Noise So-orli. + None Ausaka. + Now Ivai. + + Old Purafalu. + Open Kapeta. + Outside Ampapaluna. + + Paddle (noun and verb) Fosi; Fose. + Pay Aili. + Path Poa. + Pearl Bor-otulu. + Pestle and mortar (wooden), + used for pounding food Tagero. + Plane (a) Ketuma. + Plenty Tapoina. + Pot (cooking) Kore. + Present (a) Teletafala. + + Quarter Totoli. + Queen Mamaifi. + Quick Fakare. + + Rain Laiti. + Resin { Anoga, for torches. + " [166]{ Tita, for canoe seams. + Rope Fili. + Run Gagona. + + Same Umbilua. + Sea Keno; Kelo. + Short Papa. + Shut Dakopi. + Sick Mate; Sali. + Sing (to) Gatu. + Sister Fafini. + Sit Ahotu. + Sky Abu; Avu. + Sleep Sueli. + Small Kaidakina. + Smoke Tula. + Speak Arei; Selli-selli. + Spear Portulu. + Spirit Nito; Nitu. + Star Bito-bito. + Stone Patu. + Stop Aru. + Sun Feo; Isang. + Swim (to) Usu. + + Tail Aukuna. + Tambu (forbidden) Olatu. + Tear Igati. + Thin Morsu. + Thirsty Fana-oa. + To-day Ibai. + To-morrow Boiwa + Town Famaca. + Tray Kisu; Kishu. + (The name of the palm supplying the material for making the trays + is also "kisu.") + Tree Au; Ava. + + Waist-cloth Malioto. + Wait Au. + Walk (to) Dagona. + Wash (to) Sisi. + Water Ateli (fresh). + " Kelo; Keno (salt). + Wet Pu-un. + What? Afana? + When? Lefila? + Whistle (to) Faso. + Wife Ewa. + Wind Oa. + Woman Batafa; Bataha; Talai-ina. + Wood Au. + Work Karre. + Worn Tualina. + + Yes O-o. + Yesterday Lafi. + + [166] These are also the native names of the trees supplying the + resins, the _anoga_ being probably a species of "Canarium," the + _tita_, "Parinarium laurinum." + + +_Numerals._ + + One Ilia; Kala. + Two Elua. + Three Episa; Ebisha. + Four Efate; Efatsi. + Five Lima. + Six Onomo; Onoma. + Seven Fito; Fit. + Eight Alu. + Nine Ulia. + Ten Lafulu. + Eleven Lafulu kala. + Twelve Lafulu elua. + Thirteen Lafulu episa + Fourteen Lafulu efate + Fifteen Lafulu lima. + Sixteen Lafulu onomo. + Seventeen Lafulu fito. + Eighteen Lafulu alu. + Nineteen Lafulu ulia. + Twenty Tanuge; Tana oge. + Thirty Pisa-vulu. + Forty Fatia-vulu. + Fifty Lima-hulu. + Sixty Nomo-fulu. + Seventy Fitua-fulu. + Eighty Alua-fulu. + Ninety Tia-fulu; Sia-fulu. + Hundred Latu; Latu-u. + + +_Parts of Body._ + + Ankle Sapolu. + Arm Pagolo. + Beard Polu. + Cheek Papala. + Chest Ate. + Chin Ali. + Ear Tana. + Elbow Tau. + Eye Mata; Shoi. + Eyebrow Metapolissi. + Face Laia. + Finger Kim. + Fist Gogumu. + Foot Toto. + Hair Tawo; Uutu. + Hand Imai; Ime. + Head Alapatu; To-o. + Leg Tatabua; Nanabu; Tato. + Lip Ulu. + Mouth Uruguru. + Neck Lua. + Nose Leo; Le-u. + Shoulder Fali. + Stomach Muru. + Thumb Gagata. + Toe Kuri-kurisi. + Tongue Miata. + Tooth Nifo; Nifa. + Trunk Tia. + Waist Buli. + + +_Geographical and Nautical._ + + Cape Manavo. + Drift Ali. + Hill Soma. + Island Nua-nua; Pete. + Land Mesola. + Mountain Olo. + Passage Ai. + Rain Laiti. + Reef Aru-oshe; Butulu. + River Ateli; Atele; Sallile. + Rock Pushai. + Sand Mesola-lanun. + Sea Keno; Kelo. + Shallow Seala. + Sky Abu. + Steep (to) Suele. + Stream Ateli; Atele; Sallile. + Tide Tofala. + Wind Oa. + {Pull Fosi. + Rowing {Back Palma. + {Stop Atti-horsi. + + +_Animal Kingdom._ + + Ant Doku. + Bat (Pteropidae) Dramo. + Bird Maraka; Maruka. + Butterfly Bebe. + Cockatoo Anau. + Crocodile Umau. + Dog Au-au. + Eel Tolo. + Fire-fly Bito-bito. + Fish Ianna; Ienna. + Fly Lau-au. + Fowl Kokole. + Frog Appa-appa. + Hornbill Po-po. + Lizard Kurru-rupu. + Opossum (Cuscus) Mali. + Osprey Manuella. + Parrot Karro. + Pig Boa. + Pigeon Baolo. + Rat Kuaki. + Shark Bao. + Snake Nifii. + Turtle Palusi. + Turtle-shell Purai. + + +_Pronouns._ + + My Gu, as a suffix, _e.g._ Toto-gu, my + foot. + Your Ng, as a suffix, _e.g._ Toto-ng, your + foot. + You Maito. + Him Ealai. + These Ea. + Those Oa. + + +_Names of Natives._ + + Men.--Gorai; Mule; Kopana; Krepas; Kurra-kurra; Erosini; Tutu; Lawi; + Sege; Fauli; Kiliusi; Gegora; Nito; Emara; Olega; Malakolo; Butiu; + Igeti; Ki'kila; Totono; Gelesi; Dukutau; Alisa; Iri-isa; Sahi; Oisi; + Karubo; Devi; Dansi; Kamo; Fulagi; Pilaisi; Maluka; Tokura; Misiki; + Levo; Tunu; Biro. + + Women.--Kaika; Bito; Siali; Evenu; Bose; Omakau; Domari; Duia. + + +_Vegetables, Fruits,[167] &c._ + + [167] The native names of most of the common plants will be found in + the list given on pages 294-304. _Vide_ also remarks on page 280. + + Banana Toitoi. + Wild Plantain Kalula. + Breadfruit Balia. + Betel-nut Olega. + Cocoa-nut Niu. + Sago Nami; Bia. + Taro (small) Koko. + Taro (large) Karafai. + Tobacco Brubush. + + +_Short Sentences and Phrases._ + + Where have you come from? Tiga fina? + I come from Alu. Tiga Alu. + I want it. Ai peko. + I do not want it. Abu ai peko. + I give you. Fantellao. + Give me. Tellao. + Will you give me? Tellao fa? + I do not give you. Abu hanatellao. + Do I go this way? Fina fanato? + What do you want? Ahana pe-una? Ahampeo? + What do you do? Ahana wussa? + What is this? Mai-ito ahampeo? + I go. Falalau. + Go away. Fato. + He goes. Onalau. + Let me see. Fanaroro. + Take it. Na. + I take it. Nto.[168] + + [168] This is an expression of acknowledgment rather than of + thanks. + +In a recent work on the Melanesian languages, the Rev. Dr. +Codrington[169] deals with the languages of the islands of the Solomon +Group which lie east of New Georgia. Some of them, as he observes, fall +naturally into two divisions: those which belong to Ulaua, Malaita, Ugi, +San Cristoval, and the part of Guadalcanar adjacent; and those of +Florida, the parts of Guadalcanar opposite, and the nearest extremity of +Ysabel. In the first region, the language of Fagani on the north coast +of San Cristoval, is somewhat distinct; and in the second, that of Savo +is strangely different in some respects.[170] + + [169] "The Melanesian Languages," by R. H. Codrington, D.D. + Clarendon Press, 1885. + + [170] For instance, the Savo notation forms an exception to the + decimal system of counting which prevails in the Solomon Islands. + +The languages of the large islands of Choiseul, Bougainville, and Bouka +and of the numerous smaller islands in their vicinity, or, in other +words, the languages of the western portion of the Solomon Group have +hitherto scarcely come within the cognizance of the philologist, and are +therefore not referred to by Dr. Codrington in his comprehensive work. +It is probable that that of the islands of Bougainville Straits may form +the centre of another group of the Solomon Island languages, as it is +spoken by a dominant tribe of natives who have extended their raids to +the island of Bouka. Yet, it is a singular circumstance that the natives +of Takura, a village on the adjoining coast of Bougainville, cannot +understand the language spoken by the inhabitants of the islands of +Bougainville Straits. I met twelve of the Takura men visiting the island +of Faro, who were only able to make themselves understood by the Faro +people through the medium of an interpreter. + +Little communication appears to take place between the natives of the +Straits and those of the islands of Vella-la-vella, Ronongo, and Simbo +(Narovo) to the eastward; and judging from a vocabulary obtained by +Captain Cheyne[171] in 1844 from the inhabitants of Simbo, or Eddystone +Island as it is also called, a native of this island would be scarcely +able to make himself understood by the people of Treasury Island nearly +eighty miles away. As shown in the foot-note[172] where the numerals up +to ten are compared, all the Simbo numbers with the exception of those +signifying _five_, _seven_, and _eight_ are apparently distinct. Many of +the common terms are equally different; so that it would appear that the +inhabitants of this island speak a language referable to a distinct +group of the Solomon Island languages, probably to be classed with those +spoken by the natives of Ronongo, Vella-la-vella, Kulambangra, and +perhaps New Georgia. + + [171] "A Description of Islands in the Western Pacific Ocean." + London 1852. + + [172] _Simbo_ _Treasury_ + + _One_ Kamee { Ilia + { Kala + _Two_ Karu Elua + _Three_ Kuay Episa + _Four_ Mantee Efate + _Five_ Leema Lima + _Six_ Wouama Onomo + _Seven_ Weetu Fito + _Eight_ Kalu Alu + _Nine_ Seang Ulia + _Ten._ Manosa. Lafulu. + + _Sun_ Gawaso { Feo + { Isang + _Moon_ Popu Ilella + _Fire_ Eku Feli + _Sleep_ Puta Sueli + _Spear_ Opuree Portulu + _Bad_ Ekarenah Paitena + _Star._ Keenda. Bito-bito. + +I forbear from making many remarks on the general affinities of the +language of the islands of Bougainville Straits, and prefer to leave +such a comparison to those qualified to pronounce on the subject. There +are, however, certain points to which I will briefly refer. + +Professor Keane, to whom I sent a portion of this vocabulary, informs me +that whilst the structure of the language and most of the words are +distinctly Papuan, the numerals and several terms are Polynesian. +However, whilst I was engaged in collecting plants and making general +botanical notes in this locality, it occurred to me that by comparing +the names of the common littoral trees with those of the same trees in +other Pacific groups and in the Indian or Malay Archipelago, I might +obtain some important additional clues as to the sources of the +language. In so doing I have obtained some interesting results, to which +I have briefly alluded on a previous page, and which go to show that the +peoples who originally migrated from the Indian Archipelago to the +various Pacific groups carried with them the names of several of their +common littoral trees, some of which may still be found in the +intermediate groups of islands, such as the Solomon Islands, which have +served as stepping-stones or halting places along the line of migration. +On page 101 I have taken "Barringtonia speciosa" as an illustration. I +will now refer to some other instances. + +After examining the pages of Crawfurd's Malay Dictionary, together with +the extensive list of the native names of plants obtained by G. J. +Filet, I have ascertained that the following names of pandanus-trees +belonging to languages of the Indian Archipelago may be traced across +the South Pacific to the Austral Islands, viz., _Harassas_, +_Haragh-hagh_, _Pudak_, _Putih_.[173][174] In the islands of +Bougainville Straits the four common pandanus-trees are known as +_Darashi_, _Sararang_, _Pota_, and _Samala_. In the Sikyana or Stewart +Islands off the eastern end of the Solomon Group, the pandanus is named +_Dawa_.[175] The Fijians name the "Pandanus odoratissimus" +_Balawa_.[176] In the Hervey Group and in the surrounding islands, as we +learn from Mr. Wyatt Gill,[177] the "Pandanus odoratissimus" is the +_Ara_ of the natives, whilst the "Pandanus utilis" is the _Rauara_; the +first being the Thatch-tree, and the last the Mat-tree. In the Austral +Islands further to the eastward, the names of the pandanus-trees were +ascertained by Dr. G. Bennett to be _Hoshoa_, _Sahang_, and _Pauhuf_ +("Pandanus odoratissimus.")[178] + + [173] _Pudak_ (Pandanus inermis), _Pandan-pudak_ (P. moschatus), + _Pandan-putih_ (P. leucacanthus). _Vide_ Crawfurd's Malay + Dictionary. + + [174] _Haragh-hagh_ (Pandanus moschatus) Sundaneesch, _Harassas + leutiek_ (P. humilis) Sundaneesch, _Harrassas gedeh_ (P. caricosus) + Sundaneesch. _Vide_ "De Inlandsche Plantennamen," by G. J. Filet, + published in "Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie." + Deel xix. vierde serie, deel v. Batavia, 1859. Another list by J. C. + M. Radermacher occurs in "Bataviaasch Genootschap," deel i. p. 87. + + [175] Scherzer's "Voyage of the Novara," vol. ii. p. 617. London, + 1861-63. + + [176] Seemann's "Mission to Viti." London, 1862. + + [177] "Jottings from the Pacific," pp. 183, 188. London, 1885. + + [178] "Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia," p. 389. London, + 1859. + + Indian Archipelago Haragh-hagh Harrassas Pudak, Putih. + Bougainville Straits Sararang Darashi Pota. + Sikyana Islands Dawa. + Fiji Group Balawa. + Hervey Group, and vicinity Rauara, Ara. + Austral Islands Sahang Hoshoa Pauhuf. + +By arranging these names as in the above list, the important bearings of +such a comparison are at once seen; and I may here remark that I have +attached no weight to the non-retention of the same native name for the +same species of "Pandanus" in different localities, since as in the +instance of "P. odoratissimus," there is no evidence that would lead us +to expect such a close agreement. Most of the common pandanus-trees have +a very similar appearance, and there is often a general name given to +them in addition to their distinctive names. Thus the natives of the +Bougainville Straits often designate all the species by the term +_Sararang_. In the Indian Archipelago, the general names are _Pandan_, +_Haragh-hagh_, _Harassas_, _Pudak_, _Rampai_, &c. These are the names +which would be applied to any new kind of pandanus-tree during the +migration eastward of the races of this archipelago; and it is manifest +that as the separate Pacific groups of islands came to be occupied by +different offshoots of the main migration, the same tree might have +received a different general name. Therefore, in investigating the +nomenclature of the pandanus-trees throughout the Pacific, we should +concern ourselves not with a comparison of the names of identical +species in different groups, but with the general names for the whole +genus of "Pandanus." We desire, in fact, to find the equivalent of such +terms as the _Ara_ of the Hervey Group, and the _Sararang_ of +Bougainville Straits. + +That the names of trees possessing such conspicuous characters as those +of the genus "Pandanus," can be traced from the Indian Archipelago +eastward through the Solomon Islands, and across the Central Pacific to +the Austral Islands, is a circumstance of considerable interest to the +philologist and anthropologist. We have already seen (page 101) that in +the instance of "Barringtonia speciosa," the name may be similarly +traced from the Indian Archipelago across the Pacific to the Society +Islands. Another example is to be found in the case of "Morinda +citrifolia," the Indian mulberry, a common littoral tree in the Indian +and Pacific regions; it supplies a yellow dye extensively used by the +inhabitants. It is the _Bangkudu_ or _Mangkudu_ of the Indian +Archipelago and the _Wongkudu_ or _Kudu_ of Java in particular.[179] In +Bougainville Straits it is known as the _Urati_; in Fiji as the +_Kura_;[180] and in Tahiti as the _Aari_;[181] names which are evidently +different forms of the same word, probably the _Kudu_ of the Indian +Archipelago. Another tree, "Fagraea Berteriana," the sacred tree of the +South Central Pacific groups, is the _Bubulata_ of Bougainville Straits, +the _Bua_ of Fiji,[182] and the _Pua_ or _Bua_ of the Hervey and Society +Groups.[183] I have not yet found the original of this name in the +Indian Archipelago, the only suggestive word being _Bua_ or _Buwah_, the +Malay word for fruit. + + [179] Crawfurd's Malay Dictionary. Raffles' "History of Java." + + [180] Seemann's "Mission to Viti." + + [181] Bennett's "Gatherings of a Naturalist," p. 399. + + [182] Seemann. (Ibid.) + + [183] Wyatt Gill's "Life in the Southern Isles" (p. 275), and + "Jottings from the Pacific." + +Before proceeding further I should observe that an inquiry into the +names of the common littoral trees, such as "Barringtonia speciosa," +"Morinda citrifolia," and the species of "Pandanus," which are yet +preserved in the languages of the islands of the Indian Ocean, might be +productive of important results. Being unable to follow up this branch +of the subject, I would recommend it to some of my readers. As an +encouragement, I would point out that there appears to be a resemblance +between the names for the pandanus-tree in northern Madagascar, and in +the Pacific Islands. Thus the _Hoshoa_ of the Austral Islands, the +_Darashi_ of Bougainville Straits, the _Harrassas_ of the Indian +Archipelago, and the _Vua-tchirie_[184] of North Madagascar, may be the +same compound word in different forms. _Vua_, it should be remarked, is +a prefix attached to many trees and plants in this part of Madagascar. +With this digression, I will now proceed. + + [184] Rochon's "Voyage a Madagascar et aux Indes Orientales." Paris, + 1791, p. 319. + +Amongst the native names of trees in the Indian or Malay Archipelago +which are to be found in an altered form in the islands of Bougainville +Straits, I may refer to _Kanari_, which is the common appellation of +"Canarium commune," in the former region.[185] The kernels of the fruits +of this tree furnish a frequent source of food to the Malay races and +also to the inhabitants of the Maclay coast of New Guinea, where the +tree is known by the similar name of _Kengar_.[186] In the islands of +Bougainville Straits, where the same or an allied species of "Canarium" +is found, the fruits of which form a staple article of food, the Malay +name of _Kanari_ and the New Guinea name of _Kengar_ have been +contracted to _Ka-i_. . . . The sago-palm ("Sagus," sp.) affords another +instance. It is, according to Crawfurd, the _Rambiya_ of the Indian +Archipelago.[187] Earl informs us that in Kisa, one of the islands of +the Sarawati group in the Banda Sea, it is known as the _Pihir_.[188] On +the Maclay coast of New Guinea it is the _Buam_.[189] In Bougainville +Straits it receives two names, _Bia_ and _Nami_, the former (I think) +being applied to the tree and the latter to the sago. . . . Then again, +the two similar names, the _Katari_ of Bougainville Straits and the +_Gutur_ of the Maclay coast,[190] are applied in both regions to +resin-yielding trees which belong, however, to different genera, the +_Katari_ being a species of "Calophyllum," and the _Gutur_ a species of +"Canarium." In both localities the name is also given to the resin +itself, which is employed by the natives for various purposes. But the +important point is that these two words are merely slightly altered +forms of _Gatah_, which is the general name for gums and resins in the +Indian Archipelago;[191] and I need scarcely add that gutta-percha is +but the _gatah_ of the _Parcha_ tree, the familiar "Isonandra gutta" of +this region.[192] . . . . Some of the names of trees in Bougainville +Straits I have been unable to trace further westward than New Guinea. +Thus, the breadfruit-tree ("Artocarpus incisa") is the _Balia_ of +Bougainville Straits and the _Boli_ of the Maclay coast of New +Guinea.[193] + + [185] In the numerous works referring to the Indian Archipelago, + this word is sometimes written _kanary_ or _kanarie_. + + [186] Miklouho-Maclay in Proc. Lin. Soc, N.S.W. Vol. X., p. 349. + + [187] Crawfurd's "Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language." + + [188] "Journal of the Indian Archipelago." Vol. II., p. 695 (1848). + + [189] Miklouho-Maclay Proc. Lin. Soc, N.S.W. Vol. X., p. 349. + + [190] Miklouho-Maclay (Ibid., p. 353, 357). + + [191] Crawfurd's "Malay Dictionary." + + [192] By an easy transition from _gatah_ through _katari_ to _kauri_ + we have the probable origin of the native name of the resin-yielding + "Dammara australis" (Kauri Pine) of New Zealand. + + [193] Miklouho-Maclay in Proc. Lin. Soc., N.S.W. Vol. X., p. 348. + +The term _Uri_, which is applied in a slightly altered form to different +fruits in the Melanesian Islands, would seem to be derived from the +Indian Archipelago. Proceeding westward from the Banks Group where _Ur_ +is the name of the fruit of "Spondias dulcis," we find that in New +Georgia in the Solomon Islands _Ure_ is a designation for fruit. In the +neighbouring islands of Bougainville Straits, several species of "Ficus" +and their fruits receive the name of _Uri_. To the westward of the +Solomon Islands we come upon the same term in the Mafoor of New Guinea, +where the breadfruit is known as _Ur_. Lastly, in the island of Ceram in +the Indian Archipelago, the fruit of the banana is called _Uri_.[194] + + [194] I am mainly indebted to Dr. Codrington's "Melanesian + Languages" for the distribution of this term. + +On this unequivocal evidence of one of the sources of the languages of +the islands of Bougainville Straits it is unnecessary to dilate. It +should, however, be remembered that other words are distinctly +Polynesian in their origin, and must be sought for in the languages of +the Pacific groups. Thus, whilst _numa_, the word for "house," finds its +counterpart in the Malay _rumah_ and the Javanese _uma_, _fale-fale_, +which also signifies a house, is the _vale_ of the New Hebrides (Lepers +Island and Aurora Island), the _vale_ of Fiji, the _fale_ of Samoa and +Tonga, and the _whare_ of the Maori. According to Dr. Codrington, these +two words signifying a house, _fale_ and _ruma_, with their various +forms, have an interesting distribution. The first belongs to the +eastern Pacific, and the second to the western Pacific; but they overlap +in the intermediate districts as in the New Hebrides and the Solomon +Islands. It is, however, significant that both these words should be +included in the language of Bougainville Straits. + +I will conclude my remarks on this vocabulary with a reference to the +imitative character of the names of some of the animals. In Bougainville +Straits, the frog is known as _appa-appa_ in imitation of its cry. For +a similar reason it is known in New Britain as _rok-rok_,[195] in +Australia as _twonk_,[196] and in the Malay Archipelago as _codac_.[197] +The lizard is named _kurru-rupu_ by the natives of these straits, an +appellation which is suggested by its cry; in the Malay Archipelago it +is known as _kikia_.[198] The hornbill is called _po-po_ by the natives +of Bougainville Straits in imitation of the rushing sound that it makes +during its flight, which has been aptly compared by travellers to the +noise of a locomotive. For this reason the natives of New Britain term +it _banga-banga_;[199] whilst at Redscar Bay, New Guinea, it is called +_pawporo_.[200] In a like manner the native dog of these straits is +named _au-au_, and the bush-hen (Megapod) _kokole_; there is, however, +no necessity to supplement these more familiar imitative names from the +numerous examples in the languages of neighbouring regions. The native +names, which the frog and the hornbill have received in the localities +alluded to, will serve to show how varied may be the form of the name +which has been suggested by the noise or cry of the animal. There would, +thus, appear at first sight to be but little connection between the +names _po-po_ and _banga-banga_; yet those persons who have been +familiar with the noise made by the hornbill during its flight will +recognise these terms as distinctly imitative of such a sound. Again, +few would guess that such different sounding names, as _appa-appa_, +_rok-rok_, _twonk_, and _codac_, have been very naturally suggested by +the cry of the frog. + + [195] Wilfred Powell's "Wanderings in a Wild Country," &c. + + [196] Tylor's "Primitive Culture." + + [197] Labillardiere's "Voyage in search of La Perouse." + (Vocabularies in Vol. II.) + + [198] Labillardiere. Ibid. + + [199] Wilfred Powell. Ibid. + + [200] Macgillivray's "Voyage of H.M.S. 'Rattlesnake.'" + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE JOURNAL OF GALLEGO--PREFATORY REMARKS. + + +A CONSIDERABLE interest was aroused in the minds of geographers, rather +more than a century ago, by the recent discoveries of French and English +navigators in that portion of the Western Pacific in which the Solomon +Islands are now known to lie. M. M. Buache and Fleurieu (pages 263-265) +endeavoured to show that the islands there discovered were none other +than the mysterious Islands of Solomon discovered two centuries before +by the Spaniards, the existence of which had been long treated as a +myth, and in fact, had almost been forgotten. This view was opposed by +Mr. Dalrymple, one of the foremost of the English geographers; and it +laboured under the serious disadvantage that the only existing narrative +of this Spanish voyage, on which such a conclusion could be based, was a +very brief and imperfect account incorporated by Dr. Figueroa[201] in a +work that was published at Madrid nearly half a century after the return +of the voyagers to Peru. There were some reasons for believing that +Hernando Gallego, the chief pilot of the expedition, had kept a journal +of the voyage;[202] but the geographical writers of the close of last +century failed to have access to such an account, and its existence was +doubted by some of them. The only other account, worthy of the name, +that was known to these writers was one included by Herrera in his +"Descripcion de las Indias Occidentales," a work which was published at +Madrid about the year 1601, or more than thirty years after the Spanish +voyagers had returned to Peru. But this account was a somewhat vague, +general description of the Solomon Islands, which, although it +contained a few additional particulars, was of little service to the +cartographer. + + [201] Hechos de Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, Quarto Marques de + Canete; por el Doctor Christoval Suarez de Figueroa. Madrid, 1613. + _Vide_ Note I. of the Geographical Appendix. + + [202] A MS. journal of Gallego was referred to by Penelo as + occurring in the Barcia Library. (Dalrymple's Hist. Coll. Voy. and + Disc.: p. 96.) + +It appears to have been only in the second quarter of the present +century that the existence of a journal written by Gallego became known +to geographers. It may seem at first sight difficult to explain the +reason of this narrative being so long unknown; but its author tells us +in his prologue that it was through fear he did not publish it; and from +other circumstances, referred to in the succeeding pages, it may be +inferred that pressure was brought to bear on him, and that the journal +was intentionally withheld in order to keep Drake, who had recently +appeared in the South Sea, in ignorance of the position of these +islands. The journal has for this reason always remained in manuscript. +The original manuscript was a few years since in the possession of Mr. +Amhurst. There is a copy in the library of the British Museum, which was +purchased of M. Fr. Michelena y Roiss in 1848;[203] and it is a +translation of this copy that is given in great part in the following +pages. In undertaking this translation, I have been greatly assisted by +my acquaintance with these islands; and I have thus been able to avoid +the pitfalls into which the somewhat careless copyist might have led me. + + [203] The British Museum Reference number is 17,623; and the title + is as follows: "Descubrimiento de las Islas Salomon en el Mar del + Sur: 1566," by Hernando Gallego, native of Corunna. + +If M. M. Buache and Fleurieu could have had access to this journal of +Gallego, they would have been saved much laborious criticism, both on +their own part and on the part of others. That they were able to employ +the scanty data, furnished by Figueroa, for the identification of the +lost Isles of Solomon with the recent discoveries of their own day, is +an accomplishment concerning which any adulation on my part would be +both unnecessary and unbecoming. Even with the comparative wealth of +materials which the journal of Gallego affords, as contrasted with the +account of Figueroa, all that remained to be done was to fill in the +rude outline originally sketched by the French geographers. + +The story of the gradual identification of the Isles of Solomon forms an +interesting and instructive episode in the history of geographical +discovery. In the sketch which I have given, I have, so to speak, raked +up the ashes of a controversy which burnt itself out some generations +ago; but the labour expended in its preparation will not have been +unprofitable, if I have been successful in placing before my readers a +clear and connected account of how the Isles of Solomon were discovered, +lost, and found. + + +THE JOURNAL OF GALLEGO. + +We find in the prologue, with which Gallego commences his account of +this voyage, an explanation not only of the principal object of the +expedition, but also of the motive which led the Spanish navigator to +draw up his narrative. It was for the propagation of the Christian faith +amongst the peoples of the unknown islands of the West that this +expedition was dispatched from the shores of Peru; and it was to guide +the missionary to the field of his labour that the chief pilot drew up +his relation of the voyage. + +"I understand it to be incumbent"--thus Gallego writes--"on the men who +follow the nautical profession, and have had the good fortune, in some +degree, to take precedence of their fellows, to give an account of their +success. And there are many reasons why it is necessary that from the +ignorant these things should not be concealed. But for me, Christian +piety affords the principal inducement; and especially since it moved +the mind of that most Christian and most Catholic monarch, Don Philip, +to write to his Governor, the most illustrious Lope Garcia de Castro, +that he should convert every infidel to Christ. Imbued with this +feeling, I have made it my first object, by means of this relation and +of the additions made by me to the sea-chart, to enable the +missionaries, who are to guide the infidels into the vineyard of the +Lord, to know where these places will be found and to learn how to +navigate these seas exposed to the fury of the winds, and how all +dangers and enemies may be avoided. This is my design, unless I am +otherwise convinced. Let the curious accept this brief discourse. It is +from fear that its author has not wished to print it. This is my object: +such is my desire. Receive, reader, this token of esteem, and be +steadfast in God. Farewell!" + +Before proceeding with the journal of Gallego, it is necessary for me to +remark that I have relegated to an appendix much of that which is of +interest to the geographical student. The reason is an obvious one and +needs no further reference, since the narrative often takes the +character of a sea-log, and the geographical and critical points +involved are necessarily only of special interest. + +The Governor, Lope Garcia de Castro, gave orders for the equipment of +two ships of the fleet for the discovery of certain islands and a +continent (tierra firme) concerning which His Catholic Majesty D. Philip +II. had summoned a number of persons versed in mathematics in order to +deliberate on the plan to be followed. After selecting the vessels, he +nominated as General in command of the expedition his nephew, Alvaro de +Mendana; as Commander of the troops (maestre de campo), Pedro de Ortega +Valencia; as the Royal Ensign, D. Fernando Enriquez; and lastly, as +Chief-Pilot--to quote the words of the journal--"myself, the said +Hernando Gallego." + +The number of all that embarked on this voyage, including, besides the +soldiers and sailors, four Franciscan friars and the servants, was a +hundred. The preparations were made with such alacrity and willingness +that the ships were fitted out with a dispatch that seemed scarcely +credible; and on the 19th day of Nov., 1566,[204] being Wednesday, the +day of St. Isabel, the two ships sailed from Callao, the port of the +City of Kings, which is situated, as Gallego remarks, in 12-1/2 deg. S. +lat. Shaping their course to the south-west, they had not to allow for +the variation of the compass, since the needle pointed direct to the +pole; and reference is here made in the journal to the circumstance that +in Spain, more particularly in the city of Seville, the needle varied +one point to the north-west. Steering in the same southerly and westerly +direction until the 27th of the same month, they reached the latitude of +15-1/2 deg., being by their reckoning 57 leagues[205] due west from the +"morro de Uacaxique," which was in the same latitude.[206] They now +shaped their course west, following along the parallel of 15-3/4 deg., +because "the Lord President had said that in the latitude of 15 deg., at +a distance of 600 leagues from Peru, there were many rich islands." With +the wind "a long time in the south-east," they accomplished a usual +daily run of from 20 to 30 leagues. By the third of December, they were +by their reckoning in the meridian of the bay of Fego,[207] which is +stated by Gallego to be situated in 16 deg. north of the equinoctial and +546 leagues due north of their position. On the 7th of the same month, +the Chief-Pilot recorded his observation that the needle showed no +variation from the pole and that it neither dipped nor tilted up. + + [204] _Vide_ Note II. of Geographical Appendix. + + [205] Spanish leagues, 17-1/2 to a degree, all through the + narrative. + + [206] I have not been able to find this name in any maps or charts. + + [207] In the maps I have examined there is no bay of this name + given. + +"At this time," he writes, "I inquired of the pilots as to our position; +but I only provoked their obstinacy: and we went on our voyage sailing +across the ocean to discover land. We noticed the flight of the birds +that passed us in the morning and evening, and whence they came, and +whither they went towards the setting sun. All this was no certain +guide, as some flew north and others south; and there was nothing to +justify our pursuing the flying-fish which abounded in those seas." It +is right that I should here allude to the importance attached by the +voyagers of this period to the flight of birds which had often guided +them to the discovery of new lands. It was for this reason, it will be +remembered, that Columbus swerved from his westerly course when +approaching the American Continent. + +Gallego soon began to lose confidence in the opinion of the Lord +President, because pursuing their course along the same parallel of +15-3/4 deg. they failed to observe any signs of land. On the 12th of +December, being in the meridian of the harbour of La Navidad (a port on +the Pacific coast of Mexico, in lat. 19 deg. 12' N., long. 104 deg. 46' +W.), there was a consultation between Gallego and the other pilots, +when their latitudes were found to agree, but the dead reckoning of the +pilots was greater. At length, on the 16th of the month, it was resolved +by the Chief-Pilot to leave this parallel and head more to the +northward, as they were now 620 leagues rather more than less from Peru +and there were no signs of their approaching land. + +Accordingly the course was altered; and for four days they ran +west-by-north reaching the latitude of 13-3/4 deg., and accomplishing 166 +leagues. During the 20th and 21st of December they steered north-west +for 65 leagues, keeping a good look-out for land, but to no purpose. On +the 22nd, after steering to the north-west-by-west for 30 leagues, they +reached the parallel of 11 deg. They then coursed north-west until the +26th, which was St. Stephen's Day, having gone by their reckoning 95 +leagues and attaining, as their observations showed, a latitude rather +under nine degrees (nueve grados escasos). It is worthy of note that in +the daily record, which was at this time kept by Gallego of the course +and distance and of the latitude obtained by observation, it usually +happens that the computed latitude is considerably less than that +observed.[208] In this journal, however, the latitudes are all those of +observation except where it is otherwise mentioned. During the 27th and +28th of December they stood to the west-north-west for 60 leagues; and +on the two following days they steered west-by-north for 62 leagues, +reaching the latitude of 6-1/4 deg. It is here recorded that the needle +was deflected a third of a point to the north-west. On the last day of +the year they sailed 30 leagues to the west, experiencing strong +currents. + + [208] This circumstance was, probably, due to a strong southerly + drift. + +Hitherto no signs of land had been observed, and, in consequence, +symptoms of uneasiness showed themselves amongst the crews. As they +sailed along, they were led in their imaginations to believe that they +were always on the point of making the land; but no land appeared. "The +pilots told me," writes Gallego in his journal, "that I was the only +person who was not disheartened after having sailed so many leagues +without seeing land: and when I told them that they would suffer no ill +and that, with the favour of God, they would see the land at the end of +January, they all kept silent and made no reply." + +The 1st of January, 1567, found the Spanish voyagers steering west along +the parallel of 6-1/4 deg.; and in accordance with the opinions of his +fellow pilots, Gallego kept this course until the 7th, traversing in the +time about 125 leagues.[209] They now experienced unsettled weather, the +wind shifting to the north and subsequently to the north-east. Although +steering west-by-south, they did not change their latitude as much as +they expected; and, on the 10th, after accomplishing 30 leagues on this +course during the past three days they found their latitude in 6-1/2 deg. +During the 11th and 12th with a very favourable wind they sailed 55 +leagues to the west on the same parallel. Heavy rain-squalls here +overtook them; and they ran along under easy sail. + + [209] For one day, Saturday the 3rd, there is no record in the + Journal of the distance run. To allow for this omission, I have + taken 18 leagues as being the average daily run during this week. + +"On this day," writes Gallego, "they signalled from the "Almiranta" (the +general's ship) to ask where the land should be. I replied that it lay, +in my opinion, 300 leagues away; and that at all events we should not +sight it until the end of the month. At this time some of the people +began to doubt whether we should ever see the land. But I always told +them that, if God was with them, it would be His pleasure that they +should not suffer ill." During the 13th they steered west 25 leagues and +found themselves in the parallel of 6 deg. On the following day they ran +in the same direction for 30 leagues, experiencing much rain and varying +winds. Their water supply was failing, and the minds of many were the +more depressed; for these reasons they ran on with eased sheets and did +not shorten sail. + +But the long-expected land was near, and I will permit Gallego for the +time to tell his own story. "On the Thursday the 15th of January, we had +heavy showers of rain and such thunder and lightning as we had not seen +in all the voyage. We were distant from the land of Peru, on the course +which we had steered, 1450 leagues. In the following[210] morning we ran +with a light wind 15 leagues south-west-by-west, and were in the +latitude of 6-1/2 deg. A seaman went to the top and discovered land in +the shape of a small island, which appeared on the port hand to the +south-west-by-west. We were about six leagues from it, because being a +low island it could not be seen at a greater distance. Keeping away, we +reached it at sunset. This island is low and level. It has many reefs +around it, and has quite a bay of the sea in the middle of it. After we +had arrived, I found the latitude to be 6-3/4 deg. We were eager to send +a boat in; but, however, it was thought best to await the arrival of the +'Almiranta' which was much behind us. + + [210] The word "following" has been added by me, since from the + subsequent remarks of Gallego, it is evident that this land was + sighted on the 16th. + +"In the meantime seven canoes full of people started from the island. +Some turned back to the shore and the remainder came off to the ship. +But when they saw so many persons, they returned to the beach and made +great bonfires. That night they put up flags, seemingly for the +protection of the island. We were not able to determine whether they +were mats of palm-leaves or of cotton, they were bleached so white.[211] +The people in the canoes were naked and of a tawny hue. When the +'Almiranta' arrived, we agreed that no boats should land until the next +day, as it was then evening. And when it dawned, it blew so strong from +the north-west that we drifted a quarter of a league to leeward of the +island. I wished to reach it, but could not, as the wind was so strong +that we could carry no sails. I advised that, if we beat up to reach the +island with the wind so strong and contrary, the ships might be broken +in pieces (on the reefs); that it would not be wise to run the risk of +losing all our lives for an island so small; and that seeing that the +island was inhabited, the rest could not be far away. Although being so +near to this island, we could not get bottom with 200 fathoms." + + [211] Mats of very fine quality are manufactured in many of the + Pacific islands. + +The decision of Gallego naturally caused much discontent amongst the +crews. "The soldiers murmured"--thus the Journal continues--"because +they were unwilling to leave this island, notwithstanding that they +would run the chance of losing their lives. Being weary of the voyage, +they took no pains to conceal their displeasure. But I cheered them and +consoled them with the assurance that they would meet with no +misfortune, and that with the grace of God, I would give them more land +than they would be able to people; for this island (as I pointed out to +them) was not more than five or six leagues in size. I gave it the name +of the Isle of Jesus, because we arrived at it on the day after that +which we accounted the 15th of January."[212] + + [212] It is scarcely possible to identify this island with any of + the islands marked in the latest Admiralty charts. _Vide_ Note III. + of the Geographical Appendix. + +As the Spanish voyagers were now approaching the scene of their future +discoveries, their course becomes of peculiar interest to the historical +geographer.[213] Continuing their voyage on the 17th of January, they +had before them a long and tedious passage, having to contend with +contrary winds and being swept north and south in turns by the currents. +On the 23rd, they were in the latitude of 6 deg., and on the 28th in +5-1/2 deg. At length on Sunday the 1st of February, when they were +according to their reckoning 165 leagues from the Isle of Jesus, they +discovered two leagues away[214] some banks of reefs with some islets in +the middle of them. "These shoals"--as described by Gallego--"ran +obliquely from north-east to south-west. We were not able"--so he +writes--"to get their extremity within our range of sight; but as far as +we could see them they extended more than fifteen leagues. We gave them +the name of 'Los Bajos de la Candelaria,' because we saw them on +Candlemas Eve: and I took the latitude near them, when we lay east and +west with their centre, and found it to be 6-1/4 deg." On referring to +the present Admiralty charts, it will be noticed that the name +"Candelaria Reef," is applied to an atoll lying about eighty miles to the +north of the large island of Isabel in the Solomon Group and named "El +Roncador" by Maurelle the Spanish navigator in 1781. Now, seeing that +this atoll is not more than six miles across, it cannot possibly be +identical with the extensive reefs which are above described by Gallego +under the name of the Candelaria Shoals. As shown in the appendix,[215] +it is highly probable that these shoals are the same with those which lie +about 35 miles to the north of the Roncador Reef, where they constitute +an atoll fifty miles in width which was discovered by the Dutch +navigators Le Maire and Schouten in 1616, and was named "Ontong Java" by +Tasman in 1643. + + [213] I would direct the nautical reader to Note V. of the + Geographical Appendix which refers to Gallego's observations of + latitude in this group. He will thus be saved some confusion in + comparing the Spanish latitudes with those of the present charts. + + [214] Thus the distance of these shoals from the Isle of Jesus would + be probably about 167 leagues in all. Figueroa gives the distance as + 160 leagues. + + [215] _Vide_ Note IV. of the Geographical Appendix. + +Leaving these shoals, they steered south-west, expecting to sight land, +which could not have been, in the opinion of Gallego, more than fifty +leagues distant. During the night, however, they had to heave-to on +account of the heavy weather; and on the following day, which was the +day of our Lady of Candlemas, they experienced the same weather and were +obliged to take in all sail. During the next day, which was the 4th of +February, the weather improved; and steering at first west-by-north they +subsequently stood to the south-west; and as night approached they +shortened sail, in the event of there being other reefs and shoals such +as those they had already passed. The prevailing winds had been +north-west; but on the following day the wind went round to the west and +fell very light. For four days they had been unable to take observations +on account of the thick weather. On the 5th,[216] their latitude was +found in 7 deg. 8', from which Gallego inferred that in those four days +they had drifted fifteen leagues to the south-by-west. They now made sail +and headed north.[217] (?) + + [216] There is apparently an error in the journal with reference to + this date, since the 6th is omitted altogether. + + [217] The subsequent remarks relative to the course show that there + is here an error in the M.S., or in the original journal. + +"This day," writes Gallego, "was Saturday, the 7th of February, and the +80th day since we set out from Callao, the port of the City of the +Kings. In the morning I ordered a seaman to go aloft to the top and scan +the south for land, because there seemed to me to be in that quarter an +elevated mass; and the seaman reported land. The land soon became +visible to us; and a signal of our discovery was made to the 'Almiranta' +which was half a league from the 'Capitana' (Gallego's vessel). Every +one received the news with feelings of great joy and gratitude for the +favour which God had granted them through the intercession of the +Blessed Virgin, the Glorious Mother of God, whom we all believed to be +our mediator; and the 'Te Deum laudamus' was sung." + +They were distant from the land, when they first saw it, about 15 +leagues. It is described in the journal as "very high." Turning the +ships' heads in that direction, after they had gone 3 or 4 leagues, they +discovered much more land belonging to the same island which appeared to +be a continent. They did not get up to it until the evening of the next +day, which was Sunday the 8th of February. + +"Shortly after we arrived," continues Gallego in his narrative, "many +large and small canoes came off to see us, displaying signs of amity. +But they did not dare to come alongside the vessels; and as we +approached the land, they kept away. However the General threw them some +coloured caps, and being thus assured they came alongside the ship. The +boat was launched, and in it went Juan Enriquez with eight musketeers +and target-men (rodeleros) to see if they could find a port to anchor +in, and also to search for the place whence the canoes had come. The +rest of the natives became more confident, and some of them came on +board the ship. As they behaved well, we gave them things to eat and +drink; and they remained on board until it began to grow dark, when they +got into their canoes and went ashore. And those who had gone away in +the boat, seeing that it was getting dusk, returned without having found +any port. As soon as it was dark we stood out to sea, and the natives in +the canoes returned to their homes. They told us that for the sake of +friendship we should have gone with them, and that they would have +entertained us and given us plenty to eat. + +"We stood to windward that night with a light wind; and the currents +carried us more than three leagues to the west-north-west, bringing us +over some reefs on which we might have been lost as the sea was breaking +around them. Finding ourselves in seven fathoms of water, we at once +made course to stand clear of them. We remained under easy canvas until +it dawned, when we saw that the currents had carried us right upon the +shoals; and as the sea broke around us, we made more sail. I hailed the +'Almiranta' to make the best of her way out of her position among the +shoals; and we accordingly stood away until we found a sufficient +depth." + +Juan Enriquez was now dispatched in the boat to find a harbour for the +ships; but he was deterred by the sight of all the reefs and returned to +the ship. He was ordered by the General to go back again and carry out +his search, and "I told him"--adds Gallego--"that it was necessary for +the safety of the ships that he should find a port without delay." The +position of the Spanish vessels was a truly critical one; and only those +who have been similarly situated in a sailing ship in unsurveyed waters, +studded with unknown coral reefs, can realise how anxious the moment +was. + +"Committing ourselves to God"--thus Gallego writes--"I sent a man aloft +to the fore-top, and placed another on the bowsprit, and I told them to +notice where the shoals were white. The sounding-lead was kept in hand; +and in the event of our having to go about or to anchor, we stood by the +sheets and bowlines and had the anchor cleared. I steered for the place +where we found seven fathoms of water, as it seemed to me that we should +not find a less depth. The boat had not yet reached the shore, so I +determined to sound and I got twelve fathoms with a clear bottom; and +farther on it was deeper and also clear of rocks. Although it was +mid-day, a star appeared to us over the entrance of the reef. Taking it +as a guide and as a good omen, we were cheered in spirit and became more +hopeful. As we proceeded, the water deepened little by little: and I +informed the General that we were already clear of the reefs . . . I +signalled to the 'Almiranta' to follow us. As we neared the harbour +where the boat had gone, they signalled to us that they had found a good +anchorage. Presently we entered the harbour with the star over the bow, +and we anchored, the 'Almiranta' entering shortly afterwards. At the +entrance of the port is a rock (or islet), in size larger than the ship. + +"It was the day of Santa Polonia, the 9th of February. The harbour, +which is in the latitude of 7 deg. 50', we named the port of Santa Isabel +del Estrella; and we named the island, Santa Isabel. The Indians called +the island Camba; and their cacique is named Billebanarra. This harbour +lies nearly in the middle of the north coast of the island, and is 26 +leagues north-east and south-west from the reefs.[218] Having +disembarked with the other captains, I took possession of the island in +the name of His Majesty. A cross was erected: and I chose a convenient +place for building a brigantine." + + [218] The reefs, here referred to, are evidently the Candelaria + Shoals. This bearing of the harbour with these shoals does not + warrant the position which has been assigned to Estrella Bay in the + present Admiralty Chart, its position there being due south of these + reefs. + +On the following day, Gallego landed with the carpenters; and they began +with all diligence to fell the trees and to saw the planks for the +construction of the brigantine. Meanwhile the General had sent Pedro +Sarmiento with thirty men into the interior. They penetrated about five +leagues, and met with some Indians, one of whom they took as a hostage. +This native was treated kindly by the General; and he was set at liberty +in order that he might carry a favourable account to the other natives +of the island. During this incursion, a soldier had been struck by an +arrow, but received no hurt. Shortly afterwards, a larger force was +dispatched under Pedro de Ortega to explore the interior. The expedition +included 52 persons, and comprised 35 soldiers, with some seamen and +negroes. They were absent seven days from the ship; and from the account +of Gallego, we may infer that but little discretion was employed in +their dealings with the natives. They burned "many temples dedicated to +the worship of snakes, toads, and other insects;" and, as the result of +such proceedings, two soldiers were wounded, one of whom subsequently +died of tetanus. His name was Alonzo Martin, and he bore the character +of a good soldier. + +"These people," writes the Chief Pilot, "are tawny and have crisp hair. +They go naked, wearing only short aprons of palm leaves. They have as +food some maizes or roots which they call _benaus_ and plenty of fish. +They are, in my opinion, a clean race, and I am certain that they eat +human flesh." On the 15th of March, whilst the Spaniards were at mass on +shore, a fleet of fourteen canoes arrived at the place where the +brigantine was being built. The cacique, who was in command, sent the +General a present of a quarter of a boy, including the arm and hand, +together with some roots (benaus), which he requested him to accept. In +order that the natives should understand that the Spaniards did not eat +human flesh, the General ordered it to be buried in their presence, at +which they were abashed and hung their heads, and returned to an islet +which was situated at the entrance of the harbour. This cacique, who is +termed in the Journal the Taurique Meta, lived at a place fifteen +leagues from the harbour to the west-by-north. Pedro de Ortega, with the +two pilots, Pedro Roanges and Juan Enriquez, were sent with thirty +soldiers and four Indians to visit the place where this taurique lived. +They were absent four days, and effected nothing except the capture of +four Indians, two of whom they retained as hostages in order to compel +the natives to bring them provisions. + +On the 4th of April, the brigantine was launched, and the rigging was +set up. It having been resolved that she should proceed on a voyage to +discover the other islands and harbours, Gallego, Ortega, with 18 +soldiers[219] and 12 sailors, embarked on board; and on the 7th of April +they left the port. Following the coast along to the south-east, they +came to two islets, lying six leagues away from the port of Santa Isabel +de la Estrella, and situated, according to an observation of Gallego, +exactly in the latitude of 8 deg. On these islets were many palms which +were deemed to be palmettos and cocoa-nut trees. "This land," as the +Chief Pilot remarks, "trends south-east and north-west. The needle stood +a point to the north-east and there remained. Proceeding on our cruise, +we saw many islets in the same direction . . . .[220] 5 leagues from +where we had started; and we anchored at an islet in which we found a +canoe and three houses. We landed 7 soldiers; and they went up towards +the houses in search of the Indians, who, however, carried off their +canoe. On reaching the houses, the soldiers found a quantity of +provisions, which they brought on board the brigantine. Continuing our +voyage along the coast, 17 canoes came out to us. In them came an +exceedingly daring Indian, who, calling himself the cacique Babalay, +held his bow towards us, and signified to us that we should go with him, +and that, if we should not wish to go, he would carry us by force and +would kill us. On account of his audacity, the "maestre de campo" +ordered them to fire and knocked him down with a shot; and when those in +the canoes saw him fall, they all fled to the shore. Shortly afterwards, +I tacked towards the shore in order to make a port, as the wind was +strong. In a little time we came to an anchor, and I found by +observation that the latitude was 8-1/6 deg. . . .[221]" Leaving this +anchorage, they stood out to sea, with the wind in the north-north-west; +and in a short time they kept away and followed the coast along to the +south-east-by-east. + + [219] According to the MS. in this passage, only 10 soldiers + embarked; but on one occasion during the cruise it is stated that 18 + soldiers were landed (_vide_ p. 207), a number which agrees with + that given by Figueroa. + + [220] The words omitted here are in the Spanish: "hasta la provincia + de Vallas." + + [221] Reference is here made to the fact that the coast ran + north-west-by-west with the island of Meta, which was seven (?) + leagues distant. This island of Meta was probably a small coast + island on which the chief of that name lived. + +"And as we sailed on," continues Gallego, "the mast sprung and nearly +fell on us. Seeing what had happened, I ordered the sails to be secured +and the tackle to be brought to the weather side, and in this manner +the mast was "stayed." When the night overtook us we were without +knowledge of any port, having much thick weather with wind and rain. +Guided by the phosphorescence of the sea we skirted the reefs; and when +I saw that the reefs did not make the sea phosphorescent, I weathered +the point and entered a good harbour at the fourth hour of the night, +where, much to our ease, we passed (the remainder of) the night.[222] +This port is 6 leagues from where we set out, and is in a great bay. It +is capacious and has 7 or 8 inhabited islands. The next day I +disembarked the people to get water and wood; and we saw coming to the +beach more than a hundred Indians, carrying their bows and arrows and +clubs with which they are accustomed to fight. The 'maestre de campo' +ordered those on shore to embark, fearing some ambuscade. Soon the +Indians arrived but they did nothing, and a canoe came. Seeing that they +made no attack, the 'maestre de campo' ordered four soldiers to go +ashore and fire three or four shots to frighten them; and when this was +done and the Indians saw it, they shot their arrows and took to flight. +Thus passed the 12th of April. + + [222] To find in a dark night and in thick weather an opening in a + line of coral-reef on an unknown coast, is an undertaking fraught + with the greatest hazard, even for a ship possessing steam power. + The only available guide is that which was followed by this + clear-headed navigator; but it is one which, as it depends on the + luminosity of the sea, can only be of occasional service. When the + sea has been unusually phosphorescent, each roller, as it breaks on + the weather-edge of the reef, is marked by a disconnected line of + light, reminding one of the straggling fire of a line of musketry. I + once saw this phenomenon splendidly exhibited on the coast of Japan, + the sea-surface being crowded with myriads of "Noctilucae." + +"Whilst in this bay we saw to seaward a very large island which lies +east and west with this bay. This island is called in the language of +those Indians, Malaita. The west extreme of this island lies east and +west with the point of Meta.[223] This island lies with the shoals of +Candelaria north-west-by-west and south-east-by-east 52 leagues;[224] +and the extremity of this island of Malaita is in 8 deg.; it is distant +from the island of Santa Isabel 14 leagues; it has 5 or 6 islets at the +extremity, which are, each of them, 2 leagues in circuit. There are two +islets in the middle, between the two large islands. The name of the +Isle of Ramos suggested itself for this Island of Malaita, because it +was discovered on Palm Sunday (Domingo de Ramos).[225] + + [223] The point of Meta is probably near the place where the chief + of that name lived. _Vide_ page 203. + + [224] "Norueste sueste quarta de leste hueste" is the bearing given + in the MS. The distance of 52 leagues very closely corresponds with + the distance indicated on the present chart between the west end of + Malaita and Ontong Java. (_Vide_ appendix: note iv.) + + [225] Through an unconscious error in the translations by Mr. + Dalrymple and Capt. Burney of the account given by Figueroa, the + name "Isle of Ramos" has been applied in modern charts to an islet + nearly in the middle of the passage between Isabel and Malaita. For + further particulars consult Note VI. of appendix. + +"Coasting further along from this bay, we saw a fleet of more than seven +large canoes making for the shore where there were fisheries. The canoes +came on with us; and many Indians shot their arrows at us with great +shouting. The 'maestre de campo,' on seeing their daring, ordered some +muskets to be fired; and one Indian was killed and the rest took to +flight. On the following day, which we made the 14th of April, running +further along the coast to the east-south-east (?) we sailed nearly 6 +leagues. Here the Indians came out to us in a friendly manner, bringing +cocoa-nut and other things which we needed. Here we saw a hog, which was +the first we had seen. The next day we went further out in quest of the +point and extremity of this island, running to the south-east. From the +bay to the point of the island, the coast ran north-west and south-east. +There are some islets near this point; and from this point to the bay is +14 leagues. I took the latitude and found it to be barely 9 deg. At this +point, two canoes came out to us with fighting-men, in order to question +an Indian whom we had on board, one of the two we took from Meta. They +shot their arrows at us; and when we fired a musket to frighten them, +they fled. + +"On the following day, which we reckoned the 16th of the month, being at +the extremity of this island, we named it Cape Pueto;[226] and from here +we discovered some islands to the south-east,[227] which are 9 leagues +from this cape. Some lie north-by-west and south-by-east;[228] and +others north-west and south-east. And we approached them this day with a +fair wind, sailing to the south-east. We arrived at ten o'clock in the +night at an island which was a league and a half in circuit; and there +we anchored. It is low and beset with reefs. We sailed around it. It +has many palms, is inhabited; and it was there we passed the night. When +it dawned, we were desirous to land but could not on account of the +numerous shoals and reefs. It was named 'La Galera.' Here a canoe came +off to us carrying 50 men whom we perceived to be ready for +battle. . . .[229] It preceded us to another large island which was a +league distant. It was soon joined by many canoes both small and large; +and in (one of) them came a leading taurique. He came and approached us +in a friendly manner, and gave us beads (chaquiza), of the kind they +wear, which resemble those that are found in Puerto-viejo.[230] The +'maestre de campo' gave him a good reception; and in token of peace +presented him with some things which we had on board. Soon the taurique +commanded the men in the canoes to take the brigantine in tow and bring +us into the harbour, which they did. After we were inside, the 'maestre +de campo' landed with 18 soldiers; and I remained with 12 on board the +brigantine. The Indians soon took up their weapons, and hurled stones at +us, and jeered at us because we asked for provisions. Seeing their +insolence, some shots were fired at them, and two Indians were killed. +Thereupon they fled, leaving their houses defenceless. This island is +called in the language of the Indians, Pela.[231] And there is a chain +of five islands, which lie east and west one with another. The first of +these, which we came to, was at the east end, for we were pursuing our +discoveries from East to West; it lies with the Cape Prieto north-west +and south-east, 9 leagues from the said cape. It will be in circuit 12 +leagues. It is well peopled by natives and has many huts and towns +and . . . .[232] To this island we gave the name of Buena Vista from its +appearance; it seemed to be very fertile, and was well-peopled; and the +rest are as above mentioned. They go naked, without any covering +_whatever_, and have their faces patterned (tattooed).[233] There are +many inhabited islands around. I took the latitude here, and found it +to be 9-1/2 deg. south of the equinoctial. It runs east and west. + + [226] The name of this cape is spelt in three different ways in this + MS., viz., Puerto, Pueto, and Prieto. The latter is that adopted in + Figueroa's account. Puerto seems to be the correct name as no reason + is given in the journal for using the epithet of "black" (prieto); + but the last is employed in the present chart. + + [227] In the account of Figueroa this bearing is given as + south-west, which, as pointed out by Pingre, Fleurieu, and Burney, + is in contradiction to the other bearings, and was by all three + authors replaced by that of "south-east." + + [228] "Norte sur quarta del norueste sueste." + + [229] As the meaning is obscure, I have here omitted the following: + "and coming close to us" which is followed in the Spanish by "no nos + dijo cosa nise movieron contra nosotros," which I have left + untranslated. + + [230] A town in the province of Quito, in the kingdom of Peru. + + [231] Gela is the present native name of the Florida Islands. + (Codrington's "Melanesian Languages," p. 522, _circa_). Consult Note + VII. of the geographical appendix. + + [232] "Lugares formados y juntos." These words, which I have not + translated, are to be found unaltered in Figueroa's account, and + have been rendered thus by Dalrymple "places cultivated and + enclosed." + + [233] "Las caras labradas." + +"On Good Friday of this same year we went from this island to another a +league distant. We found in it abundance of cocoa-nuts; and we placed a +quantity on board the brigantine for our sustenance. Whilst we were at +this island, a canoe came off to us with three Indians; they left us to +go from there to the large island; and they offered us hogs, but we did +not want them. + +"On arriving at the large island, the 'maestre de campo' landed and came +to a town which was on high-ground. Here they gave him two hogs, which +he brought off with him to the ship, having met with no bad treatment; +and we returned to pass the night at the islet (?). This day was Holy +Saturday. On the following day, which was the Feast of the Resurrection, +we skirted the south coast of the island; and from here we went to +another island, which is a league from it. On our arrival, there came +off to us more than 20 canoes of fighting-men, who planned taking us to +their town and capturing us, and displayed much delight amongst +themselves. I ordered the anchor to be weighed that we might get to a +better place, because we were almost touching the shoals. When the +Indians saw that we were about to shift our position, they got into +their canoes in a great hurry with their bows and arrows, and clubs, and +many stones; and in a very fierce manner they began to shoot their +arrows and stones at us. Seeing their daring, we replied with the +muskets; and many Indians were killed, and the whole were repulsed; and +they rallied and came on to the attack with greater fury; but this time +they suffered even more, and for the second time they were repulsed and +routed. There were more than 700 Indians. We took three canoes; but +afterwards we abandoned two and kept the other. Deserting their towns, +they went off with many howls and cries to the higher land in the +interior. Soon the 'maestre de campo' landed with 20 men: and he +endeavoured to bring off some provisions to the brigantine, and to +restore friendship with the natives; but from their dread of the muskets +they would never approach; and they kept much in advance of them calling +to each other by conch-shells and with drums. Seeing that there was no +help for it, we set fire to a house, after having taken possession of +the island in the name of His Majesty, as in the case of the other +islands; and we gave it the name of 'La Florida.' This island is in +latitude 9-1/2 deg. and lies east and west with the island of Buenavista. +It is 25 leagues in circuit, and is a fine island in appearance, with +many inhabitants, who are also naked as in the other islands; and they +redden their hair, eat human flesh, and have their towns built over the +water as in Mexico.