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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 01:16:14 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 01:16:14 -0800 |
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diff --git a/42380-h/42380-h.htm b/42380-h/42380-h.htm index 1668aa7..b467b3c 100644 --- a/42380-h/42380-h.htm +++ b/42380-h/42380-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Primitive Man by Louis Figuier.</title> @@ -227,46 +227,7 @@ font-family:sans-serif, serif; } </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Primitive Man, by Louis Figuier - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Primitive Man - -Author: Louis Figuier - -Release Date: March 20, 2013 [EBook #42380] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMITIVE MAN *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Christian Boissonnas and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42380 ***</div> <div class="figcenter"><a name="cover" id="cover"></a> <img src="images/i_cover.jpg" alt="Cover illus." /></div> @@ -300,8 +261,8 @@ BELONGING TO PRE-HISTORIC AGES.</small></p> fuerunt.</span> <span class="line">Et lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami.</span> <span class="line">Et flamma atque ignes, postquam sunt cognita primum.</span> - <span class="line">Posterius ferri vis est ærisque reperta;</span> - <span class="line">Et prior æris erat quam ferri cognitus usus."</span> + <span class="line">Posterius ferri vis est ærisque reperta;</span> + <span class="line">Et prior æris erat quam ferri cognitus usus."</span> <span class="right"> <i>Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, lib. V., v.</i> 1281-5. </span> </small></div> @@ -318,7 +279,7 @@ alt="Horizontal line" width="100" height="25" /> </div> <p><span class="smcap">The</span> Editor of the English translation of 'L'Homme Primitif,' has not deemed it necessary to reproduce the original Preface, in which M. Figuier states his purpose in offering a new work on pre-historic -archæology to the French public, already acquainted in translation +archæology to the French public, already acquainted in translation with the works on the subject by Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock. Now that the book has taken its position in France, it is only needful to point out its claims to the attention of English @@ -346,8 +307,8 @@ those who will follow it up in the more minute researches of Nilsson, Keller, Lartet, Christy, Lubbock, Mortillet, Desor, Troyon, Gastaldi, and others.</p> -<p>The value of the work to English archæologists, however, is not -merely that of a clear popular manual; pre-historic archæology, worked +<p>The value of the work to English archæologists, however, is not +merely that of a clear popular manual; pre-historic archæology, worked as it has been in several countries, takes in each its proper local colour, and brings forward its proper local evidence. It is true that much of its material is used as common property by scientific men at large. @@ -358,7 +319,7 @@ writer would take his data more amply from the explorations of caves of the south of France by De Vibraye, Garrigou, and Filhol—where the English teacher would select his specimens from the Christy or the Blackmore Museum, the French teacher would have recourse to the -Musée de Saint-Germain. Thus far, the English student has in +Musée de Saint-Germain. Thus far, the English student has in Figuier's 'Primitive Man' not a work simply incorporated from familiar materials, but to a great extent bringing forward evidence not readily accessible, or quite new to him.</p> @@ -376,7 +337,7 @@ of the objects of which they represent the use.</p> <p>The solid distinctness of this evidence from actual relics of pre-historic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"> [Pg vii]</a></span>life is one of the reasons which have contributed to the -extraordinary interest which pre-historic archæology has excited in +extraordinary interest which pre-historic archæology has excited in an age averse to vague speculation, but singularly appreciative of arguments conducted by strict reasoning on facts. The study of this modern science has supplied a fundamental element to the general @@ -387,7 +348,7 @@ attention. Thus, in bringing forward a new work on 'Primitive Man,' there is happily no need of insisting on the importance of its subject-matter, or of attempting to force unappreciated knowledge on an unwilling public. It is only necessary to attest its filling an open -place in the literature of pre-historic archæology.</p> +place in the literature of pre-historic archæology.</p> <p class="right">E. B. T.<br /> </p> @@ -1074,7 +1035,7 @@ A Feast during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving)</a>. <td class="ci1">42.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_129a.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for sewing Reindeer Skins, found in -the Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord)</a>. +the Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">92</td> </tr> @@ -1106,7 +1067,7 @@ Ornament made of the bony part of a Horse's Ear</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">46.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_132.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Spear-head, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Périgord)</a>. +Spear-head, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Périgord)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">95</td> </tr> @@ -1114,7 +1075,7 @@ Spear-head, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Périgord)</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">47.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_133a.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Worked Flint from Périgord (Knife)</a>. +Worked Flint from Périgord (Knife)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">96</td> </tr> @@ -1122,7 +1083,7 @@ Worked Flint from Périgord (Knife)</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">48.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_133b.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Worked Flint from Périgord (Hatchet)</a>. +Worked Flint from Périgord (Hatchet)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3"><i>ib.</i></td> </tr> @@ -1130,7 +1091,7 @@ Worked Flint from Périgord (Hatchet)</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">49.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_134a.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife)</a>. +Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">97</td> </tr> @@ -1138,7 +1099,7 @@ Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife)</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">50.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_134b.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper)</a>. +Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3"><i>ib.</i></td> </tr> @@ -1217,7 +1178,7 @@ Knuckle-bone of a Reindeer's Foot, bored with a hole and used as a Whistle</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">60.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_141b.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Staff of authority, in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave of Périgord</a>. +Staff of authority, in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave of Périgord</a>. </td> <td class="ci3"><i>ib.</i></td> </tr> @@ -1233,7 +1194,7 @@ Another Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">62.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_142.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -A Geode, used as a Cooking Vessel(?), found in the Cave of La Madelaine (Périgord)</a>. +A Geode, used as a Cooking Vessel(?), found in the Cave of La Madelaine (Périgord)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">103</td> </tr> @@ -1322,7 +1283,7 @@ Staff of Authority, on which are graven Representations of a Man, two Horses, an <tr> <td class="ci1">73.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_155.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Skull, found at Furfooz by M. Édouard Dupont</a>. +Skull, found at Furfooz by M. Édouard Dupont</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">114</td> </tr> @@ -1791,7 +1752,7 @@ Danish <i>Dolmen</i></a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">132.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_241a.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -<i>Dolmen</i> at Connéré (Marne)</a>. +<i>Dolmen</i> at Connéré (Marne)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">186</td> </tr> @@ -1848,7 +1809,7 @@ Passage-Tomb at Plauharmel (Morbihan)</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">139.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_244b.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Passage-Tomb, the so-called <i>Table de César</i>, at Lockmariaker (Morbihan)</a>. +Passage-Tomb, the so-called <i>Table de César</i>, at Lockmariaker (Morbihan)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3"><i>ib.</i></td> </tr> @@ -1918,7 +1879,7 @@ A Founder's Workshop during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving)</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">148.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_279.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Section of the <i>Ténevière</i> of Hauterive</a>. +Section of the <i>Ténevière</i> of Hauterive</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">220</td> </tr> @@ -2400,7 +2361,7 @@ A Feast during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving)</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">209.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_341a.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Bronze Sword in the Museum of Neuchâtel</a>. +Bronze Sword in the Museum of Neuchâtel</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">272</td> </tr> @@ -2582,7 +2543,7 @@ Primitive Furnace for Smelting Iron (whole page engraving)</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">232.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_383.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. +Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">310</td> </tr> @@ -2725,7 +2686,7 @@ Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">251.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_401.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La Tène (Neuchâtel)</a>. +Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La Tène (Neuchâtel)</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">324</td> </tr> @@ -2773,7 +2734,7 @@ the Iron Epoch</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">257.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_405c.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. +Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. </td> <td class="ci3"><i>ib.</i></td> </tr> @@ -2781,7 +2742,7 @@ Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">258.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_406.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -<i>Fibula</i>, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. +<i>Fibula</i>, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">327</td> </tr> @@ -2789,7 +2750,7 @@ Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">259.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_407a.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. +Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. </td> <td class="ci3">328</td> </tr> @@ -2797,7 +2758,7 @@ Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">260.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_407b.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. +Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. </td> <td class="ci3"><i>ib.</i></td> </tr> @@ -2805,7 +2766,7 @@ Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. <tr> <td class="ci1">261.</td> <td class="ci2"><a href="#i_407c.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"> -Iron Spring-scissors, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. +Iron Spring-scissors, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel</a>. </td> <td class="ci3"><i>ib.</i></td> </tr> @@ -2857,8 +2818,8 @@ the Old Testament stated that man was created 6000 years ago. Now, the fact is, nothing of the kind can be found in the Book of Genesis. It is only the commentators and the compilers of chronological systems who have put forward this date as that of the first -appearance of the human race. M. Édouard Lartet, who was called, -in 1869, to the chair of palæontology in the Museum of Natural +appearance of the human race. M. Édouard Lartet, who was called, +in 1869, to the chair of palæontology in the Museum of Natural <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"> [Pg 2]</a></span> History of Paris, reminds us, in the following passage taken from one of his elegant dissertations, that it is the chronologists alone who @@ -2897,27 +2858,27 @@ idea that man was created only 6000 years ago.</p> <p>There is, therefore, no need for surprise when we learn that certain members of the Catholic clergy have devoted themselves with energy to the study of pre-historic man. Mgr. Meignan, Bishop of -Châlons-sur-Marne, is one of the best-informed men in France as +Châlons-sur-Marne, is one of the best-informed men in France as respects this new science; he cultivates it with the utmost zeal, and his personal researches have added much to the sum of our knowledge of this question. Under the title of 'Le Monde et l'Homme Primitif <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"> [Pg 3]</a></span> selon la Bible,'<a name="fnanchor_2" id="fnanchor_2"></a><a href="#footnote_2" -class="fnanchor">[2]</a> the learned Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne published, +class="fnanchor">[2]</a> the learned Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne published, in 1869, a voluminous work, in which, taking up the subjects discussed -by Marcel de Serres in his "Cosmogonie de Moïse, comparée aux Faits -Géologiques,"<a name="fnanchor_3" id="fnanchor_3"></a><a href="#footnote_3" +by Marcel de Serres in his "Cosmogonie de Moïse, comparée aux Faits +Géologiques,"<a name="fnanchor_3" id="fnanchor_3"></a><a href="#footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and enlarging upon the facts which science has recently acquired as to the subject of primitive man, he seeks to establish the coincidence of all these data with the records of Revelation.</p> -<p>M. l'Abbé Lambert has recently published a work on 'L'Homme +<p>M. l'Abbé Lambert has recently published a work on 'L'Homme Primitif et la Bible,'<a name="fnanchor_4" id="fnanchor_4"></a><a href="#footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> in which he proves that the discoveries of modern science concerning the antiquity of man are in no way opposed to the records of Revelation in the Book of Moses.</p> -<p>Lastly, it is a member of the clerical body, M. l'Abbé Bourgeois, +<p>Lastly, it is a member of the clerical body, M. l'Abbé Bourgeois, who, more a royalist than the king—that is, more advanced in his views than most contemporary geologists—is in favour of tracing back to the tertiary epoch the earliest date of the existence of man. @@ -2929,7 +2890,7 @@ independence of this question in relation to catholic dogma being evidently shown.</p> <p>Thanks to the mutual support which has been afforded by the three -sister-sciences—geology, palæontology, and archæology,—thanks to +sister-sciences—geology, palæontology, and archæology,—thanks to the happy combinations which these sciences have presented to the efforts of men animated with an ardent zeal for the investigation of the truth;—and thanks, lastly, to the unbounded interest which @@ -3011,7 +2972,7 @@ investigations which have contributed to the knowledge on which is based the newly-formed science which treats of the practical starting-point of mankind.</p> -<p>Palæontology, as a science, does not count more than half a century +<p>Palæontology, as a science, does not count more than half a century of existence. We scarcely seem, indeed, to have raised more than one corner of the veil which covers the relics of an extinct world; as yet, for instance, we know absolutely nothing of all that sleeps buried in @@ -3047,7 +3008,7 @@ found in great numbers in various parts of the world. This hatchet was roughly sketched, and the design published in 1715. The original still exists in the collection at the British Museum.</p> -<p>In 1797, John Frere, an English archæologist, discovered at Hoxne, +<p>In 1797, John Frere, an English archæologist, discovered at Hoxne, in Suffolk, under strata of quaternary rocks, some flint weapons, intermingled with bones of animals belonging to extinct species. Esper concluded that these weapons and the men who made them were @@ -3055,20 +3016,20 @@ anterior to the formation of the beds in which they were found.</p> <p>According to M. Lartet, the honour of having been the first to proclaim the high antiquity of the human species must be attributed -to Aimé Boué, a French geologist residing in Germany. In 1823, +to Aimé Boué, a French geologist residing in Germany. In 1823, he found in the quaternary loam (loess) of the Valley of the Rhine some human bones which he presented to Cuvier and Brongniart as those of men who lived in the quaternary epoch.</p> <p>In 1823, Dr. Buckland, the English geologist, published his -'Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,' a work which was principally devoted to a +'Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,' a work which was principally devoted to a description of the Kirkdale Cave, in which the author combined all the facts then known which tended in favour of the co-existence of man and the antediluvian animals.</p> <p>Cuvier, too, was not so indisposed as he is generally said to have been, to admit the existence of man in the quaternary epoch. In his -work on 'Ossements Fossiles,' and his 'Discours sur les Révolutions +work on 'Ossements Fossiles,' and his 'Discours sur les Révolutions du Globe,' the immortal naturalist discusses the pros and cons with regard to this question, and, notwithstanding the insufficiency of the data which were then forthcoming, he felt warranted in saying:—</p> @@ -3089,7 +3050,7 @@ facts.</p> of shaped flints and other implements belonging to primitive man, existing in diluvial beds.</p> -<p>In 1826, M. Tournal, of Narbonne, a French archæologist and +<p>In 1826, M. Tournal, of Narbonne, a French archæologist and geologist, published an account of the discoveries which he had made in a cave in the department of Aude, in which he found bones of the bison and reindeer fashioned by the hand of man, accompanied by the @@ -3098,9 +3059,9 @@ men who had made their residence in this cave.</p> <p>Three years afterwards, M. de Christol, of Montpellier, subsequently Professor in the University of Science of Grenoble, found human -bones intimately mixed up with remains of the great bear, hyæna, +bones intimately mixed up with remains of the great bear, hyæna, rhinoceros, &c., in the caverns of Pondres and Souvignargues -(Hérault). In the last of these caverns fragments of pottery formed +(Hérault). In the last of these caverns fragments of pottery formed a part of the relics.</p> <p>All these striking facts were put together and discussed by Marcel @@ -3110,7 +3071,7 @@ de Serres, Professor in the University of Science at Montpellier, in his <p>The two bone-caverns of Engis and Enghihoul (Belgium) have furnished proofs of the same kind. In 1833, Schmerling, a learned Belgian geologist, discovered in these caverns two human skulls, -mixed with the teeth of the rhinoceros, elephant, bear, hyæna, &c. +mixed with the teeth of the rhinoceros, elephant, bear, hyæna, &c. The human bones were rubbed and worn away like those of the animals. The bones of the latter presented, besides, traces of human workmanship. Lastly, as if no evidence should be wanting, flints @@ -3133,7 +3094,7 @@ brought forward facts of a similar nature.</p> <p>In 1835, M. Joly, at that time Professor at the Lyceum of Montpellier—where I (the author) attended on his course of Natural History—now Professor in the Faculty of Sciences at Toulouse, -found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère) the skull of a cave-bear, on +found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère) the skull of a cave-bear, on which an arrow had left its evident traces. Close by was a fragment of pottery bearing the imprints of the fingers of the man who moulded it.</p> @@ -3144,7 +3105,7 @@ high antiquity of our species, should have met with so much opposition and incredulity; or that he should have had to strive against so much indifference, when, beginning with the year 1836, he began to maintain this idea in a series of communications addressed to the -Société d'Emulation of Abbeville.</p> +Société d'Emulation of Abbeville.</p> <p>The horizontal strata of the quarternary beds, known under the name of <i>diluvial</i>, form banks of different shades and material, which @@ -3164,7 +3125,7 @@ than all the glory of a Louvre."</p> ardently to the search in the diluvial beds, either for the bony relics of man, or, at all events, for the material indications of his primitive industry. In the year 1838 he had the honour of submitting to the -Société d'Emulation, at Abbeville, his first specimens of the antediluvian +Société d'Emulation, at Abbeville, his first specimens of the antediluvian hatchet.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"> [Pg 9]</a></span></p> <p>In the course of the year 1839, Boucher de Perthes took these @@ -3180,7 +3141,7 @@ traces of chipping, and the angles were blunted; their flattened shape, too, differed from that of the polished hatchets, the only kind that were then known. It was certainly necessary to see with the eyes of faith in order to discern the traces of man's work. "I," says the -Abbeville archæologist, "had these 'eyes of faith,' but no one shared +Abbeville archæologist, "had these 'eyes of faith,' but no one shared them with me." He then made up his mind to seek for help in his labour, and trained workmen to dig in the diluvial beds. Before long he was able to collect, in the quarternary beds at @@ -3221,7 +3182,7 @@ under a layer of stalagmite, the remains of men and antediluvian animals mingled together.</p> <p>The year 1847 was also marked by the appearance of the first -volume of the 'Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes,' by Boucher +volume of the 'Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes,' by Boucher de Perthes; this contained about 1600 plates of the objects which had been discovered in the excavations which the author had caused to be made since the year 1836.</p> @@ -3233,7 +3194,7 @@ researches, belong to the quaternary epoch.</p> opponents of the opinions of Boucher de Perthes, actually himself discovered in 1854 some wrought flints in the quaternary deposits at Saint Acheul, near Amiens, and it was not long before he took his -stand under the banner of the Abbeville archæologist.</p> +stand under the banner of the Abbeville archæologist.</p> <p>The <i>fauna</i> of the Amiens deposits is similar to that of the Abbeville beds. The lower deposits of gravel, in which the wrought flints @@ -3279,7 +3240,7 @@ existence of quaternary man; and this declaration, made by the President of the Geological Society of London, added considerable weight to the new ideas.</p> -<p>M. Hébert, Professor of Geology at the Sorbonne, next took his +<p>M. Hébert, Professor of Geology at the Sorbonne, next took his stand under the same banner.</p> <p>M. Albert Gaudry, another French geologist, made a statement to @@ -3292,7 +3253,7 @@ of Grenelle and the avenue of La Mothe-Piquet in Paris, and obtained from them various flint implements, mingled with the bones of the mammoth, fossil ox, &c.</p> -<p>Facts of a similar character were established at Précy-sur-Oise, and +<p>Facts of a similar character were established at Précy-sur-Oise, and in the diluvial deposits at Givry.</p> <p>The Marquis de Vibraye, also, found in the cave of Arcy, various @@ -3300,11 +3261,11 @@ human bones, especially a piece of a jaw-bone, mixed with the bones of animals of extinct species.</p> <p>In 1859, M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (department -of Ariége), not only utensils testifying to the former presence of man, +of Ariége), not only utensils testifying to the former presence of man, but also human teeth mixed up with the remains of the great bear <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"> [Pg 12]</a></span> -(<i>Ursus spelæus</i>), the fossil hyæna (<i>Hyæna spelæa</i>), and the cave-lion -(<i>Felis spelæa</i>).</p> +(<i>Ursus spelæus</i>), the fossil hyæna (<i>Hyæna spelæa</i>), and the cave-lion +(<i>Felis spelæa</i>).</p> <p>In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found in the cave of Lourdes (Tarn), certain relics of human industry by the side of the bones of @@ -3316,13 +3277,13 @@ the environs of Paris, at Grenelle, Levallois-Perret, and Neuilly, several naturalists, including MM. Gosse, Martin, and Reboux, found numerous flint implements, associated, in certain cases, with the bones of the elephant and hippopotamus. In the valley of the Oise, at -Précy, near Creil, MM. Peigné Delacour and Robert likewise collected +Précy, near Creil, MM. Peigné Delacour and Robert likewise collected a few hatchets.</p> <p>Lastly, a considerable number of French departments, especially those of the north and centre, have been successfully explored. We may mention the departments of Pas-de-Calais, Aisne, Loire-et-Cher, -Indre-et-Loire, Vienne, Allier, Yonne, Saône-et-Loire, Hérault, Tarn-et-Garonne, +Indre-et-Loire, Vienne, Allier, Yonne, Saône-et-Loire, Hérault, Tarn-et-Garonne, &c.