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diff --git a/42380-8.txt b/42380-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b839efb..0000000 --- a/42380-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13229 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Primitive Man, by Louis Figuier - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Primitive Man - -Author: Louis Figuier - -Release Date: March 20, 2013 [EBook #42380] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMITIVE MAN *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Christian Boissonnas and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -PRIMITIVE MAN. - - - - -[Illustration: A Family of the Stone Age (Frontispiece).] - - - - - PRIMITIVE MAN. - - By LOUIS FIGUIER. - - Revised Translation. - - - ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTY SCENES OF PRIMITIVE LIFE, AND - TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY-THREE FIGURES OF OBJECTS - BELONGING TO PRE-HISTORIC AGES. - - - "Arma antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt. - Et lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami. - Et flamma atque ignes, postquam sunt cognita primum. - Posterius ferri vis est ærisque reperta; - Et prior æris erat quam ferri cognitus usus." - - _Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, lib. V., v. 1281-5._ - - - LONDON: - CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. - 1870. - - - - -PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. - -[Illustration] - - -The Editor of the English translation of 'L'Homme Primitif,' has not -deemed it necessary to reproduce the original Preface, in which M. -Figuier states his purpose in offering a new work on pre-historic -archæology to the French public, already acquainted in translation with -the works on the subject by Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock. Now -that the book has taken its position in France, it is only needful to -point out its claims to the attention of English readers. - -The important art of placing scientific knowledge, and especially new -discoveries and topics of present controversy, within easy reach of -educated readers not versed in their strictly technical details, is one -which has for years been carried to remarkable perfection in France, in -no small measure through the labours and example of M. Figuier himself. -The present volume, one of his series, takes up the subject of -Pre-historic Man, beginning with the remotely ancient stages of human -life belonging to the Drift-Beds, Bone-Caves, and Shell-Heaps, passing -on through the higher levels of the Stone Age, through the succeeding -Bronze Age, and into those lower ranges of the Iron Age in which -civilisation, raised to a comparatively high development, passes from -the hands of the antiquary into those of the historian. The Author's -object has been to give within the limits of a volume, and dispensing -with the fatiguing enumeration of details required in special memoirs, -an outline sufficient to afford a reasonable working acquaintance with -the facts and arguments of the science to such as cannot pursue it -further, and to serve as a starting-ground for those who will follow it -up in the more minute researches of Nilsson, Keller, Lartet, Christy, -Lubbock, Mortillet, Desor, Troyon, Gastaldi, and others. - -The value of the work to English archæologists, however, is not merely -that of a clear popular manual; pre-historic archæology, worked as it -has been in several countries, takes in each its proper local colour, -and brings forward its proper local evidence. It is true that much of -its material is used as common property by scientific men at large. But, -for instance, where an English writer in describing the ancient cave-men -would dwell especially on the relics from the caves of Devon and -Somerset as worked by Falconer and Pengelly, a French writer would take -his data more amply from the explorations of caves of the south of -France by De Vibraye, Garrigou, and Filhol--where the English teacher -would select his specimens from the Christy or the Blackmore Museum, the -French teacher would have recourse to the Musée de Saint-Germain. Thus -far, the English student has in Figuier's 'Primitive Man' not a work -simply incorporated from familiar materials, but to a great extent -bringing forward evidence not readily accessible, or quite new to him. - -Some corrections and alterations have been made in the English edition. -The illustrations are those of the original work; the facsimiles of -pre-historic objects have been in great part drawn expressly for it, and -contribute to its strictly scientific value; the page illustrations -representing scenes of primitive life, which are by another hand, may -seem somewhat fanciful, yet, setting aside the Raffaelesque idealism of -their style, it will be found on examination that they are in the main -justified by that soundest evidence, the actual discovery of the objects -of which they represent the use. - -The solid distinctness of this evidence from actual relics of -pre-historic life is one of the reasons which have contributed to the -extraordinary interest which pre-historic archæology has excited in an -age averse to vague speculation, but singularly appreciative of -arguments conducted by strict reasoning on facts. The study of this -modern science has supplied a fundamental element to the general theory -of civilisation, while, as has been the case with geology, its bearing -on various points of theological criticism has at once conduced to its -active investigation, and drawn to it the most eager popular attention. -Thus, in bringing forward a new work on 'Primitive Man,' there is -happily no need of insisting on the importance of its subject-matter, or -of attempting to force unappreciated knowledge on an unwilling public. -It is only necessary to attest its filling an open place in the -literature of pre-historic archæology. - -E. B. T. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 1 - - -THE STONE AGE. - - -I. - -THE EPOCH OF EXTINCT SPECIES OF ANIMALS; OR, OF THE GREAT BEAR AND -MAMMOTH. - - CHAPTER I. - - The earliest Men--The Type of Man in the Epoch of Animals of - extinct Species--Origin of Man--Refutation of the Theory which - derives the Human Species from the Ape 25 - - CHAPTER II. - - Man in the Condition of Savage Life during the Quaternary - Epoch--The Glacial Period, and its Ravages on the Primitive - Inhabitants of the Globe--Man in Conflict with the Animals of the - Quaternary Epoch--The Discovery of Fire--The Weapons of Primitive - Man--Varieties of Flint Hatchets--Manufacture of the earliest - Pottery--Ornamental objects at the Epoch of the Great Bear and - the Mammoth 39 - - CHAPTER III. - - The Man of the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch lived in Caverns-- - Bone Caverns in the Quaternary Rock during the Great Bear and - Mammoth Epoch--Mode of Formation of these Caverns--Their - Division into several Classes--Implements of Flint, Bone, and - Reindeer-horn, found in these Caverns--The Burial Place at - Aurignac--Its probable Age--Customs which it reveals--Funeral - Banquets during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch 56 - - CHAPTER IV. - - Other Caves of the Epoch of the Great Bear and Mammoth--Type - of the Human Race during the Epochs of the Great Bear and the - Reindeer--The Skulls from the Caves of Engis and Neanderthal 72 - - -II. - -EPOCH OF THE REINDEER; OR, OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. - - CHAPTER I. - - Mankind during the Epoch of the Reindeer--Their Manners and - Customs--Food--Garments--Weapons, Utensils, and Implements-- - Pottery--Ornaments--Primitive Arts--The principal Caverns-- - Type of the Human Race during the Epoch of the Reindeer 85 - - -III. - -THE POLISHED-STONE EPOCH; OR, THE EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. - - CHAPTER I. - - The European Deluge--The Dwelling-Place of Man during the - Polished-stone Epoch--The Caves and Rock-Shelters still used as - Dwelling-Places--Principal Caves belonging to the Polished-stone - Epoch which have been explored up to the present time--The Food - of Man during this Period 125 - - CHAPTER II. - - The _Kjoekken-Moeddings_ or "_Kitchen-middens_" of Denmark--Mode - of Life of the Men living in Denmark during the Polished-stone - Epoch--The Domestication of the Dog--The Art of Fishing during - the Polished-stone Epoch--Fishing Nets--Weapons and Instruments - of War--Type of the Human Race; the Borreby Skull 129 - - CHAPTER III. - - Tombs and Mode of Interment during the Polished-stone Epoch-- - _Tumuli_ and other Sepulchral Monuments formerly called - _Celtic_--Labours of MM. Alexander Bertrand and Bonstetten-- - Funeral Customs 184 - - -THE AGE OF METALS. - - -I. - -THE BRONZE EPOCH. - - CHAPTER I. - - The Discovery of Metals--Various Reasons suggested for explaining - the origin of Bronze in the West--The Invention of Bronze--A - Foundry during the Bronze Epoch--Permanent and Itinerant - Foundries existing during the Bronze Epoch--Did the Knowledge - of Metals take its Rise in Europe owing to the Progress of - Civilisation, or was it a Foreign Importation? 205 - - CHAPTER II. - - The Sources of Information at our Disposal for reconstructing - the History of the Bronze Epoch--The Lacustrine Settlements of - Switzerland--Enumeration and Classification of them--Their Mode - of Construction--Workmanship and Position of the Piles--Shape - and Size of the Huts--Population--Instruments of Stone, Bone, - and Stag's Horn--Pottery--Clothing--Food--_Fauna_--Domestic - Animals 215 - - CHAPTER III. - - Lacustrine Habitations of Upper Italy, Bavaria, Carinthia and - Carniola, Pomerania, France, and England--The _Crannoges_ of - Ireland 227 - - CHAPTER IV. - - Palustrine Habitations or Marsh-Villages--Surveys made by - MM. Strobel and Pigorini of the _Terramares_ of Tuscany--The - _Terramares_ of Brazil 232 - - CHAPTER V. - - Weapons, Instruments, and Utensils contained in the various - Lacustrine Settlements in Europe, enabling us to become - acquainted with the Manners and Customs of Man during the - Bronze Epoch 240 - - CHAPTER VI. - - Industrial Skill and Agriculture during the Bronze Epoch--The - Invention of Glass--Invention of Weaving 258 - - CHAPTER VII. - - The Art of War during the Bronze Epoch--Swords, Spears and - Daggers--The Bronze Epoch in Scandinavia, in the British Isles, - France, Switzerland and Italy--Did the Man of the Bronze Epoch - entertain any religious or superstitious Belief? 271 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - Mode of Interment and Burial-places of the Bronze Epoch-- - Characteristics of the Human Race during the same Period 284 - - -II. - -THE IRON EPOCH. - - CHAPTER I. - - Essential Characteristics of the Iron Epoch--Preparation of Iron - in Pre-historic Times--Discovery of Silver and Lead--Earthenware - made on the Potter's Wheel--Invention of Coined Money 297 - - CHAPTER II. - - Weapons--Tools, Instruments, Utensils, and Pottery--The Tombs - of Hallstadt and the Plateau of La Somma--The Lake-Settlements - of Switzerland--Human Sacrifices--Type of Man during the Iron - Epoch--Commencement of the Historic Era 312 - - - PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA 333 - - - CONCLUSION 343 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES. - - - FIG. PAGE - - A Family of the Stone Age (Frontispiece). - - 1. Human Jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, - in 1863 18 - - 2. Skull of a Man belonging to the Stone Age (The _Borreby - Skull_) 27 - - 3. Skull of the Gorilla 28 - - 4. Skull of the Orang-Outang _ib._ - - 5. Skull of the Cynocephalus Ape 29 - - 6. Skull of the _Macacus_ Baboon _ib._ - - 7. The Production of Fire (whole page engraving). - - 8. _Dendrites_ or Crystallisations found on the Surface of - wrought Flints 46 - - 9. Section of a Gravel Quarry at Saint-Acheul, which contained - the wrought Flints found by Boucher de Perthes 47 - - 10. Hatchet of the _Almond-shaped_ type from the Valley of the - Somme 48 - - 11. Flint Hatchet from Saint-Acheul of the so-called - _Almond-shaped_ type 49 - - 12. Wrought Flint (_Moustier_ type) _ib._ - - 13. Flint Scraper 50 - - 14. Flint Knife, found at Menchecourt, near Abbeville _ib._ - - 15. Flint Core or Nucleus 51 - - 16. Man in the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole page - engraving). - - 17. The First Potter (whole page engraving). - - 18. Fossil Shells used as Ornaments, and found in the Gravel at - Amiens 54 - - 19. Theoretical Section of a Vein of Clay in the Carboniferous - Limestone, _before_ the hollowing out of Valleys by - Diluvial Waters 56 - - 20. Theoretical Section of the same Vein of Clay converted - into a Cavern, _after_ the hollowing out of Valleys by - Diluvial Waters 57 - - 21. The Cave of Galeinreuth, in Bavaria 59 - - 22. Section of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac 62 - - 23. Flint Knife, found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac 63 - - 24. Implement made of Reindeer's or Stag's Horn, found in the - Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac _ib._ - - 25. Series of Perforated Discs of the _Cardium_ Shell, found - in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac 64 - - 26. Fragment of the Lower Jaw of a Cave-Bear found in the - Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac _ib._ - - 27. Upper Molar of a Bison found in the Ashes of the Fire-Hearth - of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac 65 - - 28. Arrow-head made of Reindeer's Horn, found in the Sepulchral - Cave of Aurignac 66 - - 29. Bodkin made of Roebuck's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave - of Aurignac _ib._ - - 30. Truncated Blade in Reindeer's Horn bearing two Series - of transversal Lines and Notches, probably used for - numeration 67 - - 31. Funeral Feast during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole - page engraving). - - 32. Carved and perforated Canine Tooth of a young Cave-Bear 69 - - 33. Head of a Cave-Bear found in the Cave of Aurignac 70 - - 34. Head of the _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, found in the Cave of - Aurignac _ib._ - - 35. Head of a great Stag (_Megaceros hibernicus_), found in the - Cave of Aurignac 71 - - 36. Sketch of the Great Bear on a Stone, found in the Cave of - Massat 75 - - 37. Portion of the Skull of an Individual belonging to the Epoch - of the Great Bear and the Mammoth, found in the Cave - of Engis 80 - - 38. Portion of the so-called Neanderthal Skull _ib._ - - 39. Man of the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 40. Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel, a supposed Habitation of Man - during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 41. A Feast during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 42. Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for sewing Reindeer Skins, found - in the Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord) 92 - - 43. Bone Needle for Sewing _ib._ - - 44. The Canine Tooth of a Wolf, bored so as to be used as an - Ornament 93 - - 45. Ornament made of the bony part of a Horse's Ear _ib._ - - 46. Spear-head, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Périgord) 95 - - 47. Worked Flint from Périgord (Knife) 96 - - 48. Worked Flint from Périgord (Hatchet) _ib._ - - 49. Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife) 97 - - 50. Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper) _ib._ - - 51. Small Flint Saw, found in the Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel 98 - - 52. The Chase during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 53. Barbed Arrow of Reindeer Horn 99 - - 54. Arrow of Reindeer Horn with Double Barbs _ib._ - - 55. Animal Bone, pierced by an Arrow of Reindeer Horn 100 - - 56. Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of - Laugerie-Basse (Stiletto?) _ib._ - - 57. Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of - Laugerie-Basse (Needle?) _ib._ - - 58. Spoon of Reindeer Horn 101 - - 59. Knuckle-bone of a Reindeer's Foot, bored with a hole and - used as a Whistle 102 - - 60. Staff of authority, in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave - of Périgord _ib._ - - 61. Another Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn _ib._ - - 62. A Geode, used as a Cooking Vessel(?), found in the Cave - of La Madelaine (Périgord) 103 - - 63. Earthen Vase, found in the Cave of Furfooz (Belgium) 104 - - 64. Sketch of a Mammoth graven on a Slab of Ivory 106 - - 65. Hilt of a Dagger carved in the Shape of a Reindeer 107 - - 66. Representation of a Stag drawn on a Stag's Horn 108 - - 67. Representation of some large Herbivorous Animal on a - Fragment of Reindeer's Horn _ib._ - - 68. Arts of Drawing and Sculpture during the Reindeer Epoch - (whole page engraving). - - 69. Representation of an Animal sketched on a Fragment of - Reindeer's Horn 109 - - 70. Fragment of a Slab of Schist bearing the representation of - some Animal, and found in the Cave of Les Eyzies _ib._ - - 71. A kind of Harpoon of Reindeer's Horn carved in the Shape of - an Animal's Head 110 - - 72. Staff of Authority, on which are graven Representations of - a Man, two Horses, and a Fish 111 - - 73. Skull, found at Furfooz by M. Édouard Dupont 114 - - 74. Skull of an Old Man, found in a _Rock-shelter_ at Bruniquel 115 - - 75. A Funeral Ceremony during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page - engraving). - - 76. Man of the Polished-stone Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 77. Bone Skewers used as Fish-hooks 134 - - 78. Fishing-net with wide Meshes 136 - - 79. Stone Weight used for sinking the Fishing-nets _ib._ - - 80. Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch (whole page - engraving). - - 81. Flint Knife from one of the Danish Beds 138 - - 82. Nucleus off which Knives are flaked _ib._ - - 83. Flint Hatchet from one of the Danish Beds _ib._ - - 84. Flint Scraper from one of the Danish Beds _ib._ - - 85. Refuse from the Manufacture of wrought Flints 139 - - 86. Weight to sink Fishing-nets _ib._ - - 87. Danish Axe of the Polished-stone Epoch 140 - - 88. Double-edged Axe _ib._ - - 89. Danish Axe-hammer drilled for handle 141 - - 90. Ditto _ib._ - - 91. Spear-head from Denmark 142 - - 92. Ditto _ib._ - - 93. Toothed Spear-head of Flint 143 - - 94. Flint Poniard from Denmark _ib._ - - 95. Type of the Danish Arrow-head _ib._ - - 96. Another Type of Arrow-head _ib._ - - 97. Arrow-head 144 - - 98. Arrow-head from Denmark _ib._ - - 99. Flint Chisel from Denmark _ib._ - - 100. Small Stone Saw from the Danish Deposits 145 - - 101. Another Stone Saw from Denmark _ib._ - - 102. Bone Harpoon of the Stone Age, from Denmark _ib._ - - 103. Bone Comb from Denmark 146 - - 104. Necklace and various Ornaments of Amber _ib._ - - 105. Nucleus in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from the Workshop - of Grand-Pressigny 148 - - 106. Polisher from Grand-Pressigny, both faces being shown 150 - - 107. The earliest Manufacture and Polishing of Flints (whole - page engraving). - - 108. Polisher found by M. Leguay 154 - - 109. Spear-head from Spiennes 158 - - 110. Polished Jade Hatchet in the Museum of Saint-Germain 159 - - 111. Polished Flint Hatchet with a Sheath of Stag's Horn fitted - for a Handle 161 - - 112. Flint Hatchet fitted into a Stag's-horn Sheath having an - Oak Handle, from Boucher de Perthes' Illustration 162 - - 113. Hatchet Handle made of Oak 163 - - 114. Stag's-horn Sheath open at each end, so as to receive two - Hatchets _ib._ - - 115. Polished Flint Hatchet, from Belgium, fitted into a - Stag's-horn Sheath _ib._ - - 116. Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after Boucher de - Perthes) 164 - - 117. Ditto _ib._ - - 118. Ditto 165 - - 119. Flint Tool in a Bone Handle 166 - - 120. Flint Tool with Bone Handle _ib._ - - 121. Ornamented Bone Handle _ib._ - - 122. Necklace made of Boars' Tusks longitudinally divided 167 - - 123. Flint Knife from the Peat Bogs near Antwerp 168 - - 124. Primitive Corn-mill 170 - - 125. The Art of Bread Making in the Stone Age (whole page - engraving). - - 126. The Earliest Navigators (whole page engraving). - - 127. The Earliest regular Conflicts between Men of the Stone Age; - or, The Entrenched Camp of Furfooz (whole page engraving). - - 128. Flint Arrow-head from Civita-Nova (Italy) 180 - - 129. The Borreby Skull 182 - - 130. Danish _Dolmen_ 185 - - 131. _Dolmen_ at Assies (department of Lot) _ib._ - - 132. _Dolmen_ at Connéré (Marne) 186 - - 133. Vertical Section of the _Dolmen_ of Lockmariaker, in - Brittany. In the Museum of Saint-Germain _ib._ - - 134. _Tumulus-Dolmen_ at Gavr'inis (Morbihan) 187 - - 135. A Portion of the _Dolmen_ of Gavr'inis _ib._ - - 136. General Form of a covered Passage-Tomb 188 - - 137. Passage-Tomb at Bagneux, near Saumur _ib._ - - 138. Passage-Tomb at Plauharmel (Morbihan) 189 - - 139. Passage-Tomb, the so-called _Table de César_, at - Lockmariaker (Morbihan) _ib._ - - 140. A Danish _Tumulus_ or chambered Sepulchre 190 - - 141. Usual Shape of a _Menhir_ 191 - - 142. The Rows of _Menhirs_ at Carnac _ib._ - - 143. _Dolmen_ with a Circuit of Stones (_Cromlech_), in the - Province of Constantine 192 - - 144. Group of Danish _Cromlechs_ _ib._ - - 145. Position of Skeletons in a Swedish Tomb of the Stone Age 194 - - 146. A _Tumulus_ of the Polished Stone Epoch (whole page - engraving). - - 147. A Founder's Workshop during the Bronze Epoch (whole page - engraving). - - 148. Section of the _Ténevière_ of Hauterive 220 - - 149. A Swiss Lake Village of the Bronze Epoch (whole page - engraving). - - 150. Vertical Section of a _Crannoge_ in the Ardakillin Lake 230 - - 151. Vertical Section of the _Marniera_ of Castione 233 - - 152. Floor of the _Marniera_ of Castione 234 - - 153. Plan of the Piles and Cross-beams in the _Marniera_ of - Castione _ib._ - - 154. The Chase during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 155. Stone Hatchet from the Lacustrine Habitations of - Switzerland 241 - - 156. Stone Chisel with Stag's-horn Handle, from the Lacustrine - Habitations of Switzerland 241 - - 157. Flint Hammer fitted with a Stag's-horn Handle 242 - - 158. Stone Hatchet with Double Handle of Wood and Stag's Horn _ib._ - - 159, 160. Serpentine Hatchet-Hammers from the Lacustrine - Habitations of Switzerland 243 - - 161. Another Hatchet-hammer from the Lacustrine Habitations of - Switzerland _ib._ - - 162. Flint Saw fitted into a Piece of Stag's Horn 244 - - 163. Flint Spear-head from the Lacustrine Settlements of - Switzerland _ib._ - - 164. Various Shapes of Flint Arrow-heads from the Lacustrine - Settlements of Switzerland _ib._ - - 165. Arrow-head of Bone fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen 245 - - 166. Stone Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen _ib._ - - 167. Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by a Ligature of String _ib._ - - 168. Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland 246 - - 169. Ditto _ib._ - - 170. Carpenter's Chisel, from the Lacustrine Habitations of - Switzerland _ib._ - - 171. Bone Needle _ib._ - - 172. Pick-axe of Stag's Horn 247 - - 173. Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the Lacustrine - Habitations of Switzerland _ib._ - - 174. Ditto _ib._ - - 175. Vessel made of Stag's Horn _ib._ - - 176. Bronze Winged Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations of - Switzerland 249 - - 177. Winged Hatchet (front and side view), from the Lacustrine - Habitations of Switzerland _ib._ - - 178. Socketed Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations _ib._ - - 179. Knife Hatchet (front and side view) from the Lacustrine - Habitations _ib._ - - 180. Carpenter's Chisel, in Bronze 250 - - 181. Hexagonal Hammer _ib._ - - 182. Knife with a Tang to fit into a Handle, from the Lacustrine - Settlements of Switzerland _ib._ - - 183. Socketed Knife, from the Lacustrine Settlements of - Switzerland 251 - - 184. Bronze Sickle, found by M. Desor at Chevroux _ib._ - - 185. Bronze Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of - Switzerland 252 - - 186. Double Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of - Switzerland _ib._ - - 187. Hair-pin, found by M. Desor in one of the Swiss Lakes 253 - - 188. Ditto _ib._ - - 189. Hair-pin with Cylindrical Head _ib._ - - 190. Hair-pin with Curled Head _ib._ - - 191. Bronze Bracelet, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 254 - - 192. Another Bronze Bracelet 255 - - 193. Bronze Ring _ib._ - - 194. Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations of - Switzerland 256 - - 195. Another Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations - of Switzerland _ib._ - - 196. Bronze Ring, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland _ib._ - - 197. Another Ornamental Ring _ib._ - - 198. Earthenware Vessel with Conical Bottom, from the Lacustrine - Habitations of Switzerland 259 - - 199. Earthen Vessel placed on its Support _ib._ - - 200. Fragment of an Earthen Vessel with a Handle 259 - - 201. Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine Settlements of - Switzerland 260 - - 202. Ditto _ib._ - - 203. Cloth of the Bronze Age, found in the Lacustrine Settlements - of Switzerland 262 - - 204. The First Weaver (whole page engraving). - - 205. Spindle-whorls, made of Baked Clay, found in the Lacustrine - Settlements of Switzerland 263 - - 206. Principal Designs for the Ornamentation of Pottery during - the Bronze Epoch 264 - - 207. The Cultivation of Gardens during the Bronze Epoch (whole - page engraving). - - 208. A Feast during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 209. Bronze Sword in the Museum of Neuchâtel 272 - - 210. Bronze Dagger, found in one of the Swiss Lakes _ib._ - - 211. Bronze Spear-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 273 - - 212. Bronze Arrow-head, found in a Lacustrine Settlement of - Switzerland _ib._ - - 213. Scandinavian Sword 274 - - 214. Hilt of a Scandinavian Sword _ib._ - - 215. Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet _ib._ - - 216. Another Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet _ib._ - - 217. Danish Bronze Knife of the Bronze Epoch 275 - - 218. Ditto _ib._ - - 219. Blade of a Danish Razor of the Bronze Epoch 276 - - 220. Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, found in 1861, in a Tomb - in Denmark 277 - - 221. Woollen Shawl, found in the same Tomb _ib._ - - 222. Woollen Shirt, taken from the same Tomb 278 - - 223. First Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb _ib._ - - 224. Second Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb _ib._ - - 225. Bronze Comb, found in the same Tomb _ib._ - - 226. Warriors during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 227. Bronze Hatchet Mould, found in Ireland 279 - - 228. Stone Crescent, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 280 - - 229. Skull found at Meilen, Front View 289 - - 230. Skull found at Meilen, Profile View _ib._ - - 231. Primitive Furnace for Smelting Iron (whole page engraving). - - 232. Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel 310 - - 233. Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a Bronze Hilt and - Iron Blade) 313 - - 234. Ditto _ib._ - - 235. Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze Handle and Iron - Blade) 314 - - 236. Ditto _ib._ - - 237. Funeral Ceremonies during the Iron Epoch (whole page - engraving). - - 238. A Skeleton, portions of which have been burnt, from the - Tombs of Hallstadt 315 - - 239. A Necklace with Pendants, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 316 - - 240. Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 317 - - 241. Ditto _ib._ - - 242. Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt _ib._ - - 243. Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 317 - - 244. Warriors of the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 245, 246. Fore-arm encircled with Bracelets, found in the Tombs - of Belleville (Savoy) 319 - - 247. Iron Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 321 - - 248. Sword with Damascened Blade, found in one of the Swiss - Lakes _ib._ - - 249. Sheath of a Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 322 - - 250. Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 323 - - 251. Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La - Tène (Neuchâtel) 324 - - 252. The Chase during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving). - - 253. Square-socketed Iron Hatchet, found in one of the Lakes of - Switzerland 325 - - 254. Sickle _ib._ - - 255. Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland 326 - - 256. Iron Point of Boat-hook, used by the Swiss Boatmen during - the Iron Epoch _ib._ - - 257. Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel _ib._ - - 258. _Fibula_, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel 327 - - 259. Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel 328 - - 260. Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel _ib._ - - 261. Iron Spring-scissors, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel _ib._ - - 262. Razor 329 - - 263. Agriculture during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving). - - - - -PRIMITIVE MAN. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -Forty years have scarcely elapsed since scientific men first began to -attribute to the human race an antiquity more remote than that which is -assigned to them by history and tradition. Down to a comparatively -recent time, the appearance of primitive man was not dated back beyond a -period of 6000 to 7000 years. This historical chronology was a little -unsettled by the researches made among various eastern nations--the -Chinese, the Egyptians, and the Indians. The _savants_ who studied these -ancient systems of civilisation found themselves unable to limit them to -the 6000 years of the standard chronology, and extended back for some -thousands of years the antiquity of the eastern races. - -This idea, however, never made its way beyond the narrow circle of -oriental scholars, and did nothing towards any alteration in the general -opinion, which allowed only 6000 years since the creation of the human -species. - -This opinion was confirmed, and, to some extent, rendered sacred by an -erroneous interpretation of Holy Writ. It was thought that the Old -Testament stated that man was created 6000 years ago. Now, the fact is, -nothing of the kind can be found in the Book of Genesis. It is only the -commentators and the compilers of chronological systems who have put -forward this date as that of the first appearance of the human race. M. -Édouard Lartet, who was called, in 1869, to the chair of palæontology in -the Museum of Natural History of Paris, reminds us, in the following -passage taken from one of his elegant dissertations, that it is the -chronologists alone who have propounded this idea, and that they have, -in this respect, very wrongly interpreted the statements of the Bible: - -"In _Genesis_," says M. Lartet, "no date can be found which sets a limit -to the time at which primitive mankind may have made its first -appearance. Chronologists, however, for fifteen centuries have been -endeavouring to make Biblical facts fall in with the preconcerted -arrangements of their systems. Thus, we find that more than 140 opinions -have been brought forward as to the date of the creation alone, and -that, between the varying extremes, there is a difference of 3194 -years--a difference which only applies to the period between the -commencement of the world and the birth of Jesus Christ. This -disagreement turns chiefly on those portions of the interval which are -in closest proximity to the creation. - -"From the moment when it becomes a recognised fact that the origin of -mankind is a question independent of all subordination to dogma, this -question will assume its proper position as a scientific thesis, and -will be accessible to any kind of discussion, and capable, in every -point of view, of receiving the solution which best harmonises with the -known facts and experimental demonstrations."[1] - -Thus, we must not assume that the authority of Holy Writ is in any way -questioned by those labours which aim at seeking the real epoch of man's -first appearance on the earth. - -In corroboration of M. Lartet's statement, we must call to mind that the -Catholic church, which has raised to the rank of dogma so many -unimportant facts, has never desired to treat in this way the idea that -man was created only 6000 years ago. - -There is, therefore, no need for surprise when we learn that certain -members of the Catholic clergy have devoted themselves with energy -to the study of pre-historic man. Mgr. Meignan, Bishop of -Châlons-sur-Marne, is one of the best-informed men in France as respects -this new science; he cultivates it with the utmost zeal, and his -personal researches have added much to the sum of our knowledge of this -question. Under the title of 'Le Monde et l'Homme Primitif selon la -Bible,'[2] the learned Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne published, in 1869, a -voluminous work, in which, taking up the subjects discussed by Marcel de -Serres in his "Cosmogonie de Moïse, comparée aux Faits Géologiques,"[3] -and enlarging upon the facts which science has recently acquired as to -the subject of primitive man, he seeks to establish the coincidence of -all these data with the records of Revelation. - -M. l'Abbé Lambert has recently published a work on 'L'Homme Primitif et -la Bible,'[4] in which he proves that the discoveries of modern science -concerning the antiquity of man are in no way opposed to the records of -Revelation in the Book of Moses. - -Lastly, it is a member of the clerical body, M. l'Abbé Bourgeois, who, -more a royalist than the king--that is, more advanced in his views than -most contemporary geologists--is in favour of tracing back to the -tertiary epoch the earliest date of the existence of man. We shall have -to impugn this somewhat exaggerated opinion, which, indeed, we only -quote here for the sake of proving that the theological scruples which -so long arrested the progress of inquiry with regard to primitive man, -have now disappeared, in consequence of the perfect independence of this -question in relation to catholic dogma being evidently shown. - -Thanks to the mutual support which has been afforded by the three -sister-sciences--geology, palæontology, and archæology,--thanks to the -happy combinations which these sciences have presented to the efforts of -men animated with an ardent zeal for the investigation of the -truth;--and thanks, lastly, to the unbounded interest which attaches to -this subject, the result has been that the limits which had been so long -attributed to the existence of the human species have been -extraordinarily extended, and the date of the first appearance of man -has been carried back to the night of the darkest ages. The mind, it may -well be said, recoils dismayed when it undertakes the computation of the -thousands of years which have elapsed since the creation of man. - -But, it will naturally be asked, on what grounds do you base this -assertion? What evidence do you bring forward, and what are the elements -of your proof? - -In the following paragraphs we give some of the principal means of -examination and study which have directed the efforts of _savants_ in -this class of investigation, and have enabled them to create a science -of the antiquity of the human species. - -If man existed at any very remote epoch, he must have left traces of his -presence in the spots which he inhabited and on the soil which he trod -under his feet. However savage his state may be assumed to have been, -primitive man must have possessed some implements of fishing and -hunting--some weapons wherewith to strike down any prey which was -stronger or more agile than himself. All human beings have been in -possession of some scrap of clothing; and they have had at their command -certain implements more or less rough in their character, be they only a -shell in which to draw water or a tool for cleaving wood and -constructing some place of shelter, a knife to cut their food, and a -lump of stone to break the bones of the animals which served for their -nutriment. Never has man existed who was not in possession of some kind -of defensive weapon. These implements and these weapons have been -patiently sought for, and they have also been found. They have been -found in certain strata of the earth, the age of which is known by -geologists; some of these strata precede and others are subsequent to -the cataclysm of the European deluge of the quaternary epoch. - -The fact has thus been proved that a race of men lived upon the earth at -the epoch settled by the geological age of these strata--that is, during -the quaternary epoch. - -When this class of evidence of man's presence--that is, the vestiges of -his primitive industry--fails us, a state of things, however, which -comparatively seldom occurs, his existence is sometimes revealed by the -presence of human bones buried in the earth and preserved through long -ages by means of the deposits of calcareous salts which have petrified -or rather _fossilised_ them. Sometimes, in fact, the remains of human -bones have been found in quaternary rocks, which are, consequently, -considerably anterior to those of the present geological epoch. - -This means of proof is, however, more difficult to bring forward than -the preceding class of evidence; because human bones are very liable to -decay when they are buried at shallow depths, and require for any length -of preservation a concurrence of circumstances which is but rarely met -with; because also the tribes of primitive man often burnt their dead -bodies; and, lastly, because the human race then formed but a very -scanty population. - -Another excellent proof, which demonstrates the existence of man at a -geological epoch anterior to the present era, is to be deduced from the -intermixture of human bones with those of antediluvian animals. It is -evident that if we meet with the bones of the mammoth, the cave-bear, -the cave-tiger, &c.,--animals which lived only in the quaternary epoch -and are now extinct--in conjunction with the bones of man or the relics -of his industry, such as weapons, implements, utensils, &c., we can -assert with some degree of certainty that our species was -contemporaneous with the above-named animals. Now this intermixture has -often been met with under the ground in caves, or deeply buried in the -earth. - -These form the various kinds of proof which have been made use of to -establish the fact of man's presence upon the earth during the -quaternary epoch. We will now give a brief recital of the principal -investigations which have contributed to the knowledge on which is based -the newly-formed science which treats of the practical starting-point of -mankind. - -Palæontology, as a science, does not count more than half a century of -existence. We scarcely seem, indeed, to have raised more than one corner -of the veil which covers the relics of an extinct world; as yet, for -instance, we know absolutely nothing of all that sleeps buried in the -depths of the earth lying under the basin of the sea. It need not, -therefore, afford any great ground for surprise that so long a time -elapsed before human bones or the vestiges of the primitive industry of -man were discovered in the quaternary rocks. This negative result, -however, always constituted the chief objection against the very early -origin of our species. - -The errors and deceptions which were at first encountered tended perhaps -to cool down the zeal of the earlier naturalists, and thus retarded the -solution of the problem. It is a well-known story about the fossil -salamander of the Oeningen quarries, which, on the testimony of -Scheuchzer, was styled in 1726, the "human witness of the deluge" (_homo -diluvii testis_). In 1787, Peter Camper recognised the fact that this -pretended _pre-Adamite_ was nothing but a reptile; this discomfiture, -which was a source of amusement to the whole of scientific Europe, was -a real injury to the cause of antediluvian man. By the sovereign -ascendancy of ridicule, his existence was henceforth relegated to the -domain of fable. - -The first step in advance was, however, taken in 1774. Some human bones, -mingled with remains of the great bear and other species then unknown, -were discovered by J. F. Esper, in the celebrated cavern of Gailenreuth, -in Bavaria. - -Even before this date, in the early part of the eighteenth century, -Kemp, an Englishman, had found in London, by the side of elephants' -teeth, a stone hatchet, similar to those which have been subsequently -found in great numbers in various parts of the world. This hatchet was -roughly sketched, and the design published in 1715. The original still -exists in the collection at the British Museum. - -In 1797, John Frere, an English archæologist, discovered at Hoxne, in -Suffolk, under strata of quaternary rocks, some flint weapons, -intermingled with bones of animals belonging to extinct species. Esper -concluded that these weapons and the men who made them were anterior to -the formation of the beds in which they were found. - -According to M. Lartet, the honour of having been the first to proclaim -the high antiquity of the human species must be attributed to Aimé Boué, -a French geologist residing in Germany. In 1823, he found in the -quaternary loam (loess) of the Valley of the Rhine some human bones -which he presented to Cuvier and Brongniart as those of men who lived in -the quaternary epoch. - -In 1823, Dr. Buckland, the English geologist, published his 'Reliquiæ -Diluvianæ,' a work which was principally devoted to a description of the -Kirkdale Cave, in which the author combined all the facts then known -which tended in favour of the co-existence of man and the antediluvian -animals. - -Cuvier, too, was not so indisposed as he is generally said to have been, -to admit the existence of man in the quaternary epoch. In his work on -'Ossements Fossiles,' and his 'Discours sur les Révolutions du Globe,' -the immortal naturalist discusses the pros and cons with regard to this -question, and, notwithstanding the insufficiency of the data which were -then forthcoming, he felt warranted in saying:-- - -"I am not inclined to conclude that man had no existence at all before -the epoch of the great revolutions of the earth.... He might have -inhabited certain districts of no great extent, whence, after these -terrible events, he repeopled the world; perhaps, also, the spots where -he abode were swallowed up, and his bones lie buried under the beds of -the present seas." - -The confident appeals which have been made to Cuvier's authority against -the high antiquity of man are, therefore, not justified by the facts. - -A second and more decisive step in advance was taken by the discovery of -shaped flints and other implements belonging to primitive man, existing -in diluvial beds. - -In 1826, M. Tournal, of Narbonne, a French archæologist and geologist, -published an account of the discoveries which he had made in a cave in -the department of Aude, in which he found bones of the bison and -reindeer fashioned by the hand of man, accompanied by the remains of -edible shell-fish, which must have been brought there by men who had -made their residence in this cave. - -Three years afterwards, M. de Christol, of Montpellier, subsequently -Professor in the University of Science of Grenoble, found human bones -intimately mixed up with remains of the great bear, hyæna, rhinoceros, -&c., in the caverns of Pondres and Souvignargues (Hérault). In the last -of these caverns fragments of pottery formed a part of the relics. - -All these striking facts were put together and discussed by Marcel de -Serres, Professor in the University of Science at Montpellier, in his -'Essai sur les Cavernes.' - -The two bone-caverns of Engis and Enghihoul (Belgium) have furnished -proofs of the same kind. In 1833, Schmerling, a learned Belgian -geologist, discovered in these caverns two human skulls, mixed with the -teeth of the rhinoceros, elephant, bear, hyæna, &c. The human bones were -rubbed and worn away like those of the animals. The bones of the latter -presented, besides, traces of human workmanship. Lastly, as if no -evidence should be wanting, flints chipped to form knives and -arrow-heads were found in the same spot. - -In connection with his laborious investigations, Schmerling published a -work which is now much esteemed, and proves that the Belgian geologist -well merited the title of being the founder of the science of the -antiquity of man. In this work Schmerling describes and represents a -vast quantity of objects which had been discovered in the caverns of -Belgium, and introduced to notice the human skull which has since become -so famous under the name of the _Engis skull_. But at that time -scientific men of all countries were opposed to this class of ideas, and -thus the discoveries of the Belgian geologist attracted no more -attention than those of his French brethren who had brought forward -facts of a similar nature. - -In 1835, M. Joly, at that time Professor at the Lyceum of -Montpellier--where I (the author) attended on his course of Natural -History--now Professor in the Faculty of Sciences at Toulouse, found in -the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère) the skull of a cave-bear, on which an -arrow had left its evident traces. Close by was a fragment of pottery -bearing the imprints of the fingers of the man who moulded it. - -We may well be surprised that, in the face of all these previous -discoveries, Boucher de Perthes, the ardent apostle in proclaiming the -high antiquity of our species, should have met with so much opposition -and incredulity; or that he should have had to strive against so much -indifference, when, beginning with the year 1836, he began to maintain -this idea in a series of communications addressed to the Société -d'Emulation of Abbeville. - -The horizontal strata of the quarternary beds, known under the name of -_diluvial_, form banks of different shades and material, which place -before our eyes in indelible characters the ancient history of our -globe. The organic remains which are found in them are those of beings -who were witnesses to the diluvial cataclysm, and perhaps preceded it by -many ages. - -"Therefore," says the prophet of Abbeville, "it is in these ruins of the -old world, and in the deposits which have become his sole archives, that -we must seek out the traditions of primitive man; and in default of -coins and inscriptions we must rely on the rough stones which, in all -their imperfection, prove the existence of man no less surely than all -the glory of a Louvre." - -Strong in this conviction, M. Boucher de Perthes devoted himself -ardently to the search in the diluvial beds, either for the bony relics -of man, or, at all events, for the material indications of his primitive -industry. In the year 1838 he had the honour of submitting to the -Société d'Emulation, at Abbeville, his first specimens of the -antediluvian hatchet. - -In the course of the year 1839, Boucher de Perthes took these hatchets -to Paris and showed them to several members of the Institute. MM. -Alexandre Brongniart, Flourens, Elie de Beaumont, Cordier, and Jomard, -gave at first some encouragement to researches which promised to be so -fruitful in results; but this favourable feeling was not destined to -last long. - -These rough specimens of wrought flint, in which Boucher de Perthes -already recognised a kind of hatchet, presented very indistinct traces -of chipping, and the angles were blunted; their flattened shape, too, -differed from that of the polished hatchets, the only kind that were -then known. It was certainly necessary to see with the eyes of faith in -order to discern the traces of man's work. "I," says the Abbeville -archæologist, "had these 'eyes of faith,' but no one shared them with -me." He then made up his mind to seek for help in his labour, and -trained workmen to dig in the diluvial beds. Before long he was able to -collect, in the quarternary beds at Abbeville, twenty specimens of flint -evidently wrought by the hand of man. - -In 1842, the Geological Society of London received a communication from -Mr. Godwin Austen, who had found in Kent's Hole various wrought objects, -accompanied by animal remains, which must have remained there since the -deluge. - -In 1844, appeared Lund's observations on the caverns of Brazil. - -Lund explored as many as 800 caves. In one of them, situated not far -from the lake of Semidouro, he found the bones of no less than thirty -individuals of the human species, showing a similar state of -decomposition to that of the bones of animals which were along with -them. Among these animals were an ape, various carnivora, rodents, -pachyderms, sloths, &c. From these facts, Lund inferred that man must -have been contemporaneous with the megatherium, the mylodon, &c., -animals which characterised the quarternary epoch. - -Nevertheless, M. Desnoyers, librarian of the Museum of Natural History -at Paris, in a very learned article on 'Grottos and Caverns,' published -in 1845 in the 'Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Naturelle,' still -energetically expressed himself in opposition to the hypothesis of the -high antiquity of man. But the discoveries continued to go on; and, at -the present time, M. Desnoyers himself figures among the partisans of -the antediluvian man. He has even gone beyond their opinions, as he -forms one among those who would carry back to the tertiary epoch the -earliest date of the appearance of our species. - -In 1847, M'Enery found in Kent's Hole, a cavern in England, under a -layer of stalagmite, the remains of men and antediluvian animals mingled -together. - -The year 1847 was also marked by the appearance of the first volume of -the 'Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes,' by Boucher de Perthes; -this contained about 1600 plates of the objects which had been -discovered in the excavations which the author had caused to be made -since the year 1836. - -The strata at Abbeville, where Boucher de Perthes carried out his -researches, belong to the quaternary epoch. - -Dr. Rigollot, who had been for ten years one of the most decided -opponents of the opinions of Boucher de Perthes, actually himself -discovered in 1854 some wrought flints in the quaternary deposits at -Saint Acheul, near Amiens, and it was not long before he took his stand -under the banner of the Abbeville archæologist. - -The _fauna_ of the Amiens deposits is similar to that of the Abbeville -beds. The lower deposits of gravel, in which the wrought flints are met -with, have been formed by fresh water, and have not undergone either -alteration or disturbance. The flints wrought by the hand of man which -have been found in them, have in all probability lain there since the -epoch of the formation of these deposits--an epoch a little later than -the diluvial period. The number of wrought flints which have been taken -out of the Abbeville beds is really immense. At Menchecourt, in twenty -years, about 100 well-characterised hatchets have been collected; at -Saint Gilles twenty very rough, and as many well-made ones; at -Moulin-Quignon 150 to 200 well-formed hatchets. - -Similar relics of primitive industry have been found also in other -localities. In 1853, M. Noulet discovered some in the Infernat Valley -(Haute-Garonne); in 1858, the English geologists, Messrs. Prestwich, -Falconer, Pengelly, &c., also found some in the lower strata of the -Baumann cavern in the Hartz. - -To the English geologists whose names we have just mentioned must be -attributed the merit of having been the first to bring before the -scientific world the due value of the labours of Boucher de Perthes, who -had as yet been unsuccessful in obtaining any acceptation of his ideas -in France. Dr. Falconer, Vice-president of the Geological Society in -London, visited the department of the Somme, in order to study the beds -and the objects found in them. After him, Messrs. Prestwich and Evans -came three times to Abbeville in the year 1859. They all brought back to -England a full conviction of the antiquity and intact state of the beds -explored, and also of the existence of man before the deluge of the -quaternary epoch. - -In another journey, made in company with Messrs. Flower, Mylne, and -Godwin Austen, Messrs. Prestwich, Falconer, and Evans were present at -the digging out of human bones and flint hatchets from the quarries of -St. Acheul. Lastly, Sir C. Lyell visited the spot, and the English -geologist, who, up to that time, had opposed the idea of the existence -of antediluvian man, was able to say, _Veni, vidi, victus fui!_ At the -meeting of the British Association, at Aberdeen, September the 15th, -1855, Sir C. Lyell declared himself to be in favour of the existence of -quaternary man; and this declaration, made by the President of the -Geological Society of London, added considerable weight to the new -ideas. - -M. Hébert, Professor of Geology at the Sorbonne, next took his stand -under the same banner. - -M. Albert Gaudry, another French geologist, made a statement to the -Academy of Sciences, that he, too, had found flint hatchets, together -with the teeth of horses and fossil oxen, in the beds of the Parisian -_diluvium_. - -During the same year, M. Gosse, the younger, explored the sand-pits of -Grenelle and the avenue of La Mothe-Piquet in Paris, and obtained from -them various flint implements, mingled with the bones of the mammoth, -fossil ox, &c. - -Facts of a similar character were established at Précy-sur-Oise, and in -the diluvial deposits at Givry. - -The Marquis de Vibraye, also, found in the cave of Arcy, various human -bones, especially a piece of a jaw-bone, mixed with the bones of animals -of extinct species. - -In 1859, M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (department of -Ariége), not only utensils testifying to the former presence of man, but -also human teeth mixed up with the remains of the great bear (_Ursus -spelæus_), the fossil hyæna (_Hyæna spelæa_), and the cave-lion (_Felis -spelæa_). - -In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found in the cave of Lourdes (Tarn), -certain relics of human industry by the side of the bones of fossil -animals. - -The valleys of the Oise and the Seine have also added their contingent -to the supply of antediluvian remains. In the sand-pits in the environs -of Paris, at Grenelle, Levallois-Perret, and Neuilly, several -naturalists, including MM. Gosse, Martin, and Reboux, found numerous -flint implements, associated, in certain cases, with the bones of the -elephant and hippopotamus. In the valley of the Oise, at Précy, near -Creil, MM. Peigné Delacour and Robert likewise collected a few hatchets. - -Lastly, a considerable number of French departments, especially those of -the north and centre, have been successfully explored. We may mention -the departments of Pas-de-Calais, Aisne, Loire-et-Cher, Indre-et-Loire, -Vienne, Allier, Yonne, Saône-et-Loire, Hérault, Tarn-et-Garonne, &c. - -In England, too, discoveries were made of an equally valuable character. -The movement which was commenced in France by Boucher de Perthes, spread -in England with remarkable rapidity. In many directions excavations were -made which produced excellent results. - -In the gravel beds which lie near Bedford, Mr. Wyatt met with flints -resembling the principal types of those of Amiens and Abbeville; they -were found in company with the remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, -hippopotamus, ox, horse, and deer. Similar discoveries were made in -Suffolk, Kent, Hertfordshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire, &c. - -Some time after his return from Abbeville, Mr. Evans, going round the -museum of the Society of Antiquaries in London, found in their rooms -some specimens exactly similar to those in the collection of Boucher de -Perthes. On making inquiries as to their origin, he found that they had -been obtained from the gravel at Hoxne by Mr. Frere, who had collected -them there, together with the bones of extinct animals, all of which he -had presented to the museum, after having given a description of them in -the 'Archæologia' of 1800, with this remark: ... "Fabricated and used by -a people who had not the use of metals.... The situation in which these -weapons were found may tempt us to refer them to a very remote period -indeed, even beyond that of the present world." - -Thus, even at the commencement of the present century, they were in -possession, in England, of proofs of the co-existence of man with the -great extinct pachyderms; but, owing to neglect of the subject, scarcely -any attention had been paid to them. - -We now come to the most remarkable and most characteristic discoveries -of this class which have ever been made. We allude to the explorations -made by M. Édouard Lartet, during the year 1860, in the curious -pre-historic human burial-place at Aurignac (Haute-Garonne). - -Going down the hill on the road leading from Aurignac, after proceeding -about a mile, we come to the point where, on the other side of the dale, -the ridge of the hill called _Fajoles_ rises, not more than 65 feet -above a rivulet. We then may notice, on the northern slope of this -eminence, an escarpment of the rock, by the side of which there is a -kind of niche about six feet deep, the arched opening of it facing -towards the north-west. This little cave is situated forty-two feet -above the rivulet. Below, the calcareous soil slopes down towards the -stream. - -The discovery of this hollow, which is now cleared out, was made -entirely by chance. It was hidden by a mass of _débris_ of rock and -vegetable-earth which had crumbled down; it had, in fact, only been -known as a rabbits' hole. In 1842, an excavating labourer, named -Bonnemaison, took it into his head one day to thrust his arm into this -hole, and out of it he drew forth a large bone. Being rather curious to -search into the mystery, he made an excavation in the slope below the -hole, and, after some hours' labour, came upon a slab of sandstone which -closed up an arched opening. Behind the slab of stone, he discovered a -hollow in which a quantity of human bones were stored up. - -It was not long before the news of this discovery was spread far and -wide. Crowds of curious visitors flocked to the spot, and many -endeavoured to explain the origin of these human remains, the immense -antiquity of which was attested by their excessive fragility. The old -inhabitants of the locality took it into their heads to recall to -recollection a band of coiners and robbers who, half a century before, -had infested the country. This decidedly popular inquest and decision -was judged perfectly satisfactory, and everyone agreed in declaring that -the cavern which had just been brought to light was nothing but the -retreat of these malefactors, who concealed all the traces of their -crimes by hiding the bodies of their victims in this cave, which was -known to these criminals only. - -Doctor Amiel, Mayor of Aurignac, caused all these bones to be collected -together, and they were buried in the parish cemetery. Nevertheless, -before the re-inhumation was proceeded with, he recorded the fact that -the skeletons were those of seventeen individuals of both sexes. In -addition to these skeletons, there were also found in the cave a number -of little discs, or flat rings, formed of the shell of a species of -cockle (_cardium_). Flat rings altogether similar to these are not at -all unfrequent in the necklaces and other ornanments of Assyrian -antiquity found in Nineveh. - -Eighteen years after this event, that is in 1860, M. Édouard Lartet paid -a visit to Aurignac. All the details of the above-named discovery were -related to him. After the long interval which had elapsed, no one, not -even the grave-digger himself, could recollect the precise spot where -these human remains had been buried in the village cemetery. These -precious relics were therefore lost to science. - -M. Lartet resolved, however, to set on foot some excavations in the cave -from which they had been taken, and he soon found himself in possession -of unhoped-for treasures. The floor of the cavern itself had remained -intact, and was covered with a layer of "made ground" mixed with -fragments of stone. Outside this same cave M. Lartet discovered a bed of -ashes and charcoal, which, however, did not extend to the interior. This -bed was covered with "made ground" of an ossiferous and vegetable -character. Inside the cave, the ground contained bones of the bear, the -fox, the reindeer, the bison, the horse, &c., all intermingled with -numerous relics of human industry, such as implements made of stag or -reindeer's-horn, carefully pointed at one end and bevelled off at the -other--a pierced handle of reindeer's-horn--flint knives and weapons of -different kinds; lastly, a canine-tooth of a bear, roughly carved in the -shape of a bird's head and pierced with a hole, &c. - -The excavations, having been carried to a lower level, brought to light -the remains of the bear, the wild-cat, the cave-hyæna, the wolf, the -mammoth, the horse, the stag, the reindeer, the ox, the rhinoceros, &c., -&c. It was, in fact, a complete Noah's ark. These bones were all broken -lengthwise, and some of them were carbonised. _Striæ_ and notches were -found on them, which could only have been made by cutting instruments. - -M. Lartet, after long and patient investigations, came to the conclusion -that the cave of Aurignac was a human burial-place, contemporary with -the mammoth, the _Rhinocerus tichorhinus_, and other great mammals of -the quarternary epoch. - -The mode in which the long bones were broken shows that they had been -cracked with a view of extracting the marrow; and the notches on them -prove that the flesh had been cut off them with sharp instruments. The -ashes point to the existence of a fire, in which some of these bones had -been burnt. Men must have resorted to this cavern in order to fulfil -certain funereal rites. The weapons and animals' bones must have been -deposited there in virtue of some funereal dedication, of which numerous -instances are found in Druidical or Celtic monuments and in Gallic -tombs. - -Such are the valuable discoveries, and such the new facts which were the -result of the investigations made by M. Édouard Lartet in the cave of -Aurignac. In point of fact, they left no doubt whatever as to the -co-existence of man with the great antediluvian animals. - -In 1862, Doctor Felix Garrigou, of Tarrascon, a distinguished geologist, -published the results of the researches which he, in conjunction with -MM. Rames and Filhol, had made in the caverns of Ariége. These explorers -found the lower jaw-bones of the great bear, which, with their sharp and -projecting canine-tooth, had been employed by man as an offensive -weapon, almost in the same way as Samson used the jaw-bone of an ass in -fighting with the Philistines. - -"It was principally," says M. Garrigou, "in the caves of Lombrives, -Lherm, Bouicheta, and Maz-d'Azil that we found the jaw-bones of the -great bear and the cave-lion, which were acknowledged to have been -wrought by the hand of man, not only by us, but also by the numerous -French and English _savants_ who examined them and asked for some of -them to place in their collections. The number of these jaw-bones now -reaches to more than a hundred. Furnished, as they are, with an immense -canine-tooth, and carved so as to give greater facility for grasping -them, they must have formed, when in a fresh state, formidable weapons -in the hands of primitive man.... - -"These animals belong to species which are now extinct, and if their -bones while still in a fresh state (since they were gnawed by hyænas) -were used as weapons, man must have been contemporary with them." - -In the cave of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne), which was visited in 1862 by -MM. Garrigou and Filhol, and other _savants_, there were found, under a -very hard osseous _breccia_, an ancient fire-hearth with ashes and -charcoal, the broken and calcined bones of ruminants of various extinct -species, flint flakes used as knives, facetted nuclei, and both -triangular and quadrangular arrow-heads of great distinctness, utensils -in stags' horn and bone--in short, everything which could prove the -former presence of primitive man. - -About three-quarters of a mile below the cave there was subsequently -found, at a depth of about twenty feet, an osseous _breccia_ similar to -the first, and likewise containing broken bones and a series of ancient -fire-hearths filled with ashes and objects of antediluvian industry. -Bones, teeth, and flints were to be collected in bushels. - -At the commencement of 1863, M. Garrigou presented to the Geological -Society of France the objects which had been found in the caves of Lherm -and Bouicheta, and the Abbé Bourgeois published some remarks on the -wrought flints from the _diluvium_ of Pont-levoy. - -This, therefore, was the position of the question in respect to fossil -man, when in 1863, the scientific world were made acquainted with the -fact of the discovery of a human jaw-bone in the diluvial beds of -Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville. We will relate the circumstances -attending this memorable discovery. - -On the 23rd of March, 1863, an excavator who was working in the -sand-quarries at Moulin-Quignon brought to Boucher de Perthes at -Abbeville, a flint hatchet and a small fragment of bone which he had -just picked up. Having cleaned off the earthy coat which covered it, -Boucher de Perthes recognised this bone to be a human molar. He -immediately visited the spot, and assured himself that the locality -where these objects had been found was an argilo-ferruginous vein, -impregnated with some colouring matter which appeared to contain -organic remains. This layer formed a portion of a _virgin_ bed, as it is -called by geologists, that is, without any infiltration or secondary -introduction. - -On the 28th of March another excavator brought to Boucher de Perthes a -second human tooth, remarking at the same time, "that something -resembling a bone was just then to be seen in the sand." Boucher de -Perthes immediately repaired to the spot, and in the presence of MM. -Dimpré the elder and younger, and several members of the Abbeville -_Société d'Emulation_, he personally extracted from the soil the half of -a human lower jaw-bone, covered with an earthy crust. A few inches from -this, a flint hatchet was discovered, covered with the same black patina -as the jaw-bone. The level where it was found was about fifteen feet -below the surface of the ground. - -After this event was duly announced, a considerable number of geologists -flocked to Abbeville, about the middle of the month of April. The Abbé -Bourgeois, MM. Brady-Buteux, Carpenter, Falconer, &c., came one after -the other, to verify the locality from which the human jaw-bone had been -extracted. All were fully convinced of the intact state of the bed and -the high antiquity of the bone which had been found. - -Boucher de Perthes also discovered in the same bed of gravel two -mammoth's teeth, and a certain number of wrought hatchets. Finally, he -found among the bones which had been taken from the Menchecourt quarries -in the early part of April, a fragment of another jaw-bone and six -separate teeth, which were recognised by Dr. Falconer to be also human. - -The jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon is very well preserved. It is -rather small in size, and appears to have belonged to an aged individual -of small stature. It does not possess that ferocious aspect which is -noticed in the jaw-bones of certain of the existing human races. The -obliquity of the molar-tooth may be explained by supposing some -accident, for the molar which stood next had fallen out during the -lifetime of the individual, leaving a gap which favoured the obliquity -of the tooth which remained in the jaw. This peculiarity is found also -in several of the human heads in the collection of the Museum of Natural -History in Paris. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Human Jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon, near -Abbeville, in 1863.] - -The jaw-bone of the man of Moulin-Quignon, which is represented here -(fig. 1) in its natural size, and drawn from the object itself, which is -preserved in the Anthropological Gallery of the Museum of Natural -History of Paris, does not show any decided points of difference when -compared with those of individuals of existing races. - -The same conclusion was arrived at as the result of the comparative -examination which was made of the jaw-bones found by MM. Lartet and De -Vibraye in the caves of Aurignac and Arcy; the latter remains were -studied by M. Quatrefages in conjunction with Pruner-Bey, formerly -physician to the Viceroy of Egypt, and one of the most distinguished -French anthropologists. - -On the 20th of April, 1863, M. de Quatrefages announced to the institute -the discovery which had been made by Boucher de Perthes, and he -presented to the above-named learned body the interesting object itself, -which had been sent from Abbeville. - -When the news of this discovery arrived in England it produced no slight -sensation. - -Some of the English _savants_ who had more specially devoted their -attention to the study of this question, such as Messrs. Christy, -Falconer, Carpenter, and Busk, went over to France, and in conjunction -with Boucher de Perthes and several members of the Académie des Sciences -of Paris, examined the exact locality in which the hatchets and the -human jaw-bone had been found; they unanimously agreed in recognising -the correctness of the conclusions arrived at by the indefatigable -geologist of Abbeville.[5] - -This discovery of the hatchets and the human jaw-bone in the quaternary -beds of Moulin-Quignon completed the demonstration of an idea already -supported by an important mass of evidence. Setting aside its own -special value, this discovery, added to so many others, could not fail -to carry conviction into most minds. From this time forth the doctrine -of the high antiquity of the human race became an acknowledged idea in -the scientific world. - -Before closing our historical sketch, we shall have to ask, what was the -precise geological epoch to which we shall have to carry back the date -of man's first appearance on this our earth. - -The beds which are anterior to the present period, the series of which -forms the solid crust of our globe, have been divided, as is well known, -into five groups, corresponding to the same number of periods of the -physical development of the earth. These are in their order of age: the -_primitive rocks_, the _transition rocks_, the _secondary rocks_, the -_tertiary_ and _quaternary rocks_. Each of these epochs must have -embraced an immense lapse of time, since it has radically exhausted the -generation both of animals and plants which was peculiar to it. Some -idea may be formed of the extreme slowness with which organic creatures -modify their character, when we take into consideration that our -contemporary _fauna_, that is to say, the collection of animals of every -country which belong to the geological period in which we exist, has -undergone little, if any, alteration during the thousands of years that -it has been in being. - -Is it possible for us to date the appearance of the human race in those -prodigiously-remote epochs which correspond with the primitive, the -transition, or the secondary rocks? Evidently no! Is it possible, -indeed, to fix this date in the epoch of the tertiary rocks? Some -geologists have fancied that they could find traces of the presence of -man in these tertiary rocks (the miocene and pliocene). But this is an -opinion in which we, at least, cannot make up our minds to agree. - -In 1863, M. Desnoyers found in the upper strata of the tertiary beds -(pliocene) at Saint-Prest, in the department of Eure, certain bones -belonging to various extinct animal species; among others those of an -elephant (_Elephas meridionalis_), an animal which did not form a part -of the quaternary _fauna_. On most of these bones he ascertained the -existence of cuts, or notches, which, in his opinion, must have been -produced by flint implements. These indications, according to M. -Desnoyers, are signs of the existence of man in the tertiary epoch. - -This opinion, however, Sir Charles Lyell hesitates to accept. Moreover, -we could hardly depend upon an accident so insignificant as that of a -few cuts or notches made upon a bone, in order to establish a fact so -important as that of the high antiquity of man. We must also state that -it is a matter of question whether the beds which contained these -notched bones really belong to the tertiary group. - -The beds which correspond to the quaternary epoch are, therefore, those -in which we find unexceptionable evidence of the existence of man. -Consequently, in the quaternary epoch which preceded the existing -geological period, we must place the date of the first appearance of -mankind upon the earth. - -If the purpose is entertained of discussing, with any degree of -certainty, the history of the earliest days of the human race--a subject -which as yet is a difficult one--it is requisite that the long interval -should be divided into a certain number of periods. The science of -primitive man is one so recently entered upon, that those authors who -have written upon the point can hardly be said to have properly -discussed and agreed upon a rational scheme of classification. We shall, -in this work, adopt the classification proposed by M. Édouard Lartet, -which, too, has been adopted in that portion of the museum of -Saint-Germain which is devoted to pre-historic antiquities. Following -this course, we shall divide the history of primitive mankind into two -great periods: - -1st. The Stone Age; - -2nd. The Metal Age. - -These two principal periods must also be subdivided in the following -mode. The "Stone Age" will embrace three epochs: - -1st. The epoch of extinct animals (or of the great cave-bear and the -mammoth). - -2nd. The epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer epoch). - -3rd. The epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the polished-stone -epoch). - -The "Metal Age" may also be divided into two periods: - -1st. The Bronze Epoch; - -2nd. The Iron Epoch. - -The following synoptical table will perhaps bring more clearly before -the eyes of our readers this mode of classification, which has, at -least, the merit of enabling us to make a clear and simple statement of -the very incongruous facts which make up the history of primitive man: - - { 1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear - { and mammoth). - THE STONE AGE. { 2nd. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the - { reindeer epoch). - { 3rd. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the - { polished-stone epoch). - - THE METAL AGE. { 1st. The Bronze Epoch. - { 2nd. The Iron Epoch. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] 'Nouvelles Recherches sur la Coexistence de l'Homme et des grands -Mammifères Fossiles réputés charactéristiques de la dernière période -Géologique,' by Éd. Lartet, 'Annales des Sciences Naturelles,' 4th ser. -vol. xv. p. 256. - -[2] 1 vol. 8vo., Paris, 1869; V. Palme. - -[3] 2 vols. 12mo., 3rd edit., Paris, 1859; Lagny frères. - -[4] Pamphlet, 8vo., Paris, 1869; Savy. - -[5] It should rather have been said, that the ultimate and -well-considered judgment of the English geologists was against the -authenticity of the Moulin-Quignon jaw.--See Dr. Falconer's -'Palæontological Memoirs,' vol. ii. p. 610; and Sir C. Lyell's -'Antiquity of Man,' 3rd ed. p. 515. (Note to Eng. Trans.) - - - - -THE STONE AGE. - - - - -I. - - -THE EPOCH OF EXTINCT SPECIES OF ANIMALS; OR, OF -THE GREAT BEAR AND MAMMOTH. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - The earliest Men--The type of Man in the Epoch of Animals of - extinct Species--Origin of Man--Refutation of the Theory which - derives the Human Species from the Ape. - - -Man must have lived during the time in which the last representatives of -the ancient animal creation--the mammoth, the great bear, the -cave-hyæna, the _Rhinoceros tichorinus_, &c.--were still in existence. -It is this earliest period of man's history which we are now about to -enter upon. - -We have no knowledge of a precise nature with regard to man at the -period of his first appearance on the globe. How did he appear upon the -earth, and in what spot can we mark out the earliest traces of him? Did -he first come into being in that part of the world which we now call -Europe, or is it the fact that he made his way to this quarter of our -hemisphere, having first seen the light on the great plateaux of Central -Asia? - -This latter opinion is the one generally accepted. In the work which -will follow the present volume we shall see, when speaking of the -various races of man, that the majority of naturalists admit nowadays -one common centre of creation for all mankind. Man, no doubt, first came -into being on the great plateaux of Central Asia, and thence was -distributed over all the various habitable portions of our globe. The -action of climate and the influences of the locality which he inhabited -have, therefore, determined the formation of the different races--white, -black, yellow, and red--which now exist with all their infinite -subdivisions. - -But there is another question which arises, to which it is necessary to -give an immediate answer, for it has been and is incessantly agitated -with a degree of vehemence which may be explained by the nature of the -discussion being of so profoundly personal a character as regards all of -us: Was man created by God complete in all parts, and is the human type -independent of the type of the animals which existed before him? Or, on -the contrary, are we compelled to admit that man, by insensible -transformations, and gradual improvements and developments, is derived -from some other animal species, and particularly that of the ape? - -This latter opinion was maintained at the commencement of the present -century by the French naturalist, de Lamarck, who laid down his views -very plainly in his work entitled 'Philosophie Zoologique.' The same -theory has again been taken up in our own time, and has been developed, -with no small supply of facts on which it might appear to be based, by a -number of scientific men, among whom we may mention Professor Carl Vogt -in Switzerland, and Professor Huxley in England. - -We strongly repudiate any doctrine of this kind. In endeavouring to -establish the fact that man is nothing more than a developed and -improved ape, an orang-outang or a gorilla, somewhat elevated in -dignity, the arguments are confined to an appeal to anatomical -considerations. The skull of the ape is compared with that of primitive -man, and certain characteristics of analogy, more or less real, being -found to exist between the two bony cases, the conclusion has been -arrived at that there has been a gradual blending between the type of -the ape and that of man. - -We may observe, in the first place, that these analogies have been very -much exaggerated, and that they fail to stand their ground in the face -of a thorough examination of the facts. Only look at the skulls which -have been found in the tombs belonging to the stone age, the so-called -_Borreby skull_ for instance--examine the human jaw-bone from -Moulin-Quignon, the Meilen skull, &c., and you will be surprised to see -that they differ very little in appearance from the skulls of existing -man. One would really imagine, from what is said by the partisans of -Lamarck's theory, that primitive man possessed the projecting jaw of the -ape, or at least that of the negro. We are astonished, therefore, when -we ascertain that, on the contrary, the skull of the man of the stone -age is almost entirely similar in appearance to those of the existing -Caucasian species. Special study is, indeed, required in order to -distinguish one from the other. - -If we place side by side the skull of a man belonging to the Stone Age, -and the skulls of the principal apes of large size, these -dissimilarities cannot fail to be obvious. No other elements of -comparison, beyond merely looking at them, seem to be requisite to -enable us to refute the doctrine of this debased origin of mankind. - -The figure annexed represents the skull of a man belonging to the stone -age, found in Denmark; to this skull, which is known by the name of the -Borreby skull, we shall have to allude again in the course of the -present work; fig. 3 represents the skull of a gorilla; fig. 4 that of -an orang-outang; fig. 5 that of the _Cynocephalus_ ape; fig. 6 that of -the _Macacus_. Place the representation of the skull found in Denmark in -juxtaposition with these ill-favoured animal masks, and then let the -reader draw his own inference, without pre-occupying his mind with the -allegations of certain anatomists imbued with contrary ideas. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Skull of a Man belonging to the Stone Age (the -_Borreby Skull_).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Skull of the Gorilla.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Skull of the Orang-Outang.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Skull of the Cynocephalus Ape.