[234] + + [234] In the present day the natives of Florida built their houses + on piles. See p. 60, of this work. + +"This day we went on to other islands which are further to the east in +the same latitude. The first has a circuit of 25 leagues. We had not +resistance from them (the Indians); because they had already come to +know that they could not overcome us, if we were prepared for them. To +this island, we gave the name of San Dimas. We did not go to the +remaining islands that we might not hinder ourselves. We named the one +San German, and the other the Island of Guadalupe." (_Vide_ Note VII. of +the Geographical Appendix.) + +"The next morning we went to another very large island which is on the +south side of the five islands. In the middle of the way, or half-way +between them, is an island which we named Sesarga. It is 8 leagues in +circuit. This island is high and round and well-peopled; with plenty of +food, _mames_ and _panales_[235] and roots and hogs [which have no grain +to eat?]. In the middle of this island there is a volcano, which is +continually emitting great smoke. It has a white streak which resembles +a road descending from the higher parts down to the sea. This island is +in latitude 9-3/4 deg. With the island of Buenavista it lies north-west +and south-east (?).[236] Five leagues from this island, there came out 5 +canoes; and they gave us a fish, telling us by signs that we should go +with them to their island, and that they would give us hogs. The Indians +went away; and we slept this night at sea. + + [235] Figueroa gives for _mames_, _ynanimes_; and for _panales_, + _panays_. In the first instance, "yams" are probably meant; whilst, + in the second case, Burney suggests that by _panays_ the + "breadfruit" may be referred to. Fleurieu hints that it may be the + application of the name of the "parsnip" to some other vegetable. + The "taro" is evidently here alluded to. + + [236] In Note VII. of the Geographical Appendix, I have treated of + the question relating to the identification of the islands which lie + between Cape Prieto and the north coast of Guadalcanar, with the + Spanish discoveries. In so doing, I have re-opened a discussion that + excited considerable interest a century ago, but which has since, + notwithstanding the efforts of Burney and Krusenstern, been almost + forgotten. Those acquainted with these islands will recognise in + Sesarga the present Savo. + +"On the next day, which was the 19th of April, we arrived at the great +island, which we had seen, and came upon a town of the Indians. There is +a large river here; and there came out canoes to the brigantine, and +some Indians who were swimming, and some women and boys. They gave us a +rope, and towing us, carried us to the shore. When we were close to the +beach, they began to throw stones at us, saying, 'Mate,' 'Mate,' meaning +that they were going to kill us.[237] Some shots were fired, which +killed two of them, and immediately they left us and fled. The 'maestre +de campo' landed with 20 men, and took possession as in the case of the +other islands. In the town was found, in small baskets, a large quantity +of provisions, of roots, and ginger which is plentiful in this island. +We put on board the brigantine what we could, including a hog. The same +evening, we embarked; and we gave this island the name of Guadalcanal +and to the river that of Ortega. I took the latitude, and found it to be +in 10-1/2 deg. With the higher part of Buenavista, it lies north and +south 9 leagues, and with that of Sesarga north-west and south-east. From +here we determined to return to where we had left the ships. We, +therefore, started on the return voyage. Running back to the island of +Santa Isabel, we passed by the island of Sesarga, which is called in the +language of the Indians 'Guali.' Pursuing our way, we came close to Cape +Prieto. We sailed along the south coast and arrived at an island, 7 +leagues from Cape Prieto, which lies with the island of Sesarga +north-by-west[238] 15 leagues. The taurique of this island, Beneboneja +by name, called it the island of Veru. It is a league from that of Santa +Isabel. The passage (entrada), which is on the south-east side of the +island of Beru (Veru), has a fine harbour that is able to hold a +thousand ships: it is 6 leagues in length, has a depth of 12 to 8 +fathoms, is very clear (of shoals), and has an outlet to the north-west +a league in length.[239] This channel[240] runs west-north-west to the +cape of this island, where there is a large town which has more than 300 +houses. The Indians received us in a friendly manner, giving us a hog: +and because they would not give us more than a hog, we seized three +canoes; and when they saw that we had taken these canoes, they ransomed +them, giving for two canoes two hogs. We saw in this island some pearls +that the Indians brought, which they did not hold in much esteem. They +also brought us some tusks[241] that seemed to belong to some large +animal, of which they have many: and they told us that we should take +them and give them back their canoe. I considered that we should restore +their canoe and accept these tusks: but the 'maestre de campo' was not +willing to do so. This island is in latitude 9-1/3 deg. We named it the +island of Jorge.[242] + + [237] There is here a strange coincidence. The natives in using the + word "mate"--a widely spread Polynesian word for "dead"--were + unconsciously making a correct use of the Spanish verb "matar," to + kill. + + [238] Norueste quarta del norueste (?). + + [239] This fine harbour is at present known as Thousand Ships Bay. + It was visited by D'Urville, in 1838, who named his anchorage + Astrolabe Harbour. + + [240] The outlet to the northwest has been named Ortega Channel. It + was explored by the officers of D'Urville's expedition. + + [241] Probably boar's tusks. + + [242] The St. George's Island of the present chart. + +"We continued our return journey, sailing to the west-by-north around +the said island of Santa Isabel. When we were a third part from the +south-south-east portion of this island, we saw two large islands. We +did not go to them, because _we had not reached the extremity of the +island which we should have to round_,[243] and also because the coast +is beset with many reefs and shoals which we could scarcely pass through +in the brigantine, it being impossible to sail through them in ships. +These islands would be 6 leagues from Santa Isabel; they are in latitude +9-1/3 deg. S., as they lie east and west with the island of Veru 10 +leagues. These islands, which we passed, bear east and west one with the +other. The land runs much further to the west-by-north. The needle +declined to the N.W.[244] I observed the sun near the river and found +myself in 9 deg. full (_9 grados largos_). In this island we saw many +bats (_murcielagos_) of such a size that the wings from tip to tip +measured 5 feet in expanse. This island has a breadth of 20 leagues; for +I took the sun on the north side, where the ships lay, and now on the +south side; and in this last I found the latitude to be 9 deg. full +(_largos_), whilst on the north side the latitude is 8 deg. minus 8 +minutes, lying north-north-east and south-south-west 20 leagues. To the +two large islands, which we saw, we gave the following names, to the one +San Nicolas, and to the other, which lies more to the west, the Isle of +Arracises (Reefs), because there are so many reefs to pass through that +it is impracticable to sail round the island.[245] + + [243] The general sense of this passage italicized is here given. + + [244] For N.W. read N.E. There is evidently a mistake in the MS., as + Gallego previously found the needle to vary one point to the + north-east, when a few leagues from Estrella Harbour (see p. 204). + + [245] These two islands were probably, from their bearing with the + island of Veru or St. George, the two mountainous islands in the + south-east part of New Georgia, which, as observed by Gallego, runs + much further to the westward. Their distance, however, from Veru, is + more than double that which Gallego gives. + +"After running for four days, but not through the nights, we could +scarcely sail along,[246] on account of the many reefs; and we entered a +passage a quarter of a league further on, but seeing that there was no +outlet we had to return by the aid of the oars.[247] At this time many +Indians came out against us, from among the reefs, with their bows and +arrows. We made sail, and as we were proceeding in the same direction, +18 canoes full of fishermen, in each canoe 30 Indians, with their bows +and arrows, came to shoot at us. We fired some shots, and so they went +away and left us. + + [246] _Lit._ "we were unable to sail along." + + [247] This blind passage may be the one indicated in the present + chart in the vicinity of Nairn Island, an off-lying islet. + +"On the 26th of April, we reached some reefs and grounded on them. +. . .[248] Some Indians came out at this time with bows and arrows; and +we fired some shots, but because the Indians did not leave us, we did +not repeat this. There are many islets near, both inhabited and +uninhabited. The island became narrower as we arrived at a point of this +island which is from the extremity 6 leagues north-west to south-east. +We entered a passage separating the island from the other islets around, +which are many and inhabited. This is the west part of the island; and I +took the sun at its extremity and found myself in 7-1/2 deg. This island +is 95 leagues in length, and in circuit more than 200.[249] As we sailed +on, some canoes came out to us; and on our firing some shots, they left +us, because . . . (_porque nos aflirian_). + + [248] The following sentence, being unintelligible to me, has not + been translated, "porque en esta isla hay muchos suenos que llaman + fuenos forzado volver atras para salir." + + [249] These dimensions are very greatly in excess. + +"Issuing from the passage, we saw, towards the east-by-south,[250] 6 +leagues away, a large island. We did not go to it, so as not to delay +ourselves. We gave it the name of San Marcos.[251] It is in latitude +7-3/4 deg. This island lies with that of Santa Isabel west-by-north and +east-by-south. All this people, which we have hitherto seen, are naked, +and are as the Moors of Barbary, and do not confess the Lord. + + [250] This bearing is evidently an error; the correct bearing is + given a few lines below. + + [251] The island of San Marcos is evidently the Choiseul Island of + the present chart, as named by Bougainville in 1768; and the passage + through which the brigantine had just passed, is that known as + Manning Strait between Choiseul and Isabel. + +"Sailing on to the 28th of the month, there came out to us 34 canoes in +line of battle, in order to stop us. Three large canoes, which passed +astern, followed us for more than 2 leagues. When we saw their +determination to overhaul us (_que trahian_), we fired at them with a +small cannon and some muskets. At this, they took to flight . . . (_mas +que de paieia_). Although we had been away from the ships a long time +and were endeavouring to return, we were delayed in arriving at them, as +we were opposed by the east winds. + +"Being anchored on Sunday at a small uninhabited island, we determined +to send before us a canoe with nine soldiers, a sailor, and an Indian +who had always accompanied us. Whilst they were coasting along, not +daring to stand out to sea, they got on some reefs. Through their +negligence, the canoe was broken in pieces; and by God's mercy, the +people escaped with the loss of what they carried, their muskets and +ammunition being wetted. When they were all collected together, they +resolved to return to the brigantine; and the Indian ran away from them, +although he did not belong to that land. Having walked all that night +over the stones and rocks along the coast, for fear of meeting the +Indians, they came to a point where they found a cross which they had +put up when they passed by there; and they worshipped it, and determined +to await there the arrival of the brigantine. They put up a flag _which +was seen by us as we came along_. . . .[252] We went to receive them and +found them in a sorry plight (_maltratados_). Continuing our voyage, we +came to where they had been wrecked amongst some reefs close to an +islet, in which they had left two hogs that they carried with them. A +canoe was sent for them (the hogs) and they were taken. Near here we +anchored, because there was much wind. As the weather was fine and the +wind was off the land, we went inside the reefs, looking out for our +ships all that day and part of the night. We made sail the next day at +dawn, and arrived at the port of Santa Isabel de la Estrella, where we +found the ships, to the no small satisfaction of both those on board and +of ourselves.[253] + + [252] "Visto por losque en el veniamos soyechamos lo que podia ser." + + [253] From the context it may be inferred that the brigantine + completed the circuit of the island of Isabel. Figueroa, in his + narrative, expressly states that the brigantine turned the west end + of the island, and encountered head easterly winds in her return to + the ships. Figueroa also tells us that during the absence of the + brigantine some of the men in the ships had died of sickness; but + Gallego does not refer to this circumstance. + +"The same day on which we arrived at Santa Isabel de la Estrella, I told +the General that it was necessary to refit the ships, and that soon +afterwards we should proceed further on to follow up what we had begun. +Accordingly, on the 8th of the said month, we left the port of Santa +Isabel de la Estrella, on our way out, passing by some reefs which are +at the entrance of the harbour. We sailed on until the end of two days. +The brigantine, being unable to keep up with the ships, drifted towards +the land, so much so that at dawn she was nearly out of sight, although +there came in her the pilot Gregorio Gonzalez with some of the soldiers +and sailors who had (previously) gone in her. Being afraid of losing +her, I made signals to her to go about and make a reach to seaward. I +deemed that unless one of the ships turned back to take her in tow, we +should lose her. Seeing that, on account of the many reefs, she was so +essential to us for the exploration of those islands, and had been built +by us after so much labour and through my diligence, I left the +'Almiranta' to go on, and turned back in the 'Capitana' to get her. We +kept the sounding-lead in hand for fear of the reefs; and about 6 +leagues out to sea (_seis leguas de la mar_) I found myself in 6 +fathoms. I went about immediately, and it pleased God that we found +deeper water. We found the brigantine in the hours of the night; and we +took her in tow with no little labour, going after the 'Almiranta' which +had followed the course I had advised in order to avoid the many reefs +existing here, and leaving behind in her course the islands of Veru and +Flores,[254] and many others which were discovered in the brigantine, +without touching at them. At the end of four days, we saw the +'Almiranta' right ahead of us, not having yet found a port. + + [254] The island of Florida is probably thus referred to. + +"On Tuesday, the 12th of May, we arrived at a port in the island of +Guadalcanal, to which we had gone from Santa Isabel; but we were not +able to arrive at the river of Ortega which lay two leagues to windward +of where we were. This day, the wind blew so hard from the east that our +cable parted and we lost an anchor. On the following morning I went in a +boat to find a good anchorage, for we were anchored on an (open) coast; +and I went a league from here to the rear of an islet which was close to +this island of Guadalcanal; and having sounded everywhere I found that +it was clear (of shoals) and afforded a good anchorage for the ships, +since it had a large river which was named by us Rio Gallego. It is in +latitude 10 deg. 8'. From here I returned to the ships, and brought them +to this port which we named Puerto de la Cruz.[255] + + [255] The position of this harbour is shown on the present chart; + but it is placed too much to the eastward; since, from the + narrative, it is apparent that it lies near Sesarga, which is the + present Savo. + +"This same day, the General landed with all the soldiers and self; and +he took possession of this island in the name of His Majesty as in the +case of the other islands. A cross was erected on a little eminence that +was there; and we all paid our adoration. Some Indians, who stood near +to look on, commenced to discharge their arrows; and some shots were +fired at them, by which two Indians were killed; and so they left us and +fled, and we embarked for that night. + +"On the following morning, when we intended to land to say mass, we +noticed that the Indians had pulled up the cross and had carried it off. +On account of their audacity, the General ordered the soldiers to get +themselves ready to go in search of the cross and to put it in its +place: and whilst they were going ashore in the boat, we saw the Indians +return and endeavour to set it up. When it was in its place, they went +away; but it appeared that they had not thrust it in sufficiently, and +it fell. Presently, the same men attempted to erect it; but, from fear +of us, they did not stop to set it up quite straight and fled; and +herewith our people reached the shore and disembarked. The General sent +Pedro Sarmiento with some soldiers to look at the cross; whilst he +himself remained on the beach with the rest of the people. On reaching +there, they found that the cross was not upright; and they placed it as +it was at first. Pedro Sarmiento then returned, and they all embarked +and came back to the ships. + +"In order not to lose time, I gave the order to repair the brigantine, +as she was very leaky. She was repaired accordingly; and then it was +determined that Don Fernando Henriquez, the chief-ensign (alferez +general), and I, the said Hernan Gallego, should go in the brigantine +with 30 soldiers and sailors to discover the remaining lands of the same +island of Guadalcanal. On the 19th of May, we sailed in the brigantine +along the coast of the said island which is named, in the language of +the natives, Sabo.[256] And on the same day, the General sent Andres +Nunez with 30 soldiers to see what the land possessed, and to endeavour +to make a search in cracks or broken ground, because the miners, who +understood it, said that it was a land for gold. And so they carried out +this object in an excursion of 7 days. Whilst they were endeavouring to +make a trial of the ground in a large river, so many natives crowded +around them that they had to give it up, because they would not suffer +them to do it. By a sign which they gave, they said that there was gold. +They have . . . .[257]; and here were found the first hens of Castile. +They brought back two young hens and a cock, which they all received +with much satisfaction, understanding that they would discover better +land." (These birds were evidently the "bush-hens," _Megapodiidae_, of +these islands.) + + [256] The name of Savo is at the present day given to the volcanic + island, named by the Spaniards, Sesarga, which lies off the + north-west coast of Guadalcanar: Savuli is the name of a village at + the west end of Guadalcanar (_vide_ map in Dr. Codrington's + "Melanesian Languages"). + + [257] "muchas guacanaras en este entrada." + +"Those in the brigantine, as they sailed along the coast of this island +from the south-east to the north-west,[258] saw many villages near a +river that was nigh to the ships. We passed a league further on, and +after another league came to the river of Ortega. All this coast is full +of villages; yet we did not stop to have seen more of it. Going further +along the coast, we came to a river and anchored in it; and we resolved +to land to see the people who were there. More than 200 Indians came out +to meet us in a friendly manner, with their bows in their hands and the +clubs with which they fight. They gave us some plantains (_platanos_) +which abound here. After we had seen this, the people embarked; however, +they threw some stones at us as we were embarking. We were from the +ships 12 leagues. Proceeding on our course to the south-east, we saw in +another river a large population of natives, and we named it Rio de San +Bernardino because it was that same day. It is in the latitude of +10-1/3 deg., and bears . . . .[259] There is a very high round hill here. +This river is 4 leagues from where we started from, as I have said.[260] + + [258] A perplexing error. Read instead, N.W. to S.E. Figueroa gives + the course as E.S.E. + + [259] "Nor norueste suhueste" (an impossible bearing). + + [260] The sense of this sentence is not intelligible to me. + +"We continued coasting along this same island; and two leagues from this +river, we came to a great village on the bank of a small river. Don +Fernando landed, and took a canoe which he found in the river, and also +some roots, that they call "mames" (yams) and others, "names," which +they found in cases. We told the natives to give us some hogs, and they +should have their canoe back. They said that they would give them to us +with the intention of detaining us whilst they collected their numbers. +Thereupon they began to play their instruments for the battle. By the +time we were embarked, more than 600 ruffians (_gandules_) had +assembled. Coming to the beach with their bows and arrows, and clubs, +and stones, they began to shoot; but no musket was fired at them, +although they did not cease from shooting at us. Some took to the water +and swam off to the brigantine endeavouring to cajole us with fair +words, asking us for the canoe and promising us a hog. They tried to +take it from astern: and when we observed this, we threatened them and +they went ashore. + +"The Indians then brought on a pole a bundle of dry grass in imitation +of a hog; and they placed it on the beach. Some came off to the +brigantine and said that there was the hog, that we should go for it, +and should give back the canoe. We saw the deceit that they intended; +and when they perceived that we understood what it was and did not go +for it, they threw stones at us and rushed into the sea, swimming with +their weapons in their hands. Withal, we did not wish to harm them until +we saw their boldness, and that they were coming to the brigantine to +shoot at us with their arrows. To frighten them, some shots were fired +high in the air, which did not wound any one; and so we went further +along the coast, whilst they returned to the shore and followed us until +we arrived off another large river, with many people as numerous as +themselves, whom they joined. + +"On the 22nd of May, we named this river Santa Elena. There is much +level ground here which is covered with palms and cocoa-nut trees. This +island has a very lofty _cordillera_ in its interior and many ravines +from which these rivers issue; whilst between the mountains and the sea +there are eight leagues of level country. In the mouth of the river +there are many sandbanks; but we did not anchor there, and sailed a long +way from the coast to double a point of reefs, where we anchored. The +wind blew so strong from the south-east that we ran much risk when +seeking shelter to leeward of the shoals that run out from the river. +Here I anchored, and although there was much wind, it was fine weather +at sea. + +"The Indians, who were more than a thousand in number, swam out to us +with their bows and arrows; and they dived and plunged beneath the water +to lay hold of our anchor and carry the brigantine ashore. Seeing their +determined perseverance, we fired some shots, and having killed some, we +ceased firing; and they made for the shore, where they raised some +mounds of sand for their protection. As we were short of water, we were +compelled to get more; and when we headed towards the shore, a great +number of the natives assembled together to menace us lest we should +take up a position in the rear of their works, from which they defended +themselves. We loaded a small cannon with small shot, and discharged it +against their mound-works, by which some were wounded and one killed. +Seeing that they could not hold the works, they left the beach and +withdrew to the mountain slope. + +"And we found a place to get water in the canoe that we had; but it was +brackish; and I told them that unless they brought sweeter water they +should not come on board the brigantine. The Indians said that they +would fetch it in the earthen jars which were given them for it; and +taking them, the Indians went and brought it sweet and put it on board +the brigantine. Soon they all came on board, and they did not follow us +any more. Continuing our voyage along the same coast for another 6 +leagues, we anchored off a great town, which was more than three leagues +in extent (_mas de tres leguas de poblacion_), whence there came out to +us more than 3,000 (!) Indians, who gave us a hog and many cocoa-nuts; +and they filled the earthen jars with water and brought it off in their +canoes, and they came on board the brigantine to visit us without arms. +Close to the shore there are two inhabited islets lying about half a +league to sea; and further on to the north-west of these two islets, +there is another islet of sand. Soon we steered our course to the +south-east, following the trend of the coast for two leagues. There are +two other islets, and another of sand, near them, which were not +inhabited. + +"On the 24th of May we sailed further along; and there came off to us 18 +canoes, which accompanied us until sunset. When they were about to go, +they menaced us with their bows; and on some shots being fired to +disperse them, they quickly left us. Accordingly, we kept our course +until the extremity of this island, which runs from north-west to +south-east. We went to look for a port for the ships in case it should +be needed; and we found at the point of this promontory many islets with +shoals between them. Among them is a large island with a good port. We +were in want of water, and two canoes that accompanied us showed us +where to get it, with the intention of luring us there and killing us; +for they came with their weapons. They were joined by 30 other canoes, +one of them carrying 30 Indian warriors. Arriving whilst we were +watering, they landed, and having got plenty of stones and arrows and +spears, some went to attack the brigantine, whilst the others went to +attack those who were getting water on shore. When we saw their +determined daring, shots were fired by which some were killed and many +wounded; and so they fled, leaving behind two canoes empty, and carrying +off the rest. The large canoe was much injured, and in their +precipitation they threw themselves into the sea; but we took the canoe +with four Indians, two wounded and two unharmed. We landed them, and +treating them well, gave them their liberty and restored their canoe. +And so they went away; and I kept a boy that I took here. I found the +latitude to be in 10-3/4 deg. On the south-south-east side of the point, +the coast trends from north-east to south-west, but from this point we +could not see the end of it. The port is 40 leagues from where we left +the ships.[261] + + [261] The description of this part, its situation, and relative + position to the adjoining coasts of Malaita and St. Christoval, as + stated below, all point to its identity with Marau Sound. In the + Geographical Appendix reference is made to the discrepancies in the + distances and latitudes of Gallego. + +"We left this port with some difficulty as it lies among the reefs. We +saw to the south-east-by-east an island 7 leagues away;[262] but we did +not go to it, as we were going to the island of Malaita, as the Indians +name it, which lies with the island of Guadalcanal, and with the +point where we had been, north-east-by-east. We sailed to the +north-east-by-east for 16 leagues, and arrived at a good harbour which +has many reefs at the entrance. There came out 25 canoes with warriors +who discharged their arrows. Some shots were fired at them, which killed +some and wounded others. This port, which is on the south-south-west +coast, is in the latitude of 10-1/4 deg.; and the name, Escondido, was +given to it, because it is almost enclosed by reefs.[263] In this island +we found apples of some size, oranges, a metal that seemed to be a base +kind of gold, and, besides, pearl-shell, with which they inlay the club +they use in battle, being the one they usually carry. These natives, +like the rest, go _completely_ naked. In the name of His Majesty we took +possession of this island, to which we gave the name of the Isle of +Ramos." (_Vide_ Note VI., Geographical Appendix.) + + [262] This island is evidently St. Christoval. + + [263] Future visitors to the southern portion of Malaita will + doubtless be able to identify this port with some anchorage on the + west coast to the northward of the Maramasiki Passage. In so doing + they should not forget the usual error of Gallego's latitudes (Note + V. of the Geographical Appendix). + +"Leaving this port, we sailed to the south-east for four leagues, and +discovered an entrance to a harbour resembling a river dividing the +lands from each other.[264] We could not see the end of it; and on +account of the strong current we were unable to enter. We accordingly +passed on another four leagues, where we found a good port: and in it I +took the latitude, and found it to be 10-1/3 deg. south of the +equinoctial. It has an islet at the entrance which should be left close +on the starboard hand in entering the port. Two hundred Indians came out +and attacked us. To this port we gave the name of La Asuncion, because +we entered it on that day.[265] This day we sailed out and proceeded +further along the coast to the south-east. Close to the extremity of the +island, we put into a _small bay_,[266] where they discharged some +arrows at us, and on our firing some shots they left us. Quitting the +small bay, we sailed as far as the end of the island which is in +10-1/4 deg.[267] It lies north-east and south-east with the isle of +Jesus, which is the first island we saw, and lies in 7 deg. [With the +other end of Malaita, which is to the north-east, and lies east and west +with Meta in 8 deg., it is 85 leagues. There is another point in 7 deg., +with which the Isle of Jesus lies north-east-by-north 135 leagues.[268]] + + [264] This is without a doubt the Maramasiki Passage which cuts + through the south-eastern portion of Malaita. + + [265] Port Asuncion may, perhaps, be the large bay of Su Paina. + + [266] _Caleta_ in the Spanish. This anchorage may, perhaps, be + identified with Su Oroha or with one of the inlets or coves nearer + to Cape Zelee, such as Te Oroha or Te Waina. ("Pacific Islands:" + vol. I.; "Western Groups:" p. 61, 62; "Admiralty publication," + 1885.) + + [267] This latitude is not consistent with that given above for the + port of Escondido, which, according to the journal, lies more than + half a degree to the north-west. + + [268] I have endeavoured unsuccessfully to get at the meaning of the + two sentences enclosed in brackets. + +"This island of Malaita has a length of 114 leagues. We did not go to +the north side, and for that reason we cannot say what is its breadth. +The island of Guadalcanal is very large. I do not estimate its size, +because it is a great land and half a year is needed to sail along its +shores.[269] That we sailed along its length on the north side for 130 +leagues and did not reach the end, shows its great size. Moreover, on +the east[270] side of the extremity, the coast trended to the west, +where I saw a great number of fine towns.[271] + + [269] "_Para andallae es menester medio anno._" + + [270] This should be "west." + + [271] See Note VIII. in Geographical Appendix for remarks on the + exaggerated ideas as to the size of this island. + +"From the extremity of this island of Malaita we saw another island, +which lies east and west from this cape 8 leagues, to which we went, +arriving in the night. We anchored in front of a town on the coast, +which has a small river; and whilst we were anchoring, two canoes came +off to see us, but they soon returned. At dawn we sent the people on +shore to get water: and the natives came out peacefully with their women +and their sons. They are all naked like the others. The women carry in +their hands some things like fans, which they sometimes place before +them. When the water was procured, we asked for a hog, and they brought +it; and placing it so that we should see it, they returned and carried +it off. But we did not injure them in any way; and accordingly embarked +and proceeded out to sail round the island. When the natives saw that we +were going, most of them came out in their canoes with their bows and +arrows in pursuit of us. The first man who was about to aim, we knocked +over with a shot. At this, they turned and fled; and we pursued them as +far as the port, capturing some canoes that had intended to take us. A +friendly Indian, whom we carried with us, climbed a palm tree and saw +how the Indians came in regular bodies bearing their shields. We went to +arms, and sent three soldiers to see in what force the people were. They +came in their canoes in two or three divisions to attack the brigantine: +and we began to bring our musketry into action, killing two Indians and +an Indian woman. They soon retired; and our men who were on the shore +having embarked in the brigantine, we went on in pursuit of our quest. +The island is named Uraba[272] in the language of the Indians. We gave +it the name of La Treguada because they led us into a treacherous +truce.[273] This island is in latitude 10-1/2 deg. It is well peopled, +and has plenty of provisions of their kind. Although small, it has an +area of 25 leagues. There is communication with the neighbouring islands, +and with a cape that lies to the north-west. It trends north-west and +south-east until the middle of the island, where we found these 10 deg., +and the other . . . . . (_milad_) trends north-north-west until the end +of the island. + + [272] The reader will have already inferred that the island of Uraba + is the Ulaua of the present chart, and will have noticed that the + name of the island has remained the same during the last three + centuries. It is the Ulawa of the present natives, and the + Contrariete of Surville. + + [273] One must judge Gallego in the spirit of his times. Humane as + he really was, we cannot free him from his share in this unfortunate + conflict with the natives of Ulaua: and the name of La Treguada had + been better never bestowed. The next navigator who visited this + island was Surville in 1769; who, following up his previous + proceedings at Port Praslin in Isabel, repelled its inhabitants with + grape shot. + +"To the south-by-west of the point of the island there are low islands, +with many shoals around them, which are three leagues distant from this +island of La Treguada, to which we went and obtained water. They are +inhabited; and we gave them the name of Las Tres Marias. They trend +west-by-north and east-by-south.[274] + + [274] These three islands are without doubt identical with the three + small islands which are named the Three Sisters in the present + chart. Surville, the French navigator, who saw them in 1769, gave + them the name of Les Trois Soeurs, which they still retain. At the + present day they are uninhabited, and any water that could be + obtained would be of a very doubtful quality. Fleurieu hints at the + identity of Les Trois Soeurs and Las Tres Marias. + +"There is another island which lies three leagues from Las Tres Marias. +It is low, and the inhabitants are like those around. We named it the +island of San Juan, and found in it a good harbour. We took possession +of it in the name of His Majesty, as in the case of the other islands. +It is 6 leagues in circuit; and is in latitude 10-2/3 deg.[275] + + [275] The San Juan of Gallego is evidently the island now known as + Ugi. There is no apparent reference in this journal to the small + adjacent island of Biu. + +"We went thence to another great island,[276] which lies north and south +with it, 2 leagues away. Before we arrived, 93 canoes with warriors came +out to us and . . . . .[277] We took an Indian chief and placed him +below the deck. He seized a sword, and defending himself attempted to +escape, until at last the sword was taken from him and he was bound. We +sent the people on shore, intending to take possession; but so many +natives attacked them that we were not able to do so, and we returned to +the island of San Juan. I offered to Don Fernando to take possession of +it before dawn; and it was done. In the island of San Juan, they +ransomed the Indian, and gave us for him three hogs, to which he added +some beads. As a sign of friendliness, Don Fernando Henriquez embraced +him. + + [276] Apparently this is the island named Santiago below. It is + without doubt St. Christoval. + + [277] "y tuvimos gran guasavara." + +"On the following day, which was the 2nd of June, we arrived at dawn off +the island of Santiago.[278] More than 50 canoes came out to us; and +they planned to carry us off to their towns. It was necessary to fire +some shots in order that they should quit us; and they left us and +returned. Possession was taken of this island in the name of His +Majesty; and we did no injury to the people. This island is 40 leagues +in length on its north side: and it is narrow, and in part mountainous, +and is well peopled. The Indians of this island go naked and eat human +flesh. Its eastern extremity is in latitude 10-3/4 deg.; and lies +north-west and south-east with the island of Treguada 12 leagues. The +south-east extremity lies north-west and south-east 18 leagues with the +island of Malaita. + + [278] The reader will now require to use some caution in following + this part of the narrative, since Gallego seems to have fallen into + much confusion respecting the island of St. Christoval. The name of + Santiago was evidently applied by him to the north side of the + island west of the prominent headlong of Cape Keibeck, which he + might easily have taken for the extremity of the island. The name of + San Urban was in all probability given to the peninsula of Cape + Surville, which, as I have myself remarked while off the St. + Christoval coast, has the appearance of a detached island when first + seen, in approaching it from the northward and westward. This + deceptive appearance, when viewed from a distance, is due to the + circumstance that the neck of the peninsula of Cape Surville is + raised but a few feet above the level of the sea, and is in + consequence below the horizon when this cape is first sighted. The + distance of San Urban from Guadalcanal, as given above, is + inconsistent with the rest of the journal; and for 4 leagues, 40 + leagues was evidently intended, the omission of the cipher being + probably a clerical error. The name of St. Christoval was + subsequently given, as shown further on in the narrative, when the + Spanish ships visited the south coast of this island. + +"When we were all embarked to proceed further on, a violent north-east +wind overtook us, and drove us to the extremity of Santiago, whence we +saw a large island to the south-east that trended westward. It was 18 +leagues distant. It is in latitude 10-1/2 deg. south of the equinoctial; +and is 4 leagues distant from the island of Guadalcanal. We gave it the +name of the island of San Urban. + +"On account of the sickness of myself and of some of the soldiers, we +did not proceed further: and, keeping away to leeward, we arrived at the +island of Guadalcanal. We landed at a town where the Indians gave us +. . . . . .[279] when we intended to get water, and where we set free +the three Indians in the canoe; and they gave us a hog and _panales_. +But they were in great fear of us, and leaving us they returned to the +town. Beads were given to them as a sign of friendship. Leaving there, +we continued our cruise to return to the ships, and touched at some +places where we had been before, the natives receiving us in a friendly +manner, and giving us what they had, because they were much afraid of +the muskets we carried. We sailed further on to a port, where, during +our previous stay, we had been received peacefully. We got water there; +and they gave us a hog and almost filled the brigantine with _panoes_, +which is the food they eat. It is a very good harbour for the ships, and +lies under the shelter of an island. There are many inhabitants. + + [279] "La Guacanara." + +"We continued our return cruise, intending to explore a river where we +had been before. Sailing into the port to obtain provisions, we arrived +close off a town which the Indians abandoned when they saw us. We found +there, many _panoes_ and _names_ (yams) with which we loaded the +brigantine. I tried to catch a tame white parrot, which the Indians had +together with many others of various hues. When the Indians saw that we +did no harm, they all assembled, and came and gave us a hog to induce us +to go. Presently we sailed on to another river, on the bank of which +there is a large town; we anchored in it. The Indians began to make +fires, and to cast the fire in the air;[280] it was a thing we had not +seen in any other part. + + [280] "hechar por lo alto." + +"On the next day, which was the 6th of June, the Feast of the Holy +Ghost, we reached the ships, and found them all very sad. It appeared +that on the Day of the Ascension, the steward with four soldiers and +five negroes were sent on shore for water. As on previous occasions, +they were sent because the cacique of that tribe was a friend and used +to come off to the ships to give us cocoa-nuts, whilst his men used to +fetch the water in the earthen jars, and because we trusted them for the +friendly manner in which they behaved in their dealings with us. This +day, however, when they were gone for the water, it seemed that the boat +got aground because they had not taken care to keep her afloat as she +was being filled. At this moment, the Indians rushed out from ambush +with their weapons and were upon them; and they did not leave a single +soul alive except a negro of mine who escaped. All the rest they hewed +to pieces, cutting off their heads, and arms, and legs, tearing out +their tongues, and supping up their brains[281] with great ferocity. The +negro who escaped took to the water to swim off to an islet that was +near. However, they swam in pursuit, and with a cutlass, which he +carried in his hand, he defended himself from them in such a manner that +they left him, and he reached the islet. From there he began to make +signs, and to shout out to those in the ships, which they perceived; and +as quickly as possible the General went ashore to see what had happened. +When he reached there, the ill tidings were told. The Indians retired to +the hills. In a short time, the dead Christians were recovered; and they +buried them in the place where they used to say mass, the soldiers in +one grave, and the negroes in another. Of the negroes, one belonged to +the King, two to ourselves, and one to the boatswain. It was a thing to +hear their shouting, and the noise that the Indians made with their +drums. It appeared to be a general assembling day with them, because +more than 40,000 Indians[282] had gathered together for this purpose. +When our people had buried the dead, they embarked in the ships, being +in great grief with what had occurred. + + [281] The New Ireland cannibals of the present day are fond of a + composition of sago, cocoa-nut, and human brains. ("The Western + Pacific and New Guinea." London 1886: p. 58: by H. H. Romilly.) + + [282] This is either an exaggerated statement, or it is an error in + transcribing. + +"As I understand, the cause of the Indians coming to attack us was this. +The cacique came off to the 'Capitana' to entreat that our people would +give him back a boy belonging to his tribe, whom they had taken. He +offered a hog for him; but they would not give him up. On the following +day, the cacique brought a hog off to the ship, and said that, if they +gave him the boy who was a kinsman of his, he would give them the hog. +But they would not give him up, and took the hog by force. When the +cacique saw how he had been treated, he went away and did not return to +the ships again. In a few days, the disaster happened. + +"On the day after this unfortunate event, the General ordered Pedro +Sarmiento to land with as many men as he could muster to inflict +punishment. He burned many towns, and killed more than 20 Indians. Then +he returned to give account of what he had done. Each day that they +landed they endeavoured to punish them the more. On a subsequent +occasion, because no more Indians were seen whom they could punish, the +General ordered Pedro Sarmiento to proceed to a point that lay to the +south-east a league and a half from the ships. For he considered that +all the Indians had been concerned in the treachery and in the death of +the Christians. Having embarked 50 soldiers in two boats, Pedro +Sarmiento went there, but he found no Indians as they had fled to the +hills. After he had burned all the buildings and habitations that he +could find, he turned back on his way to the ships. Some Indians, who +came out from a point, followed him slowly; and our people lay in ambush +and killed three or four Indians, the rest escaping in flight. They then +returned to the boats, and embarking came back to the ships. An Indian, +whom we took, informed us of those who were concerned in the death of +our men. He said that the leader was a taurique, named Nobolo, who lived +on the bank of the river that lay a league to the east of the Rio +Gallego; and that with him there were many others who had collected +together for that object and with the said result. + +"On Wednesday, the 9th of June, the men of the 'Almiranta' were engaged +in making a top-mast on the islet close to where the ships were +anchored. Some musketeers and targeteers (_rodeleros_), who were eight +in number, were in guard of the carpenter's party. As it happened, the +Indians were then preparing for another attack; and more than 300 of +them lay in ambush, ready for the assault. About 10 Indians crossed over +to the islet with bows and arrows concealed; and they brought a hog, +intending to beguile our men by occupying their attention in talking, +whilst the other Indian warriors should be arriving. When I saw the +Indians crossing over and this canoe heading for the islet where our +people were making the top-mast, I ordered some musketeers into the +boat; and accompanied by Pedro Sarmiento, we steered so that the islet +concealed us from those in the canoe. Approaching the islet, we passed +between it and the main island and came close up with the canoe which +had only one Indian on board, the others having thrown themselves into +the sea. The canoe was captured together with the hog which they had +brought to deceive us. When we had joined the party who were making the +top-mast, we returned to the ships after having killed those who came in +the canoe. This was the most effective attack that was made, for the +Indians went away much discouraged. + +"On the 12th of the same month of June, the General took the brigantine +and a boat with nearly all the people, in order to inflict further +punishment at a river which lay a league to the east of the place where +the ships were anchored; and I accompanied him. An hour before the dawn +we arrived close to the river; and we were about to conceal ourselves +and fall upon the Indians, when we were seen by their sentinels and they +went to arms. I remained with four musketeers in charge of the +brigantine and the boat in the mouth of the river, so as not to allow +any canoe to escape. The General on arriving at the town, which had more +than 200 houses, found it deserted. He set fire to it; and then we +returned to the ships. + +"The next day, which was Sunday the 13th of June, we made sail during +the night and proceeded in the ships to follow up the discoveries of the +brigantine. When we had sailed about 8 leagues to the south-east, we +anchored because the wind was contrary. The General landed here to get +some provisions for the sick, of whom there were many. In a short time +he returned to the ships, when we made sail with the land-breeze. Now +died the pilot, Paladin, an experienced seaman. We lost sight of the +brigantine, as she went ahead of us: and we did not see her until we +found her anchored in a port off an islet that lay half a league to +windward of where we had anchored in the brigantine during our voyage of +discovery. There were many inhabitants here; and they came off to us as +friends. On account of it being Corpus Christi Day, we remained here all +the day. Mass was said at the islet which is close to the anchorage. We +watered the ships there. The Indians gave us of their own free will two +hogs and many cocoa-nuts and _names_ (yams). The cacique of this tribe +was named Meso, and the town was called Urare. This people is at war +with the people of Feday, which is the name of the place where we were +anchored. . . . . .[283] + + [283] "que nos maron gente." + +"On the 18th of June, we left this port, and proceeded on our voyage, +seeking the island of Santiago or San Juan,[284] which was the island +that we had discovered and named. We beat to windward against a strong +head wind in our endeavour to arrive at the island of Santiago; but on +account of this contrary wind and the boisterous weather, we did not +fetch it; and I determined to steer to the south of the island of +Santiago, the wind and the contrary currents not allowing us to find a +harbour. We coasted along an island, not seen in the brigantine[285], +and we held on our course for fourteen days, endeavouring to reach the +end of the island; but in the middle of the island, on account of the +contrary wind and currents, what we gained one day we lost the next. +Accordingly I went to find a port. We named this island San +Christoval.[286] It was our Lord's pleasure that after so much +difficulty I should find a very good port for the ships; and on the +following day I returned to the ships. We sailed to windward that night +on account of the boisterous weather, which obliged us to shorten sail +and lie-to[287] for the night. When it dawned, we found ourselves three +leagues to leeward of the port, which we tried in vain to reach; and +since we kept falling to leeward, I was compelled to take the brigantine +and go in search of another anchorage, with the understanding that when +I had found one, I should signal to the ships to follow the brigantine. +The signal being made, I guided the ships to the brigantine, which lay +outside a point of reefs that formed the harbour; and so we entered it. + + [284] Gallego here seems to have forgotten that he had previously + applied these two names to different islands, that of San Juan to + Ugi and that of Santiago to the large island south of it, viz., the + present St. Christoval (see p. 222). + + [Foootnote 285: This remark is inconsistent with the previous + reference to their steering south of Santiago.] + + [286] I should here call attention to the circumstance that the + Spaniards were navigating the south coast of this island. Further + proof of this is given in succeeding pages. + + [287] "Sin velas de mar a el traves." + +"It is a good and secure anchorage; and there is a town there which has +eighty houses. The General landed with the captains and the soldiers to +obtain provisions and to take possession of the island, in the name of +His Majesty, which we did without opposition, for the Indians received +us peacefully. The same evening we landed, and went in marching order to +see the town, but without doing them any injury; and we returned to the +ships with the agreement that on the following morning we should revisit +the town to get provisions, of which we were in need. + +"On the morning of the 1st of July, we all landed with the determination +to obtain provisions for our present necessities; and the General +entered one part of the town with the greater number of our people, +whilst Pedro Sarmiento with twelve soldiers entered another part. When +the Indians saw our determination, and that we entered the town in two +places, they began to arouse themselves and to take up their weapons, +making signs that we should embark. They held a consultation in a small +hollow, where Pedro Sarmiento and his party entered. One of the headmen +was seen to make incantations and invocations to the devil, which caused +real terror, because it seemed as though his body was possessed of a +devil. There were two other Indians, who, whilst making great +contortions with their faces and violently shaking themselves, scraped +up the sand with their feet and hands and threw it into the air. They +then made towards the boats with loud shouting and yells of rage, and +tossed the water in the air. At this, our people sounded the trumpets to +assemble where the General was; for there were all the Indians with +their bows and arrows and darts and clubs, which are the weapons with +which they fight. They came very close to us, bending their bows and +bidding us to depart. It became necessary for us to fire; and +accordingly some were killed and others were wounded. Thereupon they +fled and abandoned the town, in which there was a great quantity of +_panaes_ and _names_ and many cocoa-nuts and almonds,[288] which were +sufficient to load a ship. Presently we set about carrying to the boats +all that we found, and nothing more was done that day. The Indians did +not dare to return to the town again, and that night we embarked. This +port is in 11 deg. south latitude. It is in close proximity to the +island of Santiago, to the south-east; it is narrow and mountainous, and +the inhabitants are like the rest.[289] + + [288] These almonds were without doubt the almond-like kernels of + the fruit of a species of _Canarium_, a common article of food at + the present day. + + [289] This sentence refers to the island, and not to the port, + judging from the context. + +"After three days had passed, the General ordered that the brigantine +should proceed on a voyage of discovery; and Francisco Munoz Rico, with +ten soldiers, and I, with thirteen seamen, embarked. We left this port +on the 4th of July, and coasted along this island of Paubro, as it is +called in the language of the natives, being that which we named San +Christobal.[290] Until the middle of the island, the coast trends +north-west and south-east for 20 leagues and a point nearer east and +west; and the other half trends west-by-north and south-by-east. We +entered a harbour, which was the first we discovered in this cruise; and +there we remained for the day. + + [290] This reference to the native name of _Paubro_ is interesting, + since at the present day St. Christoval is largely known by the + native name of _Bauro_, which is evidently the same. This is also + without a doubt the "large country named _Pouro_" of which the + natives of Taumaco (Duff Group) informed Quiros about forty years + afterwards (_vide_ Geographical Appendix, Note XV.). + +"On the following morning we left there, and proceeded further along the +coast to the east-by-south. We entered a small bay, enclosed by reefs, +near which were three towns. We seized two boys here. The officer in +command of the soldiers went with all our people to reconnoitre the town +that was a league away; and I remained behind in charge of the +brigantine with no small risk, for there were only three soldiers left +with me to defend it. In a few hours the people returned with two canoes +that they had taken, and five sucking-pigs, and some _panaes_, and +plantains, with which they embarked. We then made sail to proceed +further along the coast. + +"On the next day a canoe with two Indians came off to us. They were +friendly, and one of them came on board the brigantine. We sailed on in +order to reach a harbour, and proceeded further along the same coast, on +which there were many towns, and the people of them were, as we +expected, very turbulent; for a canoe preceded us, giving warning in +such a manner that in all this island we were not able to capture +anything. As we approached a promontory (_morro_), many Indians came out +and threw stones at us with much shouting; and at the extremity of this +island we discovered two small islands. The end of this island is in +11-1/2 deg. south of the Equinoctial. This island is a hundred leagues in +circuit and seven leagues in width, and is well peopled. + +"From the extremity, we went to one of the small islands which was the +smallest and lay to the south side.[291] On arriving there we anchored; +and there came off to us twelve Indians who came on board the brigantine +and spent some time with us. On their being asked by signs what further +land there was in that part, they said that there was none; but towards +the west, where we pointed, they said that there was much land. We saw +it, and because there was no time or opportunity we did not go to +it.[292] Through the day and night we had much wind. As we were about to +disembark, the natives began to throw stones at us; and when some shots +were fired for our own defence, they fled. Accordingly, we landed and +went to the town, where we found some hogs and a quantity of almonds and +plantains. I ordered a sailor to climb a high palm to see if he could +descry land to the south, or south-east, or north-west (?)[293] but no +further land appeared. There came from that quarter a great swell which +was a sign of their being no more land there. This island, we named, +Santa Catalina; in the language of the natives it is called Aguare.[294] +It is 40[295] leagues round, and it is low and level. It has many palms +and is well peopled. It has many reefs. It is in latitude 11-2/3 deg., +and it lies two leagues south-east from the extremity of San Christobal. + + [291] This small island was subsequently named Santa Catalina; and + the circumstance of the Spaniards going to it before they visited + the adjacent small island of Santa Anna, is a proof of their having + coasted along the south side of St. Christoval. Then, the + description of the trend of the coast (_see_ page 229) applies + rather to the south than to the north coast; and this is further + confirmed by the circumstance that when the Spanish ships were soon + afterwards leaving the group on their return voyage to Peru, they + weathered or doubled the two islands of Santa Anna and Santa + Catalina. Again, no reference is made to the islands visible off the + north coast, which would have been certainly referred to, even + although they had previously visited them in the brigantine. I lay + stress on this point as it clears up the confusion of the different + names applied to St. Christoval. + + [292] There is some obscurity in this passage, and in rendering it I + have been guided by the account of Figueroa. + + [293] "North-west" is an error, which the context indicates, even + excluding other circumstances; it should be "south-west." + + [294] The present native name is Orika, or Yoriki of the Admiralty + chart. + + [295] An evident mistake, and one inconsistent with the context. The + island is scarcely two leagues in circuit. + +"On the 11th of this month, we went from this island to the other island +which lies with it north-north-west and south-south-east,[296] a short +league distant from it.[297] It is distant 3 leagues, east-by-south, +from the end of San Christobal; and is in latitude 11 deg. 36'. We named +it Santa Anna; it is called Hapa[298] in the language of the natives. It +is 7 leagues in circuit; and is a low round island with an eminence in +the centre, like a castle; it is well peopled, having abundant +provisions, with pigs and hens of Castile; and there is a very good port +on the east side.[299] + + [296] This bearing is only approximate, the magnetic bearing being + nearly north and south. + + [297] This distance agrees nearly with that on the chart which is + about two miles. Figueroa, in his account, gives the distance as + three leagues. + + [298] The village, situated on the shores of Port Mary on the west + coast of the island, is at present called Sapuna by its inhabitants. + Allowing for the variation in the spelling of native names, we can + here recognise the Hapa of the Spaniards. Oo-ah or Oa, is the name + of the island. + + [299] This is a good description of the appearance of this island. + The port is, however, on the west side; and the circumference of the + island is not half this amount. + +"On arriving there, we landed the people, and the Indians commenced _to +attack us_.[300] On an Indian being killed, they began to fly, and +deserted the town. Our men entered the houses in search of provisions, +but they found only three hogs, as all the rest had been placed in +safety. At nightfall we embarked in the brigantine and stood off the +land; and all the night we heard no sound except the crowing of many +cocks. The next morning, which was the 13th of July, we landed the +people to obtain more provisions to carry back for the sick in the +ships; and when the Indians saw our people landing, they got into +ambush. I was left with four soldiers in charge of the brigantine. The +Indians, with loud cries, began to attack our men, discharging many +darts and arrows. Their bodies were painted with red stripes, and they +had branches on their heads.[301] They wounded three Spaniards and a +negro of mine; and also the officer in command, Francisco Munoz, a dart +piercing the shield and arm and projecting a hand's breadth on the other +side of the shield. Rallying our men, we attacked them valiantly, +killing some Indians and wounding many others, so that they abandoned +the place and fled. We burned the town, and took water. From the higher +ground near by we tried to discover any appearance of land; but as we +saw none, we embarked on our return voyage to the ships. + + [300] "A dar nos guacanara." What "guacanara" means, I can only + guess at. + + [301] I cannot gather the meaning of this latter part of the + sentence and have rendered it literally. The same expression occurs + in the account of Figueroa. + +"Sailing all this day with a fair wind, we arrived at the island of San +Christobal; and that night we entered a port because there was a +threatening appearance in the weather. We landed in a town that was +there, and the Indians fled, discharging some arrows. A soldier was +wounded in the throat, but not seriously, and he was able to swallow +some food. As we wished to leave the port with the rising moon, we +embarked; and we named the port La Palma. + +"We continued our voyage back to the ships; and when we had sailed about +4 leagues from the port, a canoe came off to look at us and to learn +what people we were. As we had need of Indians for their language, we +endeavoured to take the canoe; and so we coaxed them on, and of four +which came in the canoe we took three alive, and one died whilst +defending himself. In the evening, we arrived at the Puerto de la +Visitacion de Nuestra Senora, where the ships lay.[302] I found that, on +account of bad treatment, all the Indians whom we had taken in the +islands had gone. + + [302] From the short description of this harbour given on page 228, + it is probably not Makira Harbour on the south coast of St. + Christoval; although from the time occupied by the brigantine in her + return voyage along this south coast from Santa Anna to the ships, + it must be in its vicinity. + +"I gave a report to the General of what we had seen and accomplished in +the expedition, telling him that there was no appearance of land further +(in that direction), but that all the mass of the land, which was +endless, lay to the west; and that, from this, he would perceive what +ought to be done. A council of the captains and pilots was held to +determine what steps should be followed in the prosecution of the +voyage; and it was decided to refit the ships for this purpose; this, +therefore, was the result of the general consultation. The ships were +accordingly refitted;[303] but on Saturday, the 7th of August, in the +same year of 1568, all mustered together and made a protestation to the +General and the captains with reference to the plan to be pursued. I +told them briefly that because the ships were getting worm-eaten and +rotten, and the rigging and cordage were not of much good, we should be +determined to complete, without delay, the object for which we had come. +The General, in reply, said that it would be well that the brigantine +should go in search of more provisions, of which we were in want; but I +pointed out that this should not be done, because all the islands that +we had visited were aroused, and the provisions hidden. They asked for +my opinion as to returning to Peru, whence we had come; and I told them +that we should not sail to the south of the Equinoctial, as we should be +lost, on account of there being many people, scanty provisions, and but +little water. I also said that if we were to direct our course to +positions in latitudes which we should have time to reach, we should not +have time to find land to the south-south-west and south, which would be +a work of difficulty; and that such a new navigation, with 1,700 leagues +of sea to cross on our return voyage, did not seem prudent. I therefore +gave it as my opinion that we should steer north to reach the latitude +of the first land we found, because it would be necessary, in order to +shape a course from Peru, to go beyond the south tropic for thirty +degrees and more; and I also said that when they should venture to make +the return voyage, they should carry an abundance of water and +provisions, because, otherwise, they would run the risk of all +perishing. And so the pilots came to my view, which satisfied the +protest that had been made; and I gave my opinion in the presence of a +clerk who was Antonio de Cieza. Concerning the idea of my asking to +found a settlement in these islands, I said that in that matter I did +not know what the General intended to do, since the instructions +concerning it were in his keeping. To this opinion they all came, and +were of one mind without one that did not assent.