</p> <p>In England, too, discoveries were made of an equally valuable @@ -3344,7 +3305,7 @@ Boucher de Perthes. On making inquiries as to their origin, he found that they had been obtained from the gravel at Hoxne by Mr. Frere, who had collected them there, together with the bones of extinct animals, all of which he had presented to the museum, after having -given a description of them in the 'Archæologia' of 1800, with this +given a description of them in the 'Archæologia' of 1800, with this remark: ... "Fabricated and used by a people who had not the use of metals.... The situation in which these weapons were found may <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"> [Pg 13]</a></span> @@ -3358,7 +3319,7 @@ scarcely any attention had been paid to them.</p> <p>We now come to the most remarkable and most characteristic discoveries of this class which have ever been made. We allude to the -explorations made by M. Édouard Lartet, during the year 1860, in +explorations made by M. Édouard Lartet, during the year 1860, in the curious pre-historic human burial-place at Aurignac (Haute-Garonne).</p> <p>Going down the hill on the road leading from Aurignac, after @@ -3372,7 +3333,7 @@ forty-two feet above the rivulet. Below, the calcareous soil slopes down towards the stream.</p> <p>The discovery of this hollow, which is now cleared out, was made -entirely by chance. It was hidden by a mass of <i>débris</i> of rock and +entirely by chance. It was hidden by a mass of <i>débris</i> of rock and vegetable-earth which had crumbled down; it had, in fact, only been known as a rabbits' hole. In 1842, an excavating labourer, named Bonnemaison, took it into his head one day to thrust his arm into @@ -3407,7 +3368,7 @@ species of cockle (<i>cardium</i>). Flat rings altogether similar to these are not at all unfrequent in the necklaces and other ornanments of Assyrian antiquity found in Nineveh.</p> -<p>Eighteen years after this event, that is in 1860, M. Édouard Lartet +<p>Eighteen years after this event, that is in 1860, M. Édouard Lartet paid a visit to Aurignac. All the details of the above-named discovery were related to him. After the long interval which had elapsed, no one, not even the grave-digger himself, could recollect @@ -3432,11 +3393,11 @@ of a bear, roughly carved in the shape of a bird's head and pierced with a hole, &c.</p> <p>The excavations, having been carried to a lower level, brought to -light the remains of the bear, the wild-cat, the cave-hyæna, the wolf, +light the remains of the bear, the wild-cat, the cave-hyæna, the wolf, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"> [Pg 15]</a></span> the mammoth, the horse, the stag, the reindeer, the ox, the rhinoceros, &c., &c. It was, in fact, a complete Noah's ark. These bones were -all broken lengthwise, and some of them were carbonised. <i>Striæ</i> and +all broken lengthwise, and some of them were carbonised. <i>Striæ</i> and notches were found on them, which could only have been made by cutting instruments.</p> @@ -3456,7 +3417,7 @@ some funereal dedication, of which numerous instances are found in Druidical or Celtic monuments and in Gallic tombs.</p> <p>Such are the valuable discoveries, and such the new facts which -were the result of the investigations made by M. Édouard Lartet +were the result of the investigations made by M. Édouard Lartet in the cave of Aurignac. In point of fact, they left no doubt whatever as to the co-existence of man with the great antediluvian animals.</p> @@ -3464,7 +3425,7 @@ animals.</p> <p>In 1862, Doctor Felix Garrigou, of Tarrascon, a distinguished geologist, published the results of the researches which he, in conjunction with MM. Rames and Filhol, had made in the caverns of -Ariége. These explorers found the lower jaw-bones of the great bear, +Ariége. These explorers found the lower jaw-bones of the great bear, which, with their sharp and projecting canine-tooth, had been employed by man as an offensive weapon, almost in the same way as Samson used the jaw-bone of an ass in fighting with the Philistines.</p> @@ -3483,7 +3444,7 @@ formidable weapons in the hands of primitive man....</p> <p>"These animals belong to species which are now extinct, and if their bones while still in a fresh state (since they were gnawed by -hyænas) were used as weapons, man must have been contemporary +hyænas) were used as weapons, man must have been contemporary with them."</p> <p>In the cave of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne), which was visited in @@ -3504,7 +3465,7 @@ bushels.</p> <p>At the commencement of 1863, M. Garrigou presented to the Geological Society of France the objects which had been found in the -caves of Lherm and Bouicheta, and the Abbé Bourgeois published +caves of Lherm and Bouicheta, and the Abbé Bourgeois published some remarks on the wrought flints from the <i>diluvium</i> of Pont-levoy.</p> <p>This, therefore, was the position of the question in respect to fossil @@ -3530,8 +3491,8 @@ secondary introduction.</p> Perthes a second human tooth, remarking at the same time, "that something resembling a bone was just then to be seen in the sand." Boucher de Perthes immediately repaired to the spot, and in the -presence of MM. Dimpré the elder and younger, and several members -of the Abbeville <i>Société d'Emulation</i>, he personally extracted from +presence of MM. Dimpré the elder and younger, and several members +of the Abbeville <i>Société d'Emulation</i>, he personally extracted from the soil the half of a human lower jaw-bone, covered with an earthy crust. A few inches from this, a flint hatchet was discovered, covered with the same black patina as the jaw-bone. The level @@ -3540,7 +3501,7 @@ ground.</p> <p>After this event was duly announced, a considerable number of geologists flocked to Abbeville, about the middle of the month -of April. The Abbé Bourgeois, MM. Brady-Buteux, Carpenter, +of April. The Abbé Bourgeois, MM. Brady-Buteux, Carpenter, Falconer, &c., came one after the other, to verify the locality from which the human jaw-bone had been extracted. All were fully convinced of the intact state of the bed and the high antiquity of the @@ -3596,7 +3557,7 @@ no slight sensation.</p> attention to the study of this question, such as Messrs. Christy, Falconer, Carpenter, and Busk, went over to France, and in conjunction with Boucher de Perthes and several members of the -Académie des Sciences of Paris, examined the exact locality in which +Académie des Sciences of Paris, examined the exact locality in which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"> [Pg 19]</a></span> the hatchets and the human jaw-bone had been found; they unanimously agreed in recognising the correctness of the conclusions arrived @@ -3668,7 +3629,7 @@ interval should be divided into a certain number of periods. The science of primitive man is one so recently entered upon, that those authors who have written upon the point can hardly be said to have properly discussed and agreed upon a rational scheme of classification. -We shall, in this work, adopt the classification proposed by M. Édouard +We shall, in this work, adopt the classification proposed by M. Édouard Lartet, which, too, has been adopted in that portion of the museum of Saint-Germain which is devoted to pre-historic antiquities. Following this course, we shall divide the history of primitive mankind into two @@ -3717,8 +3678,8 @@ man:</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_1" id="footnote_1"></a><a href="#fnanchor_1"> <span class="label">[1]</span></a> 'Nouvelles Recherches sur la -Coexistence de l'Homme et des grands Mammifères -Fossiles réputés charactéristiques de la dernière période Géologique,' by Éd. Lartet, +Coexistence de l'Homme et des grands Mammifères +Fossiles réputés charactéristiques de la dernière période Géologique,' by Éd. Lartet, 'Annales des Sciences Naturelles,' 4th ser. vol. xv. p. 256.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_2" @@ -3727,7 +3688,7 @@ id="footnote_2"></a><a href="#fnanchor_2"> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_3" id="footnote_3"></a><a href="#fnanchor_3"> -<span class="label">[3]</span></a> 2 vols. 12mo., 3rd edit., Paris, 1859; Lagny frères.</p> +<span class="label">[3]</span></a> 2 vols. 12mo., 3rd edit., Paris, 1859; Lagny frères.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_4" id="footnote_4"></a><a href="#fnanchor_4"> @@ -3737,7 +3698,7 @@ id="footnote_4"></a><a href="#fnanchor_4"> id="footnote_5"></a><a href="#fnanchor_5"> <span class="label">[5]</span></a> It should rather have been said, that the ultimate and well-considered judgment of the English geologists was against the authenticity of the Moulin-Quignon jaw.—See -Dr. Falconer's 'Palæontological Memoirs,' vol. ii. p. 610; and Sir C. Lyell's +Dr. Falconer's 'Palæontological Memoirs,' vol. ii. p. 610; and Sir C. Lyell's 'Antiquity of Man,' 3rd ed. p. 515. (Note to Eng. Trans.)</p> </div> @@ -3761,7 +3722,7 @@ from the Ape.</div> <p><span class="smcap">Man</span> must have lived during the time in which the last representatives of the ancient animal creation—the mammoth, the great bear, the -cave-hyæna, the <i>Rhinoceros tichorinus</i>, &c.—were still in existence. It +cave-hyæna, the <i>Rhinoceros tichorinus</i>, &c.—were still in existence. It is this earliest period of man's history which we are now about to enter upon.</p> @@ -3949,7 +3910,7 @@ of a <i>savant</i> perfectly qualified in such matters; we allude to M. de Quatrefages, Professor of Anthropology in the Museum of Natural History at Paris.</p> -<p>M. de Quatrefages, in his work entitled 'Rapport sur le Progrès +<p>M. de Quatrefages, in his work entitled 'Rapport sur le Progrès de l'Anthropologie,' published in 1868, has entered rather fully into the question whether man is descended from the ape or not. He has summed up the contents of a multitude of contemporary works on @@ -4027,7 +3988,7 @@ series of phenomena of individual development.</p> <p>"M. Pruner-Bey has shown that this is the case with a portion of the permanent teeth. M. Welker, in his curious studies of the -sphenoïdal angle of Virchow, arrived at a similar result. He demonstrated +sphenoïdal angle of Virchow, arrived at a similar result. He demonstrated that the modifications of the base of the skull, that is, of a portion of the skeleton which stands in the most intimate relation to the brain, take place inversely in the man and ape. This angle @@ -4039,7 +4000,7 @@ extinct.</p> character: it is that this inverse course of development has been ascertained to exist even in the brain itself. This fact, which was pointed out by Gratiolet, and dwelt upon by him on various occasions, -has never been contested either at the <i>Société d'Anthropologie</i> or +has never been contested either at the <i>Société d'Anthropologie</i> or elsewhere, and possesses an importance and significance which may be readily comprehended.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"> [Pg 33]</a></span></p> @@ -4048,7 +4009,7 @@ there exists in the mode of arrangement of the cerebral folds a certain similarity on which much stress has been laid; but this resemblance has been, to some extent, a source of error, for the result is attained by an <i>inverse course of action</i>. In the ape, the -temporo-sphenoïdal convolutions, which form the middle lobe, make +temporo-sphenoïdal convolutions, which form the middle lobe, make their appearance, and are completed, before the anterior convolutions which form the frontal lobe. In man, on the contrary, the frontal convolutions are the first to appear, and those of the middle lobe @@ -4180,7 +4141,7 @@ human brain</i>, and the <i>animal brain, however developed</i>.</p> <p>"6th. The excavations which have been made in intact ancient beds have brought to light skulls of ancient races of man, and these skulls present characteristics which approximate them to the skull of -the ape. Does not this pithecoïd stamp, which is very striking on the +the ape. Does not this pithecoïd stamp, which is very striking on the Neanderthal skull in particular, argue a transition from one type to another, and consequently <i>filiation</i>?</p> @@ -4355,12 +4316,12 @@ likewise clad in a warm and soft fur, the nose of which is surmounted with a remarkable pair of horns. Then follow several species of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"> [Pg 41]</a></span> hippopotamus, which come as far north as the rivers of England and -Russia; a bear of great size inhabiting caverns (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>), and +Russia; a bear of great size inhabiting caverns (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>), and presenting a projecting forehead and a large-sized skull; the cave -lion or tiger (<i>Felis spelæa</i>), which much surpassed in strength the -same animals of the existing species; various kinds of hyænas -(<i>Hyæna spelæa</i>), much stronger than those of our epoch; the bison -or aurochs (<i>Biso europæus</i>), which still exists in Poland; the great +lion or tiger (<i>Felis spelæa</i>), which much surpassed in strength the +same animals of the existing species; various kinds of hyænas +(<i>Hyæna spelæa</i>), much stronger than those of our epoch; the bison +or aurochs (<i>Biso europæus</i>), which still exists in Poland; the great ox, the Urus of the ancients (<i>Bos primigenius</i>); the gigantic Irish elk (<i>Megaceros hibernicus</i>), the horns of which attained to surprising dimensions. Other animals made their appearance at the same epoch, @@ -4509,7 +4470,7 @@ the midst of his flight.</p> man have been set on foot in all countries, and have been energetically prosecuted, enormous quantities have been found of these chipped flints, arrow-heads, and various stone implements, which -archæologists designate by the common denomination of <i>hatchets</i>, +archæologists designate by the common denomination of <i>hatchets</i>, in default of being able, in some cases, to distinguish the special use for which they had been employed. Before going any further, it will be necessary to enter into some details with regard to these flint @@ -4525,7 +4486,7 @@ to them some superstitious belief. Sometimes they called them "thunder-stones," because they attributed to them the power of preserving from lightning those who were in possession of them. It was not until the middle of the present century that naturalists and -archæologists began to comprehend the full advantage which might +archæologists began to comprehend the full advantage which might be derived from the examination of these chipped stones, in reconstructing the lineaments of the earliest of the human race and in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"> [Pg 45]</a></span> @@ -4566,14 +4527,14 @@ one pebble against another to make some requisite alteration in its form, gave the first blow of the chisel which has resulted in producing the Minerva and all the sculpture of the Parthenon."</p> -<p>Archæologists who have devoted their energies to investigating +<p>Archæologists who have devoted their energies to investigating the earliest monuments of human industry, have found it necessary to be on their guard against certain errors, or rather wilful deceptions, which might readily pervert their judgment and deprive their discoveries of all character of authenticity. There is, in fact, a certain <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"> [Pg 46]</a></span> class of persons engaged in a deceptive manufacture who have taken a -delight in misleading archæologists by fabricating apocryphal flint +delight in misleading archæologists by fabricating apocryphal flint and stone implements, in which they drive a rather lucrative trade. They assert, without the least scruple, the high antiquity of their productions, which they sell either to inexperienced amateurs, who are @@ -4839,7 +4800,7 @@ was, in fact, the manufacture of pottery.</p> <p>The potter's art may, perhaps, be traced back to the most remote epochs of man. We have already seen, in the introduction to this -work, that, in 1835, M. Joly found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère), +work, that, in 1835, M. Joly found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère), a skull of the great bear pierced with a stone arrow-head, and that by the side of this skull were also discovered fragments of pottery, on which might still be seen the imprint of the fingers which moulded @@ -5144,17 +5105,17 @@ recognise them by various indications. The bones they contain are never fractured; but it may be seen that they have been gnawed by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"> [Pg 61]</a></span> carnivorous animals, as they still bear the marks of their teeth. Into -these retreats the cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>) and the hyæna (<i>Hyæna -spelæa</i>) were accustomed to drag their prey, in order there to tear it +these retreats the cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>) and the hyæna (<i>Hyæna +spelæa</i>) were accustomed to drag their prey, in order there to tear it to pieces and devour it, or divide it into portions for their young ones. -In fact, in these caverns, excrements of the hyæna mixed with small +In fact, in these caverns, excrements of the hyæna mixed with small and undigested bones are often found. The cave bear retired into the same retreats, but he probably only came there to pass the period of his hibernal sleep. Lastly, the same dens no doubt offered a refuge to sick or dying animals, who resorted thither in order to expire in peace. We have a proof of this in the traces of wounds and caries on some of the bones of animals found by Schmerling in the caverns of -the Meuse; also in the skull of a hyæna, the median ridge of which +the Meuse; also in the skull of a hyæna, the median ridge of which had been bitten and appeared to be half healed.</p> <p>Those caverns which formed a shelter for primitive man are, like @@ -5175,7 +5136,7 @@ contemporary with these species."</p> <p>We shall now proceed to examine the caverns which were used as burial-places for man.</p> -<p>To M. Édouard Lartet, the celebrated palæontologist, the honour +<p>To M. Édouard Lartet, the celebrated palæontologist, the honour must be ascribed of having been the first to collect any important data bearing on the fact that caverns were used for burial-places by the primitive man of the great bear and mammoth epoch. We have @@ -5285,7 +5246,7 @@ found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac. <p class="topspace2">The perfect state of preservation of these bones shows that they were neither broken to furnish food for man nor torn by carnivorous -animals, particularly by hyænas, as is seen in a great many caverns. +animals, particularly by hyænas, as is seen in a great many caverns. We must therefore conclude from this peculiarity, that the stone which closed the entrance to the cave was moved away for every interment and carefully put back into its place immediately @@ -5325,7 +5286,7 @@ in the Ashes of the Fire-hearth of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac. the most interesting relics were discovered—a large number of the teeth and broken bones of herbivorous animals (fig. 27); a hundred <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"> [Pg 66]</a></span> -flint knives; two chipped flints, which archæologists believe +flint knives; two chipped flints, which archæologists believe to be sling projectiles; a rounded pebble with a depression in the middle, which, according to Mr. Steinhauer, keeper of the Ethnographical Museum at Copenhagen, was used to flake off @@ -5394,7 +5355,7 @@ Nearly all those which had not been subjected to the action of fire bore the mark of the teeth of some carnivorous animal. This animal, doubtless, came to gnaw them after man had taken his departure from the spot. This carnivorous animal could have been none other than -the hyæna, as is shown by the excrements left in the place.</p> +the hyæna, as is shown by the excrements left in the place.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"> [Pg 68]</a></span></p> <p>The ossiferous mound situated immediately above the fire-hearth @@ -5409,7 +5370,7 @@ parents and friends of the defunct accompanied him to his last resting-place; after which, they assembled together to partake of a feast in front of the tomb soon to be closed on his remains. Then everyone took his departure, leaving the scene of their banquet free to the -hyænas, which came to devour the remains of the meal.</p> +hyænas, which came to devour the remains of the meal.</p> <p>This custom of funeral-feasts is, doubtless, very natural, as it has been handed down to our days; though it now chiefly exists among @@ -5481,9 +5442,9 @@ of mammals the bones of which were found either in the interior or at the exterior of this cavern. The first six species are extinct; the others are still living:—</p> -<p>The great cave-bear (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>); the mammoth (<i>Elephas +<p>The great cave-bear (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>); the mammoth (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>); the rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>); the great -cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>); the cave-hyæna (<i>Hyæna spelæa</i>); the +cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>); the cave-hyæna (<i>Hyæna spelæa</i>); the gigantic stag (<i>Megaceros hibernicus</i>); the bison, the reindeer, the stag, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"> [Pg 70]</a></span> the horse, the ass, the roe, the wild boar, the fox, the wolf, the wild-cat, @@ -5496,7 +5457,7 @@ mammoth epoch, and evidently prove that man was contemporary with these extinct species. Figs. 33, 34, and 35 represent the heads of the cave-bear, the <i>Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>, and the <i>megaceros</i> or gigantic stag; they are taken from the casts which adorn the great -hall of the Archæological and Pre-historic Museum at Saint-Germain, +hall of the Archæological and Pre-historic Museum at Saint-Germain, and are among the most curious ornaments of this remarkable museum.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_101a.jpg" id="i_101a.jpg"></a> @@ -5534,7 +5495,7 @@ the only remains of their carcases which have been found.</p> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"> [Pg 71]</a></span> <i>tichorinus</i> buried their dead in this cavern. In fact, M. Lartet asserts that the bones of the rhinoceros had been split by man in order to -extract the marrow. They had also been gnawed by hyænas, which +extract the marrow. They had also been gnawed by hyænas, which would not have been the case if these bones had not been thrown away, and left on the ground in a fresh state.</p> @@ -5560,7 +5521,7 @@ diluvial cataclysm.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_6" id="footnote_6"></a><a href="#fnanchor_6"> -<span class="label">[6]</span></a> 'Nouvelles Recherches sur la Coexistence de l'Homme et des grands Mammifères +<span class="label">[6]</span></a> 'Nouvelles Recherches sur la Coexistence de l'Homme et des grands Mammifères fossiles.' ('Annales de Sciences naturelles, Zoologie,' vol. xv.)</p></div> @@ -5598,36 +5559,36 @@ the east, those of the west and centre, and those of the south.</p> <p>In the first group, we shall mention the <i>Trou de la Fontaine</i> and the <i>Cave of Sainte-Reine</i>, both situated in the environs of Toul -(Meurthe). These two caves have furnished bones of bears, hyænas, +(Meurthe). These two caves have furnished bones of bears, hyænas, and the rhinoceros, along with the products of human industry. -That of Sainte-Reine has been explored by M. Guérin, and especially +That of Sainte-Reine has been explored by M. Guérin, and especially by M. Husson, who has searched it with much care.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"> [Pg 73]</a></span></p> -<p>The second group includes the grottos <i>des Fées</i>, of Vergisson, -Vallières, and La Chaise.</p> +<p>The second group includes the grottos <i>des Fées</i>, of Vergisson, +Vallières, and La Chaise.</p> -<p>The Grotte des Fées, at Arcy (Yonne), has been searched and +<p>The Grotte des Fées, at Arcy (Yonne), has been searched and described by M. de Vibraye, who ascertained the existence of two distinct beds, the upper one belonging to the reindeer epoch, the lower one to the great bear epoch. These two beds were divided from each other by matter which had formed a part of the roof of the cave, and had fallen down on the earlier deposit. In the more ancient bed of the two, M. de Vibraye collected fractured bones of -the bear and cave-hyæna, the mammoth, and the <i>Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>, +the bear and cave-hyæna, the mammoth, and the <i>Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>, all intermingled with flints wrought by the hand of man, amongst which were chips of hyaline quartz (rock-crystal.) His fellow-labourer, M. Franchet, extracted from it a human <i>atlas</i> (the upper part of the vertebral column).</p> -<p>The cave of Vergisson (Saône-et-Loire), explored by M. de Ferry, +<p>The cave of Vergisson (Saône-et-Loire), explored by M. de Ferry, furnished the same kind of bones as the preceding cave, and also bones of the bison, the reindeer, the horse, the wolf, and the fox, all intermixed with wrought flints and fragments of rough pottery. The presence of this pottery indicated that the cave of Vergisson belonged to the latter period of the great bear epoch.</p> -<p>The cave of Vallières (Loir-et-Cher), was worked, first by M. de -Vibraye, and subsequently by the Abbé Bourgeois. There was +<p>The cave of Vallières (Loir-et-Cher), was worked, first by M. de +Vibraye, and subsequently by the Abbé Bourgeois. There was nothing particular to be remarked.</p> <p>The cave of La Chaise, near Vouthon (Charente), explored by @@ -5642,14 +5603,14 @@ character as existing in the men, the traces of whom are found in this cave.</p> <p>Among the caves in the south of France, we must specify those of -Périgord, those of Bas-Languedoc, and of the district of Foix (department -of Ariége).</p> +Périgord, those of Bas-Languedoc, and of the district of Foix (department +of Ariége).