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Skull of the _Macacus_ Baboon.] - -Finding themselves beaten as regards the skulls, the advocates of -transmutation next appeal to the bones. With this aim, they exhibit to -us certain similarities of arrangement existing between the skeleton of -the ape and that of primitive man. Such, for instance, is the -longitudinal ridge which exists on the thigh-bone, which is as prominent -in primitive man as in the ape. Such, also, is the fibula, which is very -stout in primitive man, just as in the ape, but is rather slender in the -man of the present period. - -When we are fully aware how the form of the skeleton is modified by the -kind of life which is led, in men just as in animals, we cannot be -astonished at finding that certain organs assume a much higher -development in those individuals who put them to frequent and violent -use, than in others who leave these same organs in a state of -comparative repose. - -If it be a fact that the man of the epoch of the great bear and the -mammoth had a more robust leg, and a more largely developed thigh-bone -than most of the races of existing man, the reason simply is, that his -savage life, which was spent in the midst of the wild beasts of the -forest, compelled him to make violent exertions, which increased the -size of these portions of his body. - -Thus it is found that great walkers have a bulky calf, and persons -leading a sedentary life have slender legs. These variations in the -structure of the skeleton are owing, therefore, to nothing but a -difference in the mode of life. - -Why is it, however, that the skeleton is the only point taken into -consideration when analogies are sought for between man and any species -of animal? If equal investigation were given to other organs, we should -arrive at a conclusion which would prove how unreasonable comparisons of -this kind are. In fact, if man possesses the osseous structure of the -ape, he has also the anatomical structure of many other animals, as far -as regards several organs. Are not the viscera of the digestive system -the same, and are they not organised on the same plan in man as in the -carnivorous animals? As the result of this, would you say that man is -derived from the tiger, that he is nothing but an improved and developed -lion, a cat transmuted into a man? We may, however, just as plausibly -draw this inference, unless we content ourselves with devoting our -attention to the skeleton alone, which seems, indeed, to be the only -part of the individual in which we are to interest ourselves, for what -reason we know not. - -But, in point of fact, this kind of anatomy is pitiable. Is there -nothing in man but bones? Do the skeleton and the viscera make up the -entire sum of the human being? What will you say, then, ye blind -rhetoricians, about the faculty of intelligence as manifested in the -gift of speech? Intelligence and speech, these are really the attributes -which constitute man; these are the qualities which make him the most -complete being in creation, and the most privileged of God's creatures. -Show me an ape who can speak, and then I will agree with you in -recognising it as a fact that man is nothing but an improved ape! Show -me an ape who can make flint hatchets and arrow-heads, who can light a -fire and cook his food, who, in short, can act like an intelligent -creature--then, and then only, I am ready to confess that I am nothing -more than an orang-outang revised and corrected. - -It is not, however, our desire to speak of a question which has been the -subject of so much controversy as that of the anatomical resemblance -between the ape and the man without thoroughly entering into it; we -have, indeed, no wish to shun the discussion of the point. On the -present occasion, we shall appeal to the opinion of a _savant_ perfectly -qualified in such matters; we allude to M. de Quatrefages, Professor of -Anthropology in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. - -M. de Quatrefages, in his work entitled 'Rapport sur le Progrès de -l'Anthropologie,' published in 1868, has entered rather fully into the -question whether man is descended from the ape or not. He has summed up -the contents of a multitude of contemporary works on this subject, and -has laid down his opinion--the perfect impossibility, in an anatomical -point of view, of this strange and repugnant genealogy. - -The following extract from his work will be sufficient to make our -readers acquainted with the ideas of the learned Professor of -Anthropology with regard to the question which we are now considering: - -"Man and apes in general," says M. de Quatrefages, "present a most -striking contrast--a contrast on which Vicq-d'Azyr, Lawrence, and M. -Serres have dwelt in detail for some considerable time past. The former -is a _walking animal_, who walks upon his hind legs; all apes are -_climbing animals_. The whole of the locomotive system in the two groups -bears the stamp of these two very different intentions; the two types, -in fact, are perfectly distinct. - -"The very remarkable works of Duvernoy on the 'Gorilla,' and of MM. -Gratiolet and Alix on the 'Chimpanzee,' have fully confirmed this result -as regards the anthropomorphous apes--a result very important, from -whatever point of view it is looked at, but of still greater value to -any one who wishes to apply _logically_ Darwin's idea. These recent -investigations prove, in fact, that the ape type, however highly it may -be developed, loses nothing of its fundamental character, and remains -always perfectly distinct from the type of man; the latter, therefore, -cannot have taken its rise from the former. - -"Darwin's doctrine, when rationally adapted to the fact of the -appearance of man, would lead us to the following results: - -"We are acquainted with a large number of terms in the Simian series. We -see it branching out into secondary series all leading up to -anthropomorphous apes, which are not members of one and the same family, -but corresponding superior _terms_ of three distinct families -(Gratiolet). In spite of the secondary modifications involved by the -developments of the same natural qualities, the orang, the gorilla, and -the chimpanzee remain none the less fundamentally mere _apes_ and -_climbers_ (Duvernoy, Gratiolet, and Alix). Man, consequently, in whom -everything shows that he is a _walker_, cannot belong to any one of -these series; he can only be the higher term of a distinct series, the -other representatives of which have disappeared, or, up to the present -time, have evaded our search. Man and the anthropomorphous apes are the -final terms of two series, which commence to diverge at the very latest -as soon as the lowest of the apes appear upon the earth. - -"This is really the way in which a true disciple of Darwin must reason, -even if he solely took into account the _external morphological -characteristics_ and the _anatomical characteristics_ which are the -expression of the former in the adult animal. - -"Will it be said that when the degree of organisation manifested in the -anthropomorphous apes had been once arrived at, the organism underwent a -new impulse and became adapted for walking? This would be, in fact, -adding a fresh hypothesis, and its promoters would not be in a position -to appeal to the organised gradation presented by the quadrumanous order -as a whole on which stress is laid as leading to the conclusion against -which I am contending: they would be completely outside _Darwin's -theory_, on which these opinions claim to be based. - -"Without going beyond these purely morphological considerations, we may -place, side by side, for the sake of comparison, as was done by M. -Pruner-Bey, the most striking general characteristics in man and in the -anthropomorphous apes. As the result, we ascertain this general -fact--that there exists 'an _inverse order_ of the final term of -development in the sensitive and vegetative apparatus, in the systems of -locomotion and reproduction' (Pruner-Bey). - -"In addition to this, this _inverse order_ is equally exhibited in the -series of phenomena of individual development. - -"M. Pruner-Bey has shown that this is the case with a portion of the -permanent teeth. M. Welker, in his curious studies of the sphenoïdal -angle of Virchow, arrived at a similar result. He demonstrated that the -modifications of the base of the skull, that is, of a portion of the -skeleton which stands in the most intimate relation to the brain, take -place inversely in the man and ape. This angle diminishes from his birth -in man, but, on the contrary, in the ape it becomes more and more -obtuse, so as sometimes to become entirely extinct. - -"But there is also another fact which is of a still more important -character: it is that this inverse course of development has been -ascertained to exist even in the brain itself. This fact, which was -pointed out by Gratiolet, and dwelt upon by him on various occasions, -has never been contested either at the _Société d'Anthropologie_ or -elsewhere, and possesses an importance and significance which may be -readily comprehended. - -"In man and the anthropomorphous ape, _when in an adult state_, there -exists in the mode of arrangement of the cerebral folds a certain -similarity on which much stress has been laid; but this resemblance has -been, to some extent, a source of error, for the result is attained by -an _inverse course of action_. In the ape, the temporo-sphenoïdal -convolutions, which form the middle lobe, make their appearance, and are -completed, before the anterior convolutions which form the frontal lobe. -In man, on the contrary, the frontal convolutions are the first to -appear, and those of the middle lobe are subsequently developed. - -"It is evident that when two organised beings follow an inverse course -in their growth, the more highly developed of the two cannot have -descended from the other by means of evolution. - -"Embryology next adds its evidence to that of anatomy and morphology, to -show how much in error they are who have fancied that Darwin's ideas -would afford them the means of maintaining the simial origin of man. - -"In the face of all these facts, it may be easily understood that -anthropologists, however little in harmony they may sometimes be on -other points, are agreed on this, and have equally been led to the -conclusion that there is nothing that permits us to look at the brain of -the ape as the brain of man smitten with an arrest of development, or, -on the other hand, the brain of man as a development of that of the ape -(Gratiolet); that the study of animal organism in general, and that of -the extremities in particular, reveals, in addition to a general plan, -certain differences in shape and arrangement which specify two -altogether special and distinct adaptations, and are incompatible with -the idea of any filiation (Gratiolet and Alix); that in their course of -improvement and development, apes do not tend to become allied to man, -and conversely the human type, when in a course of degradation, does not -tend to become allied to the ape (Bert); finally, that no possible point -of transition can exist between man and the ape, unless under the -condition of inverting the laws of development (Pruner-Bey), &c. - -"What, we may ask, is brought forward by the partisans of the simial -origin of man in opposition to these general facts, which here I must -confine myself to merely pointing out, and to the multitude of details -of which these are only the abstract? - -"I have done my best to seek out the proofs alleged, but I everywhere -meet with nothing but the same kind of argument--exaggerations of -morphological similarities which no one denies; inferences drawn from a -few exceptional facts which are then generalised upon, or from a few -coincidences in which the relations of cause and effect are a matter of -supposition; lastly, an appeal to _possibilities_ from which conclusions -of a more or less affirmative character are drawn. - -"We will quote a few instances of this mode of reasoning. - -"1st. The bony portion of the hand of man and of that of certain -anthropomorphous apes present marked similarities. Would it not -therefore have been possible for an almost imperceptible modification to -have ultimately led to identity? - -"MM. Gratiolet and Alix reply to this in the negative; for the muscular -system of the thumb establishes a profound difference, and testifies to -an _adaptation_ to very different uses. - -"2nd. It is only in man and the anthropomorphous apes that the -articulation of the shoulder is so arranged as to allow of rotatory -movements. Have we not here an unmistakable resemblance? - -"The above-named anatomists again reply in the negative; for even if we -only take the bones into account, we at once see that the movements -could not be the same; but when we come to the muscular system, we find -decisive differences again testifying to certain special _adaptations_. - -"These rejoinders are correct, for when _locomotion_ is the matter in -question, it is evident that due consideration must be paid to the -muscles, which are the active agents in that function at least as much -as the bones, which only serve as points of attachment and are only -passive. - -"3rd. In some of the races of man, the arch of the skull, instead of -presenting a uniform curve in the transverse direction, bends a little -towards the top of the two sides, and rises towards the median line (New -Caledonians, Australians, &c.). It is asked if this is not a preliminary -step towards the bony crests which rise in this region in some of the -anthropomorphous apes? - -"Again we reply in the negative; for, in the latter, the bony crests -arise from the walls of the skull, and do not form any part of the arch. - -"4th. Is it not very remarkable that we find the orang to be -brachycephalous, just like the Malay, whose country it inhabits, and -that the gorilla and chimpanzee are dolichocephalous like the negro? Is -not this fact a reason for our regarding the former animal as the -ancestor of the Malays, and the latter of the African nations? - -"Even if the facts brought forward were correct, the inference which is -drawn from them would be far from satisfactory. But the coincidence -which is appealed to does not exist. In point of fact, the orang, which -is essentially a native of Borneo, lives among the Dyaks and not among -the Malays; now the Dyaks are rather dolichocephalous than -brachycephalous. With respect to gorillas being dolichocephalous, they -cannot at least be so generally; as out of _three_ female specimens of -this ape which were examined, two were brachycephalous (Pruner-Bey). - -"5th. The brains of microcephalous individuals present a mixture of -human and simial characteristics, and point to some intermediate -conformation, which was normal at some anterior epoch, but at the -present time is only realised by an arrest of development and a fact of -atavism. - -"Gratiolet's investigations of the brain of the ape, normal man and -small-brained individuals, have shown that the similarities pointed out -are purely fallacious. People have thought that they could detect them, -simply because they have not examined closely enough. In the last named, -the human brain is simplified; but this causes no alteration in the -_initial plan_, and this plan is not that which is ascertained to exist -in the ape. Thus Gratiolet has expressed an opinion which no one has -attempted to controvert: 'The human brain differs the more from that of -the ape the less the former is developed, and an arrest of development -could only exaggerate this natural difference.... The brains of -microcephalous individuals, although often less voluminous and less -convoluted than those of the anthropomorphous apes, do not on this -account become like the latter.... The idiot, however low he may be -reduced, is not a beast; he is nothing but a deteriorated man.' - -"The laws of the development of the brain in the two types, laws which I -mentioned before, explain and justify this language; and the laws of -which it is the summary are a formal refutation of the comparison which -some have attempted to make between the _contracted human brain_, and -the _animal brain, however developed_. - -"6th. The excavations which have been made in intact ancient beds have -brought to light skulls of ancient races of man, and these skulls -present characteristics which approximate them to the skull of the ape. -Does not this pithecoïd stamp, which is very striking on the Neanderthal -skull in particular, argue a transition from one type to another, and -consequently _filiation_? - -"This argument is perhaps the only one which has been brought forward -with any degree of precision, and it is often recurred to. Is it, on -this account, more demonstrative? Let the reader judge for himself. - -"We may, in the first place, remark that Sir C. Lyell does not venture -to pronounce affirmatively as to the high antiquity of the human remains -discovered by Dr. Fuhlrott, and that he looked upon them, at the most, -as contemporary with the Engis skull, in which the Caucasian type of -head was reproduced. - -"Let us, however, admit that the Neanderthal skull belongs to the remote -antiquity to which it has been assigned; what, then, is in reality the -significance of this skull? Is it actually a link between the head of -the man and that of the ape? And does it not find some analogy in -comparatively modern races? - -"Many writings have been published on these questions, and, as it -appears to me, some light has gradually been thrown upon the subject. -There is no doubt that this skull is really remarkable for the enormous -size of its superciliary ridges, the length and narrowness of the bony -case, the slight elevation of the top of the skull. But these features -are found to be much less exceptional than was at first supposed, in -default of any means of instituting a just comparison; very far, indeed, -from justifying the approximation which some have endeavoured to make, -this skull is, in all its characteristics, essentially human. Mr. Busk, -in England, has pointed out the great affinity which is established, by -the prominence of the superciliary ridges and the depression of the -upper region, between certain Danish skulls from Borreby and the -Neanderthal skull. Dr. Barnard Davis has described the still greater -similarities existing between this very _fossil_ and a skull in his -collection. Gratiolet forwarded to the Museum the skull of an idiot of -the present time, which was almost identical with it in everything, -although in slighter proportions, &c. - -"The following appears to me to be decisive: - -"In spite of its curious characteristics, the Neanderthal skull none the -less belonged to an individual, who, to judge by other bones which have -been found, diverged but little from the average type of the present -Germanic races, and by no means approximated to that of the ape. - -"Is it probable, proceeding even on the class of ideas which I am -opposing, that in a being in a state of transition between man and the -anthropomorphous apes, the body would have become entirely human in its -character, whilst the head presented its simial peculiarities? If a fact -like this is admitted, does it not render the hypothesis absolutely -worthless? - -"Notwithstanding all the discussion to which these curious remains have -given rise, it appears to me impossible to look upon them in any other -light than as the remains of an individuality, exceptional, no doubt, -but clearly belonging to the human species, and, in addition to this, to -the Celtic race, one of the branches of our Aryan stock. M. Pruner-Bey -appears to me to have placed this fact beyond all question by the whole -mass of investigations which he has published on this subject. The most -convincing proofs are based on the very great similarity which may be -noticed in a Celtic skull taken from a tumulus in Poitou to the skull -which has become so well known and, indeed, so celebrated owing to the -writings of Doctor Schaaffhausen. This similarity is not merely -external. An internal cast taken from one skull fits perfectly into the -interior of the other. It was, therefore, the _brains_ and not merely -the _skulls_ which bore a resemblance to one another. The proof appears -to me to be complete, and, with the learned author of this work, I feel -no hesitation in concluding that the Neanderthal skull is one of Celtic -origin. - -"After all, neither experience nor observation have as yet furnished us -with the slightest data with regard to man at his earliest origin. -Science, therefore, which pretends to solidity of character, must put -this problem on one side till fresh information is obtained. We really -approach nearer to the truth when we confess our ignorance than when we -attempt to disguise it either to ourselves or others. - -"With regard to the simial origin of man, it is nothing but pure -hypothesis, or rather nothing but a mere _jeu d'esprit_ which everything -proves utterly baseless, and in favour of which no solid fact has as yet -been appealed to." - -In dealing with this question in a more general point of view, we must -add that the most enlightened science declares to us in unmistakable -accents, that species is immutable, and that no animal species can be -derived from another; they may change, but all bear witness to an -independent creation. This truth, which has been developed at length by -M. de Quatrefages in his numerous works, is a definitive and scientific -judgment which must decide this question as far as regards any -unprejudiced minds. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - Man in the condition of Savage Life during the Quaternary - Epoch--The Glacial Period, and its Ravages on the Primitive - Inhabitants of the Globe--Man in Conflict with the Animals of the - Quaternary Epoch--The Discovery of Fire--The Weapons of Primitive - Man--Varieties of Flint-hatchets--Manufacture of the earliest - Pottery--Ornamental objects at the Epoch of the Great Bear and the - Mammoth. - - -After this dissertation, which was necessary to confute the theory which -gives such a degrading explanation of our origin, we must contemplate -man at the period when he was first placed upon the earth, weak and -helpless, in the midst of the inclement and wild nature which surrounded -him. - -However much our pride may suffer by the idea, we must confess that, at -the earliest period of his existence, man could have been but little -distinguished from the brute. Care for his natural wants must have -absorbed his whole being; all his efforts must have tended to one sole -aim--that of insuring his daily subsistence. - -At first, his only food must have been fruits and roots; for he had not -as yet invented any weapon wherewith to destroy wild animals. If he -succeeded in killing any creatures of small size he devoured them in a -raw state, and made a covering of their skins to shelter himself against -the inclemency of the weather. His pillow was a stone, his roof was the -shadow of a wide-spreading tree, or some dark cavern which also served -as a refuge against wild beasts. - -For how many ages did this miserable state last? No one can tell. Man is -an improvable being, and indefinite progress is the law of his -existence. Improvement is his supreme attribute; and this it is which -gives him the pre-eminence over all the creatures which surround him. -But how wavering must have been his first steps in advance, and how many -efforts must have been given to the earliest creation of his mind and -to the first work of his hands--doubtless some shapeless attempt in -which we nowadays, perhaps, should have some difficulty in recognising -the work of any intelligent being! - -Towards the commencement of the quaternary epoch, a great natural -phenomenon took place in Europe. Under the influence of numerous and -varied causes, which up to the present time have not been fully -recognised, a great portion of Europe became covered with ice, on the -one hand, making its way from the poles down to the most southern -latitudes, and, on the other, descending into the plains from the -summits of the highest mountain chains. Ice and ice-fields assumed a -most considerable extension. As all the lower parts of the continent -were covered by the sea, there were only a few plateaux which could -afford a refuge to man and animals flying from this deadly cold. Such -was the _Glacial Period_, which produced the annihilation of so many -generations of animals, and must have equally affected man himself, so -ill-defended against this universal and sudden winter. - -Man, however, was enabled to resist the attacks of revolted nature. -Without doubt, in this unhappy period, he must have made but little -progress, even if his intellectual development were not completely -stopped. At all events, the human species did not perish. The glacial -period came to an end, the ice-fields shrank back to their original -limits, and Nature reassumed its primitive aspect. - -When the ice had gradually retired into the more northern latitudes, and -had become confined to the higher summits, a new generation of -animals--another _fauna_, as naturalists call it--made its appearance on -the globe. This group of animals, which had newly come into being, -differed much from those that had disappeared in the glacial cataclysm. -Let us cast an inquiring glance on these strange and now extinct -creatures. - -First we have the mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_), or the woolly-haired -and maned elephant, carcases of which were found, entire and in good -preservation, in the ice on the coasts of Siberia. Next comes the -rhinoceros with a complete nasal septum (_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_), -likewise clad in a warm and soft fur, the nose of which is surmounted -with a remarkable pair of horns. Then follow several species of the -hippopotamus, which come as far north as the rivers of England and -Russia; a bear of great size inhabiting caverns (_Ursus spelæus_), and -presenting a projecting forehead and a large-sized skull; the cave lion -or tiger (_Felis spelæa_), which much surpassed in strength the same -animals of the existing species; various kinds of hyænas (_Hyæna -spelæa_), much stronger than those of our epoch; the bison or aurochs -(_Biso europæus_), which still exists in Poland; the great ox, the Urus -of the ancients (_Bos primigenius_); the gigantic Irish elk (_Megaceros -hibernicus_), the horns of which attained to surprising dimensions. -Other animals made their appearance at the same epoch, but they are too -numerous to mention; among them were some of the Rodent family. Almost -all these species are now extinct, but man certainly existed in the -midst of them. - -The mammoth, elephant, rhinoceros, stag, and hippopotamus were then in -the habit of roaming over Europe in immense herds, just as some of these -animals still do in the interior of Africa. These animals must have had -their favourite haunts--spots where they assembled together in -thousands; or else it would be difficult to account for the countless -numbers of bones which are found accumulated at the same spot. - -Before these formidable bands, man could dream of nothing but flight. It -was only with some isolated animal that he could dare to engage in a -more or less unequal conflict. Farther on in our work, we shall see how -he began to fabricate some rough weapons, with a view of attacking his -mighty enemies. - -The first important step which man made in the path of progress was the -acquisition of fire. In all probability, man came to the knowledge of it -by accident, either by meeting with some substance which had been set on -fire by lightning or volcanic heat, or by the friction of pieces of wood -setting a light to some very inflammable matter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--The Production of Fire.] - -In order to obtain fire, man of the quaternary epoch may have employed -the same means as those made use of by the American aborigines, at the -time when Christopher Columbus first fell in with them on the shores of -the New World--means which savage nations existing at the present day -still put in practice. He rubbed two pieces of dry wood one against the -other, or turned round and round with great rapidity a stick sharpened -to a point, having placed the end of it in a hole made in the trunk of a -very dry tree (fig. 7). - -As among the savages of the present day we find certain elementary -mechanisms adapted to facilitate the production of fire, it is not -impossible that these same means were practised at an early period of -the human race. It would take a considerable time to set light to two -pieces of dry wood by merely rubbing them against one another; but if a -bow be made use of, that is, the chord of an arc fixed firmly on a -handle, so as to give a rapid revolution to a cylindrical rod of wood -ending in a point which entered into a small hole made in a board, the -board may be set on fire in a few minutes. Such a mode of obtaining fire -may have been made use of by the men who lived in the same epoch with -the mammoth and other animals, the species of which are now extinct. - -The first rudiments of combustion having been obtained, so as to serve, -during the daytime, for the purposes of warmth and cooking food, and -during the night, for giving light, how was the fire to be kept up? Wood -from the trees that grew in the district, or from those which were cast -up by the currents of the rivers or sea; inflammable mineral oils; resin -obtained from coniferous trees; the fat and grease of wild animals; oil -extracted from the great cetaceans;--all these substances must have -assisted in maintaining combustion, for the purposes both of warmth and -light. The only fuel which the Esquimaux of the present day have either -to warm their huts or light them during the long nights of their gloomy -climate, is the oil of the whale and seal, which, burnt in a lamp with a -short wick, serves both to cook their food and also to warm and illumine -their huts. - -Even, nowadays, in the Black Forest (Duchy of Baden), instead of -candles, long splinters of very dry beech are sometimes made use of, -which are fixed in a horizontal position at one end and lighted at the -other. This forms an economical lamp, which is really not to be -despised. - -We have also heard of the very original method which is resorted to by -the inhabitants of the Faroe Isles in the northern seas of Europe, in -order to warm and light up their huts. This method consists in taking -advantage of the fat and greasy condition of the young Stormy Petrel -(Mother Carey's Chicken), so as to convert its body into a regular -lamp. All that is necessary is to draw a wick through its body, -projecting at the beak, which when lighted causes this really animal -candle to throw out an excellent light until the last greasy morsel of -the bird is consumed. - -This bird is also used by the natives of the Isles as a natural fuel to -keep up their fires and cook other birds. - -Whatever may have been the means which were made use of by primitive man -in order to procure fire, either the simple friction of two pieces of -wood one against the other, continued for a long time, the _bow_, or -merely a stick turning round rapidly by the action of the hand, without -any kind of mechanism--it is certain that the acquisition of fire must -be classed amongst the most beautiful and valuable discoveries which -mankind has made. Fire must have put an end to the weariness of the long -nights. In the presence of fire, the darkness of the holes and caverns -in which man made his first retreat, must have vanished away. With the -aid of fire, the most rigorous climates became habitable, and the damp -which impregnated the body of man or his rough garments, made of the -skin of the bear or some long-haired ruminant, could be evaporated. With -fire near them, the danger arising from ferocious beasts must have much -diminished; for a general instinct leads wild animals to dread the light -and the heat of a fire. Buried, as they were, in the midst of forests -infested with wild beasts, primitive men might, by means of a fire kept -alight during the night, sleep in peace without being disturbed by the -attacks of the huge wild beasts which prowled about all round them. - -Fire, too, gave the first starting-point to man's industry. It afforded -means to the earliest inhabitants of the earth for felling trees, for -procuring charcoal, for hardening wood for the manufacture of their -rudimentary implements, and for baking their primitive pottery. - -Thus, as soon as man had at his disposal the means for producing -artificial heat, his position began to improve, and the kindly flame of -the hearth became the first centre round which the family circle was -constituted. - -Ere long man felt the need of strengthening his natural powers against -the attacks of wild beasts. At the same time he desired to be able to -make his prey some of the more peaceable animals, such as the stag, the -smaller kinds of ruminants, and the horse. Then it was that he began to -manufacture weapons. - -He had remarked, spread about the surface of the ground, certain flints, -with sharp corners and cutting edges. These he gathered up, and by the -means of other stones of a rather tougher nature, he broke off from them -pieces, which he fashioned roughly in the shape of a hatchet or hammer. -He fixed these splinters into split sticks, by way of a handle, and -firmly bound them in their places with the tendons of an animal or the -strong stalks of some dried plant. With this weapon, he could, if he -pleased, strike his prey at a distance. - -When man had invented the bow and chipped out flint arrow-heads, he was -enabled to arrest the progress of the swiftest animal in the midst of -his flight. - -Since the time when the investigations with regard to primitive man have -been set on foot in all countries, and have been energetically -prosecuted, enormous quantities have been found of these chipped flints, -arrow-heads, and various stone implements, which archæologists designate -by the common denomination of _hatchets_, in default of being able, in -some cases, to distinguish the special use for which they had been -employed. Before going any further, it will be necessary to enter into -some details with regard to these flint implements--objects which are -altogether characteristic of the earliest ages of civilisation. - -For a long time past chipped stones of a somewhat similar character have -been met with here and there in several countries, sometimes on the -surface of, and sometimes buried deeply in, the ground; but no one -understood what their significance was. If the common people ever -distinguished them from ordinary stones, they attached to them some -superstitious belief. Sometimes they called them "thunder-stones," -because they attributed to them the power of preserving from lightning -those who were in possession of them. It was not until the middle of the -present century that naturalists and archæologists began to comprehend -the full advantage which might be derived from the examination of these -chipped stones, in reconstructing the lineaments of the earliest of the -human race and in penetrating, up to a certain point, into their -manners, customs, and industry. These stone-hatchets and arrow-heads -are, therefore, very plentiful in the present day in collections of -antiquities and cabinets of natural history. - -Most of these objects which are found in Europe are made of flint, and -this circumstance may be easily explained. Flint must have been -preferred as a material, on account both of its hardness and its mode of -cleavage, which may be so readily adapted to the will of the workman. -One hard blow, skilfully applied, is sufficient to break off, by the -mere shock, a sharp-edged flake of a blade-like shape. These sharp-edged -blades of silex might serve as knives. Certainly they would not last -long in use, for they are very easily notched; but primitive men must -have been singularly skilful in making them. - -Although the shapes of these stone implements are very varied, they may -all be classed under a certain number of prevailing types; and these -types are to be found in very different countries. The flint hatchets -are at first very simple although irregular in their shape; but they -gradually manifest a much larger amount of talent exhibited in their -manufacture, and a better judgment is shown in adapting them to the -special uses for which they were intended. The progress of the human -intellect is written in ineffaceable characters on these tablets of -stone, which, defended as they were, by a thick layer of earth, bid -defiance to the injuries of time. - -Let us not despise these first and feeble efforts of our primitive -forefathers, for they mark the date of the starting-point of -manufactures and the arts. If the men of the stone age had not -persevered in their efforts, we, their descendants, should never have -possessed either our palaces or our masterpieces of painting and -sculpture. As Boucher de Perthes says, "The first man who struck one -pebble against another to make some requisite alteration in its form, -gave the first blow of the chisel which has resulted in producing the -Minerva and all the sculpture of the Parthenon." - -Archæologists who have devoted their energies to investigating the -earliest monuments of human industry, have found it necessary to be on -their guard against certain errors, or rather wilful deceptions, which -might readily pervert their judgment and deprive their discoveries of -all character of authenticity. There is, in fact, a certain class of -persons engaged in a deceptive manufacture who have taken a delight in -misleading archæologists by fabricating apocryphal flint and stone -implements, in which they drive a rather lucrative trade. They assert, -without the least scruple, the high antiquity of their productions, -which they sell either to inexperienced amateurs, who are pleased to put -them in their collections duly labelled and ticketed, or--which is a -more serious matter--to workmen who are engaged in making excavations in -fossiliferous beds. These workmen hide the fictitious specimens in the -soil they are digging, using every requisite precaution so as to have -the opportunity of subsequently extracting them and fingering a reward -for them from some too trusting naturalist. These imitations are, -moreover, so cleverly made, that it sometimes requires well-practised -eyes to recognise them; but they may be recognised with some degree of -facility by the following characteristics:-- - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--_Dendrites_ or Crystallisations found on the -surface of wrought Flints.] - -The ancient flints present a glassy surface which singularly contrasts -with the dull appearance of the fresh cleavages. They are also for the -most part covered with a whitish coating or _patina_, which is nothing -but a thin layer of carbonate of lime darkened in colour by the action -of time. Lastly, many of these flints are ornamented with branching -crystallisations, called _dendrites_, which form on their surface very -delicate designs of a dark brown; these are owing to the combined action -of the oxides of iron and manganese (fig. 8). - -We must add that these flint implements often assume the colour of the -soil in which they have been buried for so many centuries; and as Mr. -Prestwich, a learned English geologist, well remarks, this agreement in -colour indicates that they have remained a very considerable time in the -stratum which contains them. - -Among the stone implements of primitive ages, some are found in a state -of perfect preservation, which clearly bears witness to their almost -unused state; others, on the contrary, are worn, rounded, and blunted, -sometimes because they have done good service in bygone days, and -sometimes because they have been many times rolled over and rubbed by -diluvial waters, the action of which has produced this result. Some, -too, are met with which are broken, and nothing of them remains but mere -vestiges. In a general way, they are completely covered with a very -thick coating which it is necessary to break off before they can be laid -open to view. - -They are especially found under the soil in grottos and caves, on which -we shall remark further in some detail, and they are almost always mixed -up with the bones of extinct mammalian species. - -Certain districts which are entirely devoid of caves contain, however, -considerable deposits of these stone implements. We may mention in this -category the alluvial quarternary beds of the valley of the Somme, known -under the name of drift beds, which were worked by Boucher de Perthes -with an equal amount of perseverance and success. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Section of a Gravel Quarry at Saint-Acheul, -which contained the wrought Flints found by Boucher de Perthes.] - -This alluvium was composed of a gravelly deposit, which geologists refer -to the great inundations which, during the epoch of the great bear and -the mammoth, gave to Europe, by hollowing out its valleys, its present -vertical outline. The excavations in the sand and gravel near Amiens and -Abbeville, which were directed with so much intelligence by Boucher de -Perthes, have been the means of exhuming thousands of worked flints, -affording unquestionable testimony of the existence of man during the -quaternary epoch. - -All these worked flints may be classed under some of the principal -types, from which their intended use may be approximately conjectured. - -One of the types which is most extensively distributed, especially in -the drift beds of the valley of the Somme, where scarcely any other kind -is found, is the _almond-shaped_ type (fig. 10). - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Hatchet of the _Almond-shaped_ type, from the -Valley of the Somme.] - -The instruments of this kind are hatchets of an oval shape, more or less -elongated, generally flattened on both sides, but sometimes only on one, -carefully chipped all over their surface so as to present a cutting -edge. The workmen of the Somme give them the graphic name of _cats' -tongues_. - -They vary much in size, but are generally about six inches long by three -wide, although some are met with which are much larger. The Pre-historic -Gallery in the Universal Exposition of 1867, contained one found at -Saint-Acheul, and exhibited by M. Robert, which measured eleven inches -in length by five in width. This remarkable specimen is represented in -fig. 11. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Flint Hatchet from Saint-Acheul of the -so-called _Almond-shaped type_.] - -Another very characteristic form is that which is called the _Moustier -type_ (fig. 12), because they have been found in abundance in the beds -in the locality of Moustier, which forms a portion of the department of -Dordogne. This name is applied to the pointed flints which are only -wrought on one side, the other face being completely plain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Wrought Flint (_Moustier type_).] - -To the same deposit also belongs the flint _scraper_, the sharp edge of -which forms the arc of a circle, the opposite side being of some -considerable thickness so as to afford a grasp to the hand of the -operator. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Flint Scraper.] - -Some of these instruments (fig. 13) are finely toothed all along their -sharp edge; they were evidently used for the same purposes as our saws. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Flint Knife, found at Menchecourt, near -Abbeville.] - -The third type (fig. 14) is that of _knives_. They are thin and narrow -tongue-shaped flakes, cleft off from the lump of flint at one blow. When -one of the ends is chipped to a point, these knives become scratchers. -Sometimes these flints are found to be wrought so as to do service as -augers. - -The question is often asked, how these primitive men were able to -manufacture their weapons, implements, and utensils, on uniform models, -without the help of metallic hammers. This idea has, indeed, been -brought forward as an argument against those who contend for the -existence of quaternary man. Mr. Evans, an English geologist, replied -most successfully to this objection by a very simple experiment. He took -a pebble and fixed it in a wooden handle; having thus manufactured a -stone hammer, he made use of it to chip a flint little by little, until -he had succeeded in producing an oval hatchet similar to the ancient one -which he had before him. - -The flint-workers who, up to the middle of the present century, prepared -gun-flints for the army, were in the habit of splitting the stone into -splinters. But they made use of steel hammers to cleave the flint, -whilst primitive man had nothing better at his disposal than another and -rather harder stone. - -Primitive man must have gone to work in somewhat the following way: They -first selected flints, which they brought to the shape of those cores or -_nuclei_ which are found in many places in company with finished -implements; then, by means of another and harder stone of elongated -shape, they cleft flakes off the flint. These flakes were used for -making knives, scratchers, spear or arrow-heads, hatchets, tomahawks, -scrapers, &c. Some amount of skill must have been required to obtain the -particular shape that was required; but constant practice in this work -exclusively must have rendered this task comparatively easy. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Flint Core or Nucleus.] - -How, in the next place, were these clipped flints fitted with handles, -so as to make hatchets, poniards and knives? - -Some of them were fixed at right angles between the two split ends of a -stick: this kind of weapon must have somewhat resembled our present -hatchets. Others, of an oval shape and circular edge, might have been -fastened transversely into a handle, so as to imitate a carpenter's -adze. In case of need, merely a forked branch or a piece of split wood -might serve as sheath or handle to the flint blade. Flints might also -have been fixed as double-edged blades by means of holes cut in pieces -of wood, to which a handle was afterwards added. - -These flint flakes might, lastly, be fitted into a handle at one end. -The wide-backed knives, which were only sharp on one side, afforded a -grasp for the hand without further trouble, and might dispense with a -handle. The small flints might also be darted as projectiles by the help -of a branch of a tree forming a kind of spring, such as we may see used -as a toy by children. - -The mere description of these stone hatchets, fitted on to pieces of -wood, recall to our mind the natural weapons used by some of the -American savages, and the tribes which still exist in a state of freedom -in the Isles of Oceania. We allude to the tomahawk, a name which we so -often meet with in the accounts of voyages round the world. Among those -savage nations who have not as yet bent their necks beneath the yoke of -civilisation, we might expect to find--and, in fact, we do find--the -weapons and utensils which were peculiar to man in primitive ages. A -knowledge of the manners and customs of the present Australian -aborigines has much conduced to the success of the endeavours to -reconstruct a similar system of manners and customs in respect to man of -the quaternary age. - -It was with the weapons and implements that we have just described that -man, at the epoch of the great bear and mammoth, was able to repulse the -attacks of the ferocious animals which prowled round his retreat and -often assailed him (fig. 16). - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Man in the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch.] - -But the whole life of primitive man was not summed up in defending -himself against ferocious beasts, and in attacking them in the chase. -Beyond the needs which were imposed upon him by conflict and hunting, he -felt, besides, the constant necessity of quenching his thirst. Water is -a thing in constant use by man, whether he be civilised or savage. The -fluid nature of water renders it difficult to convey it except by -enclosing it in bladders, leathern bottles, hollowed-out stumps of -trees, plaited bowls, &c. Receptacles of this kind were certain -ultimately to become dirty and unfit for the preservation of water; -added to this they could not endure the action of fire. It was certainly -possible to hollow out stone, so as to serve as a receptacle for water; -but any kind of stone which was soft enough to be scooped out, and would -retain its tenacity after this operation, is very rarely met with. -Shells, too, might be used to hold a liquid; but then shells are not to -be found in every place. It was, therefore, necessary to resolve the -problem--how far it might be possible to make vessels which would be -strong, capable of holding water, and able to stand the heat of the fire -without breaking or warping. What was required was, in fact, the -manufacture of pottery. - -The potter's art may, perhaps, be traced back to the most remote epochs -of man. We have already seen, in the introduction to this work, that, in -1835, M. Joly found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère), a skull of the -great bear pierced with a stone arrow-head, and that by the side of this -skull were also discovered fragments of pottery, on which might still be -seen the imprint of the fingers which moulded it. Thus, the potter's art -may have already been exercised in the earliest period which we can -assign to the development of mankind. - -Other causes also might lead us to believe that man, at a very early -period of his existence, succeeded in the manufacture of rough pottery. - -The clay which is used in making all kinds of pottery, from the very -lowest kitchen utensil up to the most precious specimens of porcelain, -may be said to exist almost everywhere. By softening it and kneading it -with water, it may be moulded into vessels of all shapes. By mere -exposure to the heat of the sun, these vessels will assume a certain -amount of cohesion; for, as tradition tells us, the towers and palaces -of ancient Nineveh were built entirely with bricks which had been baked -in the sun. - -Yet the idea of hardening any clayey paste by means of the action of -fire is so very simple, that we are not of opinion that pottery which -had merely been baked in the sun was ever made use of to any great -extent, even among primitive man. Mere chance, or the most casual -observation, might have taught our earliest forefathers that a morsel of -clay placed near a fire-hearth became hardened and altogether -impenetrable to water, that is, that it formed a perfect specimen of -pottery. Yet the art, though ancient, has not been universally found -among mankind. - -Ere long, experience must have taught men certain improvements in the -manufacture of pottery. Sand was added to the clay, so as to render it -less subject to "flying" on its first meeting the heat of the fire; -next, dried straw was mixed with the clay in order to give it more -coherence. - -In this way those rough vessels were produced, which were, of course, -moulded with the hand, and still bear the imprints of the workman's -fingers. They were only half-baked, on account of the slight intensity -of heat in the furnace which they were then obliged to make use of, -which was nothing more than a wood fire, burning in the open air, on a -stone hearth. - -From these data we give a representation (fig. 17) of the _workshop of -the earliest potter_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--The First Potter.] - -In the gravel pits in the neighbourhood of Amiens we meet with small -globular bodies with a hole through the middle, which are, indeed, -nothing but fossil shells found in the white chalk (fig. 18). It is -probable that these stony beads were used to adorn the men contemporary -with the diluvial period. The natural holes which existed in them -enabled them to be threaded as bracelets or necklaces. This, at least, -was the opinion of Dr. Rigollot; and it was founded on the fact that he -had often found small heaps of these delicate little balls collected -together in the same spot, as if an inundation had drifted them into the -bed of the river without breaking the bond which held them together. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Fossil Shells used as Ornaments, and found in -the Gravel at Amiens.] - -The necklaces, which men and women had already begun to wear during the -epoch of the great bear and the mammoth, were the first outbreak of -the sentiment of adornment, a feeling so natural to the human species. -The way in which these necklaces were put together is, however, exactly -similar to that which we meet with during the present day among savage -tribes--a thread on which a few shells were strung, which was passed -round the neck. - -It has been supposed, from another series of wrought flints, found at -Saint-Acheul by Boucher de Perthes, that the men of the epoch of the -great bear and mammoth may have executed certain rough sketches of -art-workmanship, representing either figures or symbols. Boucher de -Perthes has, in fact, found flints which he considered to show -representations, with varying degrees of resemblance, of the human head, -in profile, three-quarter view, and full face; also of animals, such as -the rhinoceros and the mammoth. - -There are many other flints, evidently wrought by the hand of man, which -were found by Boucher de Perthes in the same quaternary deposits; but it -would be a difficult matter to decide their intention or significance. -Some, perhaps, were religious symbols, emblems of authority, &c. The -features which enable us to recognise the work of man in these works of -antediluvian art, are the symmetry of shape and the repetition of -successive strokes by which the projecting portions are removed, the -cutting edges sharpened, or the holes bored out. - -The natural colour of all the wrought flints we have just been -considering, which bring under our notice the weapons and utensils of -man in the earliest epoch of his existence, is a grey which assumes -every tint, from the brightest to the darkest; but, generally speaking, -they are stained and coloured according to the nature of the soil from -which they are dug out. Argillaceous soils colour them white; ochreous -gravels give them a yellowish brown hue. Some are white on one side and -brown on the other, probably from having lain between two different -beds. - -This _patina_ (to use the established term) is the proof of their -long-continued repose in the beds, and is, so to speak, the stamp of -their antiquity. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - The Man of the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch lived in Caverns--Bone - Caverns in the Quaternary Rock during the Great Bear and Mammoth - Epoch--Mode of Formation of these Caverns--Their Division into - several Classes--Implements of Flint, Bone, and Reindeer-horn found - in these Caverns--The Burial-place at Aurignac--Its probable - Age--Customs which it reveals--Funeral Banquets during the Great - Bear and Mammoth Epoch. - - -Having given a description of the weapons and working implements of the -men belonging to the great bear and mammoth epoch, we must now proceed -to speak of the habitations. - -Caverns hollowed out in the depth of the rocks formed the first -dwellings of man. We must, therefore, devote some degree of attention to -the simple and wild retreats of our forefathers. As the objects which -have been found in these caverns are both numerous and varied in their -character, they not only throw a vivid light on the manners and customs -of primitive man, but also decisively prove the fact of his being -contemporary with mammals of species now extinct, such as the mammoth, -the great bear, and the _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_. - -But before proceeding any further, it is necessary to inquire in what -way these caverns could have been formed, in which we find accumulated -so many relics of the existence of primitive man. - -M. Desnoyers, Librarian of the Museum of Natural History at Paris, is of -opinion that these caverns are crevices of the same class as -metalliferous _lodes_, only instead of containing metallic ores they -must have been originally filled by the deposits of certain thermal -springs. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Theoretical Section of a Vein of Clay in the -Carboniferous Limestone, _before_ the hollowing out of Valleys by -diluvial Waters.] - -Fig. 19 represents, according to M. Desnoyers' treatise on _caverns_, -one of these primordial veins in the carboniferous limestone. At the -time of the diluvial inundation, these veins were opened by the -impetuous action of the water. When thus cleared out and brought to the -light of day, they assumed the aspect of caves, as represented in fig. -20. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Theoretical section of the same Vein of Clay -converted into a Cavern, _after_ the hollowing out of Valleys by -diluvial Waters.] - -The European diluvial inundation was, as we know, posterior to the -glacial epoch. - -It is also likely that caverns were sometimes produced by the falling in -of portions of some of the interior strata, or that they were formerly -the natural and subterranean channels of certain watercourses; many -instances of this kind being now known in different countries. - -We must also add that it is not probable that all caverns originated in -the same way; but that one or other of the several causes just -enumerated must have contributed to their formation. - -Under the general denomination of _caverns_, all kinds of subterranean -cavities are comprehended; but it will be as well to introduce several -distinctions in this respect. There are, in the first place, simple -clefts or crevices, which are only narrow pits deviating but slightly -from the vertical. Next we have grottos (or _baumes_ as they are called -in the south of France), which generally have a widely opening inlet, -and are but of small extent. Lastly, we must draw a distinction between -these and the real bone caverns, which consist of a series of chambers, -separated by extremely narrow passages, and are often of very -considerable dimensions. Some of these caverns occupy an extent of -several leagues underground, with variations of level which render their -exploration very difficult. They are generally very inaccessible, and it -is almost always necessary to ply the pick-axe in order to clear a way -from one chamber to another. - -In most of these grottos and caverns the ground and sides are covered -with calcareous deposits, known by the name of _stalactite_ and -_stalagmite_, which sometimes meet one another, forming columns and -pillars which confer on some of these subterranean halls an elegance -replete with a kind of mysterious charm. - -These deposits are caused by the infiltrated water charged with -carbonate of lime, which, oozing drop by drop through the interstices of -the rock, slowly discharge the carbonic acid which held the carbonate of -lime in solution, and the salts gradually precipitating form the -crystalline or amorphous deposits which constitute these natural -columns. - -The calcareous deposits which spread over the ground of the caverns are -called _stalagmite_, and the name of _stalactite_ is given to those -which hang down from the roof, forming pendants, natural decorations, -and ornaments as of alabaster or marble, producing sometimes the most -magnificent effects. - -Under the stalagmite the largest number of animal bones have been found. -This crust, which has been to them a preservatory grave, is so thick and -hard that a pick-axe is required in order to break it. Thanks to the -protecting cover, the bones have been sheltered from all the various -causes of decomposition and destruction. The limestone formed a kind of -cement which, uniting clay, mud, sand, flints, bones of men and animals, -weapons and utensils into a compact mass, has preserved them for the -study and consideration of scientific men in our own days. - -The soil called _bone-earth_ is, in fact, found under the crystalline -bed which covers the ground of the caverns. - -Fig. 21, which represents a section of the cave of Galeinreuth, in -Bavaria, will enable us clearly to understand the position occupied by -the bones in most of these caverns. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--The Cave of Galeinreuth, in Bavaria.] - -Bone-earth consists of a reddish or yellowish clay, often mixed with -pebbles, which seem to have come from some distant beds, for they cannot -be attributed to the adjacent rocks. This stratum varies considerably in -depth; in some spots it is very thin, in others it rises almost to the -top of the cavern, to a height of forty or fifty feet. But in this case -it is, in reality, composed of several strata belonging to different -ages, and explorers ought to note with much attention the exact depth of -any of the organic remains found in their mass. - -There are, however, in several bone-caverns certain peculiarities which -demand a special explanation. Caves often contain large heaps of bones, -situated at heights which it would have been absolutely inaccessible to -the animals which lived in these places. How, then, was it possible that -these bones could have found their way to such an elevated position? It -is also a very strange fact, that no cavern has ever produced an entire -skeleton or even a whole limb of the skeleton of a man, and scarcely of -any animal whatever. The bones, in fact, not only lie in confusion and -utter disorder, but, up to the present time, it has been impossible to -find all the bones which in times past formed an individual. It must, -therefore, be admitted, that the accumulation of bones and human remains -in most of the caves are owing to other causes than the residence of man -and wild animals in these dark retreats. - -It is supposed, therefore, that the bones in question were deposited in -these hollows by the rushing in of the currents of diluvial water, which -had drifted them along in their course. A fact which renders this -hypothesis likely is that drift-pebbles are constantly found in close -proximity to these bones. Now these pebbles come from localities at -considerable distances from the cavern; often, indeed, terrestrial and -fluviatile shells accompany these bones. It may sometimes be remarked -that the femurs and tibias of large mammals have their points rubbed -off, and the smallest bones are reduced to rounded fragments. These are -all evident indications that these bones had been carried along by rapid -currents of water, which swept away everything in their course; or, in -other words, by the current of the waters of the deluge which signalised -the quaternary epoch. - -During this period of the existence of primitive man, all these caverns -were not applied to the same purpose. Some were the dens of wild beasts, -others formed the habitations of man, and others again were used as -burial-places. - -There is no difficulty in the idea that dens of wild beasts might very -readily be occupied by man, after he had killed or driven out the fierce -inhabitants; no discovery, however, has as yet confirmed this -supposition. It can hardly be doubted that primitive man seldom dared to -take up his abode in dens which had been, for some time, the refuge of -any of the formidable carnivora; if he did, it was only after having -assured himself that these retreats had been altogether abandoned by -their terrible inhabitants. - -We shall now proceed to consider these three classes of caverns. - -Caves which, during the quaternary epoch, have served as dens for wild -animals, are very numerous. Experienced _savants_ are enabled to -recognise them by various indications. The bones they contain are never -fractured; but it may be seen that they have been gnawed by carnivorous -animals, as they still bear the marks of their teeth. Into these -retreats the cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_) and the hyæna (_Hyæna spelæa_) -were accustomed to drag their prey, in order there to tear it to pieces -and devour it, or divide it into portions for their young ones. In fact, -in these caverns, excrements of the hyæna mixed with small and -undigested bones are often found. The cave bear retired into the same -retreats, but he probably only came there to pass the period of his -hibernal sleep. Lastly, the same dens no doubt offered a refuge to sick -or dying animals, who resorted thither in order to expire in peace. We -have a proof of this in the traces of wounds and caries on some of the -bones of animals found by Schmerling in the caverns of the Meuse; also -in the skull of a hyæna, the median ridge of which had been bitten and -appeared to be half healed. - -Those caverns which formed a shelter for primitive man are, like the -preceding ones, to be recognised by a mere inspection of the bones -contained in them. The long bones of the ox, horse, stag, rhinoceros, -and other quadrupeds which formed the food of man during the quaternary -epoch, are always split; and they are all broken in the same way, that -is, lengthwise. The only cause for their having been split in this -manner must have been the desire of extracting the marrow for the -purpose of eating. Such a mode of breaking them would never have been -practised by any animal. - -This apparently trivial circumstance is, however, of the highest -importance. In fact, it leads to the following conclusion: "That man, -having eaten large mammals of species now extinct, must have been -contemporary with these species." - -We shall now proceed to examine the caverns which were used as -burial-places for man. - -To M. Édouard Lartet, the celebrated palæontologist, the honour must be -ascribed of having been the first to collect any important data bearing -on the fact that caverns were used for burial-places by the primitive -man of the great bear and mammoth epoch. We have thus been led to -discover the traces of a funeral custom belonging to the man of these -remote ages; we allude to the _funeral banquet_. The source of this -information was the discovery of a pre-historic burial-place at Aurignac -(Haute-Garonne), of which we have given an account in the Introduction -to this work, which, however, we must again here refer to. - -Near the town of Aurignac rises the hill of Fajoles, which the -inhabitants of the country, in their _patois_, call "_mountagno de las -Hajoles_" (beech-tree mountain), a circumstance showing that it was -formerly covered with beech-trees. As we have already stated, in the -Introduction to this work, it was on one of the slopes of this hill -that, in the year 1842, an excavator, named Bonnemaison, discovered a -great slab of limestone placed in a vertical position and closing up an -arched opening. In the cave closed up by this slab the excavator -discovered the remains of seventeen human skeletons! - -We have already told how these skeletons were removed to the village -cemetery, and thus, unfortunately, for ever lost to the researches of -science. - -Eighteen years after, in 1860, M. Lartet, having heard of the event, -repaired to the spot, accompanied by Bonnemaison; he quite understood -how it had happened that, during a long course of centuries, the cave -had escaped the notice of the inhabitants of the country. The entrance -to it was concealed by masses of earth which, having been brought down -from the top of the hill by the action of the water, had accumulated in -front of the entrance, hiding a flat terrace, on which many vestiges of -pre-historic times were found. As no disturbance of the ground had taken -place in this spot subsequent to the date of the burial, this _talus_ -had been sufficient to protect the traces of the men who were -contemporary with the mammoth, and to shield their relics from all -exterior injury. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Section of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.] - -Fig. 22, taken from M. Lartet's article, represents a vertical section -of the sepulchral cave at Aurignac. - -After a rapid inspection of the cave and its surroundings, M. Lartet -resolved to make complete and methodical excavations, aided by -intelligent workmen labouring under his superintendence; the following -are the results he obtained. - -A bed of "made ground" two feet thick covered the ground of the cave. In -this were found some human remains which had escaped the first -investigations; also bones of mammals in good preservation, and -exhibiting no fractures or teeth-marks, wrought flints, mostly of the -_knife_ type (fig. 23), and carved reindeer horns, among which there was -an instrument carefully tapered off and rounded, but deprived of its -point (fig. 24), the other end being bevelled off, probably to receive a -handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Flint Knife found in the Sepulchral Cave at -Aurignac.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Implement made of Reindeer's or Stag's Horn, -found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.] - -We must here add, that at the time of his discovery Bonnemaison -collected, from the midst of the bones, eighteen small discs which were -pierced in the centre, and doubtless intended to be strung together in a -necklace or bracelet. These discs, which were formed of a white compact -substance were recognised as sea-shells of a _Cardium_ species. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Series of perforated Discs of the _Cardium_ -Shell found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.] - -The cavern of Aurignac was a burial-place of the quaternary epoch, for -M. Lartet found in it a quantity of the bones of the cave-bear, the -bison, the reindeer, the horse, &c. - -In fig. 26, we give a representation of a fragment of the lower jaw of a -great bear as an example of the state of the bones found in this cavern. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Fragment of the Lower Jaw of a Cave-Bear, found -in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.] - -The perfect state of preservation of these bones shows that they were -neither broken to furnish food for man nor torn by carnivorous animals, -particularly by hyænas, as is seen in a great many caverns. We must -therefore conclude from this peculiarity, that the stone which closed -the entrance to the cave was moved away for every interment and -carefully put back into its place immediately afterwards. - -In order to explain the presence of so many foreign objects by the side -of the human skeletons--such as animals' bones--implements of flint and -reindeers' horn--necklaces or bracelets--we must admit as probable that -a funeral custom existed among the men of the great bear and mammoth -epoch, which has been preserved in subsequent ages. They used to place -in the tomb, close to the body, the weapons, hunting trophies, and -ornaments of all sorts, belonging to the defunct. This custom still -exists among many tribes in a more or less savage state. - -In front of the cave, there was, as we have already said, a kind of flat -spot which had afterwards become covered with earth which had fallen -down from the top of the hill. When the earth which covered this flat -spot was cleared away, they met with another deposit containing bones. -This deposit was situated on a prolongation of the ground on which the -skeletons were placed in the interior of the cavern. Under this deposit, -was a bed of ashes and charcoal, 5 to 7 inches thick. This was, -therefore, the site of an ancient fire-hearth. - -In other words, in front of the sepulchral cave there was a kind of -terrace upon which, after the interment of the body in the cavern, a -feast called the _funeral banquet_ was held. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Upper Molar of a Bison, found in the Ashes of -the Fire-hearth of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.] - -In this bed, situated in front of the cavern an immense number of the -most interesting relics were discovered--a large number of the teeth and -broken bones of herbivorous animals (fig. 27); a hundred flint knives; -two chipped flints, which archæologists believe to be sling projectiles; -a rounded pebble with a depression in the middle, which, according to -Mr. Steinhauer, keeper of the Ethnographical Museum at Copenhagen, was -used to flake off flint-knives; lastly, a large quantity of implements -made of reindeers' horn, which exhibit the most varied shapes. We may -mention, for instance, the arrow-heads fashioned very simply, without -wings or barbs (fig. 28); some of these heads appear to have been -subjected to the action of fire, as if they had been left in the body of -the animal during the process of cooking; a bodkin made of roebuck's -horn (fig. 29) very carefully pointed, and in such a good state of -preservation that it might still be used, says M. Lartet, to perforate -the skins of animals before sewing them; and this must, in fact, have -been its use; a second instrument, similar to the preceding, but less -finely pointed, which M. Lartet is inclined to consider as an instrument -for tatooing; some thin blades of various sizes, which, according to -Steinhauer, much resemble the reindeer-horn polishers still used by the -Laplanders to flatten down the seams of their coarse skin-garments; -another blade, accidentally broken at both ends, one of the sides of -which is perfectly polished and shows two series of transversal lines at -equal distances apart; the lateral edges of this blade are marked with -deeper notches at almost regular intervals (fig. 30). M. Lartet -considers that these lines and notches are signs of numeration, and Mr. -Steinhauer has propounded the idea that they are hunting-marks. Both -hypotheses are possible, and the more so as they do not contradict each -other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Arrow-head made of Reindeer's Horn, found in -the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Bodkin made of Roebuck's Horn, found in the -Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac]. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Truncated Blade in Reindeer's Horn, bearing two -Series of transversal Lines and Notches, probably used for numeration.] - -Among the bones, some were partly carbonised, others, only scorched, but -the greater number had not been subjected at all to the action of fire. -All the bones having medullary hollows, and commonly called -marrow-bones, were broken lengthwise, a certain indication that this -operation had been effected to extract the marrow, and that these bones -had been used at a feast carried on according to the manners and customs -of that epoch, when the marrow out of animal bones was regarded as the -most delicious viand--many men of our own days being also of this -opinion. - -A certain number of these bones exhibited shallow cuts, showing that a -sharp instrument had been used to detach the flesh from them. Nearly all -those which had not been subjected to the action of fire bore the mark -of the teeth of some carnivorous animal. This animal, doubtless, came to -gnaw them after man had taken his departure from the spot. This -carnivorous animal could have been none other than the hyæna, as is -shown by the excrements left in the place. - -The ossiferous mound situated immediately above the fire-hearth -contained, like the subjacent ashes, a large number of the bones of -certain herbivorous animals. - -The discovery of the fire-hearth situated in front of the cave of -Aurignac, and the various remains which were found intermingled -underneath it, enable us to form some idea of the way in which funeral -ceremonies took place among the men of the great bear epoch. The parents -and friends of the defunct accompanied him to his last resting-place; -after which, they assembled together to partake of a feast in front of -the tomb soon to be closed on his remains. Then everyone took his -departure, leaving the scene of their banquet free to the hyænas, which -came to devour the remains of the meal. - -This custom of funeral-feasts is, doubtless, very natural, as it has -been handed down to our days; though it now chiefly exists among the -poorer classes. - -In accordance with the preceding data we here represent (fig. 31) a -_funeral feast during the great bear and mammoth epoch_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Funeral Feast during the Great Bear and Mammoth -Epoch.] - -On a flat space situated in front of the cave destined to receive the -body of the defunct, some men covered merely with bears' skins with the -hair on them are seated round a fire, taking their part in the -funeral-feast. The flesh of the great bear and mammoth forms the _menu_ -of these primitive love-feasts. In the distance may be seen the colossal -form of the mammoth, which forms the chief dish of the banquet. The -manner of eating is that which distinguishes the men of that epoch; they -suck the marrow from the long bones which have previously been split -lengthwise, and eat the flesh of the animals cooked on the hearth. The -dead body is left at the entrance of the cavern; the primitive -grave-stone will soon close on it for ever. - -The relics found in the interior of the sepulchral cave of Aurignac have -led to a very remarkable inference, which shows how interesting and -fertile are the studies which have been made by naturalists on the -subject of the antiquity of man. The weapons, the trophies, the -ornaments, and the joints of meat, placed by the side of the -defunct--does not all this seem to establish the fact that a belief in a -future life existed at an extraordinarily remote epoch? What could have -been the use of these provisions for travelling, and these instruments -of war, if the man who had disappeared from this world was not to live -again in another? The great and supreme truth--that the whole being -of man does not die with his material body is, therefore, innate in the -human heart; since it is met with in the most remote ages, and even -existed in the mental consciousness of the man of the stone age. - -An instinct of art also appears to have manifested itself in the human -race at this extremely ancient date. Thus, one of the articles picked up -in the sepulchral cave of Aurignac consisted of a canine tooth of a -young cave-bear, perforated so as to allow of its being suspended in -some way or other. Now this tooth is so carved that no one can help -recognising in it a rough outline of some animal shape, the precise -nature of which is difficult to determine, although it may, perhaps, be -the head of a bird. It was, doubtless, an amulet or jewel belonging to -one of the men interred in the cave, and was buried with him because he -probably attached a great value to it. This object, therefore, shows us -that some instincts of art existed in the men who hunted the great bear -and mammoth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Carved and perforated Canine Tooth of a young -Cave-Bear.] - -We shall close this account of the valuable discoveries which were made -in the sepulchral cave of Aurignac, by giving a list of the species of -mammals the bones of which were found either in the interior or at the -exterior of this cavern. The first six species are extinct; the others -are still living:-- - -The great cave-bear (_Ursus spelæus_); the mammoth (_Elephas -primigenius_); the rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_); the great -cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_); the cave-hyæna (_Hyæna spelæa_); the -gigantic stag (_Megaceros hibernicus_); the bison, the reindeer, the -stag, the horse, the ass, the roe, the wild boar, the fox, the wolf, -the wild-cat, the badger, and the polecat. - -We think it as well to place before the eyes of our readers the exact -forms of the heads of the three great fossil animals found in the cave -of Aurignac, which geologically characterise the great bear and mammoth -epoch, and evidently prove that man was contemporary with these extinct -species. Figs. 33, 34, and 35 represent the heads of the cave-bear, the -_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, and the _megaceros_ or gigantic stag; they are -taken from the casts which adorn the great hall of the Archæological and -Pre-historic Museum at Saint-Germain, and are among the most curious -ornaments of this remarkable museum. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Head of a Cave-Bear found in the Cave of -Aurignac.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Head of the _Rhinoceros Tichorhinus_ found in -the Cave of Aurignac.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Head of a great Stag (_Megaceros hibernicus_) -found in the Cave of Aurignac.] - -Of all these species, the fox has left behind him the largest number of -remains. This carnivorous animal was represented by about eighteen to -twenty individual specimens. Neither the mammoth, great cave-lion, nor -wild boar appear to have been conveyed into the cave in an entire state; -for two or three molar or incisive teeth are the only remains of their -carcases which have been found. - -But still it is a certain fact that the men who fed on the _Rhinoceros -tichorinus_ buried their dead in this cavern. In fact, M. Lartet asserts -that the bones of the rhinoceros had been split by man in order to -extract the marrow. They had also been gnawed by hyænas, which would not -have been the case if these bones had not been thrown away, and left on -the ground in a fresh state. - -The burial-place of Aurignac dates back to the earliest antiquity, that -is to say, it was anterior to the European diluvial period. Thus, -according to M. Lartet, the great cave-bear was the first of the extinct -species to disappear; then the mammoth and _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_ were -lost sight of; still later, the reindeer first, and then the bison, -migrated to the northern and eastern regions of Europe. Now, the -_diluvium_, that is to say, the beds formed by drifted pebbles and -originating in the great derangement caused by the inundation of the -quaternary epoch, does not contain any traces of the bones of the -cave-bear. It, therefore, belongs to an epoch of the stone age more -recent than the cave of Aurignac.[6] All this goes to prove that this -sepulchral cave, which has furnished the science of the antiquity of man -with so much valuable information, belonged to the great bear and -mammoth epoch, which preceded the diluvial cataclysm. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[6] 'Nouvelles Recherches sur la Coexistence de l'Homme et des grands -Mammifères fossiles.' ('Annales de Sciences naturelles, Zoologie,' vol. -xv.) - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - Other Caves of the Epoch of the Great Bear and Mammoth--Type - of the Human Race during the Epochs of the Great Bear and the - Reindeer--The Skulls from the Caves of Engis and Neanderthal. - - -With regard to the bone-caves, which have furnished us with such -valuable information as to the men who lived in the epoch of the great -bear and the mammoth, we have laid down a necessary distinction, -dividing them into caves which served as dens for wild beasts, those -which have afforded a refuge for man, and those which were used as his -burial-places. In order to complete this subject and set forth the whole -of the discoveries which have been made by science on this interesting -point, we will say a few words as to the principal bone-caves belonging -to the same epoch which have been studied in France, England and -Belgium. - -We will, in the first place, call attention to the fact that these -caverns, taken together, embrace a very long period of time, perhaps an -enormous number of centuries, and that hence a considerable difference -must result in the nature of the remains of human industry which they -contain. Some certainly manifest a perceptible superiority over others -in an industrial point of view; but the reason is that they belong to a -period somewhat nearer our own, although still forming a part of the -epoch of the great bear and mammoth. - -We shall divide the caves in France into three groups--those of the -east, those of the west and centre, and those of the south. - -In the first group, we shall mention the _Trou de la Fontaine_ and the -_Cave of Sainte-Reine_, both situated in the environs of Toul (Meurthe). -These two caves have furnished bones of bears, hyænas, and the -rhinoceros, along with the products of human industry. That of -Sainte-Reine has been explored by M. Guérin, and especially by M. -Husson, who has searched it with much care. - -The second group includes the grottos _des Fées_, of Vergisson, -Vallières, and La Chaise. - -The Grotte des Fées, at Arcy (Yonne), has been searched and described by -M. de Vibraye, who ascertained the existence of two distinct beds, the -upper one belonging to the reindeer epoch, the lower one to the great -bear epoch. These two beds were divided from each other by matter which -had formed a part of the roof of the cave, and had fallen down on the -earlier deposit. In the more ancient bed of the two, M. de Vibraye -collected fractured bones of the bear and cave-hyæna, the mammoth, and -the _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, all intermingled with flints wrought by -the hand of man, amongst which were chips of hyaline quartz -(rock-crystal.) His fellow-labourer, M. Franchet, extracted from it a -human _atlas_ (the upper part of the vertebral column). - -The cave of Vergisson (Saône-et-Loire), explored by M. de Ferry, -furnished the same kind of bones as the preceding cave, and also bones -of the bison, the reindeer, the horse, the wolf, and the fox, all -intermixed with wrought flints and fragments of rough pottery. The -presence of this pottery indicated that the cave of Vergisson belonged -to the latter period of the great bear epoch. - -The cave of Vallières (Loir-et-Cher), was worked, first by M. de -Vibraye, and subsequently by the Abbé Bourgeois. There was nothing -particular to be remarked. - -The cave of La Chaise, near Vouthon (Charente), explored by MM. -Bourgeois and Delaunay, furnished bones of the cave-bear, the -rhinoceros, and the reindeer, flint blades and scrapers, a bodkin and a -kind of hook made of bone, an arrow-head in the shape of a willow-leaf -likewise of bone, a bone perforated so as to hang on a string, and, what -is more remarkable, two long rods of reindeer's horn, tapering at one -end and bevelled off at the other, on which figures of animals were -graven. These relics betray an artistic feeling of a decided character -as existing in the men, the traces of whom are found in this cave. - -Among the caves in the south of France, we must specify those of -Périgord, those of Bas-Languedoc, and of the district of Foix -(department of Ariége). - -The caves of Périgord have all been explored by MM. Lartet and Christy, -who have also given learned descriptions of them. We will mention the -caves of the _Gorge d'Enfer_ and _Moustier_, in the valley of the -Vézère, and that of _Pey de l'Azé_, all three situate in the department -of Dordogne (arrondissement of Sarlat). - -The two caves of the _Gorge d'Enfer_ were, unfortunately, cleared out in -1793, in order to utilise the deposits of saltpetre which they contained -in the manufacture of gunpowder. They have, however, furnished flints -chipped into the shapes of scrapers, daggers, &c., a small pebble of -white quartz, hollowed out on one side, which had probably been used as -a mortar, and instruments of bone or reindeer's horn, three of which -showed numerous notches. Bones of the great bear clearly indicated the -age of these settlements. - -The cave of Moustier, situated about 80 feet above the Vézère, is -celebrated for the great number and characteristic shapes of its stone -implements, which we have before spoken of. Hatchets of the -almond-shaped type, like those of the _diluvium_ of Abbeville and -Saint-Acheul, were very plentiful. Bi-convex spear-heads were also -found, of very careful workmanship, and instruments which might be held -in the hand, some of them of considerable dimensions; but no pieces of -bone or of reindeer's horn were discovered which had been adapted to any -purpose whatever. The bones were those of the great bear and cave-hyæna, -accompanied by separate _laminæ_ of molars of the mammoth, the use of -which it is impossible to explain. Similar fragments were met with in -some of the other Périgord settlements, and M. Lartet also found some at -Aurignac. - -Next to the cave of Pey de l'Azé, on which we shall not dwell, come the -caverns of Bas-Languedoc, which we shall only enumerate. They consist of -the caves of Pondres and Souvignargues (Hérault), which were studied in -1829 by M. de Christol, who recognised, from the data he derived from -them, the co-existence of man and the great extinct mammals; also those -of Pontil and La Roque, the first explored by M. Paul Gervais, the -second by M. Boutin. - -We shall now consider the caves of the department of Ariége, some of -which furnish objects of very considerable interest. They consist of the -caves of _Massat_, _Lherm_, and _Bouicheta_. - -Two caves, very remarkable on account of their extent, have been -explored by M. Fontan; they are situate in the valley of Massat, which -contains others of less importance. One is placed at the foot of a -limestone mountain, about 60 feet above the bottom of the valley; the -opening of the other is much higher up; only the latter belongs to the -great bear epoch. - -From the results of his explorations, M. Fontan is of opinion that the -ground in them has been greatly altered by some violent inundation which -has intermingled the remains of various geological epochs. This _savant_ -found in the cave of Massat the bones of the bear, the hyæna and the -great cave-lion, the fox, the badger, the wild boar, the roe, &c., two -human teeth, and a bone arrow-head. Two beds of ashes and charcoal were -also remarked at different depths. - -In the upper cave of Massat was found the curious stone on which is -designed with tolerable correctness a sketch of the great cave-bear -(fig. 36). This singular record marks out for us the earliest trace of -the art of design, which we shall find developing itself in a more -decisive way during the pre-historic period which follows the one we are -now considering. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Sketch of the Great Bear on a Stone found in -the Cave of Massat.] - -The caves of Lherm and Bouicheta were inspected by MM. Garrigou and -Filhol, who found in them bones of most of the great mammals belonging -to extinct species, and particularly those of the great bear, many of -which are broken, and still show the marks of the instruments which were -used for cutting the flesh off them. Some have been gnawed by hyænas, as -proved by the deep grooves with which they are marked. Lower jaw-bones -of the great bear, and of the great cave-lion, have been found -fashioned, according to a uniform plan, in the shape of hoes. MM. -Garrigou and Filhol were of opinion that these jaw-bones, when thus -modified, might have been used as offensive weapons. - -The cave of Lherm contained also human bones; namely, three teeth, a -fragment of a _scapula_, a broken _ulna_ and _radius_, and the last -joint of the great toe; all these remains presented exactly the same -appearance and condition as those of the _Ursus spelæus_, and must, -therefore, have belonged to the same epoch. - -We have stated that numerous caves have been explored in England, -Belgium, and several other countries. We shall not undertake to give -with regard to each details which would only be a reproduction of those -which precede. We therefore confine ourselves to mentioning the most -celebrated of the caverns belonging to the epoch of the great bear and -the mammoth. - -In England we have the Kent's Hole and Brixham caverns, near Torquay in -Devonshire, the latter of which is many hundred yards in extent; the -caves of the Gower peninsula, in Glamorganshire (South Wales), which -have been carefully studied within the last few years by Messrs. -Falconer and Wood; in these were found flint instruments along with -bones of the _Elephas antiquus_ and the _Rhinoceros hemitæchus_, species -which were still more ancient than the mammoth and the _Rhinoceros -tichorhinus_; those of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, explored by Dr. Buckland, -the geologist; those near Wells in Somersetshire, Wokey Hole, Minchin -Hole, &c. - -We must mention, in the north of Italy, the caves of Chiampo and Laglio, -on the edge of the Lake of Como, in which, just as at Vergisson, -fragments of rough pottery have been discovered, indicating some degree -of progress in the manufacture; also the caves in the neighbourhood of -Palermo, and especially those of San Ciro and Macagnone. - -In the last-mentioned cave, in the midst of an osseous _breccia_ which -rose to the roof, Dr. Falconer collected flint instruments, splinters of -bone, pieces of baked clay and wood charcoal mixed up with large -land-shells (_Helix vermiculata_), in a perfect state of preservation, -horses' teeth, and the excrements of the hyæna, all cemented together in -a deposit of carbonate of lime. In a lower bed were found the bones of -various species of the hippopotamus, the _Elephas antiquus_, and other -great mammals. - -Lastly, Spain, Algeria, Egypt, and Syria also present to our notice -caves belonging to the Stone Age. - -In the New World various bone-caverns have been explored. We must -especially mention Brazil, in which country Lund searched no less than -eight hundred caves of different epochs, exhuming in them a great number -of unknown animal species. In one of these caves, situated near the Lake -of Sumidouro, Lund found some human bones which had formed a part of -thirty individuals of different ages, and were "in a similar state of -decomposition, and in similar circumstances to the bones of various -extinct species of animals." - -Thus far we have designedly omitted to mention the Belgian caves. They -have, in fact, furnished us with such remarkable relics of former ages -that, in dealing with them, we could not confine ourselves to a mere -notice. The caves in the neighbourhood of Liége, which were explored in -1833 by Schmerling, deserve to be described in some detail. - -Schmerling examined more than forty caves in the Valley of the Meuse and -its tributaries. The access to some of these caves was so difficult that -in order to reach them it was necessary for the explorer to let himself -down by a cord, and then to crawl flat on his face through narrow -galleries, so as to make his way into the great chambers; there he was -obliged to remain for hours, and sometimes whole days, standing up to -his knees in mud, with water dripping from the walls upon his head, -while overlooking the workmen breaking up with their pick-axes the layer -of stalagmite, so as to bring to light the bone earth--the records on -which are inscribed the palpable evidences of the high antiquity of man. -Schmerling was compelled to accomplish a perilous expedition of this -kind in his visit to the cave of Engis, which has become celebrated by -the two human skulls found there by him. - -Nearly all the caves in the province of Liége contain scattered bones of -the great bear, the cave-hyæna, the mammoth, and the rhinoceros, -intermixed with those of species which are still living, such as the -wolf, the wild boar, the roe, the beaver, the porcupine, &c. Several of -them contained human bones, likewise much scattered and rubbed; they -were found in all positions, and at every elevation, sometimes above and -sometimes below the above-mentioned animal remains; from this it may be -concluded that these caves had been filled with running water, which -drifted in all kinds of _débris_. None of them, however, contained any -gnawed bones, or the fossil excrement of any animal species, which puts -an end to the hypothesis that these caves had been used as dens by wild -beasts. Here and there bones were found belonging to the same skeleton, -which were in perfect preservation, and lying in their natural -juxtaposition; they were probably drifted into the cave by gently -flowing water, while still covered with their flesh, and no movement of -the ground had since separated them. But no complete skeleton has as yet -been discovered, even among the smaller species of mammiferous animals, -the disjunction of which is generally less complete. - -In almost all the caves Schmerling met with flint implements chipped -into the form of hatchets and knives, and he calls attention to the fact -"that none of them could have been introduced into the caves at a -posterior epoch, as they were found in the same position as the animal -remains which accompanied them." In the cave of Clokier, about two and a -half miles from Liége, he picked up a polished bone in the shape of a -needle, having an eye pierced at the base; in the cave of Engis he -likewise found a carved bone, and also some worked flints. - -We here close our enumeration of the various sources of the -archæological records which have served to reconstruct the history of -primitive man during that period of the stone age which we have -designated under the name of the epoch of the great bear and the -mammoth. Before concluding our remarks as to this period, there is one -question which we must enter upon, although there is a great deficiency -in any positive records by which it might be solved. What was the -organic type of man during this epoch? Could we, for instance, determine -what amount of intellect man possessed in this earliest and ancient date -of his history? - -The answer to this question--although a very uncertain answer--has been -supposed to have been found in the caves of Engis and Engihoul, of which -we have just spoken as having been explored by Schmerling with such -valuable results. - -The cave of Engis contained the remains of three human beings, among -which were two skulls, one that of a youth, the other that of an adult. -The latter only was preserved, the former having fallen into dust while -it was being extracted from the ground. Two small fragments of a human -skull were likewise found at Engihoul; also a great many of the bones of -the hands and feet of three individuals. - -The Engis skull has been a subject of protracted argument to the -palæontologists and anatomists of the present day. Floods of ink have -been spilt upon the question; discussions without end have taken place -with respect to this piece of bone, in order to fix accurately the -amount of intellect possessed by the inhabitants of Belgium during the -epoch of the great bear and the mammoth. Up to a certain point the -development of the brain may, in fact, be ascertained from the shape of -the cranial envelope, and it is well known that a remarkable similarity -exists between the cerebral capacity and the intellectual development of -all mammiferous animals. But in a question of this kind we must -carefully avoid a quicksand on which anthropologists too often make -shipwreck; this danger consists in basing a theory on a too limited -number of elements, and of generalising conclusions which are perhaps -drawn from one special case. Because we find a portion of a skull--not -even a whole skull--belonging to a human being contemporary with the -great bear, we assume that we can determine the amount of intellect -possessed by man during this epoch. But what proof have we that this -skull is not that of an idiot, or, on the contrary, the skull of an -individual possessing a superior degree of intelligence? What deduction -can be logically drawn from the examination of one single skull? None -whatever! "_Testis unus testis nullus_;" and what is said by -jurisprudence, which is nothing but good sense in legal -matters--science, which is nothing but good sense in learned questions, -ought likewise to repeat. If we found ten or twelve skulls, each -presenting the same characteristics, we should be justified in thinking -that we had before our eyes the human type corresponding to the epoch we -are considering; but, we again ask, what arguments could be based on a -few fragments of one single skull? - -These reservations having been laid down, let us see what some of our -great anatomical reasoners have thought about the Engis skull. - -The representation which we here give (fig. 37) of the Engis skull was -taken from the cast in the Museum of Saint-Germain, and we may perceive -from it that the skull is not complete; the entire base of the skull is -wanting, and all the bones of the face have disappeared. Consequently it -is impossible either to measure the facial angle or to take account of -the development of the lower jaw. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Portion of a Skull of an Individual belonging -to the Epoch of the Great Bear and the Mammoth, found in the Cave of -Engis.] - -We shall not, therefore, surprise any of our readers when we state that -the opinions on this subject differ in the most extraordinary degree. -In the eyes of Professor Huxley, the English anatomist, this skull -offers no indication of degradation; it presents "a good average," and -it might just as well be the head of a philosopher as the head of an -uncivilised savage. To others--for instance, to Carl Vogt--it indicates -an altogether rudimentary degree of intellect. - -Thus Hippocrates-Huxley says _yes_, Galen-Vogt says _no_, and -Celsus-Lyell says neither _yes_ nor _no_. This causes us but little -surprise, but it induces us not to waste more time in discussing a -question altogether in the dark, that is, upon altogether incomplete -data. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Portion of the so-called Neanderthal Skull.] - -We will now turn our attention to another skull, equally celebrated, -which was found in 1857 by Dr. Fuhlrott, near Dusseldorf, in a deep -ravine known by the name of Neanderthal. This skull (fig. 38) was -discovered in the midst of a small cave under a layer of mud about 5 -feet in thickness. The entire skeleton was doubtless buried on the same -spot, but the workmen engaged in clearing out the cave must have -inadvertently scattered a great portion of the bones, for the largest -only could be collected. - -It is well to call attention to the fact that no animal remains were -found near these bones; there is, therefore, no certain proof that the -latter can be assigned to the epoch of the great bear: they might, in -fact, be either more recent or more modern. Most geologists are, -however, of opinion that they ought to be referred to the above-named -early date. - -The Neanderthal skull, of which we possess even a smaller portion than -of the preceding, differs from the Engis skull. It is characterised by -an extraordinary development of the frontal sinuses; that is, by an -enormous projection of the superciliary ridges, behind which the frontal -bone presents a considerable depression. The cranium is very thick, and -of an elongated elliptical shape; the forehead is narrow and low. - -These remarks were made by Professor Schaaffhausen, who also established -the fact of the identity in length of the femur, the humerus, the -radius, and the ulna, with the same bones of a modern European of equal -size. But the Prussian _savant_ was surprised at the really remarkable -thickness of these bones, and also at the large development of the -projections and depressions which served for the insertion of the -muscles. - -Fig. 38 represents this skull, which is drawn from the cast in the -Museum of St. Germain. - -Professor Schaaffhausen's opinion with regard to this skull is, that it -manifests a degree of intelligence more limited than that of the races -of negroes who are least favoured by nature, in other words, it -approaches the nature of the beast more nearly than any other known -human skull. But, on the other hand, Mr. Busk and Dr. Barnard Davis look -upon this skull as very closely allied to the present race of men; and -Professor Gratiolet produced before the Anthropological Society of Paris -an idiot's head of the present day, which showed all the osteological -characteristics peculiar to the Neanderthal skull. Lastly, an -anthropologist of great authority, Dr. Pruner-Bey, has brought forward -all requisite evidence to prove that the Neanderthal skull is identical, -in all its parts, with the cranium of the Celt. - -We see, therefore, that the opinion propounded by Dr. Schaaffhausen at -the commencement of his studies was not able to stand its ground before -the opposition resulting from subsequent labours on the point; and that -this head of a man belonging to the epoch of the great bear and mammoth, -which he regarded as manifesting the most limited amount of -intelligence, differed in no way from the heads belonging to Celts of -historic times, whose moral qualities and manly courage make Frenchmen -proud to call themselves their descendants. - -We need scarcely add that the examination of this latter skull, which -dated back to the first origin of mankind, is sufficient to set at -naught all that has been written as to the pretended analogy of -structure existing between primitive man and the ape, and to wipe out -for ever from scientific phraseology the improper and unhappy term -_fossil man_, which has not only been the cause of so many lamentable -misunderstandings, but has also too long arrested the formation and the -progress of the science of the first starting-point of man. - -Other remains of human skulls, appearing to date back to a very ancient -epoch, have been found in various countries, since the discovery of -those above-named. We will mention, a jaw-bone found by M. Édouard -Dupont in the cave of Naulette, near Dinant, in Belgium--a frontal and -parietal bone, extracted from the _Lehm_ in the valley of the Rhine, at -Eggisheim near Colmar, by Dr. Faudel--a skull found by Professor Bocchi, -of Florence, in the Olmo pass, near Arezzo--lastly, the celebrated -jaw-bone from Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, found in 1863 by Boucher -de Perthes, in the _diluvium_, of which bone we have given an -illustration in the introduction to this volume. It is acknowledged by -all anthropologists that this portion of the skull of the man of -Moulin-Quignon bears a perfect resemblance to that of a man of small -size of the present age. - -From the small number of skulls which we possess, it is impossible for -us to estimate what was the precise degree of intelligence to be -ascribed to man at the epoch of the great bear and mammoth. No one, -assuredly, will be surprised at the fact, that the human skull in these -prodigiously remote ages did not present any external signs of great -intellectual development. The nature of man is eminently improvable; it -is, therefore, easily to be understood, that in the earliest ages of his -appearance on the earth his intelligence should have been of a limited -character. Time and progress were destined both to improve and extend -it; the flame of the first-lighted torch was to be expanded with the -lapse of centuries! - - - - -II. - - -EPOCH OF THE REINDEER, OR OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - Mankind during the Epoch of the Reindeer--Their Manners and - Customs--Food--Garments--Weapons, Utensils, and Implements-- - Pottery--Ornaments--Primitive Arts--The principal Caverns-- - Type of the Human Race during the Epoch of the Reindeer. - - -We have now arrived at that subdivision of the stone age which we -designate by the name of the _Reindeer Epoch_, or the _Epoch of migrated -animals_. Many ages have elapsed since the commencement of the -quaternary geological epoch. The mighty animals which characterised the -commencement of this period have disappeared, or are on the point of -becoming extinct. The great bear (_Ursus spelæus_) and the cave-hyæna -(_Hyæna spelæa_) will soon cease to tread the soil of our earth. It will -not be long before the final term will be completed of the existence of -the cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_), the mammoth, and the _Rhinoceros -tichorhinus_. Created beings diminish in size as they improve in type. - -To make up for these losses, numerous herds of reindeer now inhabit the -forests of western Europe. In that part of the continent which was one -day to be called France, these animals make their way as far as the -Pyrenees. The horse (_Equus caballus_), in no way different from the -present species, is the companion of the above-named valuable ruminant; -also the bison (_Biso europæus_), the urus (_Bos primigenius_), the -musk-ox (_Ovibos moschatus_), the elk, the deer, the chamois, the ibex, -and various species of rodents, amongst others, the beaver, the -hamster-rat, the lemming, the spermophilus, &c. - -After the intense cold of the glacial period the temperature has become -sensibly milder, but it is still much lower than at the present day in -the same countries; as the reindeer, an animal belonging to a -hyperborean climate, can both enjoy life and multiply in the -comparatively southern part of Europe. - -The general composition of the _fauna_ which we have just described is a -striking proof of the rigorous cold which still characterised the -climate of central Europe. Animals which then inhabited those countries -are now only met with in the high northern latitudes of the old and new -worlds, in close proximity to the ice and snow, or on the lofty summits -of great mountain-chains. To localities of this kind have now retired -the reindeer, the musk-ox, the elk, the chamois, the wild-goat, the -hamster-rat, the lemming and the spermophilus. The beaver, too, is at -the present day confined almost entirely to Canada. - -Mr. Christy, an English naturalist, has remarked with much acuteness -that the accumulations of bones and other organic remains in caves -actually imply the existence of a rigorous climate. Under the influence -of even a merely moderate temperature, these accumulations of bones and -animal remains would, in fact, have given forth putrid exhalations which -would have prevented any human being from living in close contiguity to -these infectious heaps. The Esquimaux of the present day live, in this -respect, very much like the people of primitive ages, that is, close by -the side of the most fetid _débris_; but, except in the cold regions of -the north, they would be quite unable to do this. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Man of the Reindeer Epoch.] - -What progress was made by the man of the reindeer epoch (fig. 39) beyond -that attained by his ancestors? This is the question we are about to -consider. But we must confine the sphere of our study to the only two -countries in which a sufficient number of investigations have been made -in respect to the epoch of the reindeer. We allude to that part of -Europe which nowadays forms France and Belgium. - -During the reindeer epoch, man wrought the flint to better effect than -in the preceding period. He also manufactured somewhat remarkable -implements in bone, ivory, and reindeers' horn. In the preceding period, -human bones were found in caves, mixed up indiscriminately with those of -animals; in the epoch we are now considering, this promiscuous -intermingling is no longer met with. - -We shall first pass in review man as existing in this epoch, in respect -to his habitation and food. We shall then proceed to speak of the -productions of his industry, and also of the earliest essays of his -artistic genius. Lastly, we shall briefly consider his physical -organisation. - -With respect to his habitation, man, during the reindeer epoch, still -took up his abode in caves. According to their depth and the light -penetrating them, he either occupied the whole extent of them or -established himself in the outlet only. About the centre of the cavern -some slabs of stone, selected from the hardest rocks, such as sandstone -or slate, were bedded down in the ground, and formed the hearth for -cooking his food. During the long nights of winter the whole family must -have assembled round this hearth. - -Sometimes, in order the better to defend himself against the various -surprises to which he was exposed, the man of the reindeer epoch -selected a cavern with a very narrow inlet which could only be entered -by climbing. - -A cave formed naturally in the deepest clefts and hollows of some rock -constituted, in every climate, the earliest habitation of man. In cold -climates it was necessary for him to find some retreat in which to pass -the night, and in warmer latitudes he had to ward off the heat of the -day. But these natural dwellings could only be met with in districts -where rocks existed which offered facilities for cover in the way of -clefts and holes. When man took up his abode in a level country, he was -compelled to construct for himself some place of shelter. By collecting -together stones, brought from various directions, he then managed to -build an artificial cavern. Choosing a spot where some natural -projection overhung the ground, he enlarged, as far as he was able, this -natural roof, and, bringing art to the assistance of nature, he -ultimately found himself in possession of a convenient retreat. - -We must not omit to add that the spot in which he established his -dwelling was always in the vicinity of some running stream. - -In this way, therefore, the inhabitants of the plains formed their -habitations during the epoch which we are considering. - -We have, also, certain proofs that primitive tribes, during this period, -did not take up their abode in natural caverns exclusively, but that -they were able to make for themselves more convenient sheltering-places -under the cover of some great overhanging rock. In various regions of -France, especially in Périgord, numerous ancient open-air human -settlements have been discovered. They must have been mere sheds or -places of shelter, leaning against the base of some high cliff, and -protected against the inclemency of the weather by projections of the -rock which, more or less, hung over them, forming a kind of roof. The -name of _rock-shelters_ has been given to these dwellings of primitive -man. - -These wild retreats are generally met with in the lower part of some -valley in close proximity to a running stream. They, like the caverns, -contain very rich deposits of the bones of mammals, birds and fishes, -and also specimens of hatchets and utensils made of flint, bone, and -horn. Traces of hearths are also discovered. - -One of the most remarkable of these natural shelters belonging to the -reindeer epoch has been discovered at Bruniquel, in the department of -Tarn-et-Garonne, not far from Montauban. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Rock-shelter at Bruniquel, a supposed -Habitation of Man during the Reindeer Epoch.] - -On the left bank of the river Aveyron, under the overhanging shelter of -one of the highest rocks of Bruniquel and in close proximity to a -_château_, the picturesque ruins of which still stand on the brow of the -cliff above, there was discovered, in 1866, a fire-hearth of the -pre-historic period; this hearth and its surroundings have afforded us -the most complete idea of one of the rock-shelters of man during the -reindeer epoch. - -This rock, known by the name of Montastruc, is about 98 feet high, and -it overhangs the ground below for an extent of 46 to 49 feet. It covers -an area of 298 square yards. In this spot, M. V. Brun, the Director of -the Museum of Natural History at Montauban, found a host of objects of -various descriptions, the study of which has furnished many useful ideas -for the history of this epoch of primitive humanity. - -By taking advantage of the photographic views of the pre-historic -settlement of Bruniquel, which M. V. Brun has been kind enough to -forward to us, we have been enabled to compose the sketch which is -presented in fig. 40 of a rock-shelter, or an open-air settlement of man -in the reindeer epoch. - -Men during the reindeer epoch did not possess any notion of agriculture. -They had not as yet subdued and domesticated any animal so as to profit -by its strength, or to ensure by its means a constant supply of food. -They were, therefore, like their forefathers, essentially hunters; and -pursued wild animals, killing them with their spears or arrows. The -reindeer was the animal which they chiefly attacked. This mammal, which -then existed all over Europe, in the centre as well as in the south -(although it has now retired or migrated into the regions of the extreme -north), was for the man of this period all that it nowadays is to the -Laplander--the most precious gift of nature. They fed upon its flesh and -made their garments of its skin, utilising its tendons as thread in the -preparation of their dress; its bones and its antlers they converted -into all kinds of weapons and implements. Reindeer's horn was the -earliest raw material in the manufactures of these remote ages, and to -the man of this epoch was all that iron is to us. - -The horse, the ox, the urus, the elk, the ibex, and the chamois, all -formed a considerable part of the food of men during this epoch. They -were in the habit of breaking the long bones and the skulls of the -recently-killed animals, in order to extract the marrow and the brain, -which they ate all steaming with the natural animal heat, as is done in -the present day by certain tribes in the Arctic regions. The meat of -this animal was cooked on their rough hearths; for they did not eat it -raw as some naturalists have asserted. The animal bones which have been -found, intermingled with human remains, in the caverns of this epoch -bear evident traces of the action of fire. - -To this animal prey they occasionally added certain birds, such as the -great heath-cock, willow-grouse, owl, &c. When this kind of game fell -short, they fell back upon the rat. Round the hearthstone, in the cave -of Chaleux, M. Dupont found more than twenty pounds weight of the bones -of water-rats, half roasted. - -Fish is an article of food which has always been much sought after by -man. By mere inference we might, therefore, readily imagine that man -during the reindeer epoch fed on fish as well as the flesh of animals, -even if the fact were not attested by positive evidence. This evidence -is afforded by the remains of fish-bones which are met with in the caves -of this epoch, intermingled with the bones of mammals, and also by -sketches representing parts of fishes, which are found roughly traced on -a great number of fragments of bone and horn implements. - -The art of fishing, therefore, must certainly have been in existence -during the reindeer epoch. We cannot assert that it was practised during -that of the great bear and the mammoth; but, as regards the period we -are now considering, no doubt can be entertained on the point. In an -article on the 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' M. G. de -Mortillet expresses himself as follows: - -"The epoch of the reindeer presents to our notice several specimens of -fishing-tackle. The most simple is a little splinter of bone, generally -about one to two inches long, straight, slender, and pointed at both -ends. This is the primitive and elementary fish-hook. This small -fragment of bone or reindeer horn was fastened by the middle and covered -with a bait; when swallowed by a fish, or even by an aquatic bird, it -became fixed in the interior of the body by one of the pointed ends, and -the voracious creature found itself caught by the cord attached to the -primitive hook. At the museum of Saint-Germain, there are several of -these hooks which came from the rich deposits of Bruniquel, near -Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne). - -"Hooks belonging to the reindeer epoch have also been found in the caves -and retreats of Dordogne, so well explored by MM. Lartet and Christy. -Along with those of the simple form which we have just described, others -were met with of a much more perfect shape. These are likewise small -fragments of bone or reindeer's horn, with deep and wide notches on one -side, forming a more or less developed series of projecting and sharp -teeth, or barbs. Two of them are depicted in Plate B, VI. of the -'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.' M. Lartet is in possession of several of them; -but the most remarkable specimen forms a part of the beautiful -collection of M. Peccadeau de l'Isle, of Paris."[7] - -There are strong reasons for believing that man during this epoch did -not confine himself to a diet of an exclusively carnivorous character, -for vegetable food is in perfect harmony with the organisation of our -species. By means of wild fruits, acorns, and chestnuts, he must have -introduced some little variety into his ordinary system of sustenance. - -From the data which we have been considering, we furnish, in fig. 41, a -representation of _a feast during the reindeer epoch_. Men are engaged -in cleaving the head of a urus, in order to extract and devour the -smoking brains. Others, sitting round the fire in which the flesh of the -same animal is being cooked, are sucking out the marrow from the long -bones of the reindeer, which they have broken by blows with a hatchet. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.--A Feast during the Reindeer Epoch.] - -It becomes a very interesting question to know whether the men of these -remote periods practised cannibalism or not. On this point we have as -yet no certain information. We will, however, state some facts which -seem to make in favour of this idea. - -Human skulls have been found in Scotland mixed up promiscuously with -sculptured flints, remains of pottery, and children's bones; on the -latter, Professor Owen thinks that he can recognise the trace of human -teeth. - -At Solutré, in Mâconnais, M. de Ferry has discovered human finger-joints -among the remains of cooking of the epoch of the great bear and mammoth, -and of that of the reindeer. - -The appearance of certain bones from the caves of Ariége, dug up by MM. -Garrigou and Filhol, has led both these _savants_ to the opinion "that -pre-historic man may have been anthropophagous." - -The same conclusion would be arrived at from the explorations which have -been undertaken in the grottos and caves of Northern Italy by M. Costa -de Beauregard. This latter _savant_ found in the caves the small -shin-bone of a child which had been carefully emptied and cleansed, -leading to the idea that the marrow had been eaten. - -At a point near Finale, on the road from Genoa to Nice, in a vast cave -which was for a long period employed as a habitation for our race, M. -Issel discovered some human bones which had evidently been calcined. -Their whitish colour, their lightness, and their friability left no room -for doubt on the point. Added to this, the incrustations on their -surface still contained small fragments of carbon. Moreover, many of the -bones showed notches which could not have been made without the help of -some sharp instrument. - -It is, therefore, probable that men in the stone age practised -anthropophagy; we have, really, no cause to be surprised at this; since, -in our own days, various savage tribes are addicted to cannibalism, -under a considerable diversity of circumstances. - -Not the least trace has been discovered of animals' bones being gnawed -by dogs in any of the human settlements during the reindeer epoch. Man, -therefore, had not as yet reduced the dog to a state of domesticity. - -How did primitive man dress himself during this epoch? He must have made -garments out of the skins of the quadrupeds which he killed in hunting, -and especially of the reindeer's hide. There can be no doubt on this -point. A large number of reindeers' antlers found in Périgord have at -their base certain cuts which evidently could only have been produced in -flaying the animal. - -It is no less certainly proved that these men knew how to prepare -animals' skins by clearing them of their hair, and that they were no -longer compelled, like their ancestors, to cover themselves with rough -bear-skins still covered with their fur. To what purpose could they have -applied the flint scrapers which are met with everywhere in such -abundance, except for scraping the hair off the skins of wild beasts? -Having thus taken off the hair, they rendered them supple by rubbing -them in with brains and the marrow extracted from the long bones of the -reindeer. Then they cut them out into some very simple patterns, which -are, of course, absolutely unknown to us; and, finally, they joined -together the different pieces by rough sewing. - -The fact that man at this epoch knew how to sew together reindeer skins -so as to convert them into garments, is proved by the discovery of -numerous specimens of instruments which must have been used for this -work; these are--and this is most remarkable--exactly the same as those -employed nowadays by the Laplanders, for the same purpose. They consist -of bodkins or stilettoes made of flint and bone (fig. 42), by means of -which the holes were pierced in the skin; also very carefully fashioned -needles, mostly of bone or horn (fig. 43). - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for sewing Reindeer -Skins, found in the Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Bone Needle for sewing.] - -The inspection of certain reindeer bones has likewise enabled us to -recognise the fact that the men of this age used for thread the sinewy -fibres of this animal. On these bones transverse cuts may be noticed, -just in those very spots where the section of the tendon must have taken -place. - -No metal was as yet known; consequently, man continued to make use of -stone instruments, both for the implements of labour, and also for -offensive and defensive weapons. The hatchet was but little employed as -a weapon of war, and the flint-knife was the arm most extensively used. -We must add to this, another potent although natural weapon; this was -the lower jaw-bone of the great bear, still retaining its sharp and -pointed canine tooth. The elongated and solid bone furnished the handle, -and the sharp tooth the formidable point; and with this instrument man -could in the chase attack and pierce any animal with which he entered -into a hand-to-hand conflict. - -It may be noticed that this weapon is placed in the hand of the man in -fig. 39, which represents him during the reindeer epoch. - -It must certainly be the case that the human race possesses to a very -high degree the taste for personal ornament, since objects used for -adornment are found in the most remote ages of mankind and in every -country. There can be no doubt that the men and women who lived in the -reindeer epoch sacrificed to the graces. In the midst of their -precarious mode of life, the idea entered into their minds of -manufacturing necklaces, bracelets, and pendants, either with shells -which they bored through the middle so as to be able to string them as -beads, or with the teeth of various animals which they pierced with -holes with the same intention, as represented in fig. 44. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.--The Canine Tooth of a Wolf, bored so as to be -used as an ornament.] - -The horny portion of the ear of the horse or ox (fig. 45), was likewise -used for the same purpose, that is, as an object of adornment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Ornament made of the bony part of a Horse's -Ear.] - -It becomes a question whether man at this epoch had any belief in a -future life, and practised anything which bore a resemblance to -religious worship. The existence, round the fire-hearths of the -burial-caverns in Belgium, of large fossil elephant (mammoth's) bones--a -fact which has been pointed out by M. Édouard Dupont--gives us some -reason for answering this question in the affirmative. According to M. -Morlot, the practice of placing bones round caverns still survives, as a -religious idea, among the Indians. We may, therefore, appeal to this -discovery as a hint in favour of the existence of some religious feeling -among the men who lived during the reindeer epoch. - -In the tombs of this epoch are found the weapons and knives which men -carried during their lifetime, and sometimes even a supply of the flesh -of animals used for food. This custom of placing near the body of the -dead provisions for the journey to be taken _post mortem_ is, as -remarked in reference to the preceding period, the proof of a belief in -another life. - -Certain religious, or rather superstitious, ideas may have been attached -to some glittering stones and bright fragments of ore which have been -picked up in several settlements of these primitive tribes. M. de -Vibraye found at Bourdeilles (Charente), two nodules of hydrated oxide -of iron mixed with _débris_ of all kinds; and at the settlement of -Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne), in the middle of the hearth, a small mass of -copper covered with a layer of green carbonate. In other spots there -have been met with pieces of jet, violet fluor, &c., pierced through the -middle, doubtless to enable them to be suspended to the neck and ears. -The greater part of these objects may possibly be looked upon as -amulets, that is, symbols of some religious beliefs entertained by man -during the reindeer epoch. - -The social instinct of man, the feeling which compels him to form an -alliance with his fellow-man, had already manifested itself at this -early period. Communication was established between localities at some -considerable distance from one another. Thus it was that the inhabitants -of the banks of the Lesse in Belgium travelled as far as that part of -France which is now called Champagne, in order to seek the flints which -they could not find in their own districts, although they were -indispensable to them in order to manufacture their weapons and -implements. They likewise brought back fossil shells, of which they made -fantastical necklaces. This distant intercourse cannot be called in -question, for certain evidences of it can be adduced. M. Édouard Dupont -found in the cave of Chaleux, near Dinant (Belgium), fifty-four of these -shells, which are not found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne. -Here, therefore, we have the rudiments of commerce, that is, of the -importation and exchange of commodities which form its earliest -manifestations in all nations of the world. - -Again, it may be stated that there existed at this epoch real -manufactories of weapons and utensils, the productions of which were -distributed around the neighbouring country according to the particular -requirements of each family. The cave of Chaleux, which was mentioned -above, seems to have been one of these places of manufacture; for from -the 8th to the 30th of May, during twenty-two days only, there were -collected at this spot nearly 20,000 flints chipped into hatchets, -daggers, knives, scrapers, scratchers, &c. - -Workshops of this kind were established in the settlements of -Laugerie-Basse and Laugerie-Haute in Périgord. The first was to all -appearance a special manufactory for spear-heads, some specimens of -which have been found by MM. Lartet and Christy of an extremely -remarkable nature; exact representations of them are delineated in fig. -46. In the second were fabricated weapons and implements of reindeers' -horn, if we may judge by the large quantity of remains of the antlers of -those animals, which were met with by these _savants_, almost all of -which bear the marks of sawing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Spear-head found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse -(Périgord).] - -It is not, however, probable that the objects thus manufactured were -exported to any great distance, as was subsequently the case, that is, -in the polished stone epoch. How would it be possible to cross great -rivers, and to pass through wide tracts overgrown with thick forests, in -order to convey far and wide these industrial products; at a time, too, -when no means of communication existed between one country and another? -But it is none the less curious to be able to verify the existence of a -rudimentary commerce exercised at so remote an epoch. - -The weapons, utensils and implements which were used by man during the -reindeer epoch testify to a decided progress having been made beyond -those of the preceding period. The implements are made of flint, bone, -or horn; but the latter kind are much the most numerous, chiefly in the -primitive settlements in the centre and south of France. Those of -Périgord are especially remarkable for the abundance of instruments made -of reindeers' bones. - -The great diversity of type in the wrought flints furnishes a very -evident proof of the long duration of the historical epoch we are -considering. In the series of these instruments we can trace all the -phases of improvement in workmanship, beginning with the rough shape of -the hatchets found in the _diluvium_ at Abbeville, and culminating in -those elegant spear-heads which are but little inferior to any -production of later times. - -We here give representations (fig. 47, 48, 49, 50), of the most curious -specimens of the stone and flint weapons of the reindeer epoch. Knives -and other small instruments, such as scrapers, piercers, borers, &c., -form the great majority; hatchets are comparatively rare. Instruments -are also met with which might be used for a double purpose, for -instance, borers and also piercers. There are also round stones which -must have been used as hammers; it may, at least, be noticed that they -have received repeated blows. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Worked Flint from Périgord (Knife).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Worked Flint from Périgord (Hatchet).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper).] - -Sir J. Lubbock is of opinion that some of these stones were employed in -heating water, after they had been made red-hot in the fire. According -to the above-named author, this plan of procuring hot water is still -adopted among certain savage tribes who are still ignorant of the art of -pottery, and possess nothing but wooden vessels, which cannot be placed -over a fire.[8] - -We must also mention the polishers formed of sandstone or some other -material with a rough surface. They could only be used for polishing -bone and horn, as the reindeer epoch does not admit of instruments of -polished stone. - -There have also been collected here and there pebbles of granite or -quartzite hollowed out at the centre, and more or less perfectly rounded -on the edges. It has been conjectured that these were mortars, although -their small dimensions scarcely countenance this hypothesis. Neither is -it probable that they were used for pounding seed, as fancied by M. de -Vibraye. Nor does the idea which has been entertained of their being -used for producing fire seem to have any sufficient ground. - -Among the most interesting specimens in the vast collection of flints -belonging to the reindeer epoch which have been found in the countries -of France and Belgium, we must mention the delicate and very -finely-toothed double-edged saws. The one we here represent (fig. 51) is -in the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain. It does not measure more -than three-quarters of an inch in length, and about one-tenth of an inch -in width. It was found by M. V. Brun in one of the _rock-shelters_ at -Bruniquel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Small Flint Saw, found in the Rock-shelter at -Bruniquel.] - -Saws of this kind were, no doubt, employed for fashioning the antlers of -the reindeer, and other ruminants that shed their horns. The antler was -cut into on each side, and the fracture was finished by hand. - -The objects of bone and reindeer-horn found in the caves of Périgord -show a still greater variety, and a no less remarkable skilfulness in -workmanship. - -We may mention, for instance, the arrow and javelin-heads. Some are -slender and tapering off at both ends; in others, the base terminates in -a single or double bevel. Among the latter, the greater part seem made -to fix in a cleft stick; some are ornamented with lines and hatching -over their surface. Others have notches in them, somewhat similar to an -attempt at barbing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.--The Chase during the Reindeer Epoch.] - -We now come to the barbed dart-heads, designated by the name of -_harpoons_. They taper-off considerably towards the top, and are -characterised by very decided barbs, shaped like hooks, and distributed -sometimes on one side only, and sometimes on both (figs. 53, 54). In the -latter case the barbs are arranged in pairs, and are provided with a -small furrow or middle groove, which, according to some naturalists, was -intended to hold some subtle poison. Like the present race of Indians -of the American forests, primitive man may possibly have poisoned his -arrows; and the longitudinal groove, which is noticed in so many -reindeer arrow-heads, may have served to contain the poison. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Barbed Arrow of Reindeer Horn.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 54--Arrow of Reindeer Horn with double Barbs.] - -We must not, however, fail to state that this opinion has been abandoned -since it has been ascertained that the North American Indians used in -former times to hunt the bison with wooden arrows furnished with grooves -or channels of a similar character. These channels are said to have been -intended to give a freer vent to the flow of the animal's blood, which -was thus, so to speak, sucked out of the wound. This may, therefore, -have been the intention of the grooves which are noticed on the -dart-heads of the reindeer epoch, and the idea of their having been -poisoned must be dismissed. - -These barbed darts or harpoons are still used by the Esquimaux of the -present day, in pursuing the seal. Such arrows, like those of the -primitive hordes of the reindeer epoch which are represented above -(figs. 53, 54), are sharply pointed and provided with barbs; they are -fastened to a string and shot from a bow. The Esquimaux sometimes attach -an inflated bladder to the extremity of the arrow, so that the hunter -may be apprized whether he has hit his mark, or in order to show in what -direction he should aim again. - -We give here (fig. 55) a drawing of a fragment of bone found in the cave -of Les Eyzies (Périgord); a portion of one of these harpoons remains -fixed in the bone. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Animal Bone, pierced by an Arrow of Reindeer -Horn.] - -We must assign to the class of implements the bone bodkins or stilettoes -of different sizes, either with or without a handle (figs. 56, 57), and -also a numerous series of needles found in the caves of Périgord, some -of which are very slender and elegant, and made of bone, horn, and even -ivory. In some of the human settlements of the reindeer epoch, bones -have been found, from which long splinters had been detached, fitted for -the fabrication of needles. The delicate points of flint have also been -found which were used to bore the eyes of the needles, and, lastly, the -lumps of sandstone on which the latter were polished. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave -of Laugerie-Basse (Stiletto?).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave -of Laugerie-Basse (Needle?).] - -We must, likewise, point out the _smoothers_, intended to flatten down -the seams in the skins used for garments. - -One of the most important instruments of this epoch is a perfect drill -with a sharpened point and cutting edge. With this flint point rapidly -twirled round, holes could be bored in any kind of material--bone, -teeth, horn, or shells. This stone drill worked as well as our tool made -of steel, according to the statement of certain naturalists who have -tried the effect of them. - -The primitive human settlement at Laugerie-Basse has furnished several -specimens of an instrument, the exact use of which has not been -ascertained. They are rods, tapering off at one end, and hollowed out at -the other in the shape of a spoon. M. Édouard Lartet has propounded the -opinion that they were used by the tribes of this epoch as spoons, in -order to extract the marrow from the long bones of the animals which -were used for their food. M. Lartet would not, however, venture to -assert this, and adds: "It is, perhaps, probable that our primitive -forefathers would not have taken so much trouble." Be this as it may, -one of these instruments is very remarkable for the lines and ornaments -in relief with which it is decorated, testifying to the existence in the -workman of some feeling of symmetry (fig. 58). - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Spoon of Reindeer Horn.] - -In various caves--at Les Eyzies, Laugerie-Basse, and Chaffant, _commune_ -of Savigné (Vienne)--whistles of a peculiar kind have been found (fig. -59). They are made from the first joint of the foot of the reindeer or -some other ruminant of the stag genus. A hole has been bored in the base -of the bone, a little in front of the metatarsal joint. If one blows -into this hole, placing the lower lip in the hollow answering to the -above-named joint, a shrill sound is produced, similar to that made by -blowing into a piped key. We ourselves have had the pleasure of -verifying the fact, at the Museum of Saint-Germain, that these primitive -whistles act very well. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Knuckle-Bone of a Reindeer's Foot, bored with a -hole and used as a Whistle.] - -The settlements at Périgord have also furnished a certain number of -staves made of reindeer horn (figs. 60, 61), the proper functions of -which no one has succeeded in properly explaining. They are invariably -bored with one or more holes at the base, and are covered with designs -to which we shall hereafter refer. M. Lartet has thought that they were -perhaps symbols or staves of authority. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn, found in -the Cave of Périgord.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Another Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn.] - -This explanation appears the correct one when we consider the care with -which these bâtons were fashioned. If the hypothesis of their being -symbols of authority be adopted, the varying number of the holes would -not be without intention; it might point to some kind of hierarchy, the -highest grade of which corresponded to the bâton with the most holes. -Thus, in the Chinese empire, the degree of a mandarin's authority is -estimated by the number of buttons on his silk cap. And just as in the -Mussulman hierarchy there were pachas of from one to three tails, so it -may be fancied that among primitive man of the reindeer epoch there were -chiefs of from one to three holes! - -We have already stated that in the epoch of the great bear and the -mammoth the art of manufacturing a rough description of pottery was, -perhaps, known in Europe. The men of the reindeer epoch made, however, -but little progress in this respect. Nevertheless, if certain relics -really belong to this period, they may have known how to make rough -vessels, formed of clay, mixed with sand, and hardened by the action of -fire. This primitive art was, as yet, anything but generally adopted: -for we very rarely find _débris_ of pottery in close contiguity with -other remains of the reindeer epoch. - -The Archæological Museum of Saint Germain is in possession of a hollow -vessel, a natural geode, very large and very thick (fig. 62). It was -found in the cave of La Madelaine (department of Dordogne); on one side -it has evidently been subjected to the action of fire, and may therefore -be presumed to have been used as a large vessel for culinary purposes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.--A Geode, used as a cooking Vessel (?), found in -the Cave of La Madelaine (Périgord).] - -In a cave at Furfooz, near Dinant in Belgium, to which we shall -subsequently refer, M. Édouard Dupont found, intermingled with human -bones, an urn, or specimen of rough pottery, which is perhaps one of the -most ancient monuments of the ceramic art as practised by our primitive -ancestors. This urn (fig. 63) was partly broken; by the care of M. -Hauzeur it has been put together again, as we represent it from the work -of M. Le Hon.[9] - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Earthen Vase found in the Cave of Furfooz -(Belgium).] - -It is in the reindeer epoch that we find the earliest traces of any -artistic feeling manifested in man. - -It is a circumstance well worthy of remark, that this feeling appears to -have been the peculiar attribute of the tribes which inhabited the -south-west of the present France; the departments of Dordogne, Vienne, -Charente, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Ariége, are, in fact, the only localities -where designs and carvings representing organised beings have been -discovered. The departments in the east have not furnished anything of a -similar character, any more than Belgium, which has been so thoroughly -explored by M. Édouard Dupont, or Wurtemburg, where M. Fraas has lately -described various settlements of this primitive epoch. - -It is not sufficient to allege, in order to explain this singular -circumstance, that the caves in the south of France belong to a later -period of the reindeer epoch, and that the others go back to the -earliest commencement of the same age. Apart from the fact that this -assertion is in no way proved, a complete and ready answer is involved -in the well verified circumstance, that even in later ages--in the -polished stone, and even in the bronze epoch--no representation of an -animal or plant is found to have been executed in these localities. No -specimen of the kind has, in fact, been found in the _kitchen-middens_ -of Denmark, or in the lacustrine settlements of the stone age, or even -of the bronze age. - -It must, then, be admitted that the tribes which were scattered over -those portions of the European continent which now correspond to the -south-west of France, possessed a special talent in the art of design. -There is, moreover, nothing unreasonable in such a supposition. An -artistic feeling is not always the offspring of civilisation, it is -rather a gift of nature. It may manifest its existence in the most -barbarous ages, and may make its influence more deeply felt in nations -which are behindhand in respect to general progress than in others which -are much further advanced in civilisation. - -There can be no doubt that the rudiments of engraving and sculpture of -which we are about to take a view, testify to faculties of an -essentially artistic character. Shapes are so well imitated, movements -are so thoroughly caught, as it were, in the sudden fact of action, that -it is almost always possible to recognise the object which the ancient -workman desired to represent, although he had at his disposal nothing -but the rudest instruments for executing his work. A splinter of flint -was his sole graving-tool, a piece of reindeer horn, or a flake of slate -or ivory, was the only plate on which primitive man could stamp his -reproductions of animated nature. - -Perhaps they drew on stone or horn with lumps of red-chalk or ochre, for -both these substances have been found in the caves of primitive man. -Perhaps, too, as is the case with modern savages, the ochre and -red-chalk were used besides for painting or tatooing his body. When the -design was thus executed on stone or horn, it was afterwards engraved -with the point of some flint instrument. - -Those persons who have attentively examined the interesting gallery of -the _Histoire du Travail_ in the International Exposition of 1867, must -have remarked a magnificent collection of these artistic productions of -primeval ages. There were no less than fifty-one specimens, which were -exhibited by several collectors, and were for the most part extremely -curious. In his interesting work, 'Promenades Préhistoriques à -l'Exposition Universelle,' M. Gabriel de Mortillet has carefully -described these objects. In endeavouring to obtain some knowledge of -them, we shall take as our guide the learned curator of the -Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain. - -We have, in the first place, various representations of the mammoth, -which was still in existence at the commencement of the reindeer epoch. - -The first (fig. 64) is an outline sketch, drawn on a slab of ivory, from -the cave of La Madelaine. When MM. Lartet and Christy found it, it was -broken into five pieces, which they managed to put together very -accurately. The small eye and the curved tusks of the animal may be -perfectly distinguished, as well as its huge trunk, and even its -abundant mane, the latter proving that it is really the mammoth--that is -the fossil--and not the present species of elephant. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Sketch of a Mammoth, graven on a Slab of -Ivory.] - -The second figure is an entire mammoth, graven on a fragment of reindeer -horn, from the rock-shelters of Bruniquel, and belongs to M. Peccadeau -de l'Isle. This figure forms the hilt of a poniard, the blade of which -springs from the front part of the animal. It may be recognised to be -the mammoth by its trunk, its wide flat feet, and especially by its -erect tail, ending in a bunch of hair. In point of fact, the present -species of elephant never sets up the tail, and has no bunch of hair at -the end of it. - -A third object brought from the pre-historic station of Laugerie-Basse -(M. de Vibraye's collection) is the lower end of a staff of authority -carved in the form of a mammoth's head. The prominent forehead, and the -body of the animal stretching along the base of the staff, may both be -very distinctly seen. - -On another fragment of a staff of authority, found at Bruniquel by M. V. -Brun, the cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_) is carved with great clearness. The -head, in particular, is perfectly represented. - -Representations of reindeer, either carved or scratched on stone or -horn, are very common; we mention the following:-- - -In the first place the hilt of a dagger in reindeer's horn (fig. 65) of -the same type as that shaped in the form of a mammoth. This specimen is -remarkable, because the artist has most skilfully adapted the shape of -the animal to the purpose for which the instrument was intended. The -hilt represents a reindeer, which is carved out as if lying in a very -peculiar position; the hind legs are stretched along the blade, and the -front legs are doubled back under the belly, so as not to hurt the hand -of anyone holding the dagger; lastly, the head is thrown back, the -muzzle turned upwards, and the horns flattened down so as not to -interfere with the grasp. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Hilt of a Dagger, carved in the shape of a -Reindeer.] - -This is, at all events, nothing but a rough sketch. The same remark, -however, does not apply to two ivory daggers found at Bruniquel by M. -Peccadeau de l'Isle. These objects are very artistically executed, and -are the most finished specimens that have been found up to the present -time. Both of them represent a reindeer with the head thrown back as in -the preceding plate; but whilst in one dagger the blade springs from the -hinder part of the body, in the same way as in the rough-hewn horn, in -the other it proceeds from the front of the body, between the head and -the forelegs. The hind legs are stretched out and meet again at the -feet, thus forming a hole between them, which was probably used as a -ring on which to suspend the dagger. - -We must not omit to mention a slab of slate, on which is drawn in -outline a reindeer fight. It was found at Laugerie-Basse by M. de -Vibraye. The artist has endeavoured to portray one of those furious -contests in which the male reindeer engages during the rutting season, -in order to obtain possession of the females; he has executed his -design in a spirited manner, marked by a certain _naïveté_. - -There are a good many other fragments on which reindeer are either drawn -or carved; we shall not dwell upon them, but add a few remarks as to -several specimens on which are representations of the stag, the horse, -the bison, the ibex, &c. - -A representation of a stag (fig. 66) is drawn on a fragment of stag's -horn found in the cave of La Madelaine by MM. Lartet and Christy. The -shape of the antlers, which are very different to those of the reindeer, -leave no doubt as to the identity of the animal. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Representation of a Stag, drawn on a Stag's -Horn.] - -The ox and the bison are represented in various fashions. We will -mention here a carved head which was found in the cave of Laugerie-Basse -by M. de Vibraye. It forms the base of a staff of authority. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Representation of some large herbivorous Animal -on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn.] - -We must, doubtless, class under the same category a fragment of -reindeer's horn, found at Laugerie-Basse, on which the hind-quarters of -some large herbivorous animal are sketched out with a bold and practised -touch (fig. 67). Various indications have led M. Lartet to think that -the artist has not endeavoured to represent a horse, as was at first -imagined, but a bison of rather a slender shape. Unfortunately the -fragment is broken at the exact spot where the bushy mane should begin, -which characterises the species of the bison sub-genus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Arts of Drawing and Sculpture during the -Reindeer Epoch.] - -In the same locality another fragment of reindeer's horn was found, on -which some horned animal is depicted (fig. 69), which appears to be an -ibex, if we may judge by the lines under the chin which seem to indicate -a beard. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Representation of an Animal, sketched on a -Fragment of Reindeer's Horn.] - -In the cave of Les Eyzies, in the department of Dordogne, MM. Lartet and -Christy came upon two slabs of quartziferous schist, on both of which -are scratched animal forms which are deficient in any special -characteristics. In one (fig. 70), some have fancied they could -recognise the elk; but, as the front part only of the other has been -preserved, it is almost impossible to determine what mammiferous animal -it is intended to represent. An indistinct trace of horns seems to -indicate a herbivorous animal. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Fragment of a Slab of Schist, bearing the -representation of some Animal, and found in the Cave of Les Eyzies.] - -On each side of a staff of authority made of reindeer's horn, found by -MM. Lartet and Christy in the cave of the Madelaine, may be noticed -three horses in demi-relief, which are very easily recognisable. - -On a carved bone, found at Bruniquel by M. de Lastic, the head of a -reindeer and that of a horse are drawn in outline side by side; the -characteristics of both animals are well maintained. - -Lastly, we may name a round shaft formed of reindeer's horn (fig. 71), -found at Laugerie-Basse by MM. Lartet and Christy, on which is carved an -animal's head, with ears of a considerable length laid back upon the -head. It is not easy to determine for what purpose this shaft was -intended; one end being pointed and provided with a lateral hook. It was -perhaps used as a harpoon. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.--A kind of Harpoon of Reindeer's Horn, carved in -the shape of an Animal's Head.] - -Representations of birds are more uncommon than those of mammals. - -There are, on the other hand, a good many rough delineations of fish, -principally on the so-called wands of authority, on which numbers may -often be noticed following one another in a series. We have one -delineation of a fish, skilfully drawn on a fragment of the lower -jaw-bone of a reindeer, which was found at Laugerie-Basse. - -Also in the cave of La Vache (Ariége), M. Garrigou found a fragment of -bone, on which there is a clever design of a fish. - -Very few representations of reptiles have come to light, and those found -are in general badly executed. We must, however, make an exception in -favour of the figure of a tadpole, scratched out on an arrow-head, found -in the cave of the Madelaine. - -Designs representing flowers are very rare; in the _Galerie du Travail_, -at the Exposition, only three specimens are exhibited; they came from La -Madelaine and Laugerie-Basse, and were all three graven on spear-heads. - -But did the men of the reindeer epoch make no attempts to portray their -own personal appearance? Have not the excavations dug in the settlements -of primitive man, found in Périgord, ever brought to light any imitation -of the human form? Nothing could exceed the interest of such a -discovery. Research has not been entirely fruitless in this respect, and -it is hoped that the first attempt in the art of statuary of this -primitive people may yet be discovered. In the cave of Laugerie-Basse, -M. de Vibraye found a little ivory statuette, which he takes to be a -kind of idol of an indecent character. The head and legs, as well as the -arms, are broken off. - -Another human figure (fig. 72), which, like the preceding one, is long -and lean, is graven on a staff of authority, a fragment of which was -found in the cave of La Madelaine by MM. Lartet and Christy. The man is -represented standing between two horses' heads, and by the side of a -long serpent or fish, having the appearance of an eel. On the reverse -side of the same bâton, which is not given in the figure, the heads of -two bisons are represented. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Staff of Authority, on which are graven -representations of a Man, two Horses, and a Fish.] - -On a fragment of a spear-head, found in the same settlement of -Laugerie-Basse, there is a series of human hands, provided with four -fingers only, represented in demi-relief. M. Lartet has called attention -to the fact, that certain savage tribes still depict the hand without -noticing the thumb. - -In fig. 39, which represents man during the reindeer epoch, such as we -must suppose him to have been from the sum total of our present stock of -information on the point, we see a man clothed in garments sewn with a -needle, carrying as his chief weapon the jaw-bone of a bear armed with -its sharp fang, and also provided with his flint hatchet or knife. Close -to him a woman is seated, arrayed in all the personal ornaments which -are known to have been peculiar to this epoch. - -The question now arises, what were the characteristics of man during the -reindeer epoch, with regard to his physical organisation? - -We know a little of some of the broader features of his physiognomy from -studying the objects found in the Belgian bone-caves, of which we have -spoken in the introduction to this work. These caves were explored by M. -Édouard Dupont, assisted by M. Van Beneden, a Belgian palæontologist and -anatomist. The excavations in question were ordered by King Leopold's -Government, which supplied the funds necessary for extending them as far -as possible. The three caves, all situated in the valley of the Lesse, -are the _Trou des Nutons_, the _Trou du Frontal_, at Furfooz, near -Dinant, and the _Caverne de Chaleux_, in the neighbourhood of the town -from which its name is derived. - -The _Trou des Nutons_ and the _Trou du Frontal_ have been completely -thrown into confusion by a violent inroad of water; for the _débris_ -that they contained were intermingled in an almost incredible confusion -with a quantity of earthy matter and calcareous rocks, which had been -drifted in by the inundation. - -In the _Trou des Nutons_, which is situated about 164 feet above the -level of the Lesse, M. Van Beneden recognised a great many bones of the -reindeer, the urus, and many other species which are not yet extinct. -These bones were indiscriminately mixed up with bones and horns of the -reindeer carved into different shapes, knuckle-bones of the goat -polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a goat, from -which sounds could still be produced, fragments of very coarse pottery, -some remains of fire-hearths, &c. - -The _Trou du Frontal_ was thus named by M. Édouard Dupont, from the fact -of a human frontal-bone having been found there on the day that the -excavations commenced. This was not the only discovery of the kind that -was to be made. Ere long they fell in with a great quantity of human -bones, intermixed with a considerable number of the bones of reindeer -and other animals, as well as implements of all kinds. M. Van Beneden -ascertained that the bones must have belonged to thirteen persons of -various ages; some of them are the bones of infants scarcely a year old. -Among them were found two perfect skulls which are in good preservation; -these remains are also very valuable, because they afford data from -which deductions may be drawn as to the cranial conformation of the -primitive inhabitants of the banks of the Lesse. - -M. Édouard Dupont is of opinion that this cave was used as a -burial-place. It is, in fact, very probable that such was the purpose -for which it was intended; for a large flag-stone was found in it, which -was probably used to close up the mouth of the cave, and to shield the -dead bodies from profanation. If this be the case, the animal bones -which were scattered around are the remains of the funeral banquets -which it was the custom to provide during the epoch of the great bear -and the mammoth. - -It is interesting to establish the existence of such a similarity -between the customs of men who were separated by vast tracts of land and -an interval of many thousands of years. - -Immediately above the _Trou du Frontal_ there is a cave called _Trou -Rosette_, in which the bones of three persons of various ages were found -intermingled with the bones of reindeer and beavers; fragments of a -blackish kind of pottery were also found there, which were hollowed out -in rough grooves by way of ornamentation, and merely hardened in the -fire. M. Dupont is of opinion that the three men whose remains were -discovered were crushed to death by masses of rock at the time of the -great inundation, traces of which may still be seen in the valley of the -Lesse. - -By the falling in of its roof, which buried under a mass of rubbish all -the objects which were contained in it at the time of the catastrophe -and thus kept them in their places, the cave of Chaleux escaped the -complete disturbance with which the above-mentioned caverns were -visited. The bones of mammals, of birds, and of fish were found there; -also some carved bones and horns of the reindeer, some fossil shells, -which, as we have before observed, came from Champagne, and were used as -ornaments; lastly, and chiefly, wrought flints numbering at least -30,000. In the hearth, which was placed in the middle of the cave, a -stone was discovered with certain signs on it, which, up to the present -time, have remained unexplained. M. Dupont, as we have previously -stated, collected in the immediate vicinity about twenty-two pounds' -weight of the bones of the water-rat either scorched or roasted; this -proves that when a more noble and substantial food failed them, the -primitive inhabitants of this country were able to content themselves -with these small and unsavoury rodents. - -The two skulls which were found at Furfooz have been carefully examined -by MM. Van Beneden and Pruner-Bey, who are both great authorities on -the subject of anthropology. These skulls present considerable -discrepancies, but Pruner-Bey is of opinion that they are heads of a -male and female of the same race. In order to justify his hypothesis the -learned anthropologist says, that there is often more difference between -the skulls of the two sexes of the same race, than between the skulls of -the same sex belonging to two distinct races. - -[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Skull found at Furfooz, by M. Édouard Dupont.] - -One of these skulls is distinguished by a projecting jaw; the other, -which is represented in fig. 73, has jaws even with the facial outline. -The prominent jaw of the first, which is the indication of a degraded -race (like that of the negro), does not prevent its having a higher -forehead and a more capacious cranium than the other skull. We find here -an actual intermingling of the characteristics which belong to the -inferior races with those peculiar to the Caucasian race, which is -considered to be the most exalted type of the human species. - -According to Pruner-Bey, the Belgian people during the reindeer epoch -were a race of small stature but very sturdy; the face was -lozenge-shaped, and the whole skull had the appearance of a pyramid. -This race of a Turanian or Mongolian origin was the same as the Ligurian -or Iberian race, which still exists in the north of Italy (Gulf of -Genoa), and in the Pyrenees (Basque districts). - -These conclusions must be accepted with the highest degree of caution, -for they do not agree with the opinions of all anthropologists. M. Broca -is of opinion that the Basques have sprung from a North African race, -which spread over Europe at a time when an isthmus existed where the -Straits of Gibraltar are now situated. This idea is only reasonable; -for certain facts prove that Europe and Africa were formerly connected -by a neck of land; this was afterwards submerged, at the spot where the -Straits of Gibraltar now exist, bringing about the disjunction of Europe -and Africa. It will be sufficient proof, if we point to the analogy -subsisting between the _fauna_ of the two countries, which is -established by the existence of a number of wild monkeys which, even in -the present day, inhabit this arid rock, and are also to be met with on -the opposite African shore. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Skull of an old Man, found in a _Rock-shelter_ -at Bruniquel.] - -In the interesting excavations which were made in the _rock-shelters_ at -Bruniquel, M. V. Brun found a quantity of human bones, and particularly -two skulls--one that of an old man, the other that of an adult. We here -(fig. 74) give a representation of the old man's skull taken from a -photograph which M. V. Brun has been kind enough to send us. - -If we measure the facial angle of this skull, we shall find that it does -not differ from the skulls of the men who at the present time inhabit -the same climates. From this fact, it may be gathered how mistaken the -idea may be which looks upon primitive man, or the man of the stone -epoch as a being essentially different from the men of the present day. -The phrase _fossil man_, we must again repeat, should be expunged from -the vocabulary of science; we should thus harmonise better with -established facts, and should also do away with a misunderstanding which -is highly detrimental to the investigations into the origin of man. - -In concluding this account of the manners and customs of man during the -reindeer epoch, we must say a few words as to the funeral rites of this -time, or rather, the mode of burial peculiar to this period of primitive -man's history. - -Those who lived in caves buried their dead in caves. It is, also, a fact -to be remarked, that man often uses the same type for both his -burial-places and dwelling-places. - -The burial-places of the Tartars of Kasan, says M. Nilsson, are exact -likenesses, on a small scale, of their dwelling-places, and like them, -are constructed of beams placed close to one another. A Circassian -burial-place is perfectly similar to a Circassian dwelling. The tombs of -the Karaite Jews, in the valley of Jehoshaphat, resemble their houses -and places of worship, and the Neo-Grecian tombs, in the Crimea, are -likewise imitations of their churches.[10] - -We shall not, therefore, be surprised to learn that man during the -reindeer epoch buried his dead in caves, just in the same way as was -done by his ancestors during the epoch of the great bear and the -mammoth, that is to say, the dead were interred in the same kind of -caves as those which were then generally used as places of abode. - -Fig. 75 represents a funeral ceremonial during the reindeer epoch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.