[304] + + [303] Figueroa refers to the ships being heaved down in this + harbour. + + [304] The impression, which this interesting passage leaves on my + mind, is that the Chief-Pilot prefers in his narrative to gloss over + an incident which must have been full of disappointment to himself. + Further on in the narrative, he writes more freely on the subject + (page 237). In Note IX. of the Geographical Appendix, I have given + some further remarks on this passage. + +"At midnight on the following Monday, when all were asleep, the General +ordered Gabriel Munoz and myself to go with some soldiers and make an +entrance into a town in order to seize some Indians for interpreters +(_para lenguas_). We went with 30 men, and took an Indian with his wife +and young son; and all the rest of the Indians fled. We then returned to +the ships; and straightway we made preparations for prosecuting our +voyage. + +"On the 11th of August of the same year, we left the Puerto de Nuestra +Senora, which is in 11 deg. south of the Equinoctial, in order to follow +our voyage to Peru. Sailing to windward, at the end of 7 days after we +had left the port, we weathered the island of San Christobal with the +two islands of Santa Catalina and Santa Anna. On the Tuesday evening, +having shortened sail, we had reached the islands of Santa Catalina and +Santa Anna, which lay three leagues to the north-north-west. Looking +around we did not see any more land, and here a strong south-east wind +overtook us; and we shaped our course to the north-east-by-east." + +In this manner the Spaniards left behind them the Isles of Salomon after +a sojourn of six months in these islands; and, perhaps, a few +reflections on their discoveries in this group, and on their dealings +with the inhabitants, may be here apposite. They seem to have landed on, +and to have taken formal possession of, almost every island of any size +from Isabel eastward; they named all the large islands in the group with +the exception of Bougainville; and the majority of the smaller islands +also received their names. In the Geographical Appendix, I have given a +list of the islands named by the Spaniards, which do not at present bear +the names given them by their original discoverers.[305] It would be a +graceful compliment to the memory of the gallant Gallego, who was the +central figure of this expedition, if, after the lapse of more than +three centuries, the Spanish names should be associated with these +islands in the Admiralty charts. The reason why such islands as +Choiseul, Contrariete, Les Trois Soeurs, and the Ile du Golfe (Ugi), +at present bear the names given to them by the French navigators, +Bougainville and Surville, rather more than a century ago, is to be +found, not in any intended act of injustice to the Spanish discoverers, +but in the circumstance that the imperfect account of Figueroa,[306] +which omits many of the discoveries made in the brigantine, has been the +only source of information available in the construction of the +Admiralty charts. Those who have written most on the history of +geographical discovery in these regions, Pingre, Dalrymple, Buache, and +Fleurieu a century ago, and Burney in the early part of the present +century, had only the account of Figueroa at their disposal.[307] The +Journal of Hernan Gallego, the existence of which was doubted, would +have been invaluable to them; and although a non-professional writer, I +may be pardoned when I express my admiration at the manner in which M. +M. Buache and Fleurieu arrived at such correct inferences, based as they +were on such scanty premises. One or two mistakes have arisen in the +nomenclature of the present chart, which are due to misconceptions in +the English translations of the account given by Figueroa, to wit, I may +cite the instance of the Isle of Ramos. . . . . . . The additional names +which the Journal of Gallego enables us to identify with existing +islands are, in truth, to be found in the general description of the +Salomon Islands, which Herrera incorporated in his "Descripcion de les +Indias Occidentales," which was published about 1601. But this +description was, as just remarked, of a general character, and beyond +confirming the suspicion that there were other accounts of Mendana's +discoveries besides the relation of Figueroa, it was but of little +service to the nautical geographer. + + [305] _Vide_ Note X. + + [306] Translated in great part from the original in the works of + Pingre, Dalrymple, Fleurieu, and Burney. (Hechos de Don G. H. de + Mendoza: par Dr. C. S. de Figueroa.) + + [307] Pingre's "Memoire sur le choix et l'etat des lieux ou le + passage de Venus du 3 Juin, 1769;" Dalrymple's "Historical + Collection of Voyages;" Fleurieu's "Decouvertes des Francois en 1768 + et 1769 dans le sud-est de la Nouvelle Guinee" (also Eng. edit.); + Burney's "Chronological History of Voyages and Discoveries," &c. + +I come now to a less pleasant task, that of reviewing the character of +the intercourse that prevailed between the Spaniards and the natives. It +has been remarked by Commander Markham in his spirited sketch of the +discoveries of Mendana, that the conduct of the Spaniards, in their +intercourse with the islanders, was not otherwise than humane;[308] but +I feel assured that a different opinion would have been expressed, if +the writer had extended his inquiries further into the narrative of +Gallego. During their six months' sojourn in this group, the loss of the +Spaniards was but trifling in comparison with the losses they inflicted +on the natives. In these numerous conflicts the natives must have lost +not less than a hundred killed, whilst the Spaniards lost ten of their +number; but a large proportion of these unfortunate islanders fell +victims to the lamentable succession of reprisals for the massacre of +the watering-party at the Puerto de la Cruz, an act of retribution which +the Spaniards had entirely brought upon themselves. In the great +majority of instances the natives assumed the aggressive, but not in +all; and although the Spaniards were often justifiably compelled to +employ force in obtaining provisions, yet there was often nothing to +excuse them in seizing the canoes, in cajoling natives alongside in +order to capture them, or in carrying off with them from the group an +unfortunate native with his wife and child. The natives kept on board +the ships escaped on account of ill-treatment; and, as Gallego also +writes, all the islands were aroused to such a degree by the visit of +the Spaniards, that they concealed their provisions, and the ships +began their return-voyage to Peru with scanty supplies of food and +water. . . . . . We must, however, judge of the conduct of the first +discoverers of the Solomon Islands in the spirit of the age to which +they belonged. The zeal, which led them to burn the temples dedicated to +the worship of snakes and toads in the interior of Isabel, was +appropriate to the spirit of an age in which expeditions were fitted out +for the double purpose of discovering new territories and of reclaiming +the infidel. Yet, if we lay aside the religious element, I doubt very +much whether the lapse of three centuries has materially raised the +standard by which our dealings with savage races should be guided. The +white man kidnaps; the savage revenges the outrage on the next comer; +the ship-of-war in its reprisal is of necessity equally indiscriminate; +and thus feuds are re-opened with no single effort at conciliation. + + [308] "The Cruise of the 'Rosario,'" 2nd edit., 1873 (p. 8). + +We left the Spanish vessels when on the eve of their departure from the +Isles of Salomon. Little could Mendana or Gallego have then believed +that two centuries would pass away before the white man should again +visit the scene of their discovery. The Chief-Pilot kept in his journal +an almost daily record of the course and usually of the distance during +the first portion of this return voyage; but as he was not so regular or +so precise in noting the distance of each day's run, the latitudes, +which he frequently records, enable me to follow this portion of the +track with some degree of confidence.[309] It was on the 18th of August +that they bore away to the north-eastward (N.E. by E.) with a strong +south-east wind. Experiencing rain-squalls and calms, they kept a little +to the north of this course, and on the 23rd they were in latitude 7 deg. +(full _largos_), being, as they computed, 36 leagues W. by N. from the +Isle of Jesus.[310] It is apparent from the Journal that Gallego +expected to find more land in this vicinity, and that he would willingly +have gone in search of it. But the expedition had lost heart in the +enterprise, and all that they desired was to return to Peru. A look-out +was kept for several days, but not a sign of land was seen; and +thereupon Gallego, stifling his own desire, thus records his lament in +his journal: "As in the case of the archipelago of the islands, they did +not allow me to explore further where I wished. And I hold for certain +that if they had allowed me to go further, I should have brought them +to a very prosperous and rich land, which will be discovered at God's +pleasure by whomsoever He wills. We were not far from it now, and of its +goodness I did not wish to speak, because they were all disheartened and +desired to return to Peru." + + [309] I have only indicated the general course in the return voyage, + as a full translation would be tedious to the reader and would + occupy too much of my space. + + [310] The bearing was to the southward of west, as the Isle of + Jesus, according to Gallego's own observation, was in latitude + 6-3/4 deg. Three days after, when they were in latitude 5-1/2 deg. + S., Gallego gives their distance and bearing from the Isle of + Jesus as 45 leagues W. by N. + +Heading north-eastward with uncertain winds, they were obliged to steer +S.E. by E. for six days as the wind shifted to the north-east. Finally, +they headed to the northward again, and in the last day of August they +passed the 3rd parallel of south latitude. "Between 2 deg. and 4 deg. of +south latitude," as Gallego writes, "we met abundant signs of land, such +as palm-leaf matting, burnt wood, sticks, and _rosuras_,[311] which the +sea derived from the land. From these signs we knew that we were near +the land, although we did not discover it. We thought that it was New +Guinea,[312] because it is not in a greater latitude than 4 deg. south +of the Equinoctial." + + [311] Not translated. + + [312] Gallego here adds: "Inigo Ortez de Retes discovered it + (_i.e._, New Guinea) and no other: but Bernardo de la Torre did not + see it: nor is there such a Cabo de Cruz (Cape of the Cross) as he + says." I have placed this interesting reference to the discovery of + New Guinea in a foot-note, as it is suddenly interposed in the + narrative. In Note XI. of the Geographical Appendix, the reader may + learn more, if so desirous. + +New Guinea, however, lay some 1200 miles away; and the Spanish vessels +were in the vicinity of the Gilbert Group, which lay probably about 300 +miles to the eastward. On September 5th, with shifty and contrary winds, +they crossed the Equator at about the 168th meridian of longitude east +of Greenwich. The course pursued, in which it would appear the +Chief-Pilot had not been consulted, was the subject of a protest made to +the General. Thus writes Gallego: "I said to the pilot, Juan Henriquez, +that we ought to petition the General to direct our course to one place +or another or to steer for one pole or the other, as we were expending +our provisions and water in beating to windward. Since the General +followed his own opinion and showed no desire to consult me, I made this +request in the presence of Antonio de Cieza, Clerk, all of which appears +more fully in the said petition, which is in the possession of the said +Clerk." + +Steering to the north and subsequently to the N.E. by E., they reached +the 4th parallel of north latitude on September 8th. "This day," writes +the Chief-Pilot, "I signified to the 'Almiranta' that they should keep a +good look-out from 6 deg. up to 11 deg., as we were heading for the +land." Altering their course to N.N.W., they reached the parallel of 6 +deg. on the 14th, the needle showing no declination to the north-east. On +the 15th and 16th, they headed north-east, and on the 17th, steering +north, they found themselves in 8 deg. The surmise of Gallego proved +correct. In this parallel, they discovered land. + +"Two hours before dawn," as the Chief-Pilot writes, "we came upon the +shoals and islands of San Bartolomeo, which trend north-west and +south-east and are 15 leagues in length. The south-east extremity is in +8 deg., and the north-west extremity lies in 8-2/3 deg. There are two +lines of reefs with apparently channels between them. There seems to be +another line about half-a-league distant. At the north-west, there are +two islets, which lie one with the other east and west one league. The +coast is steep-to; and we did not find any depth to anchor on the west +side. There were many houses and much people and _villos_ in these +islands. Between the islands, which number more than 20, a canoe was +under sail, but it made for the shore. We launched the boat to go for +water. They could only obtain a cock of Castile, which they brought back +with them. The people fled, abandoning their houses. They came upon a +chisel made from a nail, which appears to have belonged to some ships +that had been there, and some pieces of rope. They did not find water, +but the cocoa-nut palms were cut which showed how the inhabitants got +their water.[313] These Indians drink "chicha,"[314] which is made from +some fruits like pine-apples; and on this account there is an infinite +number of flies. We beat to windward for three hours trying to find depth +to anchor; but the water was a thousand fathoms (_estados_) deep. When +the boat returned, we continued our voyage." + + [313] This probably refers to cocoa-nut palms that had been cut for + making "toddy," a practice to be found amongst the natives of the + Line Islands at the present day. + + [314] An Indian name for a drink prepared from maize. + +Figueroa, in his scanty account, neither gives the name nor the latitude +of this discovery, so that previous writers, who derived their +information entirely from this source, were unable to identify these +islands with those in the charts. However, with the materials afforded +to me by the journal of Gallego, I have been able, after carefully +following the track of the Spanish ships, to identify this discovery +with the Musquillo Islands in the Ralick Chain of the Marshall Group. +Having followed their course northward from the vicinity of the Gilbert +Group, to which I referred above (page 237), it was evident that they +were about to pass through the Marshall Islands, and that if they should +sight land, I had only to compare the description of Gallego with the +present chart of this group, in order to identify this discovery with +one of the atolls that there exist. (_Vide_ Note XII. of the +Geographical Appendix.) + +Continuing their course to the northward, they began to get short of +water, and the people sickened and . . . . .[315] On the 22nd of +September, they attained the latitude of 11-1/2 deg., and running due +north along the meridian, they reached the latitude of 19-1/3 deg. on +October 2nd, when they discovered "a low islet enclosing the sea after +the manner of a fishing-net, and surrounded by reefs." "We were hove-to +all that night," . . . writes Gallego, . . . "believing that it was +inhabited, and that we should be able to obtain water. But there were +only sea-birds living on it; and its surface was sandy with some patches +of bushes. It is probably two leagues in circuit: and is in latitude +19-1/3 deg. north of the Equinoctial. As it was the Day of San Francisco, +we named it the Isle of San Francisco." + + [315] "Murieron hartos." To avoid falling into a serious mistake, I + have not translated this, more especially as Figueroa refers to no + deaths on board during the voyage to Peru. + +This island of San Francisco has not been identified by previous writers +with any island in the present chart, as Figueroa supplied them with the +latitude alone, but gave no reliable account from which they might be +able to follow the previous track; nor, in fact, in the times of Burney +and Krusenstern, who were the last to devote any considerable attention +to the discoveries of Mendana, was this part of the Pacific sufficiently +well known to enable even a confident surmise to be made. Commodore +Wilkes, amongst others, has swept more than one phantom-island from this +region. The track of the Spanish ships northward from the Marshall Group +brought them, in fact, to a little coral-atoll, named Wake's Island in +the present chart, and lying in 19 deg. 10' 54" N. lat. This is the Isle +of San Francisco, which is but little altered in appearance in our own +day.[316] + + [316] _Vide_ Note XIII. of the Geographical Appendix for further + information on this subject. + +Keeping the same northerly course, they passed the limit of the tropic +of Cancer on October 7th; and in another week they had reached the +latitude of 30 deg. They now shaped their course north-east; and Gallego +consulted the other pilots as to the position of the land, and as to the +bearing of the Cabo de Fortunas[317] (Cape Fortune). "They told me in +reply," . . . . as the Chief Pilot informs us, . . . . "that we were +already in the vicinity of land, that this cape lay, in their opinion, +70 or 80 leagues to the north-by-west, that we were much to leeward of +the land, that it was not practicable to reach the cape with this wind +as the coast trended north-west and south-east, and that we could not +live unless we fell in with the land." + + [317] This cape is evidently referred to as on the Californian + coast; I cannot identify it. + +Could the Spaniards have known at this time what lay before them, the +bravest heart amongst them would have quailed. Instead of being in the +neighbourhood of the Californian coast whither they were steering, they +had more than 3,000 miles of ocean to traverse and two long dreary +months to struggle through, before they were fated to sight the land. +They were destined to pass through storms, the like of which Gallego had +never witnessed during his 45 years' experience of the sea. The two +ships were to be parted; and each was to pursue its solitary way in the +fear that the missing ship had foundered. Such was the lot before them +with sickness already amongst them, and with a failing store of water +and provisions. + +The Chief-Pilot thus continues his narrative--"On the 14th of this month +(October), I continued to steer both ships in close company to the +north-east. In the middle of the night there came a squall with a little +rain. We shortened sail; and at that time the 'Almiranta' was to +windward; but she allowed herself to fall to leeward for an hour, and +when it dawned we could only see her from the top. Hoping to fall in +with her, we carried only the fore-sail, and made no more sail all that +day and night. We headed to the north-east until the second hour of the +day; and because we did not see her, we took in all the sails. This was +the 16th day of the month of October. + +"Two hours after noon on Sunday the 17th, whilst we were yet hoping, we +shortened sail because there was much wind from the south-east. We were +driven before the gale; and as we were lying in the trough of the sea +without any sails, the wind came upon us with all its fury from the +north-east, such as I never beheld during the 45 years that I have been +at sea, 30 of which I have served as pilot. Such boisterous weather, I +have never witnessed, although I have seen storms enough. For a squall +to take us when we were without sail, this was what frightened me. A sea +struck us on the port side from the water-line to the middle hatch, +which was battened down and caulked as I had ordered. We were deluged +with water. Everything went its own way; and the soldiers and sailors +were swimming about inside the ship, as they were trying to launch the +boat, which was smashed and full of cables and water. The sailors were +not able of themselves to do it; but God and His Blessed Mother willed +that it should be done.[318] Then I ordered the sailors to unfurl a +little of the sail; but before two gaskets were loosed, the fore-sail +went into two thousand pieces, and only the bolt-ropes remained. For +more than half-an-hour the ship was in great peril until the main-mast +was cut away.[319] And soon I ordered them to make a sail of a +_frecada_,[320] and of a piece of a bonnet (_boneta_); with this the +ship was able to answer her helm . . . . . .[321] The weather began to +clear. We were driven from our course more than 50 leagues, because the +storm overtook us in latitude 32-1/3 deg., and when it began to clear +we found ourselves in 30 deg. When this weather came upon us we were 70 +leagues south-east-by-south[322] from the Cabo de Fortunas; and when it +began to clear we were 120 leagues, rather more than less. + + [318] This reference to the launching of the boat, in order, I + infer, to lighten the vessel, is ambiguously expressed. Figueroa, in + his account, would appear to imply that the boat was merely relieved + from its weight of ropes and water; but further on in his account, + Gallego expressly refers to their being without a boat. + + [319] Figueroa adds to this account. He says that the General gave + the order to cut away the mainmast, and that it carried away a + portion of the bulwarks. + + [320] _Frazada_ in the account of Figueroa. + + [321] "Para atras hechamos el camarote de popa a la mar." + + [322] I cannot understand this bearing. + +"We headed on our course with only the fore-sails, as we had no other +sails, since the sailors had lost the bonnets overboard. On the 21st of +October, the wind went round to the opposite quarter, and lasted until +the 29th. Coursing north-east with much wind and sea, we sailed +close-hauled on one tack or the other, because it was no longer possible +to sail free as the sea would engulph us. The ship did not behave well +in a beam sea, for soon she shipped seas on either side, and she lost as +much way as she made. On the evening of the 29th of October, the wind +went round to the south-east, and there was a heavy sea. The wind was so +strong that we were unable to make any sails, as they were carried away. +All that night we lay in the trough of the sea with much wind and +thunder and lightning, so that it seemed like the overwhelming of the +world.[323] On the following morning I ordered them to clear away the +sprit-sail and use it as a fore-sail, so that we might steer the ship. +Before we had run for a watch to the north-east, the wind went round to +the south, and with such force that it carried away the sails and we +were left without any sail. We employed _las frescadas_ (blankets?) for +sails, and thus we went this day. Soon the wind lessened, and we hoisted +the fore-sail and coursed north-east until the next day, which was the +last day of October." + + [323] Figueroa in his account states that there was always a foot + and a half of water in the hold. + +The "Capitana," to which ship the narrative for a time alone refers, was +now in 29 deg. N. lat. A very strong north-east wind, lasting until +November 4th, drove them to the south-east in latitude 26 deg. These +north-easterly winds continued to prevail; and being unable to sail close +to the wind, the Spaniards could not keep their latitude and were being +driven from their course, to the south-east.[324] "We were," . . . . as +Gallego writes, . . . . "much wearied and suffered from hunger and +thirst, as they did not allow us more than half a pint of stinking water +and eight ounces of biscuit, a few very black beans, and oil; besides +which there was nothing else in the ship. Many of our people were unable +from weakness to eat any more food. A soldier, who had gambled with his +allowance of water and had lost it, became desperate with thirst and +cried out all the day. Being without a boat, we could do nothing on +approaching a harbour. We resolved to trust that God would send us the +means of help. He provided for us in His great mercy, and on the day of +St. Isabel (November 19th) he gave us a (fair) wind, and we sailed in +the latitude of 28 deg. and up to 30 deg. This weather lasted until the +26th of November, and we were 125 leagues further on our voyage." + + [324] Figueroa in his account tells us that they rigged a jury-mast, + making use of a top-mast for this purpose. + +During the first week of December they experienced foul winds and thick +weather: but on the 9th the wind went round to the south-south-east; and +they reached the latitude of 31 deg. on the 12th. Signs of the vicinity +of land were now observed, such as sea-birds and a goose. A sailor leapt +into the sea after a floating piece of a pine, and brought it on board, +in order to bring fair weather. Rain fell, and enough water was +collected for three days. At length the land was sighted by the watchful +eye of Gallego. "It was the eve of our Lady the Virgin" . . . . . he +writes . . . . . "and whilst standing at the side of the ship, I saw the +land. Some of us, who despaired to see it, said that it could not be the +land. Sailing through the night, two hours before the dawn we found +ourselves close to two islets that lay a league from the mainland in +latitude 30 deg. north of the Equinoctial.[325]" + + [325] Gallego here observes that the day before the land was + sighted, the needle remained pointing north. + +At length the Spaniards had reached the coast of Old California. "The +mercy of God"--as Gallego writes--"had brought us safely through so many +storms and privations that the soldiers had despaired of seeing it. +Following along the coast, as it trended to the south-east, we entered a +bay which resembles in form a pen for shoeing cattle (_corral de herrar +ganado_). We could not see the outside point on account of its great +distance. We found ourselves embayed; and it was necessary to steer west +to weather this point. . . . . . We were detained three days with calms +and north-west winds, as we had to beat to windward to weather this +point. We named this bay _la bahia de San. tome_: it is in latitude +27-3/4 deg. At the point of this bay there are two large islets, named +the Isles of Cacones.[326] We doubled the point on the 23rd of December. +We beached the ship for 12 days between these islets. Having lost our +boat at sea, we went ashore on a raft of casks to get water. There we +made another raft of rushes and some casks, on which we carried on board +12 casks of water and many fish that we caught." + + [326] This large bay, which deeply indents the Californian + peninsula, is named in the present maps the bay of Sebastian + Vizcaino, after the Spaniard who surveyed this coast in 1602. + Gallego's name of San. tome, which may be a contraction for San. + Bartolomeo, has, therefore, the priority of some 30 years and more. + The prominent headland, which they had to double, is at present + called Point Eugenio. The two _large islets_ off this point are now + called Cerros and Natividad Islands. + +Having obtained timber for making another boat, they continued their +voyage, as the Indians were hostile. A foul wind caused them to pass by +the port of Xalosco, and they "tacked to seaward to double the Cabo de +Corrientes, which is in 21 deg., in order to reach the port of Santiago, +which is 50 leagues beyond Xalosco." + +On the 24th[327] of January, 1569, they entered the port of Santiago. +The Chief-Pilot tells us in his journal that he was well acquainted with +this coast and with its people: this port,[328] he says, lies six +leagues from Port Natividad, and is in latitude 19-1/4 deg. Before they +left Santiago a joyful surprise awaited them. "On the day of St. Paul's +Conversion, three days after our arrival, the 'Almiranta' . . . . . hove +in sight. She was much in want of water and provisions; and she carried +no boat which, like ourselves, she had cast over in the great storms; +and her main-mast was cut away. They did not recognize the coast. It was +our Lord's good will to bring us together in this port. God knows how +glad we were to see each other. In preserving us through such great +tempests, our Lord had worked a miracle . . . . . They told us what had +happened during the great storms: and that when they arrived, they had +only one vessel (_botija_) of water remaining . . . . . Sama, the +alguacil-mayor of the city of Mexico, came with some people of the town +of Colima to see who we were, and he talked with the General." + + [327] This should be the 22nd of January, as Gallego observes + subsequently that the "Almiranta" arriving on the 25th came three + days after them. + + [328] During his passage from the Californian to the Mexican coast, + Gallego seems from some observations in his journal to have been + puzzled by getting a latitude of 23 deg. 26' before he arrived at the + extremity of the Californian Peninsula. He speaks of San Lucas as + being "at the end of California in the tropics;" but this + observation apparently did not clear up his doubt on the matter; and + in fact on first touching the Mexican coast, the number of small + bays made him think that it was still the coast of California. The + latitude of Cape San Lucas, the extremity of the Californian + Peninsula, is 22 deg. 52': it is, therefore, well within the tropics. + +The two ships left the port of Santiago on the 10th of March.[329] Nine +days afterwards, they sailed into the port of Atapulco (Acapulco) to +obtain news from Peru: but learning nothing, they left in an hour. +Gallego adds that this port is the nearest to the city of Mexico, and +that it lies in 17 deg. Proceeding along the Mexican coast, they anchored +outside the port of Guatulco (lying according to Gallego in 15-1/2 deg.); +and they sent a boat on shore to learn news of Peru and to get wine and +biscuits . . . . . "All the people of the town," . . . . . the +Chief-Pilot writes . . . . . "were scared and fled into the interior, +because they had heard in Mexico that we were a strange Scotch people" +(_gente estrangera escoceses_). + + [329] Gallego refers to an eclipse of the moon at nine in the night + of the 10th of March. "At the end of an hour the moon was clear." + +Through a jealousy exhibited by the pilots of the "Almiranta" towards +Gallego, the "Capitana" was left behind at this port for a day and a +night, for which, says the object of their jealousy, the General was +very angry with them. However, the "Capitana" arrived in the port of +Caputla nine days before the other ship. The people there were at first +much disturbed; but on recognising Gallego, who had been there on +previous occasions, they were reassured; and they carried the news +ashore that the voyagers had come from "the discovery of the islands." +On the 4th of April the "Capitana" arrived in the port of Realejo on the +Nicaraguan coast, and was followed five days after by the "Almiranta". +. . . . "In this port," . . . . . continues the Chief-Pilot . . . . . +"we beached the ships and caulked the seams, and set up lower-masts and +top-masts, of which we had need, in order to be able to lie up for Peru. +With all our necessity in this port, neither the officials of the +government nor any other persons would give or lend money to us for the +repair of the ships. Perceiving that otherwise the ships would be lost, +and that it was indispensable for the service of His Majesty, I lent the +General all the money which I had of my own, and I received an +acknowledgment for 1400 _pesos_ (dollars), with which the ships were +refitted; and they were victualled for another piece of gold of 400 +_pesos_: all this I lent for the service of His Majesty. + +"We left this port, which is in latitude 12-1/2 deg., on the 28th of +May. Sailing to the Cabo de Guion (Cape Guion), we lay up thence for +the coast of Peru. On the 4th of June we lost sight of the coast of +Nicaragua; and on the 5th we passed to leeward of Mal Pelo Island.[330] +On the morning of the 11th we were off Facames,[331] which lies four +leagues below the Cabo del San Francisco (Cape San Francisco) on the +coast of Peru. On the 14th we anchored in Puerto-viejo; and on the 19th +we reached Point Santa Elena. On Sunday, the 26th of June,[332] Don +Fernando Henriquez left with the news for Lima or the City of the +Kings." + + [330] The Malpelo Island of the present charts. + + [331] This is evidently Atacames, which has the position described. + + [332] The two last dates are referred to as July. This is apparently + a mistake, and I have, therefore, corrected it in the translation. + +LAUS DEO. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE STORY OF A LOST ARCHIPELAGO. + + +THE most interesting feature in the history of the discovery of the +Solomon Group is the circumstance that during a period of two hundred +years after it was first discovered by the Spaniards it was lost to the +world and its very existence doubted. In the belief that I shall be +treading on ground new to the general reader, I will at once pass on to +relate how this large archipelago was lost and found again. + +Fancied discoveries of the precious metals in the island of Guadalcanar +inflamed the imaginations of the Spaniards: and the reports, which they +gave on their return to Peru, in 1568, of the wealth and fertility of +the newly-found lands, cast a glamour of romance over the scene of their +discoveries which the lapse of three hundred years has not been able +altogether to remove. + +To colonize his new discovery and add one more to the vast possessions +of Spain, became the life-long ambition of Mendana. In order to further +his great aim, he gave to these islands the name of the "Isles of +Salomon," to the end that the Spaniards, supposing them to be the +islands whence Solomon obtained his gold for the temple at Jerusalem, +might be induced to go and inhabit them. Thus, the name of the new +discovery was itself a "pious fraud," if we may believe the story of +Lopez Vaz,[333] a Portuguese, who was captured by the English, nearly +twenty years afterwards, at the River Plate. This seems to me to be the +explanation of the name, which we ought, in fairness, to receive; since, +after reading the narrative of Gallego, it is scarcely crediting the +Spaniards with ordinary reasoning faculties to imagine that Mendana and +his officers really thought that they had found the Ophir of Solomon. + + [333] "Purchas, his Pilgrimes," Part IV., Lib. VII. + +However, many years rolled by; and Mendana had arrived at an elderly +age before any further undertaking was attempted. The appearance of +Drake in the South Sea, some years after the return of the expedition to +Peru, caused the scheme of colonization to be abandoned. The Spaniards +now found a rival in the navigation of that ocean which, under the +sanction of a Papal decree, they had hitherto regarded as exclusively +their own. The dread that they would be unable to hold the "Isles of +Salomon" against the attacks of the powerful nation now intruding in +their domain, caused them to relinquish the coveted islands; and +"commandement was given, that they should not be inhabited, to the end +that such Englishmen, and of other Nations as passed the Straits of +Magellan to go to the Malucos (Moluccas), might have no succour there, +but such as they got of the Indian people."[334] To prevent the English +obtaining any knowledge of these islands, the publication of the +official narrative of Mendana's voyage was purposely delayed. So strong +a pressure was brought to bear upon Gallego, the Chief-Pilot of the +expedition,[335] that he was afraid to publish his journal, which has +not only remained in manuscript up to the present day, but was not +brought to light until the second quarter of the present century. Thus, +it happened that for nearly half-a-century after the return of Mendana, +there was no account of the expedition:[336] no chart preserved its +discoveries, it being considered better, as things were then, to let +these islands remain unknown.[337] + + [334] "History of Lopez Vaz: Purchas, his Pilgrimes," Part IV., Lib. + VII. + + [335] _Vide_ prologue to "Gallego's Journal," page 194. + + [336] _Vide_ page 192. + + [337] Letter from Quiros to Don Antonio de Morga, Governor of the + Philippines. + +The popular ignorance of these islands naturally increased the mystery +that surrounded them; and their wealth and resources were soon increased +ten-fold under the influence of the imaginative faculties of the +Spaniards. Lopez Vaz, the Portuguese already referred to, writing about +the year 1586 of the recent American discoveries, remarked that "the +greatest and most notable discovery that hath beene from those parts now +of late, was that of the Isles of Salomon." But romance and fact are +strangely mingled in his story. We learn from him, for the first time, +that the Spaniards, although "not seeking nor being desirous of gold," +brought back with them, from the island of Guadalcanar, 40,000 +_pezos_[338] of the precious metal. No reference is made to such a find +of gold on the part of the Spaniards in the accounts of Gallego and +Figueroa: and it is probable that the reports to this effect may have +originally arisen out of the circumstance that, when the ships were +being refitted and provisioned at the port of Realejo, on the Nicaraguan +coast, for the completion of their voyage to Peru, the necessary +expenses, which amounted to 1800 _pezos_, were defrayed by the +Chief-Pilot, Gallego.[339] + + [338] Dollars. + + [339] _Vide_ page 245. + +If the English captain, Withrington by name, who elicited this +information from his Portuguese prisoner, Lopez Vaz, had hoped to have +obtained any satisfactory account of the position of these vaunted +islands, he must have been grievously disappointed. He learned from him +that the Spaniards, having coasted along the island of Guadalcanar until +the parallel of 18 deg. S. latitude without reaching its extremity, were +of the opinion that it formed "part of that continent which stretches to +the strait of Magalhanes" (Magellan). From this misconception, the idea +arose that the Spaniards had discovered the southern continent and that +Gallego was the discoverer,[340] and so vague was the information of the +extent of the newly-discovered islands that, when in 1599, an English +ship was carried by tempest to 64 deg. S. lat., the captain, on sighting +some mountainous land covered with snow, considered that it extended +towards the islands of Salomon.[341] + + [340] Dalrymple's "Historical Collection of Voyages," &c., Vol. I., + p. 96. + + [341] "Purchas, his Pilgrimes," Vol. IV., p. 1391. + +But to return to the long-deferred project of Mendana. Years of delay +seemed only to increase the desire of the first discoverer of this group +to complete his work. A change occurred in the vice-royalty of Peru; and +under the auspices of the new Viceroy an expedition of four ships was +fitted out, on which were embarked sailors, soldiers, and emigrants to +the total number of four hundred. In 1595, more than a quarter of a +century after the return of his first expedition, Mendana, now an +elderly man, sailed from Peru accompanied by his wife, Donna Isabella +Baretto. Fernandez de Quiros, who had braved with his leader the perils +of the first voyage and had shared with him in the disheartenings +arising from a hope so long deferred, now served under him as chief +pilot. Their destination was St. Christoval, the easternmost of the +Solomon Group. The imperfect knowledge of the navigator of those days +was curiously exhibited during this voyage. With the means at his +command, it was a comparatively easy matter to follow along one parallel +of latitude or "to run down his latitude" as the sailor terms it; but +to ascertain with any approach to accuracy his meridian of longitude was +scarcely within the power of the Spanish navigator. When only about +half-way across the Pacific and about the same distance on their voyage +to the Solomon Group, they discovered a group of islands, which, from +their latitude, they believed to be the object of their quest. Further +exploration, however, convinced Mendana of his mistake; and he named his +new discovery Las Marquesas de Mendoza, a name which this group at +present in part retains. On continuing the voyage, the crews were +assured that in three or four days they would arrive at the "Isles of +Salomon," which were in point of fact more than three thousand miles +away. The three or four days wearily spun themselves out into +thirty-three. General discontent became rife; and murmurs of +dissatisfaction arose which might have shortly ended in open revolt. At +length, late one night they were overtaken by one of the rain-storms so +common in those regions; and when the clouds lifted, they saw within a +league of them the shores of a large island. The discovery was signalled +from the flag-ship, the "Capitana," to the other three ships: but only +two replied. The missing vessel, the "Almiranta," had been last seen +between two and three hours before. No trace was ever found of her. +Whither she went, or what fate befell her, are questions which have +remained amongst the many unsolved mysteries of the sea. There is +something tragical in this disappearance of a large ship having probably +over a hundred souls on board, men, women, and children, when apparently +the goal of the expedition had been attained. + +The appearance of the natives of this large island at first induced +Mendana to believe that he had at last arrived at the lands he had been +so long seeking. But his belief was short-lived. The new island was +named Santa Cruz; and having abandoned the original object of the +expedition to establish a colony on the island of St. Christoval, the +Spaniards commenced to plant their colony on the shores of a harbour +which they named Graciosa Bay. Disaster upon disaster fell on the little +colony. Disease struck down numbers of the settlers, and the poisoned +weapons of the natives ended the lives of many others. Mutiny broke out; +and the extreme punishment of death was inflicted on the conspirators. +The foul murder of the chief who had steadfastly befriended them was +punished, it is true, by the execution of the murderers; but the enmity +of the natives could not thus be pacified. Broken-hearted and overcome +by disease, Mendana sickened and died; and the heavens themselves must +have seemed to the superstitious Spaniards to have frowned on their +design, for a total eclipse of the moon preceded by a few hours the +death of their commander. The brother of Donna Isabel had been selected +by Mendana as his successor; but a fortnight afterwards he died from a +wound received in an affray with the natives. It was at length resolved +to abandon the enterprise; and rather over two months after they had +first sighted the island, the survivors of the expedition re-embarked +for Manilla. Hoping to learn something of the missing ship before +finally steering northward, they directed their course westward until +they should reach the parallel of 11 deg. of south latitude, when they +expected to arrive at St. Christoval whither the "Almiranta" might have +gone. The course[342] which they steered under the guidance of Quiros, +the pilot, must have soon brought them on this parallel; and they appear +to have followed it with a favourable wind until the second day,[343] +when seeing no signs of land, they were urged by the increasing sickness +and by the scarcity of water and provisions to give up the search, and +to this change of plans Quiros gave his consent. In a few hours, if they +had continued their course, the mountain-tops of St Christoval would +have appeared above the horizon and the "Isles of Salomon" would have +been found. But such was not to be; and when probably not more than +fifty miles from the original destination of the expedition, the ships +were headed N.N.W. for Manilla. Such a course must have brought the +Spanish vessels yet closer to the eastern extremity of the group; but +the night fell, and on the following morning the Solomon Islands were +well below the western horizon. Of the three ships, two only reached the +Philippines. The "Fragata" lost the company of the other ships and +"never more appeared." It was subsequently reported that she had been +found driven ashore with all her sails set and all her people dead and +rotten.[344] + + [342] The course is differently given, by Quiros as W. by S. and by + Figueroa as W.S.W. (Dalrymple's Historical Collection: vol. I., 92.) + + [343] Figueroa implies the second day; whilst Quiros speaks of "two + days." + + [344] Dalrymple's Historical Collection of Voyages: vol. I., 58. + +Thus terminated the attempt of the Spaniards to found a colony in the +Solomon Islands; and the ill fate which it experienced was scarcely +calculated to encourage others to undertake a similar enterprise. +Barely half of the four hundred souls who had left Peru under such +bright auspices could have reached the Philippines. Among them, however, +was Quiros the pilot of Mendana, who, nothing daunted by disaster and +ill-success, returned to Peru and endeavoured to re-awaken the spirit of +discovery which was losing much of its enthusiasm with the departing +glory of the Spanish nation. The Viceroy of Peru referred him to the +Court of Spain; and, after experiencing for several years the effects of +those intrigues which seem to have been the accustomed fate of the early +navigators, Quiros set sail from Callao at the close of 1605, to search +the Southern Ocean once again for the Isles of Salomon and the other +unknown lands in that region. He had been supplied with two ships, and +was accompanied by Luis Vaez de Torres as second in command. It is +unnecessary to enter here into the particulars of the voyage across the +Pacific. It will be sufficient for my purpose to state that Quiros +finally sought the parallel of 10 deg. south, and sailed westward in the +direction of Santa Cruz, which he had discovered with Mendana ten years +before. Being rather to the northward of the latitude of Santa Cruz, he +struck a small group of islands, the principal of which was called +Taumaco by the natives. These islands have been identified with the Duff +Group, which lies about 65 miles north-east of Santa Cruz. Nearly two +centuries had passed away before these islands were again seen by +Europeans, when they were sighted by Captain Wilson of the missionary +ship "Duff," in 1797. During the ten days spent by the Spaniards at +Taumaco, Quiros obtained information of a number of islands and large +tracts of land in the neighbourhood, which seemed to confirm him in his +belief in a vast unknown extent of land in the Southern Ocean. The list +of these islands are included in a memorial[345] subsequently presented +by Quiros to Philip II. of Spain, which contains many particulars of the +discoveries of the expedition in this region. Some of them I have been +able to identify with names on existing charts, but referring my reader +to Note XIV. of the Geographical Appendix, I will only allude here to +the most interesting reference in this memorial, which is to _a large +country named Pouro_, that is without doubt the large island of St. +Christoval in the Solomon Group, which lay rather under 300 miles to the +westward. The central portion of St. Christoval is at present called +_Bauro_, and by this name the whole island is often known to the natives +of the islands around. Thus, without suspecting it, Quiros had described +to him an island of the lost Solomon Group, and the very island which +had been more completely explored than any other by the expedition of +Mendana nearly forty years before. Had he been in possession of +Gallego's journal, in which the native name of _Paubro_ is given to St. +Christoval, he would have at once recognised in this _Pouro_ of the +Taumaco natives the _Paubro_ of Mendana's expedition. His informant +spoke to him of silver arrows which had been brought from _Pouro_, but +this circumstance did not set him on the right track; and thus for the +second time this enterprising navigator unwittingly let the chance pass +by of finding the Isles of Salomon.[346] + + [345] Dalrymple's Hist. Coll. of Voyages: vol. I, p. 145. This + memorial is given in the original in Purchas, (His Pilgrimes, Part + VI, Lib. VII, Chap. 10.) _Vide_ also De Brosses "Histoire des + Navigations aux Terres Australes:" tom. I, p. 341: Paris 1756. + + [346] The question of this name of Pouro is further treated in Note + XV. of the Geographical Appendix, since an attempt has been made by + Mr. Hale, the American philologist, to identify it with the Bouro of + the Indian Archipelago. + +The opportunity had gone; and, for this reason, the remainder of this +voyage of Quiros has no interest in connection with the Solomon Group. +The information which he had obtained of the numerous islands and tracts +of land in the vicinity of Taumaco seems to have banished from his mind +all thoughts of the missing group. Steering southward, and passing +without seeing the island of Santa Cruz of which he had been in search, +he reached the island of Tucopia, of which he had previously obtained +information from the natives of Taumaco. Continuing his course, he +finally anchored in a large bay which indented the coast of what he +believed was the Great Southern Continent. The name Australia del +Espiritu Santo was given by him to this new land, when flushed with the +success of his discovery. In the hour of his supposed triumph, fortune +again frowned on the efforts of the Spanish navigator. A mutiny broke +out on board his ship, and Quiros was compelled by his crew to abandon +the enterprise. Without being able to acquaint Torres of what had +happened, he left the anchorage unperceived in the middle hours of the +night, and after making an ineffectual attempt to find Santa Cruz, he +sailed for Mexico. Torres, after ascertaining that the supposed southern +continent was an island,[347] continued his voyage westward, and, +passing through the straits which bear his name, ultimately arrived at +Manilla. + + [347] This island is one of the New Hebrides, and still retains its + Spanish name of Espiritu Santo. + +The results of the expeditions in which Quiros had been engaged could +hardly have been looked upon with feelings of great satisfaction at the +Spanish Court, where the veteran navigator in the true spirit of +Columbus now repaired to advocate the colonization of the Australia del +Espiritu Santo he had just discovered. The Isles of Salomon had been +also discovered, it is true; but two succeeding expeditions had failed +to find them. Santa Cruz had similarly eluded the efforts of Quiros; and +his last discovery of the supposed southern continent had been proved by +his companion, Torres, to be an island. Several years had passed away, +and Quiros was an old man before his wishes for a new expedition were +granted. In furtherance of the exploration of the Isles of Salomon and +the Australia del Espiritu Santo, he is said to have presented no less +than fifty memorials to the king; in one of which, after painting in the +brightest colours the beauty and fertility of his last discovery, he +thus addresses his Sovereign: "Acquire, sire, since you can, acquire +heaven, eternal fame, and that new world with all its promises." Such +appeals coming from one who might fitly be called the Columbus of his +age could scarcely be rejected by the monarch. In 1614, Quiros, bearing +a commission from the king, departed from Spain on his way to Callao, +where he intended to fit out another expedition. Death, however, +overtook him at Panama on his way to Peru; and with Quiros died all the +grand hopes, which he had fostered, of adding the unknown southern +continent to the dominion of Spain. Had he lived to carry out his +project, Australia might have become a second Peru. The spirit of +enterprise on the part of the Spanish nation never again extended itself +into this region of the Western Pacific. During the next century and a +half the large island-groups, which the Spaniards had discovered in +these seas, were not visited by any European navigators;[348] and it is +surprising how few benefits have accrued to geography from these three +Spanish expeditions to these regions. Their discoveries have had to be +rediscovered; and it has been only by a laborious process on the part of +the geographer that the navigator has been able to make any use of the +imperfect information, which the Spanish navigators have bequeathed to +us of their discoveries in these seas. + + [348] In 1616, the Dutch navigator, Le Maire, when he discovered and + named the Horne Islands in lat. 14 deg. 56' S. and Hope Island in 16 + deg. S. thought that he had found the Solomon Islands; but these + islands lie more than a thousand miles to the eastward of this group. + Dalrymple's Hist. Coll., vol. II., p. 59. + +The death of Quiros deepened more than ever the mystery that was thrown +over the Isles of Salomon. Although Herrera[349] had published in 1601 a +short description of these islands, which he must have derived from +official sources, no account of the first voyage of Mendana was +published until nearly half a century after the return of the expedition +to Peru, when in 1613 a short narrative appeared in a work written by +Dr. Figueroa.[350] However, the exaggerated description, such as Lopez +Vaz had given, obtained by virtue of prepossession a stronger hold on +the memories of the sea-faring world. The same spirit of jealousy +against other nations, which had compelled Gallego to suppress his +journals, and had so long withheld any account of Mendana's discoveries, +now doomed to destruction the several memorials and documents of Quiros; +but fortunately the work of destruction was not completed. The +consequence of such proceedings was to greatly heighten the exaggerated +misconceptions relating to the Isles of Salomon. We learn from +Purchas[351] that Richard Hakluyt was informed in London in 1604, by a +Lisbon merchant, of an expedition which had left Lima in 1600 and had +fallen in "with divers rich countries and islands not far from the +islands of Salomon. One chief place they called Monte de Plata, for the +great abundance of silver there is like to be there. For they found two +crowns' worth of silver in two handfuls of dust, and the people gave +them for iron as much and more in quantity of silver."[352] Amongst the +misconceptions which prevailed is one which we find in a memorial +addressed by Dr. Juan Luis Arias to Philip III. of Spain,[353] where he +refers to the discovery of "New Guadalcanal" and "San Christoval" as +quite distinct from Mendana's subsequent discovery, as he alleges, of +the Isles of Salomon; and he alludes to the opinion of some that New +Guadalcanal was a part of New Guinea. In Peru the actual existence of +these islands came to be doubted; and successive viceroys held it a +political maxim to treat the question of the existence of the Solomon +Islands as a romance.[354] + + [349] _Vide_ page 192. + + [350] _Vide_ page 192. + + [351] "His Pilgrimes," vol. IV., p. 1432. + + [352] Geographical writers are not agreed as to whether this + allusion refers to one of the voyages of Quiros or not. From the + date it would appear probable that it refers to Mendana's second + voyage, when Quiros was chief pilot. + + [353] A translation is given by Mr. Major in his "Early Voyages to + Terra Australis." + + [354] Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. XIV., p. 12. + +The jealous attitude, assumed by Spain towards other nations with +reference to these discoveries, succeeded only too well in bewildering +the geographers who endeavoured to ascertain the true position of the +Solomon Islands; and so varied were the opinions on the subject, that +the latitude assigned to them varied from 7 deg. to 19 deg. south, and +the longitude from 2400 miles to 7500 miles west of Peru. Acosta, in +1590, ignorant of the materials several years after placed at the +disposal of Figueroa, located these islands about 800 leagues[355] west +of Peru, and Herrera gives them the same position,[356] a longitude which +Lopez Vaz had previously given them in the account obtained from him in +1586 by Captain Withrington. The discoverers themselves, if we may trust +the estimates given in the accounts of Gallego and Figueroa, and in the +memorials of Quiros, considered that the Solomon Islands were removed +about double this distance from the coast of Peru. Their estimates vary +between 1500 and 1700 Spanish leagues, whereas the true distance is +about 2100 leagues or from 1500 to 2000 miles west of the position +assigned by the discoverers. In his second voyage, Mendana was misled by +this small estimate when he at first mistook the Marquesas for his +previous discovery, the Isles of Salomon. I am inclined to consider that +the Spanish navigators purposely under-estimated the distance of these +islands from the coast of Peru, and that in so doing they were actuated +by two motives. In the first place, they would be desirous to bring +their discoveries within the line of demarcation fixed by the Papal Bull +after the discovery of America by Columbus, by which the hemisphere west +of a meridian 370 leagues west of the Azores was assigned to Spain, and +that to the east of this meridian to Portugal. Thus it was that Spain +had had to deliver the Brazils to Portugal; and in possessing herself of +the Moluccas she had appropriated by a geographical fraud lands which +should have belonged to that nation.[357] Their other motive is probably +to be found in that jealousy of spirit which, in order to prevent Drake +and the English from finding their discoveries, caused the suppression +of Gallego's journal and the burning of many of the memorials of Quiros. + + [355] Spanish leagues, 17-1/2 to a degree. + + [356] Herrera at the same time places them 1500 leagues from Lima! + + [357] I am indebted to Mr. Dalrymple (Hist. Collect. of Voyages, + vol. I., p. 51) for this explanation of the small estimates of the + Spanish navigators. + +Similar confusion prevailed amongst the early cartographers as to the +position which they should assign to the Solomon Islands. As M. +Buache[358] points out, the first charts representing the Isles of +Salomon, which were published at the end of the 16th century, made a +near approximation to their true position by placing them to the east +and at no great distance from New Guinea. Subsequent cartographers, +however, were less happy in their guesses at the truth. In the "Arcano +del Mare," published by Dudley, in 1646, the Solomon Islands were +transported to the position of the Marquesas, with which they were +thought identical. This position was generally received until early in +last century, when Delisle adopted a position much nearer to that given +in the early maps. M. Danville, however, later on in the century, being +unable to reconcile the Spanish discoveries with the more recent +discoveries in the South Seas, suppressed altogether the Isles of +Salomon in his map of the world; and his example was followed by several +other geographers, who were equally anxious to expunge the lost +archipelago from their maps and to relegate it to the class of fabulous +lands. + + [358] "Memoir concerning the existence and situation of Solomon's + Islands," presented to the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1781. + (Fleurieu's "Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769.") + +After the death of Quiros, the Spanish nation ceased to favour any +further enterprise in search of the missing archipelagos, which do not +appear to have engaged the special attention of any nation. Generations +thus passed away, and the Solomon Islands were almost forgotten. But +there lingered amongst the sea-faring population in Peru, memories of +the missing islands of Mendana and Quiros, which were revived from time +to time by some strange story told by men, who had returned to Callao +from their voyage across the Pacific to Manilla. Even in the first +quarter of last century, the mention of the Isles of Salomon suggested +visions of beautiful and fertile lands, abounding in mineral wealth, and +populated by a happy race of people who enjoyed a climate of perfect +salubrity. This we learn from the narrative of Captain Betagh,[359] an +Englishman, who, having been captured by the Spaniards in 1720, was +detained a prisoner in Peru. He speaks of the arrival, not long before, +of two ships at Callao, which, though cruising independently in the +Pacific, had both been driven out of their course and had made the +Solomon Islands. A small ship was despatched to follow up their +discovery: but as she was only victualled for two months, I need +scarcely add that she did not find them. It is very probable that the +islands made by the two ships were the Marquesas. + + [359] Pinkerton's "Voyages and Travels," vol. XIV., p. 12. + +Not very long after this attempt to find the missing group, Admiral +Roggewein,[360] the Dutch navigator, in his voyage round the world, +sighted, in 1722, two large islands or tracts of land in the Western +Pacific, which he named Tienhoven and Groningen (the Groningue of some +writers). Behrens, the narrator of the expedition, considered them to be +portions of the Terra Australis. Geographers, however, have differed +widely in their attempts to identify these islands. Dalrymple and Burney +held the opinion that these islands were none other than the Solomon +Islands; but the question is of little importance to us, as no +communication took place with the natives. + + [360] Dalrymple's "Hist. Coll. of Voyages," vol. II. + +In his "Histoire des Navigations aux Terres Australes," which was +published in Paris, in 1756, De Brosses, after referring to the +circumstance that geographers differed a thousand leagues in locating +this group, inserts, as giving quite another idea of their position, the +story of Gemelli Careri, when on his voyage from Manilla to Mexico, in +command of the great galleon. It appears that when they were in 34 deg. +north lat., a canary flew on board and perched in the rigging. Careri at +once inferred that the bird must have flown from the Solomon Islands, +which lay, as he learned from the seamen of his vessel, two degrees +further south. The source of the Spanish commander's information might +have suggested some rather odd reflections: however, De Brosses, as if +to justify this belief of the sailors of the galleon, refers to two +islands, Kinsima (Isle of Gold) and Ginsima (Isle of Silver), lying +about 300 leagues east of Japan, which, having been kept secret by the +Japanese, had been ineffectually sought for by the Dutch in 1639 and +1643.