</p> -<p>The caves of Périgord have all been explored by MM. Lartet and +<p>The caves of Périgord have all been explored by MM. Lartet and Christy, who have also given learned descriptions of them. We will <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"> [Pg 74]</a></span> mention the caves of the <i>Gorge d'Enfer</i> and <i>Moustier</i>, in the valley -of the Vézère, and that of <i>Pey de l'Azé</i>, all three situate in the department +of the Vézère, and that of <i>Pey de l'Azé</i>, all three situate in the department of Dordogne (arrondissement of Sarlat).</p> <p>The two caves of the <i>Gorge d'Enfer</i> were, unfortunately, cleared @@ -5661,7 +5622,7 @@ probably been used as a mortar, and instruments of bone or reindeer's horn, three of which showed numerous notches. Bones of the great bear clearly indicated the age of these settlements.</p> -<p>The cave of Moustier, situated about 80 feet above the Vézère, +<p>The cave of Moustier, situated about 80 feet above the Vézère, is celebrated for the great number and characteristic shapes of its stone implements, which we have before spoken of. Hatchets of the almond-shaped type, like those of the <i>diluvium</i> of Abbeville and @@ -5670,20 +5631,20 @@ found, of very careful workmanship, and instruments which might be held in the hand, some of them of considerable dimensions; but no pieces of bone or of reindeer's horn were discovered which had been adapted to any purpose whatever. The bones were those of the great -bear and cave-hyæna, accompanied by separate <i>laminæ</i> of molars of +bear and cave-hyæna, accompanied by separate <i>laminæ</i> of molars of the mammoth, the use of which it is impossible to explain. Similar -fragments were met with in some of the other Périgord settlements, +fragments were met with in some of the other Périgord settlements, and M. Lartet also found some at Aurignac.</p> -<p>Next to the cave of Pey de l'Azé, on which we shall not dwell, come +<p>Next to the cave of Pey de l'Azé, on which we shall not dwell, come the caverns of Bas-Languedoc, which we shall only enumerate. They -consist of the caves of Pondres and Souvignargues (Hérault), which +consist of the caves of Pondres and Souvignargues (Hérault), which were studied in 1829 by M. de Christol, who recognised, from the data he derived from them, the co-existence of man and the great extinct mammals; also those of Pontil and La Roque, the first explored by M. Paul Gervais, the second by M. Boutin.</p> -<p>We shall now consider the caves of the department of Ariége, some +<p>We shall now consider the caves of the department of Ariége, some of which furnish objects of very considerable interest. They consist of the caves of <i>Massat</i>, <i>Lherm</i>, and <i>Bouicheta</i>.</p> @@ -5699,7 +5660,7 @@ to the great bear epoch.</p> the ground in them has been greatly altered by some violent inundation which has intermingled the remains of various geological epochs. This <i>savant</i> found in the cave of Massat the bones of the bear, the -hyæna and the great cave-lion, the fox, the badger, the wild boar, +hyæna and the great cave-lion, the fox, the badger, the wild boar, the roe, &c., two human teeth, and a bone arrow-head. Two beds of ashes and charcoal were also remarked at different depths.</p> @@ -5723,7 +5684,7 @@ and Filhol, who found in them bones of most of the great mammals belonging to extinct species, and particularly those of the great bear, many of which are broken, and still show the marks of the instruments which were used for cutting the flesh off them. Some -have been gnawed by hyænas, as proved by the deep grooves with +have been gnawed by hyænas, as proved by the deep grooves with which they are marked. Lower jaw-bones of the great bear, and of the great cave-lion, have been found fashioned, according to a uniform plan, in the shape of hoes. MM. Garrigou and Filhol were @@ -5733,7 +5694,7 @@ used as offensive weapons.</p> <p>The cave of Lherm contained also human bones; namely, three teeth, a fragment of a <i>scapula</i>, a broken <i>ulna</i> and <i>radius</i>, and the last joint of the great toe; all these remains presented exactly the -same appearance and condition as those of the <i>Ursus spelæus</i>, and +same appearance and condition as those of the <i>Ursus spelæus</i>, and must, therefore, have belonged to the same epoch.</p> <p>We have stated that numerous caves have been explored in England, @@ -5748,7 +5709,7 @@ Torquay in Devonshire, the latter of which is many hundred yards in extent; the caves of the Gower peninsula, in Glamorganshire (South Wales), which have been carefully studied within the last few years by Messrs. Falconer and Wood; in these were found flint instruments -along with bones of the <i>Elephas antiquus</i> and the <i>Rhinoceros hemitæchus</i>, +along with bones of the <i>Elephas antiquus</i> and the <i>Rhinoceros hemitæchus</i>, species which were still more ancient than the mammoth and the <i>Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>; those of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, explored by Dr. Buckland, the geologist; those near Wells in Somersetshire, @@ -5765,7 +5726,7 @@ Macagnone.</p> rose to the roof, Dr. Falconer collected flint instruments, splinters of bone, pieces of baked clay and wood charcoal mixed up with large land-shells (<i>Helix vermiculata</i>), in a perfect state of preservation, -horses' teeth, and the excrements of the hyæna, all cemented together +horses' teeth, and the excrements of the hyæna, all cemented together in a deposit of carbonate of lime. In a lower bed were found the bones of various species of the hippopotamus, the <i>Elephas antiquus</i>, and other great mammals.</p> @@ -5785,7 +5746,7 @@ to the bones of various extinct species of animals."</p> <p>Thus far we have designedly omitted to mention the Belgian caves. They have, in fact, furnished us with such remarkable relics of former ages that, in dealing with them, we could not confine ourselves to a -mere notice. The caves in the neighbourhood of Liége, which were +mere notice. The caves in the neighbourhood of Liége, which were explored in 1833 by Schmerling, deserve to be described in some detail.</p> <p>Schmerling examined more than forty caves in the Valley of the @@ -5803,15 +5764,15 @@ to accomplish a perilous expedition of this kind in his visit to the cave of Engis, which has become celebrated by the two human skulls found there by him.</p> -<p>Nearly all the caves in the province of Liége contain scattered -bones of the great bear, the cave-hyæna, the mammoth, and the +<p>Nearly all the caves in the province of Liége contain scattered +bones of the great bear, the cave-hyæna, the mammoth, and the rhinoceros, intermixed with those of species which are still living, such as the wolf, the wild boar, the roe, the beaver, the porcupine, &c. Several of them contained human bones, likewise much scattered and rubbed; they were found in all positions, and at every elevation, sometimes above and sometimes below the above-mentioned animal remains; from this it may be concluded that these caves had been -filled with running water, which drifted in all kinds of <i>débris</i>. None +filled with running water, which drifted in all kinds of <i>débris</i>. None of them, however, contained any gnawed bones, or the fossil excrement of any animal species, which puts an end to the hypothesis that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"> [Pg 78]</a></span> @@ -5829,13 +5790,13 @@ chipped into the form of hatchets and knives, and he calls attention to the fact "that none of them could have been introduced into the caves at a posterior epoch, as they were found in the same position as the animal remains which accompanied them." In the cave -of Clokier, about two and a half miles from Liége, he picked up a +of Clokier, about two and a half miles from Liége, he picked up a polished bone in the shape of a needle, having an eye pierced at the base; in the cave of Engis he likewise found a carved bone, and also some worked flints.</p> <p>We here close our enumeration of the various sources of the -archæological records which have served to reconstruct the history +archæological records which have served to reconstruct the history of primitive man during that period of the stone age which we have designated under the name of the epoch of the great bear and the mammoth. Before concluding our remarks as to this period, there is @@ -5859,7 +5820,7 @@ great many of the bones of the hands and feet of three individuals.</p> <p>The Engis skull has been a subject of protracted argument to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"> [Pg 79]</a></span> -palæontologists and anatomists of the present day. Floods of ink +palæontologists and anatomists of the present day. Floods of ink have been spilt upon the question; discussions without end have taken place with respect to this piece of bone, in order to fix accurately the amount of intellect possessed by the inhabitants of @@ -5999,7 +5960,7 @@ the progress of the science of the first starting-point of man.</p> <p>Other remains of human skulls, appearing to date back to a very ancient epoch, have been found in various countries, since the discovery of those above-named. We will mention, a jaw-bone found by -M. Édouard Dupont in the cave of Naulette, near Dinant, in Belgium—a +M. Édouard Dupont in the cave of Naulette, near Dinant, in Belgium—a frontal and parietal bone, extracted from the <i>Lehm</i> in the valley of the Rhine, at Eggisheim near Colmar, by Dr. Faudel—a skull found by Professor Bocchi, of Florence, in the Olmo pass, near @@ -6041,10 +6002,10 @@ designate by the name of the <i>Reindeer Epoch</i>, or the <i>Epoch of migrated animals</i>. Many ages have elapsed since the commencement of the quaternary geological epoch. The mighty animals which characterised the commencement of this period have disappeared, or -are on the point of becoming extinct. The great bear (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>) -and the cave-hyæna (<i>Hyæna spelæa</i>) will soon cease to tread the soil +are on the point of becoming extinct. The great bear (<i>Ursus spelæus</i>) +and the cave-hyæna (<i>Hyæna spelæa</i>) will soon cease to tread the soil of our earth. It will not be long before the final term will be completed -of the existence of the cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>), the mammoth, +of the existence of the cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>), the mammoth, and the <i>Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>. Created beings diminish in size as they improve in type.</p> @@ -6053,7 +6014,7 @@ the forests of western Europe. In that part of the continent which was one day to be called France, these animals make their way as far as the Pyrenees. The horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>), in no way different from the present species, is the companion of the above-named -valuable ruminant; also the bison (<i>Biso europæus</i>), the urus (<i>Bos +valuable ruminant; also the bison (<i>Biso europæus</i>), the urus (<i>Bos primigenius</i>), the musk-ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>), the elk, the deer, the chamois, the ibex, and various species of rodents, amongst others, the beaver, the hamster-rat, the lemming, the spermophilus, &c.</p> @@ -6083,7 +6044,7 @@ of bones and animal remains would, in fact, have given forth putrid exhalations which would have prevented any human being from living in close contiguity to these infectious heaps. The Esquimaux of the present day live, in this respect, very much like the people of primitive -ages, that is, close by the side of the most fetid <i>débris</i>; but, except in +ages, that is, close by the side of the most fetid <i>débris</i>; but, except in the cold regions of the north, they would be quite unable to do this.</p> <div class="figcenter bord topspace2"><a name="i_118.jpg" id="i_118.jpg"></a> @@ -6152,7 +6113,7 @@ habitations during the epoch which we are considering.</p> period, did not take up their abode in natural caverns exclusively, but that they were able to make for themselves more convenient sheltering-places under the cover of some great overhanging rock. In various -regions of France, especially in Périgord, numerous ancient open-air +regions of France, especially in Périgord, numerous ancient open-air human settlements have been discovered. They must have been mere sheds or places of shelter, leaning against the base of some high cliff, and protected against the inclemency of the weather by projections @@ -6181,7 +6142,7 @@ supposed Habitation of Man during the Reindeer Epoch. <p class="topspace2">On the left bank of the river Aveyron, under the overhanging shelter of one of the highest rocks of Bruniquel and in close proximity -to a <i>château</i>, the picturesque ruins of which still stand on the brow of +to a <i>château</i>, the picturesque ruins of which still stand on the brow of the cliff above, there was discovered, in 1866, a fire-hearth of the pre-historic period; this hearth and its surroundings have afforded us the most complete idea of one of the rock-shelters of man during the @@ -6251,7 +6212,7 @@ implements.</p> during the reindeer epoch. We cannot assert that it was practised during that of the great bear and the mammoth; but, as regards the period we are now considering, no doubt can be entertained on the -point. In an article on the 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' +point. In an article on the 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' M. G. de Mortillet expresses himself as follows:</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"> [Pg 90]</a></span></p> <p>"The epoch of the reindeer presents to our notice several specimens @@ -6273,7 +6234,7 @@ just described, others were met with of a much more perfect shape. These are likewise small fragments of bone or reindeer's horn, with deep and wide notches on one side, forming a more or less developed series of projecting and sharp teeth, or barbs. Two of them are -depicted in <span class="smcap">Plate B</span>, VI. of the 'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.' M. Lartet +depicted in <span class="smcap">Plate B</span>, VI. of the 'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.' M. Lartet is in possession of several of them; but the most remarkable specimen forms a part of the beautiful collection of M. Peccadeau de l'Isle, of Paris."<a name="fnanchor_7" id="fnanchor_7"></a><a href="#footnote_7" @@ -6312,11 +6273,11 @@ with sculptured flints, remains of pottery, and children's bones; on the latter, Professor Owen thinks that he can recognise the trace of human teeth.</p> -<p>At Solutré, in Mâconnais, M. de Ferry has discovered human finger-joints +<p>At Solutré, in Mâconnais, M. de Ferry has discovered human finger-joints among the remains of cooking of the epoch of the great bear and mammoth, and of that of the reindeer.</p> -<p>The appearance of certain bones from the caves of Ariége, dug +<p>The appearance of certain bones from the caves of Ariége, dug up by MM. Garrigou and Filhol, has led both these <i>savants</i> to the opinion "that pre-historic man may have been anthropophagous."</p> @@ -6351,7 +6312,7 @@ have made garments out of the skins of the quadrupeds which he killed in hunting, and especially of the reindeer's hide. There can be no doubt on this point. A large number of reindeers' antlers <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"> [Pg 92]</a></span> -found in Périgord have at their base certain cuts which evidently +found in Périgord have at their base certain cuts which evidently could only have been produced in flaying the animal.</p> <p>It is no less certainly proved that these men knew how to prepare @@ -6381,7 +6342,7 @@ horn (fig. 43).</p> <img src="images/i_129a.jpg" alt="Flint bodkin" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 42.—Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for -sewing Reindeer Skins, found in the Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord). +sewing Reindeer Skins, found in the Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord). </div> </div> @@ -6455,7 +6416,7 @@ at this epoch had any belief in a future life, and practised anything which bore a resemblance to religious worship. The existence, round the fire-hearths of the burial-caverns in Belgium, of large fossil elephant (mammoth's) bones—a fact which has been pointed out by -M. Édouard Dupont—gives us some reason for answering this question +M. Édouard Dupont—gives us some reason for answering this question in the affirmative. According to M. Morlot, the practice of placing bones round caverns still survives, as a religious idea, among the Indians. We may, therefore, appeal to this discovery as @@ -6473,7 +6434,7 @@ proof of a belief in another life.</p> attached to some glittering stones and bright fragments of ore which have been picked up in several settlements of these primitive tribes. M. de Vibraye found at Bourdeilles (Charente), two nodules -of hydrated oxide of iron mixed with <i>débris</i> of all kinds; and at +of hydrated oxide of iron mixed with <i>débris</i> of all kinds; and at the settlement of Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne), in the middle of the hearth, a small mass of copper covered with a layer of green carbonate. In other spots there have been met with pieces of jet, violet @@ -6495,7 +6456,7 @@ weapons and implements. They likewise brought back fossil shells, of which they made fantastical necklaces. This distant intercourse <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"> [Pg 95]</a></span> cannot be called in question, for certain evidences of it can be -adduced. M. Édouard Dupont found in the cave of Chaleux, near +adduced. M. Édouard Dupont found in the cave of Chaleux, near Dinant (Belgium), fifty-four of these shells, which are not found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne. Here, therefore, we have the rudiments of commerce, that is, of the importation and @@ -6513,7 +6474,7 @@ chipped into hatchets, daggers, knives, scrapers, scratchers, &c.</p> <p>Workshops of this kind were established in the settlements of Laugerie-Basse and Laugerie-Haute -in Périgord. The first was to all appearance +in Périgord. The first was to all appearance a special manufactory for spear-heads, some specimens of which have been found by MM. Lartet and Christy of an extremely remarkable @@ -6529,7 +6490,7 @@ of sawing.</p> <img src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="Spear-head found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse " /> <div class="caption">Fig. 46.—Spear-head found -in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Périgord). +in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Périgord). </div> </div> @@ -6549,7 +6510,7 @@ during the reindeer epoch testify to a decided progress having been made beyond those of the preceding period. The implements are made of flint, bone, or horn; but the latter kind are much the most numerous, chiefly in the primitive settlements in the centre and south -of France. Those of Périgord are especially remarkable for the +of France. Those of Périgord are especially remarkable for the abundance of instruments made of reindeers' bones.</p> <p>The great diversity of type in the wrought flints furnishes a very @@ -6573,32 +6534,32 @@ that they have received repeated blows.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_133a.jpg" id="i_133a.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_133a.jpg" -alt="Flint from Périgord (Knife)" /> +alt="Flint from Périgord (Knife)" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 47.—Worked Flint from -Périgord (Knife). +Périgord (Knife). </div> </div> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_133b.jpg" id="i_133b.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_133b.jpg" -alt="Flint from Périgord (Hatchet)" /> +alt="Flint from Périgord (Hatchet)" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 48.—Worked Flint from -Périgord (Hatchet). +Périgord (Hatchet). </div> </div> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_134a.jpg" id="i_134a.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_134a.jpg" -alt="Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife)" /> -<div class="caption">Fig. 49.—Chipped Flint from Périgord +alt="Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife)" /> +<div class="caption">Fig. 49.—Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife). </div> </div> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_134b.jpg" id="i_134b.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_134b.jpg" -alt="Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper)" /> -<div class="caption">Fig. 50.—Chipped Flint from Périgord +alt="Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper)" /> +<div class="caption">Fig. 50.—Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper). </div> </div> @@ -6630,7 +6591,7 @@ sufficient ground.</p> flints belonging to the reindeer epoch which have been found in the countries of France and Belgium, we must mention the delicate and very finely-toothed double-edged saws. The one we here represent -(fig. 51) is in the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain. It does +(fig. 51) is in the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain. It does not measure more than three-quarters of an inch in length, and about one-tenth of an inch in width. It was found by M. V. Brun in one of the <i>rock-shelters</i> @@ -6651,7 +6612,7 @@ cut into on each side, and the fracture was finished by hand.</p> <p>The objects of bone and reindeer-horn found in -the caves of Périgord show a still greater variety, +the caves of Périgord show a still greater variety, and a no less remarkable skilfulness in workmanship.</p> <p>We may mention, for instance, the arrow and @@ -6719,7 +6680,7 @@ arrow, so that the hunter may be apprized whether he has hit his mark, or in order to show in what direction he should aim again.</p> <p>We give here (fig. 55) a drawing of a fragment of bone found in -the cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord); a portion of one of these harpoons +the cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord); a portion of one of these harpoons remains fixed in the bone.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_139a.jpg" id="i_139a.jpg"></a> @@ -6733,7 +6694,7 @@ Arrow of Reindeer Horn. <p class="topspace2">We must assign to the class of implements the bone bodkins or stilettoes of different sizes, either with or without a handle (figs. 56, 57), and also a numerous series of needles found in the caves of -Périgord, some of which are very slender and elegant, and made of +Périgord, some of which are very slender and elegant, and made of bone, horn, and even ivory. In some of the human settlements of the reindeer epoch, bones have been found, from which long splinters had been detached, fitted for the fabrication of needles. The delicate @@ -6773,7 +6734,7 @@ has furnished several specimens of an instrument, the exact use of which has not been ascertained. They are rods, tapering off at one end, and hollowed out at the other in the shape of a -spoon. M. Édouard Lartet has propounded the +spoon. M. Édouard Lartet has propounded the opinion that they were used by the tribes of this epoch as spoons, in order to extract the marrow from the long bones of the animals which were @@ -6794,7 +6755,7 @@ alt="Spoon of Reindeer Horn" /> </div> <p class="topspace2">In various caves—at Les Eyzies, Laugerie-Basse, -and Chaffant, <i>commune</i> of Savigné (Vienne)—whistles +and Chaffant, <i>commune</i> of Savigné (Vienne)—whistles of a peculiar kind have been found (fig. 59). They are made from the first joint of the foot of the reindeer or some other ruminant of the stag genus. A @@ -6815,7 +6776,7 @@ Foot, bored with a hole and used as a Whistle. </div> </div> -<p class="topspace2">The settlements at Périgord have also furnished a certain number +<p class="topspace2">The settlements at Périgord have also furnished a certain number of staves made of reindeer horn (figs. 60, 61), the proper functions of which no one has succeeded in properly explaining. They are invariably bored with one or more holes at the base, and are covered @@ -6826,7 +6787,7 @@ that they were perhaps symbols or staves of authority.</p> <img src="images/i_141b.jpg" alt="Staff of authority" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 60.—Staff of authority -in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave of Périgord. +in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave of Périgord. </div> </div> @@ -6839,12 +6800,12 @@ authority in Reindeer's Horn. </div> <p class="topspace2">This explanation appears the correct one when we consider the -care with which these bâtons were fashioned. If the hypothesis of +care with which these bâtons were fashioned. If the hypothesis of their being symbols of authority be adopted, the varying number of the holes would not be without intention; it might point to some kind of hierarchy, the highest grade of which corresponded to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"> [Pg 103]</a></span> -bâton with the most holes. Thus, in the Chinese empire, the degree +bâton with the most holes. Thus, in the Chinese empire, the degree of a mandarin's authority is estimated by the number of buttons on his silk cap. And just as in the Mussulman hierarchy there were pachas of from one to three tails, so it may be fancied that among @@ -6858,10 +6819,10 @@ epoch made, however, but little progress in this respect. Nevertheless, if certain relics really belong to this period, they may have known how to make rough vessels, formed of clay, mixed with sand, and hardened by the action of fire. This primitive art was, as yet, -anything but generally adopted: for we very rarely find <i>débris</i> of +anything but generally adopted: for we very rarely find <i>débris</i> of pottery in close contiguity with other remains of the reindeer epoch.