--A Funeral Ceremony during the Reindeer Epoch.] - -The corpse is borne on a litter of boughs, a practice which is still in -use among some modern savages. Men provided with torches, that is -branches of resinous trees, preceded the funeral procession, in order to -light the interior of the cavern. The cave is open, ready to receive the -corpse, and it will be closed again after it is deposited there. The -weapons, ornaments, and utensils which he had prized during his -lifetime, are brought in to be laid by the side of the dead. - -We will sum up the principal facts which we have laid before our readers -in this account of the condition of mankind during the reindeer epoch, -by quoting an eloquent passage from a report addressed by M. Édouard -Dupont to the Belgian Minister of the Interior, on the excavations -carried on by this eminent Belgian geologist in the caves in the -neighbourhood of Furfooz. - -"The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together with those -which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz, present us," says M. -Dupont, "with a striking picture of the primitive ages of mankind in -Belgium. - -"These ancient tribes and all their customs, after having been buried -in oblivion for thousands and thousands of years, are again vividly -brought before our eyes; and, like the wondrous bird, which, in its -ashes, found a new source of life, antiquity lives again in the relics -of its former existence. - -"We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark and subterranean -retreats, crouching round their hearths, and skilfully and patiently -chipping out their flint instruments and shaping their reindeer-horn -tools, in the midst of all the pestilential emanations arising from the -various animal remains which their carelessness has allowed to remain in -their dwellings. Skins of wild beasts are stripped of their hair, and, -by the aid of flint needles, are converted into garments. In our mind's -eye, we may see them engaged in the chase, and hunting wild -animals--their only weapons being darts and spears, the fatal points of -which are formed of nothing but a splinter of flint. - -"Again, we are present at their feasts, in which, during the period when -their hunting has been fortunate, a horse, a bear, or a reindeer becomes -the more noble substitute for the tainted flesh of the rat, their sole -resource in the time of famine. - -"Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting the region now -called France, and procuring the jet and fossil shells with which they -love to adorn themselves, and the flint which is to them so precious a -material. On one side they are picking up the fluor spar, the colour of -which is pleasing to their eyes; on the other, they are digging out the -great slabs of sandstone which are to be placed as hearthstones round -their fire. - -"But, alas! inauspicious days arrive, and certainly misfortune does not -seem to spare them. A falling in of the roof of their cave drives them -out of their chief dwelling-place. The objects of their worship, their -weapons, and their utensils--all are buried there, and they are forced -to fly and take up their abode in another spot. - -"The ravages of death break in upon them; how great are the cares which -are now lavished upon those whom they have lost! They bear the corpse -into its cavernous sepulchre; some weapons, an amulet, and perhaps an -urn, form the whole of the funeral furniture. A slab of stone prevents -the inroad of wild beasts. Then begins the funeral banquet, celebrated -close by the abode of the dead; a fire is lighted, great animals are cut -up, and portions of their smoking flesh are distributed to each. How -strange the ceremonies that must then have taken place! ceremonies like -those told us of the savages of the Indian and African solitudes. -Imagination may easily depict the songs, the dances and the invocations, -but science is powerless to call them into life. - -"The sepulchre is often reopened; little children and adults came in -turn to take their places in the gloomy cave. Thirteen times the same -ceremonial occurs, and thirteen times the slab is moved to admit the -corpses. - -"But the end of this primitive age is at last come. Torrents of water -break in upon the country. Its inhabitants, driven from their abodes, in -vain take refuge on the lofty mountain summits. Death at last overtakes -them, and a dark cavern is the tomb of the wretched beings, who, at -Furfooz, were witnesses of this immense catastrophe. - -"Nothing is respected by the terrible element. The sepulchre, the object -of such care on the part of the artless tribe, is burst open before the -torrent, and the bones of the dead bodies, disjointed by the water, are -dispersed into the midst of the crumbling earth and stones. Their former -habitation alone is exempt from this common destruction, for it has been -protected by a previous catastrophe--the sinking in of its roof on to -the ground of the cave." - -Having now given a sketch of the chief features presented by man and his -surroundings during the reindeer epoch; having described the most -important objects of his skill, and dwelt upon the products of his -artistic faculties; it now remains for us to complete, in a scientific -point of view, the study of this question, by notifying the sources from -which we have been able to gather our data, and to bring home to our -minds these interesting ideas. Under this head, we may state that almost -all the information which has been obtained has been derived from caves; -and it will, therefore, be best to make a few brief remarks on the -caverns which have been the scene of these various discoveries. - -Honour to whom honour is due. In mentioning these localities, we must -place in the first class the settlements of Périgord, which have -contributed to so great an extent towards the knowledge which we possess -of primitive man. The four principal ones are, the cave of Les Eyzies -and the rock-shelters or caverns of La Madelaine, Laugerie-Haute, and -Laugerie-Basse. All of them have been explored by MM. Lartet and -Christy, who, after having directed the excavations with the greatest -ability, have set forth the results of their researches in a manner no -less remarkable.[11] - -The settlement of Laugerie-Basse has also been explored by M. de -Vibraye, who collected there some very interesting specimens. - -We have no intention of reverting to what we have before stated when -describing the objects found in these various localities. We will -content ourselves with mentioning the lumbar vertebral bone of a -reindeer found in the cave of Eyzies, of which we have given a -representation in fig. 55; it was pierced through by an arrow-head, -which may still be seen fixed in it. If any doubts could still exist of -the co-existence, in France, of man and the reindeer, this object should -suffice to put an end to them for ever. - -We will mention, as next in importance, the cave and rock-shelters at -Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne). They have been carefully examined by a -great many explorers, among whom we must specify M. Garrigou, M. de -Lastic (the proprietor of the cavern), M. V. Brun, the learned Director -of the Museum of Natural History at Montauban, and M. Peccadeau de -l'Isle. - -It is to be regretted that M. de Lastic sold about fifteen hundred -specimens of every description of the relics which had been found on his -property, to Professor Owen, for the British Museum. In this large -quantity of relics, there were, of course, specimens which will never be -met with elsewhere; which, therefore, it would have been better in every -respect to have retained in France. - -The cave of Bruniquel has also furnished us with human bones, amongst -which are two almost perfect skulls, one of which we have previously -represented; also two half jaw-bones which resemble those found at -Moulin-Quignon. M. V. Brun has given, in his interesting work, a -representation of these human remains.[12] - -We will now mention the _Cave of Bize_ near Narbonne (Aude); the _Cave -of La Vache_ in the valley of Tarascon (Ariége), in which M. Garrigou -collected an immense quantity of bones, on one of which some peculiar -characters are graven, constituting, perhaps, a first attempt in the art -of writing; the _Cavern of Massat_ in the same department, which has -been described by M. Fontan, and is thought by M. Lartet to have been a -summer dwelling-place, the occupiers of which lived on raw flesh and -snails, for no traces of a hearth are to be seen, although it must have -been used for a considerable time as a shelter by primitive man; the -_Cave of Lourdes_, near Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées), in which M. -Milne-Edwards met with a fragment of a human skull, belonging to an -adult individual; the _Cave of Espalungue_, also called the _Grotto of -Izeste_ (Basses-Pyrénées), where MM. Garrigou and Martin found a human -bone, the fifth left metatarsal; the _Cave of Savigné_ (Vienne), -situated on the banks of the Charente, and discovered by M. -Joly-Leterme, an architect of Saumur, who there found a fragment of a -stag's bone, on which the bodies of two animals are graven with -hatchings to indicate shadows; the _Grottos of La Balme and Bethenas_, -in Dauphiné, explored by M. Chantre; lastly, the settlement of Solutré, -in the neighbourhood of Mâcon, from which MM. Ferry and Arcelin have -exhumed two human skulls, together with some very fine flint instruments -of the Laugerie-Haute type. - -These settlements do not all belong to the same epoch, although most of -them correspond to the long period known as the reindeer epoch. It is -not always possible to determine their comparative chronology. From the -state of their _débris_ it can, however, be ascertained, that the caves -of Lourdes and Espalungue date back to the most ancient period of the -reindeer epoch; whilst the settlements of Périgord, of Tarn-et-Garonne, -and of Mâconnais are of a later date. The cave of Massat seems as if it -ought to be dated at the beginning of the wrought stone epoch, for no -bones have been found there, either of the reindeer or the horse; the -remains of the bison are the sole representatives of the extinct animal -species. - -In concluding this list of the French bone-caves which have served to -throw a light upon the peculiar features of man's existence during the -reindeer epoch, we must not omit to mention the Belgian caves, which -have been so zealously explored by M. Édouard Dupont. From the preceding -pages, we may perceive how especially important the latter have been in -the elucidation of the characteristics of man's physical organisation -during this epoch. - -France and Belgium are not the only countries which have furnished -monuments relating to man's history during the reindeer epoch. We must -not omit to mention that settlements of this epoch have been discovered -both in Germany and also in Switzerland. - -In 1866 a great quantity of bones and broken instruments were found at -the bottom of an ancient glacier-moraine in the neighbourhood of -Rabensburg, not far from the lake of Constance. The bones of the -reindeer formed about ninety-eight hundredths of these remains. The -other _débris_ were the bones of the horse, the wolf, the brown bear, -the white fox, the glutton and the ox. - -In 1858, on a mountain near Geneva, a cave was discovered about 12 feet -deep and 6 feet wide, which contained, under a layer of carbonate of -lime, a great quantity of flints and bones. The bones of the reindeer -formed the great majority of them, for eighteen skeletons of this animal -were found. The residue of the remains were composed of four horses, six -ibex, intermingled with the bones of the marmot, the chamois, and the -hazel-hen; in short, the bones of the whole animal population which, at -the present time, has abandoned the valleys of Switzerland, and is now -only to be met with on the high mountains of the Alps. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[7] 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche.' Paris, 1867, p. 25. - -[8] 'Pre-Historic Times,' 2d ed. p. 319. - -[9] 'L'Homme Fossile.' Brussels, 1868 (page 71). - -[10] 'The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,' by Sven Nilsson, p. -155. London, 1868. - -[11] 'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,' by Éd. Lartet and H. Christy. London, 1865, -&c. - -[12] 'Notice sur les Fouilles Paléontologiques de l'Age de la Pierre -exécutées à Bruniquel et Saint-Antonin,' by V. Brun. Montauban, 1867. - - - - -III. - - -THE POLISHED-STONE EPOCH; OR, THE EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - The European Deluge--The Dwelling-place of Man during the - Polished-stone Epoch--The Caves and Rock-shelters still used as - Dwelling-places--Principal Caves belonging to the Polished-stone - Epoch which have been explored up to the present Time--The Food of - Man during this period. - - -Aided by records drawn from the bowels of the earth, we have now -traversed the series of antediluvian ages since the era when man first -made his appearance on the earth, and have been enabled, though but very -imperfectly, to reconstruct the history of our primitive forefathers. We -will now leave this epoch, through the dark night of which science seeks -almost in vain to penetrate, and turn our attention to a period the -traces of which are more numerous and more easily grasped by our -intelligence--a period, therefore, which we are able to characterise -with a much greater degree of precision. - -A great catastrophe, the tradition of which is preserved in the memory -of all nations, marked in Europe the end of the quaternary epoch. It is -not easy to assign the exact causes for this great event in the earth's -history; but whatever may be the explanation given, it is certain that a -cataclysm, caused by the violent flowing of rushing water, took place -during the quaternary geological epoch; for the traces of it are -everywhere visible. These traces consist of a reddish clayey deposit, -mixed with sand and pebbles. This deposit is called in some countries -_red diluvium_, and in others _grey diluvium_. In the valley of the -Rhone and the Rhine it is covered with a layer of loamy deposit, which -is known to geologists by the name of _loess_ or _lehm_, and as to the -origin of which they are not all agreed. Sir Charles Lyell is of opinion -that this mud was produced by the crushing of the rocks by early Alpine -glaciers, and that it was afterwards carried down by the streams of -water which descended from these mountains. This mud covers a great -portion of Belgium, where it is from 10 to 30 feet in thickness, and -supplies with material a large number of brickfields. - -This deposit, that is the _diluvial beds_, constitutes nearly the most -recent of all those which form the earth's crust; in many European -countries, it is, in fact the ground trodden under the feet of the -present population. - -The inundation to which the _diluvium_ is referred closes the series of -the quaternary ages. After this era, the present geological period -commences, which is characterised by the almost entire permanency of the -vertical outline of the earth, and by the formation of peat-bogs. - -The earliest documents afforded us by history are very far from going -back to the starting-point of this period. The history of the ages which -we call historical is very far from having attained to the beginning of -the present geological epoch. - -In order to continue our account of the progressive development of -primitive man, we must now turn our attention to the _Polished-stone -Epoch_, or the _Epoch of Tamed Animals_, which precedes the Metal Age. - -As the facts which we shall have to review are very numerous, we will, -in the first place, consider this epoch as it affects those parts of our -continent which form the present France and Belgium; next, with -reference to Denmark and Switzerland, in which countries we shall have -to point out certain manners and customs of man of an altogether special -character. - -We shall consider in turn:-- - -1st. The habitation of man during the polished-stone epoch. - -2nd. His system of food. - -3rd. His arts and manufactures. - -4th. The weapons manufactured by him, and their use in war. - -5th. His attainments in agriculture, fishing, and navigation. - -6th. His funeral ceremonies. - -7th. Lastly, the characteristics of mankind during this epoch. - - -_Habitation._--In that part of the European continent which now forms -the country called France, man, during that period we designate under -the name of the polished-stone epoch, continued for a considerable time -to inhabit rock-shelters and caves which afforded him the best retreat -from the attacks of wild beasts. - -This fact has been specially proved to have been the case in the extreme -south of the above-mentioned country. Among the investigations which -have contributed towards its verification, we must give particular -notice to those made by MM. Garrigou and Filhol in the caves of the -Pyrenees (Ariége). These two _savants_ have also explored the caves of -Pradières, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux, Ussat, and Fontanel.[13] - -In one of these caves, which we have already mentioned in the preceding -chapter, but to which we must again call attention--for they belong both -to the polished stone, and also to the reindeer epoch--MM. Garrigou and -Filhol found the bones of a huge ox, the urus or _Bos primigenius_, a -smaller kind of ox, the stag, the sheep, the goat, the antelope, the -chamois, the wild boar, the wolf, the dog, the fox, the badger, the -hare, and possibly those of the horse. Neither the bones of the reindeer -nor the bison are included in this list of names; on account of the -mildness of the climate, these two species had already migrated towards -the north and east in search of a colder atmosphere. - -The remains of hearths, bones split lengthwise, and broken skulls, -indicate that the inhabitants of these caves lived on much the same food -as their ancestors. It is probable that they also ate raw snails, for a -large quantity of their shells were found in this cave, and also in the -cavern of Massat,[14] the presence of which can only be accounted for in -this way. - -These remains were found intermingled with piercers, spear-heads, and -arrow-heads, all made of bone; also hatchets, knives, and scratchers, -made of flint, and also of various other substances, which were more -plentiful than flint in that country, such as siliceous schist, -quartzite, leptinite and serpentine stones. These instruments were -carefully wrought, and a few had been polished at one end on a slab of -flag-stone. - -In the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrénées), which has been explored by M. -Alphonse Milne-Edwards, two layers were observed; one belonging to the -reindeer epoch, and the other to the polished-stone epoch.[15] The cave -of Pontil (Hérault), which has been carefully examined by Professor -Gervais,[16] has furnished remains of every epoch including the bronze -age; we must, however, except the reindeer epoch, which is not -represented in this cave. - -Lastly, we will mention the cave of Saint-Jean-d'Alcas (Aveyron), which -has been explored, at different times, by M. Cazalis de Fondouce. This -is a sepulchral cave, like that of Aurignac. When it was first explored, -about twenty years ago, five human skulls, in good preservation, were -found in it--a discovery, the importance of which was then unheeded, and -the skulls were, in consequence, totally lost to science. Flint, jade, -and serpentine instruments, carved bones, remains of rough pottery, -stone amulets, and the shells of shell-fish, which had formed necklaces -and bracelets, were intermingled with human bones. - -At Saint-Jean-d'Alcas, M. Cazalis de Fondouce did not meet with any -remains of funeral banquets such as were found at Aurignac and Furfooz; -he only noticed two large flag-stones lying across one another at the -mouth of the cave, so as to make the inlet considerably narrower. - -This cave, according to a recent publication of M. Cazalis, must be -referred to a more recent epoch than was at first supposed, for some -fragments of metallic substances were found in it. It must, therefore, -have belonged to a late period of the polished-stone epoch.[17] - - -_Man's System of Feeding during the Polished-stone Epoch._--In order to -obtain full information on the subject of man's food in the north and -centre of Europe during the polished-stone epoch, we must appeal to the -interesting researches of which Denmark has been the scene during the -last few years; but these researches, on account of their importance, -require a detailed account. - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Man of the Polished-stone Epoch.] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] 'L'Homme Fossile des Cavernes de Lombrive et de Lherm.' Toulouse, -1862. Illustrated. 'L'Age de Pierre dans les Vallées de Tarascon' -(Ariége). Tarascon, 1863. - -[14] 'Sur deux Cavernes découvertes dans la Montagne de Kaer à Massat' -(Ariége). Quoted by Lyell, Appendix to 'The Antiquity of Man,' p. 247. - -[15] 'De l'Existence de l'Homme pendant la Période quaternaire dans la -grotte de Lourdes' (Hautes-Pyrénées). ('Annales des Sciences -Naturelles,' 4th series, vol. xvii.) - -[16] 'Mémoires de l'Académie de Montpellier' ('Section des Sciences'), -1857, vol. iii, p. 509. - -[17] 'Sur une Caverne de l'Age de la Pierre, située près de -Saint-Jean-d'Alcas' (Aveyron), 1864. 'Derniers Temps de l'Age de la -Pierre Polie dans l'Aveyron', Montpellier, 1867. Illustrated. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - The _Kjoekken-Moeddings_ or "Kitchen-middens" of Denmark--Mode of - Life of the Men living in Denmark during the Polished-stone - Epoch--The Domestication of the Dog--The Art of Fishing during the - Polished-stone Epoch--Fishing-nets--Weapons and Instruments of - War--Type of the Human Race; the Borreby Skull. - - -Although classed in the lowest rank on account of the small extent of -its territory and the number of its inhabitants, the Danish nation is, -nevertheless, one of the most important in Europe, in virtue of the -eminence to which it has attained in science and arts. This valiant, -although numerically speaking, inconsiderable people, can boast of a -great number of distinguished men who are an honour to science. The -unwearied researches of their archæologists and antiquarians have -ransacked the dust of bygone ages, in order to call into new life the -features of a vanished world. Their labours, guided by the observations -of naturalists, have brought out into the clear light of day some of the -earliest stages in man's existence and progress. - -There is no part of the world more adapted than Denmark to this kind of -investigation. Antiquities may be met with at every step; the real point -in question is to know how to examine them properly, so as to obtain -from them important revelations concerning the manners, customs, and -manufactures of the pre-historic inhabitants. The Museum of Copenhagen, -which contains antiquities from various Scandinavian states, is, in this -respect, without a rival in the world. - -Among the objects arranged in this well-stocked Museum a great many -specimens may be observed which have come from the so-called -_kitchen-middens_. - -In the first place, what are these _kjoekken-moeddings_, or -kitchen-middens, with their uncouth Scandinavian name? - -Immense accumulations of shells have been observed on different points -of the Danish coast, chiefly in the north, where the sea enters those -narrow deep creeks, known by the name of _fiords_. These deposits are -not generally raised more than about 3 feet above the level of the sea; -but in some steep places their altitude is greater. They are about 3 to -10 feet in thickness, and from 100 to 200 feet in width; their length is -sometimes as much as 1000 feet, with a width of from 150 to 250 feet. On -some of the more level shores they form perfect hills, on which, as at -Havelse, windmills are sometimes built. - -What do we meet with in these heaps? An immense quantity of sea-shells, -especially those of the oyster, broken bones of mammiferous animals, -remains of birds and fish; and, lastly, some roughly-wrought flints. - -The first idea formed with regard to these kitchen-middens was that they -were nothing but banks of fossil shells, beds which had formerly been -submerged, and subsequently brought to light by an upheaval of the earth -caused by some volcanic cause. But M. Steenstrup, a Danish _savant_, -opposed this opinion, basing his contradiction on the fact that these -shells belong to four different species which are never found together, -and consequently they must have been brought together by man. M. -Steenstrup also called attention to the fact that almost all these -shells must have belonged to full-grown animals, and that there were -hardly any young ones to be found amongst them. A peculiarity of this -kind is an evident indication of the exercise of some rational purpose, -in fact, of an act of the human will. - -When all the _débris_ and relics which we have enumerated were -discovered in these kitchen-middens, when the remains of hearths--small -spots which still retained traces of fire--were found in them, the -origin of these heaps were readily conjectured. Tribes once existed -there who subsisted on the products of fishing and hunting, and threw -out round their cabins the remains of their meals, consisting especially -of the _débris_ of shell-fish. These remains gradually accumulated, and -constituted the considerable heaps which we are discussing; hence the -name of _kjoekken-moedding_, composed of two words--_kjoekken_, kitchen; -and _moedding_, heap of refuse. These "kitchen-middens," as they are -called, are, therefore, the refuse from the meals of the primitive -population of Denmark. - -If we consider the heaps of oyster-shells and other _débris_ which -accumulate in the neighbourhood of eating-houses in certain districts, -we may readily understand, comparing great things with small, how these -Danish kitchen-middens were produced. I myself well recollect having -noticed in the environs of Montpellier small hillocks of a similar -character, formed by the accumulation of oyster-shells, mussels, and -clams. - -When the conviction was once arrived at that these kitchen-middens were -the refuse of the meals of the primitive inhabitants, the careful -excavation of all these heaps scattered along the Danish coast became an -extremely interesting operation. It might be justly expected that some -data would be collected as to the customs and manufactures of the -ancient dwellers in these countries. A commission was, in consequence, -appointed by the Danish Government to examine these deposits, and to -publish the results of its labours. - -This commission was composed of three _savants_, each of whom were -eminent in their respective line--Steenstrup, the naturalist, -Forchhammer, a geologist, and the archæologist, Worsaae--and performed -its task with as much talent as zeal. The observations which were made -are recorded in three reports presented to the Academy of Sciences at -Copenhagen. From these documents are borrowed most of the details which -follow. - -Before proceeding to acquaint our readers with the facts brought to -light by the Danish commission, it will be well to remark that Denmark -does not stand alone in possessing these kitchen-middens. They have been -discovered in England--in Cornwall and Devonshire--in Scotland, and even -in France, near Hyères (Bouches-du-Rhône).[18] - -MM. Sauvage and Hamy have pointed out to M. de Mortillet the existence -of deposits of this kind in the Pas-de-Calais. They may be noticed, say -these naturalists, at La Salle (Commune of Outreau) at certain parts of -the coast of Portel, and especially a very large heap at Cronquelets -(Commune of Etaples.) They chiefly consist of the _cardium edule_, which -appear to abound in the kitchen-middens of the Pas-de-Calais. - -Messrs. Evans, Prestwich, and Lubbock observed one of these deposits at -Saint-Valery, near the mouth of the Somme. Added to this, they have been -described by various travellers as existing in different parts of the -world. Dampier studied them in Australia, and Darwin in Tierra del -Fuego, where deposits of the same character are now in the course of -formation. M. Pereira da Costa found one on the coast of Portugal; Sir -C. Lyell has testified to the existence of others on the coasts of -Massachusetts and Georgia, in the United States; M. Strobel, on the -coasts of Brazil. But those in Denmark are the only deposits of this -kind which have been the subject of investigations of a deliberate and -serious character. - -Almost all these kitchen-middens are found on the coast, along the -_fiords_, where the action of the waves is not much felt. Some have, -however, been found several miles inland; but this must be owing to the -fact that the sea once occupied these localities, from which it has -subsequently retired. They are not to be met with on some of the Danish -coasts, as those of the western side; this, on the one hand, may be -caused by their having been washed away by the sea, which has there -encroached on the land, or, on the other hand, by the fact that the -western coast was much less sheltered than the other parts of the Danish -peninsula. They are not unfrequently to be found in the adjacent -islands. - -These kitchen-middens form, in a general way, undulating mounds, which -sink in a gentle incline from the centre to the circumference. The spot -where they are thickest indicates the site of the habitations of man. -Sometimes, we may notice one principal hillock, surrounded by smaller -mounds; or else, in the middle of the heaps, there is a spot which must -have been the site of the encampment. - -These refuse deposits are almost entirely made up of shells of various -kinds of molluscs; the principal species are the oyster, the cockle, the -mussel, and the periwinkle. Others, such as whelks, _helices_ (edible -snails), _nassa_, and _trigonella_, are also found; but they are -comparatively few in number. - -Fishes' bones are discovered in great abundance in the kitchen-middens. -They belong to the cod, herring, dab, and eel. From this we may infer -that the primitive inhabitants of Denmark were not afraid of venturing -out to brave the waves of the sea in their frail skiffs; for the herring -and the cod cannot, in fact, be caught except at some little distance -from the shore. - -Mammalian bones are also plentifully distributed in the Danish -kitchen-middens. Those most commonly met with are the remains of the -stag, the roe, and the boar, which, according to M. Steenstrup's -statement, make up ninety-seven hundredths of the whole mass. Others are -the relics of the urus, the wolf, the dog, the fox, the wild-cat, the -lynx, the marten, the otter, the porpoise, the seal, the water-rat, the -beaver and the hedgehog. - -The bison, the reindeer, the elk, the horse, and the domestic ox have -not left behind them any trace which will permit us to assume that they -existed in Denmark at the period when these deposits were formed. - -Amongst other animals, we have mentioned the dog. By various -indications, we are led to the belief that this intelligent creature had -been at this time reduced to a state of domesticity. It has been -remarked that a large number of the bones dispersed in these -kitchen-middens are incomplete; exactly the same parts are almost always -missing, and certain bones are entirely wanting. M. Steenstrup is of -opinion that these deficiencies may be owing to the agency of dogs, -which have made it their business to ransack the heaps of bones and -other matters which were thrown aside by their masters. This hypothesis -was confirmed, in his idea, when he became convinced, by experience, -that the bones which were deficient in these deposits were precisely -those which dogs are in the habit of devouring, and that the remaining -portions of those which were found were not likely to have been subject -to their attacks on account of their hardness and the small quantity of -assimilable matter which was on or in them. - -Although primitive man may have elevated the dog to the dignity of being -his companion and friend, he was, nevertheless, sometimes in the habit -of eating him. No doubt he did not fall back upon this last resort -except in cases when all other means of subsistence failed him. Bones of -the dog, broken by the hand of man, and still bearing the marks of -having been cut with a knife, are amongst the remains found, and place -the fact beyond any question. - -We find, besides, the same taste existing here which we have seen -manifested in other ages and different countries. All the long bones -have been split in order to extract their marrow--the dainty so highly -appreciated by man during the epochs of the reindeer and the mammoth. - -Some remains of birds have been found in the kitchen-middens; but most -of the species are aquatic--a fact which may be readily explained by the -seaboard position of the men who formed these deposits. - -As the result of this review of the various substances which were made -use of for food by the men of the polished-stone epoch, we may infer -that they were both hunters and fishermen. - -Animals of rapid pace were hunted down by means of the dart or arrow, -and any more formidable prey was struck down at close quarters by some -sharp stone weapon. - -Fishing was practised, as at the present day, by means of the line and -net. - -We have already seen that men, during the reindeer epoch, probably used -hooks fastened at the end of lines. These hooks, as we have before -remarked, were made with splinters of bone or reindeer horn. During the -polished-stone epoch this fishing instrument was much improved, and they -now possessed the real hook with a recurvate and pointed end. This kind -of hook was found by Dr. Uhlmann in one of the most ancient lacustrine -stations of Switzerland. But a curved hook was both difficult to make -and also not very durable; instead of it was used another and more -simple sort--the straight skewer fixed to serve as a hook. This is a -simple fragment of bone, about an inch long, very slender and pointed at -the two ends (fig. 77). Sometimes it is a little flattened in the -middle, or bored with a hole, into which the line was fastened. - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Bone Skewers used as Fish-hooks.] - -This little splinter of bone, when hidden by the bait and fastened to a -line, was swallowed by the fish and could not be disgorged, one of the -pointed ends being certain to bury itself in the entrails of the -creature. - -Some of our readers will perhaps be surprised to learn that men of the -polished-stone epoch were in the habit of fishing with nets; but it is a -fact that cannot be called into question, for the very conclusive -reason, that the remains of these nets have been found. - -How could it possibly come to pass that fishing-nets of the -polished-stone epoch should have been preserved to so late a period as -our times? This is exactly the question we are about to answer. - -On the lakes of Switzerland and of other countries, there used to exist -certain habitations of man. These are the so-called _lacustrine -dwellings_ which we shall have hereafter to consider in some -considerable detail, when we come to the Bronze Age. The men who lived -on these lakes were necessarily fishers; and some traces of their -fishing-nets have been discovered by a circumstance which chemistry -finds no difficulty in explaining. Some of these lake-dwellings were -destroyed by fire; as, for instance, the lacustrine settlements of -Robenhausen and Wangen in Switzerland. The outsides of these cabins, -which were almost entirely constructed of wood, burnt, of course, very -readily; but the objects inside, chiefly consisting of nets--the sole -wealth of these tribes--could not burn freely for want of oxygen, but -were only charred with the heat. They became covered with a slight -coating of some empyreumatic or tarry matter--an excellent medium for -insuring the preservation of any organic substance. These nets having -been scorched by the fire, fell into the water with the _débris_ of the -hut, and, in consequence of their precipitate fall, never having come in -actual contact with the flame, have been preserved almost intact at the -bottom of the lakes. When, after a long lapse of centuries, they have -been again recovered, these _débris_ have been the means of affording -information as to the manufacture both of the fishing-nets, and also as -to the basket-work, vegetable provisions, &c., of these remote ages. - -In one of Dr. Keller's papers on these _lacustrine dwellings_, of which -we shall have more to say further on, we find a description and -delineation of certain fishing-nets which were recovered from the lake -of Robenhausen. In the Museum of Saint-Germain we inspected with -curiosity several specimens of these very nets, and we here give a -representation of one of them. There were nets with wide meshes like -that shown in fig. 78, and also some more closely netted. The mesh is a -square one, and appears to have been made on a frame by knotting the -string at each point of intersection. All these nets are made of flax, -for hemp had not yet been cultivated. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Fishing-net with wide Meshes.] - -These nets were held suspended in the water by means of floats, made, -not of cork, but of the thick bark of the pine-tree, and were held down -to the bottom of the water by stone weights. We give a representation -here (fig. 79), of one of these stone weights taken from a specimen -exhibited in the Museum of Saint-Germain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Stone Weight used for sinking the -Fishing-nets.] - -These stone weights, large quantities of which are to be seen in -museums, and especially in that of Saint-Germain, are, in almost every -case, nothing but pebbles bored through the centre. Sometimes, however, -they were round pieces of soft stone, having a hole made in the middle. -Through this hole the cord was passed and fastened by a knot on the -other side. By means of the floats and weights the nets were made to -assume any position in the water which was wished. - -The large size of the meshes in the nets belonging to the polished-stone -epoch proves, that in the lakes and rivers of this period the fish that -were used for food were of considerable dimensions. Added to this, -however, the monstrous hooks belonging to this epoch which have been -found in the Seine tend to corroborate this hypothesis. - -Thus, then, the art of fishing had arrived in the polished-stone epoch -to a very advanced stage of improvement. - -In plate 80 we give a representation of fishing as carried on during the -polished-stone epoch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch.] - -Returning to the subject of the ancient Danes, we must add, that these -men, who lived on the sea-coasts, clad themselves in skins of beasts, -rendered supple by the fat of the seal and marrow extracted from the -bones of some of the large mammals. For dwelling-places they used tents -likewise made of skins prepared in the same way. - - -_Arts and Manufactures._--What degree of skill in this respect was -attained by the men who lived during the polished-stone epoch? To give -an answer to this question, we must again ransack those same -kitchen-middens which have been the means of furnishing us with such -accurate information as to the system of food of the man of that period. -We shall also have to turn our attention to the remains found in the -principal caves of this epoch. - -An examination of the instruments found in the kitchen-middens shows us -that the flints are in general of a very imperfect type, with the -exception, however, of the long splinters or knives, the workmanship of -which indicates a considerable amount of skill. - -Fig. 81 represents a flint knife from one of the Danish deposits, -delineated in the Museum of Saint-Germain; and fig. 82 a _nucleus_, that -is, a piece of flint from which splinters have been taken off, which -were intended to be used as knives. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Flint Knife, from one of the Danish Beds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Nucleus off which Knives are flaked.] - -We also give a representation of a hatchet (fig. 83) and a scraper (fig. -84), which came from the same source. - -[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Flint Hatchet, from one of the Danish Beds.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Flint Scraper, from one of the Danish Beds.] - -Besides these instruments, bodkins, spear-heads, and stones for slings -have also been found in the kitchen-middens, without taking into account -a quantity of fragments of flint which do not appear to have been -wrought with any special purpose in view, and were probably nothing but -rough attempts, or the mere refuse of the manufacture. - -[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Refuse from the Manufacture of wrought Flints.] - -In the same deposits there are also found a good many pebbles, which, -according to the general opinion, must have been used as weights to sink -the fishing-nets to the bottom of the water. Some are hollowed out with -a groove all round them, like that depicted in fig. 86, which is -designed from a specimen in the Museum of Saint-Germain. Others have a -hole bored through the middle. This groove or hole was, doubtless, -intended to hold the cord which fastened the stone weight to the net. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Weight to sink Fishing-nets.] - - -_Weapons and Tools._--We shall now pass on to the weapons and tools -which were in use among the people in the north of Europe during the -period we are considering. - -During the latter period of the polished-stone epoch working in stone -attained to a really surprising degree of perfection among the people of -the North. It is, in fact, difficult to understand how, without making -use of any metallic tools, men could possibly impart to flint, when -fashioned into weapons and implements of all kinds, those regular and -elegant shapes which the numerous excavations that have been set on foot -are constantly bringing to light. The Danish flint may, it is true, be -wrought with great facility; but nevertheless, an extraordinary amount -of skill would be none the less necessary in order to produce that -rectitude of outline and richness of contour which are presented by the -Danish specimens of this epoch--specimens which will not be surpassed -even in the Bronze Age. - -The hatchets found in the north of Europe, belonging to the -polished-stone epoch, differ very considerably from the hatchets of -France and Belgium. The latter are rounded and bulging at the edges; but -the hatchets made use of by the people of the North (fig. 87) were -flatter and cut squarely at the edge. They were nearly in the shape of a -rectangle or elongated trapezium, with the four angles cut off. Their -dimensions are sometimes considerable; some have been found which -measured nearly 16 inches in length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Danish Axe of the Polished-stone Epoch.] - -Independently of this type, which is the most plentiful, the northern -tribes used also to manufacture the drilled hatchet, which is combined -in various ways with the hammer. In these instruments, the best -workmanship and the most pleasing shapes are to be noticed. The figs. -88, 89 and 90, designed in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from authentic -specimens sent by the Museum of Copenhagen, represent double-edged axes -and axe-hammers. They are all pierced with a round hole in which the -handle was fixed. The cutting edge describes an arc of a circle, and -the other end is wrought into sharp angular edges. - -[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Double-edged Axe] - -[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Danish Axe-hammer, drilled for handle.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Danish Axe-hammer, drilled for handle.] - -These hatchets are distinguished from those of the reindeer epoch by a -characteristic which enables us to refer them without hesitation to -their real date, even in cases in which they have not yet been subject -to the operation of polishing. The hatchets of the reindeer epoch have -their cutting edge at the narrowest end, whilst those of the -polished-stone epoch are sharp at their widest end. This observation -does not apply specially to the Danish hatchets; it refers equally to -those of other European countries. - -The spear-heads are masterpieces of good taste, patience, and skill. -There are two sorts of them. The most beautiful (figs. 91, 92) assume -the shape of a laurel-leaf; they are quite flat, and chipped all over -with an infinite amount of art. Their length is as much as 15 inches. -Others are shorter and thicker in shape, and terminate at the base in an -almost cylindrical handle. Sometimes they are toothed at the edge (fig. -93). These spear-heads were evidently fixed at the end of a staff, like -the halberds of the middle ages and the modern lance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Spear-head from Denmark.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Spear-head from Denmark.] - -The poniards (fig. 94) are no less admirable in their workmanship than -the spear-heads, from which they do not perceptibly differ, except in -having a handle, which is flat, wide, solid, and made a little thicker -at the end. This handle is always more or less ornamented, and is -sometimes covered with delicate carving. To chip a flint in this way -must have required a skilful and well-practised hand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Toothed Spear-head of Flint.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Flint Poniard, from Denmark.] - -After these somewhat extraordinary instruments, we must mention the -arrow-heads, the shapes of which are rather varied in their character. - -The arrow-heads most frequently found are formed in the shape of a -triangular prism, terminating at the lower end in a stem intended to be -inserted into a stick (fig. 95); others are deeply indented at the base -and quite flat. Many are finely serrated on the edges, and occasionally -even on the inside edge of the indentation. - -Figs. 95, 96, 97, and 98 represent the various types of Danish -arrow-heads, all of which are in the Museum of Saint-Germain, and from -which these designs were made. - -[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Type of the Danish Arrow-head.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Another Type of Arrow-head.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Arrow-head.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Arrow-head from Denmark.] - -The chisels and gouges equally merit a special mention. - -The chisel (fig. 99) is a kind of quadrangular prism, chipped in a bevel -down to the base. - -[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Flint Chisel from Denmark.] - -The gouges are hollowed out on one of their faces, so as to act as the -tool the name of which has been applied to them. - -We next come to some curious instruments, of which we have given designs -taken from the specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain; the purpose -they were applied to is still problematical. They are small flakes, or -blades, in the shape of a crescent (figs. 100, 101). The inner edge, -which was either straight or concave, is usually serrated like a saw; -the convex side must have been fixed into a handle; for the traces of -the handle may still be detected upon many of them. These instruments -were probably made use of as scrapers in the preparation of skins for -garments; perhaps, also, they were used as knives or as saws. - -[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Small Stone Saw from the Danish Deposits.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 101.--Another Stone Saw from Denmark.] - -We must now turn our attention to instruments made of bone or stag's -horn. They are much less numerous than those of stone, and have nothing -about them of a very remarkable character. The only implement that is -worthy of notice is the harpoon (fig. 102). It is a carved bone, and -furnished with teeth all along one side, the other edge being completely -smooth. The harpoon of the reindeer epoch was decidedly superior to it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Bone Harpoon of the Stone Age from Denmark.] - -On account of its singularity, we must not omit to mention an object -made of bone, composed of a wide flat plate, from which spring seven or -eight teeth of considerable length, and placed very close together; -there is a kind of handle, much narrower, and terminating in a knob, -like the top of a walking-stick. This is probably one of the first combs -which ever unravelled the thickly-grown heads of hair of primitive man. - -[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Bone Comb from Denmark.] - -It is a well-known fact that amber is very plentiful on the coasts of -the Baltic. Even in the Stone Age, it was already much appreciated by -the northern tribes, who used to make necklaces of it, either by merely -perforating the rough morsels of amber and stringing them in a row, or -by cutting them into spherical or elliptical beads, as is the case -nowadays. - -Fig. 104 represents a necklace and also various other ornaments made of -yellow amber, which have been drawn from specimens in the Museum of -Saint-Germain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Necklace and various Ornaments of Amber.] - -Although these northern tribes of the polished-stone epoch were such -skilful workmen in flint, they were, nevertheless, but poor hands at -pottery. The _débris_ of vessels collected from the Danish -_kitchen-middens_, and also from the peat-bogs and tombs, are in every -way rough, and testify to a very imperfect knowledge of the art of -moulding clay. They may be said to mark the first efforts of a -manufacturing art which is just springing into existence, which is -seeking for the right path, although not, as yet, able to find it. The -art of pottery (if certain relics be relied on) was more advanced at a -more ancient period, that is, during the reindeer epoch. - -We have already stated that during the reindeer epoch there existed -certain manufactories of weapons and tools, the productions of which -were distributed all round the adjacent districts, although over a -somewhat restricted circle. In the epoch at which we have now arrived, -certain _workshops_--for really this is the proper name to give -them--acquired a remarkable importance, and their relations became of a -much more extensive character. In several of the Belgian caves, flints -have been found which must have come from the celebrated workshop of -Grand-Pressigny, situated in that part of the present France which forms -the department of Indre-et-Loire, and, from their very peculiar -character, are easily recognisable. Commerce and manufacture had then -emerged from their merely rudimentary state, and were entering into a -period of activity implying a certain amount of civilisation. - -The great principle of division of labour had already been put into -practice, for there were special workshops both for the shaping and -polishing of flints. - -The most important of all the workshops which have been noticed in -France is, unquestionably, that of Grand-Pressigny, which we have -already mentioned. It was discovered by Dr. Léveillé, the medical man of -the place; but, to tell the truth, it is not so much in itself a centre -of manufacture as a series of workshops distributed in the whole -neighbourhood round Pressigny. - -At the time of this discovery, that is in 1864, flints were found in -thousands imbedded in the vegetable mould on the surface of the soil, -over a superficies of 12 to 14 acres. The Abbé Chevalier, giving an -account of this curious discovery to the _Académie des Sciences_ at -Paris, wrote: "It is impossible to walk a single step without treading -on some of these objects." - -The workshops of Grand-Pressigny furnish us with a considerable variety -of instruments. We find hatchets in all stages of manufacture, from the -roughest attempt up to a perfectly polished weapon. We find, also, long -flakes or flint-knives cleft off with a single blow with astonishing -skill. - -All these objects, even the most beautiful among them, are nevertheless -defective in some respect or other; hence it may be concluded that they -were the refuse thrown aside in the process of manufacture. In this way -may be explained the accumulation of so many of these objects in the -same spot. - -There were likewise narrow and elongated points forming a kind of -piercer, perfectly wrought; also scrapers, and saws of a particular type -which seem to have been made in a special workshop. They are short and -wide, and have at each end a medial slot intended to receive a handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Nucleus in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from -the Workshop of Grand-Pressigny.] - -But the objects which are the most numerous of all, and those which -obviate any doubt that Pressigny was once an important centre of the -manufacture of flint, are the _nuclei_ (fig. 105), or the remnants of -the lump of flint, from which the large blades known under the name of -knives were cleft off. Some of these lumps which we have seen in the -Museum of St. Germain were as much as 11 and 13 inches in length; but -the greater part did not exceed 7 inches. The labourers of Touraine, who -often turn up these flints with their plough-shares, call them _pounds -of butter_, looking at the similarity of shape. At the present day these -_nuclei_ are plentiful in all the collections of natural history and -geology. - -A strange objection has been raised against the antiquity of the -hatchets, knives, and weapons found at Pressigny. M. Eugène Robert has -asserted that these flints were nothing else but the refuse of the -siliceous masses which, at the end of the last century and especially at -the beginning of the present, were used in the manufacture of -gun-flints! - -The Abbé Bourgeois, M. Penguilly l'Haridon, and Mr. John Evans did not -find much difficulty in proving the slight foundation there was for this -criticism. In the department of Loire-et-Cher, in which the gun-flint -manufacture still exists, the residue from the process bears no -resemblance whatever to the _nuclei_ of Pressigny; the fragments are -much less in bulk, and do not present the same constantly-occurring and -regular shapes. Added to this, they are never chipped at the edges, like -a great number of the flakes coming from the workshops of Touraine. - -But another and altogether peremptory argument is that the flints of -Pressigny-le-Grand are unfitted, on account of the texture, for the -manufacture of gun-flints. Moreover, the records of the Artillery Depôt, -as remarked by M. Penguilly l'Haridon, librarian of the Artillery -Museum, do not make mention of the locality of Pressigny having ever -been worked for this purpose. Lastly, the oldest inhabitants of the -commune have testified that they never either saw or heard of any body -of workmen coming into the district to work flints. M. Eugène Robert's -hypothesis, which MM. Decaisne and Elie de Beaumont thought right to -patronise, is, therefore, as much opposed to facts as to probability. - -Very few polished flints are found in the workshops of -Pressigny-le-Grand; it is, therefore, imagined that their existence -commenced before the polished-stone epoch. According to this idea, the -_nuclei_ would belong to a transitional epoch between the period of -chipped stone, properly so called, and that of polished stone. The first -was just coming to an end, but the second had not actually commenced. In -other words, most of the Pressigny flints have the typical shapes and -style of cutting peculiar to the polished-stone age, but the polishing -is wanting. - -This operation was not practised in the workshops of Pressigny until -some considerable period after they were founded, and were already in -full operation. In the neighbourhood of this locality a number of -polishers have been found of a very remarkable character. They are large -blocks of sandstone (fig. 106), furrowed all over, or only on a portion -of their surface, with grooves of various depths, in which objects might -be polished by an energetic friction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Polisher from Grand-Pressigny, both faces -being shown.] - -Some polishers of the same kind, which have been found in various -departments, are rather different from the one we have just named. Thus, -one specimen which was found by M. Leguay in the environs of Paris, in -the burial-places of Varenne-Saint-Hilaire, of which we give a -representation further on, is provided not only with grooves but also -hollows of a basin-like shape, and of some little depth. - -The polishing of the flints was carried into effect by rubbing them -against the bottom of these hollows, which were moistened by water, and -no doubt contained siliceous dust of a harder nature than the stone -which had to be polished. - -We must here pause for a moment to remark that all these operations -which were carried out by our ancestors in fashioning the flint could -not fail to have presented certain difficulties, and must have required -a remarkable development of intelligence and skill. - -Working flints into shape, which appears at first sight a very simple -matter, is, however, a rather complicated operation, on account of the -properties of this mineral substance and the beds in which it lies. - -In its natural state the flint presents itself in the shape of nearly -round lumps, which are brittle, but nevertheless very hard, and which, -like glass, can be split in any direction by a blow, so as to furnish -scales with sharp edges. In consequence of this circumstance, all that -would be requisite in order to produce sharp objects is to cleave off -flakes in the shape of a knife or poniard, by striking a flint, held in -the left hand, with another and harder flint or hammer. Instead of -holding in the left hand the flint which was to be wrought, it might -also be placed on a rest and, being held fast with the left hand, -suitable blows might be applied to the stone. - -We must not, however, omit to mention, that to enable the flint to be -cut up into sharp splinters and to be broken in any desired direction, -it is necessary for it to have been very recently extracted from the -bosom of the earth; it must possess the humidity which is peculiar to -it, with which it is impregnated when in its natural bed. If pieces of -flint are exposed to the open air they cannot afterwards be readily -broken with any degree of regularity; they then afford nothing but -shapeless and irregular chips, of an entirely different character from -that which would be required in fashioning them. This moisture was well -known to the workmen who used to manufacture the gun-flints, and was -called the _quarry damp_. - -The necessity that the flint should be wrought when newly extracted from -the earth, and that the stones should only be dug just in proportion as -they were wanted, brought about as a proximate result the creation and -working of mines and quarries, which are thus almost as ancient as -humanity itself. Being unable to make use of flints which had been dried -in the air, and consequently rendered unfit for being wrought, the -workmen were compelled to make excavations, and to construct galleries, -either covered or exposed to the open air, to employ wooden battening, -shores, supports; in short, to put in use the whole plant which is -required for working a stone-quarry. As, in order not to endanger the -lives of the labourers, it was found necessary to prevent any downfalls, -they were induced to follow out a certain methodical system in their -excavations, by giving a sufficient thickness to the roofs of the -galleries, by sinking shafts, by building breast-walls, and by adopting -the best plan for getting out the useless _detritus_. When, as was often -the case, water came in so as to hinder the miners, it was necessary to -get rid of it in order that the workmen should not be drowned. It was -also sometimes requisite that the galleries and the whole system of -underground ways should be supplied with air. - -Thus their labour in fashioning the flint must have led our ancestors to -create the art of working quarries and mines. - -It has been made a subject of inquiry, how the tribes of the Stone Age -could produce, without the aid of any iron tool, the holes which are -found in the flints; and how they could perforate these same flints so -as to be able to fit in handles for the hatchets, poniards, and knives; -in fact, lapidaries of the present day cannot bore through gun-flints -without making use of diamond dust. We are of opinion that the _bow_, -which was employed by primitive man in producing fire by rubbing wood -against wood, was also resorted to in the workshops for manufacturing -stone implements and weapons for giving a rapid revolving motion to a -flint drill which was sufficient to perforate the stone. Certain -experiments which have been made in our own day with very sharp -arrow-heads which belonged to primitive man have proved that it is thus -very possible to pierce fresh flints, if the action of the drill is -assisted by the addition of some very hard dust which is capable of -increasing the bite of the instrument. This dust or powder, consisting -of corundum or zircon, might have been found without any great -difficulty by the men of the Stone Age. These substances are, in fact, -to be met with on the banks of rivers, their presence being betrayed by -the golden spangles which glitter in the sand. - -Thus the flint-drill, assisted by one of these powders, was quite -adequate for perforating siliceous stones. When it is brought to our -knowledge that the workmen of the Black Forest thus bore into Bohemian -granite in less than a minute, we shall not feel inclined to call this -explanation in question.[19] - -Fig. 107 attempts to give a representation of the workshop at - -Pressigny for shaping and polishing flints--in other words, a -manufacturing workshop of the polished-stone epoch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107.--The earliest Manufacture and Polishing of -Flints.] - -In this sketch we have depicted the polisher found by M. Leguay, of -which we give a representation in fig. 108. In this picture it was -indispensable for us to show the operation of polishing, for the latter -is a characteristic of the epoch of mankind which we are now describing, -that is, the polished-stone period. It must, in fact, be remarked that -during the epoch of the great bear and the mammoth, and the reindeer -epoch, stone instruments were not polished, they were purely and simply -flakes or fragments of stone. During the epoch at which we have now -arrived, a great improvement took place in this kind of work, and stone -instruments were polished. It is therefore essential to call attention -to the latter operation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Polisher found by M. Leguay.] - -We think we ought to quote here the brief account M. Leguay has given of -the polisher represented in our figure. In his 'Note sur une Pierre à -polir les Silex trouvée en Septembre, 1860, à la Varenne-Saint-Hilaire -(Seine),' M. Leguay thus writes:-- - -"Amongst the many monuments of the Stone Age which I have collected at -Varenne-Saint-Hilaire, on the site of the ancient settlement which once -existed there, there is one which has always struck me, not only by its -good state of preservation, but also by the revelations which it affords -us as to one of the principal manufactures of these tribes--the -fabrication of flint weapons and utensils. - -"This object is a stone for polishing and fashioning the finest kind of -hatchets. I discovered it in September, 1860, at a spot called _La -Pierre au Prêtre_, along with several other monuments of primitive art -which I intend before long to make public. This stone is a rough -sandstone of cubical shape, showing no trace whatever of having been -hewn. It is 13 inches in its greatest thickness, and measures 37 inches -long by 21 wide, and, just as in many boulders, one of its faces is well -adapted to the use for which it was employed. - -"This is the face which was used for many long years for rubbing and -polishing the weapons made in the place, the remains of which are still -found in small quantities in the neighbourhood, and abound in the -burial-places, where they have been deposited as votive offerings. - -"Almost the whole of its surface is occupied. In the centre is a basin -presenting an oval surface 25 inches the long way, and 12 inches the -narrow way. The stone, which has been considerably worn away in -consequence of long use, has been rubbed off to a central depth of about -1 inch; this portion must have been used for rubbing the larger objects -after they had been roughly shaped by chipping. The length of the basin -allowed a motion of considerable length to be given to the stone which -was being worked, at the same time giving facilities to the workman for -the exercise of all his strength. Added to this, this cavity enabled the -almond-like shape to be given to the objects--a form which they nearly -all present. - -"Either in front or to the right, according to the position in which the -observer stands, and almost touching the edge of this basin, there is a -hole deeply hollowed in the stone, being 30 inches long; it extends -along almost the whole length of the sandstone, with the maximum breadth -of about 1 inch, and presents the shape of a very elongated spindle -hollowed out to a depth of something less than half an inch in the -centre, which tapers off to nothing at the two ends. - -"The wear of the stone and the shape of this groove point out its -intention. It must have been used to reduce the edges or the sides of -the hatchet, which after the chipping and flat polishing were left -either too thick or too sharp for a handle to be easily fitted to them. -Added to this, it smoothed down the roughnesses caused by chipping, -which it replaced by a round form of no great thickness, which was again -and again rubbed flatly on the stone to give it a square and sharp-edged -level. This last operation took place in a basin, and it gave to the -hatchet a curve in a lengthwise direction which is by no means -ungraceful. - -"The thinning off of the edges of the groove was not an immaterial -matter. It not only assisted in forming the above-named curve, but also -prevented the cutting edge being distorted, and avoided the need of -subsequent repolishing, which spoiled the object by rubbing it away too -much. - -"It must not be for a moment imagined that the edge of the hatchet was -made in this groove. Examination proves the contrary, and that it was -done flatwise while polishing the rest of the object; and if sometimes -its thickness did not allow this, it was preliminarily done, and then -finished in the general polishing. - -"But although this basin, and its accompanying groove, on account of -their dimensions, acted very well for polishing the large hatchets, the -case was different with the smaller ones. This is the reason why two -other smaller basins, and also a small groove, were made on the flat -part of the stone by the side of the others. - -"These two basins were placed at two corners of the face of the stone, -but still parallel to the larger basin and also to the larger groove, so -as to be convenient for the requirements of the workman engaged in -polishing without compelling him to shift his position; one is 10 -inches, and the other 13 inches in length, with a mean breadth of about -2-1/2 inches. They are both in the shape of a rather narrow almond, and -end almost in a point, which seems to show that they also were used in -polishing somewhat narrow objects--perhaps to set right the edges of -hatchets, in which the rubbing in the larger basin had produced cavities -prejudicial to the perfection of the faces. - -"The small groove, placed very near the larger one, is 9 inches long. It -is the same shape as the other, but is not so deep, and scarcely half an -inch wide. - -"Not far from the end of this latter groove, at the point where it -approaches the larger one, there are traces of a groove scarcely -commenced. - -"Lastly, the flat portions of the stone which are not occupied by the -basins and grooves, were sometimes used for touching up the polish, or -even for smoothing various objects. - -"Thus, as we see, this polishing-stone, which is one of the most -complete in existence, has on it three basins of different sizes, two -well-defined grooves, and one only just sketched out. It would serve for -finishing off all the instruments that could be required; but, -nevertheless, two other sandstones of moderate size were found near it; -one round, and the other of a spindle-like shape; these, which were worn -and rubbed all over their surfaces, must also have been used in -polishing objects. - -"Finding these stones was, however, a thing of frequent occurrence in -several spots of this locality, where I often met with them; they were -of all sizes and all shapes, and perfectly adapted for polishing small -flints, needles, and the cutting edges of knives, deposited with them in -the sepulchres. - -"This polishing-stone, which is thickly covered with _dendrites_ or -incrustations, must have been in use at the time it was abandoned. I -found it about 2 feet below the surface of the soil, in which it was -turned upside down; that is, the basin lay next the earth. The few -monuments that were with it--one among which I looked upon as an idol -roughly carved in a block of sandstone--were all likewise turned upside -down. There had been sepulchres in the neighbourhood, but they had been -violated; and the displaced stones, as well as the bones themselves, -only served to point out the presence of the former burial-place." - -The polishing of stone instruments was effected by rubbing the object -operated upon in a cavity hollowed out in the centre of the polisher, in -which cavity a little water was poured, mixed with zircon or corundum -powder, or, perhaps, merely with oxide of iron, which is used by -jewellers in carrying out the same operation. - -It is really surprising to learn what an enormous quantity of flints -could be prepared by a single workman, provided with the proper -utensils. For information on this point, it is requisite to know what -could be done by our former flint-workers in the departments of Indre -and Loire-et-Cher, who are, in fact, the descendants of the workmen of -the Stone Age. Dolomieu, a French naturalist, desired at the beginning -of the century to acquaint himself with the quantity which these -workmen could produce, and at the same time to thoroughly understand the -process which they employed in manufacturing gun-flints. - -By visiting the workshops of the flint-workers, M. Dolomieu ascertained -that the first shape which the workmen gave to the flint was that of a -many-sided prism. In the next place, five or six blows with the hammer, -which were applied in a minute, were sufficient to cleave off from the -mass certain fragments as exact in shape, with faces as smooth, outlines -as straight, and angles as sharp, as if the stone had been wrought by a -lapidary's wheel--an operation which, in the latter case, would have -required an hour's handiwork. All that was requisite, says Dolomieu, is -that the stones should be fresh, and devoid of flaws or heterogeneous -matter. When operating upon a good kind of flint, freshly extracted from -the ground, a workman could prepare 1000 proper flakes of flint in a -day, turning out 500 gun-flints, so that in three days he would -perfectly finish 1000 ready for sale. In 1789, the Russian army was -furnished with gun-flints from Poland. The manufactory was established -at Kisniew. At this period, according to Dolomieu, 90,000 of these -gun-flints were made in two months. - -Besides those at Grand-Pressigny, some other pre-historic workshops have -been pointed out in France. We may mention those of Charente, discovered -by M. de Rochebrune; also those of Poitou, and lastly, the field of -Diorières, at Chauvigny (Loire-et-Cher), which appears to have been a -special workshop for polishing flint instruments. There is, in fact, not -far from Chauvigny, in the same department, a rock on which twenty-five -furrows, similar to those in the polishing-stones, are still visible; on -which account the inhabitants of the district have given it the name of -the "Scored Rock." It is probable that this rock was used for polishing -the instruments which were sculptured at Diorières. - -The same kind of open-air workshops for the working of flints have also -been discovered in Belgium. - -The environs of Mons are specially remarkable in this respect. At -Spiennes, particularly, there can be no doubt that an important -manufactory of wrought flints existed during the polished-stone epoch. A -considerable number of hatchets and other implements have been found -there; all of them being either unfinished, defective, or scarcely -commenced. We here give a representation (fig. 109) of a spear-head -which came from this settlement. - -[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Spear-head from Spiennes.] - -Sometimes these workshops were established in caverns, and not in the -open air. We are told this by M. J. Fournet, a naturalist of Lyons, in -his work entitled, 'Influence du Mineur sur la Civilisation.' - -"For a very long time past," says M. Fournet, "the caves of Mentone had -been known to the inhabitants of the district, on account of the -accumulation of _débris_ contained in them, a boxful of which were sent -to Paris, before 1848, by the Prince of Monaco; the contents of it, -however, were never subjected to any proper explanation. Since this -date, M. Grand, of Lyons, to whom I am indebted for a collection of -specimens from these caves, carefully made several excavations, by which -he was enabled to ascertain that the most remarkable objects are only to -be met with at a certain depth in the clayey deposit with which the soil -of these caves is covered. All the instruments are rough and rudimentary -in their character, and must, consequently, be assigned to the first -commencement of the art. Nevertheless, among the flints some agates were -found, which, in my opinion, certainly came from the neighbourhood of -Frejus; and with them also some pieces of hyaline quartz in the shape of -prisms terminated by their two ordinary pyramids. We have a right to -suppose that these crystals, which resembled the _Meylan diamonds_ found -near Grenoble, did not come there by chance, and that their sharp -points, when fixed in a handle and acting as drills, were used for -boring holes in stone." - -Flint was not, however, the only substance used during this epoch in the -manufacture of stone-hatchets, instruments and tools. In the caves of -France, Belgium and Denmark a considerable number of hatchets have been -found, made of gneiss, diorite, ophite, fibrolite, jade, and various -other very hard mineral substances, which were well adapted to the -purpose required and the use to which they were put. - -Among the most remarkable we may mention several jade hatchets which -were found in the department of Gers, and ornamented with small hooks on -each side of the edge. One of these beautiful jade hatchets (fig. 110), -the delineation of which is taken from the specimen in the Museum of -Saint-Germain, was found in the department of Seine-et-Oise; it has a -sculptured ridge in the middle of each face. - -[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Polished Jade Hatchet in the Museum of -Saint-Germain.] - -But neither flint, gneiss, nor diorite exist in every country. For these -stones some less hard substance was then substituted. In Switzerland the -instruments and tools were generally made of pebbles which had been -drifted down by the streams. They were fashioned by breaking them with -other stones, by rubbing them on sandstone, or by sawing them with -toothed blades of flint according to their cohesive nature. - -In some localities also objects of large size were made of serpentine, -basalts, lavas, jades, and other rocks chosen on account of their -extreme cohesiveness. - -Manual skill had, however, attained such a pitch of perfection among the -workmen of this period, in consequence of their being habituated to one -exclusive kind of labour, that the nature of the stone became a matter -of indifference to them. The hammer, with the proper use of which our -workmen are almost unacquainted, was a marvellous instrument in the -hands of our ancestors; with it they executed prodigies of workmanship, -which seem as if they ought to have been reserved for the file and -grindstone of the lapidary of the present day. - -We shall not, perhaps, surprise our readers if we add that as certain -volcanic lavas, especially obsidian, fracture with the same regularity -and the same facility as the flint, obsidian was employed by the natives -of America as a material for making sharp instruments. The ancient -quarries whence the Indians procured this rock for the manufacture of -instruments and tools, were situate at the _Cerro de Navajas_--that is, -the _Mountain of Knives_--in Mexico. M. H. de Saussure, the descendant -of the great geologist, was fortunate enough to meet with, at this spot, -pieces of mineral which had merely been begun upon, and allowed a series -of double-edged blades to be subsequently cut off them; these were -always to be obtained by a simple blow skilfully applied. According to -M. H. de Saussure, the first fashioning of these implements was confined -to producing a large six-sided prism, the vertical corners of which were -regularly and successively hewn off, until the piece left, or _nucleus_, -became too small for the operation to be further continued. - -Hernandez, the Spanish historian, states that he has seen 100 blades an -hour manufactured in this way. Added to this, the ancient aborigines of -Peru, and the Guanches of Teneriffe, likewise carved out of obsidian -both darts and poniards. And, lastly, we must not omit to mention that -M. Place, one of the explorers of Nineveh, found on the site of this -ancient city, knives of obsidian, supposed to be used for the purpose of -circumcision. - -Having considered the flint instruments peculiar to the polished-stone -epoch, we must now turn our attention to those made of stag's horn. - -The valley of the Somme, which has furnished such convincing proof of -the co-existence of man with the great mammals of extinct species, is a -no less precious repository for instruments of stag's horn belonging to -the polished-stone epoch. The vast peat-bogs of this region are the -localities where these relics have been chiefly found. Boucher de -Perthes collected a considerable number of them in the neighbourhood of -Abbeville. - -These peat-bogs are, as is well known, former marshes which have been -gradually filled up by the growth of peat-moss (sphagnum), which, mixed -with fallen leaves, wood, &c., and being slowly rotted by the -surrounding water, became converted after a certain time into that kind -of combustible matter which is called peat. The bogs in the valley of -the Somme in some places attain to the depth of 34 feet. In the lower -beds of this peat are found the weapons, the tools, and the ornaments of -the polished-stone epoch. - -Among these ancient relics we must mention one very interesting class; -it is that formed by the association of two distinct component parts, -such as stone and stag's horn, or stone and bone. - -The hatchets of this type are particularly remarkable; they consist of a -piece of polished flint half buried in a kind of sheath of stag's horn, -either polished or rough as the case may be (fig. 111). - -[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Polished Flint Hatchet, with a Sheath of -Stag's Horn fitted for a Handle.] - -The middle of this sheath is generally perforated with a round or oval -hole intended to receive a handle of oak, birch, or some other kind of -wood adapted for such a use. - -Fig. 112, taken from the illustration in Boucher de Perthes' work -('Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes'), represents this hatchet -fitted into a handle made of oak. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Flint Hatchet fitted into a Stag's-horn -Sheath, having an Oak Handle, from Boucher de Perthes' illustration.] - -It is difficult to understand how it was that a hatchet of this kind did -not fall out of its sheath in consequence of any moderately violent -blow; for it seems as if there was nothing to hold it in its place. This -observation especially applies to hatchets, the whole length of -which--even the portion covered by the sheath--was polished; for the -latter would certainly slide out of their casing with ease. The fact is, -that complete specimens are seldom found, and, generally speaking, the -flints are separated from their sheaths. - -With regard to the handles, the nature of the material they were made -from was unfavourable to their preservation through a long course of -centuries; it is, therefore, only exceptionally that we meet with them, -and even then they are always defaced. - -Fig. 113 is given by Boucher de Perthes, in his 'Antiquités Celtiques,' -as the representation of an oaken handle found by him. - -A number of these sheaths have been found, which were provided at the -end opposite to the stone hatchet with strong and pointed teeth. These -are boar's tusks, firmly buried in the stag's horn. These instruments -therefore fulfilled a double purpose; they cut or crushed with one end -and pierced with the other. - -Sheaths are also found which are not only provided with the boar's -tusks, but are hollowed out at each end so as to hold two flint hatchets -at once. This is represented in fig. 114 from one of Boucher de Perthes' -illustrations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 113.--Hatchet-handle made of Oak.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Stag's-horn Sheath, open at each end so as to -receive two Hatchets.] - -The hatchet fitted into a sheath of stag's horn which we here delineate -(fig. 115), was picked up in the environs of Aerschot, and is an object -well worthy of note; it is now in the Museum of Antiquities at Brussels. -Its workmanship is perfect, and superior to that of similar instruments -found in the peat-bogs of the valley of the Somme. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Polished Flint Hatchet from Belgium, fitted -into a Stag's-horn Sheath.] - -Stag's horn was often used alone as a material for the manufacture of -tools which were not intended to endure any very hard work; among these -were instruments of husbandry and gardening. - -We here give representations (figs. 116, 117, 118) from Boucher de -Perthes' illustrations, of certain implements made of stag's horn which -appear to have had this purpose in view. It is remarked that they are -not all perforated for holding a handle; in some cases, a portion of the -stag's antler formed the handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after -Boucher de Perthes).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after -Boucher de Perthes).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after -Boucher de Perthes).] - -In the course of his explorations in the peat-bogs of Abbeville, M. -Boucher de Perthes found numerous flakes of flint of irregular shapes, -the use of which he was unable to explain. But there have also been -discovered in the same deposits some long bones belonging to -mammals--tibia, femur, radius, ulna--all cut in a uniform way, either -in the middle or at the ends; he was led to imagine that these bones -might have been the handles intended to hold the flints. In order to -assure himself that this idea was well founded, he took one of the bones -and a stone which came out of the peat, and, having put them together, -he found he had made a kind of chisel, well-adapted for cutting, -scooping-out, scratching and polishing horn or wood. He tried this -experiment again several times, and always with full success. If the -stone did not fit firmly into the bone, one or two wooden wedges were -sufficient to steady it. - -After this, Boucher de Perthes entertained no doubt whatever that these -bones had been formerly employed as handles for flint implements. The -same handle would serve for several stones, owing to the ease with which -the artisan could take one flint out and replace it with another, by the -aid of nothing but these wooden wedges. This is the reason why, in the -peat-bogs, flints of this sort are always much more plentiful than the -bone handles. We must also state that it seems as if they took little or -no trouble in repairing the flints when they were blunted, knowing how -easy it would be to replace them. They were thrown away, without further -care; hence their profusion. - -These handles are made of extremely hard bone, from which we may -conclude that they were applied to operations requiring solid tools. -Most of them held the flint at one end only; but some were open at both -ends, and would serve as handles for two tools at once. - -Figs. 119 and 120 represent some of these flint tools in bone -handles--the plates are taken from those in Boucher de Perthes' work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 119.