[361] De Brosses, it should be remembered, was writing when the +Isles of Salomon were in the minds of many a myth. That this notion of +the seamen of the galleon should suggest to him two legendary islands +placed east of Japan, islands believed by the Dutch not to belie their +names in mineral wealth, sufficiently shows how wild speculation had +become with reference to the position of this mysterious group. + + [361] Tome I., p. 177. + +In a few years, however, there was a revival of the spirit of +geographical enterprise in England, under the enlightened auspices of +George III.; and the time was approaching when, in anticipation of the +transit of Venus in 1769, the attention of the English and French +astronomers and geographers was more specially directed to the South +Pacific, with the purpose of selecting suitable positions for the +observation of this phenomenon. M. Pingre, in his memoir on the +selection of a position for observing the transit of Venus, which was +read before the French Academy of Sciences in December, 1766, and +January, 1767, gave a translation of the account given by Figueroa of +Mendana's discovery of the Solomon Islands; but he did not throw much +new light on their supposed position. + +Whilst the attention of geographers was thus once more directed towards +this part of the Pacific, the two English voyages of circumnavigation +under Commodore Byron and Captain Carteret[362] supplied them with +information, which pointed to the correctness of the view of the old +cartographers that the Solomon Islands lay to the east, and not far +removed from New Guinea. That Commodore Byron, when sailing in the +supposed latitude of these islands in 1765, expected to fall in with +them more towards the centre of the Pacific, is shown by the +circumstance that he at first believed one of the islands of the group, +subsequently named the Union Group, to be the Malaita of the Spaniards, +an island which actually lay more than 1500 miles to the westward. +However, he continued his course in the track of the missing group, +until he reached the longitude of 176 deg. 20' E. in latitude 8 deg. 13' +S., a position more than 800 miles to the eastward of that assigned to +the Solomon Islands in his chart. Giving up the search, Commodore Byron +steered northward to cross the equator, and ultimately shaped his course +for the Ladrones. His remark in reference to his want of success augured +ill for the future discovery of the Solomon Group, since he doubted +whether the Spaniards had left behind any account by which it might be +found by future navigators. + + [362] Hawkesworth's Voyages (vol. I.) contains the accounts of these + expeditions. + +In August, 1766, another expedition consisting of two ships, the +"Dolphin," and the "Swallow," under the command of Captain Wallis, and +Captain Carteret, sailed from Plymouth with the object of making further +discoveries in the southern hemisphere. After a stormy passage through +the Straits of Magellan, the two ships were separated just as they were +entering the South Sea. This accidental circumstance proved fortunate in +its results for geographical science, as each vessel steered an +independent course. Whilst Captain Wallis in the "Dolphin" was exploring +the coasts of Tahiti, Captain Carteret in the "Swallow" followed a track +more to the southward, and ultimately brought back to Europe tidings of +the long lost lands of Mendana and Quiros. In July, 1767, Captain +Carteret being in 167 deg. W. long, and 10 deg. S. lat., kept his course +westward in the same parallel "in hopes"--as he remarks--"to have fallen +in with some of the islands called Solomon's Islands." After reaching +the meridian of 177 deg. 30' E. long. in 10 deg. 18' S. lat., a position +five degrees to the westward of that assigned to the Solomon Islands in +his chart, Captain Carteret came to the conclusion "that if there were +any such islands their situation was erroneously laid down." He was +afterwards destined to discover, unknown to himself, nearly a thousand +miles to the westward, the very group whose existence he doubted. +Continuing his westerly course, he arrived at a group of islands, the +largest of which he recognised as the Santa Cruz of Mendana, which had +not been visited by Europeans since the disastrous attempt to found a +Spanish Colony there more than 170 years before. With a crazy ship, and +a sickly crew, Captain Carteret desisted from the further prosecution of +his discoveries in those regions; and shaping his course W.N.W., he +sighted in the evening of the second day a low flat island, one of the +outlying islands of the Solomon Group, which, without suspecting the +nature of his discovery, he called Gower Island, a name still preserved +in the present chart.[363] During the night, the current carried him to +the south, and brought him within sight of what he thought were two +other large islands lying east and west with each other, which he named +Simpson's Island, and Carteret's Island. Captain Carteret communicated +with the natives, but did not anchor. These two islands have proved to +be the forked northern extremity of the large island of Malaita. Keeping +to the north-west, he subsequently discovered, off the north-west end of +the group, a large atoll with nine small islands, which are known as the +Nine Islands of Carteret. On the following morning he was fated, without +being aware of it, to get another glimpse of the Solomon Islands. A high +island, descried by him to the southward, which is named Winchelsea +Island in his text, and Anson Island in his chart of the voyage, was in +all probability the island of Bouka visited nearly a year afterwards by +Bougainville, the French navigator. Thus the missing group was at length +found, but without the knowledge of the English navigator who discovered +it. He had, in truth, expected to find it 20 deg. further to the east. It +was reserved, however, for the geographer in his study to identify the +discoveries of Carteret with the Isles of Salomon of Mendana. + + [363] Captain Carteret communicated with the natives, but did not + anchor. + +At the end of June, 1768, Bougainville the French navigator,[364] +coming northward from his discovery of the Louisiade Archipelago and of +the Australia del Espiritu Santo of Quiros, made the west coast of a +large island, now known as Choiseul Island, one of the Solomon Islands. +When the ships were about twenty miles south of the present Choiseul +Bay, boats were sent to look for an anchorage, but they found the coast +almost inaccessible. A second attempt was made to find an anchorage in +Choiseul Bay, but, night coming on, the number of the shoals and the +irregularity of the currents prevented the ships from coming up to the +anchorage. In this bay the boats were attacked by about 150 natives in +ten canoes who were dispersed and routed by the second discharge of +fire-arms. Two canoes were captured, in one of which was found the jaw +of a man half broiled. The island was named Choiseul by its discoverer, +and a river from which the natives had issued into the bay was called +"la riviere des Guerriers." Passing through the strait which bears his +name, the French navigator coasted along the east side of Bougainville +Island, and passed off the island of Bouka. The natives who came off to +the ship in their canoes displayed the cocoa-nuts they had brought with +them, and constantly repeated the cry, "bouca, bouca, onelle." For this +reason, Bougainville named the island, Bouca, which is the name it still +retains on the chart. It is, however, evident from the narrative that +the French navigator never regarded this name as that by which the +island was known to its inhabitants. When Dentrecasteaux, during his +voyage in search of La Perouse, lay off this island in his ships in +1792, the natives who came off from the shore, as Labillardiere informs +us,[365] made use of the same expression of "bouka." This eminent +naturalist considered that the word in question was a term in the +language of these islanders; and he refers to it as a Malay expression +of negation, except when a pause is made on the first syllable when it +signifies "to open." On leaving behind him the island of Bouka, +Bougainville quitted the Solomon Group; but from his account it is +apparent that he had no idea of having found the missing archipelago. +Referring to these islands in the introduction to his narrative, he +writes:--"supposing that the details related of the wealth of these +islands are not fabulous, we are in ignorance of their situation, and +subsequent attempts to find them have been in vain. It merely appears +that they do not lie between the eighth and twelfth parallels of south +latitude." In Bougainville's plans and charts, these discoveries are +referred to as forming part of the Louisiade Archipelago which he had +found to the southward. In the general chart showing the track of his +voyage, the Solomon Islands are placed about 350 miles north-west of the +Navigator Islands; and they are there referred to as "Isles Salomon dont +l'existence et la position sont douteuse." + + [364] "Voyage autour du Monde en 1766-1769:" second edit, augmentee: + Paris 1772. + + [365] Labillardiere's "Voyage a la recherche de la Perouse:" Paris + 1800: tome I., p. 227. + +In June of the following year, 1769, there sailed from Pondicherry an +expedition commanded by M. de Surville,[366] who was bound on some +enterprise with the object of which we are still to a great extent +unacquainted. It is, however, probable as we learn from Abbe +Rochon,[367] that some rumour of an island abounding in wealth and +inhabited by Jews, which was reported to have been lately seen by the +English seven hundred leagues west of Peru, had led to the fitting out +of this expedition. Not unlikely, stories of the wealth of the missing +islands of Mendana had been revived by the arrival in India of some ship +that had come upon them in her track across the Pacific; and the +reference to their being populated by Jews may be readily understood +when I allude to the fact that the form of the nose in one out of every +five Solomon Islanders, and in truth in many Papuans, gives the face +quite a Jewish cast. In October, 1769, Surville discovered and named +Port Praslin on the north-east coast of Isabel, which was the same +island of the Solomon Group that Mendana had first discovered two +hundred years before. Here he stayed eight days, during which time his +watering-parties came into lamentable conflict with the natives. Sailing +eastward from Port Praslin, he sighted the Gower Island of Carteret, +which he named Inattendue Island. Subsequently he reached Ulaua, which +he called, on account of the unfavourable weather which he experienced +in its vicinity, Ile de Contrariete. The attempt to send a boat ashore +was the occasion of another unfortunate affray with the natives, who +were ultimately dispersed with grape-shot. It will be remembered that +just two centuries before, the Spaniards in the brigantine came into +conflict with these same islanders, and that they named their island La +Treguada in consequence of their supposed treachery (_vide antea_). In +the neighbourhood of Contrariete, Surville sighted three small islands, +which he named Les Trois Soeurs (Las Tres Marias of the Spaniards), +and near them another island, which he called Ile du Golfe, the Ugi or +Gulf Island of the present chart. Sailing eastward, he apprehended from +the trend of the neighbouring St. Christoval coast that he would become +embayed; but his apprehensions were removed when he arrived at the +extremity of this land, which he named Cape Oriental, and the two +off-lying small islands of Santa Anna and Santa Catalina were called +Iles de la Delivrance in token of the danger from which he had +apparently been delivered. In total ignorance of the fact that he had +been cruising amongst the islands of the lost archipelago of Mendana, +Surville now directed his course for New Zealand; and on account of +sanguinary conflicts with the natives of Port Praslin and Contrariete, +he named his discoveries Terre des Arsacides or Land of the Assassins. + + [366] An account of this expedition is given in Fleurieu's + "Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769 to the south-east of New + Guinea:" London, 1791. + + [367] "Voyages a Madagascar et aux Indes Orientales:" Paris, 1791. + +In 1781, Maurelle, the Spanish navigator, in command of the frigate +"Princesa," during his voyage from Manilla to San Blas on the west coast +of Mexico,[368] came upon the Candelaria Shoals of Mendana, which lie +off the north coast of Isabel Island. I have shown on page 200 that +these Candelaria Shoals are no other than the Ontong Java of Tasman, +which was identified by M. Fleurieu[369] with the discovery of Maurelle. +To the south-east of these shoals the "Princesa" approached another, +which on account of the roaring of the sea was named El Roncador: this +has been erroneously identified with the Candelaria Shoals by M. +Fleurieu, and it is so named on the present Admiralty charts. Thus it +nearly fell to the lot of the Spanish nation to be amongst the first to +find the group they had originally discovered; but Maurelle was not +acquainted with his vicinity to the missing Isles of Salomon, and +turning the head of his ship eastward, he proceeded on his voyage. + + [368] An account of this voyage is given in "Voyage de la Perouse + autour du Monde," par Milet-Mureau: London, 1799: vol. I., p. 201. + + [369] "Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769," etc.: pp. 179, + 18 . + +In July, 1788, Lieutenant Shortland, when returning to England from Port +Jackson in convoy of a fleet of transports, made the Solomon Group near +Cape Sydney on the south coast of St. Christoval. He skirted the south +side of the group until he arrived at Bougainville Straits, and received +the impression that he was coasting along an apparently continuous tract +of land, to which he gave the name of New Georgia. Passing through +Bougainville Straits, which, in ignorance of the discoveries of the +French navigator, he named after himself, Lieutenant Shortland continued +on his voyage. The names of the numerous headlands[370] on the south +side of the Solomon Group, bear witness in the present chart to the +accurate observations of the English navigator: and from him Mount +Lammas, the highest peak of Guadalcanar, received its name. Like +Bougainville and Surville, Shortland was not acquainted with the nature +of his discoveries.[371] + + [370] Capes Philip, Henslow, Hunter, Satisfaction, etc. + + [371] Shortland communicated with the natives of Simbo. An account + of this voyage is given in the "Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany + Bay:" London, 1789. + +It now remained for the geographers to avail themselves of the materials +placed at their disposal by the voyages of the French and English +navigators. M. Buache in a "Memoir on the Existence and Situation of +Solomon's Islands,"[372] which was presented to the French Academy of +Sciences in 1781, deals with the discoveries of Carteret, Bougainville, +and Surville. The steps by which he arrived at the conclusion that the +groups of islands discovered by these navigators were not only one and +the same group, but that they were the long-lost Isles of Salomon of +Mendana, afford an instructive instance of how a patient and laborious +investigator, endowed with that gift of discrimination which M. Buache +employed with such laudable impartiality, may ultimately attain the +truth he seeks, invested though it be in clouds of mystery and +contradiction. Groping along through a maze of conflicting statements, +to which both navigators and geographers had in equal share contributed, +M. Buache finally emerged into the light of day, when he asserted in his +memoir that between the extreme point of New Guinea as fixed by +Bougainville and the position of Santa Cruz as determined by Carteret, +there was a space of 12-1/2 degrees of longitude, in which the Islands +of Solomon ought to be found. In this space, as he proceeded to show, +lay the large group discovered by Bougainville and Surville which, he +with confidence asserted, would prove to be none other than the +long-lost islands of the Solomon Group. + + [372] This memoir is given by Fleurieu in the appendix of his work. + +But such a view of the character of the recent French discoveries in +these seas was received by English geographers with that spirit of +partiality from which the cause of geographical science has so +frequently suffered. Mr. Dalrymple in his "Historical Collection of +Voyages," published in 1770, before he had become acquainted with the +discoveries of Carteret, Bougainville, and Surville, stated his +conviction that there was no room to doubt that what Mendana called +Salomon Islands in 1567, Dampier afterwards named New Britain in 1700. +In the introduction to the narrative of his second voyage round the +world, when he followed up Bougainville's exploration of the Australia +del Espiritu Santo of Quiros,[373] Captain Cook supported this view. The +arguments, however, of M. Buache had no weight with Mr. Dalrymple, who +in 1790 re-stated his opinion that the Solomon Islands of the Spaniards +and the New Britain of Dampier were one and the same, and he referred to +the discoveries of Bougainville and Surville as showing no similitude in +form to the Solomon Islands of the old maps.[374] + + [373] This group, which had been previously named by Bougainville, + L'Archipel des grandes Cyclades, was designated The New Hebrides by + Cook, a name which it retains on the present charts. + + [374] "Nautical Memoirs of Alexander Dalrymple." + +But in the minds of French geographers there was little doubt as to the +correctness of the views of M. Buache. Amongst the detailed geographical +instructions given by Louis XVI. in 1785 to La Perouse, when he was +setting out on his ill-fated expedition, was one which directed the +attention of this illustrious navigator to the examination of the +numerous islands of the Solomon Group, and especially to those which lay +between Guadalcanar and Malaita.[375] It was considered almost +indubitable, as M. Fleurieu informs us, that the intended exploration by +La Perouse of this archipelago would convert probability into certainty. +But when in the vicinity of the islands he was never destined to behold, +La Perouse experienced that mysterious fate which has excited sympathy +throughout the civilised world. On the reef-girt shores of Vanicoro his +ships were wrecked, and the French commander and his men were never seen +again by any Europeans. As Carlyle wrote, . . . "The brave navigator +goes, and returns not; the seekers search far seas for him in vain, +. . . . and only some mournful mysterious shadow of him hovers long in +all heads and hearts."[376] + + [375] "Voyage de la Perouse," redige par M. L. A. Milet-Mureau; + London, 1799. + + [376] Carlyle's "French Revolution," ch. V., p. 37. + +The ominous silence that had fallen over the doings of the absent +expedition, on account of the non-arrival of the long expected +dispatches, must have been, in a double sense, a cause of disappointment +to M. Fleurieu, who had hoped to demonstrate the correctness of the +views of the French geographers by the results of the explorations of La +Perouse. It was with the object of showing that the New Georgia of +Shortland was one and the same with the Terre des Arsacides of Surville +and the Choiseul of Bougainville, and that the French and English +navigators had independently of each other discovered the lost Solomon +Group, that M. Fleurieu published in Paris in 1790 his "Decouvertes des +Francois en 1768 et 1769 dans le sud-est de la Nouvelle Guinee."[377] +"The desire of restoring to the French nation its own discoveries, which +an emulous and jealous neighbour has endeavoured to appropriate to +herself, induced us," thus the author wrote in his preface to his work, +"to connect in one view, all those that we have made towards the +south-east of New Guinea; and particularly to prove, that the great +land, which Shortland imagined he discovered in 1788, and to which he +gave the name of New Georgia, is not a new land, but the southern coast +of the Archipelago of the Arsacides, the famous Islands of Solomon, one +part of which was discovered after two centuries by M. de Bougainville +in 1768, and another more considerable by M. de Surville in 1769." I +need not refer to the detailed arguments of this learned geographical +writer. Under his arguments, Surville's appellation of Terre des +Arsacides and Shortland's of New Georgia,[378] finally gave place to the +original title given by the Spanish navigator. "It was the work of M. de +Fleurieu," thus writes Krusenstern,[379] the Russian voyager and +hydrographer, "that removed once and for all any doubt that might have +been held about the identity of the discoveries of Bougainville, +Surville, and Shortland, with the Solomon Islands." Another illustrious +navigator, Dumont D'Urville,[380] thus alludes to the successful labours +of his countrymen, . . . "Le laborieux Buache et l'habile Fleurieu +travaillerent tour a tour a etablir cette identite qui, depuis, est +devenue un fait acquis a la science geographique; les iles relevees par +Surville et par Bougainville sont reellement l'archipel Salomon de +Mindana." Thus the lost archipelago was found, not so much by the +fortuitous course of the navigator as by the patient investigations of +the geographer in his study. The result is intrinsically of little +importance to the world at large; but, as an example of the success of a +laborious yet discriminate research, it may afford encouragement to all +who endeavour to add something to the sum of knowledge. + + [377] English translation published in London in 1791. + + [378] The designation of New Georgia has been retained in the modern + charts for that portion of the group which is known as Rubiana. + + [379] "Recueil de Memoires Hydrographiques," St. Petersburgh, 1824. + Part I., p. 157. + + [380] "Histoire Generale des Voyages," Paris, 1859; p. 228. + +I will now refer briefly to the voyagers who subsequently visited this +group, after its identity had become established. In May 1790, +Lieutenant Ball,[381] in the "Supply," when on his voyage to England +from Port Jackson _via_ Batavia, made the eastern extremity of the +Solomon Islands. He sailed along the north side of the group until +opposite the middle of Malaita, when he headed more to the eastward and +clear of the land. He correctly surmised that he was sailing along the +New Georgia of Shortland, but on the opposite side of it: though he +looked upon the islands of Santa Anna, Santa Catalina, and Ulaua as his +own discoveries, and he named them respectively Sirius's Island, +Massey's Island, and Smith's Island. In December 1791, Captain Bowen of +the ship "Albemarle," during his voyage from Port Jackson to Bombay, +sailed along the coast of New Georgia, and reported that he had seen the +floating wreck of one of the vessels of La Perouse; but this report was +discredited by Captain Dillon in the narrative of his search after the +missing expedition.[382] In 1792, Captain Manning,[383] of the +Honourable East India Company's Service, during his voyage from Port +Jackson to Batavia in the ship "Pitt," made the south coast of the +Solomon Group off Cape Sidney, which was the headland first sighted by +Lieutenant Shortland. Sailing westward, he imagined St. Christoval and +Guadalcanar were continuous, and he thus delineates their coasts in his +track-chart much as Shortland did. The Russell Islands he named +Macaulay's Archipelago, a name which ought to be retained as a +compliment to their discoverer. He then passed between Rubiana and +Isabel, naming the high land of the latter island Keate's Mountains. +Passing through the strait between Choiseul and Isabel, which bears his +name, Captain Manning proceeded northward on his voyage. + + [381] _Vide_ "An Historical Journal," &c., by Capt. John Hunter. + London, 1793; pp. 417-419. + + [382] "Voyage in search of La Perouse's Expedition." London, 1829. + + [383] "Chart of the track and discoveries of the ship 'Pitt,' Capt. + Edward Manning, on the western coast of the Solomon Islands in + 1792." + +At this time, a French expedition, under Admiral Dentrecasteaux, was +cruising in the same part of the Pacific with the object of ascertaining +the fate of La Perouse. Amongst the instructions embodied in a "Memoire +du Roi," which were given to the French admiral, was the following one +referring to the Solomon Islands: . . "Qu'il s'occupe a detailler cet +archipel, dont il est d'autant plus interessant d'acquerir une +connoissance parfaite, qu'on peut avec raison le regarder comme une +decouverte des Francois, puisqu'il etoit reste ignore et inconnu pendant +les deux siecles qui s'etoient ecoules depuis que les Espagnols en +avoient fait la premiere decouverte."[384] In July 1792, when on his way +from New Caledonia to Carteret Harbour in New Ireland, in prosecution of +his search for the missing expedition, Dentrecasteaux made the Eddystone +Rock which had been thus named by Shortland, and passing by Treasury +Island, he skirted the west coast of Bougainville and Bouka. In May of +the following year, when on the passage from Santa Cruz to the Louisiade +Archipelago, the expedition sailed along the south coast of the Solomon +Islands as far as Rubiana. Passing between St. Christoval and +Guadalcanar, Dentrecasteaux sailed close to the island of Contrariete +and communicated with the natives. Whilst one of his ships lay off the +north-west part of St. Christoval, the natives of Gulf Island (Ugi) +discharged a flight of arrows from their canoes and wounded one of the +crew. It is satisfactory to learn that her commander contented himself +with firing a musket and discharging a rocket at them without effect, +and that no other retaliatory measures were taken to intercept them in +their flight. Turning back on his course, the French admiral was almost +tempted to explore the group of islands between Guadalcanar and Malaita, +to which the work of Fleurieu had directed his attention, and had he +done so, he would have cleared up the confusion with which the vague +description of Figueroa has surrounded these islands; but his +instructions and the object of his voyage led him along the south coast +of Guadalcanar on his way to the Louisiade Archipelago. + + [384] "Voyage de Dentrecasteaux," redige par M. de Rossel. Paris, + 1808; tom. i., p. xxxiii. + +To the voyagers who visited this group during the first half of the +present century, I can only briefly allude. The Solomon Islands were +seldom visited during the early portion of it, except, perhaps, by +occasional trading-ships whose experiences have rarely been made known, +a loss which may not be a subject for our regret. However, in March, +1834, there sailed from New York the clipper "Margaret Oakley," bound on +a trading and exploring voyage in the South Pacific.[385] She was +commanded by Captain Morrell, who was accompanied by a young American, +named Jacobs, to whom we are indebted for a very singular narrative of +the cruise, which, for private reasons, was not published till 1844. +Into the extremely questionable proceedings of Captain Morrell,[386] in +his dealings with the natives during his sojournings in the Western +Pacific, I need not here enter. It will be sufficient for me to remark +that they had better have been buried in the oblivion which is most +fitting for such deeds of heartless cruelty. Mr. Jacobs, in his attempt +to describe the discoveries of the voyage with which we are more +particularly concerned, exercises an amusing freedom in dealing with the +explorations of the famous early navigators in this region. Instead of +adding to our knowledge of these seas, by his presumption, he has thrown +discredit on the whole of his narrative; and it is only by the insertion +in his account of a rude sketch-map of New Guinea and the islands +south-east of it that he has rescued his narrative from utter confusion. +There we see, that by Bidera he means New Britain; by Emeno, New +Ireland; Bougainville is honoured by the retention of his name for the +large island which he discovered; whilst the other large land-masses of +the Solomon Group would have had their identities hopelessly lost in the +narrative under the appellations of Baropee, Soterimba, and Cambendo, +had it not been for the rude map attached. References to dates are +systematically avoided by Mr. Jacobs; however, it would appear that +probably, in 1835 or 1836, they extended their cruise to the islands of +the Solomon Group. Coasting along the west side of Bougainville Island, +they sailed through the straits of that name, and skirting the north +coasts of Choiseul (Baropee) and Isabel (Soterimba), they turned Cape +Prieto and steered S. by E. Sailing by a singular rock like a ship under +sail (the Two Tree Islet of the chart), their course lay through +beautiful verdant islands; and then passing a volcanic island with steam +issuing from the crater on its summit (the Sesarga of the Spaniards and +the Savo of the present day), the lofty lands of Cambendo (Guadalcanar) +appeared in view. Coasting westward, along the north side of +Guadalcanar, they were visited by Tarlaro, the King(?) of Cambendo, who +was accompanied by a great number of natives. On the following day, they +visited a large village, where they were friendly received; and shortly +afterwards they left the group, steering southward and passing Rennell +Island. + + [385] "Scenes, Incidents, and Adventures in the Pacific Ocean." By + T. J. Jacobs. New York, 1844. + + [386] When Dumont D'Urville was in London, shortly before he started + on his last voyage, he was asked his opinion of Morrell with + reference to his cruises in the high southern latitudes. His reply + was that he was already acquainted with him as "un fabricateur du + contes." ("Voyage au Pole Sud." 1837-1840. Introduction, p. lxvii.) + +In November, 1838, Dumont D'Urville,[387] the French navigator, sighted +the Solomon Group, in his passage westward from Santa Cruz. Coasting +along the north side of St. Christoval and the south side of Malaita, he +recognised in Surville's Terre des Arsacides the Malaita of the +Spaniards. He then set himself to work to clear up the difficulty with +reference to the position of the islands named by the Spaniards, Galera, +Florida, Buena Vista, Sesarga, &c., islands which had never been since +explored, but he ultimately contented himself with viewing these islands +from off the north coast of Buena Vista. After endeavouring imperfectly +to identify them with the description of their first discoverers, he +anchored in Thousand Ships Bay, which was originally discovered by +Gallego and Ortega; and he named his anchorage Astrolabe Harbour, after +one of his ships. From the circumstance that the natives, who came off +to the ships, made use of such expressions as "veri gout," "captain," +"manoa" (man of war), D'Urville concluded that they had recently been +visited by other voyagers.[388] Leaving Thousand Ships Bay, he sailed +along the south coast of Isabel, and passing through Manning Strait, he +skirted the north side of Choiseul and Bougainville Islands and then +left the group. + + [387] "Voyage au Pole Sud et dans l'Oceanie." 1837-40. Paris, 1841. + + [388] According to his narrative, Jacobs, in the "Margaret Oakley," + anchored in the vicinity of Thousand Ships Bay, two or three years + (?) before the visit of D'Urville. + +Dumont D'Urville was the last of the French navigators to whom the +re-discovery and exploration of the Solomon Islands are in the main due. +A singular fatality seems to have attended the careers of nearly all the +French commanders who visited these seas. With the exception of +Bougainville, who lived to superintend, in 1804, the fitting out of the +flotilla, at Boulogne, for the invasion of England, all died during the +voyage or shortly after their return. Surville was drowned on his +arrival at Peru. La Perouse met with his untimely fate at Vanikoro, and +neither of the two commanders of the expedition that was sent in search +of him survived the voyage; Dentrecasteaux died from scurvy off New +Britain, and Huon Kermadec died before the ships left New Caledonia. +Lastly, D'Urville was killed in a railway accident at Paris, whilst +engaged in the completion of the narrative of his expedition. + +In July, 1840, Captain Sir Edward Belcher,[389] whilst on his voyage to +New Ireland, in H.M.S. "Sulphur," made the south coast of Guadalcanar; +but after looking in vain for an anchorage, he continued his course. In +1844, Capt. Andrew Cheyne, in the trading-schooner "Naiad," visited +Simbo Island and the neighbouring islands. We are indebted to him for +much information concerning this part of the group.[390] About 1847, +Monsignor Epalle, a French Roman Catholic Bishop, was landed, with +eighteen priests, on the island of Isabel, for the purpose of founding a +mission. On first landing, the bishop strayed from the rest of the party +and received his death-blow at the hands of the natives, who are +supposed to have been tempted by his dress and ornaments. In April of +1847, three French missionaries, living at Makira, were murdered by the +hill-tribes of St. Christoval; and in March of the following year, M. +Dutaillis,[391] in command of the French corvette "L'Ariane," anchored +at Makira, and sent an expedition into the interior by which the +villages of the murderers were destroyed and many of the natives killed +and wounded. + + [389] "Narrative of a Voyage round the World in H.M.S. 'Sulphur:'" + vol. II., p. 70. + + [390] "A Description of Islands in the Western Pacific Ocean." + London, 1852. + + [391] "Annales Hydrographiques;" tome I. 1848-49. "Last Cruise of + the 'Wanderer,'" by John Webster, p. 73. + +In September, 1851, the ill-fated yacht "Wanderer,"[392] with her owner, +Mr. Benjamin Boyd, on board, visited the Solomon Group. Cruising along +the south coast of St. Christoval, the yacht put into Makira, where she +lay at anchor nearly three weeks. Friendly intercourse was established +with the inhabitants and frequent shooting excursions were made into the +interior. Mr. Boyd thought so highly of the advantages of Makira and its +harbour, that he intended to return there with the intention of entering +into a treaty with the principal natives of the locality for the purpose +of acquiring it for future commercial purposes. However, the careers, +both of the yacht and of its owner, were drawing to a close. From +Makira, they proceeded to Guadalcanar. Leaving his vessel anchored in +Wanderer Bay, as it has since been named, Mr. Boyd landed with his gun, +accompanied by a native of Panapa. Neither of them were ever seen again; +and they appear to have met with their deaths at the hands of the +natives soon after landing. A great number of the natives attacked the +yacht, but they were repulsed by the crew of the "Wanderer" with +grape-shot and musketry. An ineffectual search was made for Mr. Boyd and +his companion: and before the yacht left the locality, round and +grape-shot were poured into the villages, canoes and houses were burned, +and probably a large number of natives were killed and injured. The +"Wanderer" now left the group; and in the following month she was +totally lost on the bar of Port Macquarie on the Australian coast. + + [392] "Last Cruise of the 'Wanderer.'" By John Webster. + +In 1854, there were rumours in Sydney, that Mr. Boyd was still alive and +that his initials had been seen carved on trees in Guadalcanar. A skull, +which had been bought from a chief by the captain of a trading-ship as +that of Mr. Boyd, proved, on examination, to belong to a Papuan. +However, in December of this year, Captain Denham, in H.M.S. "Herald," +visited the scene of the tragedy; and after making inquiry into the +matter, he came to the opinion that the unfortunate owner of the +"Wanderer" had been killed directly after he landed, and that the +various stories current respecting his being alive were inventions of +the natives. + +I now bring to a close this short sketch of the history of the Solomon +Group since its identity was established by the French geographers +towards the end of the last century. During the last thirty years there +has been greatly increased intercourse with the natives of these +islands; the Melanesian Mission has firmly established itself; numerous +traders have resided in the more friendly districts; and the visits of +men-of-war and trading-ships have been very frequent. But this increased +intercourse with the outer world of savage peoples, who can with +difficulty distinguish between a stranger and a foe, has been +accompanied, as we might naturally have expected, by many tragic +episodes, some of which we can deplore, most of which we can only +reflect upon with mingled feelings of shame and regret. The reprisals on +the part of men-of-war have not been always satisfactory in their +results; and the effect of the labour-traffic has been to undermine the +confidence which the missionary and well-intentioned trader have been +long endeavouring to create. The quiet heroism of the members of the +Melanesian Mission, under circumstances often the most dispiriting and +insecure, it would ill become me to praise. It will be sufficient, +however, to remark that it has been the only redeeming feature in the +intercourse of the white man with these islanders during the last +twenty-five years. + + + + +GEOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX. + + +NOTE I. + + THE ACCOUNTS OF GALLEGO AND FIGUEROA COMPARED.--On carefully + comparing these two accounts, I have no doubt that Figueroa derived + almost all his information from the journal of Gallego. He, to a + great extent, employs his own phraseology; but in the descriptions + of the islands and of the natives, the words and expressions + employed are often identical, and the mode and order of description + are evidently supplied by the journal of Gallego. An indirect proof + of the source, whence Figueroa drew his materials, is to be found in + the circumstance that, after the two vessels were separated during + the voyage back to Peru, he confines his account to the experiences + of the "Capitana," which was Gallego's vessel; and here his account + is substantially a condensed form of Gallego's journal which is + occasionally quoted literally. Figueroa, however, does not inform us + of the source of his information; and he has evidently, in some + measure, endeavoured to infuse his own method of expression into the + account. There are not wanting proofs, however, that he was assisted + from other sources, but only in a small degree. For instance, he + occasionally intercalates a circumstance to which Gallego does not + allude; and he varies in the accounts of the conflicts with the + natives: thus he refers to some of the Spaniards having died at + Estrella Harbour, to there being a foot and a half of water in the + hold of one of the ships during the return voyage, to the ships + being heaved-down at St. Christoval, and to a few other similar + occurrences unrecorded by Gallego. The account of Figueroa differs + in the date of the year of the voyage. It contains only a bare + reference to the cruise of the brigantine to St. Christoval and its + adjacent islands, whilst the vessels lay at the Puerto de la Cruz on + the coast of Guadalcanar. It is from this cause that the names of + all the islands visited and named during this cruise of the + brigantine are not given in Figueroa's account. Herrera, however, in + his short description of these islands, gives a full list of the + names of the islands, and, in this respect, his description is + superior to that of Figueroa. + + +NOTE II. + + DISCREPANCIES IN THE DATES OF THE YEARS.--There is a strange + discrepancy in the dates of the years during which this expedition + was away from Peru. The year 1566, is given on the title-page of the + British Museum copy of Gallego's Journal; and the author expressly + states that the expedition left Callao on November 19th, 1566; he + carries this year on, naming the following year, 1567; but in August + he gives the year as 1568, and makes the return to Peru to be in + 1569. It is evident from the narrative that the ships were absent + from Peru about nineteen months, from November of one year to June + of the second ensuing year; and it is highly probable that the year + of their departure was 1566, and that of their return 1568. . . . + Figueroa differs strangely in the dates he gives.[393] In the first + line of his account he says that the ships were dispatched in 1567; + and in the succeeding paragraph he gives January 10, 1568, as the + date of their departure from Callao, thus being quite at variance + with Gallego, both as regards the day, the month, and the year. The + ships reached the coast of Mexico on their return voyage in January + 1568, according to Figueroa. From this inconsistency it may be + inferred, that 1567 was intended as the date of the departure from + Peru. . . . Herrera,[394] in his description of these islands, + states that they were discovered in 1567, which accords with the + narrative of Gallego. . . . Arias[395] in a memorial addressed to + Philip III. of Spain, says that Mendana discovered San Christoval in + 1565; but his account is both short and confused, and was evidently + not derived from original sources. . . . Notwithstanding the + conflicting character of the dates, the probable dates would appear + to be as follows.--The ships left Peru on November 19th, 1566, + discovered the Isles of Salomon on February 7th, 1567, and arrived + at Peru on June 19th, 1568. + + [393] "Hechos de Don Garcia H. de Mendoza," por el Doctor Christoval + S. de Figueroa. Madrid, 1613. + + [394] "Descripcion de las Indias Occidentales." (Madrid, about + 1601.) + + [395] "Early Voyages to Terra Australis," by R. H. Major (p. 1). + Hakluyt Society, 1859. + + +NOTE III. (Page 199.) + + THE ISLE OF JESUS.--Burney[396] estimated the longitude of this + island to be 172 deg. 30' East of Greenwich; Krusenstern,[397] on + surer grounds, fixed it at 171 deg. 30': but both estimates were + based on an erroneous longitude of the Candelaria Shoals. . . . I + have shown in note iv. that these shoals are probably identical, not + with the Roncador Reef as is implied in the present charts, but with + the islands of Ontong Java, to the northward; however, this + correction affects but little the question of longitude. Taking the + longitude of the centre of Ontong Java at about 159 deg. 30' E. (in + lat. 5 deg. 25' S.), the longitude of the Isle of Jesus, 167 Spanish + leagues to the eastward (in lat. 6 deg. 45' S.), would be about 169 + deg. E. The only island shown on the present charts in the vicinity + of this position is Kennedy Island, also called Motuiti, the + existence of which is stated to be doubtful. Its position, as + determined by the "Nautilus" in 1801, was 8 deg. 36' S. 167 deg. 50' + E.[398] However, in 1883, the German war-vessel "Carola" failed to + find it in this position in the chart, and the initials _E. D._ are + there attached to the name. The difficulty may, I think, be explained + by the existence in this region of some atoll of no great size, the + position of which has been never correctly determined. It would + appear that a similar view is held by Captain Wharton, the present + Hydrographer, since in the Sailing Directions for these seas issued + in 1885, the island is still given prominent mention.[399] Not + improbably the missing island will be found between the 6th and 7th + parallels, and near the position assigned to the Isle of Jesus. + + [396] "Chronological History of Vovages and Discoveries in the South + Sea." Vol. I. p. 289. London, 1803. + + [397] "Recueil de Memoires Hydrographiques." St. Petersburg, 1824. + + [398] Findlay's "Directory of the Pacific Ocean." Part II 999. + (London, 1851.) + + [399] "Pacific Islands." Vol. I. p. 50. (Western Groups.) 1885. + + Herrera gives the name of another island, "El Nombre de Dios," which + is said by him to lie in 7 deg. S. lat., and to be 50 leagues distant + from Santa Anna; Gallego does not refer to any island with this + name; and since Herrera makes no reference to the Isle of Jesus, it + is possible that this isle may be here alluded to, as its latitude + corresponds somewhat with that of "El Nombre de Dios." M. + Fleurieu[400] identifies this island, however, not with the Isle of + Jesus, but with an island off the north end of Malaita which was + named Gower I. by Captain Carteret in 1767, and Inattendue I. by M. + Surville, in 1769. + + [400] "Discoveries of the French, 1768-1769, to the S. E. of New + Guinea," p. 181. (London, 1791). + + +NOTE IV. (Page 199.) + + THE CANDELARIA SHOALS.--The shoals were identified by Fleurieu with + the Roncador Reef discovered by Maurelle in 1781; and Krusenstern + subsequently confirmed this opinion. Gallego, however, describes + shoals trending N.E. and S.W. for more than fifteen leagues, which + cannot possibly be the Roncador Reef of the present chart, which is + not more than six miles across. These Candelaria Shoals, on the + other hand, correspond in their size with the large atoll of Ontong + Java lying about 35 miles to the north of the Roncador Reef, and + being about 50 miles in width. The apparent difference in latitude + between Ontong Java, which lies in about 5 deg. 25' S., and the + Candelaria Shoals of Gallego, which were placed by him in 6 deg. 15' + S., may be explained by the circumstance that the majority of + Gallego's observations of latitude in the Solomon Group were about + two-thirds of a degree in excess of the true latitude.[401] By making + this correction, the latitude of Ontong Java and of the Candelaria + Shoals will be found to closely approximate. The bearing and distance + of the Candelaria Shoals from the west end of Malaita (as given by + Gallego on p. 205) and from Estrella Harbour (as given on p. 202) go + to support my view that the Candelaria Shoals of Gallego and the + Ontong Java of Tasman are one and the same. + + [401] _Vide_ Note V. of Geographical Appendix. + + +NOTE V. + + THE LATITUDES OF GALLEGO IN THE SOLOMON GROUP.--On making fourteen + comparisons of the latitudes obtained by Gallego with the latitudes + of the same places in the most recent Admiralty charts, places about + which there can be no doubt as to their identity, I find that all + but two are in excess of the true latitude. The excess varies + between 11' and 1 deg. 7' (about); and since seven of the twelve + latitudes vary between 38' and 46' in excess, we may take 40' _plus_ + as about the probable and average prevailing error of Gallego's + observations of latitude in this group. A constant error points to + some constant defect of observation; whether it may be instrumental + or otherwise, I must leave to the judgment of my nautical readers. + . . . . It may be inferred from his journal that Gallego did not + endeavour to make his latitudes by observation accord with his + bearings, as they are so often at variance. This circumstance should + be borne in mind in order to explain the discrepancies that occur. + + +NOTE VI. (Page 206.) + + THE ISLE OF RAMOS AND THE ISLAND OF MALAITA.--On referring to the + account of Figueroa in the original Spanish, I find that, like + Gallego, he applies the name of Ramos to Malaita. Pingre, who + published a translation of Figueroa's account in 1767 at Paris,[402] + associates the two names together. Dalrymple[403] in his + translation, published in 1770, laid the ground for future + misconception, by so pointing the sentence that the name of Ramos + might be taken as intended for one of the "two islets" in the middle + of the passage between Malaita and Isabel. Fleurieu,[404] in his + translation of Figueroa published in Paris in 1790, applies the name + of Ramos to Malaita. Burney,[405] in his version (1803), apparently + applies this name to one of the islets above referred to. The + authority of Dalrymple and Burney would appear to supply an + explanation of the circumstance that in the present Admiralty charts + this name of Ramos is applied to an islet between Malaita and + Isabel; but Dalrymple's version is susceptible of two meanings, and + may be urged with equal justice on either side. Gallego and Figueroa + both apply the two names to the same island; so that circumstance + alone is sufficient to justify the restoration to Malaita of the + Spanish name of "The Isle of Ramos." The original cause of the + mistake is to be attributed to the first discoverers, who gave their + own name and were not content with the native name. Herrera[406] has + fallen into the opposite error, since, in distinguishing between + Malaita and Ramos, he gives the latter a circuit of 200 leagues. + + [402] "Memoire sur le choix et l'etat des lieux ou le passage de + Venus du 3 Juin, 1769." (Paris, 1767.) + + [403] "Hist. Coll. of Voy. and Discov.," London, 1770. + + [404] "Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769." + + [405] "Chronol. Hist. Voy and Discov.," vol. i. + + [406] "Descripcion de las Indias Occidentales." + + +NOTE VII. (Pages 207-209.) + + THE ISLANDS BETWEEN CAPE PRIETO AND GUADALCANAR.--These islands + which occupied the attention of Fleurieu and Burney, and excited the + curiosity of Dentrecasteaux, and which D'Urville had intended to + have completely explored, have long baffled the efforts of + geographical writers, who have endeavoured to identify them with the + islands mentioned by Figueroa in his brief account of Mendana's + discoveries in this region. His description is evidently derived + from that of Gallego, of which it is but an imperfect and erroneous + extract: and I will therefore disregard it. The island of Galera is + apparently a small island, not named in the present chart, which + lies close to the north-west coast of Buena Vista. The neighbouring + large island, a league distant, to which Gallego only applies the + native name of Pela,[407] is, as I apprehend, the Buena Vista of the + present chart: the Buena Vista of the Spaniards is apparently an + island, not named in the chart, which lies west of the present + Sandfly Passage. The remaining four of the five islands may be in + the future identified with the incompletely surveyed intersected + mass of land to which the general name of Florida is applied in the + present chart. The island of Sesarga is without doubt the volcanic + island of Savo: but I must refer the reader elsewhere for further + information on this subject of Sesarga.[408] + + [407] At the present day the whole of the Florida sub-group is known + to the natives as Gela. (Codrington's "Melanesian Languages," p. + 522.) + + [408] The evidence is given in my volume of Geological + Observations. + + +NOTE VIII. (Page 220.) + + THE EXCESSIVE DIMENSIONS OF GUADALCANAR.--How could such + misconceptions have arisen? They are totally inconsistent with the + rest of the journal; and to such statements must be attributed the + exaggerated reports which long prevailed with reference to the size + of this island. The lengths of the islands of Isabel, Malaita, and + St. Christoval, as given by Gallego, are greatly overstated; in the + case of the two former islands they are at least double the true + dimensions, and they completely disagree with the latitudes and + bearing, which are noted in the journal. + + +NOTE IX. (Page 233.) + + THE CONSULTATION AS TO THE FUTURE COURSE OF THE EXPEDITION.--The + ignorance in which Mendana seems to have kept his officers with + regard to the character of his instructions considerably hampered + the captains and pilots in their consultation. We learn subsequently + (page 237) that it was originally intended to prosecute the voyage + westward in order to explore the extensive lands that lay in that + direction. However, the protest made by the crews seems to have + caused a change of plans. They were to steer northward for the Isle + of Jesus, where Gallego apparently expected to find more land, as + they provided themselves with natives as interpreters (page 233) + before quitting the group. This northerly course found favour, when + Gallego pointed out that it was on the track of their return voyage. + + +NOTE X. (Page 234.) + + ISLANDS IN THE SOLOMON GROUP WHICH DO NOT AT PRESENT BEAR THE NAMES + GIVEN TO THEM BY THE SPANIARDS:-- + + Present name. Spanish name. + + Ugi San Juan + Three Sisters Las Tres Marias + Ulaua (Contrariete) La Treguada + Malaita Ramos (Isle of) + Savo Sesarga + Ontong Java Candelaria Shoals + Choiseul San Marcos + New Georgia (?) { San Nicolas + { Arracises (Reefs). + + +NOTE XI. (Page 237.) + + INIGO ORTEZ DE RETES AND BERNARDO DE LA TORRE.--We learn from + Galvano's "Discoveries of the World,"[409] that in 1545 Captain + Inigo Ortez de Rotha was dispatched from Tidore to New Spain. He + sailed to the coast of Papua, and not knowing that Saavedra had + discovered it in 1528, he assumed the honour of the discovery. Mr. + Coutts Trotter in a recent article[410] refers to him as Ortiz de + Retez or Roda, and he informs us elsewhere[411] that Antonio de + Abreu was probably the first discoverer of New Guinea in 1511. + According to Galvano (page 234), a Spanish officer named Bernaldo de + la Torre started from the Philippines in 1543, on a voyage to New + Spain. + + [409] Hakluyt Society's Publication, 1862, p. 238. + + [410] Encyclopaedia Britannica (Article on "New Guinea.") + + [411] Proceedings, Royal Geographical Society, 1884, p. 196. + + +NOTE XII. (Page 238.) + + THE ISLANDS OF SAN BARTOLOMEO.--The Musquillo Islands of the + Marshall Group, with which I have identified this discovery of the + Spaniards, were thus named by Captain Bond in 1792.[412] They form a + double atoll about 38 miles in length and trending N.W. and S.E. + The N.W. end is in latitude 8 deg. 10' N., and the S.E. end is in + latitude 7 deg. 46' N. Captain Bond ranged along the coasts of above + 20 small islands. At the N.W. end and isolated from the rest are two + small islands about three miles apart. On comparing this description + with that given by Gallego, the reader will have little doubt as to + the identity of the Musquillo Islands with the Spanish discovery. It + is probable that Gallego considered this discovery to be near the + position of an island discovered in 1536 in 14 deg. N lat. by Toribio + Alonzo de Salazar,[413] 328 Spanish leagues from the Mariana + Islands, and named by him San Bartolomeo. This discovery of Salazar + is marked in Krusenstern's General Atlas of the Pacific. + + [412] Purdy's "Oriental Navigator," p. 689. + + [413] Krusenstern's "Memoires Hydrographiques," St. Petersburgh, + 1827: Part II, p. 49. + + +NOTE XIII. (Page 239.) + + THE ISLE OF SAN FRANCISCO.--Wake's Island, with which I have + identified the Isle of San Francisco, was discovered in 1796 by the + "Prince William Henry." Commodore Wilkes, who fixed its position in + 1840 (lat. 19 deg. 10' 54" N.; long 166 deg. 31' 30" E. of G), thus + describes it. "Wake's Island is a low coral one, of triangular form + and eight feet above the surface. It has a large lagoon in the + centre, which was well filled with fish of a variety of species; + amongst these were some fine mullet. There is no fresh water on the + island, and neither pandanus nor cocoa-nut tree. It has upon it the + shrubs, which are usually found on the low Islands of the Pacific, + the most abundant of which was Tournefortia. The short-tailed + albatross is found here; birds quite tame though not as numerous as + in other uninhabited islands. The appearance of the coral blocks and + vegetation leads to this conclusion that the island is at times + submerged or that at times the sea makes a complete breach over + it."[414] Wake's Island is about the size of the island described by + Gallego. Its latitude, its isolated position, and the close + agreement of Wilkes' description with that of Gallego, leave no room + to doubt that Wake's Island and the Isle of San Francisco are one + and the same . . . Burney refers to a small island named San + Francisco which is placed in the chart of the Galleon in Anson's + voyage in lat. 19-1/2 north and 84 deg. east of the Strait of San + Bernardino; but he adds that it is too far to the east to be + identified with the island discovered by Mendana.[415] + + [414] "Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition," vol V. + p. 267. + + [415] "Chronol. History of Voy. and Disc." vol I. p. 291. + + +NOTE XIV. (Page 251.) + + THE LIST OF ISLANDS IN THE VICINITY OF TAUMACO WHICH WAS OBTAINED BY + QUIROS IN 1606 FROM ONE OF THE NATIVES.--They are as follows, + Chicayana, Guantopo, or Guaytopo, Taucalo, Pilen, Nupan, Pupam, + Fonfono or Fonofono, Mecaraylay, Manicolo, Tucopia, Pouro. More than + half of these islands can be identified with certainty, even after + an interval of nearly three centuries. + + Chicayana may be without a doubt identified with Sikyana or + Sikai-ana, the present native name of the Stewart Isles which lie + about 250 miles to the north-west of Taumaco, or as the Taumaco + people reckoned, four days' sail in their large canoes. In fact, the + native from whom Quiros obtained his information was originally from + Chicayana, having been carried by contrary winds to Taumaco whilst + endeavouring with a number of his fellow-islanders to reach the + island of Mecaraylay. The Chicayana natives were described to Quiros + as being very fair with long loose _red_ hair, some, however, being + darker like mulattoes, but with hair neither curled nor quite + straight. They possess much the same characters at the present + day.[416] + + [416] These islands, as far as is known, were not visited by + Europeans until nearly two centuries after the visit of Quiros, when + Captain Hunter came upon them in 1791. + + Guaytopo or Guantopo was a larger island than those of Taumaco and + Chicayana. Since it is placed three days' sail (native reckoning) + from Taumaco and two days from Chicayana, it may have been one of + the eastern islands of the Solomon Group. The inhabitants were said + to have skins as fair as Europeans and red or black hair. They + punctured their bellies in a pattern of a circle around the navel; + and painted their bodies red down to the waist. The women were very + handsome and were clothed with some light material from head to + foot. The natives of Guaytopo, Taumaco, and Chicayana, were on very + friendly terms and spoke the same language. + + The islands of Pilen and Nupan are evidently the Pileni and Nupani + of the adjacent Matema or Swallow Islands, which lie to the + northward of the large island of Santa Cruz. Fonofono or Fonfono, + which is stated to lie near Pilen and Nupan, may perhaps be the + Lomlom of the same small group. It was described to Quiros as being + "many islands, small and flat," with a good port. The inhabitants + were said to be dun-coloured, and very tall. + + Tucopia was subsequently visited by the Spanish navigator. In later + times it has obtained a melancholy interest in connection with the + fate of La Perouse. Mecaraylay is apparently in the vicinity of + Guaytopo, but possessing a different language, its inhabitants being + noted for the use of tortoise-shell ornaments. Its name suggests + that of Makira, on the south coast of St. Christoval, in the + neighbouring Solomon Group. Taucalo may perhaps be the volcanic + island of Tinakula lying off the north coast of Santa Cruz Island. + It is stated to be near Taumaco. + + The "large country" called Manicolo is to be identified with the + adjacent large island, named Vanikoro in the present Admiralty + charts, which lies about 100 miles to the southward of Taumaco. It + is referred by Captain Cook[417] to the Mallicolo of the New + Hebrides, lying 4 deg. further south, which he visited in 1774; but + this view cannot be sustained. In the first place, it is stated to + lie two days' sail from Tucopia. The following evidence, however, is + sufficient of itself to settle the point. When Captain Dillon[418] + was on his way to Vanikoro in 1827, to ascertain the fate of La + Perouse, he learned from the natives of the neighbouring island of + Tucopia that the island he was going to was called _Malicolo_: but + he subsequently ascertained on visiting the island in question, that + it should be more correctly called _Mannicolo_ or _Vannicolo_. In + his chart of the island, Captain Dillon calls it Mannicolo. The + resemblance in name between these two islands in the New Hebrides, + and Santa Cruz Groups has been a frequent cause of misconception in + references to the narratives of the early navigators. + + [417] "Voyage towards the South Pole and round the World," vol. II., + p. 146. + + [418] "Discovery of the fate of La Perouse," London, 1829: vol. I., + p. 33. + + +NOTE XV. (Pages 100, 251.) + + THE POURO OF QUIROS.--A native of Chicayana, whom Quiros had + captured at Taumaco, told the Spanish navigator that there dwelt in + Taumaco "an Indian, a great pilot," who had brought from "a large + country, named Pouro," certain arrows, with points, in the form of a + knife, which, from the native's description, Quiros concluded were + of silver. Pouro, he learned, was very populous, and its inhabitants + were dun-complexioned. + + When I first came upon this reference to Pouro, I at once recognised + it as an allusion to the Bauro (St. Christoval) of the Solomon + Group, lying rather less than 300 miles to the westward of Taumaco. + Mr. Hale,[419] the philologist of the United States Exploring + Expedition, under Commodore Wilkes, endeavours to identify the Pouro + of the Taumaco natives with the Bouro in the Malay Archipelago, an + island lying more than 2,000 miles further westward: and he refers + to the circumstance of the silver arrows that were brought to + Taumaco as supporting his view. Regarding Bouro as the island + referred to in the traditions of the Fijians, Tongans, and Samoans, + relating to the origin of their race, Mr. Hale finds in the Pouro of + the Taumaco natives an allusion to this sacred island, and in the + circumstance of the silver arrows he finds evidence of communication + between these two regions. There can, however, be little doubt that + by this Pouro the Bauro of the Solomon Group was meant. The presence + of the silver arrows may be easily explained, when we remember that + about forty years before, the Spaniards were exploring this island + of Bauro, or Paubro as Gallego gives it (page 229). + + [419] "Ethnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring Expedition," + p. 195. + + +NOTE XVI. + + THE EDDYSTONE ROCK AND THE SIMBOO OF LIEUTENANT SHORTLAND.--For a + considerable time after the re-discovery of the Solomon Islands by + the French and English navigators, few islands were better known in + the group than Eddystone or Simbo Island. In thus naming this + island, however, there has been a singular misconception; and since + the name of Simbo has been omitted in the latest Admiralty chart + (August, 1884) of the group, some explanatory remarks may be of + interest. + + In August, 1788, Lieutenant Shortland,[420] whilst sailing along the + south coasts of the Solomon Group on his voyage from Port Jackson to + England _via_ Batavia, approached "a rock which had exactly the + appearance of a ship under sail, with her top-gallant sails flying;" + and so striking was the resemblance that a signal was made to the + supposed vessel. The ships did not approach within three or four + miles of this rock. It was named the Eddystone and was placed in + lat. 8 deg. 12' S., bearing S.S.W. a league from two remarkable hills + which were named the Two Brothers. A point running south from these + two hills was named Cape Satisfaction. Whilst the English ships were + off the Eddystone, some natives came to them in their canoes, from + whom Shortland learned that they had come from "Simboo," a place + which lay, as they indicated by their gestures, near Cape + Satisfaction. In the chart of his discoveries, this officer assigns + this name to some land lying east of the Two Brothers near the + position of the island at present called Gizo, but it is evident + both from his chart and from his narrative that he considered Simboo + as the general name for the land to the east of Cape Satisfaction; + and Fleurieu, when remarking on his discoveries, made the suggestion + that the Simboo of Shortland might prove to be the Choiseul of + Bougainville.[421] + + [420] The narrative of Lieut. Shortland's voyage is given in "The + Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay in 1787": London, 1789. + + [421] "Discoveries of the French, 1768-1769, to the S.E. of New + Guinea:" London, 1791, p. 196. + + In what manner, we may now inquire, have the discoveries of + Shortland been identified with the islands that are laid down in the + latest charts of this group? For half a century and more the name of + Eddystone has been attached, not to a rock such as that to which it + was originally given, but to the adjacent volcanic island about four + miles in length and about 1100 feet in height; and the name of Cape + Satisfaction has been given to the south end of Ronongo which lies + ten miles N.N.E. of Eddystone Island. This cape is stated by + Shortland to run south from the two remarkable hills which he named + the Two Brothers. The island of Ronongo, however, has a long and + level summit destitute of peaks; and it is evident that we must look + elsewhere for the Cape Satisfaction of Shortland. In Eddystone + Island, there are two singular conical hills which might very fitly + have been named the Two Brothers, and it will be seen from the + sequel that it must have been to the south extremity of this island + that the name of Cape Satisfaction was in the first place given. I + shall also point out that the original Eddystone rock is represented + at the present day by a bare rock which rises out of the sea at a + distance of about a third of a mile from the south-west coast of + Eddystone Island, and that the Simboo, from which the natives came + to visit Shortland, was a diminutive island on the opposite or + south-east side of this same island. + + When, in July 1792, the French expedition under Dentrecasteaux + arrived in this locality, the Eddystone rock was at once recognised + by the description of Shortland. . . . "nous apercumes"--thus wrote + Labillardiere[422] the naturalist of the expedition--"le rocher + nomme Eddystone. De loin nous le primes, comme Shortland, pour un + vaisseau a la voile. L'illusion etoit d'autant plus grande, qu'il a + a peu pres la couleur des voiles d'un vaisseau; quelques arbustes en + couronnoient la sommite." In the Atlas of this voyage (carte 24), + this rock is placed off the south-west end of the island at present + named Eddystone Island, and exactly in the position of the bare rock + above alluded to, which will be found marked in the plan of this + island made by the surveying officers of H.M.S. "Lark" in 1882. + Lieutenant Malan tells me that this rock at the time of the survey + was quite bare of vegetation. It rises in two conical masses from + the water between which a boat can pass in calm weather. Although it + has a height of 30 feet, it is frequently washed over by the heavier + seas. The change in the appearance of this rock, since the visit of + Dentrecasteaux in 1792 when its summit was crowned with shrubs, has + been probably due to a movement of subsidence which has affected the + adjacent coast of Eddystone Island in recent years (_vide below_). + To such a change must be attributed the confusion which has arisen + with reference to the Eddystone rock; and cartographers, failing to + identify it, have applied its name to the adjacent volcanic island + on which they have also bestowed the name of Simbo. During his + survey of this island in 1882, Lieutenant Oldham ascertained that + this name of Simbo actually belonged to a small island bordering its + south-east coast with which it was connected by coral reefs. The + true native name of Eddystone Island, he found to be Narovo, and in + the latest Admiralty charts it is thus designated; the name of Simbo + is there attached to the small adjacent island which is, I have no + doubt, the Simboo from which the natives came, who visited + Shortland's ships in 1788 as they lay off the Eddystone rock. At the + present day the larger island of Narovo is but thinly populated, and + its inhabitants are under the sway of a powerful chief who resides + on the small island of Simbo. There he rules over a warlike and + adventurous people who by their head-hunting raids have established + the fame of their diminutive island throughout a large portion of + the Solomon Group. + + [422] "Voyage a la recherche De la Perouse," par Labillardiere: + Paris, 1800: tom i, p. 215. + + * * * * * + + [In my volume of Geological Observations I have described the + movement of subsidence, to which is due the confusion concerning the + original Eddystone rock]. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +BOTANICAL NOTES IN BOUGAINVILLE STRAITS. + + +MY botanical collections were made during 1884 in the islands of +Bougainville Straits; and in order to add to the completeness of this +section of my work, I will briefly refer to the physical character of +this locality. The principal islands of this sub-group are Treasury +Island, the Shortland Islands, and Faro, or Fauro, Island; whilst around +these lie numerous smaller islands and islets. The largest is not more +than twelve miles in length, and none of them attain an elevation +exceeding 2000 feet, Faro being about 1900 feet, Treasury about 1100, +and Alu, the principal of the Shortland Islands, about 500 feet. In +geological character they differ widely, Treasury being, for the most +part, of recent calcareous formations, Faro of volcanic formations, +whilst Alu is formed of rocks of both these classes. Of the numerous +smaller islands and islets which dot these straits, some are of +volcanic, and others of coral rocks. + +In my botanical excursions in these islands, I received the greatest +assistance from the natives; and I was particularly struck with the +familiar knowledge of their trees and plants which these islanders +possessed. They have names for not only nearly all the trees, but for +several of the grasses; and, in the case of the former, when I was +uncertain as to whether I had come upon any specimen before, they would +obtain its flower, or fruit, or foliage, and point out to me its +comparative characters. The superior knowledge, which these natives +possess of each plant and its uses, has often led me to reflect on the +meagre acquaintance with the commonest trees, shrubs, and herbs, which +the ordinary white man can claim. Had my native companions asked me to +instruct them in a similar manner on the vegetation of an English +woodland--if such a rapid change of scene were possible--they would +probably have regarded me as a very ignorant and unobservant fellow. +They have names for and display a familiarity with many plants that can +be of no service to them, a somewhat puzzling circumstance, which may be +perhaps explained by their employing instinctively a method of exclusion +in the selection of those plants that are of service to them. For the +building of his house, the cultivation of his ground, the construction +of his canoe, the manufacture of his spears, clubs, and other weapons, +and for his many other wants, the native has to resort to the vegetable +kingdom for the requisite materials. An extensive acquaintance with the +vegetation of his island-home is unconsciously acquired by a native who +has himself to provide for all his necessities: but his knowledge +extends far beyond that limit which mere utility would appear to demand. +In a paper published recently in an American serial,[423] Mr. Matthews +combated the notion that savages are versed only in the knowledge of +plants and animals that contribute to their wants. He found that the +Indians are incomparably superior to the average white man, or to the +white man who has not made zoology or botany a subject of study. In this +respect, his experience accords with my own. The native of the Solomon +Islands will point out by name, in some remote inland dell, an +insignificant plant, which, he says, is of no service to him: he names +all the weeds of his cultivated patches; and he is similarly acquainted +with all the wild fruits, usually distinguishing them by their edible or +injurious qualities. Yet, in arriving at such a conclusion, it behoves +one to be wary, as I have sometimes found that the native applies the +name of a useful plant to all other useless plants (usually of the same +genus or family) that resemble it in their more conspicuous characters. +Then, again, I have often been surprised at the singular holes and +corners in the vegetable world which the native ransacks to supply his +wants. A fern that clothes the higher slopes of Faro Island, and which +is known to the natives as "sinimi," and to the botanist as a species of +_Gleichenia_, furnishes the material for their plaited armlets. For this +purpose they employ narrow strips of the vascular tissue that forms the +firm central portion of the stem. I had previously looked upon this fern +as of little use to these islanders, and on learning of the ingenious +purpose for which it was employed, I became very careful in the future +when pronouncing on the utility or inutility of any familiar plant. + + [423] "Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington," Vol. + VII. + +With these preliminary remarks, I will proceed to describe the general +characters of the vegetation of these islands; and, in order to connect +my observations together, I will treat of them in the form of a series +of excursions made in different districts. + +_An ascent of one of the larger streams in the Shortland Islands._--In +the lower part of its course, the stream follows a circuitous course +amidst the gloom and dismal surroundings of a mangrove swamp. It is +difficult to convey in words a true idea of such a scene. The features +most imprinted on my memory are those of "a slow and silent stream" of +dark turbid water, traversing a swamp of black, repulsive-looking mud, +in which the crocodile finds a congenial home. The light of day is +subdued into a depressing gloom by the foliage of the mangrove forest: +the air, charged with the miasma of decaying vegetable life, is +impregnated with a sour, unpleasant odour; and the silence that prevails +is interrupted only by the fall of a branch, or by the startled cry of +some wading-bird disturbed in its haunt. Nipa palms line the banks in +places, and occasionally occupy the swamp for some distance on either +side of the stream. Overhead, perched high upon the branches of the tall +mangroves, occur the two singular epiphytes, _Hydnophytum_ and +_Myrmecodia_, both of which have been found to be species new to science +(_H. Guppyanum_, Becc.; _M. salomonensis_, Becc.). From the following +remarks, my readers will be able to observe the peculiar features of +these interesting rubiaceous plants. The large swollen base of the stem, +sometimes eighteen inches in length, is occupied by cavities which are +usually infested by ants that actively resent any attempts to carry off +their home. It has been considered that this swollen mass and its +chambers are due to the irritation produced by the ants gnawing at the +base of the young growing stem, and that the plant cannot thrive without +the ants; but from observations made by Mr. H. O. Forbes,[424] in Java, +on the origin of "this curious-galleried structure" in a species of +_Myrmecodia_, it would seem that this swollen mass and its chambers are +produced without the presence of ants, and that in their absence the +plant may thrive vigorously. Not unfrequently, I found the ants in +scanty numbers, and sometimes they were absent altogether. In the case +of _Myrmecodia salomonensis_, and _Hydnophytum inerme_,[425] they are +found in considerable numbers. The chambers of _H. Guppyanum_ are +usually nearly full of dirty rain-water, and contain scarcely any ants, +a few cockroaches being generally found in the cavities. Those specimens +which I examined of another species of this genus (_H. longistylum_, +Becc.), that occurs on the coast trees, contained a few cockroaches, but +no ants; and, on the outer surface of one of the swollen masses, I found +a small crab. From my own cursory notes, it would therefore seem +probable that these epiphytes may thrive without the presence of ants. +. . . . With this digression, I return to my description of the ascent +of the stream. + + [424] "A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago," p. 81. + (1885.) + + [425] This species was obtained at Ugi. + +Leaving behind the slime and gloom of the swamp, the rising ground is +reached, at the base of which the vegetation is of the most luxuriant +character, and often have I lingered here in my Rob Roy canoe to admire +the luxuriance of plant-growth that surrounded me. For on account of the +lowness of the district, it shares the dampness though not the +infertility of the swamps below. The soft clayey rock, which is exposed +in the banks of the stream, affords a rich and even too productive soil. +Nature runs riot and becomes prodigal in her profusion; and thus growth +is too often associated with decay to present on all occasions a +pleasing picture to the eye. Here the tree-fern, the croton, the wild +plantain, and numerous areca palms flourish; but the alpinias, +heliconias, and other scitamineous plants form the chief feature of the +vegetation on this gently rising ground. + +Higher up the stream, tall forest trees rise on each side often +enveloped partially by a drapery of runners and climbing plants, their +leafy branches spreading over the water. Stout lianas hang in festoons +across the stream. Partly hidden amongst the greater vegetation may be +seen the fan-palm of the district (_Licuala_, the "firo" of the +natives), and another pretty little palm known as the "sensisi," +_Cyrtostachys_, together with the handsome foliage of a _Plerandra_ +("fo") and numerous areca palms. An occasional _Dolicholobium_ +("lowasi") with white flowers distributes its fragrance around. Ferns +abound along the banks, varying in size from the small _Trichomanes_ to +the tree-fern, twenty feet in height, and the _Angiopteris_ with its +magnificent spreading fronds fifteen feet and more in length. If one +leaves the stream for a few minutes at the foot of the hills, a moist, +low-lying district is traversed, the home of the scitamineae and the +areca-palms, which latter are distinguished amongst the natives as the +"momo," "niga-solu," "niga-torulo," and "au-au." + +Ascending the hill slopes towards the source of the stream, numerous +palms rise up on either side. The _Caryota_ ("eala") with its branches +resembling the fronds of a huge adiantum, the handsome "kisu" (probably +a species of _Drymophloeus_) and a tall areca known as the "poamau," are +those which frequently meet the eye. Interspersed among them we notice +the lesser areca-palms and the fan-palm before alluded to. On the crest +of the hill, at a height of some 200 or 300 feet above the sea, are +found tall forest trees, some of them of gigantic size and attaining a +height of 150 feet and upwards. Amongst them occur the banyan ("chim"), +other ficoid trees with the flange-like buttresses, and the "katari," a +species of _Calophyllum_ which supplies the natives with a resin for +their torches. In the following description of the interior of the +forest in this region I have referred at some length to the larger +trees. + +_The interior of the forest. . . ._ To obtain a true idea of the +forest-growth in these islands, it is necessary to traverse one of the +more level districts in the interior, which is removed from the vicinity +of the cultivated patches of the natives. Entering the confines of the +forest direct from the full glare of the tropical sun, one experiences a +peculiar and often oppressive sensation, which may be attributed to the +combined influences of the warmth, the humidity, and the effluvia +arising from the decaying vegetation, to the impressive silence that +reigns, and to the subdued light or dusky atmosphere that there +prevails. Meeting overhead at a height of some 150 feet from the ground, +the foliage and the smaller branches of the lofty trees form a dense +leafy screen roofing over, as it were, a series of lofty corridors in +which the palms and the lesser trees flourish. The gloom that there +prevails is rarely lightened by the direct rays of the sun, except here +and there through the gap left by the downfall of one of the huge trunks +that now lies rotting on the ground. Nor is the silence that reigns +often broken, except by the cooing of the fruit-pigeons overhead or by +the rushing flight of the hornbill startled from its repose. Here the +steady blast of the trade is no longer felt and is only perceptible in +the movements of the foliage of the tallest trees. Yet there is little +in such a scene that would strike the mind of the merely aesthetic lover +of nature. Flowers he rarely sees: they are only to be found where the +sunlight can reach them in the partially cleared spaces in the midst of +the forest, or on the sides of ravines, or along the coasts. On the +other hand, however, he cannot fail to be impressed by the luxuriance +and magnificence of the vegetation in this conservatory of Nature. + +Under such conditions the palms flourish. The _Caryota_, the "kisu" +palm, numerous areca-palms, with the tree-fern, give the character to +the lesser vegetation. Huge climbing stems, such as the "droau," the +"aligesi" (_Aleurites?_), the "nakia" (_Uvaria_), the "awi-sulu" +(_Lyonsia_) lie in coils on the ground and rising vertically reach the +lower branches of the trees some fifty to a hundred feet overhead. The +large purple papilionaceous flowers of the "droau" sometimes strew the +ground at the bases of the tallest trees. If the forest be situated on a +hill-side, the slope is clothed by _Selaginellae_ which often display in +the midst of their dark-green foliage pretty bleached fronds that form a +striking contrast to the prevailing hue. Mosses, small ferns, and fungi, +such as the massive expansions of _Polyporus_ and the more delicate +plates of _Hexagona apiaria_ and others, conceal in some degree the +unsightliness of the decaying log. A drapery of lycopods and of trailing +and climbing ferns, such as _Trichomanes_ and _Lygonia_ more or less +completely invests the lower portions of the trunks of the larger trees. +Seventy or eighty feet overhead the wide-spreading fronds of the +birds-nest fern (_Asplenium nidus_) appear half-suspended in mid-air, as +they project from their point of attachment to the tree. Lower down the +trunk, the handsome aroid _Epipremnum_ may be observed. Epiphytic +orchids form no marked feature in this forest-scene, preferring, as they +do, those situations where the direct sunlight can reach them, as at the +coast and on the sides of ravines. Terrestrial orchids, however, with +inconspicuous and sombre-coloured flowers thrive in the gloom and +moisture of the forest. + +The larger trees, to which I have not yet referred, often attain a +height of 150 feet and over. Here the banyan and more than one species +of _Canarium_ including the "ka-i" or Solomon Island Almond tree, +together with a _Ratonia_ ("nekale"), a _Vitex_ ("fasala"), the "katari" +(_Calophyllum_) before mentioned, and numerous ficoid trees known to the +natives as the "uri," the "ilimo," and the "nie," figure amongst the +more conspicuous of the forest trees. Many of them possess at the base +of the trunk large buttresses or flanges, which, as in the "tobu," +"ilimo," "nie," and "maranato" (_Sapotacea?_), may rise twelve to +fifteen feet up the trunk and extend some twenty feet away along the +ground. Some of the ficoid trees throw off at a height of from twenty to +thirty feet, large flange-like buttresses, which, on reaching the +ground, form natural arches. These lofty trees, as I have already +remarked, meet together overhead to form a leafy screen, which, whilst +it excludes the direct rays of the sun, admits and confines both the +moisture and the heat. This conservatory of nature contains within its +own precincts the conditions for its preservation. Here the young tree +grows up, its safety ensured, until at length it becomes a pillar in the +edifice in which it was itself reared. The open character of the wood +and the absence of scrub and undergrowth, more especially on level +ground, have often been a cause of surprise to me. I have often walked +without impediment through the gloomy corridors of such a forest, +brushing past the huge trunks of the tallest trees, and winding in and +out amongst the palms that number as many years in age as their giant +compeers count decades. + +On first treading in such a forest, the visitor is much impressed by the +imposing appearance and size of the banyans and the buttress-trees. With +mingled feelings of awe and pity he will perceive that between these +monarchs of the forest there is waged an unequal struggle, in which the +huge buttress-tree always succumbs to the rough embraces of its foe. He +will observe all the stages in the struggle. Here the buttress-tree may +be seen in its prime, but in part embraced at its lower part by the +tightly clasping offshoots of the young banyan. Further on, in the midst +of the interlacing columns of the banyan, the buttress-tree may be seen +partially strangled. Dry rot has attacked its trunk reaching almost to +the core, so that a sheath-knife sinks readily up to the handle in its +substance; yet, far overhead the wide-spreading branches of this forest +potentate are covered with green foliage, and still wave defiantly in +the trade. In the prolonged contest the buttress-tree is dying hard, and +in fact it is the stout investing trunks of the banyan that alone hold +its victim erect. Near by may be another banyan of larger size and +presenting the appearance of a maze of columns which may cover an area +thirty to forty feet across. Its victim has long since disappeared, and +a hollow in the centre of the maze of stems alone marks the former +situation of the huge buttress-tree. + +What finer or more impressive simile could be employed to illustrate the +gradual degeneration and final downfall of a nation under the choking +influences of vice, corruption, luxury, and misgovernment? A mighty +forest tree is slowly strangled by the caresses of an insidious creeper. +With advancing decay its tottering stem is alone supported by the +tightening grasp of its foe. Yet its higher branches retain their +vitality to the last; and when the end comes, its ashes add fertility to +the soil and vigour to the growth of its destroyer. + +It is not to be surprised that this battle of the trees should be +included in the mythical lore of some of the inhabitants of the Pacific +islands. Dr. George Turner, in his recent work entitled "Samoa, a +hundred years ago and long before," gives the following legend of the +banyan. . . . . . "A report reached Samoa that the trees of Fiji had +fought with the Banian tree, and that it had beaten them all. On this +the Tatangia (_Acacia laurifolia_) and another tree went off from Samoa +in two canoes to right the Fijian champion. They reached Fiji, went on +shore, and there stood the Banian tree. 'Where is the tree,' they +inquired, 'which has conquered all the trees?' 'I am the tree,' said the +Banian. Then said the Tatangia, 'I have come to fight with you.' 'Very +Good, let us fight,' replied the Banian. They fought. A branch of the +Banian tree fell, but the Tatangia sprung aside and escaped. Another +fell--ditto, ditto--the Tatangia. Then the trunk fell. The Tatangia +again darted aside and escaped unhurt. On this the Banian tree 'buried +its eyes in the earth' and owned itself conquered." + +_An ascent to the summit of the Faro Island. . . ._ In making an ascent +to the higher districts of this island, which attains an elevation of +about 1900 feet above the sea, a little may be learned perhaps of the +vertical distribution of the coast flora in this portion of the Solomon +Group. The cycad (_Cycas circinalis_) grows most frequently just within +the trees that immediately line the beach and may be often observed at +all heights up to 400 feet above the sea, but it is not usually found at +greater elevations.[426] The following large trees commonly occur on the +hill-slopes up to an elevation of a thousand feet, the "fasala" +(_Vitex_), the "toa" (_Elaeocarpus_), the "opi-opi," the "ka-i" +(_Canarium_), the "katari" (_Calophyllum_), and others; whilst the palms +such as the fan-palm (_Licuala_), the _Caryota_ ("eala"), the "kisu" +(_Pinanga_) and the arecas, fill up the intermediate ground, the +fan-palm growing in great numbers and often monopolising the slope.[427] +The smaller trees, of a height usually of sixty or seventy feet, which +are more frequently observed during the lower half of the ascent, are, a +species of _Cerbera_ ("anumi"), the "kunuka" (_Gnetum_), the +"palinoromus" (_Couthovia_), the "poporoko," and others; whilst on the +hill-slopes below the elevation of 500 feet the small conifer _Gnetum +Gnemon_ ("meriwa") may be commonly seen. In three different localities, +at elevations of between 1,000 and 1,100 feet above the sea, I came upon +brakes of fine bamboos (_Schizostachyum?_) 35 to 40 feet in length which +are employed as fishing-poles by the natives. This bamboo, both in +Treasury and Faro Islands, does not appear to occur below this height; +whilst in the Shortland Islands, although found at a lower elevation, it +selects the higher regions of the island. + + [426] At Treasury Island I found a solitary cycad at a height of a + thousand feet above the sea. As it was in the vicinity of a + plantation of sago palms, it is probable that it had been planted by + the natives who employ the fruits for medicinal purposes. + + [427] This fan-palm, the "firo" of the natives, was in 1884 only + represented in Treasury by a single individual which had been + brought a few years before from Bougainville, where the leaves are + employed in making a conical hat that is commonly worn. + +Above a thousand feet, many of the trees and palms so frequent below +become less common or disappear. The fan-palm (_Licuala_) which grows in +such numbers in the lower levels did not come under my notice above this +elevation. On account of the absence of large trees near the summit, the +lesser vegetation receives more of the sun's rays; and thus at 1,600 +feet above the sea the alpinias, such as the "vitoko" and the "kokuru" +re-appear, plants which usually abound in the lower levels in all open +situations, as on the banks of streams. For the same reason, we find +near the summit of the island at elevations of 1,600 to 1,700 feet the +tall composite shrub, _Wedelia biflora_, which is one of the commonest +of the plants that grow at the margin of the beach. On account of this +absence of large trees, and the consequent increased exposure to the +sun's rays, the smaller trees with conspicuous flowers find a congenial +situation at this elevation: here are found the species of +_Dolicholobium_ ("lowasi"), which is common on the banks of the streams +in the lower levels, the _Fagraea Berteriana_ ("bubulata") which grows +also at the coast, a wild nut-meg tree (_Myristica_), a species of +_Harpullia_ ("wawaupoko"), the "pakuri" (_Eugenia_), the "baimoloi" and +others. In these higher regions tree-ferns grow to a height of thirty +feet; and here the areca-palms, "momo" and "niga-torulo," are also +found. Here flourishes the _Gleichenia_, a fern which does not usually +grow at elevations under 700 feet above the sea, and which is +represented by two common species: it is the "sinimi" of the natives +who, as I have already remarked, work the fine strips of its vascular +tissue into armlets which they commonly wear. Near the summit and all +down the slopes is found a species of _Begonia_, a genus, as I am +informed by Baron von Mueller, not before recorded from islands east of +New Guinea.[428] A dense growth of the trailing stems of a _Freycinetia_ +and of ferns clothes the rocky sides of the highest peak, which is +almost bare of trees. Here however I found a new genus of the +_Pandanaceae_, which, like some other pandanus trees, is known to the +natives as "sararang." It grows to a height of fifty feet, and was only +observed by me on the highest peak of the island and for two or three +hundred feet below. It has a very conspicuous white "branching female +spadix," three to four feet in length; and I learn from Professor Oliver +that the same or a near ally of it, though not in a condition to +describe, was collected by Signor Beccari in Jobi Island off the +north-west coast of New Guinea. + + [428] A species of _Ophiorrhiza_ is in Treasury Island usually + associated with this _Begonia_ and is found at all elevations. + +_The coast vegetation of the larger islands. . . ._ It is in the coasts +of such an island as Treasury or Faro Island, where the strictly +littoral and more inland plants become intermingled, that the Solomon +Island vegetation in some degree redeems its character. Here the +prevailing sombreness and inconspicuous inflorescences give place to +bright hues and to a variety of flowers. Here are seen the handsome +white flowers of a rubiaceous tree, a species of _Bikkia_; the yellowish +flowers and bright red fruits of _Harpullia capanioides_ ("koloa"); the +crimson flowers of an _Erythrina_ (perhaps _indica_); the yellow flowers +of _Caesalpinia Nuga_; the large pods of _Pongamia glabra_; and the +fruits of a wild nutmeg (_Myristica_, sp.). _Hernandia peltata_ and +_Clerodendron inerme_ may also be here found. The conspicuous flowers of +_Hibiscus tiliaceus_, _Thespesia populnea_, and of other littoral trees +such as _Cerbera Odollam_ and _Guettarda speciosa_, add their brightness +to the scene. Amongst the foliage of the trees twine a species of +_Ipomoea_ with handsome white flowers, and here are seen the wax-like +flowers of more than one species of asclepiad (_Hoya_, sp). Orchids, +some of striking beauty, hang from the trunks of the trees and form a +conspicuous feature in the scene. Among them occur species of +_Dendrobium_, _Coelogyne_, _Cleisostoma_, etc. + +_The littoral vegetation, as exhibited in a coral islet. . . ._ I will +take the case of one of the many wooded islets that have been formed on +the coral reefs by the action of the waves. On the weather side of such +an islet, which may be termed its growing edge, the vegetation is +scanty, and there are but few trees. A binding weed and more than one +species of _Ipomoea_ loosely cover a surface composed almost entirely +of calcareous sand, broken shells, coral debris, and pumice pebbles; and +it is on such an unproductive soil that two or more species of +_Pandanus_ and _Casuarina angustifolia_ flourish. Here at the margin of +the beach may be seen in profusion the tall composite shrub, _Wedelia +biflora_, and another common shrub, _Scaevola Koenigii_. Two climbing +peas prefer the sandy soil in this situation, one with yellow flowers, +_Vigna lutea_, and the other with pink flowers, _Canavalia turgida_; +whilst a dense growth of _Flagellaria indica_ often conceals from view +any rocky slope overlooking the beach. Just within the line of +vegetation immediately bordering the beach, the following trees commonly +occur, _Ochrosia parviflora_ ("pokosola"), _Heritiera littoralis_ +("pipilusu"), _Terminalia catappa_ ("saori"), _Cycas circinalis_, and +one or more species of _Pandanus_. Here also a species of _Crinum_ (the +"papau" of the natives) and the _Tacca pinnatifida_ ("mamago") may be +usually found. (I hoped to have referred to the ferns of such a coral +islet; but my endeavours to obtain any information of my collection have +been unavailing). + +On the lee side of such an islet, which is the oldest portion of its +surface, the vegetation is much denser and of a different character. +Here, the trees form a thick belt, their branches overhanging the rising +tide. Those of most frequent occurrence are, _Barringtonia speciosa_, +_Calophyllum inophyllum_, _Hibiscus tiliaceus_, _Thespesia populnea_, +_Guettarda speciosa_, _Morinda citrifolia_, _Cerbera Odollam_, _Pongamia +glabra_, _Tournefortia argentea_, and others. The trunks of the larger +trees often lean over the beach or lie partly procumbent on the sand. +Amongst the foliage of these coast trees, many of which have large +conspicuous flowers, climbing asclepiads of the genus _Hoya_ with their +equally conspicuous flowers may be frequently observed. Orchids, often +of considerable beauty, hang from the reclining trunks of the trees. +Here, as in the case of the coasts of the large islands, we perceive how +pleasant is the contrast which the littoral vegetation presents when +compared with the gloomy and apparently flowerless forests, where the +tallest trees possess but an inconspicuous greenish inflorescence. + +In the interior of such a coral islet, huge banyans and other trees +having wide-spreading buttresses are to be found. Many of them attain a +height of 150 feet and upwards, and afford a home to numbers of +fruit-eating pigeons which largely subsist on their fruits, and through +whose agency the interiors of coral islets are stocked with these large +trees. Conspicuous amongst the trees is a species of _Canarium_ (the +"ka-i" of the natives), the disgorged nuts of which frequently strew the +ground beneath; a banyan (_Ficus_) with large oblong fruits and another +species with small spherical fruits; other ficoid trees with large +buttresses, such as the "uri"; a species of _Eugenia_, probably a +variety of _Eugenia jambos_; together with several other trees. + +This description of the vegetation of a coral islet brings me to refer +to the manner in which such an islet, which is usually of very recent +origin, has become stocked with its plants: and in so doing I shall be +treating of a very important matter, _the oceanic dispersal of plants_. +Fortunately for me, my notes and collections relating to this subject +had an increased value at the time of my arrival in England, and in this +respect I have been able to accomplish one of the principal aims of a +young traveller, that of supplying trustworthy materials to those +engaged in the particular line of research to which his notes and +collections relate.[429] + + [429] Mr. Botting Hemsley was on the point of completing his report + on the oceanic dispersal of plants in connection with the Botany of + the "Challenger" Expedition. Such of my collections, as referred to + his work, were placed at his disposal by Sir Joseph Hooker; and my + notes were incorporated in volume I. of the Botany of the + "Challenger" (Part III. p. 309), to which I must refer my readers + who are more specially interested in this subject. + +The picturesquely wooded islets of these seas have been stocked through +two principal agencies. Winds and currents drift to their shores the +fruits and seeds of the littoral trees which ultimately form the margin +of the vegetation; whilst the fruit pigeons disgorge the seeds or fruits +of those often colossal trees which occupy the interior. + +I will first refer to the former of these agencies. Lines of vegetable +drift, intermingled with floating pumice, are frequently observable +whilst cruising among the islands of the Solomon Group. The floating +fruits commonly found belong to the most familiar littoral trees of this +region, those of _Barringtonia speciosa_ and _Calophyllum inophyllum_ +being especially frequent; and on more than one occasion the solitary +fruits of the former were noticed at sea by Lieutenant Oldham and myself +at distances of from 130 to 150 miles to the southward of the group, +being probably derived from one of the islands of the New Hebrides to +the eastward. Other fruits or seeds occurring frequently in the drift +are those of _Nipa fruticans_ and of two or more species of _Pandanus_; +numerous beans (species of _Mucuna_, _Canavalia_, _Dioclea_), the long +germinated seeds of the mangrove (_Rhizophora_), an occasional +cocoa-nut, the cones of _Casuarina equisetifolia_, _Terminalia catappa_, +_Lumnitzera coccinea_, _Guettarda speciosa_, _Ochrosia parviflora_, +_Heritiera littoralis_ and others.[430] + + [430] Other fruits found floating were a second species of + _Calophyllum_, a species of _Gomphandra_, _Harpullia_ sp., and some + _Scitamineae_. + +The foregoing seeds and seed-vessels with many others may be observed +washed up by the waves on the surface of the bare sandy islets or +sand-keys, which exhibit the first stage in the growth of those +picturesquely wooded coral islets that are ultimately formed on the +reefs. On such a sand-key, not more than some 25 or 30 yards across, I +have counted as many as 30 different kinds of seeds and fruits, all +collected together in the centre, which was only washed over at +spring-tides. One of the first trees to establish itself is the mangrove +(_Rhizophora_), which by its reclaiming agency adds to the area of the +islet and enables other trees, such as _Lumnitzera coccinea_, to take up +their abode. _Pari passu_ with the seaward extension of the reef, the +islet increases in size; and in time the winds and currents bring other +fruits and seeds which germinate and form ultimately the belt of +littoral trees bordering the beach. In this manner _Barringtonia +speciosa_, _Calophyllum inophyllum_, _Thespesia populnea_, _Hibiscus +tiliaceus_, _Cerbera odollam_, _Ochrosia parviflora_, _Heritiera +littoralis_, _Terminalia catappa_, different species of _Pandanus_, +_Casuarina equisetifolia_, and _Cycas circinalis_ with many others +referred to on a previous page, become established. It is worthy of note +that the fruits of the great majority of trees which form the margin of +the vegetation, whether on the lee or weather side of such an islet, +float in salt water.[431] The small cones of the _Casuarina_ however, +require a certain amount of drying before they can be transported by the +waves. The green fruits of the _Cycas_ usually sink in salt water; but I +found that one out of ten specimens floated, an exceptional circumstance +which sufficiently accounts for the occurrence of _Cycas circinalis_ on +these coral islets. + + [431] The results of some experiments I made are given on page 305. + +Whilst through the agency of the winds and currents the waves have +stocked the islet with its marginal vegetation, the fruit pigeons have +been unconsciously stocking its interior with huge trees, that have +sprung from the fruits and seeds they have transported in their crops +from the neighbouring coasts and islets. Perched up in the branches of +the trees, these birds disgorge the seeds they have brought from other +localities; and the rejected seeds and seed-vessels lie strewn on the +ground beneath. The soft and often fleshy fruits, on which the fruit +pigeons subsist, belong to numerous species of trees. Some of them are +as large even as a hen's egg, as in the case of those of the species of +_Canarium_ ("ka-i") which have a pulpy exterior that is alone digested +and retained by the pigeon. The fruits of the banyans and other ficoid +trees, which with the _Canarium_ are amongst the most conspicuous trees +in the interior of the coral islets, are apparently preferred by the +fruit pigeons, since they occur commonly in their crops. A species of +_Eugenia_ common in the interior of these islets possesses fruits found +in the crops of these birds. Amongst other fruits and seeds on which +these pigeons subsist, and which they must transport from one locality +to another, are those of a species of _Elaeocarpus_ ("toa"), a species of +laurel (_Litsea_), a nutmeg (_Myristica_), an _Achras_,[432] one or more +species of _Areca_, and probably a species of _Kentia_. There is, +however, another bird common on these coral islets, the ground pigeon +_Geophilus nicobaricus_, known commonly as the Nicobar pigeon, which +transports seeds in its gizzard cavity that on account of their hardness +are not fed upon by the ordinary fruit pigeon (_Carpophaga_). The +peculiar structure of the gizzard, which is described on page 323, +enables the Nicobar pigeon to crack seeds that can only be broken by a +sharp blow with a stone. I have found inside this organ, the hard red +seeds of a leguminous plant, very probably _Adenanthera pavonina_, of +which one seed is occasionally found to be cracked. We may therefore +consider that many small hard seeds and seed-vessels, which would be +refused by the common fruit pigeon of these islands, are transported +from one locality to another in the gizzard cavity of the Nicobar +pigeon. + + [432] I am indebted to Mr. Charles Moore of Sydney N.S.W., for the + identification of this fruit. (_Vide_ also "Journal and Proceedings + of the Royal Society, N.S.W.," XVII., p. 226.) + +From the foregoing remarks it may be inferred that the pigeons in these +islands play a very important part in the dispersal of plants, to which, +as Mr. Botting Hemsley remarks in his report (page 313), they have +perhaps contributed more than any other animal. In the Solomon Islands +the fruit pigeons, as dusk approaches, frequent the islets on the coral +reefs in great numbers, and from their unwillingness to leave their +roosts in the trees they fall an easy prey to the sportsman. In one +afternoon, on one of the islets of Choiseul Bay, 57 birds fell to the +guns of Lieutenant Heming and Lieutenant Leeper; and it is to these two +officers that I am indebted for my opportunities of collecting the +fruits taken from the crops of these pigeons. + +In drawing my botanical remarks to a close, it may be fitting to recall +the more lasting impressions which I have received of the vegetation of +these islands; and I may do so in a very few words. The characteristic +features of the vegetation are to be found in the number and variety of +the areca palms; in the abundance of the alpinias, heliconias, and other +scitamineous plants; in the imposing size and form of the banyans and +the buttress trees; and in the profusion of the ferns. I have not +previously dwelt upon the important part which the ferns take in the +vegetation of these islands, because I had hoped to have heard something +of my collection which I presented to the British Museum eighteen months +ago; but, to my great chagrin, I have been unable, after repeated +application, to learn anything concerning it. I may here state that +ferns abound everywhere; in moist and dry situations; in sheltered and +exposed districts; now decking the tree-trunks with their draperies, or +concealing the unsightliness of the decaying log; here covering the bare +slopes of some lofty hill-top, or clothing the surface of some treeless +tract. The tree-fern and the wide-spreading _Angiopteris_ are to be +found on the banks of streams or in some inland dell. The former avoids +the coast, and occurs at all elevations up to 2000 feet and over: it +flourishes at the heads of valleys. + + +LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED IN THE ISLANDS OF BOUGAINVILLE STRAITS, SOLOMON +GROUP, DURING 1884.[433] + + [433] I am mainly indebted to the kindness of Professor Oliver for + the list of the plants collected by me in the Solomon Islands, most + of which were sent to Kew. The ferns are in the British Museum, but + I can learn nothing of them. Fortunately, the fungi were not + included; and for a list of them I am indebted to Mr. Baker. Most of + the orchids, and some of the asclepiads, were given by me to Baron + von Mueller, who intends to examine them in connection with + subsequent collections. I take this opportunity of expressing my + sense of the great kindness he showed me with reference to my plant + collections. To Signor Beccari I am also indebted. Owing to my + inexperience in botanical collecting, the specimens were often + inadequate for descriptive and specific determination; but my + deficiencies will appear more excusable when I state that I devoted + my attention more particularly to the trees. Professor Oliver, + however, informs me that, in spite of its defects, my collection + gives an excellent conception of the flora of the islands visited. + + ANONACEAE. + + Uvaria, sp. . . vulgo "Nakia." A stout climber. + + GUTTIFERAE. + + Ochrocarpus ovalifolius, T. And v. O (Calysaccion) tinctorium, + Seem.? vulgo "Kokoilo." A littoral tree about thirty feet high. + + Calophyllum Inophyllum, L., vulgo "Bogoau." + + Calophyllum sp. . . vulgo "Katari." Two tall trees apparently + distinguished by the size of the fruits. (Flowers not obtained.) A + dark resin oozes from the bark, which the natives burn in torches. + + MALVACEAE. + + Hibiscus tiliaceus, L.: vulgo "Dakatako." + + Thespesia populnea, Corr.: vulgo "Kai-kaia." + + STERCULIACEAE. + + Kleinhovia Hospita, L.: vulgo "Lafai." + + Heritiera an H. littoralis, var. angustifolia? vulgo "Pipilusu." + + TILIACEAE. + + Triumfetta procumbens, Forst. + + Elaeocarpus sp. . . vulgo "Toa." A tree about seventy feet high, with + conspicuous blue fruits, eaten by fruit-pigeons. + + OXALIDACEAE + + Oxalis corniculata, L. + + SIMARUBEAE + + Soulamca amara, Lam. + + RUTACEAE. + + Evodia hortensis, Forst.: vulgo "Luk-a-luk." + + Rutacea (Sec. Toddaliae?). Detached leaves and flowers picked up from + the ground at the foot of a tall forest tree. Flowers "4-meri; + petala imbricata libera; stamina 4 libera, pet. alterna, ovarium + liberum integrum, 4-loc?" + + BURSERACEAE. + + Canarium sp. . . No flowers obtained. A tall forest tree, a hundred + feet and upwards in height. Vulgo "Kai." Known as the Solomon Island + almond tree. The kernels afford a common article of food in August + and September. + + Canarium? vulgo "Nie." A tree with buttresses, a hundred feet high. + + Canarium? vulgo "Nie." A tall forest tree, with buttresses, 100 to + 150 feet high. + + OLACINEAE. + + Gomphandra sp. . . vulgo "Ninilo," or "Ningilo." A tree thirty to + forty feet high. Fruit eaten by wild pigs. + + Lasianthera sp. . . nov? vulgo "Porutolo." A tree sixty to seventy + feet high. + + Olacinea (dub): vulgo "Poporoko." A tree sixty feet high, having a + light reddish wood, and a dark red sap. + + CELASTRINEAE. + + Salacia sp. . . nov. + + RHAMNACEAE. + + Colubrina asiatica, Bngn. + + AMPELIDEAE. + + Leea sambucina, L. (A Gr. U.S. Expl. Expn.) + + SAPINDACEAE. + + Schmidelia aff. S. obovatae, A Gr. A littoral tree, thirty feet high. + + Harpullia cupanioides, Roxb.: vulgo "Koloa." Littoral. + + Sapindacea an aff. Harpulliae? vulgo "Wawau-poko." Growing 1400 feet + above the sea. + + Ratonia sp. . . vulgo "Nekale." A forest tree, a hundred feet high + and over, with inconspicuous buttresses. + + Ratonia sp. . . vulgo "Nekale." A forest tree, a hundred feet high + and over, with buttresses. + + ANACARDIACEAE. + + Mangifera indica. L.? vulgo "Faise." Mango tree, growing in + plantations. Fruit ripens in August. Height, thirty feet. + + LEGUMINOSAE. + + Crotalaria quinquefolia, L.: vulgo "Kokila." + + Desmodium umbellatum, D.C., vulgo "Meki," forma stenocarpa. + + Desmodium ormocarpoides, D.C.? + + Desmodium polycarpum D.C. + + Erythrina: flowers only. E. monosperma perhaps, or E. indica. + + Mucuna gigantea, D.C.? vulgo "Faso-gasuga." + + Mucuna sp. . . vulgo "Wassa-wassawa." + + Mucuna sp. . . + + Papilionacea (dub); vulgo "Droau." A stout climber on forest trees, + with large purple flowers. + + Canavalia turgida, Grah. + + Vigna lutea, A. Gray. + + Pongamia glabra, Vent.? vulgo "Ansapo." + + Sophora tomentosa, L. + + Caesalpinia Nuga, Ait. + + Adenanthera Pavonina, L. (probably). Seeds only obtained. + + Leucaena sp. . .?? vulgo "Gehala." A tree thirty to forty feet high. + + CHRYSOBALANEAE. + + Parinarium laurinum, A. Gr.: vulgo "Tita." A tree about sixty feet + high. From the fruit is obtained a resin used by the natives for + caulking the seams of their canoes. + + ROSACEAE. + + Rubus tilaceus, Sm. + + COMPRETACEAE. + + Terminalia Catappa, L.: vulgo "Saori." Seeds eaten by the natives. + + Lumnitzera coccinea, W. and Arn. + + MYRTACEAE. + + Eugenia sp. . . vulgo "Pakuri." A tree thirty feet high, growing + 1600 feet above the sea. + + Eugenia clusiaefolia, A. Gray (allied to E. Jambolana). + + Eugenia sp. . . vulgo "Tsugi." A littoral tree. + + Eugenia, aff. E. Richii, A. Gr.: vulgo "Malapo." A tree eighty feet + high, with buttresses, growing on coral islets. + + Barringtonia speciosa, F. + + Barringtonia cf. B. edulis, Seem. and B. excelsa, Huds. (New + Hebrides): vulgo "Borolong." A tree thirty to thirty-five feet in + height, growing in plantations. Flowers gathered into very + conspicuous pendent yellow spikes, two and a half feet long. Kernel + of fruit edible. + + Barringtonia aff. B. racemosae, Bl.: vulgo "Misioko." A tree forty + feet high, growing near coast. + + Barringtonia?? vulgo "Sioko." A tree fifteen to twenty feet high, + growing in plantations. Fruit edible. + + MELASTOMACEAE. + + Medinilla sp. . . A climbing plant around the trunks of trees. + + LYTHRACEAE. + + Pemphis acidula, Forst. + + CUCURBITACEAE. + + Cucumis Melo, L., forma? + + ARALIACEAE. + + Panax fruticosum, L. + + Plerandra, near Pickeringii, A. Gray: vulgo "Fo." + + Araliacea (dub?): vulgo "Bubolio." A littoral tree, fifteen feet + high. + + RUBIACEAE. + + Hedyotis Auricularia, L. + + Ophiorrhiza aff. O. cantonensis, Hance. + + Ophiorrhiza sp. . . + + Dolicholobium aff. D. longissimo an D. longissimum, Seem. forma + macranthus: vulgo "Lowasi." A tree fifty feet high and under, common + along the sides of streams. + + Geophila reniformis, C. and S. + + Morinda citrifolia, L.: vulgo "Urati." + + Guettarda speciosa, L.: vulgo "Orgoi." + + Myrmecodia salomonensis, Becc. A new species separated from M. + samoensis, Becc. Noticed commonly on tall mangrove trees bordering + the sides of streams in the lower part of their courses. The swollen + tuberous stem measures as much as one and a half feet in length, and + is usually occupied by many ants. + + Hydnophytum longistylum, Becc. Found on coast trees. Those I + examined contained no ants, but, instead, a few cockroaches. On the + outside of one of them I found a crab. + + Hydnophytum Guppyanum, Becc. A new species. Noticed commonly on the + tall mangrove trees bordering the sides of streams in the lower part + of their courses. The swollen tuberous portion of the stem has a + characteristic scaphoid form; those I examined being nearly full of + dirty rain-water, and almost free from ants; a few cockroaches + occurred in all; some of them are one and a half feet in length. + + (Hydnophytum inerme, a specimen I obtained from Ugi Island, at the + east end of the group in 1882, and identified by Mr. C. Moore of + Sydney.) + + Psychotria sp. . . vulgo "Popotu." + + Psychotria, aff. P. Forsterinae, A. Gr. + + Bikkia sp. . . A littoral tree, twenty feet high, with large + handsome white flowers. + + COMPOSITAE. + + Vernonia cinerea, Less + + Adenostemma viscosum, Forst. + + Blumea aft. B. glandulosae, D.C. + + Eclipta alba, Hassk. + + Bidens pilosa, L. + + Wedelia biflora, D.C. A very common littoral plant, but in one + instance I found it 1600 feet above the sea. + + GOODENIACEAE. + + Scaevola Koenigii, Vahl. vulgo "Nano." A very common littoral + shrub. + + SAPOTACEAE. + + Sapotacea? Seeds only obtained. + + Sapotacea (dub): vulgo "Maranato." A forest tree, a hundred feet + high with large plank-like buttresses. + + APOCYNEAE. + + Ochrosia parviflora, Hensl: vulgo "Pokosola." + + Ochrosia aff. 0. (Lactaria) calycarpae (Miq.). Tree 30 feet high. + + Ochrosia sp. . . vulgo "Bararai." A tree 30 to 40 feet high. + + Cerbera Odollam, Gaertn: vulgo "Lukapau." + + Cerbera sp. . . vulgo "Anoumi." A tree about 50 feet high, growing + away from the coast. + + Lyonsia??: vulgo "Awi-sulu." A stout climber: its bark supplies the + fibres used for making fishing-lines. + + ASCLEPIADEAE. + + Hoya australis, Br.? (H. bicarinata, A. Gr.) forma: vulgo "Alulu." + + Hoya sp. . . (narrow-leaved species). + + Hoya Guppyi, Oliv. sp. nov. Ramulis ultimis parce hirtellis dense + glabratis, foliis petiolatis coriaceis late ellipticis breviter + acuminatis cuspidatisve base late rotundatis subcordatisve supra + glabris, subtus praecipue versus basin plus minus hirtellis, umbellis + pedunculatis, pedunculis pedicellisque glabris, calyce parvo tubo + corollae 2-4-plo breviore 5-partito lobis ovatis obtusis ciliolatis, + corolla rotata lobis patentibus ovatis v. late ovato-lanceolatis + acutatis medio depressis intus hirtellis extus glabris sinubus + reflexis, coronae foliolis cartilagineo-incrassatis disco ovato + lanceolatis concavis obtusis basi angustatis dorso profunde + excavatis marginibus lateralibus utrinque carinatis, folliculis + subteretibus parce hirtellis. + + Folia (3-1/2)-(4-1/2) poll. longis, (2-1/4)-(2-1/2) poll. latis; + petiolo hirtello (1/2)-(3/4) poll. longo; umbella 10-14 flora; + pedunculo 2 poll. longo, pedicellis 1-1/2 poll. longis. Corolla + 1-1/2 poll. diam. rubro-purpurea. Follicula 8-9 poll, longa. + + Faro Island: Bougainville Straits: "A climber on coast trees." + + LOGANIACEAE. + + Couthovia, nearly allied to C. Seemanni A.Gr., if not a variety with + inflorescence throughout tawny-puberulous. Vulgo "Palinoromus." A + forest tree 70 feet high. + + Fagraea Berteriana A.Gr.? vulgo "Bubulata." + + Fagraea morindaefolia, Bl. forma. Vulgo "Kirofe." + + Fagraea sp. . . vulgo "Mamuli." A tree twenty-five feet high. + + BORAGINEAE. + + Tournefortia argentea, L. f. vulgo "Diave." + + Cordia subcordata, Lam. + + Cordia? (Corollas picked off ground.) + + CONVOLVULACEAE. + + Ipomoea denticulata, Chy. + + Ipomoea (Calonyction) grandiflora, Lam? + + Ipomoea pes-caprae, Roth. + + Ipomoea sp. . . + + SOLANACEAE. + + Solanum repandum, F? vulgo "Kirkami." } + + Solanum repandum, F? vulgo "Kobureki."} + + Natives distinguish these two plants, which grow in their + plantations, as shrubs 4 to 6 feet high. Fruits edible when cooked. + + Solanum vitiense, Seem. vulgo "Koriele." + + Physalis angulata, L. + + SCROPHULARINEAE. + + Vandellia Crustacea, Bth. + + CYRTANDREAE. + + Cyrtandra v. gen. nov. aff. + + ACANTHACEAE. + + Adenosma caerulea, R.Br.? + + Baea Commersoni, R.Br. fide F. von. Mueller. + + Hemigraphis reptans, T. And. + + Hemigraphis reptans, forma. + + Ruellia sp. R. arvensis. S. Moore var? v. sp. nov. aff. Growing + beside a stream, 1-1/2 feet high, with light-yellow flowers. + + Acanthus ebracteatus, V. + + Eranthemum variabile, Br. var.? Very common in the waste ground of + plantations and by the sides of paths: 1-1/2 to 2 feet in height. + + VERBENACEAE. + + Premna obtusifolia, R.Br. an P. taitensis Schr? vulgo "Demoko." A + littoral tree 12 to 15 feet in height. + + Vitex an V. acuminata, Br.? vulgo "Fasala." A large forest tree, a + hundred feet and over in height, with small buttresses, supplying + wood for paddles and canoes. + + Clerodendron inerme, Br. + + Verbenacea dubia? vulgo "Au-au." A tree fifty to sixty feet high. + + LABIATAE. + + Moschosma polystachyum: Bth: vulgo "Pipituan." + + Ocymum sanctum, L: vulgo "Kiramma." + + Plectranthus v. Coleus? vulgo "Momauri." Leaves, when crushed, give + a reddish-brown stain, and used for staining the skin. Height 1-1/2 + feet. + + Plectranthus parviflorus, W. + + AMARANTACEAE. + + Amarantus melancholicus, L. + + Cyathula prostrata, Bl. + + PIPERACEAE. + + Piper Betel var. (Chavica Siriboa, Miq.) vulgo "Kolu." + + MYRISTICACEAE. + + Myristica sp. . . vulgo "Ito-ito." Coast tree fifteen feet in + height. + + Myristica sp. . . vulgo "Baimoloi." A tree fifty feet high, growing + 1600 feet above the sea. + + LAURACEAE. + + Litsea sp. . . vulgo "Pitoponkano." A tall forest tree. + + HERNANDIACEAE. + + Hernandia peltata, Meiss: vulgo "Koli." + + EUPHORBIACEAE. + + Euphorbia pilulifera, L. + + Euphorbia Atoto, Forst. + + Phyllanthus (Sec. Emblica) sp., allied to P. baeobotryoides, Wall? vulgo + "Mefuan." A tree 15 to 20 feet high. + + Mallotus tiliaefolius, M. Arg. M. acuminatus, Juss? Tree twenty feet + high, growing at the coast on the border of swampy ground. + + Macaranga sp. . . vulgo "Balako." A tree forty to fifty feet high, + with ringed trunk. + + Aleurites? vulgo "Aligesi." A stout climber on forest trees. Kernels + of fruit edible. + + Sapium indicum, Willd? vulgo "Aligesi." A tree seventy feet high, + growing on the verge of a mangrove swamp. + + Excaecaria Agallocha, L. + + Codiaeum sp. . . ([M]) + + Codiaeum variegatum. A. Juss: vulgo "Tiatakush." + + URTICEAE. + + Trema (Sponia) sp. . .: vulgo "Kio." A tree seventy to eighty feet + high. + + Ficus nr F. theophrastoides. Seem? vulgo "Tutubolo." Growing in + plantations. Probably 10 to 12 feet high. + + Ficus sp. . . vulgo "Uri." A tree eighty to ninety feet high, with + buttress roots. Growing on coral islets. + + Ficus sp. . . vulgo "Sii." A banyan growing at or near the coast and + on coral islets. Multiple trunks, some cylindrical and erect, others + plank-like and arching. Height eighty or ninety feet and over. + + Ficus sp. . . vulgo "Chim." A banyan often growing on the crest of + inland ridges. The multiple trunks are all cylindrical and erect, + and individually smaller than in the case of the Sii: they are also + more closely arranged. Height a hundred and fifty feet and over. + + Ficus? vulgo "Ilimo." A tall forest tree over a hundred feet in + height, with magnificent buttresses. + + Artocarpus incisa, L. There appears to be but one variety of the + Bread-fruit tree in the islands of Bougainville Straits. The fruit + is stalked, seedless, and rough externally, the leaves pinnatisect, + with smooth surfaces. Fruit ripens in August. Vulgo "Balia." + + Artocarpus sp. . . vulgo "Tafati." Perhaps a variety of the + Jack-fruit Tree (A. integrifolia). Sixty feet high. Fruit larger + than the common bread-fruit, but more irregular in shape: seeded: + edible. + + Fleurya interrupta, Gaud. (F. spicata, var.) + + Elatostemma integrifolium, Wedd.? + + Elatostemma? vulgo "Obu-obu." + + Procris integrifolia, Don?? + + Pellionia sp. . . + + Leucosyke an L. corymbulosa? Coast tree fifteen feet high. + + Pipturus velutinus, Wedd? v. P. argenteus? vulgo "Dilipoa." A tree + thirty to fifty feet high; trunk partially ringed; aerial roots. + + CONIFERAE. + + Gnetum Gnemon, L. vulgo "Mariwa." + + Gnetum sp. . .: vulgo "Kunuka." A tree sixty feet high, prominently + ringed. Kernels of fruits eaten by the natives. + + CASUARINEAE. + + Casuarina angustifolia F. + + ORCHIDEAE. + + Dendrobium hispidum, Rich. (fide F. v. Mueller). + + Dendrobium sp. . . near D. dactylodes, R. fil? + + Coelogyne sp. . . + + Cleisostoma sp. . . + + SCITAMINEAE. + + Alpinia sp. . . vulgo "Karu." + + Alpinia sp. . . vulgo "Vitoko." + + Alpinia sp. . . vulgo "Konkoku." + + Costus or Alpinia sp. . . vulgo "Makisa." + + Alpinia Boia, Seem? v. sp. aff. vulgo "Pai-yang-pipiula." + + Riedelia curviflora, Oliv? vulgo "Kokuru." + + Canna indica, L.? vulgo "Sati." + + Marantacea aff. Phrynio? vulgo "Sinoili." Flowers in two collateral + pairs in each spathe with linear bracts between the pairs. Ovary + shortly stipitate, ovule erect. Fruit 3-locular, cells 1-seeded, + seeds with crustaceous muricate testa. + + Heliconia? vulgo "Kiari." Clinogyne grandis Bth and Hook? (near C. + dichotoma and affs) vulgo "Nini." + + Scitaminea (dub): vulgo "Temuli." A plant 1 to 1-1/4 feet high + growing in the waste ground of plantations. The roots have medicinal + properties, according to the accounts of the natives, and they have + a yellow juice which is used for staining. + + Scitaminea (dubia): vulgo "Nakia:" a wild ginger. + + AMARYLLIDEAE. + + Crinum sp. . . vulgo "Papau." Grows near the beach. Height four + feet. + + Curculigo sp. . . vulgo "Bulami." Growing 2 to 2-1/2 feet high on the + banks of streams. + + LILIACEAE. + + Cordyline sp. . . vulgo "Dendiki." Tree twenty feet high; growing + near the coast. + + COMMELYNACEAE. + + Commelyna nudiflora, L. + + DIOSCOREAE. + + Dioscorea sativa, L.? vulgo "Alapa." + + JUNCACEAE. + + Flagellaria indica, L. var. + + TACCACEAE. + + Tacca pinnatifida, Forst.: vulgo "Mamago." The natives do not appear + to make use of the arrowroot-like starch obtainable from the tubers. + + PANDANACEAE. + + Pandanacea: genus novum,[434]([F] flowers only and leaf collected). + The only locality where I found it was the summit of Faro Island, + where it grows to a height of fifty feet, and has a long white + female branching spadix, three to four feet in length. The same, or + a near ally, was obtained by Signor Beccari in Jobi Island, off New + Guinea. (_Vide_ page 289.) + + [434] I learn from Professor Oliver that Count Solins confirms the + generic distinctness. + + The natives distinguish several species of Pandanus trees, of which + I was only able to obtain the fruit. The "darashi" "sararang," and + "pota," grow at the coast, and have a height of from thirty to forty + feet. The "darashi" has narrow leaves, and, if the ground is not + rocky, aerial roots are often absent: the fruit is smaller than that + of the two other littoral pandanus trees. The "sararang" has broad + leaves, and always aerial roots: the fruit is often more than a foot + in diameter. The "pota" has broad leaves, with contracted acuminate + apices, two inches long: the fruit is about a foot in diameter: + aerial roots are always present, and rise often fifteen feet from + the ground. The segments of these pandanus trees all contain edible + kernels. The broad leaves of the "pota" are employed in making + mats. . . . There is another pandanus tree, the "samala" of the + natives, which often grows away from the coast, as on the banks of + streams: it has an erect, stout trunk, thirty-five to forty feet + high, without aerial roots, and does not branch. + + Freycinetia sp. . . + + Freycinetia sp. . . + + Nipa fruticans. + + PALMACEAE. + + Cyrtostachys sp. . . vulgo "Sensisi." Growing up to fifty feet high + on the banks of streams. + + Palmacea dub. (cf. Drymophloeus): vulgo "Kisu." Growing seventy to + eighty feet high. The tough sheathing at the bases of the branches + is employed for making the native dishes. + + Pinanga sp. . . vulgo "Kisu": conf. the "Kisu" above. Growing up to + seventy or eighty feet high. + + Caryota sp. . . vulgo "Eala." Growing up to fifty feet high. + + Licuala sp. . . vulgo "Firo." Grows up to thirty-five or forty feet + in height. More common on volcanic soils. Absent from Treasury + Island, with the exception of one imported tree. Said to be very + numerous in the large adjacent island of Bougainville, the leaves + being there used in making conical hats. + + Palmacea dub.: vulgo "Poamau." Grows up to seventy or eighty feet + high. Its fruit, which is eaten by the women, is said to have a + stimulant effect like the betel-nut. Its wood supplies the material + for spears. + + Areca sp. . . vulgo "Momo." Grows up to thirty-five or forty feet + high. Small fruits (1/2 inch) sessile on a branching stalk. + + Areca sp. . . vulgo "Niga-torulo," or "Torulo." Grows up to + thirty-five or forty feet high. Fruits larger (1-1-1/2 inch) + sessile, and gathered thickly together on an undivided stalk. + + Areca sp. . . vulgo "Niga-solu." Grows up to fifty feet high. Fruits + (1-1-1/2 inch) sessile, gathered thickly together on an undivided + stalk. + + [_Note._--The three kinds of areca palms just mentioned are very + common on the low ground at the foot of hills. They all have a + general resemblance, and their fruits are often chewed in lieu of + "betel-nuts." They are distinguished from each other readily by the + size and mode of attachment of the fruits, and by the number of ribs + on the lateral pinnae.] + + Areca sp. . . vulgo "Poamau." Growing up to eighty feet high. + + Areca sp. . . vulgo "Au-Au." Grows up to twelve feet high. Aerial + roots rising from stem 1-1/2 feet above the ground. + + Areca sp. . . vulgo "Olega." The betel-nut palm of the Solomon + Islands. Planted by the natives in the vicinity of their villages. + Height up to thirty feet. + + Sagus sp. . . vulgo "Bia," "Nami." Height up to sixty feet. Dry + situations. + + AROIDEAE. + + Schizmatoglottis sp. . . vulgo "Kuraka." Growing wild along the + banks of streams. The natives make a savoury vegetable broth of the + leaves and unopened spathes. + + Epipremnum cf. E. mirabile, Sch. Found on trees. + + Scindapsus sp. . . vulgo "Kurricolo." Grows on sandy soil near the + coast. Pothos? + + CYPERACEAE. + + Cyperus (Mariscus phleoides, Nees). Height two to two and a half + feet. + + Cyperus canescens, Vahl. Height two feet. + + Cyperus (Mariscus umbellatus, V.). Height one foot. + + Kyllinga monocephala, Rottb. Six to eight inches high. + + Mapania sp. . . Three feet high. + + GRAMINEAE. + + Eleusine indica, Gaertn. + + Panicum (Digitaria) sanguinale, L. + + " radicans, Retz? + + " carinatum, Presl. + + " neurodes, Sch. + + Pennisetum (Gymnothrix Thouarsii Beauv.?). Also + + Pennisetum macrostachys, Trin. (fide F. v. Mueller): vulgo "Orsopa." + + Growing in waste ground of plantations to a height of eight or nine + feet. + + Coix Lachryma, L.: vulgo "Ken-ken." The natives do not appear to + make use of the seeds as beads. Growing in the waste ground of + plantations. + + Pollinia obtusa, Munro? Schizostachyum?? A bamboo usually found at + elevations of 1000 or 1100 feet above the sea. The canes grow to a + length of thirty-five to forty feet, and are used as fishing-rods. + + MUSCI. + + Octoblepharum (Leucophanes) squarrosum, Brid. + + HEPATICAE. + + Marchantia linearis, L. and L.? + + FUNGI. + + Agaricus (perhaps mollic, Schff.). + + " (Inocybe) maritimus, Fr. + + Hygrophorus metapodius, Fr. prox. + + Lentinus submembranaceus, B. + + " dactyliophorus, Lev. + + " velutinus, Fr. + + Polyporus (Mes.) xanthopus, Fr. + + " (Pleur.) affinis, Nees. + + " (Pleur.) luteus, Nees. + + " (Pleur.) lucidus, Fr. + + " (Placo.) australis Fr. + + Hexagona apiaria, Fr. + + " similis, B. + + Cladoderris dendritica, Fr. + + Thelephora lamellata, B. + + Hirneola auricula-judae, Fr. + + Lycoperdon gemmatum, Fr. + + Bovista sp. . . (uncertain). + + Wynnea macrotis, Berk. + + * * * * * + +_The Flotation of Fruits in Sea-Water._--I made a few experiments on the +fruits of this region, the results of which I here append. The fruits +were all ripe and not dried. + + +(1.) Fruits that _float_ in sea-water.[435] + + Cocos nucifera + Areca catechu (Betel-nut). + Cycas circinalis.[436] + Pandanus (three littoral species). + Nipa fruticans. + Barringtonia speciosa. + Calophyllum inophyllum. + Calophyllum sp. (katari). + Ochrosia parviflora. + Heritiera littoralis. + Cerbera odollam. + Harpullia cupanioides. + Myristica sp. (ito-ito). + Riedelia curviflora.? + Thespesia populnea. + Gomphandra sp. (ningilo). + + [435] The following fruits and seeds, taken from my dried collection + of plants, float in sea-water. I did not experiment on them in the + green condition. . . . Pongamia glabra: Coix Lachryma: Scaevola + Koenigii: Tournefortia argentea. + + [436] Out of ten fruits experimented on, only one floated. + + +(2.) Fruits that _sink_ in sea-water. + + Parinarium laurinum.[437] + Licuala sp. (firo). + Areca sp. (torulo). + Areca sp. (momo). + Caryota sp. (eala). + + [437] This tree is widely distributed throughout the group, which + may be due to the circumstance of its resin being generally employed + in caulking canoes. + + * * * * * + +_The weeds, rubbish-plants, and shrubs, commonly found in old clearings +and in the waste-ground of the cultivated patches in Bougainville +Straits._ + +One of the commonest plants in the islands of Bougainville Straits is +the _Eranthemum variabile_, which is frequently found growing at the +sides of the paths. The spurges, _Euphorbia pilulifera_ and _E. Atoto_, +are usually found in the waste-ground around villages. In the cultivated +patches clumps of the handsome flowering reed, _Pennisetum macrostachys_ +("orsopa"), which grows to a height of nine or ten feet, are often +conspicuous. In one place may be seen the tall shrub, _Kleinhovia +Hospita_ ("lafai"), the inflated fruits of which are eaten by the +cockatoos. In another place the botanist may recognise the _Canna +indica_ (Indian Shot: "sati"), and near by perhaps _Coix Lachryma_ +(Job's tears: "ken-ken"), both of which plants have been probably +introduced originally from the Malay Archipelago. Solomon Islanders +occasionally wear the seeds of _Coix Lachryma_ as a personal ornament. +They are also used for this purpose by the Admiralty Islanders, and by +the natives of some parts of New Guinea. Scented labiate plants are very +frequent in the waste-ground of the plantations, and the natives are +fond of wearing them in their armlets. Amongst them I may mention +_Moschosma polystachyum_ ("pipituan") and _Ocymum sanctum_ ("kiramma"). +The "luk-a-luk" (_Evodia hortensis_), which is a favourite scented +plant, is commonly found in the same situations. The tiny plant, _Oxalis +corniculata_, may clothe a bare patch of ground; whilst in another part +of the plantation, _Commelyna nudiflora_ may similarly be observed. +Numerous composite plants, such as _Vernonia cinerea_, _Adenostemma +viscosum_, etc., form a conspicuous feature among the rubbish-plants in +these cultivated patches. The _Codiaeum variegatum_ ("tiatakush"), with +its very singularly-shaped leaves, is also to be seen: and, amongst +other plants, I should refer to _Solanum vitiense_ and _Crotalaria +quinquefolia_. Tall sedges, such as _Cyperus canescens_ and _Mariscus +phleoides_, are to be commonly observed. Lastly, I should notice two +small scitamineous plants, the "nakia," a wild ginger, and the "temuli," +the root of which has medicinal properties, whilst its yellow juice is +used for staining purposes. + + +_A species of Pachyma??_ + +Whilst at the island of Santa Anna in October, 1882, my attention was +directed by Mr. William Macdonald and Mr. Heughan to a curious vegetable +substance, not unlike a yam in appearance, which is found _lying loose +on the soil_. The specimens I obtained varied between one and five +pounds in weight, but much larger examples have been obtained. The +interior of the substance is white in colour, and sometimes has a waxy +look. A large slab which had been whittled out by a native resembled a +cake of compressed flour. There were many curious speculations as to the +nature of these growths. In the estimation of the inhabitants of the +island, they are poisonous, and they have received from them the name of +"testes diaboli;" but I could gather but little information from the +natives on the subject except to the effect that they are also commonly +found on St. Christoval.