</p> -<p>The Archæological Museum of Saint Germain is in possession +<p>The Archæological Museum of Saint Germain is in possession of a hollow vessel, a natural geode, very large and very thick (fig. 62). It was found in the cave of La Madelaine (department of Dordogne); on one side it has evidently been subjected to the @@ -6872,12 +6833,12 @@ large vessel for culinary purposes.</p> <img src="images/i_142.jpg" alt="Geode cooking vessel" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 62.—A Geode, used as a cooking -Vessel (?), found in the Cave of La Madelaine (Périgord). +Vessel (?), found in the Cave of La Madelaine (Périgord). </div> </div> <p class="topspace2">In a cave at Furfooz, near Dinant in Belgium, to which we shall -subsequently refer, M. Édouard Dupont found, intermingled with +subsequently refer, M. Édouard Dupont found, intermingled with human bones, an urn, or specimen of rough pottery, which is perhaps one of the most ancient monuments of the ceramic art as practised by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"> [Pg 104]</a></span> @@ -6900,11 +6861,11 @@ artistic feeling manifested in man.</p> <p>It is a circumstance well worthy of remark, that this feeling appears to have been the peculiar attribute of the tribes which inhabited the south-west of the present France; the departments of Dordogne, -Vienne, Charente, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Ariége, are, in fact, the only +Vienne, Charente, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Ariége, are, in fact, the only localities where designs and carvings representing organised beings have been discovered. The departments in the east have not furnished anything of a similar character, any more than Belgium, which -has been so thoroughly explored by M. Édouard Dupont, or Wurtemburg, +has been so thoroughly explored by M. Édouard Dupont, or Wurtemburg, where M. Fraas has lately described various settlements of this primitive epoch.</p> @@ -6956,11 +6917,11 @@ of 1867, must have remarked a magnificent collection of these artistic productions of primeval ages. There were no less than fifty-one specimens, which were exhibited by several collectors, and were for the most part extremely curious. In his interesting work, 'Promenades -Préhistoriques à l'Exposition Universelle,' M. Gabriel de Mortillet +Préhistoriques à l'Exposition Universelle,' M. Gabriel de Mortillet has carefully described these objects. In endeavouring to obtain <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"> [Pg 106]</a></span> some knowledge of them, we shall take as our guide the learned -curator of the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain.</p> +curator of the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain.</p> <p>We have, in the first place, various representations of the mammoth, which was still in existence at the commencement of the reindeer @@ -6999,7 +6960,7 @@ forehead, and the body of the animal stretching along the base of the staff, may both be very distinctly seen.</p> <p>On another fragment of a staff of authority, found at Bruniquel by -M. V. Brun, the cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>) is carved with great clearness. +M. V. Brun, the cave-lion (<i>Felis spelæa</i>) is carved with great clearness. The head, in particular, is perfectly represented.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"> [Pg 107]</a></span></p> <p>Representations of reindeer, either carved or scratched on stone or @@ -7044,7 +7005,7 @@ furious contests in which the male reindeer engages during the rutting season, in order to obtain possession of the females; he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"> [Pg 108]</a></span> has executed his design in a spirited manner, marked by a certain -<i>naïveté</i>.</p> +<i>naïveté</i>.</p> <p>There are a good many other fragments on which reindeer are either drawn or carved; we shall not dwell upon them, but add a few @@ -7162,7 +7123,7 @@ delineation of a fish, skilfully drawn on a fragment of the lower jaw-bone of a reindeer, which was found at Laugerie-Basse.</p> -<p>Also in the cave of La Vache (Ariége), M. Garrigou +<p>Also in the cave of La Vache (Ariége), M. Garrigou found a fragment of bone, on which there is a clever design of a fish.</p> @@ -7179,7 +7140,7 @@ graven on spear-heads.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"> [Pg 111]</a></span></p> <p>But did the men of the reindeer epoch make no attempts to portray their own personal appearance? Have not the excavations dug in the -settlements of primitive man, found in Périgord, ever brought to light +settlements of primitive man, found in Périgord, ever brought to light any imitation of the human form? Nothing could exceed the interest of such a discovery. Research has not been entirely fruitless in this respect, and it is hoped that the first attempt in the art of statuary of @@ -7193,7 +7154,7 @@ is long and lean, is graven on a staff of authority, a fragment of which was found in the cave of La Madelaine by MM. Lartet and Christy. The man is represented standing between two horses' heads, and by the side of a long serpent or fish, having the appearance of an -eel. On the reverse side of the same bâton, which is not given in the +eel. On the reverse side of the same bâton, which is not given in the figure, the heads of two bisons are represented.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_152.jpg" id="i_152.jpg"></a> @@ -7225,8 +7186,8 @@ during the reindeer epoch, with regard to his physical organisation?</p> <p>We know a little of some of the broader features of his physiognomy from studying the objects found in the Belgian bone-caves, of which we have spoken in the introduction to this work. These caves were -explored by M. Édouard Dupont, assisted by M. Van Beneden, a -Belgian palæontologist and anatomist. The excavations in question +explored by M. Édouard Dupont, assisted by M. Van Beneden, a +Belgian palæontologist and anatomist. The excavations in question were ordered by King Leopold's Government, which supplied the funds necessary for extending them as far as possible. The three caves, all situated in the valley of the Lesse, are the <i>Trou des Nutons</i>, the <i>Trou @@ -7235,7 +7196,7 @@ the neighbourhood of the town from which its name is derived.</p> <p>The <i>Trou des Nutons</i> and the <i>Trou du Frontal</i> have been completely thrown into confusion by a violent inroad of water; for the -<i>débris</i> that they contained were intermingled in an almost incredible +<i>débris</i> that they contained were intermingled in an almost incredible confusion with a quantity of earthy matter and calcareous rocks, which had been drifted in by the inundation.</p> @@ -7248,7 +7209,7 @@ of the goat polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a goat, from which sounds could still be produced, fragments of very coarse pottery, some remains of fire-hearths, &c.</p> -<p>The <i>Trou du Frontal</i> was thus named by M. Édouard Dupont, +<p>The <i>Trou du Frontal</i> was thus named by M. Édouard Dupont, from the fact of a human frontal-bone having been found there on the day that the excavations commenced. This was not the only discovery of the kind that was to be made. Ere long they fell in with a great @@ -7262,7 +7223,7 @@ very valuable, because they afford data from which deductions may be drawn as to the cranial conformation of the primitive inhabitants of the banks of the Lesse.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"> [Pg 113]</a></span></p> -<p>M. Édouard Dupont is of opinion that this cave was used as a burial-place. +<p>M. Édouard Dupont is of opinion that this cave was used as a burial-place. It is, in fact, very probable that such was the purpose for which it was intended; for a large flag-stone was found in it, which was probably used to close up the mouth of the cave, and to shield the @@ -7317,7 +7278,7 @@ races.</p> <img src="images/i_155.jpg" alt="Skull found at Furfooz" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 73.—Skull found at Furfooz, -by M. Édouard Dupont. +by M. Édouard Dupont. </div> </div> @@ -7424,7 +7385,7 @@ lifetime, are brought in to be laid by the side of the dead.</p> <p>We will sum up the principal facts which we have laid before our readers in this account of the condition of mankind during the reindeer epoch, by quoting an eloquent passage from a report addressed -by M. Édouard Dupont to the Belgian Minister of the Interior, on +by M. Édouard Dupont to the Belgian Minister of the Interior, on the excavations carried on by this eminent Belgian geologist in the caves in the neighbourhood of Furfooz.</p> @@ -7516,7 +7477,7 @@ remarks on the caverns which have been the scene of these various discoveries.</p> <p>Honour to whom honour is due. In mentioning these localities, -we must place in the first class the settlements of Périgord, which +we must place in the first class the settlements of Périgord, which have contributed to so great an extent towards the knowledge which we possess of primitive man. The four principal ones are, the cave of Les Eyzies and the rock-shelters or caverns of La Madelaine, Laugerie-Haute, @@ -7561,7 +7522,7 @@ work, a representation of these human remains.<a name="fnanchor_12" id="fnanchor_12"></a><a href="#footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> <p>We will now mention the <i>Cave of Bize</i> near Narbonne (Aude); -the <i>Cave of La Vache</i> in the valley of Tarascon (Ariége), in which +the <i>Cave of La Vache</i> in the valley of Tarascon (Ariége), in which M. Garrigou collected an immense quantity of bones, on one of which some peculiar characters are graven, constituting, perhaps, a first attempt in the art of writing; the <i>Cavern of Massat</i> in the same @@ -7570,27 +7531,27 @@ department, which has been described by M. Fontan, and is thought by M. Lartet to have been a summer dwelling-place, the occupiers of which lived on raw flesh and snails, for no traces of a hearth are to be seen, although it must have been used for a considerable time as -a shelter by primitive man; the <i>Cave of Lourdes</i>, near Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées), +a shelter by primitive man; the <i>Cave of Lourdes</i>, near Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées), in which M. Milne-Edwards met with a fragment of a human skull, belonging to an adult individual; the <i>Cave of Espalungue</i>, -also called the <i>Grotto of Izeste</i> (Basses-Pyrénées), where MM. +also called the <i>Grotto of Izeste</i> (Basses-Pyrénées), where MM. Garrigou and Martin found a human bone, the fifth left metatarsal; -the <i>Cave of Savigné</i> (Vienne), situated on the banks of the Charente, +the <i>Cave of Savigné</i> (Vienne), situated on the banks of the Charente, and discovered by M. Joly-Leterme, an architect of Saumur, who there found a fragment of a stag's bone, on which the bodies of two animals are graven with hatchings to indicate shadows; the <i>Grottos of La -Balme and Bethenas</i>, in Dauphiné, explored by M. Chantre; lastly, -the settlement of Solutré, in the neighbourhood of Mâcon, from which +Balme and Bethenas</i>, in Dauphiné, explored by M. Chantre; lastly, +the settlement of Solutré, in the neighbourhood of Mâcon, from which MM. Ferry and Arcelin have exhumed two human skulls, together with some very fine flint instruments of the Laugerie-Haute type.</p> <p>These settlements do not all belong to the same epoch, although most of them correspond to the long period known as the reindeer epoch. It is not always possible to determine their comparative -chronology. From the state of their <i>débris</i> it can, however, be ascertained, +chronology. From the state of their <i>débris</i> it can, however, be ascertained, that the caves of Lourdes and Espalungue date back to the most ancient period of the reindeer epoch; whilst the settlements of -Périgord, of Tarn-et-Garonne, and of Mâconnais are of a later date. +Périgord, of Tarn-et-Garonne, and of Mâconnais are of a later date. The cave of Massat seems as if it ought to be dated at the beginning of the wrought stone epoch, for no bones have been found there, either of the reindeer or the horse; the remains of the bison are the sole @@ -7599,7 +7560,7 @@ representatives of the extinct animal species.</p> <p>In concluding this list of the French bone-caves which have served to throw a light upon the peculiar features of man's existence during the reindeer epoch, we must not omit to mention the Belgian caves, -which have been so zealously explored by M. Édouard Dupont. +which have been so zealously explored by M. Édouard Dupont. From the preceding pages, we may perceive how especially important the latter have been in the elucidation of the characteristics of man's physical organisation during this epoch.</p> @@ -7613,7 +7574,7 @@ have been discovered both in Germany and also in Switzerland.</p> found at the bottom of an ancient glacier-moraine in the neighbourhood of Rabensburg, not far from the lake of Constance. The bones of the reindeer formed about ninety-eight hundredths of these remains. -The other <i>débris</i> were the bones of the horse, the wolf, the +The other <i>débris</i> were the bones of the horse, the wolf, the brown bear, the white fox, the glutton and the ox.</p> <p>In 1858, on a mountain near Geneva, a cave was discovered about @@ -7631,7 +7592,7 @@ mountains of the Alps.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_7" id="footnote_7"></a><a href="#fnanchor_7"> -<span class="label">[7]</span></a> 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche.' Paris, 1867, p. 25.</p> +<span class="label">[7]</span></a> 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche.' Paris, 1867, p. 25.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_8" id="footnote_8"></a><a href="#fnanchor_8"> @@ -7648,11 +7609,11 @@ id="footnote_10"></a><a href="#fnanchor_10"> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_11" id="footnote_11"></a><a href="#fnanchor_11"> -<span class="label">[11]</span></a> 'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,' by Éd. Lartet and H. Christy. London, 1865, &c.</p> +<span class="label">[11]</span></a> 'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,' by Éd. Lartet and H. Christy. London, 1865, &c.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_12" id="footnote_12"></a><a href="#fnanchor_12"> -<span class="label">[12]</span></a> 'Notice sur les Fouilles Paléontologiques de l'Age de la Pierre exécutées à +<span class="label">[12]</span></a> 'Notice sur les Fouilles Paléontologiques de l'Age de la Pierre exécutées à Bruniquel et Saint-Antonin,' by V. Brun. Montauban, 1867.</p></div> @@ -7758,8 +7719,8 @@ him the best retreat from the attacks of wild beasts.</p> extreme south of the above-mentioned country. Among the investigations which have contributed towards its verification, we must give particular notice to those made by MM. Garrigou and Filhol in the -caves of the Pyrenees (Ariége). These two <i>savants</i> have also explored -the caves of Pradières, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux, Ussat, and +caves of the Pyrenees (Ariége). These two <i>savants</i> have also explored +the caves of Pradières, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux, Ussat, and Fontanel.<a name="fnanchor_13" id="fnanchor_13"></a><a href="#footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>]</p> @@ -7792,13 +7753,13 @@ leptinite and serpentine stones. These instruments were carefully wrought, and a few had been polished at one end on a slab of flag-stone.</p> -<p>In the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrénées), which has been explored +<p>In the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrénées), which has been explored by M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, two layers were observed; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"> [Pg 128]</a></span> one belonging to the reindeer epoch, and the other to the polished-stone epoch.<a name="fnanchor_15" id="fnanchor_15"></a><a href="#footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> -The cave of Pontil (Hérault), which has been carefully +The cave of Pontil (Hérault), which has been carefully examined by Professor Gervais,<a name="fnanchor_16" id="fnanchor_16"></a><a href="#footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> has furnished remains of every @@ -7840,28 +7801,28 @@ of their importance, require a detailed account.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_13" id="footnote_13"></a><a href="#fnanchor_13"> <span class="label">[13]</span></a> 'L'Homme Fossile des Cavernes de Lombrive et de Lherm.' Toulouse, 1862. -Illustrated. 'L'Age de Pierre dans les Vallées de Tarascon' (Ariége). Tarascon, +Illustrated. 'L'Age de Pierre dans les Vallées de Tarascon' (Ariége). Tarascon, 1863.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_14" id="footnote_14"></a><a href="#fnanchor_14"> -<span class="label">[14]</span></a> 'Sur deux Cavernes découvertes dans la Montagne de Kaer à Massat' (Ariége). +<span class="label">[14]</span></a> 'Sur deux Cavernes découvertes dans la Montagne de Kaer à Massat' (Ariége). Quoted by Lyell, Appendix to 'The Antiquity of Man,' p. 247.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_15" id="footnote_15"></a><a href="#fnanchor_15"> -<span class="label">[15]</span></a> 'De l'Existence de l'Homme pendant la Période quaternaire dans la grotte de -Lourdes' (Hautes-Pyrénées). ('Annales des Sciences Naturelles,' 4th series, vol. +<span class="label">[15]</span></a> 'De l'Existence de l'Homme pendant la Période quaternaire dans la grotte de +Lourdes' (Hautes-Pyrénées). ('Annales des Sciences Naturelles,' 4th series, vol. xvii.)</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_16" id="footnote_16"></a><a href="#fnanchor_16"> -<span class="label">[16]</span></a> 'Mémoires de l'Académie de Montpellier' ('Section des Sciences'), 1857, vol. iii, +<span class="label">[16]</span></a> 'Mémoires de l'Académie de Montpellier' ('Section des Sciences'), 1857, vol. iii, p. 509.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_17" id="footnote_17"></a><a href="#fnanchor_17"> -<span class="label">[17]</span></a> 'Sur une Caverne de l'Age de la Pierre, située près de Saint-Jean-d'Alcas' +<span class="label">[17]</span></a> 'Sur une Caverne de l'Age de la Pierre, située près de Saint-Jean-d'Alcas' (Aveyron), 1864. 'Derniers Temps de l'Age de la Pierre Polie dans l'Aveyron', Montpellier, 1867. Illustrated.</p></div> @@ -7887,7 +7848,7 @@ is, nevertheless, one of the most important in Europe, in virtue of the eminence to which it has attained in science and arts. This valiant, although numerically speaking, inconsiderable people, can boast of a great number of distinguished men who are an honour to -science. The unwearied researches of their archæologists and antiquarians +science. The unwearied researches of their archæologists and antiquarians have ransacked the dust of bygone ages, in order to call into new life the features of a vanished world. Their labours, guided by the observations of naturalists, have brought out into the clear @@ -7938,20 +7899,20 @@ that there were hardly any young ones to be found amongst them. A peculiarity of this kind is an evident indication of the exercise of some rational purpose, in fact, of an act of the human will.</p> -<p>When all the <i>débris</i> and relics which we have enumerated were +<p>When all the <i>débris</i> and relics which we have enumerated were discovered in these kitchen-middens, when the remains of hearths—small spots which still retained traces of fire—were found in them, the origin of these heaps were readily conjectured. Tribes once existed there who subsisted on the products of fishing and hunting, and threw out round their cabins the remains of their meals, consisting -especially of the <i>débris</i> of shell-fish. These remains gradually +especially of the <i>débris</i> of shell-fish. These remains gradually accumulated, and constituted the considerable heaps which we are discussing; hence the name of <i>kjoekken-moedding</i>, composed of two words—<i>kjoekken</i>, kitchen; and <i>moedding</i>, heap of refuse. These "kitchen-middens," as they are called, are, therefore, the refuse from the meals of the primitive population of Denmark.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"> [Pg 131]</a></span></p> -<p>If we consider the heaps of oyster-shells and other <i>débris</i> which +<p>If we consider the heaps of oyster-shells and other <i>débris</i> which accumulate in the neighbourhood of eating-houses in certain districts, we may readily understand, comparing great things with small, how these Danish kitchen-middens were produced. I myself well recollect @@ -7970,7 +7931,7 @@ deposits, and to publish the results of its labours.</p> <p>This commission was composed of three <i>savants</i>, each of whom were eminent in their respective line—Steenstrup, the naturalist, Forchhammer, -a geologist, and the archæologist, Worsaae—and performed +a geologist, and the archæologist, Worsaae—and performed its task with as much talent as zeal. The observations which were made are recorded in three reports presented to the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen. From these documents are borrowed most @@ -7980,7 +7941,7 @@ of the details which follow.</p> light by the Danish commission, it will be well to remark that Denmark does not stand alone in possessing these kitchen-middens. They have been discovered in England—in Cornwall and Devonshire—in -Scotland, and even in France, near Hyères (Bouches-du-Rhône).<a name="fnanchor_18" +Scotland, and even in France, near Hyères (Bouches-du-Rhône).<a name="fnanchor_18" id="fnanchor_18"></a><a href="#footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> <p>MM. Sauvage and Hamy have pointed out to M. de Mortillet the @@ -8146,11 +8107,11 @@ of oxygen, but were only charred with the heat. They became covered with a slight coating of some empyreumatic or tarry matter—an excellent medium for insuring the preservation of any organic substance. These nets having been scorched by the fire, fell into -the water with the <i>débris</i> of the hut, and, in consequence of their +the water with the <i>débris</i> of the hut, and, in consequence of their precipitate fall, never having come in actual contact with the flame, have been preserved almost intact at the bottom of the lakes. When, after a long lapse of centuries, they have been again recovered, these -<i>débris</i> have been the means of affording information as to the +<i>débris</i> have been the means of affording information as to the manufacture both of the fishing-nets, and also as to the basket-work, vegetable provisions, &c., of these remote ages.</p> @@ -8575,7 +8536,7 @@ alt="Necklace" /> <p class="topspace2">Although these northern tribes of the polished-stone epoch were such skilful workmen in flint, they were, nevertheless, but poor hands -at pottery. The <i>débris</i> of vessels collected from the Danish <i>kitchen-middens</i>, +at pottery. The <i>débris</i> of vessels collected from the Danish <i>kitchen-middens</i>, and also from the peat-bogs and tombs, are in every way rough, and testify to a very imperfect knowledge of the art of moulding clay. They may be said to mark the first efforts of a manufacturing @@ -8604,15 +8565,15 @@ polishing of flints.</p> <p>The most important of all the workshops which have been noticed in France is, unquestionably, that of Grand-Pressigny, which we -have already mentioned. It was discovered by Dr. Léveillé, the +have already mentioned. It was discovered by Dr. Léveillé, the medical man of the place; but, to tell the truth, it is not so much in itself a centre of manufacture as a series of workshops distributed in the whole neighbourhood round Pressigny.</p> <p>At the time of this discovery, that is in 1864, flints were found in thousands imbedded in the vegetable mould on the surface of the soil, -over a superficies of 12 to 14 acres. The Abbé Chevalier, giving an -account of this curious discovery to the <i>Académie des Sciences</i> at +over a superficies of 12 to 14 acres. The Abbé Chevalier, giving an +account of this curious discovery to the <i>Académie des Sciences</i> at Paris, wrote: "It is impossible to walk a single step without treading on some of these objects."</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"> [Pg 148]</a></span></p> @@ -8655,12 +8616,12 @@ shape. At the present day these <i>nuclei</i> are plentiful in all the collectio of natural history and geology.</p> <p>A strange objection has been raised against the antiquity of the -hatchets, knives, and weapons found at Pressigny. M. Eugène Robert +hatchets, knives, and weapons found at Pressigny. M. Eugène Robert has asserted that these flints were nothing else but the refuse of the siliceous masses which, at the end of the last century and especially at the beginning of the present, were used in the manufacture of gun-flints!</p> -<p>The Abbé Bourgeois, M. Penguilly l'Haridon, and Mr. John Evans +<p>The Abbé Bourgeois, M. Penguilly l'Haridon, and Mr. John Evans did not find much difficulty in proving the slight foundation there was for this criticism. In the department of Loire-et-Cher, in which the gun-flint manufacture still exists, the residue from the process bears no @@ -8673,12 +8634,12 @@ of Touraine.</p> <p>But another and altogether peremptory argument is that the flints of Pressigny-le-Grand are unfitted, on account of the texture, for the manufacture of gun-flints. Moreover, the records of the Artillery -Depôt, as remarked by M. Penguilly l'Haridon, librarian of the +Depôt, as remarked by M. Penguilly l'Haridon, librarian of the Artillery Museum, do not make mention of the locality of Pressigny having ever been worked for this purpose. Lastly, the oldest inhabitants of the commune have testified that they never either saw or heard of any body of workmen coming into the district to work flints. -M. Eugène Robert's hypothesis, which MM. Decaisne and Elie de +M. Eugène Robert's hypothesis, which MM. Decaisne and Elie de Beaumont thought right to patronise, is, therefore, as much opposed to facts as to probability.