--Flint Tool in a Bone Handle.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 120.--Flint Tool with Bone Handle.] - -Generally speaking, these handles gave but little trouble to those who -made them. They were content with merely breaking the bone across, -without even smoothing down the fracture, and then enlarging the -medullary hollow which naturally existed; next they roughly squared or -rounded the end which was intended to be grasped by the hand. - -In fig. 121, we delineate one of these bone handles which is much more -carefully fashioned; it has been cut off smooth at the open end, and the -opposite extremity has been rounded off into a knob, which is ornamented -with a design. - -[Illustration: Fig. 121.--Ornamented Bone Handle.] - -During the polished-stone epoch, as during that which preceded it, the -teeth of certain mammals were used in the way of ornament. But they were -not content, as heretofore, with merely perforating them with holes and -hanging them in a string round their necks; they were now wrought with -considerable care. The teeth of the wild boar were those chiefly -selected for this purpose. They were split lengthwise, so as to render -them only half their original thickness, and were then polished and -perforated with holes in order to string them. - -In the peat-mosses of the valley of the Somme a number of boars' tusks -have been found thus fashioned. The most curious discovery of this kind -which has been made, was that of the object of which we give a sketch in -fig. 122. It was found in 1834, near Pecquigny (Somme), and is composed -of nineteen boars' tusks split into two halves, as we before mentioned, -perfectly polished, and perforated at each end with a round hole. -Through these holes was passed a string of some tendinous substance, the -remains of which were, it is stated, actually to be seen at the time of -the discovery. A necklace of this kind must have been of considerable -value, as it would have necessitated a large amount of very tedious and -delicate work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Necklace made of Boars' Tusks, longitudinally -divided.] - -In the peat-bogs near Brussels polished flints have likewise been found, -associated with animal bones, and two specimens of the human _humerus_, -belonging to two individuals. - -The peat-bogs of Antwerp, in which were found a human frontal bone, -characterised by its great thickness, and its small surface, have also -furnished fine specimens of flint knives (fig. 123), which are in no way -inferior to the best of those discovered at Grand-Pressigny. - -[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Flint Knife, from the Peat-bogs near Antwerp.] - -On none of the instruments of bone or horn, of which we have been -speaking, are to be found the designs which we have described as being -the work of man during the reindeer epoch. The artistic instinct seems -to have entirely vanished. Perhaps the diluvial catastrophe, which -destroyed so many victims, had, as one of its results, the effect of -effacing the feeling of art, by forcing men to concentrate their ideas -on one sole point--the care of providing for their subsistence and -defence. - -A quantity of remains, gathered here and there, bear witness to the fact -that in the polished-stone epoch the use of pottery was pretty widely -spread. Most of the specimens are, as we have said, nothing but -attempts of a very rough character, but still they testify to a certain -amount of progress. The ornamentation is more delicate and more -complicated. We notice the appearance of open-work handles, and -projections perforated for the purpose of suspension. In short, there is -a perceptible, though but preliminary step made towards the real -creations of art. - -In the caves of Ariége, MM. Garrigou and Filhol found some remains of -ancient pottery of clay provided with handles, although of a shape -altogether primitive. Among the fragments of pottery found by these -_savants_, there was one which measured 11 inches in height, and must -have formed a portion of a vase 20 inches high. This vessel, which was -necessarily very heavy, had been hung to cords; this was proved by -finding on another portion of the same specimen three holes which had -been perforated in it. - - -_Agriculture._--We have certain evidence that man, during the -polished-stone epoch, was acquainted with husbandry, or, in other words, -that he cultivated cereals. MM. Garrigou and Filhol found in the caves -of Ariége more than twenty mill-stones, which could only have been used -in grinding corn. These stones are from 8 to 24 inches in diameter. - -The tribes, therefore, which, during the polished-stone epoch, inhabited -the district now called Ariége, were acquainted with the cultivation of -corn. - -In 1869, Dr. Foulon-Menard published an article intended to describe a -stone found at Penchasteau, near Nantes, in a tomb belonging to the -Stone Age.[20] This stone is 24 inches wide, and hollowed out on its -upper face. It was evidently used for crushing grain with the help of a -stone roller, or merely a round pebble, which was rolled up and down in -the cavity. The meal obtained by this pressure and friction made its way -down the slope in the hollowing out of the stone, and was caught in a -piece of matting, or something of the kind. - -To enable our readers to understand the fact that an excavation made in -a circular stone formed the earliest corn-mill in these primitive ages, -we may mention that, even in our own time, this is the mode of -procedure practised among certain savage tribes in order to crush -various seeds and corn. - -[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Primitive Corn-mill.] - -In the 'Voyage du Mississippi à l'Océan,' by M. Molhausen, we read:-- - -"The principal food of the Indians consisted of roasted cakes of maize -and wheat, the grains of which had been pulverised _between two -stones_."[21] - -In Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi (Central Africa), it is -stated that "the corn-mills of the Mangajas, Makalolos, Landines and -other tribes are composed of a block of granite or syenite, sometimes -even of mica-schist, 15 to 18 inches square by 5 or 6 inches thick, and -a piece of quartz, or some other rock of equal hardness about the size -of a half-brick; one of the sides of this substitute for a millstone is -convex, so as to fit into a hollow of a trough-like shape made in the -large block, which remains motionless. When the woman wants to grind any -corn, she kneels down, and, taking in both hands the convex stone, she -rubs it up and down in the hollow of the lower stone with a motion -similar to that of a baker pressing down his dough and rolling it in -front of him. Whilst rubbing it to and fro, the housewife leans all her -weight on the smaller stone, and every now and then places a little more -corn in the trough. The latter is made sloping, so that the meal as soon -as it is made falls down into a cloth fixed to catch it." - -[Illustration: Fig. 125.--The Art of Bread-making in the Stone Age.] - -Such, therefore, was the earliest corn-mill. We shall soon see it -reappear in another form; two mill-stones placed one over the other, one -being set in motion above the other by means of a wooden handle. This is -the corn-mill of the bronze epoch. This type maintained its place -down to historic times, as it constituted the earliest kind of mill -employed by the Roman agriculturist. - -In order to represent the existence of agriculture during the -polished-stone epoch, we have annexed a delineation of a woman grinding -corn into meal in the primitive mill (fig. 125). - -In the same figure may be noticed the way of preparing the meal coming -from the mill for making a rough kind of cake. The children are heating -in the fire some flat circular stones. When these stones are -sufficiently heated, they rapidly withdraw them from the fire, using for -the purpose two damp sticks; they then place on the stones a little of -the meal mixed with water. The heat of the stones sufficed to bake the -meal and form a sort of cake or biscuit. - -We may here state, in order to show that we are not dealing with a mere -hypothesis, that it is just in this way that, in the poor districts of -Tuscany, the _polenta_ is prepared even in the present day. The dough -made of chestnut-meal, moistened with water, is cooked between flat -stones that are placed one over the other in small piles as portrayed in -the annexed plate. - -In the background of the same sketch we see animals, reduced to the -state of domestic cattle, being driven towards the group at work. By -this particular feature we have wished to point out that the -polished-stone epoch was also that of the domestication of animals, and -that even at this early period the sheep, the dog and the horse had been -tamed by man, and served him either as auxiliaries or companions. - -The traces of agriculture which we have remarked on as existing in the -caves of Ariége, are also found in other parts of France. Round the -hearths in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, M. Pommerol discovered -carbonised wheat intermingled with pottery and flint instruments. The -men of the period we are now considering no longer devoted themselves -exclusively to the pursuits of hunting and fishing. They now began to -exercise the noble profession of agriculture, which was destined to be -subsequently the chief source of national wealth. - - -_Navigation._--The first origin of the art of navigation must be -ascribed to the polished-stone epoch. With regard to this subject, let -us pay attention to what is said on the point by M. G. de Mortillet, -curator at the Archæological and Pre-historic Museum of -Saint-Germain--one of the best-informed men we have in all questions -relating to the antiquity of man. - -In M. de Mortillet's opinion, navigation, both marine and inland, was in -actual existence during the polished-stone epoch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 126.--The earliest Navigators.] - -The earliest boats that were made by man consisted simply of great -trunks of trees, shaped on the outside, and hollowed out in the -interior. They were not provided with any rests or rowlocks for the oars -or paddles, which were wielded by both hands. In hollowing out the tree -they used both their stone implements and also the action of fire. - -In the earliest boats, the trunk of the tree, cut through at the two -ends as well as their imperfect tools allowed, preserved its original -outward form. The boat, in fact, was nothing but the trunk of a tree -first burnt out and then chipped on the inside by some cutting -instrument, that is, by the stone-hatchet. - -Some improvement subsequently took place in making them. The outside of -the tree was also chipped, and its two ends, instead of being cut -straight through, were made to terminate in a point. In order to give it -more stability in the water and to prevent it from capsizing, it was -dressed equally all over, and the bottom of the canoe was scooped out. -Cross-stays were left in the interior to give the boat more solidity, -and perhaps, also, to serve as a support to the back, or, more probably, -to the feet of the rowers, who sat in the bottom of the canoe. - -Sails must soon have been added to these means of nautical progression. -But it would be a difficult matter to fix any precise date for this -important discovery, which was the point of transition between -elementary and primitive navigation, and more important voyages. This -progress could not have been made without the help of metals. - -In an article entitled 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' M. de -Mortillet passes in review all the discoveries, which have been made in -different countries, of the earliest boats belonging to pre-historic -man. - -After stating that the Museum of Copenhagen contains drawings of three -ancient canoes, he goes on to say:-- - -"The first canoe is the half-trunk of a tree 17 inches wide, cut -straight at the two ends, about 7 feet in length, and hollowed out in a -trough-like shape. This canoe much resembles that of Switzerland. - -"The second was about 10 feet in length, one end terminating in a point, -the other more rounded. It was formed of the trunk of a tree hollowed -out into two compartments, a kind of cross-stay or seat being left at a -point about one-third of the length from the widest end. - -"The third canoe, No. 295, likewise made of the trunk of a tree, was -much longer, having a length of at least 13 feet, and was terminated by -a point at both ends. At the sharpest end, the hollow is finished off -squarely, and there is also a small triangular seat at the extremity. -Two cross-stays were left in the interior. - -"These three canoes are classed in the bronze series; a note of -interrogation or doubt is, however, affixed to the two latter. - -"Ireland, like Scandinavia, has a history which does not go back very -far into the remote past; like Scandinavia, too, Ireland has been one of -the first to collect with care not only the monuments, but even the -slightest relics of remote antiquity and of pre-historic times. The -Royal Irish Academy has collected at Dublin a magnificent Museum, and -the praiseworthy idea has also been put in practice of publishing a -catalogue illustrated with 626 plates. - -"In these collections there are three ancient canoes. The first is about -23 feet long, 31 inches wide, and 12 inches deep, and is hollowed out of -the trunk of an oak, which must have been at least 4-1/2 feet in -diameter. This boat, which came from the bogs of Cahore on the coast of -Wexford, is roughly squared underneath. One of the ends is rounded and -is slightly raised; the other is cut across at right angles, and closed -with a piece let in and fitted into grooves which were caulked with -bark. In the interior there are three cross-stays cut out of the solid -oak. - -"The interior, at the time the canoe was discovered, contained a wooden -vessel, intended to bale out the boat, and two rollers, probably meant -to assist in conveying it down to the sea. - -"The second is a canoe made of one piece of oak, rather more than 23 -feet long, about 12 inches wide, and 8 inches deep. It terminates in a -point at both ends, and contains three cross-stays cut out of the solid -wood, and a small terminal triangular seat. - -"The third, likewise made of one piece, is rather more than 20 feet long -and about 21 inches wide. On each side the wood is cut out so as to -receive a seat. This boat appears less ancient than the others, although -these may not have belonged to any very remote antiquity. In fact, Ware -states that in his time there were still to be seen on some of the Irish -rivers canoes hollowed out of a single trunk of oak. - -"It is also well known that the lacustrine habitations constructed on -the artificial islands called _Crannoges_, existed to a late period in -Ireland. All the boats found round these island-dwellings are canoes -made all in one piece and hollowed out of the trunks of large trees. - -"The trough-shaped canoe, consisting merely of the trunk of a tree cut -straight through at the two ends, and in no way squared on the outside, -also exists in Ireland. A very singular variety has been found in the -county of Monaghan;[22] at the two ends are two projections or handles, -which were probably used for carrying the boat from one place to -another, or to draw it up upon the beach after a voyage. - -"According to Mr. John Buchanan, quoted by Sir C. Lyell,[23] at least -seventeen canoes have been found in the low ground along the margin of -the Clyde at Glasgow. Mr. Buchanan examined several of them before they -were dug out. Five of them were found buried in the silt under the -streets of Glasgow. One canoe was discovered in a vertical position, -with the prow upwards, as if it had foundered in a tempest; it contained -no small quantity of sea-shells. Twelve other canoes were found about -100 yards from the river, at the average depth of about 19 feet below -the surface of the ground, or about 7 feet below high-water mark. A few -only of them were found at a depth of no more than 4 or 5 feet, and -consequently more than 20 feet above the present level of the sea. One -was stuck into the sand at an angle of 45°; another had been turned over -and lay keel upwards; the others were in a horizontal position, as if -they had sunk in still water. - -"Almost every one of these ancient boats had been formed of a single -trunk of oak, and hollowed out with some blunt instrument, probably -stone hatchets, assisted also by the action of fire. A few of them -presented clean-made cuts, evidently produced by a metallic tool. Two of -them were constructed of planks. The most elaborate of the number -bore the traces of square metal nails, which, however, had entirely -disappeared. In one canoe was found a diorite hatchet, and at the bottom -of another, a cork bung, which certainly implies relations with southern -France, Spain, or Italy. - -"The Swiss lakes, with their lacustrine habitations, have furnished -numerous specimens of canoes. Dr. Keller, in his fifth Report on -Lake-Dwellings (plate X. fig. 23), represents a canoe from Robenhausen; -it is the half trunk of a tree 12 feet long and 29 inches wide, hollowed -out to a depth of from 6 to 7 inches only. Taking the centre as the -widest part, this trunk has been chipped off so as to taper towards the -two points which are rounded. It is, however, very probable that the -whole of this work was executed with stone implements; for the primitive -settlement of Robenhausen, situated in a peat-bog near the small lake -Pfæffikon in the canton of Zurich, although very rich in many kinds of -objects, has not, up to the present time, furnished us with any metal -instruments. - -"In his first report (plate IV. fig. 21), Dr. Keller had given the -sketch of another canoe which came from the Lake of Bienne. Like the -first, mentioned by M. Worsaae, it is the half of the trunk of a tree -cut almost straight through, its two ends hollowed out inside in the -shape of a trough, the exterior being left entirely unwrought. - -"Professor Desor mentions several canoes found in the Lake of Bienne. -One of them, near the island Saint-Pierre, was still full of stones. -According to M. Desor the builders of the lacustrine habitations during -the polished-stone epoch, in order to consolidate the piles which were -intended to support their dwellings, were accustomed to bank them up -with stones which they fetched in boats from the shore; the bottom of -the lake being completely devoid of them. The canoe found at the isle of -Saint-Pierre had therefore sunk to the bottom with its cargo, and thus -may be dated back to the polished-stone epoch. M. Troyon[24] gives some -still more circumstantial details as to this canoe. It is partly buried -in the mud at the northern angle of the isle, and is made of a single -piece of the trunk of an oak of large dimensions; it is not much less -than 49 feet long with a breadth of from 3-1/2 feet to 4 feet. - -"M. Desor, in his _Palafittes_, informs us that the Museum of Neuchâtel -has lately been enriched by the addition of a canoe which was -discovered in the lake; unfortunately, it was dreadfully warped in -drying. - -"Also M. Troyon, in his 'Habitations Lacustres,' speaks of several -canoes at Estavayer and Morges. - -"Estavayer is situated on the Lake of Neuchâtel. There are two -settlements near it, one of the Stone Age, and one of the bronze age. -One canoe is still lying at the bottom of the lake, near these -settlements. Another was brought out of the water by the fishermen some -years ago; it was about 10 feet in length, and 2 feet in width. The end -which had been preserved was cut to a point and slightly turned upwards. - -"Morges is on the Lake of Geneva, in the Canton of Vaud. M. Forel -discovered there two interesting settlements of the bronze age. Two -canoes were found. According to M. Troyon, one of them which had been -carried up on to the bank was not long before it was destroyed. It was -formed of the trunk of an oak, hollowed out like a basin. The other -still lay near some piles in 13 to 15 feet of water. One portion of it -is buried in the sand, the other part, which is not covered, measures -about 10 feet in length by 2 feet in width. It terminates in a point and -has been cut out so as to provide a kind of seat, taken out of the -thickness of the wood at the end, just as in the third canoe represented -in the catalogue of the Copenhagen Museum. - -"In France, too, several canoes have been found which date back to -pre-historic times. - -"On the 6th of January, 1860, the labourers who were working at the -fortifications which the engineers were making at Abbeville found a -canoe in the place called Saint-Jean-des-Prés, on the left bank of the -canal; it was discovered in the peat, 36 feet below the road and about -220 yards from the railway station. It was made out of a single stick of -oak and was about 22 feet in length; its ends were square and cut in a -slope, so that its upper surface was 8 feet longer than its bottom, -which was flattened off to a width of about 14 inches. The greatest -width of its upper surface, the widest part being placed at about -one-third of its length, measured nearly 3 feet; from this point the -canoe contracted in width, and was not more than 18 inches in width at -the furthest end. Now, as no tree exists which diminishes to this extent -in diameter on so short a length, we must conclude that the trunk which -formed the canoe must have been shaped outside. - -"Two projections about 4 inches in thickness, placed 6-1/2 feet from the -narrowest end, and forming one piece with the sides and the bottom, -which in this part are very thick, left between them an empty space -which was probably intended to fit against the two sides of a piece of -wood cut square at the bottom and meant to serve as a mast. The deepest -internal hollow had not more than 10 inches in rise, and the side, which -at the upper part was not more than an inch in thickness, followed the -natural curve of the trunk, and united with the much thicker portion at -the bottom. This canoe, although it was completely uncovered and still -remained in a very good state of preservation, has not been got out from -the place in which it lay. - -"In 1834, another canoe was discovered at Estreboeuf, 33 feet long, -about 21 inches wide, and 18 inches deep. The bottom was flat, the sides -cut vertically both within and without, which gave it nearly the shape -of a squared trough. In its widest part it bore some signs of having -carried a mast. It was conveyed to the Museum at Abbeville and became -completely rotten; nothing now is left but shapeless remains. - -"The Abbé Cochet relates that between 1788 and 1800, during the -excavation of the basin of _La Barre_, at Havre, at 11 feet in depth, a -canoe was discovered, more than 44 feet in length, and hollowed out of -one trunk of a tree. The two ends were pointed and solid, and the -interior was strengthened with curved stays formed out of the solid -wood. This canoe was found to be made of elm and was hollowed out to a -depth of nearly 4 feet. It was in so good a state of preservation that -it bore being carried to a spot behind the engineer's house on the south -jetty; but when it was deposited there, it gradually wasted away by the -successive action of the rain and sun. - -"The same archæologist also mentions another canoe, with a keel of from -16 to 20 feet long, which was discovered in the year 1680, at -Montéviliers, in the filled-up ditches known under the name of La -Bergue. - -"The Archæological Museum of Dijon also contains a canoe found in the -gravel in the bed of the Loue, on the boundaries of the department of -Jura, between Dôle and Salins. It is made of a single colossal trunk of -oak, shaped, in M. Baudot's opinion, by means of fire. Its present -length is 17 feet, and its width, 2 feet 4 inches; but it has become -much less in the process of drying. Some iron braces which were fixed to -keep the wood in position plainly showed that the width had diminished -at least 6 inches. In the interior, the traces of two seats or supports, -which had been left in the solid wood in order to give strength to the -canoe, might be very distinctly seen. The first was about a yard from -one end, the other 5-1/2 feet from the other. Both extremities terminate -in a point, one end being much sharper and longer than the other. - -"At the Museum of Lyons there is a canoe which was found in the gravel -of the Rhone, near the bridge of Cordon, in the department of Ain. It is -41 feet in length, and hollowed out of a single trunk of oak tapering -off at the two ends. The middle of it is squared, and the interior is -strengthened by two braces left in the solid wood. - -"Lastly, we must mention the canoe that was dug out of the bed of the -Seine in Paris, and presented by M. Forgeais to the Emperor. It is now -in the Museum of Saint-Germain. It was made of a single trunk of oak and -had been skilfully wrought on the outside, terminating in a point at -both ends. This canoe was bedded in the mud and gravel at the extremity -of the _Cité_, on the Notre-Dame side. Close by a worked flint was met -with, and various bronze weapons; among others, a helmet and several -swords were also found. In the beds of rivers objects belonging to -different epochs readily get mixed up. This flint appears to have -accidentally come thither; the bronze arms, on the contrary, seem to -mark the date of the canoe."[25] - -We have previously spoken of the _primitive workshop of human industry_, -of which, indeed, we gave a design. In contrast to this peaceful -picture, we may also give a representation of the evidences which have -been preserved even to our own days of the earliest means of attack and -defence constituting regular war among nations. War and battles must -have doubtless taken their rise almost simultaneously with the origin of -humanity itself. The hatred and rivalry which first sprung up between -individuals and families--hatred and rivalry which must have existed -from all time--gradually extended to tribes, and then to whole -nations, and were outwardly expressed in armed invasions, pillage and -slaughter. These acts of violence were, in very early days, reduced to a -system in the art of war--that terrible expedient from which even modern -nations have not been able to escape. - -In order to find the still existing evidence of the wars which took -place among men in the Stone Age, we must repair to that portion of -Europe which is now called Belgium. Yes, even in the Stone Age, at a -date far beyond all written record, the people of this district already -were in the habit of making war, either among themselves or against -other tribes invading them from other lands. This fact is proved by the -fortified enclosures, or _entrenched camps_, which have been discovered -by MM. Hannour and Himelette. These camps are those of Furfooz, -Pont-de-Bonn, Simon, Jemelle, Hastedon, and Poilvache. - -All these different camps possess certain characteristics in common. -They are generally established on points overhanging valleys, on a mass -of rock forming a kind of headland, which is united to the rest of the -country by a narrow neck of land. A wide ditch was dug across this -narrow tongue of land, and the whole camp was surrounded by a thick wall -of stones, simply piled one upon another, without either mortar or -cement. At the camp of Hastedon, near Namur, this wall, which was still -in a good state of preservation at the time it was described, measured -10 feet in width, and about the same in height. When an attack was made, -the defenders, assembled within the enclosure, rained down on their -assailants stones torn away from their wall, which thus became at the -same time both a defensive and offensive work (fig. 127). - -[Illustration: Fig. 127.--The earliest regular Conflicts between Men of -the Stone Age; or, the Entrenched Camp of Furfooz.] - -These entrenched positions were so well chosen that most of them -continued to be occupied during the age which followed. We may mention, -as an instance, the camp of Poilvache. After having been a Roman citadel -it was converted in the middle ages into a strongly fortified castle, -which was not destroyed until the fifteenth century. - -The camps of Hastedon and Furfooz were likewise utilised by the Romans. - -Over the whole inclosure of these ancient camps worked flints and -remains of pottery have been found--objects which are sufficient to -testify to the former presence of primitive man. The enormous ramparts -of these camps also tend to show that pre-historic man must have -existed in comparatively numerous associations at the various spots -where these works are found. - -If we were to enter into a detailed study of the vestiges of the -polished-stone epoch existing in the other countries of Europe, we -should be led into a repetition of much that we have already stated with -regard to the districts now forming France and Belgium. Over a great -portion of Europe we should find the same mode of life, the same manners -and customs, and the same degree of nascent civilisation. From the -scope, therefore, of our present work, we shall not make it our task to -take each country into special consideration. - -We will content ourselves with stating that the caves of Old Castille in -Spain, which were explored by M. Ed. Lartet, have furnished various -relics of the reindeer and polished-stone epochs. Also in the provinces -of Seville and Badajos, polished hatchets have been found, made for the -most part of dioritic rocks. - -Numerous vestiges of the same epoch have, too, been discovered in -various provinces of Italy. - -We give in fig. 128 the sketch of a very remarkable arrow-head found in -the province of Civita-Nova (the former kingdom of Naples). It is -provided with a short stem with lateral grooves, so as to facilitate the -point being fitted into a wooden shaft. - -[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Flint Arrow-head, from Civita-Nova (Italy).] - -Elba, too, was surveyed by M. Raffaello Foresi, who found in this -Mediterranean isle a large quantity of arrows, knives, saws, scrapers, -&c., formed of flint, jasper, obsidian, and even rock crystal. There -were also found in the Isle of Elba workshops for shaping flints. Great -Britain, Wurtemburg, Hungary, Poland, and Russia all furnish us with -specimens of polished stone instruments; but, for the reason which we -stated above, it would be superfluous to dwell upon them. - -We shall now pass on to an examination of the type of the human race -which existed among the northern nations of Europe during the -polished-stone age. - -There is a cavern of Ariége which belongs to the polished-stone epoch, -and has been explored by MM. Garrigou and Filhol--this is the cavern of -_Lombrive_, or _des Echelles_; the latter name being given it because it -is divided into two portions placed at such very different levels that -the help of five long ladders is required in order to pass from one to -the other. This cave has become interesting from the fact that it has -furnished a large quantity of human bones, belonging to individuals of -both sexes and every age; also two entire skulls, which M. Garrigou has -presented to the Anthropological Society of Paris. - -These two skulls, which appear to have belonged, one to a child of eight -to ten years of age, the other to a female, present a somewhat peculiar -shape. The forehead, which is high in the centre, is low at the sides; -and the orbits of the eyes and also the hollows of the cheeks are deep. - -We shall not enter into the diverse and contrary hypotheses which have -been advanced by MM. Vogt, Broca, Pruner-Bey, Garrigou and Filhol, in -order to connect the skulls found in the cave of Ariége with the present -races of the human species. This ethnological question is very far from -having been decided in any uniform way; and so it will always be, as -long as scientific men are compelled to base their opinions on a limited -number of skulls, which are, moreover, always incomplete; each _savant_ -being free to interpret their features according to his own system. - -Neither in the Danish kitchen-middens nor in the lower beds of the -peat-bogs have any human bones been discovered; but the tombs in -Denmark belonging to the polished-stone epoch have furnished a few human -skulls which, up to a certain point, enable us to estimate the -intellectual condition and affinities of the race of men who lived in -these climates. We may particularly mention the skull found in the -_tumulus_ at Borreby in Denmark, which has been studied with extreme -care by Mr. Busk. - -This skull (fig. 129) presents a somewhat remarkable similarity to that -of Neanderthal, of which we have spoken in a previous chapter. The -superciliary ridges are very prominent, the forehead is retiring, the -occiput is short and sloped forward. It might, therefore, find its -origin among the races of which the skulls of Neanderthal and Borreby -are the representatives and the relics, and the latter might well be the -descendants of the former. - -[Illustration: Fig. 129.--The Borreby Skull.] - -Anthropologists have had much discussion about the question, to what -particular human race of the present time may the skulls found in the -_tumulus_ at Borreby be considered to be allied? But all these -discussions are deficient in those elements on which any serious and -definite argument might be founded. It would, therefore, be going -beyond our purpose should we reproduce them here. If, in the sketch of -the Borreby skull, we place, before the eyes of our readers the type of -the human cranium which existed during the period of the Stone Age, our -only object is to prove that the primitive Northerner resembles the -present race of man, both in the beauty and in the regularity of the -shape of his skull; also, in order once more to recall to mind how false -and trivial must the judgment be of those short-sighted _savants_ who -would establish a genealogical filiation between man and the ape. - -As we stated in the Introduction to this volume, a mere glance cast upon -this skull is sufficient to bring to naught all that has been written -and propounded touching the organic consanguinity which is asserted to -exist between man and the ape, to say nothing of the objects produced by -primitive man--objects which, in this work, we are studying in all -necessary detail. An examination of the labours of primitive man is the -best means of proving--every other consideration being set aside--that a -great abyss exists between him and the animal; this is the best argument -against our pretended _simial_ origin, as it is called by those who seek -to veil their absurd ideas under grand scientific phrases. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[18] 'Note sur un Amas de. Coquilles mélées à des Silex taillés, signalé -sur les Côtes de Provence,' by M. A. Gory ('Revue Archéologique'). -Quoted in the 'Matériaux de l'histoire positive de l'Homme,' by M. de -Mortillet, vol. i. p. 535. - -[19] See J. Evans, 'On the Manufacture of Stone Implements in -Pre-historic Times,' in Trans. of the International Congress of -Pre-historic Archæology (Norwich, 1868), p. 191; and C. Rau, 'Drilling -in Stone without Metal,' in Report of Smithsonian Institution, 1868. - -[20] 'Les Moulins Primitifs,' Nantes, 1869. Extract from the 'Bulletin -de la Société Archéologique de Nantes.' - -[21] 'Tour du Monde,' p. 374, 1860. - -[22] Shirley's 'Account of the Territory of Farney.' - -[23] J. Buchanan, 'British Association Reports,' 1855; p. 80. Sir C. -Lyell, 'Antiquity of Man,' p. 48. - -[24] 'Habitations Lacustres des Temps anciens et modernes,' pp. 119, -159, 166. - -[25] 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' pp. 11-21. Paris, 1867. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - Tombs and Mode of Interment during the Polished-stone Epoch-- - _Tumuli_ and other sepulchral Monuments formerly called - _Celtic_--Labours of MM. Alexandre Bertrand and Bonstetten-- - Funeral Customs. - - -Having in our previous chapters described and delineated both the -weapons and instruments produced by the rudimentary manufacturing skill -of man during the polished-stone epoch; having also introduced to notice -the types of the human race during this period; we now have to speak of -their tombs, their mode of interment, and all the facts connected with -their funeral customs. - -A fortunate and rather strange circumstance has both facilitated and -given a degree of certainty to the information and ideas we are about to -lay before our readers. The tombs of the men of the polished-stone -epoch--their funeral monuments--have been thoroughly studied, described, -and ransacked by archæologists and antiquarians, who for many years past -have made them the subject of a multitude of publications and learned -dissertations. In fact, these tombs are nothing but the _dolmens_, or -the so-called _Celtic_ and _Druidical_ monuments; but they by no means -belong, as has always been thought, to any historical period, that is, -to the times of the Celts, for they go back to a much more remote -antiquity--the pre-historic period of the polished-stone age. - -This explanatory _datum_ having been taken into account, we shall now -study the _dolmens_ and other so-called _megalithic_ monuments--the -grand relics of an epoch buried in the night of time; those colossal -enigmas which impose upon our reason and excite to the very highest -pitch the curiosity of men of science. - -_Dolmens_ are monuments composed of a great block or slab of rock, more -or less flat in their shape according to the country in which they are -situate, placed horizontally on a certain number of stones which are -reared up perpendicularly to serve as its supports. - -[Illustration: Fig. 130.--Danish _Dolmen_.] - -This kind of sepulchral chamber was usually covered by earth, which -formed a hillock over it. But in the course of time this earth often -disappeared, leaving nothing but the naked stones of the sepulchral -monument. - -[Illustration: Fig. 131.--_Dolmen_ at Assier.] - -These are the bare stones which have been taken for _stone altars_, -being referred to the religious worship of the Gauls. The supposed -Druidical altars are, in fact, nothing but ruined _dolmens_. The -purpose, therefore, for which they were elevated was not, as has always -been stated, to serve as the scene of the sacrifices of a cruel -religion; for, at the present day, it is completely proved that the -_dolmens_ were the tombs of a pre-historic epoch. - -These tombs were intended to receive several dead bodies. The corpses -were placed in the chamber which was formed by the upper slab and the -supports. Some of these chambers had two stages or stories, and then -furnished a larger number of sepulchres. - -Figs. 132 and 133 represent different _dolmens_ which still exist in -France. - -[Illustration: Fig. 132.--_Dolmen_ at Connéré (Marne).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 133.--Vertical Section of the _Dolmen_ of -Locmariaker, in Brittany. In the Museum of Saint-Germain.] - -Some _dolmens_ are completely open to view, like that represented in -fig. 132, nothing impeding a perfect sight of them; others, on the -contrary, are covered with a hillock of earth, the dimensions of which -vary according to the size of the monument itself. - -This latter kind of _dolmen_ more specially assumes the nature of a -_tumulus_; a designation which conveys the idea of some mound raised -above the tomb. - -Figs. 134 and 135 represent the _tumulus-dolmen_ existing at Gavr'inis -(Oak Island), in Brittany, or, more exactly, in the department of -Morbihan. It is the diminished sketch of an enormous model exhibited in -the Museum of Saint-Germain. This model in relief has a portion cut off -it which, by means of a cord and pulley, can be elevated or lowered at -will, thus affording a view of the interior of the _dolmen_. It is -composed of a single chamber, leading to which there is a long passage. - -[Illustration: Fig. 134.--_Tumulus-Dolmen_ at Gavr'inis (Morbihan).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 135.--A portion of the _Dolmen_ of Gavr'inis.] - -Were all these _dolmens_ originally covered by earth? This is a question -which still remains unsolved. M. Alexandre Bertrand, Director of the -Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain, to whom we owe some very -remarkable works on the primitive monuments of ancient Gaul, decides it -in the affirmative; whilst M. de Bonstetten, a Swiss archæologist of -great merit, is of the contrary opinion. The matter, however, is of no -very great importance in itself. It is, at all events, an unquestionable -fact that certain _dolmens_ which are now uncovered were once buried; -for they are noticed to stand in the centre of slightly raised mounds in -which the supports are deeply buried. As we before stated, the action of -time has destroyed the covering which the pre-historic peoples placed -over their sepulchres in order to defend them from the injuries of time -and the profanation of man. Thus, all that we now see is the bare stones -of the sepulchral chambers--for so long a time supposed to be altars, -and ascribed to the religious worship of the Gauls. - -[Illustration: Fig. 136.--General Form of a covered Passage-Tomb.] - -In considering, therefore, the _dolmens_ of Brittany, which have been so -many times described by antiquarians and made to figure among the number -of our historical monuments, we must renounce the idea of looking upon -them as symbols of the religion of our ancestors. They can now only be -regarded as sepulchral chambers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 137.--Passage-Tomb at Bagneux, near Saumur.] - -_Dolmens_ are very numerous in France; much more numerous, indeed, than -is generally thought. It used to be the common idea that they existed -only in Brittany, and those curious in such matters wondered at the -supposed Druidical altars which were so plentifully distributed in this -ancient province of France. But Brittany is far from possessing the -exclusive privilege of these megalithic constructions. They are found in -fifty-eight of the French departments, belonging, for the most part, to -the regions of the south and south-west. The department of Finisterre -contains 500 of them; Lot, 500; Morbihan, 250; Ardèche, 155; Aveyron, -125; Dordogne, 100; &c.[26] - -[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Passage-Tomb at Plouharnel (Morbihan).] - -The authors who have written on the question we are now considering, -especially Sir J. Lubbock in his work on 'Pre-historic Times,' and -Nilsson, the Swedish archæologist, have given a much too complicated -aspect to their descriptions of the tombs of pre-historic ages, owing to -their having multiplied the distinctions in this kind of monument. We -should only perplex our readers by following these authors into all -their divisions. We must, however, give some few details about them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 139.--Passage-Tomb; the so-called _Table de César_, -at Locmariaker (Morbihan).] - -Sir J. Lubbock gives the name of _passage grave_, to that which the -northern archæologists call _Ganggraben_ (tomb with passages); of these -we have given four representations (figs. 136, 137, 138, 139), all -selected from specimens in France. This name is applied to a passage -leading to a more spacious chamber, round which the bodies are ranged. -The gallery, formed of enormous slabs of stone placed in succession one -after the other, almost always points towards the same point of the -compass; in the Scandinavian states, it generally has its opening facing -the south or east, never the north. - -The same author gives the name of _chambered tumuli_ (fig. 140) to tombs -which are composed either of a single chamber or of a collection of -large chambers, the roofs and walls of which are constructed with stones -of immense size, which are again covered up by considerable masses of -earth. This kind of tomb is found most frequently in the countries of -the north. - -Fig. 140 represents, according to Sir J. Lubbock's work, a Danish -_chambered tumulus_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 140.--A Danish _Tumulus_, or chambered Sepulchre.] - -Before bringing to a close this description of megalithic monuments, we -must say a few words as to _menhirs_ and _cromlechs_. - -_Menhirs_ (fig. 141) are enormous blocks of rough stone which were set -up in the ground in the vicinity of tombs. They were set up either -separately, as represented in fig. 141, or in rows, that is, in a circle -or in an avenue. - -[Illustration: Fig. 141.--Usual shape of a _Menhir_.] - -There is in Brittany an extremely curious array of stones of this kind; -this is the range of _menhirs_ of Carnac (fig. 142). The stones are here -distributed in eleven parallel lines, over a distance of 1100 yards, -and, running along the sea-shore of Brittany, present a very strange -appearance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 142.--The rows of _Menhirs_ at Carnac.] - -When _menhirs_ are arranged in circles, either single or several -together, they are called _cromlechs_. They are vast circuits of stones, -generally arranged round a _dolmen_. The respect which was considered -due to the dead appears to have converted these enclosures into places -of pilgrimage, where, on certain days, public assemblies were held. -These enclosures are sometimes circular, as in England, sometimes -rectangular, as in Germany, and embrace one or more ranks. - -[Illustration: Fig. 143.--_Dolmen_ with a Circuit of Stones -(_Cromlech_), in the Province of Constantine.] - -Fig. 143 represents a _dolmen_ with a circuit of stones, that is, a -_cromlech_, which has been discovered in the province of Constantine; in -fig. 144 we have a group of Danish _cromlechs_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 144.--Group of Danish _Cromlechs_.] - -Among all these various monuments the "passage-tombs" and the _tumuli_ -are the only ones which will come within the scope of this work; for -these only have furnished us with any relics of pre-historic times, and -have given us any information with respect to the peoples who occupied a -great part of Europe at a date far anterior to any traditionary record. - -These stone monuments, as we have already stated, are neither Celtic nor -Druidical. The Celts--a nation which occupied a portion of Gaul at a -period long before the Christian era--were altogether innocent of any -megalithic construction. They found these monuments already in existence -at the time of their immigration, and, doubtless, looked upon them with -as much astonishment as is shown by observers of the present day. -Whenever there appeared any advantage in utilising them, the Celts did -not fail to avail themselves of them. The priests of this ancient -people, the Druids, who plucked from off the oak the sacred mistletoe, -performed their religious ceremonies in the depths of some obscure -forest. Now, no _dolmen_ was ever built in the midst of a forest; all -the stone monuments which now exist stand in comparatively unwooded -parts of the country. We must, therefore, renounce the ancient and -poetical idea which recognised in these _dolmens_ the sacrificial altars -of the religion of our ancestors. - -Some _tumuli_ attain proportions which are really colossal. Among these -is Silbury Hill, the largest in Great Britain, which is nearly 200 feet -high. The enormous amount of labour which would be involved in -constructions of this kind has led to the idea that they were not raised -except in honour of chiefs and other great personages. - -On consulting those records of history which extend back to the most -remote antiquity, we arrive at the fact that the custom of raising -colossal tombs to the illustrious dead was one that was much in vogue in -the ancient Eastern world. Traces of these monuments are found among the -Hebrews, the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Egyptians, &c. - -Thus Semiramis, Queen of Nineveh, raised a mound over the tomb of Ninus, -her husband. Stones were likewise piled up over the remains of Laïus, -father of Oedipus. In the 'Iliad,' Homer speaks of the mounds that were -raised to the memory of Hector and Patroclus. That dedicated to -Patroclus--the pious work of Achilles--was more than 100 feet in -diameter. Homer speaks of the _tumuli_ existing in Greece, which, even -in his time, were considered very ancient, and calls them the tombs of -the heroes. A _tumulus_ was raised by Alexander the Great over the ashes -of his friend Hephæstio, and so great were the dimensions of this -monument that it is said to have cost 1200 talents, that is about -£240,000 of our money. In Roman history, too, we find instances of the -same kind. Lastly, the pyramids of Egypt, those costly and colossal -funeral monuments, are the still visible representations of the highest -expression of posthumous homage which was rendered by the generations of -antiquity to their most illustrious and mighty men. - -This, however, could not have been in every case the prevailing idea in -the men of the Stone Age, in causing the construction of these _tumuli_. -The large number of bodies which have been found in some of these -monuments completely does away with the notion that they were raised in -honour of a single personage, or even of a single family. They were -often sepulchres or burial-places common to the use of all. Among this -class we must rank the _tumuli_ of Axevalla and of Luttra, situated not -far from one another in Sweden. The first, which was opened in 1805, -contained twenty tombs of an almost cubical form, each containing a -skeleton in a crouching or contracted attitude. When the second was -opened, the explorers found themselves in the presence of hundreds of -skeletons placed in four rows one upon another, all in a contracted -position like those at Axevalla; along with these human remains various -relics of the Stone Age were also discovered. - -[Illustration: Fig. 145.--Position of Skeletons in a Swedish Tomb of the -Stone Age.] - -Fig. 145 represents the position in which the skeletons were found. M. -Nilsson has propounded the opinion that the "passage-graves" are nothing -but former habitations, which had been converted into tombs after the -death of those who had previously occupied them. When the master of the -house had breathed his last--especially in the case of some illustrious -individual--his surviving friends used to place near him various -articles of food to provide for his long journey; and also his weapons -and other objects which were most precious to him when in life; then the -dwelling was closed up, and was only reopened for the purpose of bearing -in the remains of his spouse and of his children. - -Sir J. Lubbock shares in this opinion, and brings forward facts in its -favour. He recites the accounts of various travellers, according to -which, the winter-dwellings of certain people in the extreme north bear -a very marked resemblance to the "passage-tombs" of the Stone Age. Of -this kind are the habitations of the Siberians and the Esquimaux, which -are composed of an oval or circular chamber placed a little under the -surface of the ground, and completely covered with earth. Sir J. Lubbock -thinks, therefore, that in many cases habitations of this kind may have -been taken for _tumuli_--a mistake, he adds, all the more likely to be -made because some of these mounds, although containing ashes, remains of -pottery, and various implements, have not furnished any relics of human -bones. - -In his work on the 'Sépultures de l'Age de la Pierre chez les Parisii,' -M. Leguay, a learned architect and member of the Archælogical Society, -has called attention to the fact that the construction of these -_dolmens_ betrays, as existing in the men of this epoch, a somewhat -advanced degree of knowledge of the elements of architecture:-- - -"The interment of the dead," says M. Leguay, "took place, during the -polished-stone epoch, in vaults, or a kind of tomb constructed on the -spot, of stones of various thicknesses, generally flat in shape, and not -elevated to any very great height, being laid without any kind of cement -or mortar. These vaults, which were at first undivided, were -subsequently separated into compartments by stones of a similar -character, in which compartments bodies were placed in various -positions. They were covered with earth or with flat stones, and -sometimes we meet with a circular eminence raised over them, formed of a -considerable heap of stones which had been subsequently brought -thither; this fact was verified by M. Brouillet in 1862 at the _Tombelle -de Brioux_ (Vienne). - -"This kind of interment bears evidence of some real progress. Polished -flint instruments are met with intermingled with worked stones which -have been brought from a distance. Pottery of a very significant -character approaches that of the epoch at which ornamentation commenced; -and the _Tombelle de Brioux_ has furnished two vessels with projecting -and perforated handles formed in the clay itself. I met with specimens -similar to these both in shape and workmanship in the cremation-tombs at -Villeneuve-Saint-Georges, which, as I have previously stated, appeared -to me to be later in date than the simple interment situated below them. - -"The first element in the art of construction, that is, stability, is -manifested in these latter monuments. They do not come up to the fine -_dolmens_, or to the monuments which followed them, but the principle on -which stones should be laid together is already arrived at. The slab -forming the covering is the first attempt at the lintel, the primitive -base of architectural science. By insensible degrees the dimensions of -the monument increased, the nature of the materials were modified, and, -from the small elementary monument to the grand sepulchral _dolmen_, but -one step remained to be made--a giant step, certainly, but not beyond -the reach of human intelligence. - -"This step, however, was not accomplished suddenly and without -transitional stages. We find a proof of this in the beautiful ossuary -discovered in 1863, at Chamant near Senlis (Oise), on the property of -the Comte de Lavaulx. This monument does not yet come up to the most -beautiful of the class; but it possesses all the inspirations which -suggested the form of its successors, of which, indeed, it is the type. - -"Almost flat slabs of stone, of a greater height than those forming the -vaults, and of rather considerable dimensions, are placed on edge so as -to form a square chamber. A partition, formed of stones of a similar -character, leaving a space or passage between them, separates the -chamber into two unequal portions. Some arrangement of this kind has -been observed in most of the finest _dolmens_; it is found at a spot not -far from Chamant, in a covered way known under the name of the _Pierres -Turquoises_, in the forest of Carnelle, near Beaumont-sur-Oise -(Seine-et-Oise). - -"At Chamant, however, the chamber was not more than 3 to 4 feet in -height under the roof, which was formed of large flat stones, and was -large enough to allow of a considerable number of bodies to be deposited -within it, either in a recumbent or contracted position. Near them there -were placed delicately-wrought flints, and also some fine-polished -hatchets, one of which was of serpentine; another of large dimensions, -sculptured after the fashion of the diluvial hatchets, appeared to me to -have been prepared for polishing. - -"The researches which have been made have brought to light but slight -traces of pottery, and the small fragments that I have examined do not -point out any very remote age for this monument. Nevertheless, the -investigation of this sepulchre, in which I was guided by a somewhat -different idea from that of merely studying the monument itself, was not -carried out with the exact care that would be necessary for collecting -all the indications which it might have furnished. - -"Between the sepulchre of Chamant and the finest _dolmens_, the -distinction is nothing more than a question of dimensions rather than -any chronological point. The latter are formed of colossal stones, and -when one examines them and seeks to realise the process which must have -been employed for raising them, the mind is utterly perplexed, and the -imagination finds a difficulty in conceiving how it was possible to move -these immense masses, and, especially, to place them in the positions -they now occupy; for at the present day, in order to arrive at similar -results, it would be necessary to employ all the means which science has -at command."[27] - -The megalithic constructions do not all date back to the same epoch. -Some were raised during the Stone Age, others during the Bronze Age. -There is nothing in their mode of architecture which will enable us to -recognise their degree of antiquity; but the relics which they contain -afford us complete information in this respect. Thus, in France, -according to M. Alexandre Bertrand, the _dolmens_ and the -_tumuli-dolmens_ contain, in a general way, nothing but stone and bone -articles; those of bronze and gold are very rare, and iron is never met -with. In the _true tumuli_, on the contrary, bronze objects predominate, -and iron is very abundant; this is an evident proof that these monuments -are of less ancient origin than the _dolmens_. In the same way we -ascertain that the Danish _dolmens_ and the great sepulchral chambers -of Scandinavia, all belong to the polished-stone epoch. When, therefore, -we class the _dolmens_ in this last-named epoch of man's history, we are -deciding in full harmony with the great body of _data_ which bear upon -the point. - -In order to fix the period with still greater accuracy, we might add -that the _dolmens_ belong to the latter portion of the polished-stone -epoch and the commencement of the bronze age. But, as we before said, we -do not attach any importance to these distinctions, which would only -uselessly embarrass the mind of the reader. - -An examination of the Danish _dolmens_ has led the author of the -'Catalogue of Pre-historic Objects sent by Denmark to the Universal -Exposition of 1867,' to sum up in the following words the details -concerning these sepulchral monuments:-- - -"As regards the Danish _dolmens_, the number of skeletons contained in -them varies much; in the largest, there are as many as twenty, and in -the smallest there are not more than five or six; sometimes they are -placed in stages one above the other. - -"The bones are never found in natural order; the head lies close to the -knees, and no limb is in its natural place. It follows from this, that -in the course of interment the body was contracted into a crouching -position. - -"The bottom of the sepulchral chamber of a _dolmen_ is generally covered -with a layer of flints which have been subjected to fire; this is the -floor on which the body was deposited; it was then covered with a thin -coating of earth, and the tomb was closed. Yet, as we have just -observed, it was but very rarely that _dolmens_ contained only one -skeleton. They must, therefore, have been opened afresh in order to -deposit other bodies. It must have been on these occasions, in order to -contend with the miasma of putrefaction, that they lighted the fires, of -which numerous and evident traces are seen inside the _dolmens_. This -course of action continued, as it appears, until the time when the -_dolmen_ was entirely filled up: but even then, the tomb does not, in -every case, seem to have been abandoned. Sometimes the most ancient -skeletons have been displaced to make room for fresh bodies. This had -taken place in a _dolmen_ near Copenhagen, which was opened and searched -in the presence of the late King Frederick VII. - -"A _dolmen_ situated near the village of Hammer, opened a few years ago -by M. Boye, presented some very curious peculiarities. In addition to -flint instruments, human bones were discovered, which had also been -subjected to the action of fire. We are, therefore, led to suppose, that -a funeral banquet had taken place in the vicinity of the tomb, and that -some joints of human flesh had formed an addition to the roasted stag. -This is, however, the only discovery of the kind which has been made up -to the present time, and we should by no means be justified in drawing -the inference that the inhabitants of Denmark at this epoch were -addicted to cannibalism. - -"The dead bodies were deposited along with their weapons and implements, -and also with certain vessels which must have contained the food which -perhaps some religious usage induced them to leave close to the body. -For a long time it was supposed that it was the custom to place these -weapons by the side of _men_ only. But in a _dolmen_ at Gieruen, a -hatchet was found near a skeleton which was evidently that of a woman. - -"We now give the inventory of a 'find' made in a Danish _dolmen_, that -of Hielm, in the Isle of Moen, which was opened in 1853. The sepulchral -chamber was 16-1/2 feet in length, 11-1/2 feet in width, and 4-1/2 feet -in height. - -"In it were discovered twenty-two spear-heads, the largest of which was -11 inches in length, and the smallest 5-1/2 inches; more than forty -flint flakes or knives from 2 to 5 inches in length; three flat -hatchets, and one rather thicker; three carpenter's chisels, the longest -of which measured 8 inches; a finely-made hammer 5 inches long; three -flint nuclei exactly similar to those found in the kitchen-middens; and -lastly, in addition to all these flint articles, some amber beads and -forty earthen vessels moulded by the hand."[28] - -What were the funeral customs in use among men during the polished-stone -epoch? and what were the ceremonies which took place at that period when -they buried their dead? These are questions which it will not be -difficult to answer after a due investigation of the _dolmens_ and -_tumuli_. - -In a great number of _tumuli_, animal bones have been found either -broken or notched by sharp instruments. This is an indication that the -funeral rites were accompanied by feasts just as in the preceding -epochs. - -The body which was about to be enclosed in the _tumulus_ was borne upon -boughs of trees, as is the case among some savage tribes of the present -day. The men and women attending wore their best attire; necklaces of -amber and shells adorned their necks. Men carrying torches walked in -front of the procession, in order to guide the bearers into the dark -recesses of the sepulchral chambers. - -From these data fig. 146 has been designed, which gives a representation -of _a funeral ceremony during the polished-stone epoch_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 146.--A _Tumulus_ of the Polished-stone Epoch.] - -If we may judge by the calcined human bones which are rather frequently -met with in tombs, there is reason to believe that sometimes victims -were sacrificed over the body of the defunct, perhaps slaves, perhaps -even his widow--the custom of sacrificing the widow still being in -practice in certain parts of India. - -Sir J. Lubbock is, besides, of opinion that when a woman died in giving -birth to a child, or even whilst she was still suckling it, the child -was interred alive with her. This hypothesis appears a natural one, when -we take into account the great number of cases in which the skeletons of -a woman and child have been found together. - -M. Leguay in his 'Mémoire sur les Sépultures des Parisii,' which we -quoted above, expresses the opinion that after each interment, in -addition to the funeral banquet, a fire was lighted on the mound above -the _tumulus_, and that each attendant threw certain precious objects -into the flames. - -The objects which were most precious during the polished-stone epoch -were flints wrought into hatchets, poniards, or knives. - -"On to this burning hearth," says M. Leguay, "as numerous instances -prove, those who were present were in the habit of casting stones, or -more generally wrought flints, utensils and instruments, all made either -of some kind of stone or of bone; also fragments of pottery, and, -doubtless, other objects which the fire has destroyed. - -"There are many of these objects which have not suffered any injury from -the fire; some of the flints, indeed, seem so freshly cut and are so -little altered by the lapse of time, that it might be readily imagined -that they had been but recently wrought; these were not placed in the -sepulchre, but are met with intermingled with the earth which covers or -surrounds the hearth, and appear in many cases to have been cast in -after the extinction of the fire as the earth was being filled in. - -"Sometimes, indeed, when the archæologist devotes especial care to his -digging, he comes across a kind of layer of wrought flints which are, in -fact, to be looked upon as refuse rather than wrought articles. Their -position appears to indicate the surface of the soil during that epoch, -a surface which has been covered up by the successive deposits of -subsequent ages; and although some of these flakes may have been due to -some of the objects which had been placed in the sepulchre having been -chipped on the spot, there are many others which have not originated in -this way, and have come from objects which have been deposited in other -places. - -"All these stones, which are common to three kinds of burial-places, -have fulfilled, in my opinion, a votive function; that is to say, that -they represent, as regards this epoch, the wreaths and coronals of -_immortelles_, or the other objects which we in the present day place -upon the tombs of our relations or friends; thus following out a custom -the origin of which is lost in the night of time. - -"And let not the reader treat with ridicule these ideas, which I hold to -be not far from the truth. Men, as individuals, may pass away, and -generations may disappear; but they always hand down to their progeny -and those that succeed them the customs of their epoch; which customs -will undergo little or no change until the causes which have produced -them also disappear. Thus it is with all that concerns the ceremonies -observed in bearing man to his last resting-place--a duty which can -never change, and always brings with it its train of sorrow and regret. -Nowadays, a small sum of money is sufficient to give outward expression -to our grief; but at these remote epochs each individual fashioned his -own offering, chipped his own flint, and bore it himself to the grave of -his friend. - -"This idea will explain the diversity of shape in the flints placed -round and in the sepulchres, and especially the uncouthness of many of -the articles which, although all manufactured of the same material, -betray a style of workmanship exercised by numerous hands more or less -practised in the work. - -"It may, however, be readily conceived that during an epoch when stones -were the chief material for all useful implements, every wrought flint -represented a certain value. To deprive themselves of these objects of -value in order to offer them to the manes of the dead was considered a -laudable action, just as was the case subsequently as regards still -more precious objects; and this custom, which was observed during many -long ages, although sometimes and perhaps often practised with the -declining energy inherent in every religious custom, was the origin of a -practice adopted by many of the nations of antiquity, that, namely, of -casting a stone upon the tomb of the dead. Thus were formed those -sepulchral heaps of stones called _gal-gals_, some of which still exist. - -"It is, without doubt, to this votive idea that we must attribute the -fact that so many beautiful objects which ornament our museums have been -found deposited in these sepulchres; but we must remark that the large -and roughly-hewn hatchets, and also the knives of the second epoch, are -replaced, in the third epoch, by polished hatchets often even fitted -with handles, and also by knives of much larger size and finer -workmanship. - -"As an additional corroboration of my ideas, I will mention a curious -fact which I ascertained to exist in two sepulchres of this kind which I -searched; the significance of this fact can only be explained by a -hypothesis which any one may readily develop. - -"Each of them contained one long polished hatchet, broken in two in the -middle; the other portion of which was not found in the sepulchre. - -"One is now in the Museum at Cluny, where I deposited it; the other is -still in my own possession. It is beyond all dispute that they were thus -broken at the time of the interment. - -"Numerous hatchets broken in a similar way have been found by M. A. -Forgeais in the bed of the Seine at Paris, and also in various other -spots; all of them were broken in the middle, and I have always been of -opinion that they proceeded from sepulchres of a like kind, which, -having been placed on the edge of the river, had been washed away by the -flow of water which during long ages had eaten away the banks." - -At a subsequent period, that is, during the bronze epoch, dead bodies -were often, as we shall see, reduced to ashes either wholly or in part, -and the ashes were enclosed in urns. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[26] Alexandre Bertrand's 'Les Monuments Primitifs de la Gaule.' - -[27] 'Des Sépultures à l'Age de la Pierre,' pp. 15, 16. 1865. - -[28] 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle de 1867.' Paris. 1868. - - - - -THE AGE OF METALS. - - - - -I. - - -THE BRONZE EPOCH. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - The Discovery of Metals--Various Reasons suggested for explaining - the Origin of Bronze in the West--The Invention of Bronze--A - Foundry during the Bronze Epoch--Permanent and Itinerant Foundries - existing during the Bronze Epoch--Did the knowledge of Metals take - its rise in Europe owing to the Progress of Civilisation, or was it - a Foreign Importation? - - -The acquisition and employment of metals is one of the greatest facts in -our social history. Thenard, the chemist, has asserted that we may judge -of the state of civilisation of any nation by the degree of perfection -at which it has arrived in the workmanship of iron. Looking at the -matter in a more general point of view, we may safely say that if man -had never become acquainted with metals he would have remained for ever -in his originally savage state. - -There can be no doubt that the free use of, or privation from, metals is -a question of life and death for any nation. When we take into account -the important part that is played by metals in all modern communities, -we cannot fail to be convinced that, without metals civilisation would -have been impossible. That astonishing scientific and industrial -movement which this nineteenth century presents to us in its most -remarkable form--the material comfort which existing generations are -enjoying--all our mechanical appliances, manufactures of such diverse -kinds, books and arts--not one of all these benefits for man, in the -absence of metals, could ever have come into existence. Without the help -of metal, man would have been condemned to live in great discomfort; -but, aided by this irresistible lever, his powers have been increased a -hundredfold, and man's empire has been gradually extended over the whole -of nature. - -In all probability, gold, among all the metals, is the first with which -man became acquainted. Gold, in a metallic state, is drifted down by the -waters of many a river, and its glittering brightness would naturally -point it out to primitive peoples. Savages are like children; they love -everything that shines brightly. Gold, therefore, must, in very early -days, have found its way into the possession of the primitive -inhabitants of our globe. - -Gold is still often met with in the Ural mountains; and thence, perhaps, -it originally spread all over the north of Europe. The streams and the -rivers of some of the central countries of Europe, such as Switzerland, -France, and Germany, might also have furnished a small quantity. - -After gold, copper must have been the next metal which attracted the -attention of men; in the first place, because this metal is sometimes -found in a native state, and also because cupriferous ores, and -especially copper pyrites, are very widely distributed. Nevertheless, -the extraction of copper from the ores is an operation of such a -delicate character, that it must have been beyond the reach of the -metallurgic appliances at the disposal of men during the early -pre-historic period. - -The knowledge of tin also dates back to a very high antiquity. Still, -although men might become acquainted with tin ores, a long interval must -have elapsed before they could have succeeded in extracting the pure -metal. - -Silver did not become known to men until a much later date; for this -metal is very seldom met with in the _tumuli_ of the bronze epoch. The -fact is, that silver is seldom found in a pure state, and scarcely ever -except in combination with lead ores; lead, however, was not known until -after iron. - -Bronze, as every one knows, is an alloy of copper and tin (nine parts of -copper and one of tin). Now it is precisely this alloy, namely bronze, -which was the first metallic substance used in Europe; indeed the sole -substance used, to the exclusion of copper. We have, therefore, to -explain the somewhat singular circumstance that an alloy and not a pure -metal was the metallic substance that was earliest used in Europe; and -we must also inquire how it was that bronze could have been composed by -the nations which succeeded those of the polished-stone epoch. - -At first sight, it might appear strange that an alloy like bronze should -have been the first metallic substance used by man, thus setting aside -iron, deposits of which are very plentiful in Europe. But it is to be -remarked, in the first place, that iron ores do not attract the -attention so much as those of tin and copper. Added to this, the -extraction of iron from its ores is one of the most difficult operations -of the kind. When dealing with ferruginous ores, the first operation -produces nothing more than rough cast iron--a very impure substance, -which is so short and brittle that it possesses scarcely any metallic -qualities, and differs but little from stone as regards any use it could -be applied to. It requires re-heating and hammering to bring it into the -condition of malleable iron. On the other hand, by simply smelting -together copper and tin ores and adding a little charcoal, bronze might -be at once produced, without any necessity for previously extracting and -obtaining pure copper and tin in a separate state. This will explain how -it came to pass that the earliest metal-workers produced bronze at one -operation, without even being acquainted with the separate metals which -enter into its composition. - -We are left entirely to hypothesis in endeavouring to realise to -ourselves how men were led to mix together copper and tin ores, and thus -to produce bronze--a hard, durable and fusible alloy, and consequently -well adapted, without much trouble, for the fabrication, by melting in -moulds, of hatchets, poniards, and swords, as well as agricultural and -mechanical instruments. - -Bronze was endowed with all the most admirable qualities for aiding the -nascent industrial skill of mankind. It is more fusible than copper and -is also harder than this metal; indeed, in the latter respect, it may -compete with iron. It is a curious fact that bronze has the peculiarity -of hardening when cooled gradually. If it is made red-hot in the fire -and is then suddenly cooled by plunging it into water, the metal becomes -more ductile and may be easily hammered; but it regains its original -hardness if it is again heated red-hot and then allowed to cool slowly. -This, as we see, is just the contrary to the properties of steel. - -By taking advantage of this quality of bronze they were enabled to -hammer it, and, after the necessary work with the hammer was finished, -they could, by means of gradual cooling, restore the metal to its -original hardness. At the present day, cymbals and tom-toms are made -exactly in this way. - -All these considerations will perhaps sufficiently explain to the -reader why the use of bronze preceded that of iron among all the -European and Asiatic peoples. - -On this quasi-absence of manufactured copper in the pre-historic -monuments of Europe, certain archæologists have relied when propounding -the opinion that bronze was brought into Europe by a people coming from -the East, a more advanced and civilised people, who had already passed -through their _copper age_, that is, had known and made use of pure -copper. This people, it is said, violently invaded Europe, and in almost -every district took the place of the primitive population; so that, in -every country, bronze suddenly succeeded stone for the manufacture of -instruments, weapons and implements. - -By the side of these _savants_, who represent to some extent, in -ethnological questions, the partisans of the great geological cataclysms -or revolutions of the globe, there are others who would refer the -appearance of bronze in Europe to a great extension of commercial -relations. They utterly reject the idea of any conquest, of any great -invasion having brought with it a complete change in manners, customs, -and processes of industrial skill. In their opinion, it was commerce -which first brought bronze from the East and introduced it to the men of -the West. This is the view of Sir Cornewall Lewis, the archæologist and -statesman, and also of Prof. Nilsson, who attributes to the Phoenicians -the importation of bronze into Europe. - -Without attaining any great result, Nilsson has taken much trouble in -supporting this idea by acceptable proofs. We are called upon to agree -with the Danish archæologist in admitting that the Phoenicians, that is, -the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon went _with their ships_ to procure tin -from Great Britain, in order to make an alloy with it in their own -country, which alloy they subsequently imported into Europe. - -This is nothing but historic fancy. To this romance of archæology we -shall oppose the simple explanation which chemistry suggests to us. Our -belief is that the bronze was fabricated on the spot by the very people -who made use of it. All that was requisite in order to obtain bronze, -was to mix and smelt together the ores of oxidised copper or copper -pyrites, and tin ore, adding a small quantity of charcoal. Now, copper -ore abounds in Europe; that of tin is certainly rare; and it is this -rarity of tin ore which is appealed to in support of the conjecture -against which we are contending. But, although tin ores are nowadays -rare in Europe, except in England and Saxony, they are, nevertheless, to -be met with in the centre and south of the Continent; and, doubtless, in -the early ages of mankind the quantities were quite sufficient to supply -the slender requirements of the dawning efforts of industrial skill. We -may, perhaps, be permitted to allege that the cause of the supplies of -tin ores being so poor in the centre and south of Europe, may be the -fact that they were exhausted by the workings of our ancestors. Thus, at -least, many of the deposits of copper, silver, and lead, have been -exhausted by the Romans, and we now find nothing more than the mere -remains of mines which were once very productive. - -We may easily see that, in order to account for the presence of bronze -in Europe during the primitive epochs of mankind, it was not necessary -to build up such a framework of hypothesis as Prof. Nilsson has so -elaborately raised. - -To sum up the whole matter, we may say that the use of bronze preceded -that of iron in the primitive industry of Europe and Asia; and that the -people of our hemisphere were acquainted with bronze before they came to -the knowledge of pure copper and tin; this is all that we can safely -assert on the point. - -It might of course have been the case that copper and tin were first -used alone, and that the idea was subsequently entertained of combining -the two metals so as to improve both. But the facts evidently show that, -so far as regards Europe, things did not take place in this way, and -that bronze was employed in the works of primitive industry before -copper and tin were known as existing in a separate state.