[438] However, some time later I was informed by +Mr. Stephens of Ugi that some mushroom-like growths were borne by a +specimen that he kept, which after a few weeks fell away. I subsequently +gave some of these singular masses to Mr. Charles Moore, the Director of +the Sydney Botanic Gardens. + + [438] In the event of it proving edible, Mr. Heughan cooked a + specimen, but only a tasteless substance resulted. + +Three years passed away and I had almost forgotten about the matter, +when I accidentally came upon some substances, closely resembling these +masses, which are exhibited in the Botanical Department of the British +Museum. They are labelled _Pachyma Cocos_ (Fries) from China. On my +asking Mr. George Murray concerning their nature, I was pleased to learn +that he had been taking a special interest in these growths; and he +showed me a specimen obtained by the Rev. Mr. Whitmee in Samoa, from +which a funnel-shaped fungus, about six inches high, was growing. This +specimen was very similar to those of the Solomon Islands. + +Very recently, Mr. G. Murray has embodied the results of his +investigations of these growths in a short paper read before the Linnean +Society, in which Mr. Whitmee's specimen is figured (Trans. Linn. Soc., +2nd ser. Bot., vol. ii., part 11). From this source I learn that +Rumphius was the first to describe these tuberous masses and their +associated fungi from Amboina. The former, which he named _Tuber +regium_, were stated to afford remedies useful in diarrhoea, fevers, +&c. The fungi were said to shoot out from them during showers of warm +rain on a fine day, or when there was thunder in the air. From the +description and illustration given by Rumphius, Mr. Fries regarded the +growth as a fungus belonging to the genus _Lentinus_, springing from a +_Pachyma_ (of which the Indian Bread of North America, _Pachyma cocos_, +is an example). Strange to say, however, these tubers, which are found +also in China and other parts of the world, have never been found with a +fungus attached since the time of Rumphius. Mr. Whitmee's specimen, +therefore, had considerable interest. It is shown by Mr. Murray to +correspond strikingly with _Tuber regium_ and to have the structure of a +true "sclerotium" (not of _Pachyma_), with a fungus of a species of +_Lentinus_ growing from it. All the facts go to prove that the fungus +and the tuberous mass do not form part of the same growth, but are +distinct organisms. A spore having germinated on the surface of the +mass, its mycelium penetrates the interior, and becoming perennial, +produces successive crops of fungi. + +Residents in the Indian Archipelago and in the Pacific Islands might +throw considerable light on the subject of these growths by careful +notes and collections. It is important to discover the origin of the +tuberous mass which becomes, so to speak, a convenient nidus for the +fungus. How do such masses perpetuate themselves? A considerable number +should be kept under observation, and the mode of appearance of the +fungus carefully noticed. Experiments might be made with the spores of +the fungus by dusting them over the surface of the masses. Such notes +and collections should be forwarded to Mr. Murray, at the British Museum +of Natural History. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS. + + +IN a memoir on the Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands, +which was read before the Zoological Society, on May 6th, 1884,[439] Mr. +Boulenger remarked that very little was known about the herpetology of +these islands until two important collections, which I sent to the +British Museum in 1883 and 1884, brought to light several new and +interesting forms, such as could hardly have been expected from this +region. "The position of this group of islands on the limits of two +great zoological districts,"--this author proceeded to observe--"renders +the study of its fauna of special interest, as it is the point where +many of the Papuasian and Polynesian forms intermingle. Curiously, all +the Batrachians belong to species not hitherto found elsewhere, and one +of them is even so strongly modified as to be the type of a distinct +family." + + [439] Published in the Transactions of the Society; vol. xii., part + i., 1886. The diagnoses of most of the new species in my collections + were given in the Proceedings for 1884: p. 210. Vide also "Annals + and Magazine of Natural History" (5) xii., 1883. + +According to Mr. Boulenger, the Reptiles may be grouped under four +headings, viz.:-- + +1. Species belonging to both the Papuasian and Polynesian districts. + +2. Indo-Malayan or Papuasian species, not extending further east or +south-east. + +3. Polynesian species, not extending further north and west than New +Ireland. + +4. Species not hitherto found elsewhere than in the Solomons (and New +Ireland.) + + +1 + + Gymnodactylus pelagicus + Gehyra oceanica + Mabuia cyanura + Platurus fasciatus. + + +2 + + Crocodilus porosus + Gecko vittatus + Varanus indicus + Keneuxia smaragdina + Enygrus carinatus + Dipsas irregularis. + + +3 + + Gonyocephalus godeffroyi + Mabuia carteretii + " nigra + Enygrus bibronii. + + +4 + + Lepidodactylus guppyi, _n. sp._ + Lipinia anolis, _n. sp._ + Corucia zebrata + Dendrophis solomonis + Hoplocephalus par, _n. sp._ + +All of these 19 Reptiles were included in my collection, with the +exception of _Corucia zebrata_, which, however, came under my +observation. I will now proceed to refer more particularly to the +Reptile-fauna of this region. + +CROCODILES.--The species of Crocodile (_Crocodilus porosus_, Schneid), +which is so common in the Solomon Group, ranges from India and South +China through the Malay Archipelago and Papuan Islands to North +Australia. In these islands crocodiles appear to frequent in greatest +numbers the swamps and sandy shores of uninhabited coral islands, such +as those of the Three Sisters, and the coasts of the larger islands in +the vicinity of the mouths of the streams and rivers. I frequently +surprised them basking on the sand under the shade of a tree. On one +occasion I was standing on the spreading roots of a tree that were +exposed on the beach, when one of these reptiles darted out from under +my feet and dived into the sea. Of the marks that they make on the sand +when lying at rest, an oblong shallow impression corresponding to the +head, and a curved well-defined grove caused by the tail are alone +specially recognisable. When they are not alarmed and move leisurely +along, they leave a double row of footprints on the sand, with a narrow +median furrow produced by the weight of the tail; but when they have +been disturbed and make a rush to escape, they raise their tail and +leave only the tracks of their feet on the sand. These crocodiles are +equally at home in salt and fresh water. I have frequently passed them +in my Rob Roy canoe when they have been floating as though asleep at the +surface of the sea; and it was always in the sea that they found a +refuge when my little craft intruded itself within their haunts. They +came under my notice in the fresh-water lakes of Santa Anna and Stirling +Island, and in the lower courses of the streams in several localities. +They are apparently in no uncongenial conditions in the salt-water +lagoon of Eddystone Island, although its waters receive the hot +sulphureous vapours of submerged fumaroles. + +These crocodiles do not apparently attain a greater length than 12 or 13 +feet. Mr. Sproul shot one at Santa Anna which measured 9-1/2 feet. A +female that I shot in the Shortland Islands, measured 11 feet. One of +the seamen of the "Lark," named Prior, obtained from the natives the +skull of a rather larger specimen. Out of half-a-dozen individuals seen +on the Three Sisters, not one measured more than 7 or 8 feet.[440] Mr. +Bateman, a trader resident at Ugi, told me that at Wano on the St. +Christoval coast he saw a very large crocodile which, from his +description, appears to have been twice as long as any that I saw. It +was, however, dusk at the time; and in connection with this circumstance +I should add that I have found actual measurement to reduce the apparent +length of a crocodile from 14 to 11 feet. + + [440] A skull given to me by Mr. Nisbet, the government-agent of the + "Redcoat," at Ugi, was 12 inches long. It was obtained from the + natives of Guadalcanar. + +Natives are rarely attacked by these reptiles, and they show little or +no fear of them. I have seen a full-grown crocodile dart under a line of +swimmers without causing any dismay. Of the numbers I saw, all were but +too anxious to get out of my way; and their cowardly nature is well +shown in the account of my capture of a specimen which is given below. +However, I came upon a man of Santa Anna who had had his leg broken by +one of these reptiles. The natives of Rubiana hold the crocodile in +veneration and work without fear in the places which it frequents. They +believe that only faithless wives are seized and carried off by the +monster. Pigs are occasionally the prey of the crocodile; but its usual +diet appears to be opossums (_Cusci_), large lacertilians, and fish. + +The following account of the capture of a crocodile may interest some of +my readers. It was effected by no more formidable weapons than by a +number of long staves and a small "bull-dog" revolver. Accompanied by +six natives I was making the ascent of a large stream on the north-west +side of Alu, when some of my companions espied a large crocodile at the +bottom of a deep pool about 200 yards from the mouth of the stream. In +setting to work to effect its capture my men proceeded very methodically +to work, and evidently knew the tactics which the creature would employ. +Standing in the water just below the pool, we stood awaiting the descent +of the crocodile down the stream, whilst one of the natives was rousing +it up with a long pole to make it leave its hiding-place. After a little +time it began to get uneasy, and leaving the pool began to descend the +stream. Where we were standing, the stream was only knee-deep, and as +the reptile passed us in the shallow water some natives hit it on the +head with their poles, whilst others hurled their poles sharpened at the +ends, striking it in several places, and I planted a bullet behind its +neck. The creature showed no fight and immediately hid itself in the +pools near the mouth of the stream. During two hours, after we had been +driving it from one pool to another by means of our pointed poles and +staves, we seemed no nearer to its capture. At length there was a loud +out-cry from the natives. The crocodile was making a final rush for life +to cross the bar at the mouth of the stream and escape into the sea. We +all followed, some in the canoe and some through the water; and for a +short time I thought that the creature would escape. But being a little +disabled by our previous attacks, its progress across the bar was +somewhat checked; and the foremost of my men caught hold of its tail +just as it was getting into deep water. Very quickly we all came up, and +assisted in drawing it high and dry on the beach; and whilst two of our +number kept hold of its tail, the remainder belaboured its neck with +rocks and sticks until it died.[441] Its length proved to be 11 feet. +Throughout the whole chase the reptile made no outcry, and even when we +were belabouring it to death it only gave a kind of growl. In its +stomach I found a large quantity of partially digested food with the +remains of an opossum (_Cuscus_) and a large lizard 1-1/2 feet long +(probably _Corucia zebrata_). It was a female, and, in the oviduct I +came upon an egg, which my natives appropriated, saying that it was very +good food; but they do not usually eat the flesh. I was unable from want +of space to keep more than the head of the animal, which I cut off and +carried back in my canoe to the ship. The skull is now in the British +Museum. + + [441] An illustration in Mr. Bates' "Naturalist on the Amazons" + represents a very similar scene. + +LIZARDS. The Lacertilians are well represented in these islands. Those +at present described are given in the subjoined list. + + +_Geckonidae_ + + Gymnodactylus pelagicus + Gehyra oceanica + Lepidodactylus guppyi. _n. sp._ + Gecko vittatus + " var. bivittatus. + + +_Agamidae_ + + Gonyocephalus godeffroyi. + + +_Varanidae_ + + Varanus indicus. + + +_Scincidae_ + + Mabuia carteretii + " cyanura + " nigra + Keneuxia smaragdina + Lipinia anolis _n. sp._ + Corucia zebrata. + +The lizards, which most frequently meet the eyes of the visitors in the +vicinity of the beaches, are the two skinks, _Mabuia nigra_ and +_cyanura_. As a rule those species that are common at the coast have a +wide range, extending either into Polynesia or Papuasia or into both +these regions (_vide_ page 307). The species peculiar to these islands +came less frequently under my observation. Thus, that of _Lepidodactylus +guppyi_, is founded on a single (female) specimen I found in Faro or +Fauro Island in Bougainville Straits. _Corucia zebrata_ never came under +my notice alive; it is said at Ugi to find its home in the foliage of +the higher trees. Doubtless if I could have penetrated to the higher +regions of the large islands, I should have obtained a large number of +new species. My collections refer for the most part to the sea-border +and its vicinity. In the elevated interior of such an island as +Guadalcanar there is _a region of great promise_ for the collector; but +I shall have a further occasion to refer to this topic. + +The Monitor, _Varanus indicus_, may be often seen at the coast, basking +in the glare of the mid-day sun on the trunks of prostrate trees or on +the bare rocks. It is considered edible by the natives of Bougainville +Straits. Whilst we were anchored at Oima Atoll, Lieutenant Leeper +captured a very large specimen (5 feet 7-3/4 inches long)[442] on the +rocks close to the sea, and towed it off alive to the ship. After we had +tried in vain to strangle it by a cord, a lead was fastened to it and it +was sunk overboard, but an hour passed before we could say that the +reptile was really dead. This Monitor is probably able to swim +considerable distances. It very likely owes its wide range (from Celebes +to the Solomon Group including Cape York) to the agency of floating +trees. On examining the stomach and intestines, I found them empty. An +enormous quantity of fat, developed in two large lobes in connection +with the _omentum_ or some other part of the _peritoneum_, almost filled +the abdominal cavity. With this store of sustenance and heat, these +reptiles must be able to live without food for a long time.[443] + + [442] A specimen shot in the Florida Islands measured 3 feet 8 + inches. + + [443] As an instance of the tenacity of life that some reptiles + possess, I may refer to the case of a young terrapin which I kept + inadvertently for nearly five months on the coast of China without + any sustenance except the dry rust of a tin can. + +SNAKES. Hitherto, the following six species of Ophidians have been found +in the Solomon Group. All of them were included in my collection and one +of them has been described by Mr. Boulenger as a new species. + + +_Boidae_ + + Enygrus carinatus + " bibronii + + +_Colubridae_ + + Dendrophis solomonis + Dipsas irregularis + + +_Elapidae_ + + Hoplocephalus par _n. sp._ + + +_Hydrophiidae_ (_Water-snakes_) + + Platurus fasciatus[444] + + [444] I was indebted to Lieutenant Symonds of H.M.S. "Diamond" for + this snake. + +One of the commonest of snakes throughout these islands is _Enygrus +carinatus_, a harmless species of the Boa family. It often possesses +considerable bulk in proportion to its length. One specimen which I +obtained in Treasury Island measured 3-1/2 feet in length and 6 inches +in girth. I handled a good many living snakes whilst in these islands, +since the natives used to bring them in numbers to me both on board and +on shore. The statements of the natives and of the white men resident in +this region and the general appearance of the snakes had led me to +believe that there were no poisonous species in the group. I was +therefore somewhat surprised when, on my arrival in England, I learned +from Dr. Guenther that I had found a new species as poisonous as the +Cobra. On being shown the specimen by Mr Boulenger, I at once recognised +an old friend which had been brought on board in a bamboo by the natives +at Faro Island and had got loose on the deck. Whilst the men standing +round were preparing to kill it with more regard for their own safety +than for my feelings, I caught it quickly around the neck and held it +under water until it was dead. The natives certainly were not aware of +its venomous character, nor was Mr. Isabell, who was my right-hand man +in these matters, and used to manage the ticklish progress of removing +the snakes from their bamboo-tubes in a manner only suitable in the case +of harmless species. I only obtained one specimen of this snake, which +was about 2-1/2 feet in length. It is named _Hoplocephalus par_ and +belongs to the _Elapidae_, a family of poisonous colubrine snakes which +possess the physiognomy of the harmless snakes of the same sub-order, +and include the Indian and African Cobras with other well known venomous +species. In the footnote I have quoted Mr. Boulenger's description of +its general appearance for the information of those who visit the +group.[445] + + [445] The upper surface of the head is uniform blackish brown. The + body is crossed above by broad red-brown bands separated by narrow + white interspaces. The lower surface of the head and body are + uniform white, except on the posterior extremity of the body where + the red and black extend as lines along the sutures of the ventral + shields. On the tail the red forms complete rings. Nearly every one + of the dorsal scales have a blackish brown border. The head is + depressed, moderately large, and slightly widened posteriorly. The + eye has a vertical pupil. + +BATRACHIANS.--The Spanish discoverers in 1567 remarked that the natives +of Isabel worshipped the toad (_vide_ page 203), and one of the officers +of Surville's expedition in 1769, described in his journal a remarkable +toad from the same island;[446] yet it is only within recent years that +any Batrachians have been collected in this region. Before I arrived in +the group only two species were known to science, and to this number my +collections, which were made in the islands of Bougainville Straits, +have added seven new species, including a type of a new family. The +following list represents the Batrachian fauna of the Solomon Islands, +as far as it is at present known: + + [446] "Discoveries of the French in 1768 and 1769," &c., by M. + Fleurieu: London, 1791; p. 134. + + +_Ranidae._ + + Rana buboniformis, _n. sp._ + Rana guppyi, _n. sp._ + Rana opisthodon, _n. sp._ + Rana krefftii. + Cornufer guppyi, _n. sp._ + Cornufer solomonis, _n. sp._ + + +_Ceratobatrachidae._ + +(New family characterised by both jaws being toothed, and by the +diapophyses of the sacral vertebra not being dilated.) Ceratobatrachus +guentheri, _n. sp._ + + +_Hylidae_ (Tree-frogs.) + + Hyla macrops, _n. sp._ + Hyla thesaurensis. + +The natives of the islands of Bougainville Straits, where, as I have +just remarked, my batrachian collection was chiefly made, have given +frogs the general name of "appa-appa" in imitation of their noise, just +as they have named the smaller lizards "Kurru-rupu" for the same reason. +Amongst the particular species of frogs, I may refer to the large +toad-like _Rana buboniformis_, which I found in Treasury Island, and on +the highest peak of the island of Faro. _Rana guppyi_, according to Mr. +Boulenger's report, attains a larger size than any other species of the +genus, with the exception of the Bull-Frog of North America. _Rana +opisthodon_ affords an instance of a Batrachian[447] which dispenses +with the usual larval or tadpole stage, "the metamorphoses being hurried +through within the egg." On this subject I made the following notes. +Whilst descending from one of the peaks of Faro Island, I stopped at a +stream some 400 feet above the sea, where my native boys collected from +the moist crevices of the rocks close to the water a number of +transparent gelatinous balls rather smaller than a marble.[448] Each of +these balls contained a young frog about 4 lines in length, apparently +fully developed, with very long hind legs and short fore legs, no tail, +and bearing on the sides of the body small tufts of what seemed to be +branchiae. On my rupturing the ball or egg in which the little animal was +doubled up, the tiny frog took a marvellous leap into its existence and +disappeared before I could catch it. When I reached the ship an hour +after, I found that some of the eggs which had been carried in a tin had +been ruptured on the way by the jolting, and the liberated frogs were +leaping about with great activity. On placing some of them in an open +bottle 8 inches high, I had to put the cover on as they kept leaping +out. Mr. Boulenger remarking on this observation says, that there are no +gills, but that on each side of the abdomen there are regular transverse +folds (with an arrangement like that of the gill-openings of +Plagiostomous Fishes), the function of which probably is that of +breathing-organs. The tip of the snout is, he says, furnished with a +small conical protuberance, projecting slightly through the delicate +envelope of the egg, and evidently used to perforate that covering. In +the instance also of _Cornufer solomonis_, another new species included +in my collection, Mr. Boulenger remarks that there is every reason to +believe that the young undergo the metamorphoses within the egg. + + [447] Hylodes martinicensis affords another instance. Mon. Berl. + Ac., 1876, p. 714. + + [448] According to Mr. Boulenger, they measure from 6 to 10 mm. in + diameter. + +With regard to the interesting species, _Ceratobatrachus guentheri_, +which forms the type of a new family, _Ceratobatrachidae_, the same +writer observes that it is remarkable for the numerous appendages and +symmetrical folds which ornate its skin. It is, in fact, "all points and +angles," and may be truly termed a horned frog. There is great variation +both in the coloration and in the integuments. "Out of the twenty +specimens before me," thus Mr. Boulenger writes, "no two are perfectly +alike." The development is presumed to be of the type in which the +metamorphoses are hurried through within the egg. These horned frogs are +very numerous in the islands of Bougainville Straits, and so closely do +they imitate their surroundings, both in colour and pattern, that on one +occasion I captured a specimen by accidentally placing my hand upon it +when clasping a tree. + +It is particularly important to notice not only that the Batrachians of +the Solomon Islands, as far as we at present know, do not occur +elsewhere, but also that in this region a distinct family has been +produced. These facts support the conclusions deducible from the +geological evidence that these islands are of considerable geological +age (_vide_ page x.). The insular and isolated conditions have been +preserved during a period sufficiently extended for the development of a +peculiar Batrachian fauna. + +The modes of dispersal of frogs and toads, and, in truth, of the whole +Batrachian class, are matters of which we are to a great extent +ignorant. Frogs are usually stated to be absent from oceanic islands, a +peculiarity of distribution which apparently accords with the +circumstance that neither they nor their spawn can sustain submersion in +sea-water. The occurrence, however, of three species of _Cornufer_ in +the Caroline and Fiji Islands, and of a species of _Bato_ in the +Sandwich Islands,[449] affects the general application of this +conclusion. It may be suggested that these exceptions are due to human +agency; but if so, it is difficult to understand why they have not been +found in such a well explored island as New Caledonia.[450] + + [449] Boulenger's "Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia," &c., 2nd + edit., 1882. + + [450] Perhaps the peculiar geographical distribution of the + Batrachia may throw light on this subject. _Ibid._ + +In concluding this chapter I will refer to the circumstance that my +collections of the Reptiles and Batrachians of this large group have +only in a manner broken ground in a region which promises the richest +results to the collector. It cannot be doubted that in the elevated +interiors of the large islands, such as those of Bougainville and +Guadalcanar, there will be found a peculiar Reptilian and Batrachian +fauna, the study of which will be of the highest importance for the +furtherance of our knowledge of these geologically ancient classes of +animals. I believe I am correct in stating that it was on account of the +highly interesting Batrachian collections I sent to the British Museum, +that I received a grant for further exploration from the Royal Society, +which, however, I was unfortunately prevented from turning to account. +The work has yet to be done, and there can be little doubt that the man +who is first able to examine the lofty interior of such an island as +Guadalcanar will bring back collections, the importance of which will +amply recompense him for any hardship or personal risk he may have +endured. My experience was confined to the sea-border and its vicinity. +The future explorer will find his field in the mountainous interiors and +on the highest peaks. + + NOTE (April 19th, 1887).--Since I penned the above, further + collections of reptiles and batrachians, made in these islands by + Mr. C. M. Woodford, have been described by Mr. Boulenger at a recent + meeting of the Zoological Society. I had the pleasure of meeting Mr. + Woodford before he left England, and I hope that he has been able to + accomplish his purpose of penetrating into the interior of one of + the larger islands of the group. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY NOTES. + + +AMONGST the numerous strange acquaintances which I made in the Solomon +Islands, was that of the well known cocoa-nut crab, or _Birgus latro_; +and I take this opportunity of giving my evidence towards the +establishment of the fact of its cocoa-nut-eating propensity, for the +following reason. When I read my notes on the subject before the Linnean +Society of New South Wales on Dec. 27th, 1882,[451] I was surprised at +the incredulity shown with reference to this extraordinary habit; and on +inquiry, I learned that the evidence on the subject was deficient in one +vital point, viz., the production of the writer who had witnessed this +habit of the Robber Crab. Accordingly I referred to the various authors +who have recorded this habit of the _Birgus_, and in no single account +could I find that the writer had witnessed what he described. Neither +Mr. Darwin, Dr. Seemann, Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet, Mr. T. H. Hood, the +Rev. Wyatt Gill, nor the numerous authors whose accounts I also +examined, seem to have actually witnessed the _Birgus_ opening and +eating a cocoa-nut. Herbst[452] was among the first to refer to this +habit; whilst, long ago, M. M. Quoy and Gaimard[453] asserted, from +their own observation, that the crab was fond of cocoa-nuts, and could +be supported on them alone for many months, but they made no allusion to +its capability of husking and opening them. The evidence on this point +appears to have been always tendered by natives, excepting the account +given to Mr. Darwin by Mr. Liesk, which is conclusive in itself.[454] +Yet, credulous persons had fair grounds to retain their doubts, although +in various works on natural history, popular and otherwise, this habit +of the _Birgus_ was described as an undoubted fact. I therefore submit +my evidence; leaving to my reader to reply to the query--Can there be +any reasonable doubt on the subject? + + [451] Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. + + [452] Proc. Zool. Soc, 1832, p. 17. + + [453] Freycinet's "Voyage autour du Monde," 1817-20: Zoologie, p. + 536. (Paris, 1824.) + + [454] "Journal of Researches," p. 462. + +The _Birgus_ was to be found in most of the islands we visited. It is to +be usually observed at or near the coast; but on one occasion, in St. +Christoval, I found an individual at a height of 300 feet above the sea. +Whilst traversing, in September, 1882, the belt of screw-pines, which +borders the beach on the east coast of Malaupaina, the southern island +of the Three Sisters, I came upon one of these large crabs, ensconced in +the angle between the buttressed roots of a tree, with a full sized +cocoa-nut within the reach of its pair of big claws. From the +fresh-looking appearance of the shell, it had been evidently, but +recently, husked, which operation had been performed more cleanly than +if a native had done it. There was an opening at the eye-hole end of the +shell of a somewhat regular oblong form, which measured 2 by 1-1/2 +inches, and was large enough to admit the powerful claws of the +crab.[455] The white kernel, which had the firm consistence of that of +the mature nut, had been scooped out to the extent of from 1 to 1-1/2 +inches around the aperture; small pieces of the kernel lay on the ground +outside the nut, and others were floating about in the milk inside, of +which the shell was about a fourth-part full. + + [455] This shell was presented to the Australian Museum, Sydney. + +I had, without a doubt, disturbed the _Birgus_ in the middle of its +meal; but, curiously enough, there were no cocoa-nut palms to be seen +within fifty paces of the spot where the crab was found in its retreat. +Not only had the shell been very recently husked, but it was evident, +from the fresh condition of the milk and kernel, that an interval of +less than a couple of hours had elapsed since the opening had been made. +There was no possible explanation of the crab having got at the edible +portion of the cocoa-nut, except through its own agency. The island is +uninhabited, being only occasionally visited by fishing-parties of +natives from St. Christoval, none of whom were on the island during the +ship's stay. There was, therefore, the strongest presumptive evidence +that the _Birgus_ had not only husked the cocoa-nut, but had also broken +the hole at the end, in order to get at the kernel. + +I kept the crab alive on board on a diet of cocoa-nuts for three weeks, +when, one morning, to my great disappointment, I found it dead. Other +foods, such as bananas, were offered to it but were left untouched, and +its appetite for cocoa-nuts continued unimpaired to the last day of its +life. Being desirous of observing the manner in which the husk was +removed, I had a cocoa-nut with its husk placed in the coop in which the +crab was kept. On one occasion the _Birgus_ was surprised with the nut +between its large claws; but, notwithstanding that no other food was +offered to it for a day and a half, it did not attempt to strip off the +husk. So the operation was done for it, and a small hole was knocked in +the top of the shell. On the following day I found the shell--a young +and somewhat thin one--broken irregularly across the middle, with the +soft white kernel already removed and eaten. It was afterwards found +necessary to break the nuts for its daily food. + +In 1884, when the "Lark" was in Bougainville Straits, three of these +crabs were kept on board with the intention of taking them down to +Sydney. Mr. W. Isabell, leading-stoker of the ship, looked well after +them, as he had also done in the case of the previous crab, but within +three or four weeks they had all died. The cocoa-nuts had to be husked +and broken for them, as they were in vain tempted to do it for +themselves. One crab, however, was frequently observed clasping between +its claws a full-grown unhusked nut, the upper end of which showed deep +grooves and dents from the blows of its claws; and Mr. Isabell and I +came to the conclusion that the coop, in which these crabs were placed, +was too low to allow of the free play of the great claws. + +My evidence alone would be sufficient to convict the _Birgus_ of this +offence: for an offender it would certainly be in the eyes of the owner +of a plantation of cocoa-nut palms. I learned from Mr. Isabell that the +first crab we had on board consumed, on the average, two cocoa-nuts in +three days. A number of these crabs in a cocoa-nut plantation, might +therefore prove a considerable pest: for, if this betokens the quantity +of food which the _Birgus_ consumes in a state of nature, a single crab +in the course of twelve months would dispose of about 250 cocoa-nuts, +which represent the annual production of three palms and between 20 and +30 quarts of oil. + +As these crabs disliked observation, I was unable to gain much knowledge +of their habits by watching. During the day-time they were sluggish, did +not eat, and kept themselves in the further corner of the coop, as far +from the light as possible. At night they moved about very actively and +fed vigorously on the cocoa-nuts. The natives of the Shortlands, who +were well-acquainted with the cocoa-nut eating habit of the _Birgus_, +described to me the mode of husking and breaking the nut, just as Mr. +Liesk described it to Mr. Darwin. They esteem as an especial luxury the +fat which gives the chief bulk to the abdomen of the crab. + +The habit of the _Birgus_, when surprised away from its burrow, is not +to turn round and run away, but to retreat in an orderly manner with its +front to the foe. Having reached some root or trunk of a tree which +protects in the rear its less perfectly armoured abdomen, it makes a +regular stand, waves one of the long second pair of claws in the air, +and courageously awaits the attack. The attitude of defence is worthy of +remark. The two large claws are held up close together to defend the +mouth and eyes, but with the pincers pointing downward--the posture +reminding me of the guard for the head and face in sword-exercise. One +of the long second pair of claws is planted firmly on the ground to give +the crab additional support; whilst the other claw is raised in the air +and moved up and down in a sparring fashion. The whole attitude of the +_Birgus_, when on the defensive, is one of dogged and determined +resistance. The big pincers that point downward are ready to seize +anything which touches the unprotected under surface of the abdomen; but +on account of the position of these claws in front of the eyes, it can +only foresee attacks from above, and it therefore cannot ward off a +sudden thrust directed against the abdomen, although it may afterwards +inflict severe injuries on the aggressor. + +There seems to be some doubt whether the _Birgus_ ascends the tree to +get the cocoa-nuts or whether it contents itself with those that have +fallen. Almost every author who refers to this crab alludes to its +climbing the tree, and it is also said to climb the pandanus. The +testimony in support of its climbing powers is almost conclusive, yet +Mr. Darwin was informed by Mr. Liesk that in Keeling Atoll the _Birgus_ +lives only on the fallen cocoa-nuts, and Mr. H. O. Forbes,[456] who has +recently visited this island, confirms this statement. + + [456] "A Naturalist's Wanderings," etc.: London, 1885, p. 27. + +My readers, after perusing the foregoing remarks, will agree with me +that from the lack of actual observation on the part of the authors, who +describe the cocoa-nut eating habit of this crab, there has been fair +grounds for scepticism. Even now, we are but imperfectly acquainted with +the mode of life of the _Birgus_, which is a subject I would commend to +the attention of residents in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. + +I may add that the _Birgus_ is partial to other kinds of fruits beside +cocoa-nuts. Different writers mention candle-nuts, nutmegs, figs, and +other rich and oily nuts and fruits. In some islands it would seem that +the Pandanus fruit is its only diet; and for breaking open these tough +fruits, its heavy claws are well adapted, though from personal +experience, I should remark that the crab would have its strength and +ingenuity taxed almost as much as in the case of the cocoa-nut. + +[Illustration] + +The handsome ground-pigeon, known as the Nicobar pigeon (_Geophilus +nicobaricus_), is commonly observed in the wooded islets on the coral +reefs of the Solomon Group. As I have remarked on page 293, this bird is +probably instrumental in transporting from one locality to another the +small hard seeds and fruits which the common fruit-pigeon (_Carpophaga_) +refuses. That it is able to crack such hard seeds as those of the +leguminous plant _Adenanthera pavonina_,[457] is shown by the fact that +I have found these seeds cracked in the cavity of the gizzard, which is +in its structure and mechanism _a veritable pair of nutcrackers_. In +this bird the muscular stomach or gizzard is of a surprising thickness, +and is provided with a very singular mechanical contrivance to assist +its crushing power. As shown in the accompanying diagram, it is composed +of two muscular halves, each having a maximum thickness of five-eighths +of an inch and united with each other in front and behind by a stout +distensible membrane, which is the proper wall of the organ. Developed +in the horny epithelial lining membrane there are two cartilaginous +bodies of hemispherical shape, one in each muscular segment of the +gizzard, which measure about one-third of an inch in thickness and +three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The outer or convex surface of +each cartilaginous body fits into a cup-shaped cavity which is lined by +a semi-cartilaginous membrane, the whole constituting a +"ball-and-socket" joint with well lubricated surfaces. The two surfaces +of this pseudo-articulation are capable of easy movement on each other, +being retained in close apposition by the attachment to the subjacent +tissues of the horny epithelial lining membrane in which the +cartilaginous body is developed. The inner or free surface of each +hemispherical body, that which looks into the gizzard cavity, is +somewhat concave, and projects a little above the surface of the lining +membrane; it is much harder than the opposite convex side of the +cartilage and has almost the consistence of bone, the arrangement of the +cells into densely packed rows with but little intervening matrix +indicating an approach towards ossification. + + [457] The Kuara tree of India, of whose hard seeds necklaces are + made. + +The firm consistence of these hemispherical cartilages combined with the +mechanism of a moveable articulation must greatly assist the already +powerful muscular walls of the gizzard; but there is an additional +factor in the crushing power in the constant presence of a small quartz +pebble, usually about half-an-inch across. With such a apparatus, I can +well conceive that very hard seeds and nuts may be broken, as in the +case of the seeds of _Adenanthera pavonina_ already alluded to. The +Nicobar pigeon is in fact possessed of a nut-cracking mechanism in its +gizzard, by which nuts like those of our hazel tree would be cracked +with comparative ease. + +With reference to the small quartz pebbles found in the gizzards of +these birds, I should remark that there is usually only one present, and +that it varies in weight between 30 and 60 grains. I was sometimes able +to say where the pigeon had obtained its pebble. Thus, in Faro Island +the bird often selects one of the bipyramidal quartz crystals, which +occur in quantities in the beds of the streams in the northern part of +the island, where they have been washed out of the quartz-porphyry of +the district. In other instances the pebble seems to have been +originally a small fragment of chalcedonic quartz, such as composes some +of the flakes and worked flints that are found in the soil which has +been disturbed for cultivation. Sometimes the pebble is of greasy +quartz; and now and then in the absence of quartz the bird has chosen a +pebble of some hard volcanic rock. It is a singular circumstance that +although these pigeons frequent coral islets where they can easily find +hard pebbles of coral-rock, they prefer the quartz pebbles which are of +comparatively rare occurrence. I never found any calcareous pebble in +their gizzards, and was often at a loss to explain how the bird was able +to ascertain for itself the different degree of hardness between the two +pebbles, when the quartz was of the dull white variety. . . . . I learn +from a recent work on New Guinea by the missionaries, Messrs. Chalmers +and Gill, that inside the gizzard of each Goura pigeon there is a +good-sized pebble much prized by the natives as a charm against +spear-thrusts and club blows.[458] The Goura pigeon resembles the +Nicobar pigeon in habits; and I think it probable that its gizzard will +be found to present a similar structure and mechanism for cracking nuts +and hard seeds. The common fruit pigeons (_Carpophaga_) of the Solomon +Islands, living as they do on soft fleshy fruits, and rejecting the hard +seeds and kernels, have no peculiar structure of the gizzard, the walls +of which are comparatively thin, and are thrown into permanent rugae +somewhat warty oh the surface. + + [458] "Work and Adventure in New Guinea" (p. 317): London, 1885. + +One of the most familiar birds in these islands is the "bush-hen," which +belongs to the family of the mound-builders (_Megapodiidae_). They bury +their eggs in the sand at a depth of between three and four feet. On one +occasion in the island of Faro, Lieutenant Heming and his party found +eight eggs, in different stages of hatching, thus buried: they were +scattered about in the sand; and according to the account of the natives +only one egg was laid by each bird. The eggs are sometimes found on the +surface of the sand. The young birds are able to fly short distances +soon after they are hatched. One that was brought on board astonished us +all by flying some thirty or forty yards from the ship and then +returning to the rigging. + +The account recently published by Mr. H. Pryer of his visit to the +birds' nest caves of Borneo[459] has opened up the discussion as to the +nature of the substance of which the edible bird's nest is composed. +Many and varied have been the surmises as to the source of this +material; but nearly all of them have been based on mere speculation, +and have been relegated to the limbo of sea-tales. Amongst the earlier +explanations, I may allude to those which have been given by early +writers. The swiftlets (_Collocalia_), which build their nests in this +extraordinary fashion, were considered to gather a gelatinous material +from the ocean-foam, or from the bodies of holothurians, or from the +skin of the sun-fish. The Chinese fishermen assured Kaempfer that their +nests were composed of the flesh of the great poulpe. A more probable +explanation, however, was found by Rumphius in the occurrence on the +sea-coasts of a soft almost cartilaginous plant which he with confidence +asserted was the material from which these swiftlets constructed their +nests; but subsequently this naturalist inclined to the opinion that the +substance of which the edible birds' nests are composed is merely a +secretionary product. In these two views of Rumphius we have the two +sides of the controversy very much as it at present stands. On the one +hand, there are those who hold that this substance is a secretionary +product: on the other hand, the opinion is held that the nest is +constructed of a vegetable matter, usually resulting from the growth of +a microscopic alga, which is found in the caves and on the faces of the +cliffs where the nests occur. All the weight of experiment and of actual +observation tends to negative the view of the vegetable origin of this +substance. Sir Everard Home in 1817 declared his opinion that certain +peculiar gastric glands, which he found in one of these birds, secreted +the mucus of which the nest was formed. In 1859, Dr. Bernstein[460], +after having carefully studied the habits of the birds in question, came +to the conclusion that their nests are formed from the secretion of +certain salivary glands which are abnormally developed during the +nest-building season. M. Trecul, who held the same opinion, showed that +the bird constructs its nest by means of a mucus which flows abundantly +from its beak at the pairing time.[461] This last view is strongly +supported by Mr. Layard, who unhesitatingly pronounces his opinion that +these swiftlets build their nests from the secretionary products of +their own salivary glands.[462] However, when Mr. Pryer visited in +March, 1884, the birds' nest caves in British North Borneo, he +considered that he had found the source of the material of which the +nests were composed in the occurrence of a "fungoid growth," which +incrusted the rock in damp places, and which, when fresh, resembled +half-melted gum tragacanth. Without at present expressing an opinion as +to the validity of the inference Mr. Pryer drew from his observations in +these caves, I may observe that the "fungoid growth" has been determined +by Mr. George Murray,[463] of the Botanical Department of the British +Museum, to be the result of the growth of a microscopic alga, a +species, probably new, of _Gloeocapsa_; whilst the edible nests from +these caves, according to a chemical and microscopical examination made +by Mr. J. R. Green,[464] have been shown to be formed in the great mass +of _mucin_, which is the chief constituent of the mucous secretions of +animals. After examining various specimens of edible nests from other +localities, Mr. Green subsequently confirmed the results of his first +experiments. The nest-substance, as he unhesitatingly states, is +composed of _mucin_, or of a body closely related to it.[465] So far, +therefore, there would appear to be but little evidence to support the +view of Mr. Pryer that the species of alga, which he found incrusting +the rock in the vicinity of the Borneo caves, supplied the material for +the construction of the nests of the swiftlets. However, before +proceeding to state my own opinion on the matter, I will refer briefly +to my observations in the Solomon Islands relating to this question. + + [459] Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1884: p. 532. + + [460] Journ. fuer Ornithologie, 1859, pp. 112-115; also Proceed. + Zoolog. Soc., 1885, p. 610. + + [461] "A General System of Botany," by Le Maout and Decaisne: + London, 1873, p. 983. + + [462] "Nature," Nov. 27th, 1884. + + [463] Proc. Zoolog. Soc., 1884: p. 532. + + [464] Proc. Zool. Soc., 1884, p. 532. + + [465] "Nature," Dec. 11th, 1884 and May 27th, 1886. + +A species of _Collocalia_, which usually frequents inaccessible +sea-caves and cliffs, is frequently to be observed on the coasts of the +islands of this group. The natives of Treasury Island call this bird +"kin-kin;" but they have no knowledge of the nutrient qualities of the +substance of which it builds its nest, and they were much amused when I +told them of its being a Chinese luxury. I only came upon the nests of +this bird on one occasion, and that was in some caves on Oima Atoll in +Bougainville Straits. A description of these caves will be here +unnecessary. As in the instance of the birds of the Borneo caverns, +these swiftlets shared their retreats with a number of large bats, the +accumulation of whose droppings had produced a thick reddish-brown +deposit on the floors of the caves. The nests, which were formed for the +most part of fibres derived evidently from the vegetable drift[466] at +the mouths of the caves, were thickly incrusted with the gelatinous +incrustation which projected as winglets from the sides and fastened +them to the rock. + + [466] The husks of pandanus seeds more particularly. + +A reddish soft gelatinous incrustation occurred on the faces of some of +the cliffs in the vicinity of the caves. It was composed of an +aggregation of the cells of a microscopic unicellular alga which measure +1/2500 of an inch in diameter. Unfortunately the specimens of this +growth which I collected have been mislaid, but there can be little +doubt that it is similar to the "fungoid growth" which Mr. Pryer +describes in connection with the Borneo caves, and which, through the +kindness of Mr. George Murray, I had the opportunity of seeing at the +British Museum. On the faces of the coral limestone cliffs of some +islands, such as on the east coast of Santa Anna, a like growth occurs +in considerable quantity. In its freshest condition, it may be described +as a reddish-yellow, gum-like substance forming a layer 1/4 to 1/8 of an +inch in thickness. Where it incrusts the overhanging face of a cliff, it +is more fluid in consistence and sometimes hangs in little pendulous +masses, one to two inches in length, the extremities of which are often +distended with water. This alga decomposes the hard coral limestone, +making the surface of the rock soft and powdery. All stages in the +growth of this substance may be observed. The older portions are very +dark in colour and have a tough consistence; and in the final stage it +occurs as a black powder covering the rock surface. On examining this +alga with the microscope, I found it to be formed almost entirely of +granular matter apparently resulting from the death of the cells; whilst +the presence of a few cellular bodies alone gave me an indication of its +true nature. + +From my observations relating to the subject of the edible bird's nest, +it may be therefore inferred that in the Solomon Islands, as in Borneo, +the occurrence of these nests is associated with the presence of a +protophytic alga, which incrusts the rocks of the locality as a +gelatinous or gum-like substance. Whether or not the birds employ this +material in forming their nests, is a question which would appear to +have been already answered in the negative; but it seems to me that +those who hold that this material is used for this purpose might justly +claim that the final judgment should be suspended, until a chemical +examination of this vegetable substance has been made with the object of +determining whether it might not yield a material closely resembling +_mucin_. Amongst the nitrogenous constituents of plants occurs the +so-called _vegetable albumen_, which in its chemical composition and in +its behaviour with re-agents does not differ materially from the +_blood-albumen_ of the animal organism, of which in fact it is the +source. In suggesting, therefore, that a _vegetable mucin_ may be found +in this low plant-growth, I do not pass beyond the bounds of +probability.[467] + + [467] _Vide_ a letter by the writer in "Nature," June 3rd, 1886. + +Small scorpions came under my notice in Faro Island. They are not +usually more than 1-1/2 in length and occur in narrow clefts of rocks +and in the crevices of trees. I was stung by one on the thumb, but the +pain was trifling and soon passed away.[468] + + [468] Specimens of these scorpions were given by me to the + Australian Museum, Sydney. + +A species of _Iulus_ or Millipede, which attains a length of from 6 to 7 +inches, is commonly found in the eastern islands of the Solomon Group on +the trunks of fallen trees and amongst decaying vegetable debris. It is +often to be seen amongst the rotting leaves that have gathered inside +the bases of the fronds of the Bird's-nest Fern (_Asplenium nidus_). +These Myriapods seem to be less frequent in the islands of Bougainville +Straits towards the opposite end of the group, as I do not remember +seeing any large _Iuli_ in that locality: their place appears to be +taken by another Myriapod, apparently a _Polydesmus_, growing to a +length of 2-1/2 inches, which I found amongst decaying vegetation at all +elevations up to 1900 feet above the sea, as on the summit of Faro +Island. But to return to the _Iuli_, I should remark that this genus of +Myriapods evidently possesses some means of transportal across wide +tracts of sea, since, amongst other islands similarly situated, it is +found in Tristan da Cunha,[469] in the South Atlantic Ocean, and I have +found it in the Seychelles, in the Indian Ocean. The habits of these +Millipedes would render it highly probable that they have reached the +oceanic islands on vegetable drift, such as floating logs. It is, +however, a noteworthy circumstance that they do not seem to be able to +withstand immersion in sea-water for any length of time. In +experimenting on the Solomon Island species, I found that they were able +to survive an hour-and-a-half's complete immersion in sea-water, but +that an immersion of three hours killed them. One individual, out of +several experimented on, survived for twelve hours after it was taken +out, but only in a half lifeless condition.[470] It may, therefore, have +been that the _Iulus_ has been transported to oceanic islands by such +agencies as canoes and ships, rather than by means of floating +trees.[471] + + [469] Moseley's "Naturalist on the Challenger," p. 134. + + [470] This species of _Iulus_ was able to sustain a longer + submersion in fresh-water, without apparently any injurious effects. + Those experimented on recovered after being kept under water for + four hours, but died after a submersion of six hours. + + [471] As bearing on this point, it might be interesting to determine + whether these large _Iuli_ occur on islands far from land which are + believed never to have been inhabited. + +Like other species of the genus, the Solomon Island _Iulus_ exhales a +very pungent and disagreeable odour, which is caused by an acrid fluid +secreted by small vesicles, of which each segment of the body contains +a pair.[472] On holding my nose for a moment over the mouth of a bottle, +containing two of these large Millipedes, I experienced a strong +sensation in the nasal passages, reminding me much of the effects of an +inhalation of chlorine gas. I had previously learned from resident +traders that these Millipedes have a habit of ejecting an acrid fluid +when disturbed, which, if it entered the eye, was liable to cause acute +inflammation; and the instance was related to me of the captain of some +ship, trading in these islands, who lost the sight of one of his eyes +from this cause. Mr. C. F. Wood learned from the natives of St. +Christoval, in 1873, that these Myriapods "could squirt out a poisonous +juice, which was dangerous if it happened to touch one's eye;" but he +adds, "there seemed no great probability of their doing this."[473] +However, I usually found that native testimony, in such matters, was +very reliable; and in the instance of this reputed habit of the _Iulus_, +my personal experience has convinced me of its reality. Whilst handling +one of these Millipedes as it lay on the trunk of a fallen tree in Ugi +Island, I felt a sudden smarting sensation in the right eye, caused +apparently by some fluid ejected into it. Remembering the injurious +effect attributed to this habit of the _Iulus_, I at once plunged my +head under the water of a stream, in which I happened to be standing up +to my waist, and I kept my eye open to wash away the offending fluid. +During the remainder of the day, there was an uncomfortable feeling in +the eye and somewhat increased lachrymation; but on the following +morning these effects had disappeared. At the time of this occurrence, +my face was removed about a foot from the Millipede; and, although I was +uncertain from what part of the body the fluid was ejected, I did not +care, under the circumstances, to continue the inquiry. + + [472] Hoeven's Zoology. (Eng. edit.) Vol. I., p. 291. + + [473] "A Yachting Cruise in the South Seas," p. 131. (London, 1875.) + + * * * * * + +Amongst the first living creatures to greet the visitor as he lands on +the beach of a coral island in the Pacific, is a small species of +Hermit-Crab, belonging to the genus _Coenobita_, which frequents the +beach in great numbers. The crab withdraws itself just within the mouth +of the shell, where it forms a perfect operculum, by means mainly of the +large flattened _chelae_ of the left great claw which is arched over by +the left leg of the third pair, whilst the right claw and the right leg +of the second pair serve to complete the shield The most plucky and +pugnacious of these little crabs are those which occupy cast-off +_Nerita_ shells, a character which probably arises from their +consciousness of the solid strength of the home they have chosen: and, +strange to say, the tiny bosses on the surfaces of the large pincers, +which are outermost in the improvised operculum, resemble similar +markings on the outer side of the operculum of the _Nerita_ (_N. +marmorata_, Hombr and Jacq), whose shell they often inhabit. Mr. +Darwin[474] observed that the different species of hermit-crabs, which +he found on the Keeling Islands in the Indian Ocean, used always certain +kind of shells; but I could not satisfy myself that such was the case in +the instance of the Solomon Island hermit-crabs. In the case of the +common beach species of _Coenobita_, I found, after carefully examining +a number of individuals to satisfy myself of their being of the same +species, that shells of the genera _Turbo_, _Nerita_, _Strombus_, +_Natica_, _Distorsio_, Truncatella, _Terebra_, _Melania_, &c., &c., +contained the same species of _Coenobita_, whether the individual was +large enough to occupy a _Turbo_ shell of the size of a walnut or +sufficiently small to select the tiny shell of the _Truncatella_ for its +home. Another species of the same genus prefers usually the vicinity of +the beach; but it may occur at heights up to 200 feet above the sea. It +is rather larger than the beach species, and differs amongst other +characters in the more globose form of the large claws and in the +greater relative size of the left one. It occupies shells of different +kinds, such as those of _Nerita_, _Turbo_, &c. A still larger species, +which frequents the vicinity of the beach, usually selects _Turbo_ +shells, apparently because of their larger size. All the other species +of _Coenobita_, which I met with, used, when I touched them, to withdraw +themselves within their shells and close them up at once with their +claws; but this kind, when I caught hold of the _Turbo_ shell that it +carried, left the shell behind in my fingers with apparent unconcern and +crawled leisurely away, displaying, somewhat indecorously, the +rudimentary plates on the back of its abdomen. These are the plates that +attain their greatest development in the Cocoa-nut Crab (_Birgus +latro_), which is thus able to dispense with a shell altogether. The +greatest heights at which I found hermit-crabs were in the island of +Faro on the two highest peaks, which are elevated respectively 1600 and +1900 feet above the sea. In both these localities, the crab had reached +the very summit and could not have climbed higher. The species was +apparently different from, though closely allied to, the common beach +species, and frequented the shells of a land-snail (_Helix_). I was +indebted to Lieutenant Heming for directing my attention to the +hermit-crab, found 1900 feet above the sea. It appears to me likely that +these hermit-crabs will be found at much greater heights in this group, +since, in this island, their ambition to rise had carried them up as far +as they could go. + + [474] "Journal of the Beagle," p. 457. + +Other species of hermit-crabs, that are common in these islands, belong +to the genus _Pagurus_. They are conspicuously distinguished from the +species of _Coenobita_, above described, by their first pair of claws, +which are small and weak and ill-adapted for defensive purposes. For +this reason, these species are less able to look after themselves; and +since they cannot form the operculum-like shield with their claws at the +mouth of the shell, they always choose shells which will permit of their +retiring well within it, so as to be out of the reach of their enemies. +Some species are found in the stream-courses and in the brackish water +near their mouths, when they often frequent cast-off _Melania_ shells. +Other species (?) prefer the sea-water on the reef-flats. I noticed one +individual that displayed its eccentricity of disposition, in selecting, +as its abode, the hollow tube of a small water-logged stick, about six +inches long, which it dragged about after it during its peregrinations, +and into which it retreated when alarmed. On one occasion, I observed a +large _Dolium_ shell, moving briskly about in a pool of salt-water, +which, on picking up, I found to be tenanted by a _Pagurus_, so +ridiculously small, in comparison with the size of the shell, that when +frightened it retreated to the very uppermost whorl, and, +notwithstanding the wide mouth of the shell, could not be seen. So light +was the weight of the crab, that, on account of the buoyancy of its +shell, it floated lightly on the surface of the water, on which I had +placed it with the mouth of the shell uppermost, and was blown by a +slight breeze across a pool of water, some twenty yards in width. While +it was afloat, the shrewd little occupant retired to the innermost +recess of its home; but as soon as the shell had grounded, it protruded +its head and pincers and endeavoured to overturn the shell, which it +finally succeeded in accomplishing. + +In the case of these two genera of hermit-crabs, _Coenobita_ and +_Pagurus_, it was interesting to notice the relation existing between +the defensive capabilities of the crab, and the relative size of the +shell it selected as its home. The _Pagurus_, with its weak slender +pincers, chooses large shells within which it can retire well out of +reach when alarmed. The _Coenobita_, with its stout pincers, prefers +shells much smaller, relatively speaking, and ensconces itself snugly in +the body whorl, forming an operculum with its claws. As the hermit-crab, +_Coenobita_, crawls along the dry sand of a beach, it leaves behind it +characteristic pinnate tracks which may be often traced for several +feet. The lateral markings are produced by the claws and legs working on +each side of the shell; whilst a central groove is formed by the weight +of the shell itself. As shown by the arrow in the diagram, the lateral +markings point in the direction of the course which the hermit-crab has +taken. Sometimes only a single row of lateral tracks accompanies the +grooves produced by the shell. Such markings were produced by a +hermit-crab when frightened by my approach. It turned its front towards +me, and crawled backwards, by working most of his claws and legs on one +side of the shell. In the case of the larger hermit-crabs, which are +much less frequent on the beach, each limb produces a distinct print on +the sand; but with the small species of _Coenobita_ which infests the +beach, each lateral marking, as shown in the diagram, is produced by a +single movement of the claws situated on the same side of the shell. The +hermit-crabs only leave their tracks on the dry loose sand. One +individual, that I placed on sand, still wet from the retreating tide, +crawled along without leaving any impression. I have described these +impressions with some care, as they bear on the origin of the +surface-markings of rocks of shallow-water formation, a subject recently +discussed in the geological world. It is highly probable that some of +the larger and heavier forms of the Anomura (and, in fact, of the +Decapoda generally) would produce prints such as I have here described, +both on mud-flats left dry by the tide, and on the soft bottom in +shallow depths. A cast of the impressions thus produced would have an +unmistakeable plant-like form. + +[Illustration] + +Whilst examining the island of Simbo, I noticed some singular Medusae in +a small mangrove-swamp, which is inclosed in the low point that forms +the south shore of the anchorage. Numbers of these organisms of a large +size (8 or 9 inches across the umbrella), and of a dirty-white colour, +were lying on the mud with their tentacles, uppermost in depths of from +one to three feet of water. I was struck by the handsome mass of +arborescent tentacles which they displayed, and by the peculiarity of +their lying upside-down. The dark mud which formed the bottom of the +swamp was composed of decayed vegetable matter, confervoid growths, +diatoms, and a few infusoria: but when I raised up these Medusae, I found +underneath each a patch of white sand corresponding with the outline of +the organism, but completely concealed by the umbrella when the Medusa +lay in its usual position. The sand was derived from corals, shells, and +the volcanic rocks of the island; and the light patches formed a marked +contrast with the dark mud around. I was unable to find any satisfactory +explanation of these curious patches of sand; and I, therefore, +proceeded to interrogate the Medusae on the subject by watching them, but +to no purpose. So I had my revenge by turning them all over on their +tentacles, when each one immediately began to contract its umbrella in a +most methodical fashion, and, after swimming a short distance, +deliberately resumed its former position of tentacles upward. I had an +extensive experience of mangrove-swamps after we left Simbo; but these +self-willed Medusae never came under my notice again.[475] + + [475] I referred to the habits of these Medusae in "Nature," Nov. + 9th, 1882. + +With regard to these Medusae, I should remark that they belong to a +species of _Polyclonia_, and are classed amongst the Scypho-Medusae.