</p> @@ -8841,7 +8802,7 @@ alt="Polisher" /> <p class="topspace2">We think we ought to quote here the brief account M. Leguay has given of the polisher represented in our figure. In his 'Note sur une -Pierre à polir les Silex trouvée en Septembre, 1860, à la Varenne-Saint-Hilaire +Pierre à polir les Silex trouvée en Septembre, 1860, à la Varenne-Saint-Hilaire (Seine),' M. Leguay thus writes:—</p> <p>"Amongst the many monuments of the Stone Age which I have @@ -8853,7 +8814,7 @@ these tribes—the fabrication of flint weapons and utensils.</p> <p>"This object is a stone for polishing and fashioning the finest kind of hatchets. I discovered it in September, 1860, at a spot called <i>La -Pierre au Prêtre</i>, along with several other monuments of primitive +Pierre au Prêtre</i>, along with several other monuments of primitive art which I intend before long to make public. This stone is a rough sandstone of cubical shape, showing no trace whatever of having been hewn. It is 13 inches in its greatest thickness, and measures 37 @@ -9003,14 +8964,14 @@ were made in two months.</p> <p>Besides those at Grand-Pressigny, some other pre-historic workshops have been pointed out in France. We may mention those of Charente, discovered by M. de Rochebrune; also those of Poitou, and -lastly, the field of Diorières, at Chauvigny (Loire-et-Cher), which +lastly, the field of Diorières, at Chauvigny (Loire-et-Cher), which appears to have been a special workshop for polishing flint instruments. There is, in fact, not far from Chauvigny, in the same department, a rock on which twenty-five furrows, similar to those in the polishing-stones, are still visible; on which account the inhabitants of the district have given it the name of the "Scored Rock." It is probable that this rock was used for polishing the instruments which -were sculptured at Diorières.</p> +were sculptured at Diorières.</p> <p>The same kind of open-air workshops for the working of flints have also been discovered in Belgium.</p> @@ -9037,7 +8998,7 @@ Lyons, in his work entitled, 'Influence du Mineur sur la Civilisation.'</p> <p>"For a very long time past," says M. Fournet, "the caves of Mentone had been known to the inhabitants of the district, on account -of the accumulation of <i>débris</i> contained in them, a boxful of which +of the accumulation of <i>débris</i> contained in them, a boxful of which were sent to Paris, before 1848, by the Prince of Monaco; the contents of it, however, were never subjected to any proper explanation. Since this date, M. Grand, of Lyons, to whom I am indebted for a @@ -9181,7 +9142,7 @@ perforated with a round or oval hole intended to receive a handle of oak, birch, or some other kind of wood adapted for such a use.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"> [Pg 162]</a></span></p> <p>Fig. 112, taken from the illustration in Boucher de Perthes' work -('Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes'), represents this hatchet +('Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes'), represents this hatchet fitted into a handle made of oak.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_211.jpg" id="i_211.jpg"></a> @@ -9207,7 +9168,7 @@ made from was unfavourable to their preservation through a long course of centuries; it is, therefore, only exceptionally that we meet with them, and even then they are always defaced.</p> -<p>Fig. 113 is given by Boucher de Perthes, in his 'Antiquités +<p>Fig. 113 is given by Boucher de Perthes, in his 'Antiquités Celtiques,' as the representation of an oaken handle found by him.</p> <p>A number of these sheaths have been found, which were provided @@ -9425,7 +9386,7 @@ and projections perforated for the purpose of suspension. In short, there is a perceptible, though but preliminary step made towards the real creations of art.</p> -<p>In the caves of Ariége, MM. Garrigou and Filhol found some +<p>In the caves of Ariége, MM. Garrigou and Filhol found some remains of ancient pottery of clay provided with handles, although of a shape altogether primitive. Among the fragments of pottery found by these <i>savants</i>, there was one which measured 11 inches in @@ -9438,12 +9399,12 @@ specimen three holes which had been perforated in it.</p> <p><i>Agriculture.</i>—We have certain evidence that man, during the polished-stone epoch, was acquainted with husbandry, or, in other words, that he cultivated cereals. MM. Garrigou and Filhol found -in the caves of Ariége more than twenty mill-stones, which could only +in the caves of Ariége more than twenty mill-stones, which could only have been used in grinding corn. These stones are from 8 to 24 inches in diameter.</p> <p>The tribes, therefore, which, during the polished-stone epoch, inhabited -the district now called Ariége, were acquainted with the +the district now called Ariége, were acquainted with the cultivation of corn.</p> <p>In 1869, Dr. Foulon-Menard published an article intended to @@ -9472,7 +9433,7 @@ alt="Primitive Corn-mill" /> </div> </div> -<p class="topspace2">In the 'Voyage du Mississippi à l'Océan,' by M. Molhausen, we +<p class="topspace2">In the 'Voyage du Mississippi à l'Océan,' by M. Molhausen, we read:—</p> <p>"The principal food of the Indians consisted of roasted cakes of @@ -9540,8 +9501,8 @@ had been tamed by man, and served him either as auxiliaries or companions.</p> <p>The traces of agriculture which we have remarked on as existing -in the caves of Ariége, are also found in other parts of France. -Round the hearths in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, M. +in the caves of Ariége, are also found in other parts of France. +Round the hearths in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, M. Pommerol discovered carbonised wheat intermingled with pottery and flint instruments. The men of the period we are now considering no longer devoted themselves exclusively to the pursuits of hunting @@ -9554,7 +9515,7 @@ of national wealth.</p> ascribed to the polished-stone epoch. With regard to this subject, let us pay attention to what is said on the point by M. G. de <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"> [Pg 172]</a></span> -Mortillet, curator at the Archæological and Pre-historic Museum of +Mortillet, curator at the Archæological and Pre-historic Museum of Saint-Germain—one of the best-informed men we have in all questions relating to the antiquity of man.</p> @@ -9597,7 +9558,7 @@ for this important discovery, which was the point of transition between elementary and primitive navigation, and more important voyages. This progress could not have been made without the help of metals.</p> -<p>In an article entitled 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' +<p>In an article entitled 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' M. de Mortillet passes in review all the discoveries, which have been made in different countries, of the earliest boats belonging to pre-historic man.</p> @@ -9688,7 +9649,7 @@ found about 100 yards from the river, at the average depth of about mark. A few only of them were found at a depth of no more than 4 or 5 feet, and consequently more than 20 feet above the present level of the sea. One was stuck into the sand at an angle -of 45°; another had been turned over and lay keel upwards; the +of 45°; another had been turned over and lay keel upwards; the others were in a horizontal position, as if they had sunk in still water.</p> @@ -9712,7 +9673,7 @@ widest part, this trunk has been chipped off so as to taper towards the two points which are rounded. It is, however, very probable that the whole of this work was executed with stone implements; for the primitive settlement of Robenhausen, situated in a peat-bog near the small -lake Pfæffikon in the canton of Zurich, although very rich in many +lake Pfæffikon in the canton of Zurich, although very rich in many kinds of objects, has not, up to the present time, furnished us with any metal instruments.</p> @@ -9740,7 +9701,7 @@ of an oak of large dimensions; it is not much less than 49 feet long with a breadth of from 3½ feet to 4 feet.</p> <p>"M. Desor, in his <i>Palafittes</i>, informs us that the Museum of -Neuchâtel has lately been enriched by the addition of a canoe which +Neuchâtel has lately been enriched by the addition of a canoe which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"> [Pg 176]</a></span> was discovered in the lake; unfortunately, it was dreadfully warped in drying.</p> @@ -9748,7 +9709,7 @@ in drying.</p> <p>"Also M. Troyon, in his 'Habitations Lacustres,' speaks of several canoes at Estavayer and Morges.</p> -<p>"Estavayer is situated on the Lake of Neuchâtel. There are two +<p>"Estavayer is situated on the Lake of Neuchâtel. There are two settlements near it, one of the Stone Age, and one of the bronze age. One canoe is still lying at the bottom of the lake, near these settlements. Another was brought out of the water by the fishermen @@ -9774,7 +9735,7 @@ to pre-historic times.</p> <p>"On the 6th of January, 1860, the labourers who were working at the fortifications which the engineers were making at Abbeville found -a canoe in the place called Saint-Jean-des-Prés, on the left bank of +a canoe in the place called Saint-Jean-des-Prés, on the left bank of the canal; it was discovered in the peat, 36 feet below the road and about 220 yards from the railway station. It was made out of a single stick of oak and was about 22 feet in length; its ends @@ -9810,7 +9771,7 @@ signs of having carried a mast. It was conveyed to the Museum at Abbeville and became completely rotten; nothing now is left but shapeless remains.</p> -<p>"The Abbé Cochet relates that between 1788 and 1800, during +<p>"The Abbé Cochet relates that between 1788 and 1800, during the excavation of the basin of <i>La Barre</i>, at Havre, at 11 feet in depth, a canoe was discovered, more than 44 feet in length, and hollowed out of one trunk of a tree. The two ends were pointed @@ -9822,15 +9783,15 @@ the engineer's house on the south jetty; but when it was deposited there, it gradually wasted away by the successive action of the rain and sun.</p> -<p>"The same archæologist also mentions another canoe, with a keel of +<p>"The same archæologist also mentions another canoe, with a keel of from 16 to 20 feet long, which was discovered in the year 1680, -at Montéviliers, in the filled-up ditches known under the name +at Montéviliers, in the filled-up ditches known under the name of La Bergue.</p> -<p>"The Archæological Museum of Dijon also contains a canoe found +<p>"The Archæological Museum of Dijon also contains a canoe found in the gravel in the bed of the Loue, on the boundaries of the department <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"> [Pg 178]</a></span> -of Jura, between Dôle and Salins. It is made of a single +of Jura, between Dôle and Salins. It is made of a single colossal trunk of oak, shaped, in M. Baudot's opinion, by means of fire. Its present length is 17 feet, and its width, 2 feet 4 inches; but it has become much less in the process of drying. Some @@ -9854,7 +9815,7 @@ of the Seine in Paris, and presented by M. Forgeais to the Emperor. It is now in the Museum of Saint-Germain. It was made of a single trunk of oak and had been skilfully wrought on the outside, terminating in a point at both ends. This canoe was bedded in the mud -and gravel at the extremity of the <i>Cité</i>, on the Notre-Dame side. +and gravel at the extremity of the <i>Cité</i>, on the Notre-Dame side. Close by a worked flint was met with, and various bronze weapons; among others, a helmet and several swords were also found. In the beds of rivers objects belonging to different epochs readily get mixed @@ -9971,7 +9932,7 @@ which we stated above, it would be superfluous to dwell upon them.</p> race which existed among the northern nations of Europe during the polished-stone age.</p> -<p>There is a cavern of Ariége which belongs to the polished-stone +<p>There is a cavern of Ariége which belongs to the polished-stone epoch, and has been explored by MM. Garrigou and Filhol—this is the cavern of <i>Lombrive</i>, or <i>des Echelles</i>; the latter name being given it because it is divided into two portions placed at such very different @@ -9990,7 +9951,7 @@ cheeks are deep.</p> <p>We shall not enter into the diverse and contrary hypotheses which have been advanced by MM. Vogt, Broca, Pruner-Bey, Garrigou and -Filhol, in order to connect the skulls found in the cave of Ariége with +Filhol, in order to connect the skulls found in the cave of Ariége with the present races of the human species. This ethnological question is very far from having been decided in any uniform way; and so it will always be, as long as scientific men are compelled to base their @@ -10056,21 +10017,21 @@ scientific phrases.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_18" id="footnote_18"></a><a href="#fnanchor_18"> -<span class="label">[18]</span></a> 'Note sur un Amas de. Coquilles mélées à des Silex taillés, signalé sur les Côtes -de Provence,' by M. A. Gory ('Revue Archéologique'). Quoted in the 'Matériaux +<span class="label">[18]</span></a> 'Note sur un Amas de. Coquilles mélées à des Silex taillés, signalé sur les Côtes +de Provence,' by M. A. Gory ('Revue Archéologique'). Quoted in the 'Matériaux de l'histoire positive de l'Homme,' by M. de Mortillet, vol. i. p. 535.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_19" id="footnote_19"></a><a href="#fnanchor_19"> <span class="label">[19]</span></a> See J. Evans, 'On the Manufacture of Stone Implements in Pre-historic Times,' -in Trans. of the International Congress of Pre-historic Archæology (Norwich, 1868), +in Trans. of the International Congress of Pre-historic Archæology (Norwich, 1868), p. 191; and C. Rau, 'Drilling in Stone without Metal,' in Report of Smithsonian Institution, 1868.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_20" id="footnote_20"></a><a href="#fnanchor_20"> <span class="label">[20]</span></a> 'Les Moulins Primitifs,' Nantes, 1869. Extract from the 'Bulletin de la -Société Archéologique de Nantes.'</p> +Société Archéologique de Nantes.'</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_21" id="footnote_21"></a><a href="#fnanchor_21"> @@ -10091,7 +10052,7 @@ id="footnote_24"></a><a href="#fnanchor_24"> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_25" id="footnote_25"></a><a href="#fnanchor_25"> -<span class="label">[25]</span></a> 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' pp. 11-21. Paris, 1867.</p></div> +<span class="label">[25]</span></a> 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' pp. 11-21. Paris, 1867.</p></div> @@ -10113,7 +10074,7 @@ facts connected with their funeral customs.</p> and given a degree of certainty to the information and ideas we are about to lay before our readers. The tombs of the men of the polished-stone epoch—their funeral monuments—have been thoroughly studied, -described, and ransacked by archæologists and antiquarians, who for +described, and ransacked by archæologists and antiquarians, who for many years past have made them the subject of a multitude of publications and learned dissertations. In fact, these tombs are nothing but the <i>dolmens</i>, or the so-called <i>Celtic</i> and <i>Druidical</i> monuments; @@ -10171,8 +10132,8 @@ France.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_241a.jpg" id="i_241a.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_241a.jpg" -alt="Connéré dolmen" /> -<div class="caption">Fig. 132.—<i>Dolmen</i> at Connéré (Marne). +alt="Connéré dolmen" /> +<div class="caption">Fig. 132.—<i>Dolmen</i> at Connéré (Marne). </div> </div> @@ -10219,10 +10180,10 @@ alt="Gavr'inis dolmen" /> <p class="topspace2">Were all these <i>dolmens</i> originally covered by earth? This is a question which still remains unsolved. M. Alexandre Bertrand, -Director of the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain, to whom we +Director of the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain, to whom we owe some very remarkable works on the primitive monuments of ancient Gaul, decides it in the affirmative; whilst M. de Bonstetten, -a Swiss archæologist of great merit, is of the contrary opinion. The +a Swiss archæologist of great merit, is of the contrary opinion. The matter, however, is of no very great importance in itself. It is, at all events, an unquestionable fact that certain <i>dolmens</i> which are now uncovered were once buried; for they are noticed to stand in the @@ -10265,7 +10226,7 @@ They are found in fifty-eight of the French departments, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"> [Pg 189]</a></span> belonging, for the most part, to the regions of the south and south-west. The department of Finisterre contains 500 of them; Lot, 500; -Morbihan, 250; Ardèche, 155; Aveyron, 125; Dordogne, 100; &c. +Morbihan, 250; Ardèche, 155; Aveyron, 125; Dordogne, 100; &c. <a name="fnanchor_26" id="fnanchor_26"></a><a href="#footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> @@ -10278,7 +10239,7 @@ alt="Passage-Tomb at Plouharnel" /> <p class="topspace2">The authors who have written on the question we are now considering, especially Sir J. Lubbock in his work on 'Pre-historic Times,' -and Nilsson, the Swedish archæologist, have given a much too complicated +and Nilsson, the Swedish archæologist, have given a much too complicated aspect to their descriptions of the tombs of pre-historic ages, owing to their having multiplied the distinctions in this kind of monument. We should only perplex our readers by following these authors @@ -10287,14 +10248,14 @@ them.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_244b.jpg" id="i_244b.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_244b.jpg" -alt="Table de César passage-tomb" /> +alt="Table de César passage-tomb" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 139.—Passage-Tomb; the so-called -<i>Table de César</i>, at Locmariaker (Morbihan). +<i>Table de César</i>, at Locmariaker (Morbihan). </div> </div> <p class="topspace2">Sir J. Lubbock gives the name of <i>passage grave</i>, to that which the -northern archæologists call <i>Ganggraben</i> (tomb with passages); of +northern archæologists call <i>Ganggraben</i> (tomb with passages); of these we have given four representations (figs. 136, 137, 138, 139), <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"> [Pg 190]</a></span> all selected from specimens in France. This name is applied to a @@ -10417,16 +10378,16 @@ among the Hebrews, the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Egyptians, &c.</p> <p>Thus Semiramis, Queen of Nineveh, raised a mound over the tomb of Ninus, her husband. Stones were likewise piled up over the -remains of Laïus, father of Œdipus. In the 'Iliad,' Homer speaks of +remains of Laïus, father of Œdipus. In the 'Iliad,' Homer speaks of the mounds that were raised to the memory of Hector and Patroclus. That dedicated to Patroclus—the pious work of Achilles—was more than 100 feet in diameter. Homer speaks of the <i>tumuli</i> existing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"> [Pg 194]</a></span> in Greece, which, even in his time, were considered very ancient, and calls them the tombs of the heroes. A <i>tumulus</i> was raised by -Alexander the Great over the ashes of his friend Hephæstio, and so +Alexander the Great over the ashes of his friend Hephæstio, and so great were the dimensions of this monument that it is said to have -cost 1200 talents, that is about £240,000 of our money. In Roman +cost 1200 talents, that is about £240,000 of our money. In Roman history, too, we find instances of the same kind. Lastly, the pyramids of Egypt, those costly and colossal funeral monuments, are the still visible representations of the highest expression of posthumous homage @@ -10483,8 +10444,8 @@ adds, all the more likely to be made because some of these mounds, although containing ashes, remains of pottery, and various implements, have not furnished any relics of human bones.</p> -<p>In his work on the 'Sépultures de l'Age de la Pierre chez les -Parisii,' M. Leguay, a learned architect and member of the Archælogical +<p>In his work on the 'Sépultures de l'Age de la Pierre chez les +Parisii,' M. Leguay, a learned architect and member of the Archælogical Society, has called attention to the fact that the construction of these <i>dolmens</i> betrays, as existing in the men of this epoch, a somewhat advanced degree of knowledge of the elements of architecture:—</p> @@ -10705,7 +10666,7 @@ child was interred alive with her. This hypothesis appears a natural one, when we take into account the great number of cases in which the skeletons of a woman and child have been found together.</p> -<p>M. Leguay in his 'Mémoire sur les Sépultures des Parisii,' which +<p>M. Leguay in his 'Mémoire sur les Sépultures des Parisii,' which we quoted above, expresses the opinion that after each interment, in addition to the funeral banquet, a fire was lighted on the mound above the <i>tumulus</i>, and that each attendant threw certain precious @@ -10729,7 +10690,7 @@ earth which covers or surrounds the hearth, and appear in many cases to have been cast in after the extinction of the fire as the earth was being filled in.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"> [Pg 201]</a></span></p> -<p>"Sometimes, indeed, when the archæologist devotes especial care to +<p>"Sometimes, indeed, when the archæologist devotes especial care to his digging, he comes across a kind of layer of wrought flints which are, in fact, to be looked upon as refuse rather than wrought articles. Their position appears to indicate the surface of the soil @@ -10820,11 +10781,11 @@ id="footnote_26"></a><a href="#fnanchor_26"> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_27" id="footnote_27"></a><a href="#fnanchor_27"> -<span class="label">[27]</span></a> 'Des Sépultures à l'Age de la Pierre,' pp. 15, 16. 1865.</p> +<span class="label">[27]</span></a> 'Des Sépultures à l'Age de la Pierre,' pp. 15, 16. 1865.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_28" id="footnote_28"></a><a href="#fnanchor_28"> -<span class="label">[28]</span></a> 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle de 1867.' Paris. 1868.</p></div> +<span class="label">[28]</span></a> 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle de 1867.' Paris. 1868.</p></div> <p class="text2 topspace5">THE AGE OF METALS.</p> @@ -10965,7 +10926,7 @@ reader why the use of bronze preceded that of iron among all the European and Asiatic peoples.</p> <p>On this quasi-absence of manufactured copper in the pre-historic -monuments of Europe, certain archæologists have relied when propounding +monuments of Europe, certain archæologists have relied when propounding the opinion that bronze was brought into Europe by a people coming from the East, a more advanced and civilised people, who had already passed through their <i>copper age</i>, that is, had known @@ -10984,19 +10945,19 @@ invasion having brought with it a complete change in manners, customs, and processes of industrial skill. In their opinion, it was commerce which first brought bronze from the East and introduced it to the men of the West. This is the view of Sir Cornewall -Lewis, the archæologist and statesman, and also of Prof. Nilsson, +Lewis, the archæologist and statesman, and also of Prof. Nilsson, who attributes to the Phœnicians the importation of bronze into Europe.</p> <p>Without attaining any great result, Nilsson has taken much trouble in supporting this idea by acceptable proofs. We are called -upon to agree with the Danish archæologist in admitting that the +upon to agree with the Danish archæologist in admitting that the Phœnicians, that is, the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon went <i>with their ships</i> to procure tin from Great Britain, in order to make an alloy with it in their own country, which alloy they subsequently imported into Europe.</p> -<p>This is nothing but historic fancy. To this romance of archæology +<p>This is nothing but historic fancy. To this romance of archæology we shall oppose the simple explanation which chemistry suggests to us. Our belief is that the bronze was fabricated on the spot by the very people who made use of it. All that was requisite in order to @@ -11086,7 +11047,7 @@ id="fnanchor_30"></a><a href="#footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> speaks of was sixty times the size of that which Pausanias, son of Cleobrontos, presented to the temple of Jupiter Orios, a temple which had been built near the Euxine, on the borders of Scythia. Its capacity was -six hundred <i>amphoræ</i>, and it was six "fingers" in thickness. The +six hundred <i>amphoræ</i>, and it was six "fingers" in thickness. The Greeks used to employ these enormous basins in their religious ceremonies.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"> [Pg 211]</a></span></p> <p>In Sweden and Norway, large receptacles of a similar kind were in @@ -11175,8 +11136,8 @@ wherever they were required.</p> <p>Every one is acquainted with the travelling-tinkers who, at the present day, make their way down from the mountains of Auvergne, -the Black Forest, the Alps, or the Cévennes, and are called <i>péirerous</i> -and <i>estama-brazaïres</i> in the south of France, and <i>épingliers</i> in other +the Black Forest, the Alps, or the Cévennes, and are called <i>péirerous</i> +and <i>estama-brazaïres</i> in the south of France, and <i>épingliers</i> in other districts. These men are in the habit of working at separate jobs in the villages and even in the public places of the towns. Of course they travel with no more of the utensils of their craft than strict @@ -11190,7 +11151,7 @@ metal-work, the dimensions of which are really surprising. They make nails and tacks, and even worm screws, repair locks, clean clocks, make <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"> [Pg 213]</a></span> knives, mend skimmers, and restore umbrella-frames. They make -bronze rings out of republican <i>décimes</i>, and sell these popular trinkets +bronze rings out of republican <i>décimes</i>, and sell these popular trinkets to the village beauties.</p> <p>Incomparable in their line of business, these men are unequalled in @@ -11219,7 +11180,7 @@ sand, which serves them for a mould, is procured from the ditch at the side of the road. Into this mould they pour the alloy out of the very crucible in which it has been melted.