[29] - -We must, however, state that in the New World the matter was different. -The Indians of North America, long before they knew anything about -bronze, were in the habit of hammering the copper which was procured -from the mines of Lake Superior, and of making of it weapons, ornaments -and implements. - -After considering these general and theoretical points, we shall now -pass on to the history of the employment of bronze among men of -pre-historic ages, and shall endeavour to give some description of their -works for the manufacture of metals. - -Facts handed down by tradition evidently show that, among the peoples -both of Europe and Asia, the use of bronze preceded that of iron. - -Homer tells us that the soldiers of the Greek and Trojan armies were -provided with iron weapons, yet he reserves for the heroes weapons made -of bronze. It seems that bronze being the most ancient, was therefore -looked upon as the more noble metal; hence, its use is reserved for -chiefs or great warriors. Among all nations, that which is the most -ancient is ever the most honourable and the most sacred. Thus, to -mention one instance only, the Jews of our own times still perform the -ceremony of circumcision with a knife made of stone. In this case, the -stone-knife is an object consecrated by religion, because the antiquity -of this instrument is actually lost in the night of time. - -Bronze (or brass) is often mentioned in the Book of Genesis. Tubal-cain, -the first metal-worker of the Scriptures, who forged iron for all kinds -of purposes, also wrought in bronze (or brass). This alloy was devoted -to the production of objects of ornament. - -We read in the First Book of Kings (vii. 13, 14), "And King Solomon sent -and fetched Hiram out of Tyre. He was a widow's son of the tribe of -Naphtali, and his father was a man of Tyre, a worker in brass: and he -was filled with wisdom, and understanding, and cunning to work all works -in _brass_." - -The word _brass_ must be here understood as being synonymous with -bronze, and certainly the Hebrew term had this signification. - -As a specially remarkable object of bronze work, we may mention the "sea -of brass" of the Hebrews, which contained 3000 measures of water. - -Herodotus[30] speaks of another colossal basin made of bronze, which was -sixty times the size of that which Pausanias, son of Cleobrontos, -presented to the temple of Jupiter Orios, a temple which had been built -near the Euxine, on the borders of Scythia. Its capacity was six hundred -_amphoræ_, and it was six "fingers" in thickness. The Greeks used to -employ these enormous basins in their religious ceremonies. - -In Sweden and Norway, large receptacles of a similar kind were in -primitive ages employed in sacrificial ceremonies; they used to receive -the blood which flowed from the slaughtered animals. - -In order to produce objects of this magnitude it was of course necessary -to have at disposal large foundries of bronze. These foundries, which -existed during historic periods, were preceded by others of less -importance used during the pre-historic epochs which we are considering, -that is, during the bronze epoch. - -Vestiges of these ancient foundries have been discovered in Switzerland, -at Devaine, near Thonon, and at Walflinger, near Wintherthur; especially -also at Echallens, where objects have been found which evidently -originated from the working of some pre-historic foundry. - -At Morges, in Switzerland, a stone mould has been discovered, intended -for casting hatchets. By running bronze into this ancient mould, a -hatchet has been made exactly similar to some of those in our -collections. - -The casting was also effected in moulds of sand, which is the more usual -and more easy plan. - -From these _data_, it is possible to imagine what sort of place a -foundry must have been during the bronze epoch. - -In the production of bronze, they used to mix oxydated tin ore, in the -proportions which experience had taught them, with oxydated copper ore -or copper pyrites; to this mixture was added a small quantity of -charcoal. The whole was placed in an earthen vessel in the midst of a -burning furnace. The two oxides were reduced to a metallic state by -means of the charcoal; the copper and tin being set free, blended and -formed bronze. - -When the alloy was obtained, all that was necessary was to dip it out -and pour it into sand or stone moulds which had been previously arranged -for the purpose. - -The art of casting in bronze must have played a very essential part -among primitive peoples. There was no instrument that they used which -could not be made by casting it in bronze. The sword-blades were thus -made; and, in order to harden the edge of the weapon, it was first -heated and then cooled suddenly, being afterwards hammered with a stone -hammer. - -In fig. 147, we represent the workshop of a caster in bronze during the -epoch we are considering. The alloy, having been previously mixed, has -been smelted in a furnace, and a workman is pouring it into a -sand-mould. Another man is examining a sword-blade which has just been -cast. - -[Illustration: Fig. 147.--A Founder's Workshop during the Bronze Epoch.] - -Bronze being precious, it is probable that in these ancient communities -bronze weapons and implements were reserved for rich and powerful -personages, and that stone weapons remained the attribute of the common -people. The use of bronze could only become general after the lapse of -time. - -The high value of bronze would lead to its being economised as much as -possible. The Pre-historic Museum at Copenhagen contains unquestionable -proofs of this scarcity of the metal, and the means which were used for -obviating it. Among the bronze hatchets in the Museum of Copenhagen, -there are some which could only have served as ornaments, for they -contained a nucleus of clay, and the metal of which they were composed -was not thicker than a sheet of paper. - -We must also add that worn-out instruments of bronze and utensils which -were out of use were carefully preserved in order to be re-cast; the -same material re-appearing in various forms and shapes. - -We have just given a representation of the _workshop of a founder of -bronze_; but we must also state that in addition to these fixed -establishments there must have existed, at the epoch of which we are -speaking, certain itinerant founders who travelled about, carrying all -their necessary utensils on their backs, and offered their services -wherever they were required. - -Every one is acquainted with the travelling-tinkers who, at the present -day, make their way down from the mountains of Auvergne, the Black -Forest, the Alps, or the Cévennes, and are called _péirerous_ and -_estama-brazaïres_ in the south of France, and _épingliers_ in other -districts. These men are in the habit of working at separate jobs in the -villages and even in the public places of the towns. Of course they -travel with no more of the utensils of their craft than strict necessity -requires; but, nevertheless, what they carry is sufficient for every -purpose. A hollow made in the ground is the furnace in which they place -the nozzle of their portable bellows, and they hammer the iron on a -small anvil fixed in the earth. - -Aided by these merely rudimentary means they execute pieces of -metal-work, the dimensions of which are really surprising. They make -nails and tacks, and even worm screws, repair locks, clean clocks, make -knives, mend skimmers, and restore umbrella-frames. They make bronze -rings out of republican _décimes_, and sell these popular trinkets to -the village beauties. - -Incomparable in their line of business, these men are unequalled in -patching or re-tinning vessels made of tin and wrought or sheet-iron. -The mending of crockeryware also forms one of their numerous vocations; -and the repairing of a broken plate by means of an iron rivet is mere -play-work for their dexterous fingers. But melting down and -re-casting--these are the real triumphs of their art. The village -housewife brings to them her worn-out pewter vessel, and soon sees it -reappear as a new, brilliant, and polished utensil. Lamps, cans, covers, -and tin-plates and dishes are thus made to reappear in all their -primitive brightness. - -The fusion and casting of bronze does not perplex them any more than -working in tin. They are in the habit of casting various utensils in -brass or bronze, such as candlesticks, bells, brackets, &c. The crucible -which they use in melting brass is nothing but a hole dug in the earth -and filled up with burning charcoal, the fire being kept up with the -help of their bellows, the nozzle of which is lengthened so as to open -into the middle of the charcoal. On this furnace they place their -portable crucible, which is a kind of earthen ladle provided with a -handle. - -Their system of casting is simple in the extreme. The pressed sand, -which serves them for a mould, is procured from the ditch at the side of -the road. Into this mould they pour the alloy out of the very crucible -in which it has been melted. - -These itinerant metallurgists, these _estama-brazaïres_, who may be -noticed working in the villages of Lower Languedoc, whose ways we have -just depicted (not without some degree of pleasant reminiscence), are -nothing but the descendants of the travelling metal-workers of the -pre-historic bronze epoch. In addition to the permanent establishment of -this kind--the foundries, the remains of which have been found in -Switzerland, the French Jura, Germany and Denmark, there certainly -existed at that time certain workmen who travelled about singly, from -place to place, exercising their trade. Their stock of tools, like the -objects which they had to make or repair, was of a very simple -character; the sand from the wayside formed their moulds, and their fuel -was the dry wood of the forest. - -The existence, at this remote epoch in the history of mankind, of the -itinerant workers in metal is proved by the fact, that practitioners of -this kind were known in the earliest _historic_ periods who had already -to some extent become proficients in the art. Moses, the Hebrew -lawgiver, was able in the wilderness to make a brazen serpent, the sight -of which healed the Israelites who had been bitten by venomous snakes; -and, during the retirement of the prophet to Mount Sinai, Aaron seemed -to find no difficulty in casting the golden calf, which was required of -him by the murmurs of the people. Itinerant founders must therefore have -accompanied the Jewish army. - -We have been compelled to dwell to some extent on the general -considerations which bear upon the introduction of bronze among the -ancient inhabitants of Europe who succeeded the men of the Stone Age. In -the chapters which follow we intend as far as possible to trace out the -picture of that period of man's history, which is called _the Bronze -Epoch_, and constitutes the first division of _the Age of Metals_. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[29] It must, however, be observed that the author's theory does not -agree with the opinion of metallurgists, who do not consider the -reduction of mixed copper and tin ore a practically effective process, -and would favour the more usual view that the metals were smelted -separately, and afterwards fused together to form bronze.--(_Note to -Eng. Trans._) - -[30] Book iv. p. 81. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - The Sources of Information at our Disposal for reconstructing the - History of the Bronze Epoch--The Lacustrine Settlements of - Switzerland--Enumeration and Classification of them--Their Mode of - Construction--Workmanship and Position of the Piles--Shape and Size - of the Huts--Population--Instruments of Stone, Bone, and Stag's - Horn--Pottery--Clothing--Food--_Fauna_--Domestic Animals. - - -In endeavouring to trace out the early history of the human race we -naturally turn our attention to all the means of investigation which -either study or chance have placed at our disposal. Grottos and caves, -the rock-shelters, the ancient camps, the centres of flint-working, the -Scandinavian kitchen-middens, the _dolmens_, and the _tumuli_--all have -lent their aid in affording those elements for the representation of the -earliest epoch of the history of primitive man which we have already -considered. The data which we shall resort to for delineating the bronze -epoch will be of a different kind. - -Among all the sources of authentic information as to the manners and -customs of man in his earliest existence, none, certainly, are more -curious than those ancient remains which have lately been brought to -light and explored, and have received the name of _lacustrine -dwellings_. - -The question may be asked, what are these _lacustrine dwellings_, and in -what way do they serve to elucidate the history of the bronze epoch? -These are just the points which we are about to explain. - -The most important discoveries have often depended on very slight -causes. This assertion, although it has been made common by frequent -repetition, is none the less perfectly correct. To what do we owe the -knowledge of a multitude of curious details as to pre-historic peoples? -To an accidental and unusual depression of the temperature in -Switzerland. But we will explain. - -The winter of 1853-1854 was, in Switzerland, so dry and cold that the -waters of the lakes fell far below their ordinary level. The inhabitants -of Meilen, a place situated on the banks of the Lake of Zurich, took -advantage of this circumstance, and gained from the lake a tract of -ground, which they set to work to raise and surround with banks. - -In carrying out these works they found in the mud at the bottom of the -lake a number of piles, some thrown down and others still upright, -fragments of rough pottery, bone and stone instruments, and various -other relics similar to those found in the Danish peat-bogs. - -This extraordinary accumulation of objects of all kinds on the dried bed -of the lake appeared altogether inexplicable, and every one was at fault -in their remarks; but Dr. Keller of Zurich, having examined the objects, -at once came to a right understanding as to their signification. It was -evident to him that they belonged to pre-historic times. By an -association of ideas which no one had previously dreamt of, he perceived -that a relation existed between the piles and the other relics -discovered in the vicinity, and saw clearly that both dated back to the -same epoch. He thus came to the conclusion, that the ancient inhabitants -of the Lake of Zurich were in the habit of constructing dwellings over -the water, and that the same custom must have existed as regards the -other Swiss lakes. - -This idea was developed by Dr. Keller in five very remarkable memoirs, -which were published in German.[31] - -This discovery was the spark which lighted up a torch destined to -dissipate the darkness which hung over a long-protracted and -little-known period of man's history. - -Previous to the discovery made on the dried-up bed of the Lake of -Zurich, various instruments and singular utensils had been obtained from -the mud of some of the lakes of Switzerland, and piles had often been -noticed standing up in the depth of the water; but no one had been able -to investigate these vestiges of another age, or had had any idea of -ascribing to them anything like the remote antiquity which has since -been recognised as belonging to them. To Dr. Keller the honour is due of -having interpreted these facts in their real bearing, at a time when -every one else looked upon them as nothing but objects of curiosity. It -is, therefore, only just to pronounce the physician of Zurich to have -been the first originator of pre-historic archæological science in -Switzerland. - -In 1854, after the publication of Dr. Keller's first article, the Swiss -lakes were explored with much energy, and it was not long before -numerous traces of human settlements were discovered. At the present day -more than 200 are known, and every year fresh ones are being found.[32] - -Thanks to the activity which has been shown by a great number of -observers, magnificent collections have been formed of these -archæological treasures. The fishermen of the lakes have been -acquainted, for many years back, with the sites of some of these -settlements, in consequence of having, on many occasions, torn their -nets on the piles sticking up in the mud. Numerous questions were asked -them, and they were taken as guides to the different spots, and ere long -a whole system of civilisation, heretofore unknown, emerged from the -beds of the Swiss lakes. - -Among the lakes which have furnished the largest quantity of relics of -pre-historic ages, we may mention that of Neuchâtel, in which, in 1867, -no less than forty-six settlements were counted; in Lake Constance -(thirty-two settlements); in the Lake of Geneva (twenty-four -settlements); in the Lake of Bienne, canton of Berne (twenty -settlements); in the Lake of Morat, canton of Fribourg (eight -settlements). - -Next come several other lakes of less importance. The Lake of Zurich -(three settlements); the Lake of Pfæffikon, canton of Zurich (four -settlements); the Lake of Sempach, canton of Lucerne (four settlements); -the Lake of Moosseedorf, canton of Berne (two settlements); the Lake of -Inkwyl, near Soleure (one settlement); the Lake of Nussbaumen, canton of -Thurgau (one settlement); the Lake of Zug, &c. - -Pile-work has also been discovered in former lakes now transformed into -peat-bogs. We must place in this class the peat-bog of Wauwyl, canton of -Lucerne (five settlements). - -We will mention, in the last place, the settlement at the bridge of -Thièle, on the water-course which unites the lakes of Bienne and -Neuchâtel. This settlement must once have formed a portion of the Lake -of Bienne, at the time when the latter extended as far as the bridge of -Thièle. - -The lacustrine villages of Switzerland do not all belong to the same -period. The nature of the remains that they contain indubitably prove -that some are far more ancient than others. The vestiges have been -discovered of three successive epochs--the polished-stone epoch and the -epochs of bronze and of iron. - -The lacustrine settlements of Switzerland, when considered under the -heads of the various pre-historical epochs to which they belong, may be -divided in the following way:-- - -_The Stone Age_:--The Lake of Constance (about thirty settlements); the -Lake of Neuchâtel (twelve settlements); the Lake of Geneva (two -settlements); the Lake of Morat (one settlement); the lakes of Bienne, -Zurich, Pfæffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, Nussbaumen, Wanger, &c.; the -settlements of Saint-Aubin and Concise, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and the -settlement at the Bridge of Thièle. - -_The Bronze Epoch_:--The Lake of Geneva (twenty settlements); the Lake -of Neuchâtel (twenty-five settlements); the Lake of Bienne (ten -settlements); also the lakes of Morat and Sempach. - -_The Iron Epoch_:--The lakes of Neuchâtel and Bienne. - -It may appear strange that the primitive inhabitants of Switzerland -should have preferred aquatic dwellings to habitations built on _terra -firma_, which could certainly have been constructed much more easily. -Further on in our work we shall have something to say as to the -advantages which men might derive from such a peculiar arrangement of -their dwellings; but we may now remark that this custom was somewhat -prevalent among the earliest inhabitants of Europe. Ancient history -furnishes us with several instances of it. Herodotus, speaking of the -Pæonians, of the Lake Prasias, in Thrace, says:-- - -"Their habitations are built in the following way. On long piles, sunk -into the bottom of the lake, planks are placed, forming a floor; a -narrow bridge is the means of access to them. These piles used to be -fixed by the inhabitants at their joint expense; but afterwards it was -settled that each man should bring three from Mount Orbelus for every -woman whom he married. Plurality of wives, be it observed, was permitted -in this country. On these planks each has his hut with a trap-door down -into the lake; and lest any of their children should fall through this -opening they took care to attach a cord to their feet. They used to feed -their horses and beasts of burden on fish. In this lake fish was so -abundant that if a basket was let down through the trap-door it might be -drawn up a short time afterwards filled with fish." - -Sir J. Lubbock, repeating the statement of one of his friends who -resides at Salonica, asserts that the fishermen of the Lake Prasias -still inhabit wooden huts built over the water, as in the time of -Herodotus. There is nothing improbable in this, since the town of -Tcherkask in Russia is constructed in a similar way over the River Don, -and Venice itself is nothing but a lacustrine city built during historic -times over a lagune of the Adriatic sea. - -We may add that even in modern times this custom of building villages on -piles still exists in some parts of the world. According to the evidence -of Dampier and Dumont d'Urville, habitations built on piles are to be -met with in New Guinea, Celebes, Ceram, Mindanao, the Caroline Islands, -&c. The city of Borneo is, indeed, entirely built on this plan. In some -of the isles of the Pacific Ocean there are several tribes of savages -who likewise make their dwellings over water. The Indians of Venezuela -have adopted this custom with the sole intention of sheltering -themselves from the mosquitoes. - -It is quite permissible to suppose that the need for security was the -motive which induced the ancient inhabitants of Switzerland, and other -countries, thus to make settlements and live upon the lakes. Surrounded -as they were by vast marshes and impenetrable forests, they lived in -dread of the attacks of numerous wild beasts. They therefore taxed their -ingenuity to insure their safety as far as they possibly could, and no -means appeared more efficacious than that of surrounding themselves with -water. At a subsequent period, when men commenced to make war against -one another, these aquatic habitations became still more valuable. They -then constituted something in the nature of camps or fortification in -which, being well-protected from all danger of sudden surprise, the -people of the country could defy the efforts of their enemies. - -We must, however, add, that in more recent times these buildings on -piles were--according to M. Desor--used only as storehouses for utensils -and provisions; the actual dwellings for men being built on _terra -firma_. - -These lacustrine dwellings are designated under various names by -different authors. Dr. Keller, who was the first to describe them, gave -them in German the name of _pfahlbauten_ (buildings on piles) which the -Italians have translated by the word _palafitta_. This latter -appellation, when gallicized by M. Desor, becomes _palafitte_. Lastly, -the name _ténevières_ or _steinbergs_ (mountains of stone) is given to -constructions of a peculiar character in which the piles are kept up by -masses of stone which have been brought to the spot. By Dr. Keller, this -latter kind are called _packwerkbauten_. - -When we examine as a whole the character of the lacustrine settlements -which have hitherto been discovered, it may, in fact, be perceived that -those who built them proceeded on two different systems of construction; -either, they buried the piles very deeply in the bed of the lake, and on -these piles placed the platform which was to support their huts; or, -they artificially raised the bed of the lake by means of heaps of -stones, fixing in these heaps somewhat large stakes, not so much for the -purpose of supporting the habitations themselves as with a view of -making the heaps of stones a firm and compact body. - -[Illustration: Fig. 148.--Section of the _Ténevière_ of Hauterive.] - -This latter mode of construction is represented in fig. 148, taken from -a design given by M. Desor in his remarkable work 'Les Palafittes.'[33] - -One or the other of these modes of construction was employed according -to the nature of the bed of the lake. In lakes with a muddy bottom, the -first plan could be easily employed; but when the bed was rocky, it was -necessary to have recourse to the second. This is the reason why on the -northern shore of the Lake of Neuchâtel, where the banks of limestone -come very close to the surface, a comparatively large number of -_ténevières_ may be observed. - -These are the facts as generally noticed, especially in wide and deep -lakes; the edifice, however, was not always constructed in this mode. In -marshes and small lakes, which have now become peat-bogs, another system -was frequently applied, a remarkable instance of which is furnished by -the peat-moss at Wauwyl. In this locality were found several -quadrangular spaces very distinctly enclosed by piles, between which -were raised as many as five platforms one above the other. These piles -are naturally very long, and some are buried as much as seven feet in -the solid ground--an operation which must have required an enormous -amount of labour. The intervals between the platforms are filled up with -boughs of trees and clay, and the floors themselves are made in nearly -the same way as those we have before mentioned. The lowest rested -directly on the bed of the lake, and on the upper one the huts were -placed. - -It is sometimes the case that these heaps of stones rise above the -water; they then form perfect artificial islands, and the habitations -which covered them are no longer, properly speaking, dwellings on piles. -Of this kind is the station on the Lake of Inkwyl in Switzerland; of -this kind, also, are the _crannoges_ of Ireland, of which we shall -subsequently make special mention. Some of these artificial islands have -braved the destructive action of ages, and are still inhabited at the -present time. M. Desor mentions the Isle of Roses in the Lake of -Starnberg (Bavaria) which has never been known to have been unfrequented -by man; it now contains a royal residence. - -Let us revert to the mode of construction of the aquatic dwellings of -Switzerland. - -In all probability the stones used were conveyed to the required spot by -means of canoes made of hollowed-out trunks of trees. Several of these -canoes may still be seen at the bottom of Lake Bienne, and one, indeed, -is still laden with pebbles, which leads us to think that it must have -foundered with its cargo. But it is very difficult to raise these canoes -from the bottom, and it is, besides, probable that when exposed to the -open air they would fall to dust. Nevertheless, one of them is exhibited -in the Museum at Neuchâtel. - -In the Museum at Saint-Germain there is a canoe very similar to that of -Neuchâtel. It is made out of the trunk of a hollow tree. A second canoe, -very like the first, but with the bark still on it, and in a bad state -of preservation, lies in the entry of the same Museum of Saint-Germain. -It was taken out of the Seine, as we stated when speaking in a previous -chapter of the first discovery of the art of navigation during the Stone -Age. - -It may very easily be explained how the constructors went to work in -felling the trees and converting them into piles. M. Desor has remarked -that the pieces of wood composing the piles are cut cleanly through -round their circumference only; the central part shows inequalities just -like those which are noticed when a stick is broken in two by the hand -after having been cut into all round the outside. The builders of the -lacustrine villages, therefore, when they wanted to fell a tree must -have acted much as follows: having cut all round it to a depth of 3 or 4 -inches, they fixed a cord to the top, and broke the tree down by -forcibly pulling at the upper part. They then cut it through in the same -way with stone or bronze hatchets, giving it the requisite length, -hewing it into a point at one end so that it should more easily -penetrate the mud. Sometimes a fire applied to the base of the tree -prepared for, and facilitated, the effect of the sharp instruments used. -A great number of the piles that have been found still bear the marks of -the fire and the cuts made by stone hatchets. In constructing the -_ténevières_, the labour of pointing the piles was needless, as the -latter were thoroughly wedged in by the accumulation of stones of which -we gave a representation in fig. 148. - -When the piles were prepared, they had to be floated to the spot fixed -upon for the village, and to be fixed in the bed of the lake. If we -consider that, in many cases, the length of these piles reached to as -much as 16 or 20 feet, some idea may be formed of the difficulty of an -undertaking of this kind. In the construction of the _ténevières_ much -thicker piles were used, and the labour was much less difficult. For -instance, in the more ancient _ténevières_ of the Lake of Neuchâtel -piles are found made of whole trunks of trees which measure 10 to 12 -inches in diameter. - -The mind is almost confused when it endeavours to sum up the amount of -energy and strong will which the primitive population of Switzerland -must have bestowed on constructing, unaided as they were by metal -implements, the earliest lacustrine settlements, some of which are of -very considerable extent. The settlement of Morges, one of the largest -in the Lake of Geneva, is not less than 71,000 square yards in area. -That of Chabrey, in the Lake of Neuchâtel, measures about 60,000 square -yards; another, in the same lake, 48,000 yards; and, lastly, a third, -that of La Tène, 36,000 yards. There are many others which are smaller, -although of respectable dimensions. - -The number of piles which must have been used in some of these -constructions is really surprising. M. Löhle has calculated that in the -single lacustrine village of Wangen, in the Lake of Constance, at least -40,000 piles have been fixed, and that several generations must have -been necessary to terminate the work. The more reasonable interpretation -to give to a fact of this kind is that Wangen, which was very thinly -populated at first, increased in size gradually as the numbers of -inhabitants augmented. The same remark may be doubtless applied to all -the important stations. - -This was the plan employed in building a single habitation. When a whole -village had to be built in the open water, a methodical course of action -was adopted. They began by placing a certain number of piles parallel to -the shore, and these they at once threw across the bridge which was -intended to connect the village with the land, thus rendering the -carriage of the materials much less difficult. - -When the bridge was finished, and before fixing all the piles, the -platform was commenced immediately; this constituted a base of -operations, by the help of which the pile work could more easily be -finished. - -This platform was raised 3 or 4 feet above the surface of the water, so -as to obviate any danger arising from the waves during a tempest. It was -generally composed of branches and trunks of trees not squared, and -bound horizontally to each other, the whole cemented together with clay; -sometimes, also, they used thick rough slabs, which were obtained by -splitting trunks of trees with wedges. The platform was fixed firmly on -the pile-work, and in some cases wooden pegs were used to fasten -together the largest pieces of timber, so that the cohesion and -incorporation of the floor were rendered more complete. As soon as the -esplanade was finished, they then proceeded to the construction of the -huts. - -The huts must have opened on to the platform by doors. Did they possess -windows? Nothing is known as to this point. But in all probability there -was an opening at the top of the roof, through which the smoke of the -fire made its way. To avoid any fear of conflagration, a stone -fire-place was placed in the middle of each dwelling. The daylight must -have come in through the hole in the roof in a quantity almost -sufficient to cause the absence of windows to be not much felt. - -In each habitation, there was, no doubt, a trap-door in direct -communication with the lake, such as those which existed in the -dwellings of the Pæonians described by Herodotus. Under this trap-door -there was a reservoir made of osiers, intended for the preservation of -fish. - -As the inhabitants of the lacustrine villages only lived upon the water -with a view of increasing their security, it would be absurd to suppose -that they would construct a large number of bridges between their -aquatic settlement and the banks of the lake. There must have been, in -general, but one bridge for each of these lake villages. - -How were the huts constructed, and what were their shape and dimensions? -These questions certainly seem difficult to answer, for, as may be well -imagined, no specimen of these ancient dwellings has been preserved to -our days. Nevertheless, a few relics, insignificant in appearance, -enable us to reply to these inquiries in a way more or less -satisfactory. - -Everything seems to indicate that the huts were formed of trunks of -trees placed upright, one by the side of the other, and bound together -horizontally by interwoven branches. A coating of earth covered this -wattling. - -It has been fancied, from the imprint left by some of the branches which -were used in building these huts, that it might be inferred that they -were circular, like those which historians attribute to the ancient -Gauls. This was Troyon's opinion, and at first Dr. Keller's also. This -author has even sketched a circular hut in a plate representing a -restored lacustrine habitation, which accompanies one of his memoirs. -Sir C. Lyell, also, has reproduced this same plate in the frontispiece -of his work on the 'Antiquity of Man.' But Dr. Keller has subsequently -abandoned this idea, and in another of his memoirs he has supplied a -fresh design showing nothing but huts with flat or sloping roofs. - -From this latter plate, taken from Dr. Keller's work, we here give a -representation of a Swiss lacustrine village (fig. 149). - -[Illustration: Fig. 149--A Swiss Lake Village of the Bronze Epoch.] - -The suggestions for this reconstructive sketch were furnished to Dr. -Keller not only by various scientific indications, but also and -especially by a drawing made by Dumont d'Urville among the Papuans of -New Guinea. - -According to Dr. Keller, during the last century there still existed on -the river Limmat, near Zurich, some fishermen's huts built in a similar -way to those of the lacustrine villages. - -What might have been the population of one of these settlements? This -estimate M. Troyon endeavoured to make--an undertaking of a very -interesting nature. He adopted as the base of his calculations the -lacustrine village of Morges (Lake of Geneva), which, as we have already -stated, had an area of 71,000 square yards. Allowing that only one-half -of this area was occupied by huts, the other half being reserved for -gangways between the dwellings, and assuming an average diameter of 16 -feet for each hut, M. Troyon reckoned the number of dwellings in the -pre-historic village of Morges at 311. Next, supposing that four -individuals lived in each hut, the total amount of population he arrived -at was 1244 inhabitants. - -We might very justly be surprised if men of the bronze epoch, who were -provided with metallic weapons, and were consequently in a much better -position for resisting any violent attack, had continued to dwell -exclusively in the midst of the water, and should not, to some extent, -have dispersed over _terra firma_, which is man's natural -standing-ground. It was, therefore, nothing more than might have been -expected, when the discovery was made of the relics of dwellings upon -land, containing remains of the bronze epoch. This discovery, in fact, -took place, and those investigating the subject came to the conclusion -that the valleys of Switzerland, as well as the lakes, were occupied -during this period by an industrious and agricultural people. - -At Ebersberg, canton of Zurich, there was discovered--which is a very -curious fact--the remains of an ancient settlement situated on _terra -firma_, and containing utensils similar to those found in the lacustrine -settlements. In 1864, Dr. Clement searched several mounds composed of -pebbles bearing the traces of fire; these mounds were situated in the -neighbourhood of Gorgier (canton of Neuchâtel). One of these mounds has -furnished various objects of bronze intermingled with fragments of -charcoal, especially a bracelet and some sickles characterised by a -projection or set-off at the spring of the blade. - -On the plateau of Granges (canton of Soleure), Dr. Schild studied a -certain spot which he considers to be the site of an ancient bronze -foundry; for, besides finding there pebbles and calcined earth, he also -discovered a number of reaping-hooks made with a shoulder, and also a -fragment of a sword and four finely-made knives. - -A hatchet-knife was likewise found in the gorge of the Seyon, near -Neuchâtel; and a bracelet in the vicinity of Morges (canton of Geneva). -Some other bracelets, accompanied by calcined human bones, were -discovered near Sion, in the Valais. - -Lastly, M. Thioly obtained from a cave of Mont Salève, near Geneva, -numerous fragments of pottery of the bronze epoch; and in a grotto on -the banks of the Reuse, in the canton of Neuchâtel, M. Otz found relics -of pottery of very fine clay, along with a quantity of bones. - -Thus the people of this epoch did not dwell exclusively in settlements -made over the water. They also were in the habit of building habitations -on _terra firma_, and of furnishing them with everything which was -necessary for existence. - -All the facts which have been observed in Switzerland may, doubtless, be -applied generally; and it may be said that during the bronze epoch the -nature of man's habitation became decidedly fixed. The caves of the -great bear and mammoth period, and the rock-shelters of the reindeer and -polished-stone periods were now succeeded by dwelling-places which -differ but little from those of the more civilised peoples who commence -the era of historic times. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[31] 'Pfahlbauten,' Zurich, 1854-1856. - -[32] Various distinguished _savants_ have taken upon themselves the task -of making known to the public the results of these unceasing -investigations, and of bringing before the eyes of the present -generation the ancient civilisation of the Swiss valleys. Among the -works which have best attained this end, we must mention Troyon's -'Habitations Lacustres des Temps anciens et modernes,' Morlot's 'Etudes -Géologico-archéologiques en Danemark et en Suisse,' and M. Desor's -'Palafittes, ou Constructions Lacustres du Lac de Neuchâtel.' These -works, which have been translated into various languages, contain a -statement of all the archæological discoveries which have been made in -Switzerland. - -[33] 'Les Palafittes, ou Constructions Lacustres du Lac de Neuchâtel.' -Paris, 1865. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - Lacustrine Habitations of Upper Italy, Bavaria, Carinthia and - Carniola, Pomerania, France, and England--The _Crannoges_ of - Ireland. - - -It was difficult to believe that Switzerland alone possessed the -monopoly of these pile-work-constructions. It was certainly to be -supposed that the southern slopes of the Alps, which were all dotted -over with large and beautiful lakes, must likewise contain constructions -of a similar character; this, at least, was M. Desor's opinion. After -the numerous pre-historic discoveries which had been made in -Switzerland, the Zurich professor proceeded in 1860 to explore the lakes -of Lombardy, being well convinced that there too he should find remains -of lacustrine habitations. - -The hopes he had formed were not deceived. Ere long, in fact, M. Desor -obtained from the peat-bogs round Lake Maggiore piles and other objects -similar to those found in the Swiss lakes. These researches were -continued by MM. Gastaldi and Moro, who discovered in the peat-bogs -round this lake several ancient villages built upon piles. - -In the Lake of Varese, also in Lombardy, which was examined in 1863 by -MM. Desor, G. de Mortillet, and the Abbé Stoppani, were discovered five -settlements, some of which were of the Stone Age. Subsequently, the Abbé -Ranchet pointed out four others, which raise to the number of nine the -pile works found in this lake. In order to render due honour to MM. -Keller and Desor, who have contributed so much to the investigation and -popularity of lacustrine antiquities, the Abbé Stoppani gave the name of -these _savants_ to two of the settlements. - -One of these isles is very curious, as it is inhabited up to the present -day. It is called _Isoletta_ ("small island"), and the Litta family -possess a _château_ upon it. - -In the peat-mosses of Brianza, a portion of Lombardy situated to the -north of Milan, the remains of lacustrine constructions have been -discovered, together with bones, fragments of pottery, pieces of -charcoal, and carbonised stone; also weapons, both of bronze and flint. - -The Lake of Garda has been searched over by various explorers, who have -discovered in it the sites of several lacustrine habitations. The -authors of these discoveries are Dr. Alberti, of Verona, and MM. -Kosterlitz and Silber, two Austrian officers, who presented all the -objects which they collected to the antiquarian museums of Vienna and -Zurich. The traces of pile-works were first perceived when the works -were in progress which were excavated by the Austrians in 1855 round the -fortress of Peschiera; which proves, at least, that fortresses may -occasionally serve some useful purpose. - -A settlement of the Stone Age, which was examined by M. Paolo Lioy, is -situated in a small lake in Venetia, the length of which does not exceed -half a mile, and the depth 30 feet; we allude to the Lake of Fimon, near -Vicenza. M. Lioy discovered oaken piles partially charred, which proves -that the village had at one time been burnt down; also slabs of timber -roughly squared, a canoe hollowed out of a trunk of oak, cakes of clay -which had come from the sides of huts, and still bore the imprint of the -reed-stalks, and no doubt formed a kind of coating inside the huts; -various instruments made of bone, flint, sandstone, granite, and stag's -horn; rings or spindle-weights made of burnt earth, numerous fragments -of rough pottery, merely dried in the sun, and, among all these remains, -a dozen entire vessels. - -There were also found stores of acorns, nuts, and water-chestnuts, the -fruit of the sorb-tree, some sloe-stones, &c. A large quantity of animal -bones certified to the existence of the bison, the stag, the wild boar, -the fox, and several other doubtful species. All the long bones were -broken, as is usually the case, for the extraction of the marrow, but -not with the ordinary regularity; they had merely been cracked by blows -with stones. - -The investigation of lacustrine antiquities which had been inaugurated -in Switzerland could hardly stop short in its path of progress. Attempts -were made to discover _palafittes_ in other countries, and these -attempts met with success. - -Thanks to the initiative action taken by M. Desor, and the liberality of -the Bavarian Government, pile-works of ancient date have been discovered -in six of the Bavarian lakes. Most of them go back to the Stone Age, -but some belong to the bronze epoch. Among the latter we may mention the -_Isle of Roses_, in the Lake of Starnberg, which is, in fact, an -artificial island, like the Isoletta in the Lake of Varese. We have -previously stated that this island has never ceased to be inhabited, and -that a _château_ now exists on it. - -The movement spread from one place to another. Austria made it a point -of honour not to remain in the rear of Bavaria, and Professor -Hochstetter was commissioned by the Academy of Sciences at Vienna to -undertake a search for _palafittes_ in the lakes of Carinthia and -Carniola. - -These explorations were not without result. In four lakes of Carinthia, -Dr. Hochstetter discovered piles, remains of pottery, bones, nuts, &c. -In the Lake of Reutschach, which was the most closely investigated, he -discovered shallows formed by stones, similar to the _steinbergs_ of -Switzerland. The marshes of Laybach have also furnished instruments of -stag's horn, a perforated stone, and a canoe. - -Next to Austria, Prussia took the matter up. Specimens of pile-work were -discovered in several provinces of this kingdom; among these were -Brandenburg and Pomerania, a district rich in marshes. In the environs -of Lubtow the lacustrine constructions have the same characteristics as -those of Robenhausen, on the Lake of Pfæffikon (Switzerland). Two -distinct archæological strata may be distinguished; in the lower are -found, all mingled together, bronze and stone instruments, fragments of -pottery, wheat, barley, and charred peas; the upper stratum belongs to -the iron age. - -We have not as yet said anything about France; lacustrine dwellings -have, however, been discovered in some of the departments which border -on Switzerland. - -The Lakes of Bourget and Annecy, in Savoy, contain several of them. The -former of these lakes was thoroughly explored by M. Laurent Rabut, -author of an article on the 'Habitations Lacustres de la Savoie,' which -obtained a silver medal at the competition of the learned societies in -1863. In the Lake of Bourget, M. Rabut ascertained the existence of five -or six settlements of the bronze epoch, three of which, those of -Tresserve, Grésine and Châtillon, have been distinguished as furnishing -numerous ancient relics. - -The Lake of Paladru (Isère) which has been searched by M. Gustave -Vallier, has afforded similar results. Pile-works are thought to exist -in some other small lakes in the same district--those of Sainte-Hélène, -on the left bank of the Isère, Saint-Martin-de-Belville, and -Saint-Marcel, near Moutiers. Pile-works have also been discovered on the -site of an ancient lake on the banks of the Saône; and in a totally -different district, at the foot of the Pyrenees, as many as five have -been pointed out. - -Everything therefore leads us to believe that if we searched with care -the peat-mosses and pools which are very common in a good many of the -French departments, we should discover the vestiges of various -pre-historic epochs. - -In order to complete the enumeration of the lacustrine constructions of -Europe, we may state that they have been found in Denmark in the Lake of -Maribo, and in England in the county of Norfolk. - -With these constructions we must also connect the _crannoges_ or -artificial islands of Ireland, the first of which was discovered in 1836 -by Sir W. R. Wilde, a member of the Royal Academy of Dublin. Since this -date various investigations have been made of these objects, and, at the -present time, no less than fifty _crannoges_ have been discovered, -distributed among the various counties of Ireland. - -[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Vertical Section of a _Crannoge_ in the -Ardakillin Lake.] - -Most of these islets were composed of heaps of stones held together by -piles, nearly in the same way as in the _ténevières_ in Switzerland; but -the _crannoges_ differ from the latter in being raised above the water. -Some of them, however, are formed by a collection of vertical piles and -horizontal joists, constituting an external inclosure, and even internal -compartments, inside which all kinds of remains were collected. This -kind are called _stockaded_ islands. They are generally of an oval or -circular shape, and their dimensions are always kept within rather -narrow limits. In his work on 'Pre-historic Times,' Sir John Lubbock -gives the above sketch of a _crannoge_ in the Ardakillin Lake. - -Captain Mudge, of the Royal British Navy, has described a hut which he -found at a depth of 16 feet, in the Drumkellin marsh. Its area was about -5 feet square, and its height 10 feet; it included two stories, each -about 4-1/2 feet high. The roof was flat, and the hut was surrounded by -a fence of piles, doubtless intended to separate it from other adjacent -huts, the remains of which are still to be perceived. The whole -construction had been executed by means of stone instruments, a fact -that was proved by the nature of the cuts that were still visible on -some of the pieces of wood. Added to this, a hatchet, a chisel, and an -arrow-head, all made of flint, were found on the floor of the cabin, and -left no doubt whatever on this point. This, therefore, was in fact a -habitation belonging to the Stone Age. Some nuts and a large quantity of -broken shells were scattered over the ground. A large flat stone, -perforated with a little hole in the middle, was found on the spot; it -was probably used to break the nuts by means of round pebbles picked up -outside. - -From some of these settlements considerable masses of bones have been -obtained, which have, alas, been utilised as manure. Sir John Lubbock -tells us that the _crannoge_ of Dunshauglin alone has furnished more -than 150 cartloads of bones. These bones belong to the following -species:--the ox, the pig, the goat, the sheep, the horse, the ass, the -dog, the fox, the roe, the fallow-deer, and the great Irish stag, now -extinct. If all other proof were wanting, the presence of the remains of -this latter animal would be sufficient to indicate that certain -_crannoges_ date back to the Stone Age; but as in this case we evidently -have to do with the polished-stone epoch, it is also proved that the -gigantic antlered stag existed in Ireland at a much later date than on -the continent. - -Various historical records testify to the fact, that the _crannoges_ -were inhabited up to the end of the sixteenth century. They then -constituted a kind of fortress, in which petty chiefs braved for a long -time the royal power. After the definitive pacification of the country -they were completely abandoned. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - Palustrine Habitations or Marsh-Villages--Surveys made by - MM. Strobel and Pigorini of the _Terramares_ of Tuscany--The - _Terramares_ of Brazil. - - -Having described the _lacustrine_ habitations which have been discovered -in various parts of Europe, we must now mention the so-called -_palustrine_ habitations, as peculiar to the bronze epoch. This name has -been given to that kind of village, the remains of which have been -discovered round marshes and pools. Upper Italy is the locality in which -these settlements have been pointed out. - -The name of _palustrine settlements_, or _marnieras_, has been given to -the sites of ancient villages established by means of piles on marshes -or pools of no great size, which in the course of time have been filled -up by mould of a peaty character, containing a quantity of organic and -other _detritus_. - -The discovery of those _palustrine settlements_ is due to MM. Strobel -and Pigorini, who have designated them by the name of _terramares_. - -This term is applied by these _savants_ to the accumulation of ashes, -charcoal, animal bones, and remains of all kinds which have been thrown -away by man all round his dwellings, and have accumulated there during -the lapse of centuries. The name which has been given them was derived -from the fact that they furnish a kind of earthy ammoniacal manure, -known in the district by the name of _terra mare_. - -These accumulations are the representatives of the Danish -kitchen-middens; but with this difference, that instead of dating back -to the Stone Age, the former belong to the bronze epoch. - -_Terramares_ are numerous in the districts of Parma and Modena; they -are, however, almost entirely confined to the plain which extends -between the Po, the Apennines, the Adda, and the Reno, forming an area -of about 60 miles long, and 30 miles wide. In a general way, they form -small mounds which rise from 6 to 12 feet above the level of the plain; -as they go down some depth in the ground, their total thickness is in -some places as much as 20 feet. Very few are seen having an area -exceeding 9 acres. - -Excavations which have been made in several spots enable a tolerably -exact account to be given of the mode of construction adopted in these -palustrine settlements. The _marniera_ of Castione, in particular, has -furnished us with valuable information on this point; and we shall -describe this settlement as a type of the rest. Piles from 6 to 10 feet -in length, and 4 to 6 inches in diameter (fig. 151), formed of trunks of -trees, either whole or split, and pointed at the ends by some rough -tool, were sunk to the depth of some inches in the bed of the hollow. -Some of them still show on their tops the marks of the blows that they -received when they were driven in. They were placed at intervals of from -18 inches to 6 feet; and connecting-beams from 6 to 10 feet in length, -placed horizontally, and crossing one another, bound the piles together, -and insured the solidity of the whole construction. On these cross-beams -rested a floor (fig. 152) formed of joists 1 to 3 inches thick, 6 to 12 -inches wide, and 5 to 7 feet long. - -[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Vertical Section of the _Marniera_ of -Castione.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Floor of the _Marniera_ of Castione.] - -Fig. 153 gives the plan of the tie-beams and piles of the _marniera_ of -Castione, taken from the author's work.[34] These slabs or joists were -not fixed in any way; at least, no trace now exists of any fastening. -They seemed to have been provided by splitting trunks of trees by means -of wooden wedges, a number of these wedges having been found in the -peaty earth. Neither the saw nor the gimlet appear to have been -employed; but the square holes have been cut out by means of the chisel. -The timber that was used was principally ash and oak. - -[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Plan of the Piles and Cross-beams in the -_Marniera_ of Castione.] - -The floor was covered with beaten earth to a thickness of 10 to 12 -inches. Fragments of this kind of paving were found scattered about in -two sandy heaps, almost entirely devoid of other _débris_, whilst the -adjacent earth, of a blackish colour, contained a large quantity of -relics of all kinds. It is probable that the huts of the inhabitants of -the _marniera_ were situated upon these sandy heaps, and that the -dark-coloured earth is the final result of the accumulation of refuse -and various kinds of _detritus_ on the same spot. - -It is not known whether the layer of beaten earth extended over the -whole surface of the floor, or was confined to the interior of the -habitations. In the former case, it is probable that it was rammed down -with less care on the outside than on the inside of the huts, as is -shown by the discovery of a storehouse for corn, the floor of which is -formed by nothing but a layer of sandy earth placed upon the planks. -This storehouse, which, from the use to which it was put, could not have -been used as a dwelling by any one, measured 13 feet in length, and 10 -feet in width. It contained carbonised beans and wheat, spread in a -layer of about 4 inches thick. - -MM. Strobel and Pigorini found no remains of huts in the _marniera_ of -Castione: probably because, having been built entirely of wood, they -were completely destroyed by fire, numerous traces of which may still be -detected. In addition to the carbonised corn and fruit already -mentioned, many other objects bearing the evident marks of fire were, in -fact, collected at Castione. The floor-slabs, the tie-beams, and the -tops of the piles were often found to be half consumed. - -But although at Castione there is no evidence forthcoming in respect to -huts, information which bears upon this point has been obtained at other -spots. MM. Strobel and Pigorini have ascertained that the palustrine -dwellings bore a great similarity to those on the Swiss lakes. The sides -were lined with boughs, and the interior was daubed with clay. In Italy, -just as in Switzerland, certain fragments of the clayey coating which -have been hardened and preserved by fire have enabled us to draw these -inferences. - -At Castione several beds of ashes and charcoal containing remains of -meals, pointed out the sites of the domestic hearths, round which they, -doubtless, assembled to eat their food. Another bed of charcoal, mixed -with straw, wheat, and pieces of burnt pottery, was found in a peculiar -situation--it was embedded in a bank of calcareous pebbles vitrified on -the surface; this bank was about 5 feet wide, and about 8 inches in -thickness. The explorers thought that it was, perhaps, a place which had -been devoted to the fusion of metals. - -On the edge of the basin of the marsh, a kind of rampart or defensive -work was discovered, composed of slabs as much as 16 feet in length, -laid horizontally one over the other. These slabs were tied down by -stakes driven in obliquely, and likewise placed one above the other, -their ends being inserted between the slabs. - -This last discovery, added to other indications, led MM. Strobel and -Pigorini to the supposition that the pile-work of Castione, and -doubtless also those in all the _marnieras_, were in the first place -constructed as places of defence, and were subsequently converted into -fixed and permanent residences. The basin of the marsh having been -gradually filled up by the accumulations of _débris_ resulting from the -presence of man, the habitations were built on a solid foundation, and a -great portion of the former floor was done away with, which would -account for so little of it now remaining. - -The objects discovered in the _terramares_ and _marnieras_ do not -essentially differ from those found in the pile-works of Switzerland. -They are almost all worn or broken, just as might be expected from -finding them in rubbish heaps. There are a great quantity of fragments -of pottery of a greyish or dark-coloured clay mixed with grains of -quartz, imperfectly baked, and made without the aid of a potter's wheel. -The ornamentation is, in general, of a very simple character, but the -shapes of the ears, or handles, are very varied. Some of the vessels are -furnished with a spout or holes for the liquid to flow out. The -_terramares_ also contain supports for vessels with round or pointed -bottoms. - -In the _marniera_ of San Ambrogio a slab of pottery was found, -elliptical in shape, and about half an inch in thickness, concave on one -side and convex on the other, and pierced with seventeen circular holes -about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The idea was entertained that -this object was used as a kind of fire-grating, for it bore traces of -the long-continued action of fire. - -The other objects most commonly found were weights made of baked earth, -and perhaps used for the weaving-loom, much worn in the place where the -cord passed through on which they were hung; _fusaiolas_, or -spindle-whorls, very varied both in shape and size, likewise made of -baked earth; large mill-stones with a polished surface. Next, we have -poniards or spear-heads, hatchets, and hair-pins, all made of bronze. -The _marniera_ of San Ambrogio has furnished a mould indicating that -bronze was melted and cast in this district. - -An attentive study of the bones of animals contained in the _terramares_ -has led to the following information being obtained as to the _fauna_ of -Upper Italy during the bronze epoch. - -With respect to the mammals which lived in a wild state, the existence -has been ascertained of a species of stag of much greater size than the -present variety, and about equal to that of the lacustrine settlements -of Switzerland (fig. 154); also of a wild-boar, much more powerful than -that of Sardinia or even of Algeria, the roe, the bear, the rat, and the -porcupine. In different spots have been found stags' horns and bones, -and also sloe-stones which have retained the impression of the teeth of -some small rodent. The bear, the wild-boar, the stag and the roe, have, -at the present day, disappeared from the country. The porcupine, too, -has migrated into regions further south, which leads to the supposition -that the temperature of the provinces of Parma and Modena is a little -lowered since the date of the bronze epoch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 154.--The Chase during the Bronze Epoch.] - -It is to be remarked that in these settlements, contrary to what has -been noticed in Switzerland, in the lacustrine habitations belonging to -the Stone Age, the remains of wild animals are met with much more rarely -than those of domestic animals; this must be consequent on a superior -and more advanced stage of civilisation having existed in Italy. Among -the domestic species found we may mention the dog, two breeds of which, -of different sizes, must have existed; the pig of the peat-bogs, the -same variety as that of which the bones were discovered in Switzerland; -the horse, the remains of which, although rare, testify to the existence -of two breeds, one large and bulky, the other of slighter and more -elegant proportions; the ass, of which there are but few bones, could -not, therefore, have been very common; the ox, the remains of which are -on the contrary very abundant, like the dog and the horse, is -represented by two distinct breeds, the more powerful of which appears -to have descended from the _Bos primigenius_ or _Urus_; lastly, the -sheep and the goat, the remains of which can scarcely be clearly -distinguished on account of their great anatomical resemblance. - -When we compare the present _fauna_ with that of which we have just -given the details, we may perceive several important modifications. Thus -the pig of the peat-bogs, one breed of oxen, and a breed of sheep (the -smallest) have become entirely extinct; and the common sheep, the goat, -the horse, and the ass have assumed much more important dimensions. With -regard to the wild species of mammals, we have already said that some -have become less in size, and others have disappeared. Hence results one -proof of a fact which is beyond dispute, although often called in -question, namely, that the intelligent action of man working by means of -domestication on wild natures, will ultimately succeed in ameliorating, -reclaiming, and perfecting them. - -The skulls and the long bones found in the _terramares_ are almost -always broken for the purpose of extracting the brain and the marrow, a -very ancient usage which had endured to this comparatively late epoch. -But instead of being split longitudinally, as was the case in preceding -epochs, they are generally broken across at one end. The _terramares_ -and the _kitchen-middens_ have this peculiarity in common--that all the -dogs' skulls found in them have been intentionally broken; a fact which -proves that in Italy, as in Denmark, this faithful guest or servant of -man was occasionally, in default of some better food, and doubtless with -much regret, used as an article of subsistence. - -No remains of fish have been found in these _marnieras_; from this, MM. -Strobel and Pigorini have justly concluded that the inhabitants of these -pile-works were not fishermen, and that, at all events, the water which -surrounded them was shallow and of limited extent. - -The species of birds, molluscs and insects, the remains of which have -been found in the _terramares_, are likewise determined. The existence -of the domestic fowl and the duck, no doubt living in complete liberty, -has been duly recognised; but it is thought that the appearance of these -species must not be dated further back than the _end_ of the bronze -epoch, and perhaps even the beginning of that of iron. - -The examination of the insect remains has enabled us to ascertain that -the refuse food and rubbish must have lain for some little time in front -of the doors of the habitations before it was pushed into the water; for -in it, flies, and other insects of the kind, found time to be born, to -mature, and to undergo their whole series of metamorphoses; a fact which -is proved by the perforated and empty envelopes of their chrysalides. - -We mention this last fact as one of the most curious instances of the -results which science and inference may, in combination, arrive at when -devoted to the novel and interesting study of some of the earlier -stages in man's existence. But, on the other hand, it gives us but a -poor idea of the cleanliness of the Italian race during the bronze -epoch. It would seem to us that a feeling of the dignity inherent in the -body of man, and the cares that it so imperiously claims, would have -been now more strongly developed than at a period when men dwelt -confined in caves. This, however, is not the case. But have we, in the -present day, any right to be astonished when we see, even now, the -prevalence, in some of the great cities of America, of certain practices -so disgusting in character and so opposed to the public health? -Osculati, an Italian traveller, relates that at all the street corners -in the city of Guayaquil, in the republic of Ecuador, heaps of filth are -to be seen which exhale an insupportable odour. Similar heaps exist at -the very gates of Mexico, where, at the present time, they form small -hills. These facts ought to render us indulgent towards the neglect of -cleanliness by our ancestors during the bronze epoch. - -Such were the animal remains collected in the _terramares_. The -vegetable remains consisted of grains of carbonised corn, broken nuts, -acorns, halves of burnt apples, stones of the dog-berry, plums and -grapes. - -In concluding our consideration of the palustrine settlements, we may -add, that some have recently been discovered in Moravia and Mecklenburg. -At Olmutz, a city of Moravia, M. Jeitteler, a learned Viennese, has -found piles sunk into the peat, along with various bronze and stone -objects, ornamented pottery, charcoal, charred wheat, numerous animal -bones, and a human skeleton of a brachycephalous race. All the facts -lead to the belief that this will not be the last discovery of the kind. - -We must also state that the _terramares_, or deposits of the remains of -habitations on the edge of marshes, are not peculiar to Europe -exclusively. On the coast of Africa (at San Vicente) M. Strobel found -remains of an exactly similar nature; and Dr. Henrique Naegeli, a -distinguished naturalist of Rio Janeiro, has testified to the existence -on the coast of Brazil of like deposits, which he proposes to subject to -a thorough examination.[35] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[34] 'Les Terramares et les Pilotages du Parmesan;' Milan, 1864. -(Extract from the 'Atti della Società Italiana di Scienze naturali.') - -[35] 'Matériaux pour l'histoire positive et philosophique de l'Homme,' -by G. de Mortillet. Paris, 1865: vol. i. p. 397. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - Weapons, Instruments, and Utensils contained in the various - Lacustrine Settlements in Europe, enabling us to become acquainted - with the Manners and Customs of Man during the Bronze Epoch. - - -We have just spoken of the discovery and investigation of the -_lacustrine habitations_ found in various parts of Europe, and also of -the _palustrine villages_ of Northern Italy. These rich deposits have -thrown a considerable light on the primitive history of the human race. -With the elements that have been thus placed at our disposal, it will be -possible to reconstruct the domestic life of the tribes of the bronze -epoch, that is, to describe the weapons, instruments, and utensils which -were proper to the every-day proceedings of this period. - -In order to give perspicuity to our representation or account, we have -classed the lacustrine habitations under the head of the _bronze _epoch. -But we must by no means forget that these lacustrine villages contained -other objects besides those belonging to the bronze epoch; there were -also found in them a number of articles which must be referred to the -preceding period, that is, the polished-stone epoch. - -It is a question indifferent to our purpose, whether the lacustrine -villages were constructed during the Stone Age, as inferred from the -presence in some settlements of stone objects only, or whether the -habitations were built during the bronze epoch, some of the articles -made of stone and dating back to the preceding period being still -preserved in use. For it is certain that the larger number of lacustrine -settlements do not go back beyond the bronze epoch. But as certain -objects made of stone form a portion of the implements found in these -ancient habitations, we must commence by describing these relics of the -Stone Age; although we shall considerably abridge this description, so -as to avoid repeating those details which we have already given in the -preceding chapters. - -The stone weapons and instruments are found to consist, in Switzerland -as elsewhere, of hatchets, spear-heads and arrow-heads, hammers, saws, -knives and chisels. - -The hatchets and hammers are made of various materials, as flint, -quartzite, diorite, nephrite, jade, serpentine, &c. But the other -weapons and implements are, nearly all of them, of flint. - -The hatchet was in continual use, not merely as a weapon but as a tool; -thus, very numerous specimens of it are found in the Swiss lakes. - -The hatchets, however, are generally speaking, small in size. Their -length varies from 2 to 8 inches, and their width, at the cutting edge, -from 1-1/2 to 2 inches. Fig. 155 represents one of the flint hatchets. -They are the same shape as the Danish hatchets during the polished-stone -epoch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Stone Hatchet from the Lacustrine Habitations -of Switzerland.] - -The most simple plan of fixing a handle to the small-sized hatchets, -which were in fact chisels, consisted in inserting them into a piece of -stag's horn, hollowed out for this purpose at one end. In this way they -obtained a kind of chisel which was very ready of use. Fig. 156 -represents this kind of handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 156.--Stone Chisel with Stag's-horn Handle from the -Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.] - -There was also another mode of fixing handles to these instruments. The -shaped flint was previously fixed in a holder of stag's horn. This -holder was itself perforated through the middle with a round hole, in -order to receive a wooden handle. It then became a complete hatchet. - -Fig. 157 represents one of these hatchets fitted with a handle, in a way -similar to many of the specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 157.--Flint Hammer, fitted with a Stag's-horn -Handle.] - -This mode of insertion into a handle is frequently met with during the -polished-stone epoch, as we have already stated upon the authority of -Boucher de Perthes (see fig. 112). - -There was also another way of adapting for use the stone chisels and -hammers. The following is the mode employed. The flint was inserted into -a short holder of stag's horn, hollowed out at one end for this purpose, -the other end of the piece of horn being cut square. This squared end, -which was thinner than the rest of the holder, was fitted into a wooden -handle, which had been perforated with a hole of the same shape and -size. - -M. Desor, in his 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes,' supplies the following -sketch (fig. 158), as representing these double-handled hatchets. - -[Illustration: Fig. 158.--Stone Hatchet, with double Handle of Wood and -Stag's Horn.] - -It is very seldom that hatchets of this type are met with in a complete -state in the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland; the handles have -generally disappeared. In other localities, where the hatchets are very -plentiful, very few holders are found. Is it not the case that in these -spots the stone was the special object of work and not the handles? -There were, in fact, in Switzerland, as in France and Belgium, workshops -devoted to the manufacture of these articles. The large number of -hatchets, either just commenced or defective in workmanship, which have -been found in some of the principal lacustrine settlements leave no -doubt on this point. - -The finest and most carefully-wrought instruments are the hammers and -double, or hatchet-hammers. Most of them are made of serpentine. One of -the ends is generally rounded or flattened, whilst the other tapers off -either into a point or a cutting edge, as represented in figs. 159 and -160, taken from M. Desor's work. They are perforated with a round hole -intended to receive a handle of wood. This hole is so sharply and -regularly cut out, that it is difficult to believe it could have been -made with nothing better than a flint tool. Metal alone would appear to -be capable of effecting such finished work. This is one of the facts -which tend to the idea that the lacustrine settlements, which have been -ascribed to the Stone Age, belong rather to the bronze epoch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 159-160.--Serpentine Hatchet-hammers, from the -Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.] - -Fig. 161 represents another hatchet-hammer obtained from the Swiss -lakes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 161.--Another Hatchet-hammer, from the Lacustrine -Habitations of Switzerland.] - -The knives and saws have nothing remarkable about them. They are mere -flakes of flint, long and narrow in shape, the cutting edge or teeth -being on the widest side. There are some which are fitted into handles -of stag's horn, as represented in fig. 162, taken from M. Desor's work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 162.--Flint Saw fitted into a piece of Stag's Horn.] - -They must have been fastened into the handles by means of bitumen, for -traces of this substance have been found on some of the handles. The -same plan was adopted in order to fix the hatchets in their holders. - -The spear-heads (fig. 163) are very skilfully fashioned; their shape is -regular, and the chiselling very perfect, although inferior to that -observed in Denmark. They are made level on one side, and with a -longitudinal middle ridge on the other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 163.--Flint Spear-head from the Lacustrine -settlements of Switzerland.] - -The arrow-heads are very varied in shape (fig. 164). In delicacy of -workmanship they are in no way inferior to the spear or javelin-heads. - -[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Various shapes of Flint Arrow-heads, from the -Lacustrine settlements of Switzerland.] - -The cutting of these small objects must have required much labour and -skill. Some are toothed on the edges, which must have rendered the -wounds inflicted by them much more dangerous. The greater part of these -arrow-heads are made of flint, but some have been found the material of -which is bone, and even stag's horn. - -The arrow-heads were fixed into the shafts by means of bitumen. This -plan is represented in figs. 165 and 166, which are given by M. -Mortillet in his 'Promenades préhistoriques à l'Exposition Universelle.' - -[Illustration: Fig. 165.--Arrow-head of Bone fixed on the Shaft by means -of Bitumen.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 166.--Stone Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by means -of Bitumen.] - -Sometimes they were merely attached to the shaft by a ligature of string -(fig. 167). - -[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by a Ligature of -String.] - -A few relics have been discovered of the bows which were used to impel -these arrows. They were made of yew, and roughly cut. - -Tools and instruments of bone seem, like those made of flint, to have -been much in use. In addition to the arrow-heads which we have just -mentioned, there have also been found piercers, or bodkins of various -shapes (figs. 168 and 169), chisels for working in wood (fig. 170), pins -with lenticular heads (fig. 171), needles perforated sometimes with one -eye and sometimes with two, and occasionally hollowed out round the top -in a circular groove, so as to attach the thread. - -Figs. 168, 169, 170 and 171 are given by M. Desor in his 'Mémoire sur -les Palafittes.' - -[Illustration: Fig. 168.--Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations -of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 169.--Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations -of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Carpenter's Chisel, from the Lacustrine -Habitations of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Bone Needle.] - -It is probable that, as during the reindeer epoch, garments were sewn by -means of the needle and the bodkin, the latter piercing the holes -through which the needle passed the thread. - -That kind of needle which has a hole in the middle and is pointed at the -two ends, which is found in large numbers in the lacustrine settlements, -must doubtless have been used as a hook for fishing. When the fish had -swallowed the bait, the two points stuck into the flesh, and it was -then easy to pull out the captive. Some of these fish-hooks are carved -out of boars' tusks. - -Stag's horn was likewise employed for several other purposes. A kind of -pick-axe was sometimes made of it (fig. 172); also harpoons (fig. 173), -harpoons with a double row of barbs (fig. 174), and small cups of -conical shape (fig. 175), perforated with a hole in the upper part so -that they could be suspended if required. - -[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Pick-axe of Stag's Horn.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the -Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the -Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Vessel made of Stag's Horn.] - -The taste for personal adornment was not foreign to the nature of the -primitive people of Switzerland. Canine teeth and incisors of various -animals, rings and beads made of bone or stag's horn, all united in a -necklace, formed one of their most usual adornments. - -They also made use of hair-pins and bone combs. These pins were finished -off with a knob, and combined elegance and simplicity in their shape; -they would, indeed, be no disfigurement to the _coiffure_ of the women -of modern times. - -Such were the instruments, utensils and tools, used for the purpose of -domestic life, which have been found in the lacustrine habitations of -Switzerland belonging to the Stone Age. We will now pass on to the -objects of the same character, peculiar to the bronze epoch. - -The quantity of bronze objects which, up to the present time, have been -collected from the Swiss lakes is very considerable. The finest -collection in the country, that of Colonel Schwab, contained in 1867, -according to a catalogue drawn up by Dr. Keller, no less than 4346 -specimens. - -Most of these objects have been cast in moulds, as is evident from the -seams, the traces of which may be observed on several of the specimens. - -Among the most remarkable of the relics of the bronze epoch which have -been recovered from the Swiss lakes, the hatchets or celts are well -deserving of mention. They are from 4 to 8 inches in length, and weigh -from 10 to 15 pounds. Their shapes are varied; but all possess the -distinctive characteristic of being adapted to fit longitudinally on -their handles, and not transversely, as in the Stone Age. It is but -seldom that they are not furnished with a hole or ear, so as to furnish -an additional means of attachment. - -We have in the first place the hatchet with wings bent round on each -side of the blade, so as to constitute a kind of double socket, intended -to receive a handle divided in the middle and bent into an elbow. This -is the most prevalent type. Sometimes, as may be noticed in fig. 176, -the upper end is pierced with an eye, doubtless intended to hold a band -for fixing firmly the curved handle. This arrangement is peculiar to the -hatchets of large size, that is, to those which had the most strain put -upon them. - -Another type which is very rare in Switzerland--only one specimen of it -existing in the Museum of Neuchâtel--is that (fig. 177) in which the -wings, instead of bending back upon the blade perpendicularly to the -plane of the cutting edge, turn back in the same plane with it, or in -the thickness of the blade. - -[Illustration: Fig. 176.--Bronze Winged Hatchet, from the Lacustrine -Habitations of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 177.--Winged Hatchet (front and side view), from the -Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.] - -There is also the hatchet with the ordinary socket, either cylindrical -(fig. 178) or angular. This shape is very common in France, where they -are known by the name of _celts_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 178.--Socketed Hatchet from the Lacustrine -Habitations.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 179.--Knife Hatchet (front and side view), from the -Lacustrine Habitations.] - -M. Morlot has given the name of _knife-hatchets_ (fig. 179), to those -instruments, the perforated ears of which are scarcely, if at all -developed, and could by no means serve to give firmness to a handle. It -is probable that these instruments were grasped directly by the hand; -and that the mere rudiments of wings which may be noticed, were merely -intended to substitute a rounded surface for a sharp ridge. Figures 176, -177, 178 and 179, are taken from M. Desor's 'Mémoire sur les -Palafittes.' - -Next to the hatchets we must mention the chisels for wood-work (fig. -180), which are cut out to a great nicety, and in no way differ from our -present chisels, except in the mode of fitting to the handle, which is -done by means of a socket. - -[Illustration: Fig. 180.--Carpenter's Chisel, in Bronze.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Hexagonal Hammer.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 182.--Knife with a tang to fit into a Handle, from -the Lacustrine settlements of Switzerland.] - -There has also been discovered a kind of prismatically shaped hexagonal -hammer (fig. 181), likewise provided with a socket, the length of which -is about 3 inches. This hammer forms a portion of the collection of -Colonel Schwab. - -The knives are the most numerous of all the sharp instruments. The -workmanship of them is, in general, very skilfully executed, and their -shape is very elegant. Some of them have a metallic handle; but the -greater part terminate in a kind of tang intended to fit into a handle -of wood or stag's horn, as represented in fig. 182, taken from M. -Desor's 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.' - -We also find knives furnished with a socket (fig. 183). The blade -measures from 4 to 8 inches in length, and is often adorned with -tracings; in some instances the back of the blade is very much -thickened. - -[Illustration: Fig. 183.--Socketed Knife, from the Lacustrine -settlements of Switzerland.] - -Together with the knives we must also class the sickles or reaping -hooks. These implements have been collected in somewhat large quantities -in the settlements of Auvernier and Cortaillod (Lake of Neuchâtel). They -are of good workmanship, and frequently provided with ridges or ribs in -the metal of the blade. Fig. 184, given by M. Desor in his work, -represents a sickle of this kind which was found by the author at -Chevroux. - -[Illustration: Fig. 184.--Bronze Sickle, found by M. Desor at Chevroux.] - -The largest of these sickles does not exceed 6 inches in length. They -were fitted into a wooden handle. - -We cannot of course describe all the bronze objects which have been -recovered from the Swiss lakes. After having mentioned the preceding, -we shall content ourselves with naming certain saws of various -shapes--razors, actual razors, indicating no small care given to -personal appearance--bodkins, or piercers--needles, with eyes either at -the end or some distance from the end, articles of fishing tackle, such -as single and double fishing-hooks (figs. 185 and 186), with a plain or -barbed point--harpoons, various small vessels, &c. - -[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Bronze Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine -settlements of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 186.--Double Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine -settlements of Switzerland.] - -We shall dwell, although briefly, on the various objects of personal -ornament which have been found in the Swiss lacustrine settlements of -the bronze epoch. - -We will mention, in the first place, the hair-pins, &c. which have been -recovered from the various lakes. The most curious fact about them is, -that no one has ever found two exactly alike both in shape and -dimensions. We borrow from M. Desor's work the four following figures -representing various shapes of pins. Some have a round head (fig. 187), -and others a flat (fig. 188), or cylindrical head (fig. 189); others, -again, are finished off with a twisted end to which is attached a -movable end (fig. 190). - -[Illustration: Fig. 187.--Hair-pin, found by M. Desor in one of the -Swiss Lakes.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Hair-pin, found by M. Desor in one of the -Swiss Lakes.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Hair-pin with cylindrical Head.