[476] +Two species of _Polyclonia_ seem to be known, _P. frondosa_ (Agassiz) +and _P. Mertensii_(Brandt), the first found in the Florida seas, and the +latter in the Carolines. I am inclined to think that the Solomon Island +species is more nearly allied to _P. Mertensii_. Both species, however, +have similar habits, lying on the mud of mangrove-swamps, with their +tentacles uppermost. + + [476] I compared my notes with the description and figures given by + Agassiz in his "Contrib. Nat. Hist. U.S.A." (1862: vols. iii. and + iv.). In the Solomon Island species, the dendriform mass resolves + itself into 8 principal branches, each ramose, and all united at + their bases by a common membrane. The umbrella, which was finely + lobed or crenulated at its margin, displayed about 40 radiating + canals, each communicating by an anastomosing network with the canal + on either side of it. + +The singular habits of these Scypho-Medusae were noticed by Brandt in +1838. They have since been remarked by Mosely[477] in the Philippines, +and by Archer[478] in the West Indies. L. Agassiz in his "Contributions +to the Natural History of the United States," describes and figures the +Florida species (_Polyclonia frondosa_); and some additional notes on +its habits have been made by A. Agassiz, to whose communication in +"Nature" (Sept. 29th, 1881) I have been much indebted. + + [477] Mosely's "Notes by a Naturalist," p. 404. + + [478] "Nature" Aug. 4th, 1881. + +Whilst we lay at anchor in Treasury Harbour, in April, 1884, a cetacean, +unknown to the natives and to ourselves, got partly stranded in the +shallow water, and was captured by the villagers. It was nine feet long, +and possessed this remarkable character that, although no teeth showed +through the gums, each lower jaw possessed a short, conical, hollow +tooth an inch long, placed at the anterior extremity. I obtained the +head from the natives, and placed it in a safe place, as I thought; but +when we returned to Treasury a few weeks after, I found only portions of +the skull with the lower jaw-bones, the wild pigs having held a feast +over it. The remains, however, together with my notes and a sketch by +Lieutenant Leeper were sent to the British Museum. I there learned that +it is a species of Ziphius, probably unknown. + +The Solomon Islanders believe in the existence of anthropoid apes in the +interiors of the large islands, regarding them, however, like the Dyaks +of Borneo in the case of the Orang-utan, as "wild men of the woods." In +Malaita they are said to be 4-1/2 to 5 feet high, and to come down in +troops to make raids on the banana plantations. Captain Macdonald +informed me that the natives allege that one of these apes was caught, +and, after being kept for some time, escaped. Taki, the St. Christoval +chief, told Mr. Stephens that he had seen one of these apes, and pointed +out the locality. Tanowaio, the Ugi chief, also made a similar +statement. In Guadalcanar, they are believed to live in the trees, and +to attack men. Dr. Codrington refers to the prevalence of these beliefs +throughout Melanesia (Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. x. p. 261). Such +beliefs, as experience has shown in the case of the Gorilla and other +anthropoids, have undoubtedly some foundation; but whether these +mysterious animals are apes is quite another question. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +LAND AND FRESH-WATER SHELLS. + + +DURING my numerous excursions in these islands, I had in the majority of +instances to follow up the stream-courses in order to examine their +geological structure. I had therefore good opportunities in these +regions of making a collection of the fresh-water shells, which, +together with the land shells I collected, formed a total of between +sixty and seventy species, amongst which there were 11 new species and +at least 5 new varieties, whilst about 14 would appear to have been +never previously recorded from the Solomon Islands, and there were in +addition several from new localities in the group. The collection was +sent to the British Museum and was examined and described by Mr. E. +Smith, to whose paper on the subject[479] I am indebted for my +acquaintance with the shells in question, and through whose kindness I +have been thus enabled to supplement my other observations in these +islands. A list of the shells with the descriptions of the new species +is given on page 344. For its size, my collection presented a large +amount of novelty, coming as it did from a region the land and +fresh-water shells of which were previously considered to be fairly +known. There can be no doubt, however, that in the Solomon Islands the +conchologist has much work that remains to be done. Not only are the +higher regions of the larger islands, entirely unexplored, but it would +appear from the collections made up to the present date in this large +group, that particular species may be not only confined to a special +sub-group of islands but may be restricted to a single island, and that +other species more widely distributed through the group may be +represented in each island and in different districts of the larger +islands by different varieties. Had I been aware of the extent of the +influence of locality in this region, I might have made my collection of +greater value. It would therefore seem necessary for future collectors +in this group to make in every small island and in different districts +of the larger islands special independent collections, disregarding the +fact that they may have apparently met with the same shell very +frequently before, because many of the varieties and some of the species +can only be distinguished by the practised eye of the specialist, and a +new locality for a previously well-known species may be often +unwittingly found. + + [479] "On a collection of shells from the Solomon Islands" by Edgar + A. Smith. (Proceedings of the Zoological Society: June 2nd, 1885.) + This paper is illustrated with two coloured plates of the new + shells. + +As an instance of the unexpected results, which may fall to the lot of +others in this group, I may here add, that out of eleven land and +fresh-water shells that I collected in the small island of Santa Anna, +which is only 2-1/2 miles in length, four were new species, and besides +there were some new varieties. The stations of these four species may be +suggestive. Two of them--_Helix_ (_Videna_) _sanctae annae_ and _Helix_ +(_nanina_) _solidiuscula_--were generally found on the trunks of the +cocoa-nut palms at the coast; whilst the other two occurred in +situations far more likely to yield new species, _Melania sanctae annae_ +being obtained from a small stream in the interior of the island, and +_Melania guppyi_ being found dead in the stomach and intestines of a +fish that frequents the fresh-water lake of Wailava. This last shell +would appear to live in the deeper parts of the lake, as I only found +one living specimen, all the others being obtained from the stomach and +intestines of these fish. Mr. Smith describes it as "a very remarkable +and distinct species." Its length is about 1-1/5 inches; and its +sharp-pointed spire was to be sometimes seen protruding through the vent +of the fish, which evidently digests the animal and ejects the shell. +These fish were usually 9 or 10 inches long; but the full-grown shells +were found also in fish half this size, when the relation between the +length of the shell and the size of the fish was truly alarming. Since +the little fish actually swallow sharp pointed shells measuring a fifth +of their own length and pass them out through the vent after they have +digested the animal, we must credit them with a remarkable capacity for +adapting their diet to circumstances. + +To exemplify the variation which some species of shells display in this +group, I will take the instance of _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _cleryi_, +Recluz. This species is probably distributed through the whole group; +but considerable variation prevails in different islands. Amongst the +several forms which I obtained, three were named as new varieties, var. +_meridionalis_ from Santa Anna, var. _simboana_ from Simbo or Eddystone +Island, and var. _septentrionalis_ from the islands of Bougainville +Straits, the localities of the two last varieties being only 80 miles +apart. Mr. Smith remarks that this species is "subject to considerable +variation in size, colour, and form, apparently resulting from +difference of habitat. . . . . . . . . Whether these several varieties +should take specific rank is questionable, for, although there is a +considerable difference between the extreme forms, even in the series of +nearly one hundred specimens under examination, the gradual transition +from one form to another is observable." + +Amongst the more singular in appearance of the land shells, I may refer +to the large _Bulimus_ (_B. cleryi_) which I found on the north coast of +St. Christoval. It attains a length of four inches. I was never able to +get a living specimen, as they are said by the natives to live in the +foliage of the high trees. The specimens which I obtained were empty +shells which the natives of the Koofeh district on the north coast of +St. Christoval are in the habit of throwing into heaps, each man when he +picks up a shell throwing it into the next heap he passes. I was unable +to learn the reason of this practice and the natives did not seem +willing to tell me. . . . Two other _Bulimi_ I commonly met with. One +was the pretty _Bulimus miltocheilus_ (Reeve), which, when the animal is +young and the shell delicate, has a greenish-yellow hue resembling the +colour of the leaves it feeds upon: as it grows older the shell becomes +thicker and stronger, and in proportion as there is less need for +protective resemblance, the greenish-yellow hue fades away, leaving a +dull white colour behind. This species is found in St. Christoval and +the adjacent islands. The other _Bulimus_ (_B. founaki_, Homb. Jacq.) +which I found in Faro Island, Bougainville Straits, and which had been +only previously obtained at Isabel Island, attains a length of rather +under three inches. + +I come now to refer to the fresh-water shells of these regions. Stated +in their order of frequency, the _Neritinae_, _Melaniae_, and _Navicellae_ +are the common fresh-water shells of these islands. The _Neritinae_ were +especially interesting to me. They abound in the streams: some of them +preferring the moist rocks above the water, others finding their home in +the waters of a quiet pool, whilst others, like the _Navicellae_, prefer +to buffet the full rush of the torrent. An important feature with +reference to these fresh-water Nerites or _Neritinae_ is their wide +dispersal. "Some of these species"--as Mr. Smith remarks in respect of +those in my collection--"range not only through most of the islands of +the Solomon Group, but have a considerably wider distribution." Thus, +_Neritina subsulcata_ (Sowerby) and _N. cornea_ (Linne), are not only +found in the Solomon Islands, but also occur in the Philippines: _N. +macgillivrayi_ (Reeve) and _N. petiti_ (Recluz) alike exist in the Fiji +and in the Solomon Groups; while _N. porcata_ (Gould) has been found in +Samoa and in Fiji as well as in the opposite extremities of the group +with which I am at present concerned. Being interested in the question +of the mode of dispersal of these Nerites, I made the following +experiment to test their powers of sustaining submersion in salt-water. +One individual belonging to the species _Neritina subsulcata_[480]--a +species which is also found as above stated in the Philippines, and at +the same time is the most widely dispersed fresh-water Nerite in the +Solomon Group--survived a submersion of twelve hours; but not one out of +a dozen individuals was found alive after a submersion of five days, +although the water was changed from time to time. The result was a +surprise to me, as I inferred from the result of Baron Aucapitaine's +experiments as related by Mr. Darwin,[481] that their close-fitting +stony _opercula_ would have enabled them to resist the action of +salt-water. Their death could have been scarcely due to want of food, +since I have kept shells of this species for several months on a very +scanty diet, and since the powers of endurance of other fresh-water +shells are well known. The matter passed out of my mind until after my +arrival in England, when Mr. Smith put the question to me, as to their +mode of dispersal. I then remembered that their calcareous egg-capsules, +which are so commonly seen on the rocky sides of the streams, are in all +probability sufficiently thick to resist the action of salt-water. Here +is therefore a probable mode of dispersal, and I see it is one which Mr. +Smith refers to as such in his paper. These egg-capsules "if attached to +floating timber, might be carried to considerable distances." They are +often to be observed on the outside of the shells of living _Navicellae_, +and I have seen them on the backs of the valves of a _Unio_ which I +discovered in the Shortland Islands. + + [480] In his paper Mr. Smith refers to the species experimented on + as _N. cornea_: but in my own list he named a shell belonging to one + of the _Neritinae_ in question as _N. subsulcata_. + + [481] _Cyclostoma elegans_ was the species tested: _vide_ "Origin of + Species," p. 353, 6th edit. + +One common feature of these fresh-water shells, whether _Neritinae_, +_Navicellae_, or _Melaniae_, is the extensive erosion of the apices and +surrounding parts of the shells. In some instances I have noticed that +almost the entire exterior of the shell has been extensively eroded, +particularly in the case of _Neritina subsulcata_, but I always found +that the erosion was greatest in non-calcareous districts, where the +free carbonic acid in the water is not all consumed in the solution of +the limestone rocks. In volcanic islands the erosion of the fresh-water +shells is greater than in islands of calcareous formation; and in +streams, which, like those of the north coast of St. Christoval, flow in +the upper portion of their course through a district of volcanic rocks +and in the lower portion through a district of calcareous rocks, the +same difference in the degree of erosion may be observed. I learn from a +recent work by Professor Semper[482] that it is the boring of a minute +fungus which first exposes the calcareous substance to the action of the +carbonic acid, and that the mechanical action of the stream in forming +tiny whirl-pools in the cavity probably assists in the erosion. + + [482] "The Natural Conditions of Existence, etc:" London 1881: p. + 212, circa. + +There are two common species of _Neritina_ in these islands which I +often confounded, viz., _N. subsulcata_ and _N. cornea_; and I learn +from Mr. Smith's paper that these two species very closely approach each +other. They, however, are usually to be found in different stations, _N. +cornea_ occurring on the trunks of palms and other trees away from the +streams,[483] and _N. subsulcata_ preferring the moist rocky sides of +the streams a foot or so above the water.[484] Now and then they may be +found encroaching on each other's domain; for I have found them together +on the trunks and branches of areca palms and tree-ferns in low lying +moist districts, whilst, as at Choiseul Bay, I found them together in +the streams.[485] Now it is a significant circumstance, that the +specimen of _N. cornea_ in my collection which was found by Mr. Smith to +make the nearest approach to _N. subsulcata_ was one which I obtained +from a stream in Choiseul Bay. It had, in this case, not only intruded +on the station of _N. subsulcata_, but had also assumed some of the +distinctive characters of that species. It, therefore, seems to me +probable that a graduated series of the shells of these two species +might be formed, which would present the stages of transition from the +one species to the other. If this be possible, then I would suggest that +the fresh-water Nerite (_Neritina subsulcata_) may have been transformed +into the tree Nerite (_Neritina cornea_) in the following manner. + + [483] In St. Christoval I found this species on one occasion 150 + feet above the nearest stream. + + [484] This species often takes to the water. Some individuals that I + kept alive on board used to spend a quarter of an hour at a time in + the water eating voraciously all the while. + + [485] According to Prof. Semper, these two species in the + Philippines live a large portion of the year high up on the trees in + mangrove swamps. (Ibid.) + +I have already referred to the circumstance that in the higher portions +of the St. Christoval streams, where the rocks are entirely volcanic, +the fresh-water shells--and I may here add, especially those of +_Neritina subsulcata_--suffer much more erosion than do shells of the +same species in the lower parts of the streams where they flow through +calcareous districts. Now, the geological structure of this island being +mainly ancient volcanic rocks incrusted near the coast by recent +calcareous formations, the time will come when these calcareous +envelopes will have been entirely stripped off by denudation. How this +will influence the Nerites of the streams may be thus explained. At +present the normal characters of the species are preserved in the +calcareous portions of the streams; but when all the calcareous rocks +have been stripped off by denudation, the Nerite through its whole +lifetime will be subjected to that extensive process of erosion, which +now often denudes almost the entire surface of the shells of those +individuals that live in the volcanic portion of the stream's course. +Here, Natural Selection may step in to favour the survival of any slight +variation that makes the Nerite more suited to lead an entirely arboreal +existence. Such a geological agency may in truth lead finally to the +expulsion of the Nerite from the stream's course. Varieties will survive +only in proportion to their capability of adapting themselves to the new +condition; and they alone will perpetuate their kind until a tree Nerite +of distinct specific character is produced. . . . . On this reasoning, +tree Nerites ought to be more numerous in islands of volcanic formation; +but this is a point on which I cannot pronounce from the lack of +sufficient evidence.[486] + + [486] Prof. Semper's observations in the Philippines bear on this + matter. ("Natural Conditions of Existence," &c., p. 188.) + +According to Professor Semper, we have in _Navicella_ "a modified form +of _Neritina_," which genus it resembles in all essential anatomical +characters, but "by long inurement to living in rushing mountain +streams, it has had its shell modified in the way most suited to those +conditions, while the _operculum_, in consequence of long disuse, has +become a peculiar degenerate or rudimentary organ."[487] + + [487] Ibid, p. 212. + +The growth of the fresh-water Nerites would appear to be slow. I kept a +young individual of _Neritina subsulcata_ for seven months in a bottle +partly filled with rain-water, and supplied it with decaying leaves for +food which it used to eat. Its weight was 37 grains both at the +beginning and the end of the experiment, having only varied half a grain +during the whole time; and its dimensions, as determined by measurement, +were unaltered. This species, when it is first picked off the rock, +ejects a watery fluid with a powerful musky odour, which effect +accompanies the closure of the shell by the _operculum_. I kept some +individuals of this species in rain-water, containing varying +proportions of lime-water, for about three months. The lime-water was of +the medicinal strength of the British Pharmacopeia. I began with water +containing 64 parts of rain-water to one part of the lime-solution. By +the end of the first month the proportion was increased to 32 to 1; by +the end of the second month it was 16 to 1; towards the end of the third +month the Nerites, having lived for over three weeks in the last +solution, began to die; the survivors were placed in a solution +containing the proportion of 8 to 1, but this amount of the +lime-solution proved too much for them. It should be remarked that +throughout the experiment, the Nerites used to descend to the water to +get their food just as frequently as in the state of nature: they did +not avoid the water; and after the experiment was over, there was no +apparent alteration in the appearance of the shells. These observations +were made in the north part of New Zealand during the latter part of the +summer and the beginning of the autumn, a circumstance which may +partially explain the death of the shells. The temperature there was +about 20 deg. below the temperature they are accustomed to in the Solomon +Islands; this difference is of interest when it is remembered that +_Neritinae_ are mostly found in the streams of tropical regions; and I +may, therefore, infer that this species is capable of adapting itself to +temperatures much lower than that to which it is accustomed, since some +individuals survived the voyage to New Zealand from the Solomon Islands +and lived in the climate of the former region for three months under +very unfavourable conditions. + +Professor Semper[488] remarks that some _Neritinae_ have the habit of +detaching themselves from rocks on the slightest touch, by this means, +as he considers, escaping the pursuit of their enemies. Some of them, +however, as I observed, detach themselves spontaneously and +independently of any alarm. The individuals of _Neritina subsulcata_ +that I kept in a large bottle in my cabin, used frequently in the course +of a night to detach themselves from the sides and drop down into the +water below. On one occasion when the noise woke me up, I found the +culprit voraciously eating a portion of decayed leaf. In the daytime +they sometimes dropped, and at other times crawled, down to the water. +. . . . . It is probable that the musky water, which this Nerite ejects +when it is picked off a rock, may cause a bird to drop it from its beak +and thus save its life. + + [488] Ibid, p. 210. + +Amongst the new fresh-water shells that I found in this group was a +species of _Unio_, to which Mr. Smith did me the honour of attaching my +name, it being the first species of this genus of river-mussels that has +been found in the Solomon Group. But its occurrence there means +something more than a new locality, since, as I believe, I am correct in +asserting, we have in it the first record of this widely distributed +genus having reached the Pacific islands. I do not think that this +species can be generally spread through the Solomon Group. I only found +it in one locality, namely the Shortland Islands, near the western end +of the group. + +A very familiar shell, in low-lying moist and marshy situations +throughout the Solomon Islands, is that of the auriculoid, _Pythia +scarabaeus_, Linne. Being usually accustomed to find it in the low-lying +districts, I was surprised on one occasion to find it in the higher +parts of Faro Island, which attains an elevation of 1,900 feet above +sea. In the mangrove swamps and in the lower parts of the streams at +Choiseul Bay, I found a species of _Cyrena_ which has not yet been +described, together with _Cerithidea cornea_ (A. Adams: var.) and +_Pyrazus palustris_, the last species occurring also in India. On the +moist ground of the taro patches in the islands of Bougainville Straits +thrives a species (_S. simplex_, var.) of that ubiquitous genus +_Succinea_. The operculated land-snails, of which the _Helicinae_ are the +most numerous, are found more frequently in calcareous districts. + +LIST OF LAND AND FRESH-WATER SHELLS COLLECTED IN THE SOLOMON +ISLANDS[489] DURING 1882 AND 1883. (EXTRACTED FROM MR. E. SMITH'S PAPER +IN THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, JUNE, 2ND, +1885.) THE DESCRIPTIONS OF THE NEW SPECIES AND VARIETIES FOLLOW: + + [489] The habitats given are confined to the Solomon Group. I have + added the new habitats of species in my collection to those + previously ascertained from the collections of Brenchley, + Macgillivray, Hombron and Jacquinot, etc. + + (1) _Helicarion planospira_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ Santa Anna, Ugi, St. + Christoval, Guadalcanar. + + (2) _Helix_ (_Nanina_) _nitidissima_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ Treasury + Island, a variety in Guadalcanar. + + (3) _Helix_ (_Nanina_) _solidiuscula_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ Santa + Anna, found generally on the trunks of cocoa-nut palms. + + (4) _Helix_ (_Corasia_) _tricolor_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ St. Christoval, + Ugi, Santa Anna. + + (5) _Helix_ (_Corasia_) _anadyomene_, A (Adams & Angas) _Hab._ + Guadalcanar, Ugi. + + (6) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _acmella_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ Faro Island, + Bougainville Straits; Florida Islands, _vide_ original paper. + + (7) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _gamelia_ (Angas) _Hab._ Isabel, Stephen + Island, Shortland Islands, Treasury Island, Choiseul Bay. + + (8) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _hargreavesi_ (Angas) _Hab._ Faro Island + in Bougainville Straits. + + (9) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _mendana_ (Angas) _Hab._ Shortland + Islands, _vide_ original paper. + + (10) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _motacilla_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ Simbo or + Eddystone Island, also called Narovo. + + _Note._--In the original paper, Simbo and Eddystone are referred to + as two different islands. This mistake arose from the omission of + the name of Simbo in the latest charts; it is, however, the name + usually employed. + + (11) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _guppyi_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ Faro Island + in Bougainville Straits. + + (12) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _dampieri_ (Angas) var. _Hab._ Choiseul + Bay. + + (13) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _eros_ (Angas) _Hab._ Isabel, Stephen + Island, Shortland Islands. + + (14) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _cleryi_ (Recluz) _Hab._ Santa Anna, + Ugi, St. Christoval, Guadalcanar, Rua Sura Islets, New Georgia, + Simbo or Eddystone, Treasury, Shortlands, Choiseul Bay. Three new + varieties, var _meridionalis_ (Santa Anna), var _simboana_ (Simbo or + Eddystone), var _septentrionalis_ (Shortlands, Treasury, Choiseul + Bay.) + + (15) _Helix_ (_Videna_) _merziana_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ St. Christoval, + New Georgia, Ugi; _vide_ original paper. + + (16) _Helix_ (_Videna_) _sanctae annae_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ Santa + Anna, living on the trunks of cocoa-nut palms. + + _Note._--This species, or a closely similar form, was observed by me + in many other islands; but I neglected to collect it in any other + locality than Santa Anna. + + (17) _Helix_ (_Rhytida_) _villandrei_ (Gassies) _Hab._ St. + Christoval, Ugi. + + (18) _Helix_ (_Camaena_) _hombroni_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ Shortland and + Faro Islands in Bougainville Straits, Isabel. + + (19) _Helix_ (_Chloritis_) _eustoma_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ New Georgia, + Ugi, Faro Island (Bougainville Straits.) + + (20) _Bulimus_ (_Placostylus_) _cleryi_ (Petit) _Hab._ St. + Christoval. + + (21) _Bulimus_ (_Placostylus_) _founaki_ (Hombron and Jacquinot) + _Hab._ Isabel, Faro Island (Bougainville Straits). + + (22) _Bulimus_ (_Placostylus_) _miltocheilus_ (Reeve) _Hab._ St. + Christoval (S.E. part), Ugi, Santa Anna: _vide_ original paper. + + (23) _Partula_, spec. _Hab._ Guadalcanar, Ugi, Treasury Island, + Choiseul Bay: _vide_ original paper. + + (24) _Succinea simplex_ (Pfeiffer) var. _Hab._ Treasury Island, + Shortland Islands: living on the moist ground in the taro patches. + + (25) _Cyclostoma_ (_Adelostoma_) _triste_ (Tapparone Canefri), var? + _Hab._ Guadalcanar; Santa Anna; Faro and Shortland Islands and + Choiseul Bay in Bougainville Straits. + + (26) _Leptopoma jacquinoti_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ Rua Sura Islets off + the north coast of Guadalcanar: _vide_ original paper. + + (27) _Leptopoma vitreum_ (Lesson) _Hab._ Santa Anna, Simbo or + Eddystone; Shortland Islands. + + (28) _Omphalotropis nebulosa_ (Pease) _Hab._ St. Christoval, + Guadalcanar, Ugi. I found this shell living on trees clothing a low + tract of land skirting the beach. + + (29) _Pupina solomonensis_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ Shortland and + Treasury Islands in Bougainville Straits: living in the decayed + trunks of fallen trees. + + (30) _Hargravesia polita_, H. (Adams), var. _Hab._ Faro Island in + Bougainville Straits: _vide_ original paper. + + (31) _Helicina moquiniana_ (Recluz) _Hab._ St. Christoval, + Guadalcanar, Ugi. + + (32) _Helicina egregia_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ Guadalcanar, Florida + Islands. + + (33) _Helicina modesta_ (Pfeiffer) _Hab._ Guadalcanar, Shortland + Islands, Treasury Islands, Choiseul Bay. + + (34) _Helicina solomonensis_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ The Islands of + Bougainville Straits (Faro, Shortlands, Treasury). + + (35) _Pythia scarabaeus_ (Linne) _Hab._ Santa Anna, St. Christoval, + which were the localities of my specimens; but I observed this + species and its varieties in every island I visited. _Stat_: Moist + ground usually near the sea. + + (36) _Melampus fasciatus_ (Deshayes) _Hab._ Isabel, Rua Sura Islets + off the north coast of Guadalcanar. I found these shells in the + crevices of a log on the beach. + + (37) _Melania amarula_ (Linne) _Hab._ Ugi, in the streams. + + (38) _Melania scabra_ (Mueller) _Hab._ Ugi, in a stream. + + (39) _Melania salomonis_ (Brot.) _Hab._ Ugi, in a stream. + + (40) _Melania fulgurans_ (Hinds) _Hab._ Ugi, in a stream. + + (41) _Melania fastigiella_ (Reeve) _Hab._ Imbedded in a dark + calcareous loam exposed in the banks of a large stream near its + mouth at Sulagina, on the north coast of St. Christoval. I could not + find any living specimens. + + (42) _Melania_ spec. _Hab._ The same as _Mel. fastigiella_. + + (43) _Melania verrucosa_ (Hinds) _Hab._ The same as _Mel. + fastigiella_. + + (44) _Melania subgradata_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ The same as _Mel. + fastigiella_. + + (45) _Melania ugiensis_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ From a stream in Ugi. + + (46) _Melania sanctae annae_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ A stream in the + interior of Santa Anna. + + (47) _Melania guppyi_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ From the stomach and + intestines of a fish living in the fresh-water lake of Wailava in + the island of Santa Anna. This species probably frequents the deeper + parts of the lake, as I only found one living individual. + + (48) _Cerithidea cornea_ A. (Adams) var. _Hab._ Mangrove swamps in + Choiseul Bay. + + (49) _Pyrazus palustris_ _Hab._ Mangrove swamps in Choiseul Bay. + + _Note._--Not referred to in original paper. + + (50) _Nerita marmorata_ (Hombron and Jacquinot) _Hab._ Living just + above high-water level on the surface of the coral-limestone coast, + St. Christoval. + + (51) _Neritina cornea_ (Linne) _Hab._ Star Harbour, St. Christoval, + on the trunks of trees 150 feet above the nearest stream; Choiseul + Bay, from a stream; Shortland Islands, on the stems of tree-ferns + and areca palms in a marshy district. I found this species in many + other islands; but did not collect it except in the above three + localities. + + (52) _Neritina subsulcata_ (Sowerby) _Hab._ Streams in St. + Christoval and in the islands of Bougainville Straits. In the + Shortland Islands I found this species on the stems of tree-ferns + and areca palms in a marshy district. I only collected it in these + localities; but I found it in many other islands. When first picked + off the rock, it ejects a watery fluid possessing a powerful musky + odour. + + (53) _Neritina dubia_ (Chemnitz) _Hab._ Shortland Islands, in a + stream. + + (54) _Neritina adumbrata_ (Reeve) _Hab._ A stream in Choiseul Bay, + and the rocky sides of a stream-course in Ugi. + + (55) _Neritina pulligera_ (Linne) _Hab._ Guadalcanar, St. + Christoval, Ugi, Choiseul Bay, in the streams. + + (56) _Neritina petiti_ (Recluz) _Hab._ Treasury and Faro Islands, in + the streams. + + (57) _Neritina olivacea_ (Le Guillou) _Hab._ Streams in Treasury + Island and at Sulagina, St. Christoval. + + (58) _Neritina macgillivrayi_ (Reeve) _Hab._ Streams in Guadalcanar + and in Faro Island, Bougainville Straits. + + (59) _Neritina asperulata_ (Recluz) _Hab._ Rocky sides of a + stream-course in Ugi. + + (60) _Neritina porcata_ (Gould) _Hab._ St. Christoval, and Faro + Island, Bougainville Straits, in streams. + + (61) _Neritina variegata_ (Lesson) _Hab._ St. Christoval, Ugi; Simbo + or Eddystone; Faro Island, Bougainville Straits; Choiseul Bay; in + streams. + + (62) _Neritina turtoni_ (Recluz) _Hab._ A stream in the Shortland + Islands; streams in Guadalcanar; imbedded in a dark calcareous loam + exposed in the banks of a large stream near to its mouth at Sulagina + on the north coast of St. Christoval. + + (63) _Neritina brevispina_ (Lamarck) _Hab._ Streams in Shortland, + Treasury, and Ugi Islands. The specimens from Treasury Island were + destitute of spines. + + (64) _Neritina squarrosa_ (Recluz) _Hab._ Streams in Treasury + Island. + + (65) _Navicella sanguisuga_ (Reeve) _Hab._ Streams in Faro Island, + Bougainville Straits. + + (66) _Navicella suborbicularis_ (Sowerby) _Hab._ Guadalcanar, St. + Christoval, Ugi, Treasury and Faro Islands in Bougainville Straits. + + (67) _Unio guppyi_ (nov. spec.) _Hab._ Streams in the Shortland + Islands. + + (68) _Cyrena_, spec. _Hab._ In the lower parts of streams and in + mangrove swamps, Choiseul Bay. _Note._--This species is not referred + to in the original paper. + + +_Descriptions of the new species and varieties_,[490] by Mr. E. Smith. + + [490] The numbers refer to the plates in Mr. Smith's paper (Proc. + Zool. Soc., June 1885). + + (2) _Helix_ (_Nanina_) _nitidissima._ (Plate XXXVI. figs. 1, 1 _b_.) + Shell thin, transparent, very glossy, depressed, narrowly perforate, + pale brownish horn-colour above, whitish towards the umbilicus, + sculptured with very faint lines of growth. Whorls 4-5, slightly + convex, impressed and marginate above at the suture; last whorl + large, rounded at the periphery. Aperture obliquely lunate; + peristome simple, thin, slightly thickened and reflexed partly over + the perforation. Spire low, but very little raised above the last + whorl, obtuse at the apex. Greatest diameter 14 millim., smallest + 12; height 9. + + (3) _Helix_ (_Nanina_) _solidiuscula._ (Plate XXXVI., figs. 2, 2 + _b_.) Shell very narrowly perforate, depressed, somewhat solid, dark + chestnut-brown and a little glossy above, more shining and paler + beneath, becoming almost white at the umbilical region; whorls + 6-1/2, convex, separated by a deepish suture, and, with the + exception of two or three at the apex which are smooth, sculptured + with strong, close-set, arcuate, and oblique striae on the upper + surface, crossed with a few more or less distinct spiral lines. + Body-whorl rounded at the periphery, or sometimes with the faintest + indication of an angle, convex, and only exhibiting fine lines of + growth below. Aperture obliquely semi-lunate; peristome simple, but, + owing to the solidity of the shell, seeming slightly thickened, + especially on the very oblique columellar margin, which is shortly + reflexed above over the perforation. Spire depressed-conoid, having + the least convex outlines and an obtuse apex. Greatest diameter 18 + millim., smallest 16-1/2, height 12; aperture 8 long, 4-1/2 wide. + + This species is well distinguished by its comparative solidity and + strong sculpture on the upper surface. + + (4) _Helix_ (_Corasia_) _tricolor_ (Pfeiffer). (Plate XXXVI., figs. + 3, 3 _b_.) A specimen obtained on the north coast of the same island + of St. Christoval, by Mr. Guppy, is worthy of special mention, and + may be termed var. _picta_, on account of the undulating + reddish-brown stripes which ornament both the upper and lower + surfaces. + + A similar example was also collected by Dr. A. Corrie and presented + to the Museum. The markings on these two shells are very striking + and distinctly visible within the aperture. + + (11) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _guppyi._ (Plate XXXVI. fig. 4.) Shell + elevately conical, thin, pale yellow, ornamented with conspicuous + nearly black or black-brown spiral bands, one above and one below + the sutures of the upper whorls, and three upon the last, one + sutural, the second peripheral, and the third basal. Volutions 6, + rather slowly enlarging, a little convex, sculptured with fine + oblique striae of growth, not glossy. Three first whorls livid + purplish, the last rather sharply angled at the middle, not + descending in front, having the basal band broad around the almost + concealed perforation, and obsolete within the aperture. The latter + is oblique, somewhat narrowed and pouting in front, banded within + with three almost black and two white bands, the central one of the + former being squarely truncate at the end, only the lower corner of + it touching the margin of the lip, which is pale oblique, receding, + a little expanded and reflexed in front and at the columellar + margin, the upper end of which is spread over and nearly conceals + the small umbilicus. Height 22-1/2 millim., greatest diameter 19, + smallest 16. + + This species is remarkable for the striking contrast of its + colour-bands and the angular character of the last whorl. + + (12) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _dampieri_, Angas, var. (Plate XXXVI. + fig. 5.) Shell imperforate, subglobose, conoid, light brown or + fawn-colour, here and there minutely dotted with dark-grey specks, + with a broad white band around the middle of the penultimate whorl + and two upon the last, one above and the other below the middle, + also a narrow white line revolving up the spire beneath the suture, + and a dark brown zone surrounding the pale or yellowish umbilical + region. Whorls 5, a little convex above, somewhat glossy, obliquely + and very finely striated by the lines of growth, the last more or + less concentrically striated beneath, shortly descending at the + aperture which is white within. Lip a little thickened, edged with + reddish brown, only slightly expanded on the right side, more + dilated below, produced into a thin transparent callosity over the + umbilical region, united above to the upper extremity of the + peristome. Columellar margin oblique, white or partly tinged with + reddish brown, thickened and terminating below within the edge of + the lip. Height 19 millim., greatest diam. 22, smallest 19. + + The specimens from the Solomon Islands are smaller than the type + with which, through the kindness of Mr G. F. Angas, I have compared + them. They also have the peristome brown, and the basal band is + darker. + + (14) _Helix_ (_Geotrochus_) _cleryi_, Recluz (Plate XXXVI. figs 6, 6 + _b_). The specimens from Santa Anna (var. _meridionalis_ fig. 6 _b_) + are smaller than the type, pale brown above, with a white + thread-like line at the suture, and the acutely keeled periphery, + paler beneath, especially towards the centre, and have the aperture + particularly acuminate at the termination of the keel. + + The specimens from Simbo (var. _simboana_, fig. 6 _a_) are uniformly + pale horn-colour, rather sharply carinate at the middle, and have + the peristome white, considerably thickened and almost notched at + the upper end of the columella, and the body-whorl is more + contracted than in the typical form. The examples from Choiseul Bay, + Shortland and Treasury Islands (var. _septentrionalis_, fig. 6) are + all alike, of smaller dimensions than the normal form, thin pale + brownish horn-colour, with rather more convex whorls than usual, the + carina at the periphery being acute and thread-like as in the + variety _simboana_. + + Whether these several varieties should take specific rank is + questionable, for, although there is considerable difference between + the extreme forms even in the series of nearly one hundred + specimens under examination, the gradual transition from one form + to another is observable. + + (16) _Helix_ (_Videna_) _sanctae annae._ (Plate XXXVI. figs. 7. 7 + _b_.) Shell depressed-conoid, deeply umbilicated, very acutely + keeled at the periphery, light brown, sometimes with a few radiating + pale streaks on the upper surface, sculptured with oblique lines of + growth. Whorls 5, rather slowly increasing, slightly convex, + depressed and margined above the suture, last not descending, + compressed above and below the keel, a little convex towards the + umbilicus, which is moderately large. Aperture transverse, + flesh-tinted within. Peristome simple, a little thickened along the + basal margin, with the extremities united by a thin callus. Height 7 + millim.; greatest diameter 17, smallest 15. + + (25) _Cyclostoma_ (_Adelostoma_) _triste_, Tapparone Canefri, var.? + Dr. Tapparone Canefri has kindly compared specimens from these + islands with his _C triste_, and is of opinion that they may be + considered a variety of it; and observes that the New-Guinean form + is a little smaller, its spire a little more slender, its surface + more glossy, the colour redder, and the apex of the spire darker. + + The shells under examination are clothed with a very thin epidermis + when in a fresh condition, exhibiting numerous very fine spiral + thread-like lines, which entirely disappear in worn shells and can + easily be rubbed off with a brush. For several species having a + similar epidermis and an incomplete peristome, Dr. Tapparone Canefri + has proposed the subgenus _Adelostoma_. + + (29) _Pupina solomonensis._(Plate XXXVI. fig. 9, 9 _a_.) Shell small + and very like _P. difficilis_, Semper, and _P. keraudreni_, Vignard. + It is of a reddish tint, especially the body-whorl; consists of + 5-1/2 whorls, which are the least convex and exhibit a pellucid + line, frequently brown, immediately beneath the suture. Last whorl + very obliquely descending behind, narrowed below, and flattened + somewhat above the aperture. Columella thickened with callus, white, + parted off from the whorl above by an oblique circumscribing red + line, truncated rather low down. Outer lip slightly thickened and + effuse, and a little paler than the rest of the whorl, produced + somewhat at its junction with the body-whorl, which in consequence + has the appearance of rising suddenly after an oblique descent. + Length 7 millims., diam. 3-2/3, aperture 2 long and wide. + + (34) _Helicina solomonensis._ (Plate XXXVI. figs. 11, ll _b_.) Shell + small, globose-conical, reddish or yellowish, pale at the apex. + Whorls 4-4-1/2 the least convex above, sculptured with lines of + growth and fine spiral striae both on the upper and lower surfaces, + very faintly margined above at the suture; last whorl rounded at the + periphery, obsoletely angled near the junction of the outer lip and + the least descending in front, so that the faint angulation is + visible for a short distance above the sutural line. Aperture + somewhat semicircular and oblique, small; peristome slightly + expanded; umbilical callosity yellowish or pellucid whitish, defined + towards the base of the columellar margin. Greatest width 4-2/3 + millim., smallest 4; height 3-1/2. + + (44) _Melania subgradata._(Plate XXXVII. fig. 3, 3 _a_). Shell + elongate, turreted, rather solid, covered with an (olive?) + epidermis, and marked with fine longitudinal oblique red lines which + extend from suture to suture. Whorls probably about 10, flat or even + a little concave at the sides, shouldered above, usually with a + spiral shallow groove and a few striae near the shoulder, and marked + with fine incremental striae. Suture deep, slightly oblique. Last + whorl long, finely transversely striated, most distinctly at the + base. Aperture elongate-pyriform, acute above, effuse at the base. + Outer lip thin, sharp, accurate, and prominent at the middle. + Columellar margin rather thickly covered with callus, united above + to the outer lip. Length of two specimens, consisting of five whorls + 30 and 25 millim.; diameter 11 and 10-1/2; aperture 14 and 12 long, + 6 and 5 wide. + + (45) _Melania ugiensis._ (Plate XXXVII. fig. 4.) Shell subulate, + acuminate, beneath the epidermis (which is wanting in the specimens + at hand), of a dirty, pale, livid, or purplish tint. Whorls probably + about 14 in number; the eleven remaining are a little convex, rather + slowly enlarging, and sculptured with close-set, obliquish, fine + riblets, which are crossed by crowded spiral striae. Last whorl + large, with the riblets rather obsolete below the middle, and very + close together, much more numerous than those upon the upper whorls. + Aperture obliquely pear-shaped. Length 25 millim., diameter 8; + aperture 8-1/2 long, 4-1/2 wide. + + (46) _Melania sanctae annae._ (Plate XXXVII. figs. 5, 5 _a_.) Shell + small, acuminately pyramidal, somewhat eroded towards the apex, + covered with a yellowish-olive epidermis, and sometimes marked with + a few indistinct, reddish, irregular spots, and lines near the + middle of the body-whorl. Whorls 5-6 remaining, flattish at the + sides, divided by a slightly, oblique, distinct suture, all with the + exception of the last one or two more or less distinctly, + longitudinally, finely plicate; the plicae are more conspicuous in + some specimens than in others, being at times entirely eroded. The + other sculpture consists of fine lines of growth, and a few rather + distant spiral striae, which cut across the incremental lines and + produce a puckered appearance. Aperture elongate, pyriform, pale + bluish within. Length of specimen consisting of six whorls 13 + millim., diameter 5; aperture 5 long and 2-1/2 wide. + + (47) _Melania guppyi._ (Plate XXXVII. figs. 6, 6 _a_.) Shell + slenderly acuminate, covered with an olive-brown epidermis. Whorls + about 14, divided by a very oblique, deepish suture, concave above + the middle and somewhat convex below it, and then contracted; + ornamented with a few spiral series of nodules (about five on the + upper whorls) and rather indistinct, very oblique and flexuous, + longitudinal ridges, upon which the nodules rests, also exhibiting + very sloping and flexuous lines of growth; the most conspicuous rows + of granules are near the middle of the whorls. Aperture pyriform. + Outer lip thin, remarkably sinuated above towards the suture, and + arcuately prominent below. Columellar margin oblique, straightish, + covered with a callus, curving into the broad basal sinus. Length 31 + millim., diameter 7; aperture 9 long, 4 wide. + + This is a very remarkable and distinct species, with a very + drawn-out spire, peculiar granuled sculpture, and a deeply sinuated + labrum. I have much pleasure in naming it after Mr. Guppy. + + (66) _Unio guppyi._ (Plate XXXVII. figs. 8-8 _b_.) Shell elongate, + very inequilateral, usually a little longer than twice the height, + compressed, covered with a blackish-brown epidermis, exhibiting + strong lines of growth, and very faint radiating substriation, and + marked with fine wrinklings at the eroded beaks, which are small and + placed quite near the anterior extremity. Dorsal margin behind the + umbones almost straight or the least excurved for some distance, + then at an obtuse angle becoming oblique before rounding into the + extremity, which is a little more sharply curved than the anterior + end. Ventral outline either faintly excurved, straight, or the least + concave. Interior bluish-white, most iridescent at the hinder + extremity, generally stained in parts with olive-brown. Cardinal + tooth of the right valve moderately large, four or five-lobed at the + top, situated just in front of umbo. Between it and the outer margin + is a short ridge, the space between the tooth and the ridge + receiving the single, smaller, roughened, and striated tooth of the + left valve. Lateral tooth of the right valve long, obliquely + truncate behind, fitting in between two teeth in the opposite valve. + Anterior adductor scar deep, posterior superficial, squarish in + front. Pedal scar in both valves under the cardinal tooth very deep. + Ligament elongate, prominent. + + Length 80 mm.; height 38; diameter 21. + " 70 mm.; " 35; " 18. + + This species recalls to mind some of the forms from Australia and + New Zealand. Its principal features are the elongate compressed + form, dark brown colour, wrinkled apices, and coarse incremental + lines. It is the only species as yet recorded from the Solomon + Islands. + + +ADDITIONAL NOTE. (H. B. GUPPY.) + +A species of the _Litoritinidae (Littorina scabra)_ is commonly found in +this group on the leaves and trunks of mangroves, Barringtonias, and +other littoral trees, the branches of which overspread the rising tide. +These molluscs occur at heights varying from one or two feet to eight or +nine feet above the high-water level; and they possess an unusually +delicate operculum as compared with those of other species of the same +family. They do not seem to be able to withstand immersion in salt water +for any length of time, since out of six individuals kept submerged for +twenty-four hours, three died. When first placed in the water, they were +evidently very much out of their element, and tried in vain to creep out +of the vessel. The delicate character of the operculum indicates a +transitional stage between marine and terrestrial molluscs; and the +experiment above referred to, throws a little light on this subject, +since only the younger of the six individuals survived. One would have +expected that the younger individuals would have been less able to +withstand immersion in sea-water, but such was not the case, since they +recovered from an immersion which killed the older individuals. In +explanation of this unexpected result, I would infer that, on the theory +of the inheritance of peculiarities at corresponding ages, the younger +individuals would retain more of the marine habits of the original +parent of the species, because in the first place only the adults of +this parent species would have been modified to suit the new condition. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +THE CLIMATE OF THE SOLOMON ISLANDS. + + +AMONGST the matters to which I devoted some attention in this group of +islands, was the annual rainfall. As far as I know, there have been no +continuous observations previously made there; and the only record of +rain-measurement, which I have been able to find referring to this +region, was an observation made on board the Austrian frigate "Novara" +in the middle of October, 1858, whilst to the northward of St. +Christoval, when three inches of rain were registered in five +hours.[491] I therefore set myself to work to do what I could in this +matter, making rain-gauge stations at Santa Anna and Ugi and keeping a +register myself on board. Mr. Fred Howard undertook to make these +observations at Ugi, and I supplied him with a rain-gauge for this +purpose. His register, which extended over a period of fifteen months +from October, 1882, to the end of the following year, was kept with +great regularity; and as I was able to compare his observations with my +own on board for a few days, I have every confidence in the accuracy of +his observations. At Santa Anna, Mr. William Henghan, to whom I had +supplied a gauge, undertook at first to keep the record, beginning in +the last week of October, 1882; but he left the island two months after, +when Mr. Charles Sproul voluntarily undertook to measure the rainfall, +which he did with great regularity until the end of the following year. +I regret to learn that Mr. Sproul has recently died at Sydney. He was +one of those men who in a quiet inoffensive way have done much towards +preparing the way for future settlers in this group. I have the greatest +confidence in his observations, since for a few days at Santa Anna we +were able to compare our daily measurements. + + [491] Scherzer's "Voyage of the 'Novara,'" Eng. edit., 1861. + +Before proceeding to consider the results of these rain-measurements, I +will endeavour to convey to the mental eye of my readers a general idea +of the most striking atmospheric phenomenon in connection with the +rainfall of these regions. I refer to the oncoming of the _black +squall_. + +A clear and serene sky at first gives no token of the sudden change that +is to quickly follow; but the stillness of the air and its increased +dryness, together with the consequent greater scorching power of the +sun's rays and the apparent nearness of surrounding shores, give +sufficient warning of the onset of the rain squall to those acquainted +with these seas. In a short time a low black arch appears above the +horizon, often in an unexpected quarter, and rising rapidly it sweeps +majestically with great swiftness until it appears to span the heavens. +Onward it rushes, quicker far than one imagines; and now must the +navigator beware. Under yonder advancing arch a white line of foam marks +its van. There, away towards one of its corners, a waterspout rises in +fantastic shape; sea and cloud meet in mid-air and become intermingled +in the whirling column. Lightning plays about beneath the arch and +within its black mass, illuming for the moment its dark recesses and +leaving it in the next far blacker than before. Peals of thunder herald +on the advance of the black squall. + +"Clear lower deck!" "Hands aloft!" "Shorten sail!" Such were the words +of command which were almost daily issued during our cruises in these +islands. In a few brief minutes, the ship is prepared to meet the +squall. The temperature falls very perceptibly, and the officer of the +watch gives a slight shiver as he dons his oilskins. The wind is +freshening, a few large drops of rain fall, the men crouch under the +bulwarks, and now the arch is overhead and we are in the thick of the +squall. Down comes a deluge of rain which in less than a minute wets all +who are unprotected through and through. The ship heels well over, even +with her scanty canvas. There is nothing more to be done. We listen to +the whistling of the wind in the rigging and patiently wait until the +weather clears. In half-an-hour the arch has swept over us, and is +pursuing its rapid course towards the neighbouring mountain-peaks, +perhaps of Bougainville or it may be of Guadalcanar. The blue sky begins +to show itself; and in less than an hour all is as before. With reefs +shaken out and more sail made, the ship proceeds, plunging cheerily on +under a fresh breeze as though glad to shake herself clear of the +squall. The sea losing its murky colour reflects the bright hue of the +sky now serene; and its white-topped waves sparkle in the sun. The +wizard of the storm has shaken his wand, and the scene is changed, as +though by magic. + +All nature seems invigorated by this short battle of the elements and to +be indebted to the bounty of the black squall. Whilst everything before +was depressed and lowering, all is now bright and cheerful. Nature has +in truth had its accustomed shower-bath, and the reaction that ensues +does good to all; makes men the happier and the stronger, elicits a loud +chorus from the lower creation in which bird, reptile, and insect, +before hushed in the depressing gloom, now combine in strange medley; +and the inanimate world shares in the bright change which has followed +the storm. + +If it be night, the increased luminosity of the sea may be the warning +of the arched squall. The ship throws off a bright wave of +phosphorescence on either side of the bow, and leaves a luminous track +in her wake. Overhead the cloudless star-lit sky conveys _its_ warning; +for the stars shine with increased brilliancy, those of less magnitude +usually invisible with the naked eye are now distinctly seen; and if the +navigator, who has often tried in vain to count the six stars in the +Pleiades, can do so now, let him look out for the black squall. Such are +the warnings. Then sweeps along the lowering arched mass with its rain +and its waterspouts, its wind and its thunder and lightning. On it +comes, looking all the blacker as it spreads athwart the heavens and +turns the star-lit night into a lightless gloom. Overtaken in the night +by such a squall, unable to see more than half a cable's length on +either side, and perhaps in the vicinity of sunken reefs the position of +which is uncertain, a sailor has need of all his wits. On one occasion, +when in this situation, we came unexpectedly in soundings, whilst, as we +thought, a hundred good fathoms and more lay beneath our keel. The time +was anxious, but nothing could be done until the squall was over. When +the arch has passed, the stars begin to show themselves, and in a short +time they shine out with all their lustre. + +With this description of the rain-squall, or black-squall, or +arched-squall, as it may be also conveniently termed, I return to the +consideration of the rainfall of this region; and first with regard to +the observations at the east end of the Solomon Group. During 1883, +125.03 inches of rain were measured at Santa Anna, a small island lying +at the extreme eastern limit of these islands. Two-thirds of the total +amount fell in the live months between the beginning of April and the +end of August. At Ugi, which lies nearly 60 miles north-east of Santa +Anna, 146.24 inches of rain were registered during the same year. About +one-third of the total rain for the year fell in the two months of April +and July. On comparing the totals for each month at these two +localities, there will be found to be but little agreement, which is due +to the circumstance that the daily rainfalls of these two places have +little relation one with the other, a heavy fall at one island being +often only indicated by a slight fall of rain at the other. It is thus +evident that locality has a great influence on the rainfall in this part +of the group; and probably Ugi owes its greater rainfall to the +proximity of the high land of St. Christoval. Here, as in other parts of +this group, I often had opportunities of observing how the contiguity of +land affected the rainfall in a single shower. I might have been in the +interior of an island exposed to a deluge of rain for a couple of hours, +and have found, as I did once in the Shortland Islands, that there had +been very little rain on board. Another time, when in my Rob Roy canoe +on the south side of Treasury harbour and not more than a mile from the +ship, a rain-squall passed over me leaving scarcely a drop behind; but +as it swept over the ship and was approaching the steep slopes of the +island, a smart shower of 20/100 of an inch fell on the deck. + +I cannot gather from the observations made in this eastern part of the +group, that one season of the year has a heavier rainfall than another. +On comparing the two records for 1883 of Ugi and Santa Anna, it might be +thought that the closing months of the year would usually prove to be +the driest; but on referring to the register kept on board the ship in +this locality in the latter part of 1882 (page 365), which is one of the +heaviest records we had in the Solomon Group, such an inference would be +negatived. Nor do I find from these registers of rainfall that there +appears to be any relation between the amount of rain and the prevalence +or non-prevalence of the south-easterly trade, which usually becomes +well established in May and lasts till the end of November or the +beginning of December, when the north-westerly and westerly winds set +in. These observations point towards the inference, therefore, that the +distribution of rain through the seasons in this part of the group is +capricious; and they do not warrant the conclusion that one season is +wetter than another. + +Perhaps a comparison of the number of rainy days, or days on which not +less than 2/100 of an inch of rain were measured, may help us to form a +more definite conclusion. It will be seen that at Santa Anna and Ugi +there were much the same number of rainy days, 182 in the former island +and 178 in the latter, or in round numbers about half the total number +of days in the year were rainy.[492] At Santa Anna, during the +prevalence of the trade wind, there were on the average 15 rainy days +per month, and at Ugi 13 per month; whilst during the months from +December to April inclusive, when westerly and variable winds prevailed, +there were 18 rainy days per month at Santa Anna, and 19 per month at +Ugi; so that we may infer that in this year of 1883 there were fewer +rainy days per month during the prevalence of the south-east trade, +_i.e._, from May to November, than during the period of westerly and +variable winds, _i.e._, from December to April. + + [492] From the record of the rainy days during the six months from + June to November of the previous year (1882), it appears that at + least 110 days were rainy. During the same months of the following + year, only 84 days were rainy. + +I come now to the subject of the greatest daily fall of rain in this +eastern end of the group. On the 13th of June, 1883, 7.73 inches were +registered at Santa Anna; whilst at Ugi on the same day only an inch and +a half of rain fell, a circumstance showing how confined in their areas +some heavy rainfalls may be. At Ugi the heaviest daily fall of 5.75 +inches was recorded on the 28th of January of this same year; whilst at +Santa Anna only a little more than two inches fell on this day; and here +is another proof of the restricted locality of heavy rainfalls. On the +20th of November, 1882, when H.M.S. "Lark" was off the east end of St. +Christoval, 5.74 inches of rain fell on the ship; whilst only a small +amount of rain was measured at Santa Anna and Ugi. . . . . . With +reference to the character of the rain in this part of the Solomon +Group, I may remark that as in other tropical regions it is very heavy. +A fall of an inch in an hour is very frequent during a rain-squall; but +not uncommonly the rain falls far more heavily. Thus, on one occasion on +board H.M.S. "Lark," when in this part of the group, 2.90 inches fell in +an hour; and at another time 1.03 inches fell in 25 minutes, and on +another occasion an inch fell in half-an-hour. + +But inasmuch as heavy falls of rain are not peculiar to the tropics, +since far greater falls than those above named have occurred in +temperate Europe, we can only judge of the character of the rainfall in +this region by the total annual fall and by the frequency of heavy +falls. Thus we find that at Ugi, in 1883, on 56 days the fall exceeded +an inch; and that at Santa Anna, more than an inch of rain fell on 41 +days. At Ugi, the daily records on eighteen occasions exceeded two +inches; at Santa there was a lesser number of falls of over two inches, +viz. 11. + +If I were to estimate the probable annual rainfall at the _coast_ in +this part of the Solomon Group, I should place it at not far under 150 +inches. Although only possessing the rain-register for a small portion +of 1882, I am of the opinion, from having spent a large part of the year +in this eastern end of the group, that the fall for 1882 was heavier +than the rainfall actually registered for 1883;[493] although this is +but a conjecture, it enables me to estimate the probable annual fall +with some confidence at about 150 inches at the _coast_ in this eastern +end of the group. + + [493] _Vide_ footnote referring to number of rainy days in 1882 on + p. 356. + +The observations made on board the ship amongst the islands of +Bougainville Straits (Treasury, Shortlands, Faro, etc.) during portions +of the year 1883 and 1884 now claim our notice. As shown on page 365, +60.43 inches of rain fell in the five months from June to October of +1883, this amount being a little under that which fell at Ugi (65.70 +inches) and at Santa Anna (67.72 inches) in the same period, the two +regions lying towards the opposite ends of the group. During the same +period of the following year, we measured 67.66 inches of rain in +Bougainville Straits, an amount a little in excess of that of the +previous year. During the same periods, _i.e._, from June to October +inclusive, in 1883 and 1884, there were the following number of rainy +days, 120 in the one year and 118 in the other. At Santa Anna and Ugi, +at the opposite end of the group, the total of rainy days for the same +period in 1883, numbered only two-thirds of the amount in Bougainville +Straits. During these five months in 1883 there were 16 daily records of +over an inch of rain in Bougainville Straits; at Santa Anna and Ugi, in +the same period, there were 23 and 26 daily records exceeding an inch. +In the same period of 1884, in Bougainville Straits, there were 22 such +daily records, but the total fall was about 7 inches greater than in the +previous year. + +I may now draw some inferences from the above observations. In the first +place, it is probable that the annual coast rainfall of Bougainville +Straits and that of the eastern end of the Solomon Group are much about +the same, viz., about 150 inches: the chief difference between the two +regions being, that in the former region, there are a greater number of +rainy days and fewer heavy falls. The heavy falls, when they do occur, +are not easily forgotten; thus, at Treasury we measured, in July, 1884, +11 inches of rain in 10 successive hours; but the daily record was only +8.09 inches, since the rain began in the evening of one day and lasted +well into the following morning. + +During the heavy rainfalls in these regions the streams swell in an +astonishingly quick manner. Rivulets become turbid streams, the whole +hill-slope discharges a continuous sheet of water, and the water rushes +down the permanent stream-courses with the roar of a mountain-torrent. +Large blocks of stone are swept some distance along the lower courses of +the streams; and the trunks of trees are carried by each successive +flood further and further towards the mouth of the stream. + +It should be now remarked that the average rainfall for the year, which +I have estimated from observations made in different parts of the +Solomon Group at about 150 inches, only applies to the _coast_. It is +probable that this estimate is generally applicable to the coasts of +these islands, except on the lee sides of the loftier islands.