</p> -<p>These itinerant metallurgists, these <i>estama-brazaïres</i>, who may be +<p>These itinerant metallurgists, these <i>estama-brazaïres</i>, who may be noticed working in the villages of Lower Languedoc, whose ways we have just depicted (not without some degree of pleasant reminiscence), are nothing but the descendants of the travelling metal-workers @@ -11349,7 +11310,7 @@ bearing, at a time when every one else looked upon them as nothing but objects of curiosity. It is, therefore, only just to pronounce the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"> [Pg 217]</a></span> physician of Zurich to have been the first originator of pre-historic -archæological science in Switzerland.</p> +archæological science in Switzerland.</p> <p>In 1854, after the publication of Dr. Keller's first article, the Swiss lakes were explored with much energy, and it was not long @@ -11359,7 +11320,7 @@ are being found.<a name="fnanchor_32" id="fnanchor_32"></a><a href="#footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> <p>Thanks to the activity which has been shown by a great number of -observers, magnificent collections have been formed of these archæological +observers, magnificent collections have been formed of these archæological treasures. The fishermen of the lakes have been acquainted, for many years back, with the sites of some of these settlements, in consequence of having, on many occasions, torn their nets on the piles @@ -11369,14 +11330,14 @@ system of civilisation, heretofore unknown, emerged from the beds of the Swiss lakes.</p> <p>Among the lakes which have furnished the largest quantity of -relics of pre-historic ages, we may mention that of Neuchâtel, in which, +relics of pre-historic ages, we may mention that of Neuchâtel, in which, in 1867, no less than forty-six settlements were counted; in Lake Constance (thirty-two settlements); in the Lake of Geneva (twenty-four settlements); in the Lake of Bienne, canton of Berne (twenty settlements); in the Lake of Morat, canton of Fribourg (eight settlements).</p> <p>Next come several other lakes of less importance. The Lake of -Zurich (three settlements); the Lake of Pfæffikon, canton of Zurich +Zurich (three settlements); the Lake of Pfæffikon, canton of Zurich (four settlements); the Lake of Sempach, canton of Lucerne (four settlements); the Lake of Moosseedorf, canton of Berne (two settlements); the Lake of Inkwyl, near Soleure (one settlement); the @@ -11389,10 +11350,10 @@ into peat-bogs. We must place in this class the peat-bog of Wauwyl, canton of Lucerne (five settlements).</p> <p>We will mention, in the last place, the settlement at the bridge of -Thièle, on the water-course which unites the lakes of Bienne and -Neuchâtel. This settlement must once have formed a portion of the +Thièle, on the water-course which unites the lakes of Bienne and +Neuchâtel. This settlement must once have formed a portion of the Lake of Bienne, at the time when the latter extended as far as the -bridge of Thièle.</p> +bridge of Thièle.</p> <p>The lacustrine villages of Switzerland do not all belong to the same period. The nature of the remains that they contain indubitably @@ -11405,17 +11366,17 @@ the heads of the various pre-historical epochs to which they belong, may be divided in the following way:—</p> <p><i>The Stone Age</i>:—The Lake of Constance (about thirty settlements); -the Lake of Neuchâtel (twelve settlements); the Lake of Geneva (two +the Lake of Neuchâtel (twelve settlements); the Lake of Geneva (two settlements); the Lake of Morat (one settlement); the lakes of Bienne, -Zurich, Pfæffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, Nussbaumen, Wanger, &c.; +Zurich, Pfæffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, Nussbaumen, Wanger, &c.; the settlements of Saint-Aubin and Concise, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, -and the settlement at the Bridge of Thièle.</p> +and the settlement at the Bridge of Thièle.</p> <p><i>The Bronze Epoch</i>:—The Lake of Geneva (twenty settlements); -the Lake of Neuchâtel (twenty-five settlements); the Lake of Bienne +the Lake of Neuchâtel (twenty-five settlements); the Lake of Bienne (ten settlements); also the lakes of Morat and Sempach.</p> -<p><i>The Iron Epoch</i>:—The lakes of Neuchâtel and Bienne.</p> +<p><i>The Iron Epoch</i>:—The lakes of Neuchâtel and Bienne.</p> <p>It may appear strange that the primitive inhabitants of Switzerland should have preferred aquatic dwellings to habitations built on <i>terra @@ -11425,7 +11386,7 @@ to the advantages which men might derive from such a peculiar arrangement of their dwellings; but we may now remark that this custom was somewhat prevalent among the earliest inhabitants of Europe. Ancient history furnishes us with several instances of it. Herodotus, -speaking of the Pæonians, of the Lake Prasias, in Thrace, says:—</p> +speaking of the Pæonians, of the Lake Prasias, in Thrace, says:—</p> <p>"Their habitations are built in the following way. On long piles, sunk into the bottom of the lake, planks are placed, forming a @@ -11484,7 +11445,7 @@ different authors. Dr. Keller, who was the first to describe them, gave them in German the name of <i>pfahlbauten</i> (buildings on piles) which the Italians have translated by the word <i>palafitta</i>. This latter appellation, when gallicized by M. Desor, becomes <i>palafitte</i>. -Lastly, the name <i>ténevières</i> or <i>steinbergs</i> (mountains of stone) is +Lastly, the name <i>ténevières</i> or <i>steinbergs</i> (mountains of stone) is given to constructions of a peculiar character in which the piles are kept up by masses of stone which have been brought to the spot. By Dr. Keller, this latter kind are called <i>packwerkbauten</i>.</p> @@ -11501,8 +11462,8 @@ with a view of making the heaps of stones a firm and compact body.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_279.jpg" id="i_279.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_279.jpg" -alt="Ténevière of Hauterive" /> -<div class="caption">Fig. 148.—Section of the <i>Ténevière</i> of Hauterive. +alt="Ténevière of Hauterive" /> +<div class="caption">Fig. 148.—Section of the <i>Ténevière</i> of Hauterive. </div> </div> @@ -11516,9 +11477,9 @@ according to the nature of the bed of the lake. In lakes with a muddy bottom, the first plan could be easily employed; but when the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"> [Pg 221]</a></span> bed was rocky, it was necessary to have recourse to the second. This -is the reason why on the northern shore of the Lake of Neuchâtel, +is the reason why on the northern shore of the Lake of Neuchâtel, where the banks of limestone come very close to the surface, a comparatively -large number of <i>ténevières</i> may be observed.</p> +large number of <i>ténevières</i> may be observed.</p> <p>These are the facts as generally noticed, especially in wide and deep lakes; the edifice, however, was not always constructed in this mode. @@ -11556,10 +11517,10 @@ one, indeed, is still laden with pebbles, which leads us to think that it must have foundered with its cargo. But it is very difficult to raise these canoes from the bottom, and it is, besides, probable that when exposed to the open air they would fall to dust. Nevertheless, one of -them is exhibited in the Museum at Neuchâtel.</p> +them is exhibited in the Museum at Neuchâtel.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"> [Pg 222]</a></span></p> <p>In the Museum at Saint-Germain there is a canoe very similar to -that of Neuchâtel. It is made out of the trunk of a hollow tree. A +that of Neuchâtel. It is made out of the trunk of a hollow tree. A second canoe, very like the first, but with the bark still on it, and in a bad state of preservation, lies in the entry of the same Museum of Saint-Germain. It was taken out of the Seine, as we stated when @@ -11582,7 +11543,7 @@ it should more easily penetrate the mud. Sometimes a fire applied to the base of the tree prepared for, and facilitated, the effect of the sharp instruments used. A great number of the piles that have been found still bear the marks of the fire and the cuts made by stone hatchets. -In constructing the <i>ténevières</i>, the labour of pointing the piles was +In constructing the <i>ténevières</i>, the labour of pointing the piles was needless, as the latter were thoroughly wedged in by the accumulation of stones of which we gave a representation in fig. 148.</p> @@ -11591,9 +11552,9 @@ spot fixed upon for the village, and to be fixed in the bed of the lake. If we consider that, in many cases, the length of these piles reached to as much as 16 or 20 feet, some idea may be formed of the difficulty of an undertaking of this kind. In the construction of -the <i>ténevières</i> much thicker piles were used, and the labour was much -less difficult. For instance, in the more ancient <i>ténevières</i> of the Lake -of Neuchâtel piles are found made of whole trunks of trees which +the <i>ténevières</i> much thicker piles were used, and the labour was much +less difficult. For instance, in the more ancient <i>ténevières</i> of the Lake +of Neuchâtel piles are found made of whole trunks of trees which measure 10 to 12 inches in diameter.</p> <p>The mind is almost confused when it endeavours to sum up the @@ -11603,14 +11564,14 @@ Switzerland must have bestowed on constructing, unaided as they were by metal implements, the earliest lacustrine settlements, some of which are of very considerable extent. The settlement of Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of Geneva, is not less than 71,000 -square yards in area. That of Chabrey, in the Lake of Neuchâtel, +square yards in area. That of Chabrey, in the Lake of Neuchâtel, measures about 60,000 square yards; another, in the same lake, -48,000 yards; and, lastly, a third, that of La Tène, 36,000 yards. +48,000 yards; and, lastly, a third, that of La Tène, 36,000 yards. There are many others which are smaller, although of respectable dimensions.</p> <p>The number of piles which must have been used in some of these -constructions is really surprising. M. Löhle has calculated that in +constructions is really surprising. M. Löhle has calculated that in the single lacustrine village of Wangen, in the Lake of Constance, at least 40,000 piles have been fixed, and that several generations must have been necessary to terminate the work. The more reasonable @@ -11654,7 +11615,7 @@ to be not much felt.</p> <p>In each habitation, there was, no doubt, a trap-door in direct communication with the lake, such as those which existed in the dwellings -of the Pæonians described by Herodotus. Under this trap-door there +of the Pæonians described by Herodotus. Under this trap-door there was a reservoir made of osiers, intended for the preservation of fish.</p> <p>As the inhabitants of the lacustrine villages only lived upon the @@ -11735,7 +11696,7 @@ very curious fact—the remains of an ancient settlement situated on <i>terra firma</i>, and containing utensils similar to those found in the lacustrine settlements. In 1864, Dr. Clement searched several mounds composed of pebbles bearing the traces of fire; these mounds -were situated in the neighbourhood of Gorgier (canton of Neuchâtel). +were situated in the neighbourhood of Gorgier (canton of Neuchâtel). One of these mounds has furnished various objects of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"> [Pg 226]</a></span> bronze intermingled with fragments of charcoal, especially a bracelet @@ -11749,13 +11710,13 @@ discovered a number of reaping-hooks made with a shoulder, and also a fragment of a sword and four finely-made knives.</p> <p>A hatchet-knife was likewise found in the gorge of the Seyon, near -Neuchâtel; and a bracelet in the vicinity of Morges (canton of +Neuchâtel; and a bracelet in the vicinity of Morges (canton of Geneva). Some other bracelets, accompanied by calcined human bones, were discovered near Sion, in the Valais.</p> -<p>Lastly, M. Thioly obtained from a cave of Mont Salève, near +<p>Lastly, M. Thioly obtained from a cave of Mont Salève, near Geneva, numerous fragments of pottery of the bronze epoch; and in -a grotto on the banks of the Reuse, in the canton of Neuchâtel, +a grotto on the banks of the Reuse, in the canton of Neuchâtel, M. Otz found relics of pottery of very fine clay, along with a quantity of bones.</p> @@ -11783,16 +11744,16 @@ id="footnote_32"></a><a href="#fnanchor_32"> known to the public the results of these unceasing investigations, and of bringing before the eyes of the present generation the ancient civilisation of the Swiss valleys. Among the works which have best attained this end, we must mention Troyon's -'Habitations Lacustres des Temps anciens et modernes,' Morlot's 'Etudes Géologico-archéologiques +'Habitations Lacustres des Temps anciens et modernes,' Morlot's 'Etudes Géologico-archéologiques en Danemark et en Suisse,' and M. Desor's 'Palafittes, ou Constructions -Lacustres du Lac de Neuchâtel.' These works, which have been translated -into various languages, contain a statement of all the archæological discoveries +Lacustres du Lac de Neuchâtel.' These works, which have been translated +into various languages, contain a statement of all the archæological discoveries which have been made in Switzerland.</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_33" id="footnote_33"></a><a href="#fnanchor_33"> <span class="label">[33]</span></a> 'Les Palafittes, ou -Constructions Lacustres du Lac de Neuchâtel.' Paris, 1865.</p></div> +Constructions Lacustres du Lac de Neuchâtel.' Paris, 1865.</p></div> @@ -11820,17 +11781,17 @@ were continued by MM. Gastaldi and Moro, who discovered in the peat-bogs round this lake several ancient villages built upon piles.</p> <p>In the Lake of Varese, also in Lombardy, which was examined in -1863 by MM. Desor, G. de Mortillet, and the Abbé Stoppani, were +1863 by MM. Desor, G. de Mortillet, and the Abbé Stoppani, were discovered five settlements, some of which were of the Stone Age. -Subsequently, the Abbé Ranchet pointed out four others, which raise +Subsequently, the Abbé Ranchet pointed out four others, which raise to the number of nine the pile works found in this lake. In order to render due honour to MM. Keller and Desor, who have contributed so much to the investigation and popularity of lacustrine antiquities, the -Abbé Stoppani gave the name of these <i>savants</i> to two of the settlements.</p> +Abbé Stoppani gave the name of these <i>savants</i> to two of the settlements.</p> <p>One of these isles is very curious, as it is inhabited up to the present day. It is called <i>Isoletta</i> ("small island"), and the Litta family -possess a <i>château</i> upon it.</p> +possess a <i>château</i> upon it.</p> <p>In the peat-mosses of Brianza, a portion of Lombardy situated to the north of Milan, the remains of lacustrine constructions have been @@ -11883,7 +11844,7 @@ Stone Age, but some belong to the bronze epoch. Among the latter we may mention the <i>Isle of Roses</i>, in the Lake of Starnberg, which is, in fact, an artificial island, like the Isoletta in the Lake of Varese. We have previously stated that this island has never ceased to be -inhabited, and that a <i>château</i> now exists on it.</p> +inhabited, and that a <i>château</i> now exists on it.</p> <p>The movement spread from one place to another. Austria made it a point of honour not to remain in the rear of Bavaria, and Professor @@ -11901,8 +11862,8 @@ instruments of stag's horn, a perforated stone, and a canoe.</p> were discovered in several provinces of this kingdom; among these were Brandenburg and Pomerania, a district rich in marshes. In the environs of Lubtow the lacustrine constructions have the same -characteristics as those of Robenhausen, on the Lake of Pfæffikon -(Switzerland). Two distinct archæological strata may be distinguished; +characteristics as those of Robenhausen, on the Lake of Pfæffikon +(Switzerland). Two distinct archæological strata may be distinguished; in the lower are found, all mingled together, bronze and stone instruments, fragments of pottery, wheat, barley, and charred peas; the upper stratum belongs to the iron age.</p> @@ -11917,16 +11878,16 @@ M. Laurent Rabut, author of an article on the 'Habitations Lacustres de la Savoie,' which obtained a silver medal at the competition of the learned societies in 1863. In the Lake of Bourget, M. Rabut ascertained the existence of five or six settlements of the bronze epoch, -three of which, those of Tresserve, Grésine and Châtillon, have been +three of which, those of Tresserve, Grésine and Châtillon, have been distinguished as furnishing numerous ancient relics.</p> -<p>The Lake of Paladru (Isère) which has been searched by M. Gustave +<p>The Lake of Paladru (Isère) which has been searched by M. Gustave Vallier, has afforded similar results. Pile-works are thought to exist -in some other small lakes in the same district—those of Sainte-Hélène, +in some other small lakes in the same district—those of Sainte-Hélène, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"> [Pg 230]</a></span> -on the left bank of the Isère, Saint-Martin-de-Belville, and Saint-Marcel, +on the left bank of the Isère, Saint-Martin-de-Belville, and Saint-Marcel, near Moutiers. Pile-works have also been discovered on the -site of an ancient lake on the banks of the Saône; and in a totally +site of an ancient lake on the banks of the Saône; and in a totally different district, at the foot of the Pyrenees, as many as five have been pointed out.</p> @@ -11955,7 +11916,7 @@ alt="Crannoge in Ardakillin Lake" /> </div> <p class="topspace2">Most of these islets were composed of heaps of stones held together -by piles, nearly in the same way as in the <i>ténevières</i> in Switzerland; +by piles, nearly in the same way as in the <i>ténevières</i> in Switzerland; but the <i>crannoges</i> differ from the latter in being raised above the water. Some of them, however, are formed by a collection of vertical piles and horizontal joists, constituting an external inclosure, and @@ -12104,7 +12065,7 @@ in the <i>Marniera</i> of Castione. <p class="topspace2">The floor was covered with beaten earth to a thickness of 10 to 12 inches. Fragments of this kind of paving were found scattered about -in two sandy heaps, almost entirely devoid of other <i>débris</i>, whilst the +in two sandy heaps, almost entirely devoid of other <i>débris</i>, whilst the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"> [Pg 235]</a></span> adjacent earth, of a blackish colour, contained a large quantity of relics of all kinds. It is probable that the huts of the inhabitants of @@ -12160,7 +12121,7 @@ Pigorini to the supposition that the pile-work of Castione, and doubtless also those in all the <i>marnieras</i>, were in the first place constructed as places of defence, and were subsequently converted into fixed and permanent residences. The basin of the marsh having been gradually -filled up by the accumulations of <i>débris</i> resulting from the presence of +filled up by the accumulations of <i>débris</i> resulting from the presence of man, the habitations were built on a solid foundation, and a great portion of the former floor was done away with, which would account for so little of it now remaining.</p> @@ -12329,11 +12290,11 @@ id="fnanchor_35"></a><a href="#footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3><p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_34" id="footnote_34"></a><a href="#fnanchor_34"> <span class="label">[34]</span></a> 'Les Terramares et les Pilotages du Parmesan;' Milan, 1864. (Extract from the -'Atti della Società Italiana di Scienze naturali.')</p> +'Atti della Società Italiana di Scienze naturali.')</p> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_35" id="footnote_35"></a><a href="#fnanchor_35"> -<span class="label">[35]</span></a> 'Matériaux pour l'histoire positive et philosophique de l'Homme,' by G. de Mortillet. +<span class="label">[35]</span></a> 'Matériaux pour l'histoire positive et philosophique de l'Homme,' by G. de Mortillet. Paris, 1865: vol. i. p. 397.</p></div> @@ -12441,7 +12402,7 @@ This squared end, which was thinner than the rest of the holder, was fitted into a wooden handle, which had been perforated with a hole of the same shape and size.</p> -<p>M. Desor, in his 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes,' supplies the following +<p>M. Desor, in his 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes,' supplies the following sketch (fig. 158), as representing these double-handled hatchets.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_305b.jpg" id="i_305b.jpg"></a> @@ -12546,7 +12507,7 @@ the material of which is bone, and even stag's horn.</p> <p>The arrow-heads were fixed into the shafts by means of bitumen. This plan is represented in figs. 165 and 166, which are given by M. -Mortillet in his 'Promenades préhistoriques à l'Exposition Universelle.'</p> +Mortillet in his 'Promenades préhistoriques à l'Exposition Universelle.'</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_308a.jpg" id="i_308a.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_308a.jpg" @@ -12587,7 +12548,7 @@ with one eye and sometimes with two, and occasionally hollowed out round the top in a circular groove, so as to attach the thread.</p> <p>Figs. 168, 169, 170 and 171 are given by M. Desor in his -'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'</p> +'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_309a.jpg" id="i_309a.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_309a.jpg" @@ -12712,7 +12673,7 @@ arrangement is peculiar to the hatchets of large size, that is, to those which had the most strain put upon them.</p> <p>Another type which is very rare in Switzerland—only one specimen -of it existing in the Museum of Neuchâtel—is that (fig. 177) in which +of it existing in the Museum of Neuchâtel—is that (fig. 177) in which the wings, instead of bending back upon the blade perpendicularly to the plane of the cutting edge, turn back in the same plane with it, or in the thickness of the blade.</p> @@ -12759,7 +12720,7 @@ and could by no means serve to give firmness to a handle. It is probable that these instruments were grasped directly by the hand; and that the mere rudiments of wings which may be noticed, were merely intended to substitute a rounded surface for a sharp ridge. Figures 176, 177, -178 and 179, are taken from M. Desor's 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'</p> +178 and 179, are taken from M. Desor's 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"> [Pg 250]</a></span></p> <p>Next to the hatchets we must mention the chisels for wood-work (fig. 180), which are cut out to a great nicety, and in no way differ @@ -12798,7 +12759,7 @@ The workmanship of them is, in general, very skilfully executed, and their shape is very elegant. Some of them have a metallic handle; but the greater part terminate in a kind of tang intended to fit into a handle of wood or stag's horn, as represented in fig. 182, taken from -M. Desor's 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'</p> +M. Desor's 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"> [Pg 251]</a></span></p> <p>We also find knives furnished with a socket (fig. 183). The blade measures from 4 to 8 inches in length, and is often adorned with @@ -12816,7 +12777,7 @@ Lacustrine settlements of Switzerland. <p class="topspace2">Together with the knives we must also class the sickles or reaping hooks. These implements have been collected in somewhat large quantities in the settlements of Auvernier and Cortaillod (Lake of -Neuchâtel). They are of good workmanship, and frequently provided +Neuchâtel). They are of good workmanship, and frequently provided with ridges or ribs in the metal of the blade. Fig. 184, given by M. Desor in his work, represents a sickle of this kind which was found by the author at Chevroux.</p> @@ -13051,7 +13012,7 @@ alt="Ornamental Ring" /> <p class="topspace2">The four bronze objects, representations of which we have just given, are designed from the sketches supplied by M. Desor in his -'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'</p> +'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'</p> <p>Some few trinkets of gold have been found in the lacustrine settlements of the bronze epoch; but this sort of "find" is very rare. @@ -13093,11 +13054,11 @@ the lower ends of them had to be stuck into the earth, or to be placed in holders hollowed out to receive them.</p> <p>Some of these supports, or holders, have been discovered. They -are called <i>torches</i>, or <i>torchères</i>, by French archæologists.</p> +are called <i>torches</i>, or <i>torchères</i>, by French archæologists.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"> [Pg 259]</a></span></p> <p>Figs. 198 and 199 give a representation of a bronze vessel from the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland with its support or -<i>torchère</i>.</p> +<i>torchère</i>.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_322a.jpg" id="i_322a.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_322a.jpg" @@ -13143,7 +13104,7 @@ from the Swiss lakes; but vessels in an entire state are seldom met with. It is, however, stated as a fact, that considerable accumulations of them once existed; but, unfortunately, the importance of them was not recognised until too late. An old fisherman of the Lake of -Neuchâtel told M. Desor that in his childhood he had sometimes +Neuchâtel told M. Desor that in his childhood he had sometimes amused himself by pushing at <i>these old earthen pots</i> with a long pole, and that in certain parts of the lake there were <i>real mountains</i> of them. At the present day, the "old earthen pots" are all broken, @@ -13331,7 +13292,7 @@ kinds of objects—weapons, vases, utensils and trinkets. None of them attempt any delineation of nature; this idea does not seem to have entered into the head of man during the bronze epoch. In this respect they were inferior to their predecessors, the inhabitants of the -caves of Périgord, the contemporaries of the mammoth and the +caves of Périgord, the contemporaries of the mammoth and the reindeer.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_329.jpg" id="i_329.jpg"></a> @@ -13377,7 +13338,7 @@ them we learn that these men did not live solely upon the products of fishing and hunting, but that they possessed certain ideas of agriculture, and also devoted themselves to the breeding of cattle. We shall enter into a few details as to this eminently interesting aspect of their -history, taking as our guides Professors Heer and Rütimeyer, the first +history, taking as our guides Professors Heer and Rütimeyer, the first of whom has carefully examined the vegetable remains, and the second the animal relics which have been found in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland.</p> @@ -13440,10 +13401,10 @@ the earliest lacustrine peoples; and, from certain indications which have been brought to our notice, we have reason to believe that several varieties of trees were the objects of their intelligent culture; in short, that they were cultivated in orchards and gardens. The settlement -of Robenhausen on the Lake of Pfæffikon, has furnished us with +of Robenhausen on the Lake of Pfæffikon, has furnished us with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"> [Pg 267]</a></span> the most valuable information on this point. The lacustrine villages -of Wangen (Lake of Constance), and Concise (Lake of Neuchâtel) +of Wangen (Lake of Constance), and Concise (Lake of Neuchâtel) have also been the scenes of curious discoveries.</p> <p>In all of these settlements a large number of charred apples have @@ -13460,7 +13421,7 @@ and raspberries, the shells of beech-nuts and hazel-nuts, and several species of the water-chestnut, which is now only to be met with at two points of the Swiss Alps.</p> -<p>We must also add that M. Gilliéron collected in the settlement of +<p>We must also add that M. Gilliéron collected in the settlement of the Isle of Saint-Pierre, oats, peas, lentils, and acorns, the latter evidently having been intended for the food of swine. This discovery is an important one, because oats had, hitherto, never been met with @@ -13503,7 +13464,7 @@ Switzerland have enabled us to reconstruct with some degree of accuracy the <i>fauna</i> of this epoch, and to ascertain what species of animals were then in subjugation to the yoke of man.</p> -<p>Professor Rütimeyer is of opinion that the whole of these bones +<p>Professor Rütimeyer is of opinion that the whole of these bones may be referred to about seventy species of animals—ten of which are fish, three reptiles, twenty birds, and the rest mammiferous animals.</p> @@ -13540,7 +13501,7 @@ since the Bretons would hardly endure to hear it spoken of.</p> the flesh of the hare has, therefore, been handed down to them from the primitive ages of mankind.</p> -<p>The researches of Prof. Rütimeyer have led to the conclusion that +<p>The researches of Prof. Rütimeyer have led to the conclusion that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"> [Pg 269]</a></span> there existed in Switzerland during the Stone Age six species of domestic animals—the ox, the pig, the goat, the sheep, the dog, and @@ -13636,11 +13597,11 @@ in the Swiss lakes.</p> the Stone Age, composed of spear-heads and arrow-heads, poniards and, in addition, swords. Swords are, however, but rarely met with in the Swiss lakes. The few which have been found are straight, short, -double-edged, and without hilts. In the Museum of Neuchâtel there +double-edged, and without hilts. In the Museum of Neuchâtel there is a sword (fig. 209) which was discovered forty years ago at Concise, at a time when no one suspected the existence of any such thing as lacustrine settlements; M. Desor has supplied a sketch of it in his -'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.' This sword measures 16 inches in length, +'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.' This sword measures 16 inches in length, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"> [Pg 272]</a></span> and has on its surface four grooves which join together on the middle ridge of the blade. The handle, which is terminated by a double @@ -13657,7 +13618,7 @@ projecting ridge which divides the blade into two equal portions.</p> <img src="images/i_341a.jpg" alt="Bronze Sword" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 209.—Bronze Sword, in the -Museum of Neuchâtel. +Museum of Neuchâtel. </div> </div> @@ -13990,7 +13951,7 @@ the Swiss Lakes </div> </div> -<p class="topspace2">Several archæologists consider these crescents to have been religious +<p class="topspace2">Several archæologists consider these crescents to have been religious emblems or talismans which were suspended either outside or inside the habitations. Dr. Keller is of opinion that they bear some relation to the worship of the moon—an hypothesis which is not at all @@ -14068,7 +14029,7 @@ with their heads resting on such a machine as we have just described, knowing, as we do, that the hussars of Frederick the Great used to spend the whole night in arranging their <i>coiffures</i>!"</p> -<p>Thus, while Dr. Keller and many other archæologists ascribe the +<p>Thus, while Dr. Keller and many other archæologists ascribe the <i>crescents</i> found in the Swiss lakes to some kind of religious worship, M. Vogt, whose idea is of a much more prosaic character, does not attribute them to any other worship but that of <i>self</i> as represented by @@ -14112,7 +14073,7 @@ inspired with some degree of religious feeling.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3><p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_37" id="footnote_37"></a><a href="#fnanchor_37"> -<span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Indépendance Belge</i>, November and December, 1868.</p></div> +<span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Indépendance Belge</i>, November and December, 1868.</p></div> @@ -14134,7 +14095,7 @@ distinctions in discussing these burial-places; but it may be positively asserted that towards the conclusion of this period the practice of burning dead bodies was commenced.</p> -<p>In a work, published in 1869, and entitled 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition +<p>In a work, published in 1869, and entitled 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle,' being a sort of catalogue of the objects which were exhibited in the galleries devoted to the <i>History of Labour</i>, in the Exhibition in the Champ de Mars, in 1867, we find several pages @@ -14182,7 +14143,7 @@ generally those of oxen, were often spread.</p> <p>"Next, a new period succeeded, when the bodies were burned, and the remains collected together. All the ancient customs were not, however, at once given up. Thus, as the dead were formerly buried -in woollen garments, the <i>débris</i> of the bones were now wrapped in +in woollen garments, the <i>débris</i> of the bones were now wrapped in pieces of cloaks made of the same material. Subsequently, however, this custom also disappeared, and the ashes and remains of bones were simply collected together in urns. This custom was observed until @@ -14196,7 +14157,7 @@ in small sepulchral chambers or wooden coffins, and, secondly, that <p>"One of the most remarkable 'finds,' as regards the first period of the bronze epoch, was made in 1861, in the two mounds known by -the names of Treenhöi and Kengehöi, and situated near Kongeaa, in +the names of Treenhöi and Kengehöi, and situated near Kongeaa, in Jutland. In each of these <i>tumuli</i> two people had been buried, both <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"> [Pg 286]</a></span> having a double coffin, made of magnificent trunks of oak-trees. The @@ -14212,14 +14173,14 @@ wooden coffers, a tin ball, and, lastly, in one of the coffins, a small flint arrow-head. A fragment of the cloak was to be seen in the Palace of the Champ de Mars (No. 596).</p> -<p>"Another 'find' made a few miles from this <i>tumulus</i>, at Höimp, in +<p>"Another 'find' made a few miles from this <i>tumulus</i>, at Höimp, in North Schleswig, has also brought to light skeletons in oak coffins together with bronze implements.</p> <p>"Discoveries of no less interest have been made in Zealand. Thus, -in 1845, in a <i>tumulus</i> at Höidegaard, near Copenhagen, a tomb +in 1845, in a <i>tumulus</i> at Höidegaard, near Copenhagen, a tomb belonging to the first period of the bronze epoch was found; it was -searched in the presence of some of the principal Danish archæologists. +searched in the presence of some of the principal Danish archæologists. The tomb was placed at a distance of more than 10 feet below the summit of the <i>tumulus</i>, and was built of stones; it was more than 6 feet in length, and its width on the eastern side was @@ -14233,7 +14194,7 @@ fragment of an amber bead; 2nd, a piece of reddish stone; 3rd, a small shell, which can be none other than the <i>Conus mediterraneus</i>; it is perforated so as to be worn as a pendant for the neck; 4th, a fragment of a flint point, doubtless an amulet; 5th, the tail of a serpent -(<i>Coluber lævis</i>); 6th, a small cube of pine or fir-wood, and 7th, a +(<i>Coluber lævis</i>); 6th, a small cube of pine or fir-wood, and 7th, a bronze knife with a convex blade and ornamented handle.</p> <p>"According to the investigations of various savants, these bones @@ -14274,11 +14235,11 @@ to the bronze epoch."<a name="fnanchor_38" id="fnanchor_38"></a><a href="#footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> <p>Twenty years ago, however, a very curious discovery was made at -Lübeck (Pomerania), for it exhibited, so to speak, in the same tomb, +Lübeck (Pomerania), for it exhibited, so to speak, in the same tomb, the three modes of interment belonging to the pre-historic epochs of the stone, bronze, and iron ages.</p> -<p>At Waldhausen, near Lübeck, a <i>tumulus</i> was found, which was +<p>At Waldhausen, near Lübeck, a <i>tumulus</i> was found, which was 13 feet 9 inches in height. This <i>tumulus</i> was pulled down in horizontal layers, and the following details were successively brought to light.</p> @@ -14313,7 +14274,7 @@ burned. The custom of funeral feasts still remained in full force. The pious practice of placing by the side of the dead body the instruments or weapons which the individual had been fond of during his lifetime, was likewise still kept up; and it is, moreover, owing to this -circumstance that archæological science is now enabled to collect +circumstance that archæological science is now enabled to collect numerous vestiges of the ancient customs of these remote ages.</p> <p>But we must call attention to the fact that, at the end of and after this @@ -14344,11 +14305,11 @@ others are all of the Bronze or Iron Ages.</p> <p>The skeleton found at Meilen is that of a child; the skull, which is in a tolerable state of preservation, although incomplete, occupies, -according to the observations of MM. His and Rütimeyer, a middle +according to the observations of MM. His and Rütimeyer, a middle place between the long and short heads.</p> <p>Figs. 229 and 230, representing this skull, are taken from M. -Desor's work, entitled 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.' From the mere +Desor's work, entitled 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.' From the mere fact that it is a child's skull, it is almost impossible to make any use of it in ascertaining the characteristic features of the race to which it belongs; for these features are not sufficiently marked at such an early @@ -14385,7 +14346,7 @@ Stone Age, that is to say, at the time of the first appearance of mankind. Thus, the human type had changed but little since its first appearance on the globe.</p> -<p>The settlement of Auvernier, in the lake of Neuchâtel has, as we +<p>The settlement of Auvernier, in the lake of Neuchâtel has, as we have before said, contributed two skulls. One belonged to a child about eight years of age, and the other to an adult. The child's skull differs very slightly from the one found at Meilen. It is small, elongated, @@ -14429,7 +14390,7 @@ space of time embraced by this period of man's history. We shall endeavour here to give, not the solution of the problem, but merely an idea of the way in which scientific men have entered on the question.</p> -<p>Morlot, the Swiss archæologist and naturalist, who has written a +<p>Morlot, the Swiss archæologist and naturalist, who has written a great deal upon the subject of the lacustrine settlements, was the first to endeavour to estimate the duration of the Stone Age, as well as that of the Bronze Epoch, and the following is the way in which he @@ -14437,7 +14398,7 @@ set about it.</p> <p>In the neighbourhood of Villeneuve there is a cone or hillock formed of gravel and <i>alluvium</i>, slowly deposited there by the stream -of the Tinière which falls at this spot into the lake of Geneva. This +of the Tinière which falls at this spot into the lake of Geneva. This cone was cut in two, to lay down the railway which runs along the side of the lake. Its interior structure was thus laid bare, and appeared to be perfectly regular, a proof that it had been gradually formed during @@ -14478,10 +14439,10 @@ belonging to the Stone Age, forming the entire remainder of the cone, was from 4700 to 10,000 years old.</p> <p>Another calculation, the conclusions of which agree tolerably well -with these, was made by M. Gilliéron, professor at the college of +with these, was made by M. Gilliéron, professor at the college of Neuveville. We have already said that the remains of a pile-work -belonging to the Stone Age was discovered near the bridge of Thièle, -between the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel. It is evident that the +belonging to the Stone Age was discovered near the bridge of Thièle, +between the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel. It is evident that the valley, the narrowest part of which was occupied by the lacustrine settlement, was formerly almost entirely under water, for below this point it suddenly widens out and retains these proportions as far as @@ -14490,7 +14451,7 @@ and regularly, as may be ascertained from an examination of the mud deposited by it. If, therefore, we know its annual coefficient of retreat, that is to say, how much it retired every year, we should be able to estimate with a sufficient degree of approximation the age of -the settlement of the bridge of Thièle.</p> +the settlement of the bridge of Thièle.</p> <p>Now there is, not far from the lake, at about 1230 feet from the present shore, an old abbey, that of Saint-Jean, which is known to @@ -14500,10 +14461,10 @@ the lake; and there is some likelihood that it was built on the edge of the lake; a supposition which naturally presents itself to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"> [Pg 293]</a></span> mind. The lake, then, must have retired 1230 feet in 750 years. -This granted, M. Gilliéron easily calculated the time which would be +This granted, M. Gilliéron easily calculated the time which would be taken for a retreat of 11,072 feet, this number representing the distance from the present shore to the entrance of the defile which -contains the settlement of the bridge of Thièle. He found by this +contains the settlement of the bridge of Thièle. He found by this means that the settlement is at least 6750 years old, a figure which confirms those of Morlot.</p> @@ -14518,7 +14479,7 @@ recognised chronology.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> <p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_38" id="footnote_38"></a><a href="#fnanchor_38"> -<span class="label">[38]</span></a> 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle de 1867, by Valdemar Schmidt,' +<span class="label">[38]</span></a> 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle de 1867, by Valdemar Schmidt,' vol. i. pp. 60-64. Paris, 1868.</p></div> @@ -14608,15 +14569,15 @@ to extract iron from its native ore?</p> <p>Native iron, that is metallic iron in a natural state, is eminently <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"> [Pg 299]</a></span> -rare; except in aërolites it is scarcely ever found. According to +rare; except in aërolites it is scarcely ever found. According to Pallas, the Russian naturalist, certain Siberian tribes have succeeded, -with a great amount of labour, in obtaining from the aërolites which +with a great amount of labour, in obtaining from the aërolites which have been met with in their country small quantities of iron, which they have made into knives. The same practice existed among the Laplanders. Lastly, we are told by Amerigo Vespucci that in the fifteenth century the Indians at the mouth of the La Plata river were in the habit of making arrow-heads and other instruments with iron -extracted from aërolites.<a name="fnanchor_39" +extracted from aërolites.<a name="fnanchor_39" id="fnanchor_39"></a><a href="#footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> <p>But, as we hardly need observe, stones of this kind do not often @@ -14673,7 +14634,7 @@ is practised by the semi-barbarous tribes of the present day, we shall find but little difficulty in understanding all that Morlot, the Swiss naturalist, has said as to the iron-furnaces of pre-historic man, and shall probably agree in his opinions on the subject. Morlot, in his -'Mémoires sur l'Archéologie de la Suisse,' has described the vestiges +'Mémoires sur l'Archéologie de la Suisse,' has described the vestiges of the pre-historic furnaces intended for the preparation of iron, which were found by him in Carinthia (Austria).</p> @@ -14737,7 +14698,7 @@ or materialised, as it were, the results of his interesting labours, by constructing a model in miniature of a siderurgical establishment belonging to the earliest iron epoch. This curious specimen of workmanship showed the clay-furnace placed against the side of a hill, the -heaps of charcoal, the scoriæ, the hut used as a dwelling by the +heaps of charcoal, the scoriæ, the hut used as a dwelling by the workmen, the furnace-implements—in short, all the details which formed the result of the patient researches of the learned Swiss engineer.</p> @@ -14760,7 +14721,7 @@ the Champ de Mars, and that it was missing from the curious Gallery of the History of Labour, which called forth so much of the attention of the public. For our readers, however, it will not be altogether lost. M. Quiquerez has been good enough to forward to us from -Bellerive, where he resides (near Délémont, canton of Basle, Switzerland) +Bellerive, where he resides (near Délémont, canton of Basle, Switzerland) a photograph of his curious model of a pre-historic workshop for the preparation of iron. From this photograph we have designed the annexed plate, representing a <i>primitive furnace for the extraction @@ -14788,7 +14749,7 @@ been erected in almost every country.</p> intended to be placed in the furnace in order to reduce the ore; on the left, there is the store of ore called in the ironworks the <i>ore-pen</i>. The provision of iron-ore is enclosed between four wooden slabs, -forming a quadrangular space. In the centre are the scoriæ which +forming a quadrangular space. In the centre are the scoriæ which result from the operations carried on. A workman is extracting the cake of spongy iron from the ashes of the furnace; another is hammering on the anvil a piece of iron drawn from the furnace in order @@ -14877,7 +14838,7 @@ was nothing but a caprice on the part of the builder.</p> which had formed the cone, if, indeed, any had been used, and at the hole made at the base of the crucible a clod of fire-clay some inches in height was placed, so as to form a dam, and to confine in the crucible -the molten or soft metal; the scoriæ, being of a lighter nature and +the molten or soft metal; the scoriæ, being of a lighter nature and floating at the top, made their escape over the top of the dam. As the latter were not very liquid, their issue was promoted by means of pokers or wooden poles, perhaps damped, with which also the metal was @@ -14885,7 +14846,7 @@ stirred in the crucible.</p> <p>"In neither of these two kinds of furnaces do we find any trace of bellows, and a more or less strong draught must have been procured -through the opening made for the escape of the scoriæ, according to +through the opening made for the escape of the scoriæ, according to the elevation of the dome of the furnace. The limestones which have been found in certain furnaces were probably employed with a view of increasing the draught; they doubtless belonged to the upper @@ -14917,7 +14878,7 @@ indicate that wood carbonised in a stack was exclusively used as fuel. The furnaces are too small for the employment of rough wood; added to this, charcoal stores are placed near the furnaces; and charcoal burnt in a stack is constantly met with all round the sites, in the -scoriæ, and all the <i>débris</i>. We must, besides, mention the discovery, +scoriæ, and all the <i>débris</i>. We must, besides, mention the discovery, at Bellelay, of a charcoal store 8 feet in diameter, situated under a compact bed of peat 20 feet in thickness. It was established on the solid earth, anterior to the formation of the peat. Now from this @@ -14947,14 +14908,14 @@ used must have been quadruple the present consumption for the same results. The metal, as it was extracted from the ore, fell down into the bottom of the crucible. In proportion as the mass of metal increased, a workman, with a poker made of damp green wood, brought -out the scoriæ which floated on the top, and stirred the metal so as to +out the scoriæ which floated on the top, and stirred the metal so as to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"> [Pg 307]</a></span> fine it. It is proved that these wooden pokers or poles were made use -of in all the furnace-works. A quantity of morsels of scoriæ is found +of in all the furnace-works. A quantity of morsels of scoriæ is found which, having been in a soft state when extracted, have retained the imprint of the piece of wood, the end of which was evidently charred. M. Morlot, in his article on the Roman ironworks at Wocheim, in -Upper Carniola, has also noticed the existence, in the scoriæ, of frequent +Upper Carniola, has also noticed the existence, in the scoriæ, of frequent traces of pokers, sometimes round and sometimes three-cornered in shape, but all of them must have been made of iron, whilst throughout the whole of the Jura we have never recognised the traces of any @@ -14962,13 +14923,13 @@ but wooden implements of this kind.</p> <p>"Owing to the imperfection of the furnaces, and especially, the deficiency in the draught caused by the want of bellows, the metal contained -in the ore could be but very imperfectly extracted; the scoriæ +in the ore could be but very imperfectly extracted; the scoriæ are therefore still so very rich in iron that, about twenty years ago, the manager of the ironworks at Untervelier tried to use them over again as ore. Accumulations of this dross, measuring from 100 to 200 yards square, may be seen near certain furnaces-a fact which would infer a somewhat considerable production of iron. The examination -of these scoriæ proves that iron was then made by one single +of these scoriæ proves that iron was then made by one single operation, and not liquid pigs fit for casting, or to be converted into iron by a second series of operations.</p> @@ -14977,7 +14938,7 @@ shaped like two quadrangular pyramids joined at the base, weighing from 12 to 16 lbs. One of these pieces was found near a furnace which had been demolished in order to establish a charcoal furnace, in the commune of Untervelier, and another in one of the furnaces -of Boécourt.</p> +of Boécourt.</p> <p>"All round the furnaces there have been found numerous remains of rough pottery; it is badly baked, and made without the help of the @@ -15040,7 +15001,7 @@ state of bar-iron fit for the blacksmith's use, and for the fabrication of utensils and tools.</p> <p>These improved primitive furnaces are well-known to German -miners under the name of <i>Stucköfen</i> ("fragment-furnaces"). They +miners under the name of <i>Stucköfen</i> ("fragment-furnaces"). They are modified in different ways in different countries; and according to the arrangement of the furnace, and especially according to the nature of the ferruginous ores, certain methods or manipulations of the iron @@ -15087,12 +15048,12 @@ belong to this period; they are made of bronze, and bear a figure or effigy not stamped, but obtained by melting and casting.</p> <p>The most ancient coins that are known are Greek, and date back -to the eighth century before Christ. These are the coins of Ægina, +to the eighth century before Christ. These are the coins of Ægina, Athens, and Cyzicum, such as were found many years ago in the duchy -of Posen. In the lacustrine settlement of Neuchâtel, coins of a +of Posen. In the lacustrine settlement of Neuchâtel, coins of a remote antiquity have also been found. We here represent in its natural size (fig. 232), taken from M. Desor's work, a bronze coin -found in the settlement of La Tène in the lake of Neuchâtel. But +found in the settlement of La Tène in the lake of Neuchâtel. But these coins are not more ancient than the Greek specimens that we have before named. They are shown to be Gallic by the horned horse, which is a Gallic emblem.</p> @@ -15100,14 +15061,14 @@ which is a Gallic emblem.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_383.jpg" id="i_383.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_383.jpg" alt="Bronze Coin" /> -<div class="caption">Fig. 232.—Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel. +<div class="caption">Fig. 232.—Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel. </div> </div> <p class="topspace2">At Tiefenau, near Berne, coins have been found of a nearly similar character associated with others having on them the effigy of Apollo, and bearing an imprint of <i>Massilia</i> (Marseilles). As the foundation -of this Phocæan colony dates back to the sixth century before Christ, +of this Phocæan colony dates back to the sixth century before Christ, these coins may be said to be among the most ancient which exist.</p> <p>Glass became known, as we have before stated, in the bronze @@ -15150,7 +15111,7 @@ Chap. VIII., 'Pre-Historic Times,' by Sir J. Lubbock, Chaps. I. and II.</p> id="footnote_40"></a><a href="#fnanchor_40"> <span class="label">[40]</span></a> 'De l'Age du Fer, Recherches sur les anciennes Forges du Jura Bernois,' by A. Quiquerez, Engineer of the Jura Mines. Porrentruy, 1866; pp. 35-39, 77-80. Also, -'Matériaux pour l'Histoire positif de l'Homme,' by G. de Mortillet, vol. ii. pp. 505-510.</p></div> +'Matériaux pour l'Histoire positif de l'Homme,' by G. de Mortillet, vol. ii. pp. 505-510.</p></div> @@ -15169,7 +15130,7 @@ the vast burial-ground discovered recently at Hallstadt, near Salzburg in Austria. M. Ramsauer, Director of the salt-mines of Salzburg, has explored more than 1000 tombs in this locality, and has described them in a work full of interest, a manuscript copy of which -we have consulted in the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain.</p> +we have consulted in the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain.</p> <p>As the tombs at Hallstadt belong to the earlier period of the iron epoch, they represent to us the natural transition from the epoch of @@ -15290,7 +15251,7 @@ pages (figs. 233, 234, 235 and 236) we have given representations of swords and daggers designed from the specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain. In all these weapons the handle is made of bronze and the blade of iron. Warriors' sword-belts are frequently formed of -plates of bronze, and are embellished with a <i>repoussé</i> ornamentation +plates of bronze, and are embellished with a <i>repoussé</i> ornamentation executed by the hammer.</p> <p>In fig. 239 we give a representation of a necklace with pendants @@ -15309,7 +15270,7 @@ from the Tombs of Hallstadt. <p class="topspace2">The bracelets which have been met with by hundreds, hair pins <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"> [Pg 317]</a></span> -and bronze fibulæ are all wrought with taste, and are often adorned +and bronze fibulæ are all wrought with taste, and are often adorned with very elegant pendants. In figs. 240 and 241 we show two bracelets, the sketches for which were taken from the designs in the manuscript of the 'Tombes de Hallstadt.'</p> @@ -15411,7 +15372,7 @@ and also provided with encircling projections. On some of them, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"> [Pg 319]</a></span> representations of animals may be seen which indicate a considerable progress in the province of art. The historic date of these urns is -pointed out by <i>fibulæ</i> (clasps for cloaks), iron rings and bracelets, +pointed out by <i>fibulæ</i> (clasps for cloaks), iron rings and bracelets, sword-belts partly bronze and partly iron, and small bronze chains. The tombs of La Somma belong, therefore, to a period of transition between the bronze and iron epochs. According to M. Mortillet, they @@ -15428,7 +15389,7 @@ id="fnanchor_41"></a><a href="#footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> consumed, but only partially, like those which we have already mentioned in the tombs of Hallstadt. Various objects, consisting chiefly of trinkets and ornaments, have been met with in these tombs. We -will mention in particular the <i>fibulæ</i>, bracelets and necklaces made of +will mention in particular the <i>fibulæ</i>, bracelets and necklaces made of amber, enamelled glass, &c.</p> <p>In figs. 245 and 246 we give a representation of two skeleton arms, @@ -15455,11 +15416,11 @@ found in the Tombs of Belleville (Savoy). <p class="topspace2">The lacustrine settlements of Switzerland have contributed a valuable element towards the historic reconstruction of the iron epoch.</p> -<p>In different parts of the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel there are +<p>In different parts of the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel there are pile-works which contain iron objects intermingled with the remains of preceding ages. But there is only one lacustrine settlement in Switzerland which belongs exclusively to the earliest period of the -Iron Age—that of La Tène on the Lake of Neuchâtel.</p> +Iron Age—that of La Tène on the Lake of Neuchâtel.</p> <p>Most of the objects which have been met with in this lacustrine settlement have been recovered from the mud in which they had been @@ -15467,14 +15428,14 @@ so remarkably preserved, being sheltered from any contact with the outer air. There are, however, many spots in which piles may be seen, where objects of this kind have not been found; but if subsequent researches are attended with any results, we shall be forced to -attribute to the settlement of La Tène a considerable degree of importance, +attribute to the settlement of La Tène a considerable degree of importance, for the piles there extend over an area of 37 acres.</p> <p>The remains of all kinds which have been found in this settlement are evidently of Gallic origin. It is an easy matter to prove this by comparing the weapons found in this settlement with those which were discovered in the trenches of Alise-Sainte-Reine, the ancient -<i>Alesia</i>, where, in its last contest against Cæsar, the independence of +<i>Alesia</i>, where, in its last contest against Cæsar, the independence of ancient Gaul came to an end.</p> <p>M. de Rougemont has called attention to the fact that these weapons @@ -15484,7 +15445,7 @@ in the earliest iron epoch by Gallic tribes, that is to say, by a different race from that which occupied it during the stone and bronze epochs; and it was this race which introduced into Switzerland the use of iron.</p> -<p>Among the objects collected in the lake settlement of La Tène, +<p>Among the objects collected in the lake settlement of La Tène, weapons are the most numerous; they consist of swords and the heads of spears and javelins. Most of them have been kept from oxidation by the peaty mud which entirely covered them, and they are, consequently, @@ -15521,7 +15482,7 @@ found in one of the Swiss Lakes. </div> </div> -<p class="topspace2">M. de Reffye, the archæologist, accounts for this fact in the following +<p class="topspace2">M. de Reffye, the archæologist, accounts for this fact in the following <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"> [Pg 322]</a></span> way:—He is of opinion that the body of the blade is made of very hard unyielding iron, whilst the edges are made of small strips of @@ -15536,13 +15497,13 @@ of these damascened blades have been found in the trenches of Alise.</p> <p>The sheaths, the existence of which now for the first time comes under our notice, are of great importance on account of the designs with which they are ornamented. Most of these designs are engraved -with a tool, others are executed in <i>repoussé</i> work. All of them show +with a tool, others are executed in <i>repoussé</i> work. All of them show great originality and peculiar characteristics, which prevent them from being confounded with works of Roman art. One of these sheaths (fig. 249), which belongs to M. Desor's collection and is depicted in his memoir, represents the "horned horse," the emblem of Gaul, which is sufficient proof of the Gallic origin of the weapons found in the Lake -of La Tène. Below this emblem, there is a kind of granulated surface +of La Tène. Below this emblem, there is a kind of granulated surface which bears some resemblance to shagreen.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_399.jpg" id="i_399.jpg"></a> @@ -15589,14 +15550,14 @@ which would be used only once.</p> <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"> [Pg 324]</a></span></p> <p>It is altogether a different matter with respect to the javelins, a tolerably large number of which have been found in the lacustrine -settlements of La Tène. They are simple socketed heads (fig. 251), +settlements of La Tène. They are simple socketed heads (fig. 251), terminating in a laurel-leaf shape, about 4 to 5 inches in length.</p> <div class="figcenter topspace2"><a name="i_401.jpg" id="i_401.jpg"></a> <img src="images/i_401.jpg" alt="Javelin head" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 251.—Head of a Javelin, found in the -Lacustrine Settlement of La Tène (Neuchâtel). +Lacustrine Settlement of La Tène (Neuchâtel). </div> </div> @@ -15619,7 +15580,7 @@ very just one.</p> Alise. In this neighbourhood a large number of iron arrows have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"> [Pg 325]</a></span> also been found which have never been met with in the lacustrine -settlement of La Tène.</p> +settlement of La Tène.</p> <p>War was not the only purpose for which these javelins were used by the men of the iron epoch. Hunting, too, was carried on by means @@ -15662,7 +15623,7 @@ alt="Sickle" /> <p class="topspace2">With the pruning-bills or sickles we must class the regular scythes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"> [Pg 326]</a></span> (fig. 255) with stems for handling, two specimens of which have -been discovered in the lake settlement of the Tène. Their length is +been discovered in the lake settlement of the Tène. Their length is about 14 inches, that is, about one-third as large as the scythes used by the Swiss harvest-men of the present day. One important inference is drawn from the existence of these scythes; it is, that at the @@ -15678,7 +15639,7 @@ of Switzerland. </div> <p class="topspace2">The iron fittings at the ends of the boat-hooks used by the boatmen -on the lake are frequently found at La Tène; they terminate in +on the lake are frequently found at La Tène; they terminate in a quadrangular pyramid or in a cone (fig. 256). Some still contain the end of the wooden pole, which was attached to it by means of a nail.</p> @@ -15701,11 +15662,11 @@ terminated at each end in a ring to which the reins were attached.</p> <img src="images/i_405c.jpg" alt="Horse's Bit" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 257.—Horse's Bit, found in the -Lake of Neuchâtel. +Lake of Neuchâtel. </div> </div> -<p class="topspace2">The <i>fibulæ</i> (fig. 258), or clasps for cloaks, are especially calculated +<p class="topspace2">The <i>fibulæ</i> (fig. 258), or clasps for cloaks, are especially calculated to attract attention in the class of ornamental objects; they are very elegant and diversified in their shapes, their dimensions varying from 2½ to 5 inches. They are all formed of a pin in communication with @@ -15718,7 +15679,7 @@ preservation, and might well be used at the present day.</p> <img src="images/i_406.jpg" alt="Fibula, or Iron Brooch" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 258.—<i>Fibula</i>, or Iron Brooch, -found in the Lake of Neuchâtel. +found in the Lake of Neuchâtel. </div> </div> @@ -15726,13 +15687,13 @@ found in the Lake of Neuchâtel. speaking of the tombs of Hallstadt, were also used by the Etruscans and the Romans; their existence in the pre-historic tombs tends to prove that, like the above-named nations, the Swiss and -Germans wore the toga or mantle. These <i>fibulæ</i> have a peculiar -character, and it is impossible to confuse them with the Roman <i>fibulæ</i>. +Germans wore the toga or mantle. These <i>fibulæ</i> have a peculiar +character, and it is impossible to confuse them with the Roman <i>fibulæ</i>. They are, however, similar in every way to those which have been found at Alise.</p> <p>There have also been found in the Swiss lakes, along with the -<i>fibulæ</i>, a number of rings, the use of which is still problematical. +<i>fibulæ</i>, a number of rings, the use of which is still problematical. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"> [Pg 328]</a></span> Some are flat and others chiselled in various ways. It is thought that some of them must have been used as buckles for soldiers' sword-belts @@ -15747,11 +15708,11 @@ perhaps have served as a kind of money.</p> <img src="images/i_407a.jpg" alt="Iron Buckle" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 259.—Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, -found in the Lake of Neuchâtel. +found in the Lake of Neuchâtel. </div> </div> -<p class="topspace2">In the lake-settlement of La Tène (Lake of Neuchâtel), iron pincers +<p class="topspace2">In the lake-settlement of La Tène (Lake of Neuchâtel), iron pincers have also been found (fig. 260), which were doubtless used for pulling <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"> [Pg 329]</a></span> out hair, and are of very perfect workmanship; also scissors with a @@ -15762,7 +15723,7 @@ very thin blades (fig. 262), which must have been razors.</p> <img src="images/i_407b.jpg" alt="Iron Pincers" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 260.—Iron Pincers, found in the -Lake of Neuchâtel. +Lake of Neuchâtel. </div> </div> @@ -15770,7 +15731,7 @@ Lake of Neuchâtel. <img src="images/i_407c.jpg" alt="Iron Spring-Scissors" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 261.—Iron Spring-Scissors, found in the -Lake of Neuchâtel. +Lake of Neuchâtel. </div> </div> @@ -15788,21 +15749,21 @@ It certainly is the case, that along with these remains a quantity of fragments of vessels have been picked up, and even entire vessels, which have been made by the help of the potter's wheel and baked in an oven, and consequently present the red colour usual in modern -earthenware. But archæologists are of opinion that this class of +earthenware. But archæologists are of opinion that this class of pottery does not date back beyond the Roman epoch; and this opinion would seem to be confirmed by the existence, in the midst of -the piles at the settlement of La Tène, of a mass of tiles, evidently of +the piles at the settlement of La Tène, of a mass of tiles, evidently of Roman origin. The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is, that many of the pile-works in the Swiss lakes continued to be occupied when the country was under the Roman rule.</p> <p>One of the characteristics of the iron epoch is, as we have before stated, the appearance of coin or money. In 1864, M. Desor recovered -from the Lake of La Tène five coins of unquestionable Gallic +from the Lake of La Tène five coins of unquestionable Gallic origin. They are of bronze, and bear on one side the figure of the horned horse, and on the other a human profile. In fig. 232, we gave a representation of these curious specimens of coin found by -M. Desor in the lacustrine settlements of the Lake of Neuchâtel. +M. Desor in the lacustrine settlements of the Lake of Neuchâtel. The marks of the mould still existing on each side show that these coins were cast in a series, and that after the casting the coins were separated from one another by means of the file.</p> @@ -15816,18 +15777,18 @@ to the sixth century before the Christian era; it is probable that those discovered along with them must be referred to nearly the same epoch.</p> <p>Such are the relics of instruments, tools, weapons, &c., made of iron -and recovered from the lacustrine settlement of La Tène, that is, from -the Lake of Neuchâtel. We must add that, near Berne, at a spot +and recovered from the lacustrine settlement of La Tène, that is, from +the Lake of Neuchâtel. We must add that, near Berne, at a spot which is designated by the name of the "Battle-field of Tiefenau," because it appears to have been the theatre of a great conflict between the Helvetians and the Gauls, a hundred swords and spear-heads have -been picked up, similar to those found at La Tène; also fragments of -coats of mail, rings, <i>fibulæ</i>, the tires of chariot-wheels, horses' bits, +been picked up, similar to those found at La Tène; also fragments of +coats of mail, rings, <i>fibulæ</i>, the tires of chariot-wheels, horses' bits, and lastly, Gallic and Marseillaise coins in gold, silver, and bronze. This field of battle appears, therefore, to have been contemporary with the -settlement at La Tène.</p> +settlement at La Tène.</p> -<p>In addition to these valuable sources of information—La Tène and +<p>In addition to these valuable sources of information—La Tène and Tiefenau—Switzerland also possesses <i>tumuli</i> and simple tombs, both constituting records useful to consult in respect to the iron epoch. But on this point, it must be remarked that it is often difficult, with @@ -15921,7 +15882,7 @@ investigations come to an end.</p> <div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3><p class="footnote"> <a name="footnote_41" id="footnote_41"></a><a href="#fnanchor_41"> -<span class="label">[41]</span></a> 'Les Sépultures de Saint-Jean de Belleville,' +<span class="label">[41]</span></a> 'Les Sépultures de Saint-Jean de Belleville,' with lithographed plates.</p></div> @@ -16002,7 +15963,7 @@ and mighty forest-trees had taken root and grown there. In the trunk of a hemlock-tree growing in this "made ground," Mr. Knapp counted 395 rings of growth, and this tree had probably been preceded by other forest-giants no less venerable. In the trenches -themselves, which had been gradually filled up by vegetable <i>débris</i>, +themselves, which had been gradually filled up by vegetable <i>débris</i>, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"> [Pg 337]</a></span> trees had formerly grown which, after having lived for hundreds of years, had succumbed and decayed; being then replaced by other @@ -16037,7 +15998,7 @@ quartz reduced to powder; the shapes of the vessels are of the purest character, and the utmost care has been devoted to the workmanship. They do not appear to have been constructed by the aid of the potter's wheel; but Messrs. Squier and Davis, very competent American -archæologists, are of opinion that the Indians, in doing this kind of +archæologists, are of opinion that the Indians, in doing this kind of work, made use of a stick held in the middle. The workman turned this stick round and round inside the mass of clay, which an assistant kept on adding to all round the circumference.</p> @@ -16066,7 +16027,7 @@ also are made of the same material.</p> <p>All these objects—weapons, implements, pottery, and ornaments—have been derived from certain gigantic works which exhibit some similarity, and occasionally even a striking resemblance, to the great -earthwork constructions of the Old World. American archæologists +earthwork constructions of the Old World. American archæologists have arranged these works in various classes according to the probable purpose for which they were intended; we shall now dwell for a short time on these divisions.</p> @@ -16103,7 +16064,7 @@ signification. Their chief characteristics are, that, in the first place, they are nearly always found within certain sacred enclosures of which we shall have more to say further on, and also that they cover a sort of altar placed on the surface of the ground, and made of stone -or baked clay. In the opinion of certain archæologists, this supposed +or baked clay. In the opinion of certain archæologists, this supposed altar is nothing but the site of a former fire-hearth, and the mound itself a habitation converted into a tomb after the death of its proprietor. It will therefore be best to reserve our judgment as to the @@ -16123,7 +16084,7 @@ permitted to think that on this upper terrace they were in the habit of building the dwelling of their chief.</p> <p>The most curious of these earthworks are, beyond question, those -which the American archæologists have designated by the name of +which the American archæologists have designated by the name of <i>animal-mounds</i>. They consist of gigantic bas-reliefs formed on the surface of the ground, and representing men, mammals, birds, reptiles, and even inanimate objects, such as crosses, pipes, &c. They exist in @@ -16173,7 +16134,7 @@ of these eminently remarkable pre-historic monuments are veiled in the darkest mystery.</p> <p>We now have to speak of those enclosures which are divided by -American archæologists into the classes of <i>defensive</i> and <i>sacred</i>. This +American archæologists into the classes of <i>defensive</i> and <i>sacred</i>. This distinction is, however, based on very uncertain data, and it is probable <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"> [Pg 341]</a></span> that a large portion of the so-called <i>sacred</i> enclosures were in the first @@ -16228,7 +16189,7 @@ instead of improving more and more like civilisation in Europe, became suddenly eclipsed, owing to causes which are unknown to us? This question must be answered in the negative, if we are called upon to fix any settled and definite date. Nevertheless, the conclusion to -which American archæologists have arrived is, that the history of the +which American archæologists have arrived is, that the history of the New World must be divided into four definite periods.</p> <p>The first period includes the rise of agriculture and industrial @@ -16388,9 +16349,9 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Boué (Aimé), <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Boué (Aimé), <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Bourgeois (Abbé), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, +<li class="ndx-li">Bourgeois (Abbé), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Boutin, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> @@ -16413,7 +16374,7 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Chantre, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Chevalier (Abbé), <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Chevalier (Abbé), <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Christel (de), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> @@ -16422,9 +16383,9 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Clément, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Clément, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Cochet (Abbé), <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Cochet (Abbé), <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Costa de Beauregard, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> @@ -16456,7 +16417,7 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Dumont d'Urville, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Dupont (Édouard), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, +<li class="ndx-li">Dupont (Édouard), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> @@ -16521,7 +16482,7 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Gervais (Paul), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Gilliéron, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, +<li class="ndx-li">Gilliéron, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Gmelin, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> @@ -16531,7 +16492,7 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Gratiolet and Alix, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Guérin, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Guérin, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> </ul> <ul class="ndx-ul"> @@ -16539,7 +16500,7 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Hauzeur, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Hébert, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Hébert, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Heer, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> @@ -16579,7 +16540,7 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> </ul> <ul class="ndx-ul"> -<li class="ndx-li">Lambert (l'Abbé), <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Lambert (l'Abbé), <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Lartet, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, @@ -16596,13 +16557,13 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Leguay, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Léveillé, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Léveillé, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Lewis (Cornewall), <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Lioy (Paolo), <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Löhle, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Löhle, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Lubbock (Sir John), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, @@ -16654,7 +16615,7 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Peccadeau de l'Isle, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Peigné Delacour, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Peigné Delacour, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Penguelly, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> @@ -16701,13 +16662,13 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Rigollot, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Robert (Eugène), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Robert (Eugène), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Rochebrune, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Rougemont (de), <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Rütimeyer, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Rütimeyer, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> </ul> <ul class="ndx-ul"> @@ -16737,7 +16698,7 @@ of thy duty both towards God and towards thy neighbour!</p> <li class="ndx-li">Steinhauer, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="ndx-li">Stopani (l'Abbé), <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> +<li class="ndx-li">Stopani (l'Abbé), <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> <li class="ndx-li">Strobel, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, @@ -16815,383 +16776,6 @@ STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.</small></p> </ul> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Primitive Man, by Louis Figuier - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMITIVE MAN *** - -***** This file should be named 42380-h.htm or 42380-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/3/8/42380/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Christian Boissonnas and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at 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