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Hair-pin with curled Head.] - -The round-headed pins are sometimes massive in shape and unornamented, -that is, exactly similar to the bone pins of the Stone Age; sometimes, -and even more frequently, they are perforated with one or more round -holes and adorned with a few chasings. - -The flat-headed pins differ very much in the diameter of the button at -the end, which is sometimes of considerable size. There are some, the -head of which is nothing more than a small enlargement of the pin, and -others, in which there are two or three of these enlargements, placed a -little way apart and separated by a twist. Their sizes are very various, -and in some cases are so exaggerated, that it is quite evident that the -objects cannot have been used as hair-pins. In Colonel Schwab's -collection, there is one 33 inches long, and M. Troyon has mentioned -some 20 and 24 inches long. - -At the _Exposition Universelle_ of 1867, in the collection sent by M. -Desor, the visitors' admiration might have been called forth by some of -the pins which had been repolished by the care of the learned Swiss -naturalist. They were certainly very elegant, and ladies of the present -day might well have decorated themselves with these ornaments, although -they dated back to an era so many thousands of years ago. - -Among many savage tribes, the dressing of the hair, especially among the -men, is carried to an excessively elaborate pitch. The head of hair of -an Abyssinian soldier forms a species of lofty system of curls which is -meant to last a whole lifetime. He carries with him a long pin, -furnished with a thick button, owing to the impossibility of reaching -his skin through his _coiffure_ with the extremities of his fingers. - -In the same way the New Zealanders wear an enormous "chignon," 2 feet -high and ornamented with ribbons. - -The Chinese and the Japanese also devote excessive attention to the -dressing of their hair. - -It is, therefore, probable that the inhabitants of the lacustrine -villages, both men and women, devoted an immense amount of care to the -cultivation of their _coiffure_. In the tombs of the bronze epoch, pins -have been found 2-1/2 feet in length, with large knobs or buttons at the -end, similar to those used by the Abyssinian soldiers of our own day. -The combs, which resembled those of the present New Zealanders, although -6 inches long, had only six to eight teeth, and must have been better -fitted to scratch their heads than to dress their hair. - -Bracelets, too, have been found in some considerable numbers in the -Swiss lakes. They are very varied in their shapes, decidedly artistic in -their workmanship, and often set off with carved designs. - -Some (fig. 191) are composed of a single ring of varying width, the -ends of which almost meet and terminate by a semi-circular clasp; others -(fig. 192), are a combination of straight or twisted wires ingeniously -joined to one another. - -[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Bronze Bracelet, found in one of the Swiss -Lakes.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Another Bronze Bracelet.] - -We also find certain rings, cylindrical in shape, and made all in one -piece (fig. 193), which were probably placed round the legs. - -[Illustration: Fig. 193.--Bronze Ring.] - -Some of these ornaments remain, even up to the present day, in a perfect -state of preservation. In an urn which was recovered from the settlement -of Cortaillod, six specimens were discovered, the designs of which -appeared quite as clearly as if they had only just been engraved. There -is one point which must be remarked, because it forms an important -_datum_ in respect to the size of the Swiss people during the bronze -epoch; this is, that most of the bracelets are so small that they could -scarcely be worn nowadays. They must, therefore, have been adapted to -very slender wrists--a fact which naturally leads us to believe that all -the other limbs were small in proportion. This small size in the -bracelets coincides with the diminutiveness of the sword-hilts which -have been found in the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland. - -Earrings, also, have been found in great numbers in the Swiss lakes. -They are either metallic plates, or wires differently fashioned; all, -however, testifying to a somewhat developed degree of taste. - -Next after these trinkets and objects of adornment we must class certain -articles of a peculiar character which must have been pendants or -appendages to bracelets. - -All these ornaments are, in fact, perforated at the top with a circular -hole, intended, no doubt, to have a thread passed through it, by which -it was hung round the neck. Some of them (fig. 194) are small triangular -plates of metal, frequently ornamented with engraved designs; others -(fig. 195), are in open-work, and include several branches, each -terminated by a hole similar to that at the top. Some, again, assume the -form of a ring not completely closed up (fig. 196), or rather, perhaps, -of a crescent with wide and almost contiguous horns. In the same class -may be placed the rings (fig. 197) to which were suspended movable -ornaments in the shape of a double spiral. - -[Illustration: Fig. 194.--Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine -Habitations of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 195.--Another Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine -Habitations of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Bronze Ring, from the Lacustrine Habitations -of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Another Ornamental Ring.] - -The four bronze objects, representations of which we have just given, -are designed from the sketches supplied by M. Desor in his 'Mémoire sur -les Palafittes.' - -Some few trinkets of gold have been found in the lacustrine settlements -of the bronze epoch; but this sort of "find" is very rare. They are in -the form of earrings, and may be seen in the collection of Colonel -Schwab. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - Industrial Skill and Agriculture during the Bronze Epoch--The - Invention of Glass--Invention of Weaving. - - -The manufacture of pottery, which appears to have remained stationary -during the Stone Age, assumed a considerable development during the -bronze epoch. The clay intended for making pottery was duly puddled, and -the objects when moulded were baked in properly formed furnaces. At this -date also commences the art of surfacing articles of earthenware. - -The specimens of pottery which have been found in the settlements of man -of this period are both numerous and interesting; entire vessels have -indeed been discovered. We notice indications of very marked progress -beyond the objects of this kind manufactured in the preceding age. They -are still fashioned by the hand and without the aid of the wheel; but -the shapes are both more varied in their character and more elegant. In -addition to this, although in the larger kind of vessels the clay used -is still rough in its nature and full of hard lumps of quartz like the -material employed in the Stone Age, that of the smaller vessels is much -finer, and frequently covered with a black lead coating. - -Most of these vessels are characterised by a conical base, a shape which -we had before occasion to point out in the stag's-horn vessels of the -Stone Age. If, therefore, it was requisite to place them upright, the -lower ends of them had to be stuck into the earth, or to be placed in -holders hollowed out to receive them. - -Some of these supports, or holders, have been discovered. They are -called _torches_, or _torchères_, by French archæologists. - -Figs. 198 and 199 give a representation of a bronze vessel from the -lacustrine habitations of Switzerland with its support or _torchère_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 198.--Earthenware Vessel with Conical Bottom, from -the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 199.--Earthen Vessel placed on its support.] - -In a general way, the vessels made with conical bases have no handles; -but others, on the contrary, are provided with them (fig. 200). They are -nearly always ornamented with some sort of design, either mere lines -parallel to the rim, triangles, chevrons, or rows of points round the -handle or the neck. Even the very roughest specimens are not altogether -devoid of ornamentation, and a stripe may often be observed round the -neck, on which the fingers of the potter have left their traces. - -[Illustration: Fig. 200.--Fragment of an Earthen Vessel with a Handle.] - -These vessels were intended to contain beverages and substances used for -food. Out of one of them M. Desor took some apples, cherries, wild -plums, and a large quantity of nuts. Some of these vessels, perforated -with small holes, were used in the manufacture of cheese. Dishes, -porringers, &c., have also been found. - -Relics of the pottery of the Stone Age are very frequently recovered -from the Swiss lakes; but vessels in an entire state are seldom met -with. It is, however, stated as a fact, that considerable accumulations -of them once existed; but, unfortunately, the importance of them was not -recognised until too late. An old fisherman of the Lake of Neuchâtel -told M. Desor that in his childhood he had sometimes amused himself by -pushing at _these old earthen pots_ with a long pole, and that in -certain parts of the lake there were _real mountains_ of them. At the -present day, the "old earthen pots" are all broken, and nothing but -pieces can be recovered. - -These relics are, however, sufficient to afford a tolerably exact idea -of the way in which the primitive Swiss used to fashion clay. They seem -to denote large vessels either cylindrical (figs. 201 and 202) or -bulbous-shaped with a flat bottom, moulded by the hand without the aid -of a potter's wheel. The material of which they are composed is rough, -and of a grey or black colour, and is always mingled with small grains -of quartz; the baking of the clay is far from satisfactory. - -[Illustration: Fig. 201.--Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine -Settlements of Switzerland.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 202.--Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine -Settlements of Switzerland.] - -The ornamentation is altogether of an ordinary character. It generally -consists of mere lines traced out in the soft clay, either by the -finger, a pointed stick, or sometimes a string was used. There are -neither curves nor arabesques of any kind; the lines are almost always -straight. - -A few of the vessels are, however, decorated in a somewhat better style. -Some are provided with small projections perforated with holes, through -which might be passed a string for the purpose of hanging them up; there -are others which have a row of studs arranged all round them, just below -the rim, and others, indeed, in which hollows take the place of the -studs. Several have been met with which are pierced with holes at -different heights; it is supposed that they were used in the preparation -of milk-curd, the holes being made to let out the whey. The vessels of -this period are entirely devoid of handles; this ornament did not appear -until the bronze age. - -Mill-stones, or stones for crushing grain, are not unfrequently found in -the Swiss lakes. - -At some date during the period we are now discussing we must place the -discovery of glass. Glass beads of a blue or green colour are, in fact, -found in the tombs of the bronze epoch. What was their origin? Chemistry -and metallurgy combine to inform us that as soon as bronze foundries -existed glass must have been discovered. What, in fact, does glass -consist of? A silicate with a basis of soda and potash, combined with -some particles of the silicates of iron and copper, which coloured it -blue and green. As the scoria from bronze foundries is partly composed -of these silicates it is indubitable that a kind of glass was formed in -the earliest metal-works where this alloy was made. It constituted the -slag or dross of the metal works. - -Thus, the classic tradition which attributes the invention of glass to -certain Phoenician merchants, who produced a mass of glass by heating on -the sand the _natron_, that is _soda_, brought from Egypt, ascribe too -recent a date to the discovery of this substance. It should properly be -carried back to the bronze epoch. - -The working of amber was carried out to a very great extent by these -peoples. Ornaments and objects of this material have been discovered in -great abundance in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland. - -On the whole, if we compare the industrial skill of the bronze age with -that of the preceding age, we shall find that the later is vastly -superior to the earlier. - -The art of weaving seems to have been invented during the stone age. We -have positive and indisputable proofs that the people who lived during -this epoch were acquainted with the art of manufacturing cloth.[36] All -the objects which we have thus far considered do not, in fact, surpass -those which might be expected from any intelligent savage; but the art -of preparing and manufacturing textile fabrics marks out one of the -earliest acquisitions of man's civilisation. - -In the Museum of Saint-Germain we may both see and handle some specimens -of woven cloth which were met with in some of the lacustrine settlements -in Switzerland, and specially at Robenhausen and Wangen. This cloth, -which is represented in fig. 203, taken from a specimen in the Museum of -Saint-Germain, is formed of twists of interwoven flax; of rough -workmanship, it is true, but none the less remarkable, considering the -epoch in which it was manufactured. It is owing to the fact of their -having been charred and buried in the peat that these remains of -pre-historic fabrics have been kept in good preservation up to the -present time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 203.--Cloth of the Bronze Age, found in the -Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland.] - -Balls of thread and twine have also been found; likewise ends of cord, -and ropes made of bark, nets with large and moderately-sized meshes, -which we have previously represented, and lastly some fragments of a -basket of straw or osier. - -Ribs of animals, split through and tapering off at one end, have been -considered to be the teeth of the cards or combs which were used for -unravelling the flax. The whole comb was formed of several of these -bones joined firmly together with a band. - -[Illustration: Fig. 204.--The First Weaver.] - -There were also found in the Swiss lakes a large number of discs made of -baked earth perforated with a hole in their centre, of which we here -give a representation (fig. 205), taken from one of the numerous -specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain. These are ordinary -spindle-whorls. - -[Illustration: Fig. 205.--Spindle-whorls made of baked Clay, found in -the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland.] - -Also, terra cotta weights pierced with a hole through the centre were -intended to support the thread of flax in the weaving loom. The thread -passed through the hole and was stopped by a knot at its extremity. We -think that this interpretation of the use of these objects can hardly be -called in question. - -We also find in the lacustrine settlements woven fabrics, threads, -strings, combs used for carding the flax, and spindle-whorls; the -co-existence of all these objects proves that the invention of the art -of weaving may be fixed at this date. The loom of the weaver may, -therefore, be traced back to the most remote ages. - -Acting upon this idea we have given a representation of _weaving in -pre-historic times_. - -The weaving-loom is so simple a matter that the men of the bronze age -were enabled to produce it in nearly the same form as that in which it -exists in the present day for the manufacture of plain kinds of cloth in -various districts of the world where the art is still in a barbaric -condition. The loom being upright, not horizontal as with us, the terra -cotta weights just mentioned were used to keep the threads of the warp -stretched. This seems to be the only difference. But, as we again -repeat, the weaver's loom, on the whole, must have differed but very -slightly from that of the present day. Its productions bear testimony to -the fact. - -Metal weapons and implements were at first obtained by means of -exchange. But very soon the art of manufacturing bronze became prevalent -in Switzerland, and foundries were established there. No doubt can be -entertained on this point, as a mould for celts or hatchets has been -found at Morges and also a bar of tin at Estavayer. - -During this epoch the shape of the pottery became more advanced in -character, and ornamentation was the rule and not the exception. After -the indispensable comes the superfluous. Taste in ornamentation made its -appearance and soon developed itself in ceramic objects of an elegant -style. Articles of pottery now assumed more pleasing outlines, and were -ornamented with various designs. Progress in artistic feeling was -evidently manifested. - -The simplicity and monotony of ornamentation during this epoch is -especially remarkable. Art was then confined to the mere representation -of a certain number of lines and geometrical figures. They were similar -to those represented in fig. 206, and were applied to all kinds of -objects--weapons, vases, utensils and trinkets. None of them attempt any -delineation of nature; this idea does not seem to have entered into the -head of man during the bronze epoch. In this respect they were inferior -to their predecessors, the inhabitants of the caves of Périgord, the -contemporaries of the mammoth and the reindeer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 206.--Principal Designs for the ornamentation of -Pottery during the Bronze Epoch.] - -During the period we are now considering, commercial intercourse had -assumed an activity of a totally different character from that -manifested during the Stone Age. It became necessary to procure tin, -which was indispensable for the manufacture of bronze. As no tin ore -could be found in Switzerland, the inhabitants, doubtless, went to -Saxony in order to obtain it. The traffic must have been carried out by -means of barter, as is customary among all infant nations. - -Flint, which likewise did not exist in Switzerland, was necessarily -procured from the surrounding countries which were more fortunate in -this respect. No country was more favoured on this point than France; -commerce must, therefore, have existed between the two countries. - -At Concise, in Switzerland, some pieces of white coral were found, and -at Meilen, on the banks of the Lake of Zurich, some fragments of amber; -from this we may conclude that during the bronze epoch the inhabitants -of Switzerland traded with the inhabitants of the shores of the -Mediterranean and the Baltic. - -Among the other specimens of foreign productions, we must not omit to -mention graphite, which was used to surface pottery, amber beads, and -even a few glass trinkets suitable for female adornment. - -We will now pass on to the system of food adopted by man during the -bronze epoch. - -Researches made in various lacustrine settlements have furnished us with -very circumstantial information upon the system of food customary among -the earliest inhabitants of Switzerland. From them we learn that these -men did not live solely upon the products of fishing and hunting, but -that they possessed certain ideas of agriculture, and also devoted -themselves to the breeding of cattle. We shall enter into a few details -as to this eminently interesting aspect of their history, taking as our -guides Professors Heer and Rütimeyer, the first of whom has carefully -examined the vegetable remains, and the second the animal relics which -have been found in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland. - -At Meilen, Moosseedorf, and Wangen, some charred cereals have been -found, viz., barley and wheat. The latter was the most abundant, and, at -Wangen in particular, there were several bushels of it, either in ears -or in thrashed corn collected in large heaps. These grains are almost -the same shape and size as the wheat of the present time. Several ears -of six-rowed barley (_Hordeum hexastichon_) were found, which differ -from our common barley in having smaller grains arranged in six rows. De -Candolle is of opinion that this is the species which was cultivated by -the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans. - -This corn was preserved in large earthen vessels, as may be gathered -from the contents of some of them, still in an entire state. - -What preparation did the corn undergo in order to render it fit for -human food? On this subject we have tolerably exact data to go upon. - -The grain was bruised by hand, either between two stone discs or -mill-stones, or in a mortar by means of a round pestle. In almost all of -the lacustrine villages, some of these mill-stones made of granite or -sandstone have been met with, a few of which are as much as 2 feet in -diameter. M. Heer is of opinion that the grain was parched before being -pounded, and then placed in vessels and slightly soaked. In this state -it was fit for eating. - -At the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands by the Spaniards, it -was remarked that the natives prepared their corn in this manner; and in -the present day the inhabitants of the same regions still feed on -parched grain. - -Nevertheless, the earliest inhabitants of western Switzerland also made -real bread, or rather wheat-cakes, for leaven was not then known. -Charred fragments of these loaves have been found, the grain of which is -badly ground, thus affording us the opportunity of recognising the -species of corn of which they are composed. These fragments are flat, -and indicate that the whole cake was of a circular form. No doubt, after -being bruised and wetted, the grain was made into a sort of dough, which -was baked between two heated stones--a process we have previously -described as having been practised in the Stone Age. - -In order to cultivate cereals, it was, of course, necessary for the -ground to undergo some preliminary preparation. It was at least -necessary to break it up so as to mellow it, and to make furrows in -which to sow the seed. We are reduced to mere conjecture as to all the -details of these operations, for no agricultural implements have been -discovered in any of the settlements of man belonging to the bronze -epoch. Perhaps, as M. Heer suggests, they made use of the stem of a tree -with a projecting crooked branch, and adapted it so as to perform the -functions of the plough. - -Wild fruits and berries formed a considerable portion of the food of the -earliest lacustrine peoples; and, from certain indications which have -been brought to our notice, we have reason to believe that several -varieties of trees were the objects of their intelligent culture; in -short, that they were cultivated in orchards and gardens. The settlement -of Robenhausen on the Lake of Pfæffikon, has furnished us with the -most valuable information on this point. The lacustrine villages of -Wangen (Lake of Constance), and Concise (Lake of Neuchâtel) have also -been the scenes of curious discoveries. - -In all of these settlements a large number of charred apples have been -met with, cut in two, and sometimes four pieces, and evidently stored up -for the winter. These apples are no larger than walnuts, and in many of -the Swiss forests a species of apple still exists which appears to be -the same sort as those found in the lacustrine settlements. Pears have -been discovered only in the settlement of Wangen; they were cut up and -dried just like the apples. - -In the mud of the lakes, stones of the wild plum and the bird-cherry, or -Sainte-Lucie plum, were found; also the seeds of blackberries and -raspberries, the shells of beech-nuts and hazel-nuts, and several -species of the water-chestnut, which is now only to be met with at two -points of the Swiss Alps. - -We must also add that M. Gilliéron collected in the settlement of the -Isle of Saint-Pierre, oats, peas, lentils, and acorns, the latter -evidently having been intended for the food of swine. This discovery is -an important one, because oats had, hitherto, never been met with -anywhere. - -We shall complete this list of names by enumerating the other vegetables -which have been ascertained to have existed in the lake settlements, the -berries and seeds of some of which were used as food, &c. They are the -strawberry, the beech, the yew, the dog-rose, which is found in hedges, -the white and yellow water-lily, the rush, and the forest and the marsh -pine. There are no traces of the vine, rye, or hemp. - -Fig. 207, representing _the cultivation of gardens during the bronze -epoch_, is intended to sum up and delineate materially all the ideas we -have previously suggested concerning the agricultural and horticultural -knowledge possessed by man during the bronze epoch. A gardener is -tilling the ground with a horn pick-axe, a representation of which we -have previously given. Others are gathering fruit from trees which have -been planted and cultivated with a view of increasing the stock of food. - -[Illustration: Fig 207.--The Cultivation of Gardens during the Bronze -Epoch.] - -The sheep and oxen which may be noticed in this figure indicate the -domestication of these animals and of their having been reared as tame -cattle. The dog, the faithful companion of man, could scarcely have -been omitted in this assemblage of the auxiliary or domestic animals of -the bronze epoch. - -The bones which have been found in the lacustrine settlements of -Switzerland have enabled us to reconstruct with some degree of accuracy -the _fauna_ of this epoch, and to ascertain what species of animals were -then in subjugation to the yoke of man. - -Professor Rütimeyer is of opinion that the whole of these bones may be -referred to about seventy species of animals--ten of which are fish, -three reptiles, twenty birds, and the rest mammiferous animals. - -The remains most commonly met with are those of the stag and the ox, the -former wild, and the latter domestic. Next in order comes the pig, -remains of which are also very abundant; then follows the roe, the goat, -and the sheep, all of which are much less common. The remains of the fox -are met with almost as often as those of the latter species, and in -spite of the foetid smell of this animal it certainly was used for -food--a fact which is proved by its bones having been split open and -notched with knives. It is, however, very probable that this kind of -sustenance was turned to as a last resort only in cases when no other -more suitable food could be obtained. - -The long bones which have been found in lakes, like those met with in -caves and kitchen-middens, have been split in order to extract the -marrow. Just as in the kitchen-middens, the softer parts are always -gnawed, which shows us that the dog had been there. - -The repugnance which is felt by so many nations for the flesh of the -hare is a very curious fact, and shows us how difficult it is to root -out certain prejudices. This repugnance may be traced back as far as -pre-historic ages. Neither the diluvial beds, the caves, the -kitchen-middens, nor the lacustrine settlements have, in fact, furnished -us with any traces of the hare. Even in the present day, the Laplanders -and Greenlanders banish this animal from their alimental list. - -Among the Hottentots the women eat it but not the men. The Jews, too, -look upon it as unclean, and many years have not elapsed since the -Bretons would hardly endure to hear it spoken of. - -The antipathy which is thus shown by certain modern nations to the flesh -of the hare has, therefore, been handed down to them from the primitive -ages of mankind. - -The researches of Prof. Rütimeyer have led to the conclusion that -there existed in Switzerland during the Stone Age six species of -domestic animals--the ox, the pig, the goat, the sheep, the dog, and the -horse, the latter being very rare. There were, also, three specimens of -the bovine race; the two wild species of the ox genus, namely, the urus -and the bison, both very anciently known, had been increased by a third, -the domestic ox. - -The bones belonging to the Stone Age seem to point to the existence of a -larger proportion of wild beasts than of domestic animals; and this is -only what might be expected, for the art of domesticating animals was at -this epoch still in its infancy, but a commencement had been made, and -the practice continued to spread rapidly during the following age. - -In fact, agriculture and the breeding of cattle made considerable -progress during the bronze epoch. There were brought into use various -new breeds of cattle. The ox became a substitute for the bison; the -sheep was bred as well as the goat; and all these animals were devoted -to the purpose of providing food for man. - -[Illustration: Fig. 208.--A Feast during the Bronze Epoch.] - -We may here pause for a moment and contemplate, with just pride, this -marvellous resuscitation of an era long ago buried in the darkness of -bygone ages. - -By means of the investigations of science, we know that the primitive -inhabitants of Switzerland dwelt in wooden villages built on lakes; that -they were hunters, fishers, shepherds, and husbandmen; that they -cultivated wheat, barley, and oats; that they brought into a state of -servitude several species of animals, and devoted to the requirements of -agriculture the sheep and the goat; that they were acquainted with the -principal rudiments of the baker's art; that they stored up apples, -pears, and other fruits or berries for the winter, either for their own -use or that of their cattle; that they understood the art of weaving and -manufacturing flaxen fabrics; that they twisted up cord and mats of -bark; and, lastly, that as a material for the manufacture of their -implements and weapons they availed themselves of stone, bronze, -animals' bones, and stag's horn. - -It is equally certain that they kept up some kind of commercial -intercourse with the adjacent countries; this must have been the case, -if it were only for the purpose, as before mentioned, of procuring -flints, which are not found in Switzerland; also amber and white coral, -numerous relics of which have been met with in the settlements of Meilen -and Concise. - -Though there may still remain many an obscure page in the history of -mankind during the bronze epoch, it must, nevertheless, be confessed -that, as far as Switzerland is concerned, a bright light has of late -years been thrown on that branch of the subject which refers to man's -mode of existence in these regions during the bronze epoch. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[36] See 'The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland,' &c. p. 323, by Dr. F. -Keller. Translated and edited by Dr. J. E. Lee. London, 1866. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - The Art of War during the Bronze Epoch--Swords, Spears, and - Daggers--The Bronze Epoch in Scandinavia, in the British Isles, - France, Switzerland, and Italy--Did the Man of the Bronze Epoch - entertain any religious or superstitious Belief? - - -The Swiss lakes have furnished us with elements which afford us some -knowledge of the state of man's industrial skill during the bronze -epoch, and also enable us to form a due estimation of the manners and -customs of the people of these remote ages. But if we wish to become -acquainted with all the details which concern the art of war at the same -date, we must direct our attention to the north of Europe, that is to -say, to the Scandinavian peoples. - -Nevertheless, before we touch upon the important pre-historic relics -found in Denmark, we must say a few words concerning the traces of the -art of war which have been furnished by the investigations made in the -Swiss lakes. - -The warlike accoutrements of the bronze epoch are, like those of the -Stone Age, composed of spear-heads and arrow-heads, poniards and, in -addition, swords. Swords are, however, but rarely met with in the Swiss -lakes. The few which have been found are straight, short, double-edged, -and without hilts. In the Museum of Neuchâtel there is a sword (fig. -209) which was discovered forty years ago at Concise, at a time when no -one suspected the existence of any such thing as lacustrine settlements; -M. Desor has supplied a sketch of it in his 'Mémoire sur les -Palafittes.' This sword measures 16 inches in length, and has on its -surface four grooves which join together on the middle ridge of the -blade. The handle, which is terminated by a double volute, is remarkably -small, being only 3 inches in length. - -Daggers (fig. 210), too, like the swords, are but rarely found in the -Swiss lakes. From a specimen found in the lake of Bienne, we see that -the blade was fixed to the handle by means of a series of rivets -arranged in a single line. This dagger is, like the sword found at -Concise, ornamented with grooves symmetrically placed on each side of -the projecting ridge which divides the blade into two equal portions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 209.--Bronze Sword, in the Museum of Neuchâtel.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 210.--Bronze Dagger, found in one of the Swiss -Lakes.] - -In the collection of Colonel Schwab, there are two daggers of an -extraordinary character, having hilts enriched with silver. - -The spear-heads (fig. 211) are not inferior either to the swords or the -daggers in the skill and finish of their workmanship. They are formed of -a nearly oval blade, strongly consolidated in the middle by a rounded -ridge, which is prolonged so as to form a socket intended to hold a -thick wooden handle. The length of the daggers varies from 4 to 7 -inches. - -[Illustration: Fig. 211.--Bronze Spear-head, found in one of the Swiss -Lakes.] - -The arrow-heads (fig. 212) are, except in their material, identical with -those of the preceding age. They are triangular, with more or less -pointed barbs, and provided with a stem, by which they were fastened to -the stick. A few have, however, been found which are made with sockets. -They do not exceed 1 to 2 inches in length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 212.--Bronze Arrow-heads, found in a Lacustrine -Settlement of Switzerland.] - -We shall now pass on to the consideration of the relics found in the -tombs of Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland and France; which remains -will throw some light on the subject of the weapons and warlike -instruments belonging to the bronze epoch. - -The Scandinavian States (Denmark, Sweden, and Norway) are very rich in -instruments belonging to the bronze epoch. The workmanship of the swords -and other weapons of war is much more elaborate here than anywhere else, -on account of the tardy introduction of metal into these countries. -These weapons are nearly always adorned with somewhat complicated -designs, among which curved lines and spiral scrolls are the most -prevalent. - -The Danish swords of the bronze epoch (figs. 213, 214) are of quite a -peculiar shape. The hilt is firmly fixed to the blade by means of two or -more rivets. The daggers and poniards only differ from the swords in the -smallness of their dimensions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 213.--Scandinavian Sword.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 214.--Hilt of a Scandinavian Sword.] - -Some of the hatchets seem to have been copied from models belonging to -the Stone Age; these are probably the most ancient, and their -ornamentation is of a very scanty character. Others are winged or with -sockets, and a few have been found perforated with a transverse hole, -like those which have long been used by civilised nations. In this hole -a wooden handle was inserted, which was fixed by means of a strap, or -merely forcibly driven in. The rarely-found specimens of this kind are -sharply defined in shape and splendidly ornamented. - -Figs. 215 and 216, taken from Sir J. Lubbock's work, represent the -probable way in which handles were fitted to the various kinds of -hatchets used in the North. - -[Illustration: Fig. 215.--Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian -Hatchet.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Another mode of fixing the Handle to a -Scandinavian Hatchet.] - -The blades of the bronze knives found in Scandinavia are, like those of -Switzerland, somewhat curved in their shape, but the handles are much -more richly ornamented. Two of these knives have furnished us with the -only examples known of any representation of living beings during the -bronze epoch. We may notice that on one of these knives, which is -represented in fig. 217, taken from Sir J. Lubbock's work, a swan is -roughly carved at the offset of the blade. - -[Illustration: Fig. 217.--Danish Bronze Knife, of the Bronze Epoch.] - -In another knife, which is represented in fig. 218, taken from the same -work, the handle is formed by a human figure, executed with some degree -of fidelity. The figure is in a standing position, and holds in front of -it a nearly cylindrical-shaped vessel; the individual is represented as -wearing large earrings. There is every reason to believe that this -last-mentioned article belongs to the end of the bronze epoch, or else -to a transitionary epoch between this and the following, for the blade -is straight, like those of all the knives belonging to the iron age. - -[Illustration: Fig. 218.--Danish Bronze Knife of the Bronze Epoch.] - -The same thing may, doubtless, be said of several razors (fig. 219) with -straight blades, which appear even overloaded with ornaments; among -these embellishments is an attempt to represent a sort of vessel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Blade of a Danish Razor of the Bronze Epoch.] - -These designs evidently point to some very advanced period in the bronze -epoch; and perhaps these objects may belong to the commencement of the -iron age. - -What, we may ask, was the wearing apparel of man during the period we -are describing? - -A very important discovery, made in 1861, in a _tumulus_ in Jutland -(Denmark), has lately supplied us with the most accurate _data_ -respecting the way in which the inhabitants of the north of Europe were -clothed during the bronze epoch. In this _tumulus_ MM. Worsaae, and -Herbst found three wooden coffins, one of which was smaller than the two -others, and was no doubt that of a child. One of the two larger coffins -was minutely examined by these _savants_, and measured inside 7 feet in -length and 20 inches in width. It was closed up by means of a movable -lid. By an extremely rare chance the soft parts of the body had been to -some extent preserved, and had become converted into a black greasy -substance. The bones were decomposed, and had decayed into a kind of -blue powder. The brain had preserved its normal conformation. They found -it at one end of the coffin (where the head had lain); it was still -covered with a woollen cap, about 6 inches high, to which several black -hairs were adhering. - -Several woollen garments, in which the body had been buried, were also -found in different parts of the coffin. We add a description of these -garments. - -There was in the first place a coarse cloak (fig. 220) which appeared -shaggy in the inside, and was scalloped out round the neck. This cloak -was 3 feet 4 inches long, and wide in proportion. Next there were two -shawls nearly square in shape (fig. 221), ornamented with a long fringe, -and measuring 4-1/2 feet in length, and 3-1/2 feet in width. Afterwards -came a shirt (fig. 222), also scalloped out round the neck, and drawn in -at the waist by means of a long narrow band. Lastly, at the feet of the -body, two pieces of woollen material were found, which were 14 inches -long, by 4 inches wide, and bore the appearance of having been the -remains of gaiters. Close to the latter were also found vestiges of -leather, evidently belonging to feet-coverings of some kind. - -[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, found in -1861, in a Tomb In Denmark.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Woollen Shawl found in the same Tomb.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Woollen Shirt, taken from the same Tomb.] - -The whole body had been wrapped up in the skin of an ox. - -The coffin also contained a box, tied up with strips of osier or bark, -and in this box was a smaller one, in which were found two woven woollen -caps (fig. 223, 224), a comb (fig. 225), and a bronze razor. - -[Illustration: Fig. 223.--First Woollen Cap found in the same Tomb.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 224.--Second Woollen Cap found in the same Tomb.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Bronze Comb found in the same Tomb.] - -We must not forget to mention a bronze sword, placed on the left side of -the body, in a wooden sheath; this sword measured about 26 inches in -length. - -There is no doubt that all these relics were those of a warrior of the -bronze epoch; there is the less reason to doubt this, owing to the fact, -that the objects taken from the two other coffins most certainly -belonged to that period. These were a sword, a knife, a bodkin, an awl, -a pair of tweezers, a double button, and a small bronze bracelet; also a -double tin button, a ball of amber and a flint spear-head. - -[Illustration: Fig. 226.--Warriors during the Bronze Epoch.] - -The shape of the swords and knives shows that this burial-place in -Jutland must be referred to the latter part of the bronze epoch--to a -time, perhaps, when iron was first used. - -Following out the _data_ afforded by these records, and all the -discoveries which have been made in other tombs, we have given in fig. -226, a representation of _warriors of the bronze epoch_. - -The accoutrements of the horseman of pre-historic ages are composed of a -bronze sword, like those found in the tombs in Denmark, and a bronze -hatchet and sword-belt. His horse is decked with round bronze discs, -which, in after times, formed among the Romans the chief ornament of -this faithful and intrepid auxiliary of man in all his combats. The -horseman's head is bare; for no helmet or metallic head-covering has -ever, at least, to our knowledge, been discovered in the tombs of the -bronze epoch. The spear and bronze hatchet are the weapons of the -foot-soldiers. - -Next to the Scandinavian regions, Great Britain and Ireland occupy an -important place in the history of the civilisation of the bronze epoch. -The same type of implements are found in these countries as in Denmark -and Switzerland. - -Hatchet-moulds (fig. 227) are also found there--a circumstance which -proves that the founder's art was known and practised in these -countries. The Dublin Museum contains a beautiful collection of various -objects belonging to the bronze epoch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 227.--Bronze Hatchet-mould found in Ireland.] - -Some of the departments of France have also furnished objects belonging -to the same period; but there is nothing peculiar among them which -deserves mention. - -Did any kind of religious worship exist among the men of the bronze -epoch? Nothing would be more interesting than any discovery bearing on -this point; but up to the present time no vestiges of anything in the -shape of an idol have been found, nor anything whatever which authorizes -us unhesitatingly to answer this question in the affirmative. The only -thing which might prove the existence of any religious feeling, is the -discovery, in various lacustrine settlements, of a certain number of -crescent-shaped objects, most of them made of very coarse baked earth -and some of stone. - -The dimensions of these crescents vary considerably; there are some -which measure as much as 16 inches from one point to the other. They are -ornamented with perfectly primitive designs, as shown in fig. 228, drawn -at the Museum of Saint-Germain from one of the numerous specimens of -this class of objects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 228.--Stone Crescent found in one of the Swiss -Lakes.] - -Several archæologists consider these crescents to have been religious -emblems or talismans which were suspended either outside or inside the -habitations. Dr. Keller is of opinion that they bear some relation to -the worship of the moon--an hypothesis which is not at all an impossible -one; for all nations who have not attained to a certain degree of moral -and intellectual culture adore the heavenly bodies as the sources of -light and heat. - -M. Carl Vogt, in considering the crescents which have been discovered in -such large quantities in the lacustrine habitations, cannot admit that -they indicate that any religious belief existed among these ancient -nations. He attributes to these objects a very different kind of use, -and, as we shall presently show, rather an odd one. - -In the lectures on _pre-historic man_ which were delivered by Prof. Carl -Vogt at Antwerp, in 1868, and have been reported by the Belgian -journals,[37] when speaking on the subject of the crescents belonging to -the bronze epoch, he expresses himself as follows:-- - -"My opinion is that these crescents were used as resting-places for the -head during the night. Among many savage tribes we find the attention -paid to the dressing of the hair carried to a high pitch, especially -among the men; it was not until a later period that woman also devoted -her cares to the culture of her _coiffure_. Now this care is, by many -nations, carried out to a really curious extent. They inflict the most -severe tortures on themselves in order to satisfy their vanity. Everyone -has seen, in the 'Magasin Pittoresque' and other illustrated journals, -the strange head-dresses of the Abyssinian soldiers. They really seem to -form a kind of fleece, and it may be noticed that each soldier carries -in this hairy construction a large pin. - -"Well, all this tends to explain the use of these crescents. In -Abyssinia, as soon as a young girl is married it becomes her duty to -devote herself to her husband's head of hair. This head of hair is made -to assume a certain shape, which it has to retain during his whole -lifetime. The labour which this process necessitates lasts for three -years. Each hair is twisted round a stem of straw, and remains so until -the straw perishes. The man's head is thus covered with a whole system -of spirals, the top of which is a foot from the surface of his head. -During the whole remainder of his life this _coiffure_ must never be -again disturbed. When asleep, the Abyssinian rests the nape of his neck -on a triangle which he carries about everywhere with him. He has also a -long pin, as it would be impossible for him to reach the skin of his -head with the end of his finger. - -"The same custom exists among the New Zealanders, who also have an -apparatus upon which they rest their necks, in order, when asleep, to -save their _coiffures_. They wear an enormous chignon, two feet high -and ornamented with ribbons, of which they are very proud. The only -difference between this chignon and certain others which I need not -mention is, that the former cannot be removed at will. This object, -thus adorned, rests, during the sleep of its owner, on a sort of -framework. - -"The Chinese and Japanese sleep, in the same way, on a bedstead bevelled -off at the head; and in the Egyptian hieroglyphical drawings we find -instruments evidently meant for the same use. - -"It is very probable that during the bronze epoch great attention was -devoted to the hair, and this is the more probable as in every tomb -belonging to this period we find pins from 2 feet to 2-1/2 feet in -length, furnished with large knobs, and of the same shape as the pins -used by the Abyssinian soldiers; and also, because during the Stone Age, -as well as the Bronze Age, a kind of comb is found which is similar to -that which is now used by the New Zealanders to scratch, rather than to -comb, their heads. The heads of the pins are often very richly -ornamented; they are of the most varied shapes, and are extremely common -both in the tombs and also in the lacustrine dwellings. - -"We have the less right to be astonished at our ancestors sleeping with -their heads resting on such a machine as we have just described, -knowing, as we do, that the hussars of Frederick the Great used to spend -the whole night in arranging their _coiffures_!" - -Thus, while Dr. Keller and many other archæologists ascribe the -_crescents_ found in the Swiss lakes to some kind of religious worship, -M. Vogt, whose idea is of a much more prosaic character, does not -attribute them to any other worship but that of _self_ as represented by -the hair! The reader can take his choice between these two explanations. -We shall only remark, in corroboration of Dr. Keller's opinion, that -certain Gallic tribes used for a religious symbol this very crescent -which M. Vogt would make out to be a pillow--a stone pillow which, as it -seems to us, must have been very hard, even for primitive man. - -Various objects found in the dwellings of man belonging to the bronze -epoch appear to have been religious symbols. Such, for instance, are the -designs so often met with on swords, vases, &c. These drawings never -represent objects in nature; they seem rather to be cabalistic signs or -talismans. Most of them bear some relation to a circle; sometimes they -are single circles, and sometimes combinations of circles. Many authors -have had the idea of attributing them to the worship of the sun. - -Another sign was still more often used, and it was known even as early -as the Stone Age--we speak of the cross. It is one of the most ancient -symbols that ever existed. M. G. de Mortillet, in a work entitled 'La -Croix avant le Christianisme,' has endeavoured to establish the fact, -that the cross has always been the symbol of a sect which contended -against fetishism. This much is at least certain, that it is one of the -most ancient symbolical signs; for it is found depicted on objects -belonging to the Stone Age, and on some of the earliest relics of the -Bronze Age. At the time of the Etruscans the cross was generally -prevalent as a sign. But at a later period Christianity exclusively -monopolized this religious symbol. - -A third figure is sometimes found on various objects belonging to the -bronze epoch; this figure is the triangle. - -It is, on the whole, very probable that all these signs which are not -connected with any known object, bear some relation to certain religious -or superstitious ideas entertained by the men of the bronze epoch; and, -as a consequence of this, that their hearts must have been inspired with -some degree of religious feeling. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[37] _Indépendance Belge_, November and December, 1868. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - - Mode of Interment and Burial-places of the Bronze Epoch-- - Characteristics of the Human Race during the same Period. - - -The question naturally arises--what was the mode of interment, and what -was the nature of the burial-places employed by man during the bronze -epoch? - -In the early part of this period the dead were still buried in those -sepulchral chambers which are now called by the name of _dolmens_; -Nilsson and Lubbock have drawn somewhat confused and arbitrary -distinctions in discussing these burial-places; but it may be positively -asserted that towards the conclusion of this period the practice of -burning dead bodies was commenced. - -In a work, published in 1869, and entitled 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition -Universelle,' being a sort of catalogue of the objects which were -exhibited in the galleries devoted to the _History of Labour_, in the -Exhibition in the Champ de Mars, in 1867, we find several pages which we -shall quote, as they seem to recapitulate pretty clearly the ideas which -are now current among scientific men concerning the burial-places and -funeral customs of the bronze epoch:-- - -"The study which, during the last few years, has been devoted by M. -Worsaae to the tombs belonging to the bronze epoch, has thrown much -light," says M. Valdemar Schmidt, "on the commencement of the bronze age -in Denmark. It appears that at the first beginning of the bronze epoch -the dead were buried in a manner similar to that practised during the -stone age, that is to say, the bodies of the defunct were deposited in -sepulchral chambers made of stone, and covered by _tumuli_; the only -difference is, these chambers are rather small, and generally contain -but one skeleton. But to make up for this, several of these small -sepulchral chambers, or rather stone coffins, are sometimes found in the -same _tumulus_. - -"These chambers present, however, in some respects, great similarities -with those of the Stone Age; thus, beds of flint which have been -subjected to the action of fire are often found spread over the ground, -and on these beds skeletons are met with which appear to have been -placed in a contracted position before they were buried, exactly -following the practice of the Stone Age. - -"After this class of tombs, we have another, in which the sepulchral -chamber, though always made of stone, is not covered with a stone slab -but with a _wooden roof_. Elsewhere, skeletons have been found along -with bronze weapons deposited in a sort of _wooden framework_, which has -in many cases entirely perished except a few minute fragments. These -cases were covered with small stones, which now seem to lie immediately -upon the skeleton. - -"Lastly, in all the Danish provinces large oak coffins are found, formed -of hollowed-out trunks of trees; these also contain human bodies, which -seem to have been buried in woollen garments. - -"With regard to the funeral rites observed, these tombs do not appear to -have differed much. The bodies were deposited in them with their -implements, weapons, and utensils, either of bronze or stone; but, in -addition, at the bottom of the tomb, animal skins, generally those of -oxen, were often spread. - -"Next, a new period succeeded, when the bodies were burned, and the -remains collected together. All the ancient customs were not, however, -at once given up. Thus, as the dead were formerly buried in woollen -garments, the _débris_ of the bones were now wrapped in pieces of cloaks -made of the same material. Subsequently, however, this custom also -disappeared, and the ashes and remains of bones were simply collected -together in urns. This custom was observed until the bronze epoch, and -characterises, so to speak, its second and last period--which was, -however, the longest of that age. - -"There were, then, in short, two distinct epochs in the bronze age; -firstly, that _in which the dead were quite simply interred_, either in -small sepulchral chambers or wooden coffins, and, secondly, that _in -which the bodies of the dead were incinerated_. - -"One of the most remarkable 'finds,' as regards the first period of the -bronze epoch, was made in 1861, in the two mounds known by the names of -Treenhöi and Kengehöi, and situated near Kongeaa, in Jutland. In each of -these _tumuli_ two people had been buried, both having a double coffin, -made of magnificent trunks of oak-trees. The skeletons had been almost -entirely destroyed by the damp which, on the contrary, had preserved the -garments. These individuals seem to have been dressed almost like the -Scotch; at least they must have worn a sort of woollen petticoat, and -bands by way of trousers, very like those worn by the warriors depicted -in the Carlovingian miniatures, and, in addition, a cloak, a cap, and -also perhaps a shawl. With these garments were found some bronze swords -in wooden sheaths; also some bronze knives, a comb, some boxes, cups, -small wooden coffers, a tin ball, and, lastly, in one of the coffins, a -small flint arrow-head. A fragment of the cloak was to be seen in the -Palace of the Champ de Mars (No. 596). - -"Another 'find' made a few miles from this _tumulus_, at Höimp, in North -Schleswig, has also brought to light skeletons in oak coffins together -with bronze implements. - -"Discoveries of no less interest have been made in Zealand. Thus, in -1845, in a _tumulus_ at Höidegaard, near Copenhagen, a tomb belonging to -the first period of the bronze epoch was found; it was searched in the -presence of some of the principal Danish archæologists. The tomb was -placed at a distance of more than 10 feet below the summit of the -_tumulus_, and was built of stones; it was more than 6 feet in length, -and its width on the eastern side was about 2 feet, and on the western -side 19 inches. The bottom was lined with a layer of small flint stones, -on which was found, in the first place, a skin, doubtless that of an ox, -and above it, besides a piece of tissue containing remains of human -bones, a bronze sword with a wooden sheath, covered with leather, and in -a perfect state of preservation; lastly, a box containing the following -articles:--1st, a fragment of an amber bead; 2nd, a piece of reddish -stone; 3rd, a small shell, which can be none other than the _Conus -mediterraneus_; it is perforated so as to be worn as a pendant for the -neck; 4th, a fragment of a flint point, doubtless an amulet; 5th, the -tail of a serpent (_Coluber lævis_); 6th, a small cube of pine or -fir-wood, and 7th, a bronze knife with a convex blade and ornamented -handle. - -"According to the investigations of various savants, these bones belong -to a man, who, to judge from the objects placed by his side in his tomb, -must have been some distinguished personage, and perhaps combined the -functions of a warrior and a sorcerer. The cube of pine-wood leads us -to conjecture that that tree had not then completely disappeared, and -from this fact we may infer that the period at which the sorcerer in -question lived was very remote. It is, however, possible that this piece -of pine-wood, as well as the shell, were introduced from some other -country. The existence of the _Conus mediterraneus_ seems to establish -the fact that Denmark had already formed some kind of connection with -the Mediterranean. - -"_The second period of the bronze epoch_ is characterised by the custom -of the cremation of the dead, which generally took place in the -following way: the body of the defunct was usually placed, together with -his weapons and ornaments, on the funeral pile, which was built on the -exact spot which was destined to form the centre of the _tumulus_; the -fire was then lighted, and, after the body was consumed, the remains of -the bones were collected together in an urn. The rubbish that resulted -was left on the spot, surrounded with stones, and covered with earth -till the _tumulus_ was complete. The urn which contained the ashes was -then placed in another part of the _tumulus_. This course of procedure -was not the only one employed; in some cases the weapons and other -articles of adornment were not placed upon the funeral-pile, but were -afterwards brought and placed round the urn. - -"The number of tombs of the bronze epoch which have been discovered in -Denmark is very considerable. There are thousands of _tumuli_, and many -of them contain a large number of funeral urns. A great many of these -_tumuli_ have been searched at various times and have produced a number -of different bronze articles. The Museum of Copenhagen possesses no less -than 600 swords dating back to the bronze epoch."[38] - -Twenty years ago, however, a very curious discovery was made at Lübeck -(Pomerania), for it exhibited, so to speak, in the same tomb, the three -modes of interment belonging to the pre-historic epochs of the stone, -bronze, and iron ages. - -At Waldhausen, near Lübeck, a _tumulus_ was found, which was 13 feet 9 -inches in height. This _tumulus_ was pulled down in horizontal layers, -and the following details were successively brought to light. - -At the top was a very ancient burial-place, evidently belonging to the -iron age; for the skeleton it contained was accompanied by an object -made of rusty iron and several earthenware articles. It was buried in -loose earth. - -Underneath this, and half way down the _tumulus_, there were some small -enclosures composed of uncemented walls, each one containing a -sepulchral urn filled with calcined bones, as well as necklaces, -hair-pins, and a bronze knife. - -Lastly, at the base of the _tumulus_, there was a tomb belonging to the -Stone Age. It was formed of large rough blocks of stone, and contained, -in addition to the bones, some coarse specimens of pottery, with flint -hatchets. - -It is evident that the first inhabitants of the country began by -building a tomb on the bare ground, according to the customs of the age, -and then covered it up with earth. During the bronze epoch another -burial-place was made on this foundation, and a fresh heap of earth -doubled the height of the mound. Lastly, during the iron age, a dead -body was buried in a grave hollowed out on the top of the same mound. -Here, then, we have a clear delineation of the three different modes of -interment belonging to the three pre-historic periods. - -In short, during the bronze epoch, the dead were generally buried in -sepulchral chambers, and sometimes, exceptionally, they were burned. The -custom of funeral feasts still remained in full force. The pious -practice of placing by the side of the dead body the instruments or -weapons which the individual had been fond of during his lifetime, was -likewise still kept up; and it is, moreover, owing to this circumstance -that archæological science is now enabled to collect numerous vestiges -of the ancient customs of these remote ages. - -But we must call attention to the fact that, at the end of and after -this epoch, the hatchets and instruments which were placed in the tombs -were often of much smaller dimensions than those employed for every-day -use. They were small and delicately-made hatchets, intended as _votive_ -offerings. Some might, perhaps, conclude from this that the heirs, -animated by a feeling of economy, had contented themselves with -depositing very diminutive offerings in the tombs of the dead. The human -race was already becoming degenerate, since it curtailed its homage and -its offerings to the dead! - -In order to bring to a conclusion all the details which concern the -bronze epoch, the question will naturally arise, what was the human type -at this epoch, and did it differ from that of the preceding age? -Unfortunately, the positive information which is required for the -elucidation of this question is entirely wanting; this deficiency is -owing to the extreme rarity of human bones, both in the lacustrine -settlements of Switzerland, and also in the tombs belonging to that -epoch which have been searched in different European countries. The -whole of the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland have furnished no -more than some seven skeletons, one of which was found at Meilen, two at -Nidau, one at Sutz, one in the settlement of Bienne, and two at -Auvernier. The first, that is the skeleton found at Meilen, near lake -Zurich, is the only one which belongs to the Stone Age; the six others -are all of the Bronze or Iron Ages. - -The skeleton found at Meilen is that of a child; the skull, which is in -a tolerable state of preservation, although incomplete, occupies, -according to the observations of MM. His and Rütimeyer, a middle place -between the long and short heads. - -Figs. 229 and 230, representing this skull, are taken from M. Desor's -work, entitled 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.' From the mere fact that it -is a child's skull, it is almost impossible to make any use of it in -ascertaining the characteristic features of the race to which it -belongs; for these features are not sufficiently marked at such an early -age. The skull is of a very elongated shape, that is to say, it belongs -to the _dolichocephalous_ type. The upper part of the skull is -flattened, and it has an enormous occipital development; but, on the -other hand, there is scarcely any forehead. If these special features -might be generally applied, they would not prove much in favour of the -intellectual capacity of the Helvetic nation, or of its superiority over -the races of anterior ages; it represents, in fact, a very low type of -conformation, which, however, harmonises perfectly with the rough -manners and cruel practices of the Gallic tribes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 229.--Skull found at Meilen, front view.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Skull found at Meilen, profile view.] - -At the time of the discovery, this skull was accompanied by various -bones belonging to the body and limbs, which show by their extraordinary -bulk that their owners were men of very large size. We have already -remarked upon the large size of the men existing in the Stone Age, that -is to say, at the time of the first appearance of mankind. Thus, the -human type had changed but little since its first appearance on the -globe. - -The settlement of Auvernier, in the lake of Neuchâtel has, as we have -before said, contributed two skulls. One belonged to a child about eight -years of age, and the other to an adult. The child's skull differs very -slightly from the one found at Meilen. It is small, elongated, and has a -low and narrow forehead. That of the adult presents the same -characteristics, and, in addition, an extraordinary development of the -occiput, a feature which is not observable in the former, probably, on -account of the youth of the subject. These two skulls seem, therefore, -to show that the population of the lacustrine settlements had not at all -changed at the beginning of the bronze epoch. - -A discovery made in the neighbourhood of Sion has confirmed these first -ideas. At this spot, in tombs of rough stone, there were found some -bodies bent into a contracted position, and accompanied by certain -bronze objects. According to MM. His and Carl Vogt, the skulls found at -Sion agree tolerably well with those discovered at Meilen and Auvernier; -and, in addition to this, the same shape is perpetuated down to our own -days in German Switzerland, where it strongly predominates, and -constitutes what is called the Helvetic type. - -The _data_ which have been collected up to the present time are not -sufficient to enable us to make any positive assertion respecting the -development of the intelligence of man during the bronze epoch. The few -skulls which have been recovered are always in an incomplete state, and -do not justify us in forming any exact opinion on this matter. But when -we are considering the degree of intelligence possessed by our ancestors -at this period of man's development, there are things which will -enlighten us far better than any fragments of bones or any remains of -skeletons; these are the works which have been executed by their hands. -The fine arts had already begun to throw out promising germs, industrial -skill had become an established fact, agriculture was in full practice, -and bronze was made to adapt itself to all the caprices and all the -boldest ideas of the imagination. What more can be necessary to prove -that man, at this epoch, was already comparatively far advanced in -intellectual culture? - -In concluding our account of the bronze epoch, the question naturally -arises whether it is possible to form any estimate of the exact space of -time embraced by this period of man's history. We shall endeavour here -to give, not the solution of the problem, but merely an idea of the way -in which scientific men have entered on the question. - -Morlot, the Swiss archæologist and naturalist, who has written a great -deal upon the subject of the lacustrine settlements, was the first to -endeavour to estimate the duration of the Stone Age, as well as that of -the Bronze Epoch, and the following is the way in which he set about it. - -In the neighbourhood of Villeneuve there is a cone or hillock formed of -gravel and _alluvium_, slowly deposited there by the stream of the -Tinière which falls at this spot into the lake of Geneva. This cone was -cut in two, to lay down the railway which runs along the side of the -lake. Its interior structure was thus laid bare, and appeared to be -perfectly regular, a proof that it had been gradually formed during a -long course of ages. There were three layers of vegetable earth placed -at different depths between the deposits of _alluvium_, each of which -double layers had in its turn formed the outer surface of the cone. - -The first layer was found at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches from the top, -and was 4 to 6 inches thick. In it were found some relics of the Roman -epoch. - -The second, situated 5 feet 3 inches lower, measured 6 inches in depth, -and was recognised as belonging to the bronze age; it contained a pair -of bronze pincers and some fragments of unglazed earthenware. - -The lower bed lay at a depth of 18 feet from the top, and varied in -thickness from 6 to 7 inches. It contained some rough earthenware, -charcoal, and animal bones, all pointing to the Stone Age, but to the -latest times of that period. - -After having carefully examined these different beds and ascertained the -regular structure of the cone, Morlot fancied that he could calculate -approximately the age of each of them. He took for his base of -operations two historical dates; that of the entrance of the Romans into -Helvetia, fifty-eight years before Christ, and that of their decisive -expulsion towards the end of the fifth century of the Christian era. By -comparing these two dates, he came to the conclusion that the Roman -layer was at the most eighteen and at the least thirteen centuries old. -Then remarking that since that epoch the cone had increased 3 feet 6 -inches, and always going upon the hypothesis that the increase was the -same as in subsequent ages, he came to the conclusion that the bed -corresponding with the bronze epoch was at least 2900 and at the most -4200 years old; and that the layer belonging to the Stone Age, forming -the entire remainder of the cone, was from 4700 to 10,000 years old. - -Another calculation, the conclusions of which agree tolerably well with -these, was made by M. Gilliéron, professor at the college of Neuveville. -We have already said that the remains of a pile-work belonging to the -Stone Age was discovered near the bridge of Thièle, between the lakes of -Bienne and Neuchâtel. It is evident that the valley, the narrowest part -of which was occupied by the lacustrine settlement, was formerly almost -entirely under water, for below this point it suddenly widens out and -retains these proportions as far as the lake of Bienne. The lake must, -therefore, have retired slowly and regularly, as may be ascertained from -an examination of the mud deposited by it. If, therefore, we know its -annual coefficient of retreat, that is to say, how much it retired every -year, we should be able to estimate with a sufficient degree of -approximation the age of the settlement of the bridge of Thièle. - -Now there is, not far from the lake, at about 1230 feet from the present -shore, an old abbey, that of Saint-Jean, which is known to have been -built about the year 1100. A document of that time mentions that the -cloister had the right of fishing in a certain part of the lake; and -there is some likelihood that it was built on the edge of the lake; a -supposition which naturally presents itself to the mind. The lake, -then, must have retired 1230 feet in 750 years. This granted, M. -Gilliéron easily calculated the time which would be taken for a retreat -of 11,072 feet, this number representing the distance from the present -shore to the entrance of the defile which contains the settlement of the -bridge of Thièle. He found by this means that the settlement is at least -6750 years old, a figure which confirms those of Morlot. - -The preceding calculations assign to the Stone Age in Switzerland an -antiquity of 6000 to 7000 years before the Christian era, and to the -bronze epoch an antiquity of 4000 years before the same era. There is -still much uncertainty in the figures thus given to satisfy public -curiosity; but there is at least one fact which is altogether -unquestionable--that these calculations have dealt a fatal blow to -recognised chronology. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[38] 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle de 1867, by Valdemar -Schmidt,' vol. i. pp. 60-64. Paris, 1868. - - - - -II. - - -THE IRON EPOCH. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - Essential Characteristics of the Iron Epoch--Preparation of Iron in - Pre-historic Times--Discovery of Silver and Lead--Earthenware made - on the Potter's Wheel--Invention of Coined Money. - - -Without metals, as we have said in one of the preceding chapters, man -must have remained for ever in a state of barbarism. To this we must -add, that the civilisation of man has made progress just in proportion -to the degree of perfection he has arrived at in the working of the -metals and alloys which he has had at his disposal. The knowledge and -use of bronze communicated a strong impulse to nascent civilisation, and -was the means of founding the first human communities. But bronze is far -from possessing all the qualities which ought to belong to metals when -applied to various industrial purposes. This alloy is neither hard nor -elastic enough to make good tools; and, in addition to this, it is -composed of metals which in a natural state are very scarce. Man -requires a metal which is cheap, hard, easy to work, and adapted to all -the requirements which are exacted by industrial skill, which is so -manifold in its works and wants. - -A metal of this sort was at length discovered, and a new era opened for -the future of men. They learned how to extract from its ore iron--the -true king of metals, as it may well be called--on account of its -inestimable qualities. From the day when iron was first placed at man's -disposal civilisation began to make its longest strides, and as the -working of this metal improved, so the dominion of man--his faculties -and his intellectual activity--likewise enlarged in the same proportion. - -It is, therefore, with good reason that the name of _Iron Epoch_ has -been given to the latest period of the development of primitive man, -and it is not surprising that the last portion of the iron epoch formed -the commencement of historical times. After this period, in fact, man -ceased to live in that half-savage state, the most striking features of -which we have endeavoured to portray. - -As the use of iron essentially characterises this epoch in the history -of mankind, we ought to give an account of the processes of manufacture -employed by the primitive metallurgists, that is to say, we should -inquire how they proceeded at this epoch to extract iron from its native -ore. - -The art of metallurgy had made great progress during the bronze epoch. -There were at that time considerable workshops for the preparation of -bronze, and small foundries for melting and casting this alloy. When -once formed into weapons, instruments, and tools, bronze objects were -fashioned by artisans of various professions. The moulder's art had -already attained to a high degree of perfection, a fact which is proved -by the gigantic bronze objects which we have already mentioned, as well -as the castings, so many of which have been represented in the preceding -pages. The phenomenon of _tempering_ was well known, that is the -principal modifications which are experienced by bronze in its cooling, -whether slow or sudden. It was well known how to vary the proportions of -the tin and copper so as to obtain bronze of different degrees of -hardness. All the means of soldering were also familiarly known. -Damascening was introduced in order to diversify the appearance of -wrought metallic objects. The cutting qualities of instruments were -increased by forging them and consolidating them by hammering. They had -even gone so far as to discover the utility of the addition of certain -mineral salts in the founder's crucible in order to facilitate the -fusion of the bronze. - -Thus at the end of the bronze epoch the knowledge of metals had attained -to a comparatively considerable development. Hence we may conclude that -the substitution of iron for bronze took place without any great -difficulty. Owing to the natural progress and successive improvements -made in metallurgic art, the blacksmith made his appearance on the scene -and took the place of the bronze-moulder. - -What, however, was the process which enabled our earliest metallurgists -to extract iron from its native ore? - -Native iron, that is metallic iron in a natural state, is eminently -rare; except in aërolites it is scarcely ever found. According to -Pallas, the Russian naturalist, certain Siberian tribes have succeeded, -with a great amount of labour, in obtaining from the aërolites which -have been met with in their country small quantities of iron, which they -have made into knives. The same practice existed among the Laplanders. -Lastly, we are told by Amerigo Vespucci that in the fifteenth century -the Indians at the mouth of the La Plata river were in the habit of -making arrow-heads and other instruments with iron extracted from -aërolites.[39] - -But, as we hardly need observe, stones of this kind do not often drop -down from the skies, and their employment is of too accidental a -character ever to have suggested to men the right mode of the extraction -of iron. It is, therefore, almost certain that the first iron used was -extracted from its ore just like copper and tin, that is, by the -reduction of its oxide under the influence of heat and charcoal. In -opposition to this explanation, some bring forward as an objection the -prodigiously high temperature which is required for the fusion of iron, -or, in fact, the almost impossibility of melting iron in the primitive -furnaces. But the fusion of iron was in no way necessary for the -extraction of this metal; and if it had been requisite to procure liquid -iron, primitive industrial skill would never have succeeded in doing it. -All that was necessary was so to reduce the oxide of iron as to obtain -the metal in a spongy state without any fusion. The hammering of this -spongy mass when in a red-hot state soon converted it into a real bar of -iron. - -If we cast a glance on the metallurgic industry of some of the -semi-barbarous nations of ancient times, we shall find, as regards the -extraction of iron, a process in use among them which will fully justify -the idea we have formed of the way in which iron must have been obtained -in primitive times. Gmelin, the naturalist, during his travels in -Tartary, was a witness of the elementary process which was employed by -these northern tribes in procuring iron. There, every one prepares his -own iron just as every household might make its own bread. The furnace -for the extraction of iron is placed in the kitchen, and is nothing but -a mere cavity, 9 inches cube, which is filled up with iron-ore; the -furnace is surmounted by an earthen chimney, and there is a door in -front of the furnace for introducing the ore, this door being kept -closed during the smelting process. In an orifice at the side the nozzle -of a pair of bellows is inserted, which are blown by one man whilst -another introduces the ore and charcoal in successive layers. The -furnace never holds more than 3-1/2 lbs. of ore for each operation. When -this quantity has been placed in the furnace, in small pieces one after -the other, all that is done is keeping up the action of the bellows for -some minutes. Lastly, the door of the furnace is opened, and the ashes -and other products of combustion having been drawn out, a small mass of -spongy iron is found, which proceeds from the reduction of the oxide of -iron by means of the charcoal, without the metal being in a state of -fusion, properly so called. This small lump of iron was cleaned with a -piece of wood, and was put on one side to be subsequently welded to -others, and hammered several times when in a red-hot state; and by means -of several forgings the whole mass was converted into a single bar. - -This same process for the extraction of iron from its natural oxide, -without fusion, is practised by the negroes of Fouta-Djallon, in -Senegal. - -After having become acquainted with the elementary process which is -practised by the semi-barbarous tribes of the present day, we shall find -but little difficulty in understanding all that Morlot, the Swiss -naturalist, has said as to the iron-furnaces of pre-historic man, and -shall probably agree in his opinions on the subject. Morlot, in his -'Mémoires sur l'Archéologie de la Suisse,' has described the vestiges of -the pre-historic furnaces intended for the preparation of iron, which -were found by him in Carinthia (Austria). - -According to M. Morlot, the plan adopted for extracting iron from its -oxide in pre-historic times was as follows:--On the side of a slope -exposed to the wind, a hole was hollowed out. The bottom of this hole -was filled up with a heap of wood, on which was placed a layer of ore. -This layer of ore was covered by a second heap of wood; then, taking -advantage of a strong breeze rising, which had to perform the functions -of the bellows, the lowest pile of wood was kindled at its base. The -wood by its combustion was converted into charcoal, and this charcoal, -under the influence of heat, soon reduced the iron oxide to a metallic -state. When the combustion had come to an end, a few pieces of iron were -found among the ashes. - -By increasing the size of the apparatus used, far more considerable -results were of course obtained. In Dalecarlia (Sweden), M. Morlot found -smelting-houses, so to speak, in which the original hole, of which we -have just been speaking, is surrounded with stones so as to form a sort -of circular receptacle. In this rough stone crucible layers of charcoal -and iron-ore were placed in succession. After having burnt for some -hours, the heap was searched over and the spongy iron was found mixed -with the ashes at the bottom of the furnace. - -The slowness of the operation and the inconsiderable metallic result -induced them to increase the size of the stone receptacle. They first -gave to it a depth of 7 feet and then of 13 feet, and, at the same time, -coated the walls of it with clay. They thus had at their disposal a kind -of vast circular crucible, in which they placed successive layers of -iron-ore and wood or charcoal. - -In this altogether elementary arrangement no use was made, as it seems, -of the bellows. This amounts to stating that the primitive method of -smelting iron was not, as is commonly thought, an adaptation of the -_Catalan furnace_. This latter process, which, even in the present time, -is made use of in the Pyrenean smelting works, does not date back -further than the times of the Roman empire. It is based on the continual -action of the bellows; whilst in the pre-historic furnaces this -instrument, we will again repeat, was never employed. - -These primitive furnaces applied to the reduction of iron-ore, traces of -which had been recognised by Morlot, the naturalist, in Austria and -Sweden, have lately been discovered in considerable numbers in the -canton of Berne by M. Quiquerez, a scientific mining engineer. They -consist of cylindrical excavations, of no great depth, dug out on the -side of a hill and surmounted by a clay funnel of conical form. -Wood-charcoal was the fuel employed for charging the furnaces, for -stores of this combustible are always found lying round the ancient -smelting works. - -In an extremely curious memoir, which was published in 1866 by the Jura -Society of Emulation, under the title of 'Recherches sur les anciennes -Forges du Jura Bernois,' M. Quiquerez summed up the results of his -protracted and minute investigations. A few extracts from this valuable -work will bring to our knowledge the real construction of the furnaces -used by pre-historic man; 400 of these furnaces having been discovered -by M. Quiquerez in the district of the Bernese Jura. - -We will, however, previously mention that M. Quiquerez had represented, -or materialised, as it were, the results of his interesting labours, by -constructing a model in miniature of a siderurgical establishment -belonging to the earliest iron epoch. This curious specimen of -workmanship showed the clay-furnace placed against the side of a hill, -the heaps of charcoal, the scoriæ, the hut used as a dwelling by the -workmen, the furnace-implements--in short, all the details which formed -the result of the patient researches of the learned Swiss engineer. - -M. Quiquerez had prepared this interesting model of the ancient -industrial pursuits of man with a view of exhibiting it in the -_Exposition Universelle_ of 1867, together with the very substances, -productions, and implements which he had found in his explorations in -the Jura. But the commission appointed for selecting objects for -admission refused to grant him the modest square yard of area which he -required for placing his model. How ridiculous it seems! In the immense -Champ de Mars in which so many useless and absurd objects perfectly -swarmed, one square yard of space was refused for one of the most -curious productions which was ever turned out by the skilful hands of -any _savant_! - -The result of this unintelligent refusal was that M. Quiquerez' model -did not make its appearance in the _Exposition Universelle_ in the Champ -de Mars, and that it was missing from the curious Gallery of the History -of Labour, which called forth so much of the attention of the public. -For our readers, however, it will not be altogether lost. M. Quiquerez -has been good enough to forward to us from Bellerive, where he resides -(near Délémont, canton of Basle, Switzerland) a photograph of his -curious model of a pre-historic workshop for the preparation of iron. -From this photograph we have designed the annexed plate, representing a -_primitive furnace for the extraction of iron_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 231.--Primitive Furnace for Smelting Iron.] - -This composition reproduces with tolerable accuracy the model in relief -constructed by the author. The furnace is shown; it is nothing but a -simple cavity surmounted by a conical chimney-funnel, and placed against -the side of a hill. Steps made of rough stone, placed on each side of -the mound, enable the workmen to mount to the summit. The height of the -funnel is about 9 feet. At the side of the furnace stands the hut for -the labourers, constructed of a number of round poles placed side by -side; for centuries past huts of this kind have been erected in almost -every country. - -On the right, in the foreground, we may notice a heap of charcoal -intended to be placed in the furnace in order to reduce the ore; on the -left, there is the store of ore called in the ironworks the _ore-pen_. -The provision of iron-ore is enclosed between four wooden slabs, forming -a quadrangular space. In the centre are the scoriæ which result from the -operations carried on. A workman is extracting the cake of spongy iron -from the ashes of the furnace; another is hammering on the anvil a piece -of iron drawn from the furnace in order to forge it into a bar. Round -the furnace various implements are scattered about, such as the anvil, -the pincers, the hammer, &c. All the instruments are designed from -various specimens found by the author. - -After these explanations, we may now give some extracts from M. -Quiquerez' work, and we trust our readers will find no difficulty in -comprehending the details given by the learned engineer, describing the -primitive furnaces for the extraction of iron which he discovered in the -Bernese Jura. - -M. Quiquerez has remarked two kinds of primitive furnaces for the -fabrication of iron, or, rather, two stages of improvement in their -construction. The first sort, that which the author considers as dating -back to the most remote antiquity, is not so numerous as the others; the -second kind form the largest number of those which he has explored. - -"Furnaces of the first kind," says M. Quiquerez, "consisted of nothing -but a small cylindrical excavation of no great regularity in shape, with -a cup-shaped bottom, hollowed out in the side of a hill so as to give -more natural height on one side; the front of the furnace was closed up -by fire-proof clay, supported with stones. This cavity was plastered -over with 4 to 6 inches of clay, generally of a whitish colour, which -became red after coming in contact with the fire. These -smelting-furnaces were not more than 12 to 18 inches in depth, as seemed -to be shown by the upper edges being rounded and more or less scoriated. -The front, which was always more or less broken, had an opening at its -base to admit a current of air, and to allow the workmen to deal with -the melted material; but this opening seems to show that the piece of -metal which had been formed during the operation must have been -extracted by breaking in the front. - -"The second kind of furnace, which is by far the most numerously found -and widely distributed, is, in fact, nothing but an improvement of that -which preceded it, the edges of the furnace or crucible being -considerably raised in height. They vary in depth from 7-1/2 to 8 feet, -with a diameter of most irregular dimensions, from 18 inches upwards, -and a thickness of 12 inches to 7 feet. They are likewise formed of -fire-proof clay, and their average capacity is about 25 gallons. - -"The constructor, having dug out in the side of the hill an opening -circular, or rather semi-circular, at the base, with a diameter nearly -three times as wide as the future furnace, arranged in the centre of -this hole a kind of furnace-bed made of plastic clay at bottom, and -covered with a layer of fire-proof clay on the top of it. The bed of the -furnace, which lies on the natural and hardly levelled earth, is, -generally speaking, not so thick as the side walls, which are formed of -sandy or siliceous clay, always fire-proof on the inside, but sometimes -of a more plastic nature on the exterior; the empty space left between -the walls of the furnace and the solid ground round it was filled up -with earth and other material. In front the furnace was enclosed by a -rough wall, sometimes straight and sometimes curving, built, without -mortar, of rough limestone, and dressed with earth to fill up the gaps. -In front of the furnace an opening was made in this wall, taking its -rise a few inches above the bottom of the furnace, and increasing in -size in an outward direction, so as to enable the workmen to see into, -and work in, the furnace. - -"The work thus commenced was carried up to the requisite height; and -when the excavation in the side of the hill was not lofty enough, the -dome of the furnace was raised by placing buttresses against the -fire-clay, so as to prevent the earth falling in. When these furnaces -were established on almost level ground, as is sometimes the case, they -form a truncated cone, with a base varying in size according to the -height of the apparatus. - -"The furnace was not always built upright; it often deviated from the -perpendicular, leaning to one side or the other to an extent as -considerable as its own diameter, but no constant rule as to this can be -recognised. The internal shape was just as irregular, changing from -circular to oval, without any apparent motive beyond want of care in the -workman. The crucibles or furnaces are sometimes larger at the top than -at the bottom, and sometimes these proportions are reversed, but always -with extreme irregularity. We have noticed some which at a point 10 or -12 inches above the crucible were perceptibly contracted on three sides, -thus representing the first rudiments of the appearance of our modern -furnaces. But this, perhaps, was nothing but a caprice on the part of -the builder. - -"The furnace thus being established, the wood was withdrawn which had -formed the cone, if, indeed, any had been used, and at the hole made at -the base of the crucible a clod of fire-clay some inches in height was -placed, so as to form a dam, and to confine in the crucible the molten -or soft metal; the scoriæ, being of a lighter nature and floating at the -top, made their escape over the top of the dam. As the latter were not -very liquid, their issue was promoted by means of pokers or wooden -poles, perhaps damped, with which also the metal was stirred in the -crucible. - -"In neither of these two kinds of furnaces do we find any trace of -bellows, and a more or less strong draught must have been procured -through the opening made for the escape of the scoriæ, according to the -elevation of the dome of the furnace. The limestones which have been -found in certain furnaces were probably employed with a view of -increasing the draught; they doubtless belonged to the upper part of the -furnace, where they had been fixed so as to add height to the orifice. -This rudimentary plan must have been likewise used in the earliest -crucibles. The mode of obtaining a draught which we have just pointed -out is indicated most plainly by the scorification of the walls of the -furnace on the side opposite to the air-passage; this side has evidently -experienced a more intense heat, whilst on the other the walls are much -less affected by the fire, and in some cases pieces of the mineral still -remain in a pasty or semi-molten state, just as they were when the work -of the furnace ceased.... - -"The absence of any machine in the shape of bellows in the ancient metal -works of the Jura appears all the more remarkable as these implements -were known both to the Greeks and Romans; hence we may at least infer, -not only that these nations did not introduce the art of iron-working -into the Jura, but that it must have existed at a much earlier period. -It must also be remarked that the openings in the furnaces are not -placed in the direction of the winds prevailing in the country--a plan -which might have increased the draught--but are made quite at hazard, -just as the nature of the spot rendered the construction of the furnace -more easy. - -"... In respect to fuel it must be remarked that in all the -siderurgical establishments which we have discovered, certain features -indicate that wood carbonised in a stack was exclusively used as fuel. -The furnaces are too small for the employment of rough wood; added to -this, charcoal stores are placed near the furnaces; and charcoal burnt -in a stack is constantly met with all round the sites, in the scoriæ, -and all the _débris_. We must, besides, mention the discovery, at -Bellelay, of a charcoal store 8 feet in diameter, situated under a -compact bed of peat 20 feet in thickness. It was established on the -solid earth, anterior to the formation of the peat. Now from this very -peat a parcel of coins belonging to the fifteenth century was recovered, -over which only 2 feet of peat had grown in a period of 400 years. -There, too, at a depth of 9 feet, were found the scattered bones of a -horse, with the foot still shod with those undulating edged shoes with -elongated and strongly punched holes, in which were fitted the ends of -nails of the shape of a T, the heads of which were conical. This kind of -shoe is found in the Celtic settlements, the villages, habitations, and -ironworks, also in the pasturages and forests of the country, but rarely -in the Roman camps; in the latter they are always in less number than -the wider metallic shoes, which are larger, and furnished with a groove -indicating the line in which the nail-holes were punched. The -calculations which have been made from the discovery of the coins of the -fifteenth century (A.D. 1478) would give an antiquity of at least twenty -to twenty-four centuries to the horse-shoe we have just mentioned, for -the animal must have died and been devoured on the then existing surface -of the ground, and could not have been buried in the peat, as the bones, -instead of lying grouped together, were dispersed in every direction. -These same calculations would carry back the date of the charcoal-store -to an era 4000 years ago. - -"Owing to the imperfection of the furnaces, the quantity of charcoal -used must have been quadruple the present consumption for the same -results. The metal, as it was extracted from the ore, fell down into the -bottom of the crucible. In proportion as the mass of metal increased, a -workman, with a poker made of damp green wood, brought out the scoriæ -which floated on the top, and stirred the metal so as to fine it. It is -proved that these wooden pokers or poles were made use of in all the -furnace-works. A quantity of morsels of scoriæ is found which, having -been in a soft state when extracted, have retained the imprint of the -piece of wood, the end of which was evidently charred. M. Morlot, in his -article on the Roman ironworks at Wocheim, in Upper Carniola, has also -noticed the existence, in the scoriæ, of frequent traces of pokers, -sometimes round and sometimes three-cornered in shape, but all of them -must have been made of iron, whilst throughout the whole of the Jura we -have never recognised the traces of any but wooden implements of this -kind. - -"Owing to the imperfection of the furnaces, and especially, the -deficiency in the draught caused by the want of bellows, the metal -contained in the ore could be but very imperfectly extracted; the scoriæ -are therefore still so very rich in iron that, about twenty years ago, -the manager of the ironworks at Untervelier tried to use them over again -as ore. Accumulations of this dross, measuring from 100 to 200 yards -square, may be seen near certain furnaces-a fact which would infer a -somewhat considerable production of iron. The examination of these -scoriæ proves that iron was then made by one single operation, and not -liquid pigs fit for casting, or to be converted into iron by a second -series of operations. - -"The iron produced was introduced into commerce in large blocks, shaped -like two quadrangular pyramids joined at the base, weighing from 12 to -16 lbs. One of these pieces was found near a furnace which had been -demolished in order to establish a charcoal furnace, in the commune of -Untervelier, and another in one of the furnaces of Boécourt. - -"All round the furnaces there have been found numerous remains of rough -pottery; it is badly baked, and made without the help of the wheel, from -clay which is mingled with grains of quartz--the pottery, in fact, which -is called Celtic. Pieces of stag's horn have also been discovered, which -must have been used for the handles of tools; also iron hatchets. One of -them has a socket at the end made in a line with the length of the -implement; it is an instrument belonging to the most remote period of -the iron age. The others have transversal sockets like our present -hatchets. One of the latter was made of steel so hard that it could not -be touched with the file. With regard to coins, both Gallic and Roman -were found, and some of the latter were of as late a date as that of -the Constantines. The persistence in practising the routine of all the -most ancient processes may be explained by the monopoly of the -iron-working trade being retained in the same families. We have the less -need to be surprised at this, because we may notice that the -wood-cutters and charcoal-burners of our own days, when they have to -take up their abode in a locality for any length of time, and to carry -on their trade there, always make certain arrangements which have -doubtless been handed down from the most primitive times. In order to -protect their beds from the damp, they make a kind of shelf of fir-poles -which is used as a bedstead. Some of them have two stories; the -under-one intended for the children, and the one above for the parents. -Moss, ferns, and dried grass form the mattress. Coverlets impossible to -describe were made good use of, and some were even made of branches of -fir-trees. These bedsteads take the place both of benches and chairs. A -stone fire-place, roughly arranged in the centre of the hut, fills the -double function of warming in winter and cooking the food all the year -round. We may also add, that the fire, which is almost always kept -lighted, and the ashes spread over the floor all round, preserve the hut -from certain troublesome insects, which lose their lives by jumping -imprudently into this unknown trap. The smoke finds no other issue but -through a hole made in the roof."[40] - -Such is the description given by M. Quiquerez of the iron furnaces of a -really pre-historic character, those, namely, which are characterised by -the absence of bellows. We think, however, that there must have been -holes below the hearth which afforded access to currents of air, and, by -being alternately open or closed, served either to increase or diminish -the intensity of the draught. But bellows, properly so called, intended -to promote the combustion and chemical reaction between the oxide of -iron and the charcoal did not then exist. - -The addition of the bellows to iron-furnaces brought an essential -improvement to the art of the manufacture of iron. - -Another improvement consisted in making, at the bottom of the stone -receptacle where the fuel and the ore were burnt together, a door -composed of several bricks which could be readily moved. At the -completion of each operation they drew out, through this door, the cake -of iron, which could not be so conveniently extracted at the upper part -of the furnace, on account of its height. The hammering, assisted by -several heatings, finally cleared the iron, in the usual way, from all -extraneous matter, consolidated it, and converted it into the state of -bar-iron fit for the blacksmith's use, and for the fabrication of -utensils and tools. - -These improved primitive furnaces are well-known to German miners under -the name of _Stucköfen_ ("fragment-furnaces"). They are modified in -different ways in different countries; and according to the arrangement -of the furnace, and especially according to the nature of the -ferruginous ores, certain methods or manipulations of the iron have been -introduced, which are nowadays known under the names of the Swedish, -German, Styrian, Carinthian, Corsican, and Catalan methods. - -The ancient furnaces for the extraction of iron may be combined under -the name of _smelting-forges_ or _bloomeries_. - -The invention of siliceous fluxes as applied to the extraction of iron, -and facilitating the production of a liquid scoria which could flow out -in the form of a stream of fire, put the finishing stroke to the -preparation of iron. The constructors next considerably increased the -height of the stone crucible in which the fuel and the ore, now mingled -with a siliceous flux, were placed, and the _blast furnace_, that is, -the present system of the preparation of iron, soon came into existence. - -But, there may be reason to think, neither of these two kinds of -furnaces belongs to the primitive ages of mankind which are the object -of this work. In the iron epoch--that we are considering--the furnace -without bellows was possibly the only one known; the iron was prepared -in very small quantities at a time, and the meagre metallic cake, the -result from each operation, had to be picked out from among the ashes -drawn from the stone receptacle. - -Gold, as we have already said, was known to the men of the bronze epoch. -Silver, on the contrary, did not come into use until the iron epoch. - -Another characteristic of the epoch we are now studying is the -appearance of pottery made on the potter's wheel, and baked in an -improved kind of furnace. Up to that time, pottery had been moulded by -the hand, and merely burnt in the open air. In the iron epoch, the -potter's wheel came into use, and articles of earthenware were -manufactured on this wheel, and baked in an unexceptionable way in an -oven especially constructed for the purpose. - -There is another fact which likewise characterises the iron epoch; this -was the appearance of coined money. The earliest known coins belong to -this period; they are made of bronze, and bear a figure or effigy not -stamped, but obtained by melting and casting. - -The most ancient coins that are known are Greek, and date back to the -eighth century before Christ. These are the coins of Ægina, Athens, and -Cyzicum, such as were found many years ago in the duchy of Posen. In the -lacustrine settlement of Neuchâtel, coins of a remote antiquity have -also been found. We here represent in its natural size (fig. 232), taken -from M. Desor's work, a bronze coin found in the settlement of La Tène -in the lake of Neuchâtel. But these coins are not more ancient than the -Greek specimens that we have before named. They are shown to be Gallic -by the horned horse, which is a Gallic emblem. - -[Illustration: Fig. 232.--Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel.] - -At Tiefenau, near Berne, coins have been found of a nearly similar -character associated with others having on them the effigy of Apollo, -and bearing an imprint of _Massilia_ (Marseilles). As the foundation of -this Phocæan colony dates back to the sixth century before Christ, these -coins may be said to be among the most ancient which exist. - -Glass became known, as we have before stated, in the bronze epoch. - -In short, the essential features which distinguish the iron epoch are, -iron instruments, and implements combining with those of bronze to -replace stone in all the uses for which it was anciently employed--the -knowledge of silver and lead, the improvement of pottery, and the -introduction of coined money. With regard to its chronological date we -should adopt that of about 2000 years before the Christian era, thus -agreeing with the generality of authors--the date of the bronze epoch -being fixed about 4000 years before Christ. - -After these general considerations, we shall pass on to give some -account of the manners and customs of man during the iron epoch, or, at -least, during the earlier portion of this period, which ere long became -blended with historic ages. - -When we have completed our study of man in the earlier period of the -iron epoch, we shall have terminated the rapid sketch which we have -intended to trace out of primitive man and his labours. This period -commenced, as we have just stated, about 2000 years before Christ, and -ultimately merged into the earliest glimmer of historical records. Our -task now is to describe all we know about man at this date of nascent -civilisation. Afterwards, the earliest historians--and among them, -Herodotus, the father of history--are the authorities whom we must -consult for an account of the actions and exploits of the human race in -Europe. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[39] Details as to the relation of the Stone Age to the Bronze and Iron -Ages may be found in 'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' by -Edward B. Tylor. Chap. VIII., 'Pre-Historic Times,' by Sir J. Lubbock, -Chaps. I. and II. - -[40] 'De l'Age du Fer, Recherches sur les anciennes Forges du Jura -Bernois,' by A. Quiquerez, Engineer of the Jura Mines. Porrentruy, 1866; -pp. 35-39, 77-80. Also, 'Matériaux pour l'Histoire positif de l'Homme,' -by G. de Mortillet, vol. ii. pp. 505-510. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - Weapons--Tools, Instruments, Utensils, and Pottery--The Tombs of - Hallstadt and the Plateau of La Somma--The Lake-Settlements of - Switzerland--Human Sacrifices--Type of Man during the Iron - Epoch--Commencement of the Historic Era. - - -The most valuable traces of the manners and customs of man during the -earlier period of the iron epoch have been furnished by the vast -burial-ground discovered recently at Hallstadt, near Salzburg in -Austria. M. Ramsauer, Director of the salt-mines of Salzburg, has -explored more than 1000 tombs in this locality, and has described them -in a work full of interest, a manuscript copy of which we have consulted -in the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain. - -As the tombs at Hallstadt belong to the earlier period of the iron -epoch, they represent to us the natural transition from the epoch of -bronze to that of iron. In fact, in a great number of objects contained -in these tombs--such as daggers, swords and various ornaments--bronze -and iron are combined. One sword, for instance, is formed of a bronze -hilt and an iron blade. This is represented in figures 233, 234, 235 and -236, drawn from the sketches in M. Ramsauer's manuscript work entitled -'Les Tombes de Hallstadt,' in which this combination of the two metals -is remarked upon; the sword-hilts being formed of one metal and the -blades of another. - -[Illustration: Fig. 233.--Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a -Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 234.--Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a -Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 235.--Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze -Handle and Iron Blade).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 236.--Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze -Handle and Iron Blade).] - -By taking a rapid survey of the objects found in the tombs of Hallstadt, -we can form a somewhat accurate idea of the first outset of the iron -age. - -The first point which strikes us in this period, is the utter change -which had taken place in the interment of the dead. - -During the Stone Age, the dead were placed in small subterranean crypts, -that is in _dolmens_ or _tumuli_. During the Bronze Age it became to a -great extent customary for men to burn the dead bodies of their friends. - -This custom was destined to become more and more prevalent century after -century, and during historic times it became universal among a great -many nations. - -In fact, in the tombs of Hallstadt, several little earthen vessels -containing ashes may be seen. Sometimes only part of the body was burnt, -so that a portion of a skeleton was found in these tombs, and near it -the ashes of the parts which the fire had consumed. - -The remains found in the tombs of Hallstadt are almost equally divided -between these two modes of inhumation. About half of the tombs contain -nothing but ashes; in the other half, corpses are laid extended, -according to the custom which was most prevalent in the iron age. -Lastly, as we have just stated, some of them contained skeletons which -were partially burnt. Sometimes it was the head, sometimes the whole -bust, or sometimes the lower limbs which were consumed, the ashes being -deposited by the side of the intact portions of the skeleton. Fig. 238, -which is designed from one of the illustrations in M. Ramsauer's -manuscript work 'Les Tombes de Hallstadt,' in the Museum of -Saint-Germain, represents a skeleton, part of which (the chest) has been -consumed. The ashes are contained in small earthen vessels which are -seen near the corpse. - -[Illustration: Fig. 237.--Funeral Ceremonies during the Iron Epoch.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 238.--A Skeleton, portions of which have been burnt, -from the Tombs of Hallstadt.] - -From the _data_ which we have acquired as to this custom of burning -dead bodies during the iron epoch, we have been able to represent _the -funeral ceremonies of the iron epoch_ in the preceding figure. - -The corpse is placed on a funeral pile, and the stone door of the -tumulus is raised in order to deposit in it the cinerary urn. The -relations of the deceased accompany the procession clothed in their -handsomest garments and adorned with the bronze and iron ornaments which -were then in vogue. One of those present may be seen throwing some -precious objects into the flames of the funeral pile in honour of the -deceased. - -The tombs of Hallstadt are the locality in which the largest number of -objects, such as weapons, instruments and implements, have been met -with, which have tended to throw a light upon the history of the -transition from the bronze to the iron epoch. All these objects are -either of bronze or iron; but in the weapons the latter predominates. -Swords, spear-heads, daggers, knives, socketed hatchets and winged -hatchets form the catalogue of the sharp instruments. In the preceding -pages (figs. 233, 234, 235 and 236) we have given representations of -swords and daggers designed from the specimens in the Museum of -Saint-Germain. In all these weapons the handle is made of bronze and the -blade of iron. Warriors' sword-belts are frequently formed of plates of -bronze, and are embellished with a _repoussé_ ornamentation executed by -the hammer. - -In fig. 239 we give a representation of a necklace with pendants which -is most remarkable in its workmanship. It may be readily seen that art -had now attained some degree of maturity. This necklace was a prelude to -the marvellous works of art which were about to be brought to light -under the skies of Greece. - -[Illustration: Fig. 239.--A Necklace with Pendants, from the Tombs of -Hallstadt.] - -The bracelets which have been met with by hundreds, hair pins and -bronze fibulæ are all wrought with taste, and are often adorned with -very elegant pendants. In figs. 240 and 241 we show two bracelets, the -sketches for which were taken from the designs in the manuscript of the -'Tombes de Hallstadt.' - -[Illustration: Fig. 240.--Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 241.--Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt.] - -We may add a few amber necklace-beads and some of enamel, and we have -then concluded the series of personal ornaments. - -In the tombs of Hallstadt, nearly 200 bronze vessels have been -discovered, some of which are as much as 36 inches in height. These -bronze vessels were composed of several pieces skilfully riveted but not -soldered. Plates 242 and 243 are reproduced from the same beautiful -manuscript. - -[Illustration: Fig. 242.--Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 243.--Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt.] - -In the tombs of Hallstadt some small glass vessels have also been -discovered. - -Remains of pottery are very plentiful, and a decided improvement is -shown in their workmanship. Some gold trinkets were also met with in -these tombs. The gold was, doubtless, obtained from the mines of -Transylvania. - -African ivory abounds in these graves--a fact which indicates commercial -intercourse with very distant countries. This product, as well as the -glass, was introduced into Europe by the Phoenicians. The inhabitants of -central Europe obtained ivory from Tyre and Sidon by means of barter. - -The ivory objects which were found at Hallstadt consisted of the heads -of hair-pins and the pommels of swords. - -There were no traces whatever of money, the use of it not being then -established in that part of Europe. - -The population which lived in the vicinity of the Salzburg mines were in -reality rich; for the salt-mines were a source of great wealth to them -at a period when the deposits of rock-salt in Poland, being still buried -in the depths of the earth, were as yet unknown or inaccessible. In this -way, we may account for the general opulence of these commercial -nations, and for the elegance and taste displayed in the objects which -have been found in the tombs of Hallstadt. - -Guided by these various remains, it is not difficult to reproduce an -ideal picture of _the warriors of the iron epoch_, a representation of -which we have endeavoured to give in fig. 244. The different pieces of -the ornaments observed on the horseman, on the foot-soldier, and also on -the horse, are drawn from specimens exhibited in the Museum of -Saint-Germain which were modelled at Hallstadt. The helmet is in perfect -preservation and resembles those which, shortly after, were worn by the -Gallic soldiers. The bosses, also, on the horse's harness, ere long came -into use both among the Gauls and also the Romans. - -[Illustration: Fig. 244.--Warriors of the Iron Epoch.] - -Next to the tombs of Hallstadt, we must mention the tombs discovered on -the plateau of La Somma, in Lombardy, which have contributed a valuable -addition to the history of the earliest period of the iron epoch. - -On this plateau there were discovered certain tombs, composed of rough -stones of a rectangular form. In the interior there were some vases of a -shape suited to the purpose, containing ashes. The material of which -they were made was fine clay; they had been wrought by means of the -potter's wheel, were ornamented with various designs, and also provided -with encircling projections. On some of them, representations of -animals may be seen which indicate a considerable progress in the -province of art. The historic date of these urns is pointed out by -_fibulæ_ (clasps for cloaks), iron rings and bracelets, sword-belts -partly bronze and partly iron, and small bronze chains. The tombs of La -Somma belong, therefore, to a period of transition between the bronze -and iron epochs. According to M. Mortillet, they date back to the -seventh century before Christ. - -Under the same head we will class the tombs of Saint-Jean de Belleville, -in Savoy. At this spot several tombs belonging to the commencement of -the iron epoch have been explored by MM. Borel and Costa de Beauregard. -The latter, in a splendid work published in Savoy, has given a detailed -description of these tombs.[41] - -Some of the skeletons are extended on their backs, others have been -consumed, but only partially, like those which we have already mentioned -in the tombs of Hallstadt. Various objects, consisting chiefly of -trinkets and ornaments, have been met with in these tombs. We will -mention in particular the _fibulæ_, bracelets and necklaces made of -amber, enamelled glass, &c. - -In figs. 245 and 246 we give a representation of two skeleton arms, -which are encircled with several bracelets just as they were found in -these tombs. - -[Illustration: Figs. 245, 246.--Fore-arm, encircled with Bracelets, -found in the Tombs of Belleville (Savoy).] - -The lacustrine settlements of Switzerland have contributed a valuable -element towards the historic reconstruction of the iron epoch. - -In different parts of the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel there are -pile-works which contain iron objects intermingled with the remains of -preceding ages. But there is only one lacustrine settlement in -Switzerland which belongs exclusively to the earliest period of the Iron -Age--that of La Tène on the Lake of Neuchâtel. - -Most of the objects which have been met with in this lacustrine -settlement have been recovered from the mud in which they had been so -remarkably preserved, being sheltered from any contact with the outer -air. There are, however, many spots in which piles may be seen, where -objects of this kind have not been found; but if subsequent researches -are attended with any results, we shall be forced to attribute to the -settlement of La Tène a considerable degree of importance, for the piles -there extend over an area of 37 acres. - -The remains of all kinds which have been found in this settlement are -evidently of Gallic origin. It is an easy matter to prove this by -comparing the weapons found in this settlement with those which were -discovered in the trenches of Alise-Sainte-Reine, the ancient _Alesia_, -where, in its last contest against Cæsar, the independence of ancient -Gaul came to an end. - -M. de Rougemont has called attention to the fact that these weapons -correspond very exactly to the description given by Diodorus Siculus of -the Gallic weapons. Switzerland thus seems to have been inhabited in the -earliest iron epoch by Gallic tribes, that is to say, by a different -race from that which occupied it during the stone and bronze epochs; and -it was this race which introduced into Switzerland the use of iron. - -Among the objects collected in the lake settlement of La Tène, weapons -are the most numerous; they consist of swords and the heads of spears -and javelins. Most of them have been kept from oxidation by the peaty -mud which entirely covered them, and they are, consequently, in a state -of perfect preservation. - -The swords are all straight, of no very great thickness, and perfectly -flat. The blade is from 31 to 35 inches in length, and is terminated by -a handle about 6 inches long. They have neither guards nor crosspieces. -Several of them were still in their sheaths, from which many of them -have been drawn out in a state of perfect preservation, and even -tolerably sharp. - -Fig. 247 represents one of the iron swords from the Swiss lakes, which -are depicted in M. Desor's memoir. - -[Illustration: Fig. 247.--Iron Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes.] - -On another sword, of which we also give a representation (fig. 248), a -sort of damascening work extends over almost the whole surface, leaving -the edges alone entirely smooth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 248.--Sword with Damascened Blade, found in one of -the Swiss Lakes.] - -M. de Reffye, the archæologist, accounts for this fact in the following -way:--He is of opinion that the body of the blade is made of very hard -unyielding iron, whilst the edges are made of small strips of mellower -iron which have been subsequently welded and wrought by the hammer. This -mode of manufacture enabled the soldier, when his sword was notched, to -repair it by means of hammering. This was a most valuable resource -during an epoch in which armies did not convey stores along with them, -and when the soldier's baggage was reduced to very little more than he -could personally carry. Several of these damascened blades have been -found in the trenches of Alise. - -The sheaths, the existence of which now for the first time comes under -our notice, are of great importance on account of the designs with which -they are ornamented. Most of these designs are engraved with a tool, -others are executed in _repoussé_ work. All of them show great -originality and peculiar characteristics, which prevent them from being -confounded with works of Roman art. One of these sheaths (fig. 249), -which belongs to M. Desor's collection and is depicted in his memoir, -represents the "horned horse," the emblem of Gaul, which is sufficient -proof of the Gallic origin of the weapons found in the Lake of La Tène. -Below this emblem, there is a kind of granulated surface which bears -some resemblance to shagreen. - -[Illustration: Fig 249.--Sheath of a Sword, found in one of the Swiss -Lakes.] - -This sheath is composed of two very thin plates of wrought iron laid one -upon the other, except at the base, where they are united by means of a -cleverly-wrought band of iron. At its upper extremity there is a plate, -on one side of which may be seen the designs which we have already -described, and on the other a ring, intended to suspend the weapon to -the belt. - -The lance-heads are very remarkable on account of their extraordinary -shape and large size. They measure as much as 16 inches long, by 2 to 4 -inches wide, and are double-edged and twisted into very diversified -shapes. Some are winged, and others are irregularly indented. Some have -perforations in the shape of a half-moon (fig. 250). The halberd of the -middle ages was, very probably, nothing but an improvement on, or a -deviation from, these singular blades. - -[Illustration: Fig. 250.--Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes.] - -Fragments of wooden staves have been met with which had been fitted into -these spear-heads; they are slender, and shod with iron at one end. - -The care with which these instruments are wrought proves that they are -lance-heads, and not mere darts or javelins intended to be thrown to a -distance and consequently lost. They certainly would not have taken so -much pains with the manufacture of a weapon which would be used only -once. - -It is altogether a different matter with respect to the javelins, a -tolerably large number of which have been found in the lacustrine -settlements of La Tène. They are simple socketed heads (fig. 251), -terminating in a laurel-leaf shape, about 4 to 5 inches in length. - -[Illustration: Fig. 251.--Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine -Settlement of La Tène (Neuchâtel).] - -It appears from experiments ordered by the Emperor of the French, that -these javelins could only have been used as missile weapons, and that -they were thrown, not by the hand merely grasping the shaft (which would -be impossible to do effectually on account of their light weight), but -by means of a cord or thong, which was designated among the Romans by -the name of _amentum_. These experiments have shown that a dart which -could be thrown only 65 feet with the hand, might be cast four times -that distance by the aid of the _amentum_. There probably existed among -the Gauls certain military corps who practised the use of the _amentum_, -that is to say, the management of _thonged javelins_, and threw this -javelin in the same way as other warriors threw stones by means of a -sling. This conclusion, which has been drawn by M. Desor, seems to us a -very just one. - -Javelins of the preceding type are very common in the trenches of Alise. -In this neighbourhood a large number of iron arrows have also been -found which have never been met with in the lacustrine settlement of La -Tène. - -War was not the only purpose for which these javelins were used by the -men of the iron epoch. Hunting, too, was carried on by means of these -missile weapons. The bow and the thonged javelin constituted the hunting -weapons of this epoch. We have depicted this in the accompanying plate, -which represents _the chase during the iron epoch_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 252.--The Chase during the Iron Epoch.] - -Next to the weapons come the implements. We will, in the first place, -mention the hatchets (fig. 253). They are larger, more solid, and have a -wider cutting edge than those used in the bronze epoch; wings were no -longer in use, only a square-shaped socket into which was fitted a -wooden handle, probably made with an elbow. - -[Illustration: Fig. 253.--Square-socketed Iron Hatchet, found in one of -the Lakes of Switzerland.] - -The sickles (fig. 254) are likewise larger and also more simple than -those of the bronze epoch; there are neither designs nor ornaments of -any kind on them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 254.--Sickle.] - -With the pruning-bills or sickles we must class the regular scythes -(fig. 255) with stems for handling, two specimens of which have been -discovered in the lake settlement of the Tène. Their length is about 14 -inches, that is, about one-third as large as the scythes used by the -Swiss harvest-men of the present day. One important inference is drawn -from the existence of these scythes; it is, that at the commencement of -the iron epoch men were in the habit of storing up a provision of hay, -and must consequently have reared cattle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 255.--Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements of -Switzerland.] - -The iron fittings at the ends of the boat-hooks used by the boatmen on -the lake are frequently found at La Tène; they terminate in a -quadrangular pyramid or in a cone (fig. 256). Some still contain the end -of the wooden pole, which was attached to it by means of a nail. - -[Illustration: Fig. 256.--Iron Point of Boat-hook, used by the Swiss -Boatmen during the Iron Epoch.] - -Next in order to these objects, we must mention the horses' bits and -shoes; the first being very simply constructed so as to last for a very -long period of time. They were composed of a short piece of iron chain -(fig. 257), which was placed in the horse's mouth, and terminated at -each end in a ring to which the reins were attached. - -[Illustration: Fig. 257.--Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel.] - -The _fibulæ_ (fig. 258), or clasps for cloaks, are especially calculated -to attract attention in the class of ornamental objects; they are very -elegant and diversified in their shapes, their dimensions varying from -2-1/2 to 5 inches. They are all formed of a pin in communication with a -twisted spring bent in various ways. They are provided with a sheath to -hold the end of the brooch pin, so as to avoid any danger of pricking. A -large number of them are in an excellent state of preservation, and -might well be used at the present day. - -[Illustration: Fig. 258.--_Fibula_, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of -Neuchâtel.] - -These brooches, which we have already called attention to when speaking -of the tombs of Hallstadt, were also used by the Etruscans and the -Romans; their existence in the pre-historic tombs tends to prove that, -like the above-named nations, the Swiss and Germans wore the toga or -mantle. These _fibulæ_ have a peculiar character, and it is impossible -to confuse them with the Roman _fibulæ_. They are, however, similar in -every way to those which have been found at Alise. - -There have also been found in the Swiss lakes, along with the _fibulæ_, -a number of rings, the use of which is still problematical. Some are -flat and others chiselled in various ways. It is thought that some of -them must have been used as buckles for soldiers' sword-belts (fig. -259); but there are others which do not afford any countenance to this -explanation. Neither can they be looked on as bracelets; for most of -them are too small for any such purpose. Some show numerous cuts at -regular intervals all round their circumference; this fact has given -rise to the supposition that they might perhaps have served as a kind of -money. - -[Illustration: Fig. 259.--Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the -Lake of Neuchâtel.] - -In the lake-settlement of La Tène (Lake of Neuchâtel), iron pincers have -also been found (fig. 260), which were doubtless used for pulling out -hair, and are of very perfect workmanship; also scissors with a spring -(fig. 261), the two legs being made in one piece, and some very thin -blades (fig. 262), which must have been razors. - -[Illustration: Fig. 260.--Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 261.--Iron Spring-Scissors, found in the Lake of -Neuchâtel.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 262.--Razor.] - -The specimens of pottery belonging to this date do not testify to any -real progress having been made beyond the workmanship of the bronze -epoch; the clay is still badly baked, and of a darkish colour. It -certainly is the case, that along with these remains a quantity of -fragments of vessels have been picked up, and even entire vessels, which -have been made by the help of the potter's wheel and baked in an oven, -and consequently present the red colour usual in modern earthenware. But -archæologists are of opinion that this class of pottery does not date -back beyond the Roman epoch; and this opinion would seem to be confirmed -by the existence, in the midst of the piles at the settlement of La -Tène, of a mass of tiles, evidently of Roman origin. The conclusion to -be drawn from these facts is, that many of the pile-works in the Swiss -lakes continued to be occupied when the country was under the Roman -rule. - -One of the characteristics of the iron epoch is, as we have before -stated, the appearance of coin or money. In 1864, M. Desor recovered -from the Lake of La Tène five coins of unquestionable Gallic origin. -They are of bronze, and bear on one side the figure of the horned horse, -and on the other a human profile. In fig. 232, we gave a representation -of these curious specimens of coin found by M. Desor in the lacustrine -settlements of the Lake of Neuchâtel. The marks of the mould still -existing on each side show that these coins were cast in a series, and -that after the casting the coins were separated from one another by -means of the file. - -Coins of a similar character have been discovered, as we before -observed, at Tiefenau, near Berne, with others bearing the effigy of -Diana and Apollo, and the imprint of _Massilia_, The latter date from -the foundation of Marseilles, and could not, therefore, be anterior to -the sixth century before the Christian era; it is probable that those -discovered along with them must be referred to nearly the same epoch. - -Such are the relics of instruments, tools, weapons, &c., made of iron -and recovered from the lacustrine settlement of La Tène, that is, from -the Lake of Neuchâtel. We must add that, near Berne, at a spot which is -designated by the name of the "Battle-field of Tiefenau," because it -appears to have been the theatre of a great conflict between the -Helvetians and the Gauls, a hundred swords and spear-heads have been -picked up, similar to those found at La Tène; also fragments of coats of -mail, rings, _fibulæ_, the tires of chariot-wheels, horses' bits, and -lastly, Gallic and Marseillaise coins in gold, silver, and bronze. This -field of battle appears, therefore, to have been contemporary with the -settlement at La Tène. - -In addition to these valuable sources of information--La Tène and -Tiefenau--Switzerland also possesses _tumuli_ and simple tombs, both -constituting records useful to consult in respect to the iron epoch. But -on this point, it must be remarked that it is often difficult, with any -degree of security, to connect them with the two preceding sites; and -that considerable reserve is recommended in attempting any kind of -identification. - -Upon the whole, the Iron Age, looking even only to its earliest period, -is the date of the beginning of real civilisation among European -nations. - -Their industrial skill, exercised on the earliest-used materials, such -as iron and textile products, furnished all that was required by the -usages of life. Commerce was already in a flourishing state, for it was -no longer carried on by the process of barter only. Money, in the shape -of coin, the conventional symbol of wealth, came into use during this -epoch, and must have singularly facilitated the operations of trade. -Agriculture, too, had advanced as much as it could at this earliest dawn -of civilisation. The remains of cereals found in the lake-settlements of -Switzerland, added to the iron instruments intended to secure the -products of the cultivation of the ground, such as the scythes and -sickles which we have previously depicted (figs. 254 and 255), are -sufficient to show us that agriculture constituted at that time the -chief wealth of nations. The horse, the ass, the dog, the ox, and the -pig, had for long time back been devoted to the service of man, -either as auxiliaries in his field-labours, or as additions to his -resources in the article of food. Fruit-trees, too, were cultivated in -great numbers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 263.--Agriculture during the Iron Epoch.] - -As a matter of fact, we have no acquaintance with any of the iron and -bronze instruments which were used by men of the iron epoch in -cultivation of the ground. Scythes and sickles are the only agricultural -implements which have been discovered. But even these instruments, added -to a quantity of remains of the bones of cattle which have been found in -the lacustrine and palustrine settlements, are sufficient to prove that -the art of cultivating the earth and of extracting produce from its -bosom, rendered fertile by practices sanctioned by experience, existed -in full vigour among the men who lived during the period immediately -preceding historic times. - -The plate which accompanies this page is intended to represent in a -material form the state of agriculture during the iron epoch. We may -notice the corn-harvest being carried on by means of sickles, like those -found in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland. A man is engaged in -beating out, with a mere stick, the wheatsheaves in order to thrash out -the grain. The grain is then ground in a circular mill, worked by a -horizontal handle. This mill is composed of two stones revolving one -above the other, and was the substitute for the rough primitive -corn-mill; it subsequently became the mill used by the Romans--the -_pistrinum_--at which the slaves were condemned to work. - -Indications of an unequivocal character have enabled us to recognise as -a fact, that human sacrifices took place among the Helvetians during -this period. It is, however, well known, from the accounts of ancient -historians, that this barbarous custom existed among the Gauls and -various nations in the north of Europe. In a _tumulus_ situated near -Lausanne, which contained four cinerary urns, there were also found the -skeletons of four young females. Their broken bones testified but too -surely to the tortures which had terminated their existence. The remains -of their ornaments lay scattered about in every direction, and -everything was calculated to lead to the belief that they had been -crushed under the mass of stones which formed the _tumulus_--unhappy -victims of a cruel superstition. Not far from this spot, another -_tumulus_ contained twelve skeletons lying in all kinds of unusual -postures. It is but too probable that these were the remains of -individuals who had all been immolated together on the altar of some -supposed implacable divinity. - -What was the character of the type of the human race during the iron -epoch? It must evidently have been that of the present era. Both the -skulls and the bodies of the skeletons found in the tombs of this epoch -point to a race of men entirely identical with that of our own days. - -We shall not carry on our study of pre-historic mankind to any later -date. We have now arrived at an epoch upon which sufficient light has -been thrown by oral tradition combined with historical records. The task -of the historian begins at the point where the naturalist's -investigations come to an end. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[41] 'Les Sépultures de Saint-Jean de Belleville,' with lithographed -plates. - - - - -PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. - - - - -PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. - - -The development of mankind has, doubtless, been of much the same -character in all parts of the world, so that, in whatever quarter of the -world man may come under our consideration, he must have passed through -the same phases of progress ere he arrived at his present state. -Everywhere, man must have had his Stone Age, his Bronze Epoch, and his -Iron Epoch, succeeding one another in the same order which we have -ascertained to have existed in Europe. In the sketch which we have drawn -of primitive man we have devoted our attention almost entirely to -Europe; but the cause simply is, that this part of the world has, up to -the present day, been the principal subject of special and attentive -studies in this respect. Asia, Africa, and America can scarcely be said -to have been explored in reference to the antiquity of our species; but -it is probable that the facts which have been brought to light in -Europe, would be almost identically reproduced in other parts of the -world. - -This is a fact which, as regards _dolmens_, has been already verified. -The sepulchral monuments of the Stone Age, which were at first believed -to be peculiar to France, and, indeed, to one province of France, namely -Brittany, have since been met with in almost every part of the world. -Not only have they been discovered all over Europe, but even the coasts -of Africa bring to our notice numerous relics of them; also, through the -whole extent of Asia, and even in the interior of India, this same form -of sepulchre, bearing witness to a well determined epoch in man's -history, have been pointed out and described by recent travellers. - -Thus, the information which we possess on these points as regards -Europe, may well be generalised and applied to the other quarters of the -world--to Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. - -America, however, has been the scene of certain investigations -concerning primitive man which have not been without fertile results; we -shall, therefore, devote the last few pages of our work to a -consideration of the pre-historic remains of America, and to giving an -account of the probable conditions of man's existence there, as they -have been revealed to us by these relics. - -The information which has been made public on these points concerns -North America only. - -It would be useless to dwell on the stone and bone instruments of the -New World; in their shape they differ but little from those of Europe. -They were applied to the same uses, and the only perceptible difference -in them is in the substance of which they were made. We find there -hatchets, knives, arrow-heads, &c., but these instruments are not so -almost universally made from flint, which is to a considerable extent -replaced by obsidian and other hard stones. - -In the history of primitive man in North America, we shall have to -invent another age of a special character; this is the _Age of Copper_. -In America, the use of copper seems to have preceded the use of bronze; -native metallic copper having been largely in use among certain races. -On the shores of Lake Superior there are some very important mines of -native copper, which must have been worked by the Indians at a very -early date; in fact, the traces of the ancient workings have been -distinctly recognised by various travellers. - -Mr. Knapp, the agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, was the first to -point out these pre-historic mines. In 1847, his researches having led -him into a cavern much frequented by porcupines, he discovered, under an -accumulation of heaped-up earth, a vein of native copper, containing a -great number of stone hammers. A short time afterwards, some other -excavations 25 to 35 feet in depth, and stretching over an extent of -several miles, came under his notice. The earth dug out had been thrown -on each side of the excavations; and mighty forest-trees had taken root -and grown there. In the trunk of a hemlock-tree growing in this "made -ground," Mr. Knapp counted 395 rings of growth, and this tree had -probably been preceded by other forest-giants no less venerable. In the -trenches themselves, which had been gradually filled up by vegetable -_débris_, trees had formerly grown which, after having lived for -hundreds of years, had succumbed and decayed; being then replaced by -other generations of vegetation, the duration of which had been quite as -long. When, therefore, we consider these workings of the native -copper-mines of Lake Superior, we are compelled to ascribe the -above-named excavations to a considerable antiquity. - -In many of these ancient diggings stone hammers have been found, -sometimes in large quantities. One of the diggings contained some great -diorite hatchets which were worked by the aid of a handle, and also -large cylindrical masses of the same substance hollowed out to receive a -handle. These sledges, which are too heavy to be lifted by one man -alone, were doubtless used for breaking off lumps of copper, and then -reducing them to fragments of a size which could easily be carried away. -If we may put faith in Professor Mather, who explored these ancient -mines, some of the rocks still bore the mark of the blow they had -received from these granite rollers. - -The work employed in adapting the native copper was of the most simple -character. The Indians hammered it cold, and, taking into account its -malleable character, they were enabled with tolerable facility to give -it any shape that they wished. - -In America, just as in Europe, a great number of specimens of -pre-historic pottery have been collected. They are, it must be -confessed, superior to most of those found in the ancient world. The -material of which they were made is very fine, excepting in the case of -the vessels of every-day use, in which the clay is mixed with quartz -reduced to powder; the shapes of the vessels are of the purest -character, and the utmost care has been devoted to the workmanship. They -do not appear to have been constructed by the aid of the potter's wheel; -but Messrs. Squier and Davis, very competent American archæologists, are -of opinion that the Indians, in doing this kind of work, made use of a -stick held in the middle. The workman turned this stick round and round -inside the mass of clay, which an assistant kept on adding to all round -the circumference. - -In regard to pottery, the most interesting specimens are the pipes, -which we should, indeed, expect to meet with in the native country of -the tobacco plant and the classic calumet. Many of these pipes are -carved in the shape of animals, which are very faithfully represented. -These figures are very various in character, including quadrupeds and -birds of all kinds. Indeed, in the state of Ohio seven pipes were found -on each of which the manatee was so plainly depicted that it is -impossible to mistake the sculptor's intention. This discovery is a -curious one, from the fact that at the present day the manatee is not -met with except in localities 300 or 400 leagues distant, as in Florida. - -The pre-historic ornaments and trinkets found in North America consist -of bracelets, necklaces, earrings, &c. The bracelets are copper rings -bent by hammering, so that the two ends meet. The necklaces are composed -of shell beads (of which considerable quantities have been collected) -shells, animals' teeth, and small flakes of mica, all perforated by a -hole so as to be strung on a thread. The earrings also are made of the -same material. - -All these objects--weapons, implements, pottery, and ornaments--have -been derived from certain gigantic works which exhibit some similarity, -and occasionally even a striking resemblance, to the great earthwork -constructions of the Old World. American archæologists have arranged -these works in various classes according to the probable purpose for -which they were intended; we shall now dwell for a short time on these -divisions. - -In the first place, we have the _sepulchral mounds_ or _tumuli_, the -numbers of which may be reckoned by tens of thousands. They vary in -height from 6 feet to 80 feet, and are generally of a circular form; -being found either separately or in groups. Most frequently only one -skeleton is found in them, either reduced almost to ashes, or--which is -more rare--in its ordinary condition, and in a crouching posture. By the -side of the corpse are deposited trinkets, and, in a few cases, weapons. -A practice the very contrary to this now obtains in America; and from -this we may conclude that a profound modification of their ideas has -taken place among the Indians since the pre-historic epochs. - -It is now almost a certain fact that some of the small _tumuli_ are -nothing but the remains of mud-huts, especially as they do not contain -either ashes or bones. Others, on the contrary, and some of the largest, -contain a quantity of bones; the latter must be allied with the -_ossuaries_ or bone-pits, some of which contain the remains of several -thousand individuals. - -It would be difficult to explain the existence of accumulations of this -kind if we did not know from the accounts of ancient authors that the -Indians were in the habit of assembling every eight or ten years in some -appointed spot to inter all together in one mass the bones of their dead -friends, which had been previously exhumed. This singular ceremony was -called "the feast of the dead." - -We shall not say much here as to the _sacrificial mounds_, because no -very precise agreement has yet been arrived at as to their exact -signification. Their chief characteristics are, that, in the first -place, they are nearly always found within certain sacred enclosures of -which we shall have more to say further on, and also that they cover a -sort of altar placed on the surface of the ground, and made of stone or -baked clay. In the opinion of certain archæologists, this supposed altar -is nothing but the site of a former fire-hearth, and the mound itself a -habitation converted into a tomb after the death of its proprietor. It -will therefore be best to reserve our judgment as to the existence of -the human sacrifices of which these places might have been the scene, -until we obtain some more complete knowledge of the matter. - -The _Temple-Mounds_ are hillocks in the shape of a truncated pyramid, -with paths or steps leading to the summit, and sometimes with terraces -at different heights. They invariably terminate in a platform of varying -extent, but sometimes reaching very considerable dimensions. That of -Cahokia, in Illinois, is about 100 feet in height, and at the base is -700 feet long and 500 feet wide. There is no doubt that these mounds -were not exclusively used as temples, and, adopting as our authority -several instances taken from Indian history, we may be permitted to -think that on this upper terrace they were in the habit of building the -dwelling of their chief. - -The most curious of these earthworks are, beyond question, those which -the American archæologists have designated by the name of -_animal-mounds_. They consist of gigantic bas-reliefs formed on the -surface of the ground, and representing men, mammals, birds, reptiles, -and even inanimate objects, such as crosses, pipes, &c. They exist in -thousands in Wisconsin, being chiefly found between the Mississippi and -Lake Michigan, and along the war-path of the Indians. Their height is -never very considerable, and it is but seldom that they reach so much as -6 feet; but their length and breadth is sometimes enormously developed. -Many of these figures are copied very exactly from Nature; but there -are, on the other hand, some the meaning of which it is very difficult -to discover, because they have been injured by the influence of -atmospheric action during a long course of ages. - -In Dale county there is an interesting group composed of a man with -extended arms, six quadrupeds, a simple _tumulus_, and seven mounds -without any artistic pretensions. The man measured 125 feet long, and -nearly 140 feet from the end of one arm to the other. The quadrupeds are -from 100 to 120 feet long. - -The representation of lizards and tortoises are frequently recognised in -these monstrous figures. A group of mounds, situate near the village of -Pewaukee, included when it was discovered two lizards and seven -tortoises. One of these tortoises measured 470 feet. At Waukesha there -was found a monstrous "turtle" admirably executed, the tail of which -stretched over an extent of 250 feet. - -On a high hill near Granville, in the state of Ohio, a representation is -sculptured of the reptile which is now known under the name of -alligator. Its paws are 40 feet long, and its total length exceeds 250 -feet. In the same state there exists the figure of a vast serpent, the -most remarkable work of its kind; its head occupies the summit of a -hill, round which the body extends for about 800 feet, forming graceful -coils and undulations; the mouth is opened wide, as if the monster was -swallowing its prey. The prey is represented by an oval-shaped mass of -earth, part of which lies in the creature's jaws. This mass of earth is -about 160 feet long and 80 feet wide, and its height is about 4 feet. In -some localities excavations are substituted for these raised figures; -that is to say, that the delineations of the animals are sunk instead of -being in relief-a strange variety in these strange works. - -The mind may readily be perplexed when endeavouring to trace out the -origin and purpose of works of this kind. They do not, in a general way, -contain any human remains, and consequently could not have been intended -to be used as sepulchres. Up to the present time, therefore, the -circumstances which have accompanied the construction of these eminently -remarkable pre-historic monuments are veiled in the darkest mystery. - -We now have to speak of those enclosures which are divided by American -archæologists into the classes of _defensive_ and _sacred_. This -distinction is, however, based on very uncertain data, and it is -probable that a large portion of the so-called _sacred_ enclosures were -in the first place constructed for a simply _defensive_ purpose. They -were, in general, composed of a wall made of stones, and an internal or -external ditch. They often assumed the form of a parallelogram, and even -of a perfect square or circle, from which it has been inferred that the -ancient Indians must have possessed an unit of measurement, and some -means of determining angles. These walls sometimes embraced a -considerable area, and not unfrequently inside the principal enclosure -there were other smaller enclosures, flanked with defensive mounds -performing the service of bastions. In some cases enclosures of -different shapes are grouped side by side, either joined by avenues or -entirely independent of one another. - -The most important of these groups is that at Newark, in the Valley of -Scioto; it covers an area of 4 square miles, and is composed of an -octagon, a square, and two large circles. The external wall of one of -these circles is even at the present day 50 feet in width at the base, -and 13 feet high; there are several doorways in it, near which the -height of the wall is increased about 3 feet. Inside there is a ditch 6 -feet in depth, and 13 feet in the vicinity of the doors, its width being -about 40 feet. The whole enclosure is now covered by gigantic trees, -perhaps 500 or 600 years old--a fact which points to a considerable -antiquity for the date of its construction. - -When we reflect on the almost countless multitude, and the magnificent -proportions of the monuments we have just described, we are compelled to -recognise the fact that the American valleys must at some early date -have been much more densely populated than at the time when Europeans -first made their way thither. These peoples must have formed -considerable communities, and have attained to a somewhat high state of -civilisation--at all events a state very superior to that which is at -present the attribute of the Indian tribes. - -Tribes which were compelled to seek in hunting their means of every-day -existence, could never have succeeded in raising constructions of this -kind. They must therefore necessarily have found other resources in -agricultural pursuits. - -This inference is moreover confirmed by facts. In several localities in -the United States the ground is covered with small elevations known -under the name of _Indian corn-hills_; they take their rise from the -fact that the maize, having been planted every year in the same spot, -has ultimately, after a long course of time, formed rising grounds. The -traces of ancient corn-patches have also been discovered symmetrically -arranged in regular beds and parallel rows. - -Can any date be assigned to this period of semi-civilisation which, -instead of improving more and more like civilisation in Europe, became -suddenly eclipsed, owing to causes which are unknown to us? This -question must be answered in the negative, if we are called upon to fix -any settled and definite date. Nevertheless, the conclusion to which -American archæologists have arrived is, that the history of the New -World must be divided into four definite periods. - -The first period includes the rise of agriculture and industrial skill; -the second, the construction of mounds and inclosures; the third, the -formation of the "garden beds." In the last period, the American nation -again relapsed into savage life and to the free occupation of the spots -which had been devoted to agriculture. - -In his work on 'Pre-historic Times' Sir John Lubbock, who has furnished -us with most of these details, estimates that this course of events -would not necessarily have required a duration of time of more than 3000 -years, although he confesses that this figure might be much more -considerable. But Dr. Douler, another _savant_, regards this subject in -a very different way. Near New Orleans he discovered a human skeleton -and the remains of a fire, to which, basing his calculations on more or -less admissible _data_, he attributes an antiquity of 500 centuries! -Young America would thus be very ancient indeed! - -By this instance we may see how much uncertainty surrounds the history -of primitive man in America; and it may be readily understood why we -have thought it necessary to adhere closely to scientific ideas and to -limit ourselves to those facts which are peculiar to Europe. To apply to -the whole world the results which have been verified in Europe is a much -surer course of procedure than describing local and imperfectly studied -phenomena, which, in their interpretation, lead to differences in the -estimate of time, such as that between 3000 and 50,000 years! - - - - -CONCLUSION. - - -Before bringing our work to a close we may be permitted to retrace the -path we have trod, and to embrace in one rapid glance the immense space -we have traversed. - -We have now arrived at a point of time very far removed from that of the -dweller in caves, the man who was contemporary with the great bear and -the mammoth! Scarcely, perhaps, have we preserved a reminiscence of -those mighty quadrupeds whose broad shadows seem to flit indistinctly -across the dim light of the quaternary epoch. Face to face with these -gigantic creatures, which have definitively disappeared from the surface -of our globe, there were, as we have seen, beings of a human aspect who, -dwelling in caves and hollows of the earth, clothed themselves in the -skins of beasts and cleft flakes of stone in order to form their weapons -and implements. We can hardly have failed to feel a certain interest in -and sympathy with them, when tracing out the dim vestiges of their -progress; for, in spite of their rude appearance, in spite of their -coarse customs and their rough mode of life, they were our brethren, our -ancestors, and the far-distant precursors of modern civilisation. - -We have given due commendation to their efforts and to their progress. -After a protracted use of weapons and implements simply chipped out of -the rough flint, we have seen them adopt weapons and instruments of -polished stone, that is, objects which had undergone that material -preparation which is the germ of the industrial skill of primitive -nations. - -Aided by these polished-stone instruments, added to those of bone and -reindeer's or stag's horn, they did not fear to enter into a -conflict--which every day became more and more successful--with all the -external forces which menaced them. As we have seen, they brought under -the yoke of servitude various kinds of animals; they made the dog and -the horse the companion and the auxiliary of their labour. The sheep, -the ox, and other ruminants were converted into domesticated cattle, -capable of insuring a constant supply of food. - -After the lapse of ages metals made their appearance!--metals, the most -precious acquisition of all, the pledge of the advent of a new era, -replete with power and activity, to primitive man. Instruments made of -stone, bone, reindeer or stag's horn, were replaced by those composed of -metal. In all the communities of man civilisation and metals seem to be -constant companions. Though bronze may have served for the forging of -swords and spears, it also provides the material for implements of -peaceful labour. Owing to the efforts of continuous toil, owing also to -the development of intelligence which is its natural consequence, the -empire of man over the world of nature is still increasing, and man's -moral improvement follows the same law of progression. But who shall -enumerate the ages which have elapsed whilst these achievements have -been realised? - -But thy task is not yet terminated! Onward, and still onward, brave -pioneer of progress! The path is a long one and the goal is not yet -attained! Once thou wert contented with bronze, now thou hast -iron--iron, that terrible power, whose function is to mangle and to -kill--the cause of so much blood and so many bitter tears; but also the -beneficent metal which fertilises and gives life, affording nutriment to -the body as well as to the mind. The Romans applied the name of _ferrum_ -to the blade of their swords; but in after times _ferrum_ was also the -term for the peaceful ploughshare. The metal which had brought with it -terror, devastation, and death, erelong introduced among nations peace, -wealth and happiness. - -And now, O man, thy work is nearly done! The mighty conflicts against -nature are consummated, and thy universal empire is for ever sure! -Animals are subject to thy will and even to thy fancies. At thy command, -the obedient earth opens its bosom and unfolds the riches it contains. -Thou hast turned the course of rivers, cleared the mountain sides of the -forests which covered them, and cultivated the plains and valleys; by -thy culture the earth has become a verdant and fruitful garden. Thou -hast changed the whole aspect of the globe, and mayst well call thyself -the lord of creation! - -Doubtless the expanding circle of thy peaceful conquests will not stop -here, and who can tell how far thy sway may extend? Onward then! still -onward! proud and unfettered in thy vigilant and active course towards -new and unknown destinies! - -But look to it, lest thy pride lead thee to forget thy origin. However -great may be thy moral grandeur, and however complete thy empire over a -docile nature, confess and acknowledge every hour the Almighty Power of -the great Creator. Submit thyself before thy Lord and Master, the God of -goodness and of love, the Author of thy existence, who has reserved for -thee still higher destinies in another life. Learn to show thyself -worthy of the supreme blessing--the happy immortality which awaits thee -in a world above, if thou hast merited it by a worship conceived in -spirit and in truth, and by the fulfilment of thy duty both towards God -and towards thy neighbour! - - - - -ALPHABETICAL INDEX - -TO - -AUTHORS' NAMES CITED IN THIS VOLUME. - - - Alberti, 228 - - Arcelin, 120 - - Austen (Godwin), 9 - - - Baudot, 178 - - Bertrand, 187, 197 - - Bocchi, 82 - - Bonstetten, 187 - - Borel, 319 - - Boucher de Perthes, 8, 9, 16, 17, 18, 45, 82, 161, 162, 163, 164, - 165, 166 - - Boué (Aimé), 6 - - Bourgeois (Abbé), 3, 16, 17, 73, 149 - - Boutin, 74 - - Broca, 114, 181 - - Brun (V.), 88, 98, 106, 115, 119 - - Buckland, 6 - - Busk, 36, 81, 182 - - - Camper, 5 - - Cazalis de Fondouce, 128 - - Chantre, 120 - - Chevalier (Abbé), 147 - - Christel (de), 7, 74 - - Christy, 73, 86, 90, 95, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118 - - Clément, 225 - - Cochet (Abbé), 177 - - Costa de Beauregard, 91, 319 - - Cuvier, 6, 7 - - - Dampier, 132, 219 - - Darwin, 132 - - Davis (Dr. Barnard), 36, 81, 337 - - Delaunay, 73 - - Desnoyers, 9, 20, 57 - - Desor, 175, 217 _note_, 220, 221, 227, 242, 244, 251, 252, 257, 260, - 271, 289, 310, 321, 324, 329 - - Dolomieu, 156, 157 - - Dumont d'Urville, 219, 225 - - Dupont (Édouard), 82, 94, 95, 104, 112, 113, 114, 116, 120 - - - Edwards (Milne), 12, 120, 127 - - Esper, 6 - - Evans, 11, 12, 51, 131, 149 - - - Falconer, 10, 11, 76 - - Faudel, 82 - - Ferry (de), 73, 91, 120 - - Filhol, 15, 75, 127, 169, 181 - - Flower, 11 - - Fontan, 11, 74, 119 - - Forchhammer, 131 - - Forel, 176 - - Foresi (Raffaello), 181 - - Forgeais, 178, 202 - - Foulon-Menard, 169 - - Fournet, 158 - - Fraas, 104 - - Franchet, 73 - - Frere, 6, 12 - - Fuhlrott, 80 - - - Garrigou, 15, 16, 75, 110, 119, 127, 169, 181 - - Gastaldi and Moro, 227 - - Gaudry (Albert), 11 - - Gervais (Paul), 74, 128 - - Gilliéron, 267, 292, 293 - - Gmelin, 299 - - Gosse, 11, 12 - - Gratiolet and Alix, 31, 33, 34 - - Guérin, 72 - - - Hannour and Himelette, 179 - - Hauzeur, 104 - - Hébert, 11 - - Heer, 265 - - Hernandez, 160 - - His, 290 - - Hochstetter, 229 - - Husson, 72 - - Huxley, 26, 80 - - - Issel, 91 - - - Jeitteler, 239 - - Joly, 8 - - Joly-Leterme, 120 - - - Keller, 135, 175, 216, 220, 225, 227, 280, 282 - - Kemp, 6 - - Knapp, 336 - - Kosterlitz, 228 - - - Lambert (l'Abbé), 3 - - Lartet, 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 101, 102, - 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118, 120, 180 - - Lawrence, 31 - - Leguay, 150, 153, 195, 200 - - Léveillé, 147 - - Lewis (Cornewall), 208 - - Lioy (Paolo), 228 - - Löhle, 223 - - Lubbock (Sir John), 97, 131, 189, 190, 195, 200, 219, 230, 275, 342 - - Lund, 9, 77 - - Lyell (Sir Charles), 11, 20, 36, 132, 224 - - - Marcel de Serres, 3, 7 - - Martin, 12 - - Morlot, 94, 217 _note_, 249, 291, 300, 301 - - Mortillet, de, 89, 131 _note_, 172, 227, 245, 283, 308 _note_ - - Mudge, 231 - - Mylne, 11 - - - Naegeli, 239 - - Nilsson, 116, 189, 195, 208, 209 - - Noulet, 10 - - - Osculati, 239 - - Otz, 226 - - Owen, 91, 119 - - - Peccadeau de l'Isle, 90, 106, 107, 119 - - Peigné Delacour, 12 - - Penguelly, 10 - - Penguilly l'Haridon, 149 - - Pereira de Costa, 132 - - Pigorini, 232, 235, 236, 238 - - Place, 160 - - Pommerol, 171 - - Prestwich, 11, 46, 131 - - Pruner-Bey, 18, 32, 33, 35, 37, 81, 113, 114, 181 - - - Quatrefages, de, 18, 30, 31, 38 - - Quiquerez, 301, 302, 303, 308 - - - Rabut, 229 - - Rames, 15 - - Ramsauer, 312, 314 - - Rauchet, 227 - - Reboux, 12 - - Reffye, 321 - - Rigollot, 10, 54 - - Robert (Eugène), 12, 149 - - Rochebrune, 157 - - Rougemont (de), 320 - - Rütimeyer, 265, 268 - - - Saussure, de, 160 - - Sauvage and Hamy, 131 - - Schaaffhausen, 37, 81 - - Scheuchzer, 5 - - Schild, 226 - - Schmerling, 7, 77 - - Schmidt, 284, 287 _note_ - - Schwab, 248, 250 - - Silber, 228 - - Squier, 337 - - Steenstrup, 130, 131, 133 - - Steinhauer, 66 - - Stopani (l'Abbé), 227 - - Strobel, 132, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239 - - - Thioly, 226 - - Tournal, 7 - - Troyon, 175, 217 _note_, 225, 253 - - - Uhlmann, 134 - - - Vallier, 229 - - Van Beneden, 112, 113 - - Vibraye (Marquis de), 11, 73, 94, 98 - - Vicq-d'Azyr, 31 - - Vogt, 26, 80, 181, 280, 281, 282 - - - Welker, 32 - - Wilde (Sir W. R.), 230 - - Wood, 76 - - Worsaae, 131, 175, 276 - - Wyatt, 12 - - -LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING -CROSS. - - - - - +----------------------------------------------------------------- + - | Transcriber's Note: | - | | - | * Obvious punctuation and spelling errors repaired. | - | Word combinations that appeared with and without hyphens | - | were changed to the predominant hyphenated form. | - | Original spelling and its variations were not standardized. | - | | - | * Corrections in the spelling of names were made when those | - | could be verified. Otherwise the variations were left as they | - | were. | - | | - | * Footnotes were moved to the ends of the chapters in which | - | they belonged and numbered in one continuous sequence. | - | The pagination in index entries which referred to these | - | footnotes was not changed to match their new locations | - | and is therefore incorrect. | - +----------------------------------------------------------------- + - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Primitive Man, by Louis Figuier - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMITIVE MAN *** - -***** This file should be named 42380-8.txt or 42380-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/3/8/42380/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Christian Boissonnas and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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