[494] + + [494] By the lee sides, I mean those sheltered from the prevailing + S.E. trade. + +This brings me to the question of the rainfall in the higher regions. +The rainfall will increase with elevation until a certain height is +reached, where the clouds attain their maximum density; at such a level +the greatest rainfall will occur. I learn from an interesting paper by +Mr. Bateman on this subject,[495] that it may be inferred that in the +Lake District of England the greatest rainfall occurs at an elevation of +2,000 feet, which is the level of maximum cloud density. In India, an +elevation of 4,500 feet represents the level at which the greatest +rainfall occurs. In the Solomon Islands, a greater height will have to +be attained before the level of maximum cloud density or that of the +greatest rainfall will be attained. Probably I shall not greatly err if +I assume it to be between 5,000 and 6,000 feet. I have already observed +that the south-east trade, subject to its usual variations, is the +prevailing wind in the eastern part of the group for nearly two-thirds +of the year. Coming laden with its watery burden, it first strikes the +eastern slopes of St. Christoval; but although the higher regions of +this island must cause the rain-clouds to precipitate a large amount of +their moisture, the higher peaks do not rise in sufficient mass to a +height that would receive the greatest rainfall, the extreme height +being 4,100 feet. The rain-clouds, with the bulk of their moisture, +would therefore be driven over the higher regions of this island, and +would deposit the greater part of their burden on the higher slopes of +the mountainous eastern portion of Guadalcanar. Since this island, in +its eastern portion, rises in mass to a height of some 5,000 feet and +attains a maximum elevation of 8,000 feet, it does not seem probable +that, during the prevalence of the trade for nearly two-thirds of the +year, a considerable quantity of rain would be deposited on the western +side of the island; and, that such is the case, is shown in the fact +that the dense forest-growth that clothes the steep eastern and southern +slopes of the island gives place, on the lee or west side of the +mountains, to a vegetation which gives to the western portion of +Guadalcanar, when viewed from seaward, the appearance of a savannah or a +prairie. + + [495] Journal of the Victoria Institute. Vol. XV. No. 59. + +The lofty mountain-masses of the east end of Guadalcanar, which forms +one of the finest specimens of coast-scenery in the world, are usually +enveloped in rain-clouds at their summits. But occasionally one of the +peaks is visible above the thick cloud-covering, marking by its +elevation, as it were, the line of greatest rainfall lying below. In the +same manner the high peaks at the east end of Bougainville, which have +an elevation of between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, may be seen occasionally +to project above the rain-clouds; but there is, probably, a smaller +quantity of rain deposited on the higher slopes of this island than on +those of Guadalcanar, because the mountains are more isolated, possess +for the most part the tapering volcanic profile, and do not rise "en +masse," as in the case of the high lands of Guadalcanar. The greatest +rainfall in the Solomon Group takes place on the steep southern and +eastern slopes of this island of Guadalcanar. Huge mountain-masses +appear to rise directly from the sea to a height of some 5,000 feet, +ultimately attaining a height of 8,000 feet. The fall there must be +tremendous, especially when, as is frequently the case, the land of St. +Christoval does not interpose itself in the path of the moisture-laden +trade-wind. Then, loaded with vapours after its passage across a wide +expanse of ocean, and with but a thin tract of intervening lowland to +rob it of its moisture, the trade strikes at once upon the precipitous +mountain-slopes as against some Cyclopean rampart. There is no ravine or +breach in the mountain-mass to ease the tension. There, on those +mountain-slopes, a terrific precipitation must occur, which, if the +annual rainfall of the coast is 150 inches, will here be three or four +times that amount. This is no exaggerated language, but is the opinion I +have formed, after having carefully considered the physical geography of +these regions. + +The subjoined rainfalls of a few localities in other parts of the world +may be interesting to compare with that of the Solomon Group:[496] + + [496] Somerville's "Physical Geography," 7th edit. pp. 331-334. + + England 32 inches. + Singapore 97 " + Atlantic Doldrums 225 " + Western Ghats 302 " + Cherraponjee 10 " + + SOLOMON ISLANDS. + + (_a._) at the coast 150 " + (_b._) on the higher slopes of Guadalcanar 400 to 500 inches probably. + +Comparing the rainfall of the Solomon Islands with some results obtained +in other parts of the Pacific, I would draw attention to the small +rainfall of Port Moresby on the south-east coast of New Guinea, where +34.44 inches were registered at the Mission Station in 1875.[497] In +Fiji the rainfall appears to vary between 60 and 250 inches per annum, +according to the degree of elevation above the sea, and to the position +of the station on the lee or weather sides of the islands, the greatest +annual falls occurring in the interior of the large islands.[498] In +Oahu, one of the Sandwich Islands, during 1873, the rainfall at the +coast was 37.85 inches; whilst at a distance of 2-3/4 miles in the +interior, it was 134.06 inches, the elevation being only 550 feet above +the sea.[499] + + [497] Stone's "A Few Months in New Guinea," p. 143. + + [498] Rain-gaugers have been numerous in this colony, and their list + would extend beyond the limits of a foot-note. (Vide Home's "Year in + Fiji," &c., &c.) + + [499] Mosely's "Naturalist on the 'Challenger,'" p. 497. + +I will now make a few remarks on the barometric pressure, temperature, +and other features of the meteorology of this group. They are based on +the results of the observations made by Lieutenant Leeper on board the +ship, and by Mr. F. Howard at Ugi. (Tables appended.) + +As is usual in these regions of the Pacific, the fluctuation of the +barometer, whether daily, yearly, or monthly, is very small. Thus, the +range during the 22 months we passed in the group, was from 29.83 to +30.18 inches, or about a third of an inch; whilst the average monthly +range was rather under a quarter of an inch, and the usual diurnal +variation about .04 of an inch. + +Whilst endeavouring to compare the temperatures of the different +seasons, I have mainly used the Ugi register, since it gives a +continuous record for more than a year. At Ugi in 1883, the portion of +the year from June to September inclusive was slightly the coolest, but +the difference in the means was not 2 deg.; and, in truth, taking all the +thermometric observations into consideration, the seasons are scarcely +distinguished by their temperatures. As Lieutenant Leeper[500] remarks +in his report, the temperature varies but little all the year round, the +monthly mean varying between 80 deg. and 85 deg. The annual mean +temperature may be placed at 82 deg. to 83 deg., and the range from 75 +deg. to 95 deg. The daily variation is considerably affected by the +exposed or protected position of any locality at the coast. Judging, +however, from the data at my disposal, it is usually less than 10 deg., +_e.g._, 79 deg. at night, and 88 deg. at mid-day. + + [500] _Vide_ Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc. vol. XI., p. 309. The + instruments used on board were previously verified at Kew. From want + of leisure, Lieut. Leeper was unable to do much more than tabulate + his observations. I have therefore extracted from them such general + facts and inferences as they sustain. + +From the hygrometrical observations, it may be inferred that the climate +of these islands is generally very moist. The _relative humidity_, +taking 100 as saturation, ranged at Ugi in 1883 from 54 to 100; but the +monthly range was usually from 72 to 95, the mean for the year being +83.[501] This mean degree of relative humidity is much greater than that +of Levuka in Fiji which would seem to average about 70;[502] but in +truth there is little necessity for me to remark further on this +well-known feature of the climate of these islands. Yet, I should add +that this proportion of aqueous vapour would not necessarily be +oppressive in a temperate latitude. In a tropical climate, however, any +influence that retards the evaporation from the skin of the normally +excessive perspiration, is a cause of personal discomfort, such as would +not be experienced in a drier locality lying in the same latitude. The +effects of this combination of heat and moisture are to be seen in the +rankness of the vegetation, and in the rapid rusting of steel. Although +the foregoing remarks may be taken as generally applicable to the group, +it should be stated that on the lee side of a mountainous island, such +as the western end of Guadalcanar, there is a comparatively dry +atmosphere, and the difference is also shown in the character of the +vegetation. + + [501] There are no observations for January, but since the mean + relative humidity varies with the rainfall, I have approximately + estimated that for January to be 83. + + [502] Lieut. Lake's observations for 1876 and 1877. (Quart. Journ. + Met. Soc.) + +The moderate intensity of the sun's rays in these islands is to be +ascribed to the presence of aqueous vapour in quantity in the +atmosphere. When, however, a thunderstorm and its accompanying +rain-squall are portending, the air is unusually dry, and the sun's rays +are very fierce. At such times it often happens that the sky is +overcast; and thus it comes about that the unwary traveller, by rashly +baring his legs and arms, suffers severe sun-burns when he least expects +it. Waterton and other travellers have, through ignorance of this fact, +been laid up for several days, and even weeks. I was unable to walk any +distance for about ten days, after experiencing a severe sun-burn of the +legs as the result of baring them during an overcast day. The affection +is peculiarly painful, though it often excites but little sympathy. + +My remarks on the meteorology of this group will not be complete without +a short reference to the prevailing winds. The South-east Trade Wind and +the North-west Monsoon carry on a continual struggle for the mastery in +these islands. However, for two-thirds of the year the Trade prevails, +viz., from April to November. The appended record of winds, which +extends over a considerable period, I have prepared from the +observations made on board H.M.S. "Lark" in different parts of the +group, and from the registers kept by Mr. Sproul and Mr. Howard at Santa +Anna and Ugi. It will be there seen that at the eastern extremity of +these islands, viz., in the vicinity of St. Christoval, the Trade +announces its onset in April by unsettled weather, and frequent +thunderstorms. In May, it becomes established, but, as Lieutenant Leeper +remarks, it blows in fits and starts, is interrupted by calms, variable +winds, and heavy rain-squalls, and does not blow home as in Fiji and the +groups to the eastward. At the opposite end of the group, in +Bougainville Straits, the Trade appears a month later, and does not +become established until June. In this locality, however, it is more +fitful than in the eastern islands, blows lighter, and is less to be +depended on by the navigator. + +It may be generally stated that the north-west and west winds set in +about the end of November or the beginning of December, and prevail +until the end of March. Although heavy gales accompany the frequent +shiftings of the wind, especially when it is from the S.W., these +islands are beyond the sweep of the hurricanes which in this season of +the year occasionally devastate the groups to the eastward. The period +of the westerly winds in the Solomon Islands is also characterised by +calms and variable winds. The exhilarating freshness of the Trade then +gives place to the enervating influence of the Monsoon; and, in +consequence, the period of westerly winds is the sickly season. + + +RAIN-REGISTER AT SANTA ANNA. + + (Kept by Mr. Charles Sproul[503] between October 25th, 1882, and + December 31st, 1883.) + + [503] I am indebted to Mr. William Heughan for commencing this + register. + +The rain-gauge used was of the common round funnel pattern (5.7 inches). +The observations were made at Port Mary on the west side of the island. +The elevation of the guage was some four or five feet (or less) above +the high tide level. + + +------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+ + | MONTH. | Total in | Number of | Greatest | + | | inches and | rainy | daily | + | | hundredths. | days.[504] | fall. | + +------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+ + | 1882. | | | | + |October, 25th-31st| 3.06 | 5 | 1.70 | + |November | 7.06 | 15 | 1.97 | + |December | 13.96 | 24 | 2.24 | + | | ----- | -- | | + | | Total, 24.62 | Total, 44 | | + | 1883. | | | | + |January | 5.23 | 12 | 2.03 | + |February | 9.63 | 20 | 2.00 | + |March | 4.40 | 13 | .84 | + |April | 14.96 | 24 | 3.22 | + |May | 11.28 | 16 | 3.33 | + |June | 26.88 | 19 | 7.73 | + |July | 18.61 | 23 | 3.45 | + |August | 11.74 | 15 | 2.02 | + |September | 4.81 | 12 | 2.52 | + |October | 5.68 | 9 | 1.67 | + |November | 6.57 | 11 | 1.20 | + |December | 5.24 | 8 | 1.68 | + | | ------ | --- | | + | | Total, 125.03 | Total, 182 | | + +------------------+---------------+-------------+-----------+ + + [504] By _rainy days_ are meant those days on which not less than + 2/100 of an inch of rain were measured. + +_Results for 1883._--_Total rainfall_ for 1883; 125.03 inches. +Two-thirds of the total fall, _i.e._, 83.47 inches, were recorded during +the five months from April to August. _Greatest daily fall_, 7.73 +inches. _Total number of rainy days_ 182, _i.e._, one half of the year. +On 41 days, more than an inch of rain fell. + + +RAIN-REGISTER AT UGI. + + (Kept by Mr. Fred Howard between October 1st, 1882, and December + 31st, 1883.) + +The rain-gauge used was of the round funnel pattern (about 5-1/2 +inches). The observations were made at the residence of Mr. John +Stephens at Selwyn Bay on the west side of the island. The elevation of +the gauge was from four to six feet above the high-tide level. + + +-----------+---------------+-------+----------+---------------+ + | | | | | Relative | + | | | Number| | humidity | + | | Total in | of | Greatest | taking 100 as | + | MONTH. | inches and | rainy | daily | saturation | + | | hundredths. | days. | fall. | (see table, | + | | | | | p. 367) | + +-----------+---------------+-------+----------+---------------+ + | 1882. | | | | | + | October | 10.68 | 18 | 2.45 | | + | November | 10.16 | 16 | 4.60 | | + | December | 9.57 | 21 | 1.36 | | + | | ------ --- | | | + | | Total, 30.41 | 55 | | | + | | | | | | + | 1883. | | | | | + | January | 13.46 | 16 | 5.75 | (83) | + | February | 13.89 | 17 | 4.00 | 82 | + | March | 10.02 | 16 | 3.00 | 83 | + | April | 23.28 | 26 | 3.00 | 88 | + | May | 6.39 | 9 | 1.65 | 83 | + | June | 12.83 | 12 | 3.70 | 84 | + | July | 24.60 | 25 | 2.85 | 89 | + | August | 15.76 | 15 | 4.75 | 83 | + | September | 7.36 | 14 | 1.50 | 81 | + | October | 5.15 | 7 | 1.75 | 76 | + | November | 5.30 | 11 | 1.10 | 79 | + | December | 8.20 | 10 | 1.30 | 83 | + | | ------ | --- | | | + | | Total, 146.24 | 178 | | | + +-----------+---------------+-------+----------+---------------+ + +_Results._--During the last quarter of 1882, the rainfall was 30.41 +inches; and the number of rainy days was 55. + +During 1883, the _total rainfall_ was 146.24 inches. The greatest +monthly records were those of April and July: during these two months +47.88 inches fell, or about one-third of the total fall for the year. +The _greatest daily fall_ was 5.75 inches. The _total number of rainy +days_ was 178, or about one half of the number of days in the year. On +56 days more than an inch of rain fell; and in 18 days more than two +inches fell. + + +RAIN-REGISTER KEPT ON BOARD H.M.S. "LARK." + +(I am indebted to Lieutenant Leeper for assistance in keeping this +register.) + +The rain-gauge was raised about eleven feet above the water-level. I did +not commence these observations until towards the close of the first +season; and since, during the two following years, we spent about +two-thirds of each year in this region, the record is, in consequence, +not continuous. + + +(_A_) OFF THE NORTH COAST OF ST. CHRISTOVAL AND THE NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS +IN 1882. + + Total in Number Greatest + inches and of rainy daily + 1882. hundredths. days. fall. + + Sept. (from the 9th), 18.40 15 3.32 + October, 10.84 21 2.38 + Nov. (to the 21st), 18.31 12 5.74 + ------ -- + Total, 47.55 48 + +_Results._--_Total Rainfall_ for this interval of 74 days from Sept. 9th +to Nov. 21st, 1882, was 47.55 inches. The _greatest daily fall_ was 5.74 +inches. The _number of rainy days_ was 48, or about two-thirds of the +whole. On 17 days, more than an inch of rain fell; and on 8 days, more +than two inches fell. + + +(_B_) OFF THE NORTH COAST OF ST. CHRISTOVAL AND THE NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS +IN 1883. + + Total in Number Greatest + inches and of rainy daily + 1883. hundredths. days. fall. + + April 13th-30th, 10.43 15 1.62 + + +(_C_) BOUGAINVILLE STRAITS IN 1883. + + Total in Number Greatest + inches and of rainy daily + 1883. hundredths. days. fall. + + June, 16.32 26 2.23 + July, 10.25 24 2.12 + August, 7.78 23 1.10 + September, 15.07 22 2.20 + October, 11.01 25 2.10 + ------ --- + Total, 60.43 120 + +_Results._--During these 153 days, there fell 60.43 inches of rain. The +greatest fall in one day was 2.23 inches. The total number of rainy days +was 120, or about four-fifths of the whole. On 14 days, more than an +inch of rain fell; and on 7 days, more than two inches fell. + + +(_D_) BOUGAINVILLE STRAITS IN 1884. + + Total in Number Greatest + inches and of rainy daily + 1884. hundredths. days. fall. + + April (from the 8th), 7.82 12 4.32 + May, 4.02 17 1.02 + June, 9.22 22 1.58 + July, 18.16 19 8.09 + August, 11.87 21 2.58 + September, 17.46 23 3.76 + October, 10.95 23 1.84 + ------ --- + Total, 79.50 137 + +_Results._--During these 207 days, there fell 79.50 inches of rain. The +greatest daily fall was 8.09 inches. The total number of rainy days was +137, or about two-thirds of the whole. On 24 days, more than an inch of +rain fell; and on 7 days, more than two inches fell. + + +OBSERVATIONS[505] OF THE BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER IN THE SOLOMON GROUP, +BY LIEUT. LEEPER, R.N. + +(Taken on board H.M.S. "Lark.") + + [505] The observations were taken at 4 a.m., 8 a.m., 4 p.m., and 8 + p.m. + + + +-------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ + | | THERMOMETER. | BAROMETER. | + | +--------+-------+------+--------+-------+------+ + | |Highest.|Lowest.| Daily|Highest.|Lowest.| Daily| + | | | | Mean.| | | Mean.| + |MONTH. | | | | | | | + +-------------------+--------+-------+------+--------+-------+------| + |1882 | deg. | deg. | deg. | In. | In. | In. | + |April, | 94 | 74 | 84.4 | 30.09 | 29.88 |30.041| + |May, | 94 | 78 | 84.5 | 30.09 | 29.89 |29.994| + |June, | 92 | 77 | 83.7 | 30.18 | 29.86 |30.013| + |July, | 90 | 75 | 81.8 | 30.14 | 29.92 |30.05 | + |August, | 94 | 75 | 81.1 | 30.16 | 29.96 |30.067| + |September, | 92 | 76 | 80.9 | 30.14 | 29.93 |30.041| + |October, | 89 | 77 | 81.4 | 30.18 | 29.88 |30.021| + |Nov. 1st to 22d,. | 88 | 78 | 81.5 | 30.13 | 29.84 |29.981| + +-------------------+--------+-------+------+--------+-------+------+ + |1883 | | | | | | | + |April 14th to 30th,| 92 | 75 | 82.1 | 30.08 | 29.86 |29.974| + |May, | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |June, | 93 | 78 | 81.8 | 30.08 | 29.91 |29.99 | + |July, | 94 | 75 | 82.3 | 30.12 | 29.88 |29.96 | + |August, | 92 | 78 | 83.5 | 30.08 | 29.92 |29.992| + |September, | 95 | 76 | 82.6 | 30.10 | 29.91 |29.992| + |October, | 95 | 75 | 83.3 | 30.12 | 29.86 |29.993| + |Nov. 1st to 12th, | 90 | 76 | 81.5 | 30.08 | 29.91 |29.982| + +-------------------+--------+-------+------+--------+-------+------+ + |1884 | | | | | | | + |April 5th to 30th, | 90 | 76 | 82.2 | 30.15 | 29.83 |29.984| + |May, | 95 | 78 | 84.5 | 30.13 | 29.86 |29.992| + |June, | 94 | 77 | 82.2 | 30.14 | 29.93 |30.023| + |July, | 87 | 76 | 81.5 | 30.10 | 29.87 |29.985| + |August, | 87 | 76 | 81.0 | 30.15 | 29.85 |30.009| + |September, | 90 | 75 | 82.3 | 30.15 | 29.92 |30.025| + |October, | 96 | 75 | 81.1 | 30.12 | 29.85 |30.007| + +-------------------+--------+-------+------+--------+-------+------+ + + Results calculated from observations of the temperature in the + shade, and of the wet and dry bulb thermometers taken at Ugi at 9 + a.m., by Mr. F. Howard.[506] + + [506] The instruments were supplied by me. The Thermometer was by + Negretti and Zambra: and the wet and dry bulbs were good reliable + instruments. They were all first compared with the ship's + instruments, which were supplied by the Meteorological Office after + being verified at Kew. + + +--------------------------------++ + | THERMOMETER IN SHADE. || + +---------+--------+-------+-----++ + | | | | || + | MONTH. |Highest.|Lowest.|Mean.|| + | | | | || + +---------+--------+-------+-----++ + | 1882. | | | || + |October | 87 | 76 | 81.7|| + |November | 84 | 78 | 80.5|| + |December | 84 | 80 | 81.4|| + | 1883. | | | || + |January | 86 | 79 | 82.0|| + |February | 85 | 79 | 81.5|| + |March | 86 | 78 | 81.8|| + |April | 83 | 76 | 80.0|| + |May | 85 | 78 | 81.6|| + |June | 84 | 77 | 80.6|| + |July | 83 | 77 | 80.2|| + |August | 84 | 77 | 80.3|| + |September| 84 | 77 | 80.9|| + |October | 85 | 76 | 82.0|| + |November | 86 | 77 | 82.0|| + |December | 84 | 79 | 81.3|| + +---------+--------+-------+-----++ + 81.2--Mean for 1883. + + +---------++--------------------------------------------------+ + | || HYGROMETER.[507] | + +---------++-----+-----+------+---------------+---------------+ + | ||Mean |Mean |Mean | Mean Elastic |Mean Relative | + | MONTH. || Dry | Wet | Dew | Force of | Humidity, | + | ||Bulb.|Bulb.|Point.|Aqueous Vapour.|Saturation 100.| + +---------++-----+-----+------+---------------+---------------+ + | 1882. || | | | | | + |October || ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |November || ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |December || ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + | 1883. || | | | | | + |January || ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | + |February || 81.6| 78.0| 75.6 | .885 | 82 | + |March || 81.7| 78.3| 76.0 | .898 | 83 | + |April || 80.1| 77.8| 76.2 | .904 | 88 | + |May || 81.6| 78.2| 75.9 | .895 | 83 | + |June || 80.6| 77.5| 75.4 | .880 | 84 | + |July || 80.2| 78.0| 76.4 | .912 | 89 | + |August || 80.3| 76.9| 74.6 | .857 | 83 | + |September|| 80.9| 76.9| 74.2 | .846 | 81 | + |October || 82.0| 77.0| 73.6 | .830 | 76 | + |November || 82.0| 77.8| 74.9 | .867 | 79 | + |December || 81.4| 78.0| 75.7 | .891 | 83 | + +---------++-----+-----+------+---------------+---------------+ + + [507] Calculated from Glaisher's Tables. + + +WIND-RECORD FOR EACH MONTH. + + Prepared from the observations taken on board H.M.S. "Lark," and by + Messrs. Sproul and Howard, at Santa Anna and Ugi. + + +_January._ + + 1883. At Ugi, S.W. to W. in first half; variable in latter half; + S.E. 1 day. At Santa Anna, N.W. and W.; S.E. 5 days; occasional + squalls. + + +_February._ + + 1833. At Ugi and Santa Anna, N.W. to S.W.; no S.E.; latter part, + fresh winds and squalls. + + +_March._ + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna, N.W. to W. in first half, with strong + winds and thunderstorms; latter part variable; S.E. 4 days at Ugi, + none at Santa Anna. + + +_April._ + + 1882. Amongst the eastern islands (east of Florida); first part, + calms and light northerly winds; latter part, calms and light S.E. + winds; thunderstorms frequent. + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna, first part, N.W. and S.E.; latter part, + calms and E. to S.E.; S.E. for 7 days at Ugi; heavy rain; squalls in + middle of month. + + 1884. In Bougainville Straits, light northerly and westerly winds, + with calms; easterly during the last few days. + + +_May._ + + 1882. Between Bougainville Straits and west end of Guadalcanar, + numerous calms and light winds from N.W. through S. to S.E.; + thunderstorms frequent. + + 1883 At Ugi and Santa Anna, E. to S.E.; usually strong. + + 1884 In Bougainville Straits, light N.E. and easterly winds, with a + great deal of calm weather. + + +_June._ + + 1882. At the north coast of St. Christoval, Ugi, and Santa Anna; + calms, N.N.E. and easterly winds; average force 2. + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna. S.E. often strong, with variable winds. + + In Bougainville Straits; first part light E. and S.E. winds; latter + part, S.E.; very squally; frequent thunderstorms. + + 1884. In Bougainville Straits; first half, light E. and E.S.E. + winds; latter half, light S.E. and S.S.E. + + +_July._ + + 1882. At the north coast of St. Christoval and Ugi, first part S.E., + with frequent heavy squalls; latter part, light S.E. and S.W. winds, + though squally. + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna, E.S.E. to S.E.; fresh and squally, + sometimes blowing hard, interrupted by calms and varying winds. + + In Bougainville Straits, light varying winds from N.E. to S.E. + + 1884. In Bougainville Straits, first part light S.E. winds and + calms; latter part fresh easterly winds and bad weather. + + +_August._ + + 1882. At the north coast of St. Christoval and Ugi, E.N.E. to S.; + average force, 3 to 4; frequent rain-squalls. + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna, S.E. strong; in latter part heavy + squalls, interrupted by calms. + + In Bougainville Straits, E.N.E. to S.E.; force 2 to 3. + + 1884. In Bougainville Straits, S.S.E. to S.; thick weather with + rain-squalls in first part. + + +_September._ + + 1882. At Ugi and the Three Sisters, S.E. and S.S.E.; in latter part + of month heavy, and accompanied by thick weather and violent + squalls. + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna, E.S.E. to S.E. strong. In Bougainville + Straits, calms, and light E. to S.E. winds. + + 1884. In Bougainville Straits, first part light S.E. winds and heavy + rain-squalls from N.E.; latter part fresh S.S.E. and dirty weather, + followed by light N. to E. winds. + + +_October._ + + 1882. At Ugi, Santa Anna, and off the north coast of Guadalcanar; in + first part, strong S.E.; in latter part, easterly winds with calms. + At Ugi, S.E. in first half, variable with calms in latter half. + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna, S.E., fresh. In Bougainville Straits, + first part S.E. to S.; latter part N.E. to S.E., squalls and + thunderstorms. + + 1884. In Bougainville Straits; first week, light N.E. to S.E. winds; + second week, S.S.E. to S., force 2 to 4; third week, N.W. to N.N.E., + force 3 to 8, rain-squalls and thunderstorms; last part, variable + and E.S.E. winds. + + +_November._ + + 1882. At Ugi and Santa Anna; first half, N.W. and S.E.; latter half, + S.E. and variable. + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna, fresh E.S.E. to S.E; northerly towards + end of month with squalls and thunderstorms. + + +_December._ + + 1882. At Ugi and Santa Anna, westerly and variable; S.E. for 6 days: + latter part, squally. + + 1883. At Ugi and Santa Anna; in first half, E. to S.E.; in latter + half, N.W. to S.W. and squally. + + +THE EFFECTS OF THE CLIMATE ON THE WEIGHT OF THE BODY. + +During the last two surveying-seasons in these islands, the officers and +crew were weighed with the object of determining the effect of service +in this climate on the body-weight. The period spent in this region +during each year extended from April to November. + +After eliminating various sources of error, such as sickness, +immaturity, etc., I find that during the surveying-season of 1883, which +occupied between 6-1/2 and 7 months, eighteen out of twenty persons lost +weight, the average loss being 6-3/4 lbs., and the range of the loss 1 +to 12 lbs. Of the two exceptions, one gained 3 lbs. and the other +experienced no change. On returning to the colonies, we spent between 3 +and 4 months in the genial climate of northern New Zealand, at the end +of which period I find that the average gain of weight was about 6-1/2 +lbs. In other words, the loss was regained. + +During the season of 1884, which lasted 7 months, eleven out of the +twenty persons weighed in the previous year were alone available for +these observations. All of them lost weight, the average loss being +5-3/4 lbs., and the range 1 to 8 lbs. This diminution in the average +loss of weight during this season should be noted. . . . . I should add +that five individuals, who had not been on board in the previous year, +lost during this season on the average 5 lbs. per man. + +I may therefore conclude that the effect of seven months' service in +this region on the body-weight is, on the average, a loss of from 6 to 7 +lbs. Although this loss of weight is mainly attributable to the climate, +it is evident that the character of the diet has an important influence +in the matter. For the greater part of the time spent in these islands, +the crew were on preserved and salt rations, a diet which reduces the +weight of the body. One of the results of an elaborate series of +observations made by Dr. A. Rattray of H.M.S. "Salamander," whilst +serving in the Western Pacific from 1864-67, was to show that salt diet +in a tropical climate is an important factor in reducing weight, and +that other influences, such as that of hard work, increase the loss. +During various cruises in the tropics, usually lasting about three +months, he weighed between 70 and 100 men with the following results. +The effect of a tropical climate alone was to reduce the weight of 64 +per cent., the average loss being 5 lbs. When the unfavourable +conditions of a wet season and salt diet were added, 76 per cent. lost +weight, the average loss being 7 lbs. By the further addition of hard +work, 91 per cent. lost weight, the average loss being about the same. +The loss of weight after each cruise was regained in 7 or 8 weeks during +the stay in Sydney.[508] + + [508] Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. XIX., p. 295 (1870-71). In this paper + Dr. Rattray treats at length of the effects of a tropical climate on + the various organs and functions of the body. + + + + +GENERAL INDEX. + + + A. + + Achras, 293. + Acosta, 255. + Adenanthera pavonina, 293. + Agassiz, A., on scypho-medusae, 335. + Agassiz, L., on scypho-medusae, 334. + Aleurites, 88. + Algae, edible, 89; microscopic, on cliffs, 327. + Alpinias, 283, 288, 294. + Alu, _see_ Shortland Islands. + Angiopteris, 283, 294. + Annexation in the Western Pacific, remarks upon, xi. + Anoga resin, 66. + Anson Island, 259. + Anumi, 25. + Apes, anthropoid, legends of, 335. + Archer, H., 334. + Areca palms, their frequency, 294; their station, 283, 285, 287; + growing tops, edible, 88; fruits substitutes for betel-nuts, 95; + trunks used for beds, 61; dispersal of fruits, 293, 305; list of + palms, 303. + Arias, Dr. J. L., 254. + Armlets, 132, 133. + Arracises Island, 211, 275. + Arrowroot, South Sea, 89. + Arrows, 72. + Asclepiads, 289, 290, 298. + Asplenium nidus, 285, 329. + Assent, gesture of, 126. + Astonishment, gesture of, 125. + Atkin, Rev. J., 15. + Australia del Espiritu Santo, 252. + Awi-sulu, 154, 285. + + + B. + + Bagana, volcano of, vii, 39, 53. + Baker, J. G., on the fungi, 294. + Balalai Island, 53. + Baldness, 119. + Ball, Lieut., 266. + Bamboos, brakes of, 288. + Bananas, _see_ Plantains. + Banyans, 284, 285, 286, 290, 293, 294, 301. + Barometrical observations, 361, 366. + Barringtonia edulis, 85. + Barringtonia speciosa, 101, 156, 158, 188, 290, 291, 292, 305. + Bateman, Mr., 18. + Batrachians, 308; new family of, 315; dispersal of, 317. + Bats, 82, 211. + Bauro, St. Christoval, 100, 229, 252, 277. + Bea 37. + Beaumont, Dr., R.N., 114. + Beccari, Signor, 289, 295. + Beckoning, mode of, 125. + Beds, 61. + Begonia, 288. + Behrens, 257. + Belcher, Capt. Sir E., R.N., 269. + Beliefs, religious, 53. + Bennet, Mr. G., 71, 319. + Bennet, Dr. G., 187. + Bernstein, Dr., 326. + Betagh, Capt, 256. + Betel-chewing, 95. + Betel palm, 81, 95. + Betel-pepper plant, 95. + Bikkia, 289. + Bird's-nest, edible, 325. + Bird's-nest fern, 285, 329. + Birgus latro, 92, 319. + Bita, sister of Gorai, 23, 31, 50. + Biu Island, 222. + Blanche, H.M.S., 23. + Boar's tusks, 76. + Bond, Captain, 275. + Botanical notes, 280. + Bougainville, M., 26, 38, 149, 259, 269. + Bougainville Island, vi., 21, 27, 34, 39, 53, 91, 120, 136, 138. + Bougainville Straits, Islands of, 38, 56, 94, 123, 124, 139; chiefs, + 20, 27; position of women, 44; modes of burial, 51; dwellings, 58; + pottery, 62; tambu-houses, 71; weapons, 72, 74; cultivation, 81, 84; + modes of cooking, 86; physical characters of natives, 103, 113, 114, + 118-120; dress, &c., 130, 133; cicatrices, 136; tunes and songs, + 141; canoes, 147; modes of fishing, 155; vocabulary, 180; botany, + 280; geological characters, vi., vii., 280. + Bouka Island, 34, 118, 138, 259, 260. + Boulenger, Mr., on the reptiles and batrachians, 308, 313, 316. + Bouro Island, 100, 277. + Bow-drill, 76. + Bowen, Captain, 154, 266. + Bower, Lieut., R.N., murder of, 11, 17. + Bows, 72. + Boyd, Mr. B., murder of, 270. + Brachycephaly, 111, 114. + Brady, Mr. H. B., on the Solomon Island deposits, ix.; on the New + Ireland chalk, 79. + Brains, human, as food, 224. + Brandt on scypho-medusae, 334. + Breadfruit trees, 81, 82, 84, 190. + Brenchley, J. L., 16, 36, 70, 75, 79, 344. + Broca, M., 111, 114, 118, 120. + Broth, vegetable, 25. + Bua tree, 188. + Buache, M., 192, 234, 255, 263. + Buenavista Island, 207, 274. + Bulimus cleryi, 338. + Burial, modes of, 51. + Burney, 234, 273, 274. + Burning-glasses, 66. + Bush-hens, 325. + Bush-men, 14, 32, 91, 120. + Buttress-trees, 285, 286, 290, 294. + Byron, Commodore, 258. + + + C. + + Cabbage, mountain, 88, 90. + Cabo de Cruz, 237. + Cabo de Fortunas, 239, 241. + Cacones, Isles of, 243. + Caesalpinia nuga, 289. + California, Old, 243. + Calophyllum, 66, 189, 287, 295, 305. + Calophyllum inophyllum, 290, 291, 292, 305. + Calvert, Rev. J., 63. + Canarium, 85, 87, 189, 285, 287, 291, 293, 295. + Canarium commune, 85, 189. + Candelaria Shoals, 199, 262, 273, 275. + Canna indica, 305. + Cannibalism, 35, 260. + Canoes, 67, 71, 146; canoe-deities, 149. + Cap Oriental, 262. + Cape Prieto, 206. + Cape Satisfaction, 278. + Capron, Mr. Rand, on the visual powers of savages, 123. + Careri, Gemelli, 257. + Carter, Mr. Brudenell, on the visual powers of savages, 122. + Carteret, Captain, 80, 258. + Cartographers, the early, 255. + Caryota, palm, 284, 285, 287, 305; edible top or cabbage, 88; + sago-yielding, 91. + Casuarina trees, 290, 292. + Catarrhal diseases, 176. + Caulerpa, 89. + Cerbera, 25, 288. + Cerbera odollam, 289, 290, 292. + Ceratobatrachidae, 315. + Cetacean, a rare, 335. + Chalcedony, 78. + Chalk, 79. + Chalmers, Rev. J., 325. + Chamisso, 90; on the Radack Islanders, 128. + Chest-girth, 105. + Chevron-line pattern, 139. + Cheyne, Capt., 16, 39, 185, 269. + Choiseul Island, viii, discovery of, 212, 275; native shields, 75. + Choiseul Bay, visit of Bougainville to, 260; physical characters of + natives, 103; chiefs, 26; cannibalism, 38. + Cicatrices, 136. + Circumcision, 137. + Clerodendron inerme, 289. + Climate, xi, 352; rainfall, 355; temperature, 361; winds, 362; + humidity, 361; influence on body-weight, 369. + Clothing, 130. + Clubs, 73. + Cocoa-nut palms, 84, 305, 321; mode of climbing, 82; dwarf trees, 52. + Cocoa-nut Crab, 92, 319. + Codiaeum variegatum, 305. + Codrington, Rev. Dr., 53, 71, 137, 335; on the Solomon Island + languages, 185; on head-hunting raids, 16. + Coenobita, 330, 333. + Coix lachryma, 131, 305. + Collocalia, 325. + Colours, names of, 124. + Colour-sense, 123. + Combs, 137. + Comrie, Dr., R.N., on Tokelau ringworm, 173. + Conches, 143. + Constellations, names of, 56. + Contrariete Island, 221, 261, 275. + Cook, Capt., on the supposed position of the Solomon Islands, 264. + Cooking, modes of, 86, 92; cooking-stones, 56, 86; cooking vessels, + 62, 86. + Coral islet, vegetation of, 289. + Coral reefs, viii. + Cord, knotted for recording time, 56. + Cornelian, 78. + Corucia zebrata, 312. + Couches, 61. + Crawfurd, Mr., 88, 189; on the introduction of tobacco, 95. + Crinum, 290. + Crocodiles, 6, 9; habits of, 309; captures of, 91, 311; impressions on + sand, 309. + Cucumis melo, 84. + Cultivation, 81. + Cumming, Miss Gordon, on Fijian pottery, 63. + Curacoa, H.M.S, 16. + Cuscus, 91, 92, 311; habits, 161; hunting, 160. + Cycas circinalis, station of, 287, 290, 292; sago yielding, 90; edible + top or cabbage, 90; fruits edible, 90; medicinal use, 169; dispersal + of fruits, 292, 305. + Cyrenae, 76, 91. + Cyrtostachys, 88, 283. + + + D. + + D'Albertis, Signor, 76, 141. + Dalrymple, 192, 234, 263, 274. + Dampier, 264. + Dances, 48, 143. + Danville, 256. + Darwin, 179, 319, 331, 339. + Davies, Mr. T., on the rocks of St. Christoval, vi. + Davis, Dr. Barnard, on the hair of Papuans, 117. + De Brosses, 257. + Decaying flesh, taste for, 92. + Deformities, spinal, 175; of feet, 177; hare-lip, 177. + Delight, gesture of, 125. + Delisle, 256. + Delivrance, Iles de la, 262. + Denham, Capt., R. N., 271. + Dentrecasteaux, 149, 174, 260, 266, 269, 278. + Deposits, deep-sea, upraised, viii., ix. + Dillon, Capt. P., 266. + Dioscorea sativa, 84. + Diseases, 163; epidemics, 176. + Dispersal of plants, 291, 305; of batrachians, 317; of Iuli, 329; of + Neritinae, 339. + Disposition, 127. + Dogs, 159, 191. + Dolichocephaly, 111, 114. + Dolicholobium, 283, 288. + Domestic utensils, 62. + Drake, Sir Francis, 244, 247. + Dress, 130. + Drinking-vessels, 62. + Drums, 143. + Dudley, 256. + Duff Group, 251. + Dugongs, 6. + Dug-out canoes, 146, 150. + D'Urville, 16, 103, 265, 268, 269; his opinion of the Solomon + Islanders, 129. + Dutaillis, M., 270. + Dyed Grass, 74, 132, 138. + Dynamite, use of, in fishing, 158. + + + E. + + Ear ornaments, 133. + Earl, G. W., 189; on the hair of Papuans, 117; on the prevailing skin + eruption, 172. + Echoes, superstition concerning, 54. + Eddystone Island, _see_ Simbo Island. + Elaeocarpus, 287, 293. + Elephantiasis, 176. + Elevation, see Upheaval. + Ellis, 153, 175; on the deification of sharks, 71. + Emerald, H.M.S., 26. + Emotions, expressions of, 125. + Epalle, Monsignor, murder of, 270. + Epidemic diseases, 176. + Epiphytes, 282, 285, 289. + Epilation, 118. + Eranthemum variabile, 305. + Erosion of freshwater shells, 340. + Erythrina, 289. + Escondido Harbour, 219. + Espiritu Santo, 252. + Estrella Harbour, 202. + Eugenia, 291, 293. + Eugenio, Point, 243. + Evered, Mr., 106. + Evodia hortensis, 135, 305. + + + F. + + Facial angle, 115. + Fagraea Berteriana, 188, 288. + Fanarite, district of St. Christoval, 19. + Fan-palms, _see_ Licuala. + Fans, 66. + Faro Island, _see_ Fauro Island. + Farquhar, Dr., on Tokelau ringworm, 171. + Fat, fondness of, 92. + Fauro Island, chiefs of, 25, 46; villages, 60, 82; tambu-houses, 71; + canoes, 149; physical characters of natives, 103, 113; vegetation, + 287, 289; geology, vii, 280. + Feasts, 50, 68, 93. + Features, 115. + Female sex, their drudgery, 41; their chastity, 43; polygamy, 44. + Ferguson, Captain, murder of, 21, 54. + Ferns, 283, 294; edible, 89. + Ficus, 190, 301. + Figueroa, Dr., 192, 234, 254, 272, 274. + Figure-heads of ships, probable origin of, 150. + Filet, G. J., on the Malay names of plants, 186. + Fire, mode of producing, 65. + Fishing, 151; nets and lines, 154; hooks, 156; snares, 157; + fish-spear, 153. + Flagellaria indica, 290. + Fleurieu, M., 192, 234, 262, 265, 273, 274, 278. + Flints, worked, 77. + Florida Islands, discovery of, 208, 274; natives, 114, 119, 130; + head-hunting, 17; dances, 143; pile-dwellings, 60; weapons, 73, 75; + geological structure of, vii. + Flotation of fruits and seeds, 292, 305. + Flower, Prof., on the varieties of the human species, 98. + Flowers, used in decorating the person, 134; rare in the forests, 284; + conspicuous at the coast, 289. + Flying-fish, superstitions concerning, 153; wounds caused by, 153. + Fonfono Island, 277. + Food, vegetable, 84; animal, 91. + Forbes, H. O., on ringworm in the Malay Archipelago, 172; on + Myrmecodia, 282; on the Birgus, 322. + Forrest, Captain, on Port Dory pottery, 64; on pig-hunting in New + Guinea, 159. + Forster, J. R., 87. + Forster, G., 135. + Fox, Dr. Tilbury, on Tokelau ringworm, 171. + Freycinetia, 289. + Fries, Mr., on Pachyma, 306. + Frogs, 8, 190, 308; new family of, 315; development of, 316. + Frontlets, 131. + Fruits, 84, 87, 89. + Fumaroles, vii., 66, 86. + Fungi, 89, 285, 304. + + + G. + + Galera Island, 207, 274. + Gallego, suggested compliment to, 234; supposed discoverer of the + Southern Continent, 248; error in latitudes, 274. + Gallego's journal, 192; unpublished, 247; compared with Figueroa's + account, 272. + Galvano, 275. + Games, boyish, 76, 145. + Gar-fish, superstition concerning, 153; wounds caused by, 153. + Gatah, 189. + Geological structure of the Solomon Islands, general remarks upon, vi. + Gestures, 125. + Gill, Rev. Wyatt, 187, 319, 325. + Ginsima Island, 257. + Glaeocapsa, 327. + Gleichenia, 5, 95, 132, 281, 288. + Gnetum, 88, 288. + Gnetum gnemon, 89, 288. + Gomphandra, 295, 305. + Gorai, the Shortland chief, 6, 27, 28, 47; his power, 14, 21; his + wives, 44; his residence, 59. + Goura pigeon, pebbles in gizzard, 325. + Gourds for betel-lime, 95. + Government, system of, 13. + Gower Island, 80, 259, 261. + Graves, 51. + Green, Mr. J. R., on edible birds' nests, 327. + Grinding-stones, 6, 77. + Groningen Island, 257. + Guadalcanar, discovery of, 210, 214, 220; reported mineral wealth, + 247; excessive Spanish estimate of its size, 275; characters of + natives, 104, 120; weapons, 74, 75; head-hunting and cannibalism, + 18, 35; murder of Mr. Boyd, 270; legends of apes, 335; fine coast + scenery, 359; heavy rainfall, 359; probable geological structure, + vi. + Guadalupe Island, 209. + Guali, 210; _see_ Sesarga. + Guantopo (Guaytopo) Island, 276. + Guettarda speciosa, 289, 290. + Gulf Island, 262, 267; _see_ Ugi Island. + Gums, _see_ Resins. + Guenther, Dr., 314. + + + H. + + Hair, characters of and mode of wearing, 116, 137; cut in mourning, + 49; staining, 118. + Hakluyt, Richard, 254. + Hale, Mr., on the Pouro of Quiros, 100, 277. + Hare-lip, 177. + Harpullia cupanioides, 289, 305. + Hats, 138. + Head-hunting, 16, 27. + Head-money, 17, 20. + Height, _see_ Stature. + Heliconias, 283, 294. + Heming, Lieut., R.N., 25, 28, 114, 294, 332. + Hemsley, Mr. Botting, on the dispersal of plants, 291, 293. + Herbst, on the Birgus, 319. + Heritiera littoralis, 290, 292, 305. + Hermit-Crabs, 330. + Hernandia peltata, 289. + Herrera, 192, 235, 254, 273, 274. + Heughan, Mr. W., 306, 352. + Hibiscus tiliaceus, 134, 289, 290, 292. + Hombron, Dr., vi. + Home, Sir E., on the edible birds' nests, 326. + Home-sickness, 167. + Honey, wild, 93. + Hood, Mr. T. H., 319. + Hoplocephalus par, 314. + Hornbills, 191, 284. + Horne, Mr., 83, 87; on South Sea arrowroot, 89. + Hot-stone treatment for injuries, 166. + Houses, dwelling, 57; on piles, 60. + Howard, Mr. F., 77, 352, 360; meteorological register, 364, 367. + Howe, Hon. J. Curzon, 113, 158. + Hoya, 289, 290; H. guppyi, 298. + Human sacrifices, 33, 35, 67. + Humidity of climate, 361, 367. + Hunger, gesture indicating, 125. + Hydnophytum guppyanum, 282; H. inerme, 282. + Hydrographical features, ix. + Hygrometrical observations, 367. + + + I. + + Ill-wishing, 54. + Impressions on sand; of crocodiles, 309; of hermit-crabs, 333. + Inattendue Island, 261: _see_ Gower Island. + Infanticide, 35, 42. + Injuries, treatment of, 165; wonderful recoveries from, 165. + Insanity, 179. + Ipomoea, 289, 290. + Isabel Island, discovery of, 202, 211, 213, 275; visit of Surville, + 261; visit of D'Urville, 269; murder of Monsignor Epalle, 270; + characters of natives, 103, 129; slavery, 33; tattooing, 136; + canoes, 149. + Isabell, Mr. W., 24, 141, 314, 321. + Iulus, 329; singular habit of, 330; means of dispersal of, 329. + + + J. + + Jacobs, Mr., 267. + Jesus, Isle of, 199, 273. + Jews, island inhabited by, 261. + Jew's harps, 142. + Judd, Prof., vii. + + + K. + + Ka-i (Canarium), 85, 87, 189, 285, 291, 293. + Kaika, wife of Gorai, 23; her death, 47. + Kaempfer, 326. + Kalikona, 17. + Kanary-nut, 85, 87, 189. + Katari (Calophyllum), 189, 295; resin of, 66. + Kauri pine, origin of name, 190. + Kava plant, 96. + Keane, Prof., on the Pacific races, 99; on a vocabulary of + Bougainville Straits, 186. + Kennedy Island, 273. + Kermadec, Capt. Huon, 269. + Kinsima Island, 257. + Kite-fishing, 151. + Kleinhovia hospita, 305. + Kopana, 28; fate of his wives, 30. + Kotzebue, 128. + Krepas, chief of Choiseul Bay, 26. + Krusenstern, 265, 273. + Kurra-kurra, Faro chief, 25. + + + L. + + Labillardiere, 86, 118, 125, 260, 278. + Labour-trade, 42. + Lammas, Mount, 263. + Lane Fox, _see_ Pitt-Rivers. + Languages of Solomon Islands, 185. + Latitudes of Gallego, 274. + Lawa, St. Christoval, 14, 39, 68. + Lawes, Rev. Mr., 139. + Layard, Mr. 326. + Leeper, Lieut., R.N., 48, 114, 125, 180, 294, 335; meteorological + observations, 360, 361. + Leprosy, 176. + Licuala, 283, 287, 288, 303, 305. + Limbs, measurements of, 106. + Lime, for betel-chewing, 95; for the hair, 118; for sickness, 163; as + a token of mourning, 48. + Lime-tree, 81, 85. + Litsea, 293. + Littoral trees, 289; native names widely spread, 101, 186. + Littorina scabra, experiment on, 351. + Liversidge, Prof., on the worked flints, 78, 79. + Lizards, 8, 191, 312; monitors, 91, 313. + Lomlom Island, 277. + Longmore, Prof., on testing vision, 122. + Lopez Vaz, 246, 247. + Lumnitzera coccinea, 292. + Luther, Dr., R.N., 158. + Lycopods, 285. + Lygonia, 148, 285. + Lyonsia, _see_ Awi-sulu. + + + M. + + Macaulay's Archipelago, 266. + Macdonald, Capt. J., vii., 15, 17, 36, 79, 131, 163, 335. + Macdonald, Mr. W., 42, 70, 306. + Macgillivray, Mr., 135, 344. + Maclay, Miklouho, 86, 97; anthropological observations and + measurements, 105, 111, 116, 118; on the introduction of tobacco, + 94. + Maclay Coast, 86, 94, 105, 111, 189. + Mai, Santa Anna chief, 17-20, 36, 39. + Maize, 84. + Makira, 36, 147, 277; cannibalism, 36; murder of missionaries, 270. + Malaita, head-hunting, 18; characters of natives of north coast, 103, + 113, 114, 120, 136; legends of apes, 335; first discovery of the + island, 205, 219, 220, 274, 275. + Malan, Lieut., R.N., 24, 52, 53, 180. + Mallicolo Island, 277. + Man, Mr., on the Andaman pottery, 64. + Mana, supernatural power, 16. + Mango, 85. + Mangrove swamps, 282. + Manicolo Island, 277. + Manning, Capt., 266. + Maramasiki Passage, discovery of, 220. + Marau Sound, discovery of, 219. + Markham, Commander, R.N., 235. + Marquesas Group, discovery of, 249. + Marsden, Mr., 88, 90, 172. + Marshall Group, discovery of, 238, 275. + Matches, wax, 65. + Mate, 210. + Matema Islands, 277. + Mats, 58; making mats, 61. + Matthews, Mr., 281. + Maurelle, 262. + Mayer, on the height of Papuans, 105. + Meals, 93. + Mecaraylay Island, 277. + Medicine-men, 55, 163. + Medusae in mangrove-swamps, 333. + Megapodiidae, 191, 216, 325. + Melanesian Mission, 15, 140, 271. + Melanesians, _see_ Papuans. + Melaniae, 338, 345; Melania guppyi, 337, 350. + Mendana, his first expedition, 195, 235, 275; his second expedition, + 246, 248. + Mesocephaly, 111, 114. + Meta Island, 204, 205. + Meteorology, chapter on, 352. + Migration of Pacific races, lines of, 99, 101, 186. + Millipedes, 329. + Missionaries, murder of, 270; _see_ Melanesian Mission. + Mollusca, land and fresh water, 336; list of, 344. + Monitor lizards, 91, 313. + Moon, eclipse of, in 1568, 244. + Moore, Mr. C., 293, 306. + Morinda citrifolia, 89, 124, 188, 290. + Morrell, Capt., 267. + Morse, Prof., on arrow-release, 73. + Mosely, Mr. H. N., 73, 137, 334. + Motuiti Island, 273. + Mourning customs, 48, 69, 133, 137. + Mueller, Baron F. von, 289, 294. + Mule, the Treasury chief, 27, 28, 55, 76; his power, 23; his wives, + 45; his residence, 59. + Mullen, Dr., R.N., on Tokelau ringworm, 171. + Mumps, 176. + Murders: of Mr. Boyd, 270; of Monsignor Epalle, 270; of Lieut. + Bower, R.N., 11, 17; of Captain Ferguson, 21, 54; of Roman Catholic + missionaries, 270; of the crew of the Superior, 23, and the Zephyr, + 26. + Murray Island, vii., 16. + Murray, Mr. G., on Tuber regium, 306; on Glaeocapsa, 326. + Murray, Dr. John, on the Solomon Island deposits, ix. + Muskets, introduction of, 75. + Musquillo Islands, discovery of, 238, 275. + Myristica, _see_ Nutmeg-tree. + Myrmecodia salomonensis, 282. + + + N. + + Names of men, 184; of women, 184; curious custom concerning the names + of the dead and of women, 47, 49. + Narovo Island, _see_ Simbo. + Natica mamilla, 132, 147. + Nautical surveying, nature of the work, 11. + Navicellae, 338, 341. + Necklaces, 131. + Negrito race, 79, 99. + Neritinae, 338, 346; dispersal of, 339; origin of tree-nerites, 341. + Nets, fishing, 154; netting-stitch, 154. + New Georgia, vi., 120; head-hunters of, 16; cannibals, 39; discovery + by the Spaniards, 211, 275; Shortland's visit, 262. + New Guinea, flints in, 80; reference by Gallego to its first + discoverer, 237, 275; _see_ Maclay Coast. + Nicobar pigeon, 293, 323. + Nipa fruticans, 87, 282, 291, 305. + Nisbet, Mr., 168. + Nito paitena (evil spirit), 50, 53. + Nixon, Mr. L., 35. + Nombre de Dios Island, 273. + Nose ornaments, 133. + Nostalgia, 167. + Nouma-nouma, 21, 54. + Numerals, 183. + Nupani Island, 277. + Nutmeg-tree, 288, 289, 293, 305. + Nuts, edible, 85, 87. + + + O. + + Ochre, red, for staining hair, 118. + Ochrosia parviflora, 87, 292, 305. + Ocymum sanctum, 135, 305. + Oima Island, 52. + Oldham, Lieut., ix., 24, 29, 36, 55, 279, 291. + Oliver, Prof., 289, 294. + Onomatopoeia, 190. + Ontong-Java, 92, 200, 262, 273, 275. + Opossums, _see_ Cuscus. + Orchids, 285, 289. + Orika Island, _see_ Santa Catalina. + Orion's Belt, 56. + Ornaments, personal, 131. + Ortega, 195, 203. + Outrigger-canoes, 146, 147, 149. + Ovulum ovum, 131, 147. + + + P. + + Pachyma, 306. + Pacific races, _see_ Polynesians. + Paddles, 150; modes of paddling, 150. + Pagurus, 332. + Palms, 285, 303; palm-tops as food, 88. + Pandanus trees, 290, 291, 292, 305; different species, 302; native + names widely spread, 101, 186; new genus, 289, 302; fruits eaten by + natives, 87, and by the Birgus, 323; leaves made into mats, 61. + Pandean-pipes, 141. + Papal Bull, 255. + Papaw-tree, 84. + Papuans, 98, 105, 117. + Parinarium laurinum, 62, 146, 148, 296, 305. + Parrot, M, on syphilis in prehistoric times, 178. + Path-finding, 162. + Patterns, decorative, 139. + Patterson, Bishop, 15, 148. + Paubro, St. Christoval, 100, 229, 252, 277. + Perouse, 128, 155, 178, 264, 266, 269. + Phalangers, _see_ Cuscus. + Phosphorescence, as a guide to coral reefs, 205. + Physical characters of Solomon Islanders, chapter on, 98. + Pigeons, Fruit, 85, 292, 293, 325; Nicobar pigeon, 293, 323. + Pigments, 124. + Pigs, 7; hunting wild pigs, 159; jaws hung inside dwellings and + tambu-houses, 58, 68; pork eaten, 91, 92, 93. + Pile-dwellings, 60. + Pileni Island, 277. + Pingre, M., 234, 257, 274. + Piper Betel, 95. + Pipes, tobacco, 94. + Pitt-Rivers, Major-Gen., 73, 74. + Plantains, 82; mountain, 89. + Plants, dispersal of, 291; list of, 294; rubbish-plants, 305. + Pleiades, 56. + Plerandra, 283. + Poisoned arrows, 73. + Poisonous snake, 314. + Polyclonia, 334. + Polygamy, 44. + Polynesians, source of, 99; line of migration, 101. + Pongamia glabra, 289, 290, 305. + Port La Palma, 232. + Port Praslin, 33, 56, 66, 75, 80, 149, 261. + Potato, sweet, 82, 84. + Pottery-making, 62. + Pouro, St. Christoval, 100, 229, 252, 277. + Powell, Mr. Wilfred, 173, 191. + Prichard, Mr., on the hair of Papuans, 117. + Pritchard, Mr., 90. + Protective resemblances, 317, 338. + Pruner-Bey, Dr., on the hair of Papuans, 117. + Pryer, Mr. H., on edible birds' nests, 325. + Puerto de la Cruz, discovery of, 214; massacre at, 224, 235. + Puerto de Nuestra Senora, 232. + Pumpkins, 84. + Pustular disease of children, 175. + Pyrazus palustris, 91, 343. + Pythia scarabaeus, 343. + + + Q. + + Quipu, elementary, 56. + Quiros, 100, 248, 251, 253, 276. + Quoy, M., 319. + + + R. + + Races, Pacific, 98. + Rainbow, superstition concerning, 124. + Rainfall, 355; registers of, 363. + Ramos, Isle of, 205, 219, 274, 275. + Rana guppyi, 315. + Ratonia, 285. + Rayleigh, Lord, on the visual powers of savages, 122. + Redcoat, labour-vessel, 39. + Redlich, Capt., 36. + Religion, 53. + Reptiles, 308. + Resins, 66, 78; native names of resin-yielding trees widely spread, + 189. + Retes, Inigo Ortez de, 237, 275. + Riedelia curviflora, 305. + Ringworm, _see_ Tokelau ringworm. + Rio Gallego, 214. + Rio Ortega, 210, 214, 216. + Rio San Bernardino, 216. + Rio Santa Elena, 217. + Rob Roy canoe, 9. + Roberts, Mr. C., on the visual powers of savages, 121. + Rochon, Abbe, 261. + Rocks, volcanic, vi.; calcareous, vii.; of deep-sea formation, viii., + ix. + Roggewein, Admiral, 256. + Rollin, M., 178. + Romilly, Mr. H., 167, 168. + Roncador Reef, 199, 262, 273. + Ronongo Island, viii., 278. + Rora, chief of Ugi, 20. + Rubbish-plants, 305. + Rubiana, _see_ New Georgia. + Rumphius, on Tuber regium, 306; on edible birds' nests, 326. + Russell Islands, 266. + + + S. + + Sabo, Guadalcanar, 215. + Sago palms, station of, 83; native names of, 189; leaves for + thatching, 58, 71; extraction and preparation of sago, 83, 87, 90; + sago also yielded by the Cycas, 90, and Caryota, 91. + St. Christoval, discovery of, 222, 227, 229, 248, 275; native names of + island, 100; physical character of natives, 103, 112, 114, 118, 119, + 120; bush-tribes, 14; head-hunting, 15, 18; cannibalism 35-38; + female chastity, 43; dwellings, 57; tambu-houses, 67-69; weapons, + 72-75; worked flints, 77; cooking, 86; vegetable food, 84; legends + of apes, 335; geological structure, vi. + St. George's Island, 211, vi. + San Bartolomeo Islands, 238, 275. + Sandfly, H.M.S., 11, 17. + San Francisco, Isle of, 239, 276. + San German Island, 209. + San Juan Island, 222, 227, 275. + San Lucas, Cape, 243. + San Marcos Island, 212, 275. + San Nicolas Island, 211, 275. + Santa Anna Island, discovery of, 231, 262, 266; physical characters of + natives, 103, 112; chiefs, 19; villages at war, 18; trading in human + flesh, 36; mode of burial, 53; tambu-house, 70; grinding slabs, 77; + crocodiles, 91; land and freshwater shells, 337; geological + structure, viii. + Santa Catalina Island, discovery of, 230, 262, 266; physical + characters of natives, 103, 112, 120; chiefs, 42; tambu-house, 69. + Santa Cruz Islands, discovery of, 249; lost, 252; re-discovered, 259. + Santiago Island, 222, 227, 223. + San Urban Island, 222, 223. + Sapium indicum, 88. + Sapuna, village of, 18, 53, 67, 70, 93. + Savo Island, 73, 132; identical with Sesarga, 209, 215, 268, 274, 275; + language, 185; geological characters, vii. + Scaevola Koenigii, 290, 305. + Schizmatoglottis, 25, 88. + Scitamineae, 283, 288, 294. + Scorpions, 328. + Seasons, temperature of, 361. + Sebastian Vizcaino, Bay of, 243. + Seemann, Dr., 90, 91, 319. + Selaginellae, 285. + Selwyn, Bishop, 15, 141. + Semper, Prof., on erosion of fresh-water shells, 340; on Neritinae, + 341. + Serpentines, vi., vii. + Sesarga, 209, 210, 215, 268, 274, 275. + Sham fight, 75. + Sharks, 9; deification of, 70; carved figures of, 53, 68, 70. + Shell-fish as food, 91. + Shell-money, 38, 134. + Shells, land and fresh-water, _see_ Mollusca. + Shields, 75. + Shortland Islands (_see_ also under Gorai and Kaika), physical + characters of natives, 103, 113; dwellings, 58; tambu-houses, 71; + cultivation, 81; modes of burial, 51; pit containing flints, 80; + canoes formerly with sails, 149; excursion to the north-west coast, + 6; geological structure, viii. + Shortland, Lieut., 262, 278. + Sick, treatment of, 164. + Sikyana Islands, 187, 276. + Simbo Island (Eddystone Island), 59, 66, 72, 86, 134; chief, 14; + vocabulary, 185; head-hunting, 16; fish-hooks, 156; measurements of + natives, 113; mode of burial, 52; misconception of the names + Eddystone and Simbo, 278; fumaroles, 86; geological character, vii. + Simpson, Capt, R.N., visit to Treasury Island, 23. + Sinasoro, 4, 25, 59, 71. + Sinimi, _see_ Gleichenia. + Skin, colour of, 120; prevailing disease of, 169. + Skull measurements, 111. + Slavery, 32. + Smith, Mr. E., on the land and fresh-water shells, 336, 344. + Snakes, 313. + Soil, characters of, x. + Solomon Islander, typical characters of a, 102, 110. + Songs, 140. + Sorcery, 54, 163. + Southern continent, supposed discovery by Gallego, 248; by Quiros, + 252; by Roggewein, 257. + Span of arms, 109. + Spears, 72. + Spinal disease, 175. + Spirits, evil, 50, 53. + Sproul, Mr., 91, 310; his wind and rain records, 362, 363. + Spurges, 305. + Squall, black, 353. + Stature, 104, 115. + Stephens, Mr., 18, 37, 56, 92, 124, 157, 176, 306, 335. + Stewart Islands, _see_ Sikyana. + Stirling Island, viii. + Stone, Mr. O. C, 80, 135. + Stone-boiling, 86. + Stone implements, polished, 76, 120. + Stones, grinding, 6, 77; cooking-stones, 58, 77. + Strabismus, 177. + Submersion, experiments on, of Iuli, 329; of Neritinae, 339; of + Littorina scabra, 351; of a monitor-lizard, 313. + Suenna, 57. + Sugar-cane, 84. + Sulagina Bay, 38. + Sun-burns, 362. + Sun-shades, 139. + Superior, barque, massacre of crew of, 23. + Superstitions, 53, 78, 124, 153, 165. + Surville, 33, 56, 80, 149, 261, 269. + Suspicion, an inherent quality, 31. + Swallow Islands, 277. + Symonds, Lieut., 314. + Syphilis, 177. + + + T. + + Taboo or Tambu ban, 32; tambu marks, 32. + Tacca pinnatifida, 89, 290. + Tactics in war, 75. + Taki, the Wano chief, 15, 20. + Tambu-house, 35, 53, 67. + Taro, 82, 84. + Tattooing, 135. + Taucalo Island, 277. + Taumaco Island, islands in the vicinity of, 251, 276. + Temperature, 361, 366, 367; susceptibility of natives to slight + changes, 178. + Temples, _see_ Tambu-house. + Terminalia catappa, 85, 87, 290, 292. + Terre des Arsacides, 262, 265, 269. + Thermometrical observations, 361, 366, 367. + Thespesia populnea, 124, 289, 290, 292, 305. + Thigh-twisting, 154. + Three Sisters' Islands, viii., 58; discovery of, 222, 261, 275. + Tienhoven Island, 257. + Tin, discovery of, vii. + Tinakula Island, 277. + Tita, _see_ Parinarium laurinum. + Tobacco-smoking, 94; introduction of tobacco, 94. + Tokelau Ringworm, 169; its distribution, 172. + Toma, village of, 25, 59, 71. + Tomahawks, 75. + Tomimas, Faro chief, 25, 46. + Tonali Harbour, 28. + Topinard, M., 102, 105, 109. + Torches, 66. + Torre, Bernardo de la, 237, 275. + Torres, 251, 252. + Tournefortia argentea, 290, 305. + Trading amongst natives, 27. + Tragedy, a domestic, 28. + Treasury Island, 53, 54, 56, 77, 78, 133, 144; _see_ also under Mule; + excursion to the summit, 7; physical characters of natives, 103, + 113; change in their disposition, 23; dwellings, 58; tambu-houses, + 71; mode of burial, 51; slaves, 34; cultivation, 81, 83; geological + structure of, viii. + Tree-ferns, 283, 294. + Treguada Island, 221, 261, 275. + Tres Marias Islands, _see_ Three Sisters. + Trichomanes, 283, 285. + Tridacna gigas, 76, 91, 132. + Trotter, Mr. Coutts, 275. + Tuber regium, 306. + Tucopia Island, 252, 277. + Tuluba Islet, fighting at, 30. + Turner, Rev. Dr. G., 76, 154, 171, 287. + Turner, Rev. Dr. W., 64. + Tyerman, Rev. D., 71, 319. + Tylor, Dr., 49, 77, 171. + + + U. + + Ugi Island, 52, 54, 55, 56, 124, 137, 139; discovery of, 222, 262, + 267, 275; physical characters of natives, 103, 112; cannibalism, 38; + infanticide, 35, 42; dwellings, 57; tambu-houses, 68, 70; flints, + 77; geological structure, viii. + Ulaua or Ulawa Island, 71; discovery of, 221, 261, 266, 275; flints, + 78, 79; probable geological structure of, viii. + Ulcers, 168. + Unio guppyi, 343. + Unios as food, 91. + Upheaval, evidence of great, ix., x. + Uraba Island, 221; _see_ Ulaua. + Uri, 190. + + + V. + + Vanikoro Island, 277. + Varanus indicus, 91, 313. + Vegetable drift, 291. + Vegetables, cultivated, 82, 84. + Vegetation, of the stream-courses, 282; of the forest, 284; of the + slopes of Faro Island, 287; of the coast, 289; of a coral islet, + 289; of waste ground and of old clearings, 305. + Vella-la-vella, vii. + Venereal diseases, 177. + Venus, transit of, in 1769, 257. + Veru Island, 210. + Vision, powers of, 121. + Vitex, 285, 287, 300. + Vocabulary of Bougainville Straits, 180. + Volcanoes, active, quiescent, and extinct, vii. + + + W. + + Waitz, Prof., 165. + Wake's Island, 239, 276. + Wallace, Mr. A., 172. + Wallis, Capt., 258. + Walsch, Capt., 24. + Wanderer, yacht, 270. + Wano, village of, 15, 36, 57, 68. + Waterton, 362. + Wax, 93. + Weapons, 71. + Wedelia biflora, 288, 290. + Weeds of plantations, 305. + Weight of body of Solomon Islanders, 106; influence of the climate on + the weight of Europeans, 369. + Wharton, Capt., R.N., 273. + Wilkes, Commodore, 63, 76, 170, 173, 276. + Williams, Mr., 63. + Winchelsea Island, 259. + Winds, 362; registers of, 367. + Wind-prophets, 55. + Withrington, Capt., 248. + Women, measurements of, 102, 115. + Wood, Mr. C. F., 69, 330. + Wounds, _see_ Injuries. + + + Y. + + Yams, 82, 84, 88. + + + Z. + + Zephyr, massacre of portion of crew of, 26. + + + + _S. Cowan & Co., Strathmore Printing Works, Perth._ + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + +Remarks on the text: + +Inconsistent spelling, lay-out, capitalisation, hyphenation, +punctuation, use of accents etc. and duplications in the text have been +left as in the original work, except as mentioned below. + +Mendana (Alvaro de Mendana de Neira) is consistently spelled without +tilde in the original work, this has not been changed; Curacoa is mostly +spelled without cedilla, this has not been changed. + +In various places the author refers to snider; this is probably a +reference to the Snider-Enfield rifle. + +Page 137, ... the engraving here given, ...: It is not clear which +illustration this refers to; none of the illustrations appear to show +the described cicatrices. + +Page 138, ... as shown in one of the figures. It is not clear to which +illustration this refers; none of the illustrations appear to show the +described instrument. + +Page 235: The full title of Pingre's publication (abbreviated in the +text) is Memoire sur le choix et l'etat des lieux ou le passage de Venus +du 3. juin 1769 pourra etre observe avec le plus d'avantage: et +principalement sur la position geographique des iles de la mer du Sud. + +Page 256, Admiral Roggewein: Jacob Roggeveen (1659-1729). + +Page 262, footnote "Discoveries of the French ...": the last +digit of the last page number is missing from the original. + +Page 268, footnote 386: fabricateur du contes, as printed in the +original, not changed. + +Page 275, Bernaldo de la Torre: Bernardo de la Torre (Galvano refers to +him as Bernaldo de la Torre). + +Page 276, footnote [416]: the last digit of the year is unclear in the +original; most likely the year is 1791, but it might also be 1797. + +Page 328, they are not usually more than 1-1/2 in length: the unit +(probably inches) is missing in the original work. + +Page 367, Table: from the lay-out of the original page it is not +immediately clear to which column the Mean for 1883 refers. Numerically +it could be either the Mean Temperature or the Mean Dry Bulb +Temperature. The former seems more logical. + + +Changes made to the text: + +Multi-page tables have been combined to single tables; "Carry forward" +and "Brought forward" have been deleted from these tables. + +Some minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected +silently. + +Footnotes have been moved to under the paragraph where they are +indicated. + +Some illustrations have been moved. + +Some tables have been re-arranged. + +Throughout book the following words have been corrected or standardised: +Ipomaea to Ipomoea; Kaenigii to Koenigii; Scoevola to Scaevola; +paloeolithic to palaeolithic; Eloeocarpus to Elaeocarpus; Goertn to +Gaertn; Adenosma coerulea to Adenosma caerulea; guage to gauge; +Labillardiere to Labillardiere; memoire(s) to memoire(s); redige to +redige; Oceanie to Oceanie. + +The map (frontispiece) is not explicitly referred to in the text; where +the author refers to contemporary (Admiralty or English) charts, a +hyperlink to the frontispiece is provided, on the assumption that this +map gives a realistic impression of the knowledge of the Solomon Islands +at the time the work was published. Not all of the names the author +mentions are to be found on this map. + + +Other changes: + +Page vii: calcareons changed to calcareous; Geologie changed to Geologie + +Page ix: Bougain- changed to Bougainville + +Page 19: thus dampened changed to this dampened + +Page 73: agenerally changed to generally + +Page 101, footnote [85]: page 185 changed to page 186 + +Page 104: Curzon Howe changed to Curzon-Howe + +Page 113: extremely changed to extremity + +Page 115, first table: ditto marks added to last column + +Page 136: Pteropidae changed to Pteropidae as elsewhere + +Page 138: an instrument three prongs changed to an instrument of three +prongs + +Page 141: ... sang with as true ... changed to ... sung with as true ... + +Page 153: (p. 155) changed to (p. 74) (page 155 shows a fishing net) + +Page 168: labour-scooner changed to labour-schooner + +Page 187: Bataviasch changed to Bataviaasch; Hara-hagh changed to +Haragh-hagh as elsewhere + +Page 201: rodoleros changed to rodeleros + +Page 202: 7 deg. 50" changed to 7 deg. 50' + +Page 216: Megapodidae changed to Megapodiidae + +Page 224: names changed to names as elsewhere + +Page 234: Contrariete changed to Contrariete as elsewhere + +Page 235: ou changed to ou; Decouvertes des Francois ou 1768 and 1769 +changed to Decouvertes des Francois en 1768 et 1769 + +Page 247: goe changed to go + +Page 261: augmentee changed to augmentee + +Page 262: Isles de la Deliverance changed to Iles de la Delivrance + +Page 265: Decouvertes changed to Decouvertes + +Page 273: p. 202 changed to p. 205; p. 205 changed to p. 202 + +Page 274, Note V.: V. missing from original, added; ou changed to ou + +Page 278: a peu pres changed to a peu pres + +Page 292: Gomphranda changed to Gomphandra + +Page 298: tubo corolloe changed to tubo corollae + +Page 300: Euphorbia Atota changed to Euphorbia Atoto; Litsaea changed to +Litsea + +Page 303: Drymophlorus changed to Drymophloeus + +Page 305: Cycas circinails changed to Cycas circinalis; Commelyne +nudiflora changed to Commelyna nudiflora; Erianthemum variabile changed +to Eranthemum variabile (Erianthemum is a mistletoe, which seems +improbable given the description) + +Page 319: Dr. Seeman changed to Dr. Seemann as elsewhere + +Page 337: Helix (nanina) solidiuscida changed to Helix (nanina) +solidiuscula + +Page 347: collumellar changed to columellar + +Page 349: Tapparone Canfri changed to Tapparone Canefri + +Page 363: not less 2/100 changed to not less than 2/100. + + +Index entries changed to conform to the text: + +Melaniaguppyi changed to Melania guppyi; Erianthemum variabile to +Eranthemum variabile; Mate to Mate; Mule to Mule; Pitt Rivers to +Pitt-Rivers; Vella-la vella to Vella-la-Vella. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOLOMON ISLANDS AND THEIR +NATIVES*** + + +******* This file should be named 42388.txt or 42388.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/3/8/42388 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at + www.gutenberg.org/license. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |