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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42380 ***
+
+PRIMITIVE MAN.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A Family of the Stone Age (Frontispiece).]
+
+
+
+
+  PRIMITIVE MAN.
+
+  By LOUIS FIGUIER.
+
+  Revised Translation.
+
+
+  ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTY SCENES OF PRIMITIVE LIFE, AND
+  TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY-THREE FIGURES OF OBJECTS
+  BELONGING TO PRE-HISTORIC AGES.
+
+
+  "Arma antiqua manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt.
+  Et lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami.
+  Et flamma atque ignes, postquam sunt cognita primum.
+  Posterius ferri vis est ærisque reperta;
+  Et prior æris erat quam ferri cognitus usus."
+
+      _Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, lib. V., v. 1281-5._
+
+
+  LONDON:
+  CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.
+  1870.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+The Editor of the English translation of 'L'Homme Primitif,' has not
+deemed it necessary to reproduce the original Preface, in which M.
+Figuier states his purpose in offering a new work on pre-historic
+archæology to the French public, already acquainted in translation with
+the works on the subject by Sir Charles Lyell and Sir John Lubbock. Now
+that the book has taken its position in France, it is only needful to
+point out its claims to the attention of English readers.
+
+The important art of placing scientific knowledge, and especially new
+discoveries and topics of present controversy, within easy reach of
+educated readers not versed in their strictly technical details, is one
+which has for years been carried to remarkable perfection in France, in
+no small measure through the labours and example of M. Figuier himself.
+The present volume, one of his series, takes up the subject of
+Pre-historic Man, beginning with the remotely ancient stages of human
+life belonging to the Drift-Beds, Bone-Caves, and Shell-Heaps, passing
+on through the higher levels of the Stone Age, through the succeeding
+Bronze Age, and into those lower ranges of the Iron Age in which
+civilisation, raised to a comparatively high development, passes from
+the hands of the antiquary into those of the historian. The Author's
+object has been to give within the limits of a volume, and dispensing
+with the fatiguing enumeration of details required in special memoirs,
+an outline sufficient to afford a reasonable working acquaintance with
+the facts and arguments of the science to such as cannot pursue it
+further, and to serve as a starting-ground for those who will follow it
+up in the more minute researches of Nilsson, Keller, Lartet, Christy,
+Lubbock, Mortillet, Desor, Troyon, Gastaldi, and others.
+
+The value of the work to English archæologists, however, is not merely
+that of a clear popular manual; pre-historic archæology, worked as it
+has been in several countries, takes in each its proper local colour,
+and brings forward its proper local evidence. It is true that much of
+its material is used as common property by scientific men at large. But,
+for instance, where an English writer in describing the ancient cave-men
+would dwell especially on the relics from the caves of Devon and
+Somerset as worked by Falconer and Pengelly, a French writer would take
+his data more amply from the explorations of caves of the south of
+France by De Vibraye, Garrigou, and Filhol--where the English teacher
+would select his specimens from the Christy or the Blackmore Museum, the
+French teacher would have recourse to the Musée de Saint-Germain. Thus
+far, the English student has in Figuier's 'Primitive Man' not a work
+simply incorporated from familiar materials, but to a great extent
+bringing forward evidence not readily accessible, or quite new to him.
+
+Some corrections and alterations have been made in the English edition.
+The illustrations are those of the original work; the facsimiles of
+pre-historic objects have been in great part drawn expressly for it, and
+contribute to its strictly scientific value; the page illustrations
+representing scenes of primitive life, which are by another hand, may
+seem somewhat fanciful, yet, setting aside the Raffaelesque idealism of
+their style, it will be found on examination that they are in the main
+justified by that soundest evidence, the actual discovery of the objects
+of which they represent the use.
+
+The solid distinctness of this evidence from actual relics of
+pre-historic life is one of the reasons which have contributed to the
+extraordinary interest which pre-historic archæology has excited in an
+age averse to vague speculation, but singularly appreciative of
+arguments conducted by strict reasoning on facts. The study of this
+modern science has supplied a fundamental element to the general theory
+of civilisation, while, as has been the case with geology, its bearing
+on various points of theological criticism has at once conduced to its
+active investigation, and drawn to it the most eager popular attention.
+Thus, in bringing forward a new work on 'Primitive Man,' there is
+happily no need of insisting on the importance of its subject-matter, or
+of attempting to force unappreciated knowledge on an unwilling public.
+It is only necessary to attest its filling an open place in the
+literature of pre-historic archæology.
+
+E. B. T.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                        1
+
+
+THE STONE AGE.
+
+
+I.
+
+THE EPOCH OF EXTINCT SPECIES OF ANIMALS; OR, OF THE GREAT BEAR AND
+MAMMOTH.
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  The earliest Men--The Type of Man in the Epoch of Animals of
+  extinct Species--Origin of Man--Refutation of the Theory which
+  derives the Human Species from the Ape                             25
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  Man in the Condition of Savage Life during the Quaternary
+  Epoch--The Glacial Period, and its Ravages on the Primitive
+  Inhabitants of the Globe--Man in Conflict with the Animals of the
+  Quaternary Epoch--The Discovery of Fire--The Weapons of Primitive
+  Man--Varieties of Flint Hatchets--Manufacture of the earliest
+  Pottery--Ornamental objects at the Epoch of the Great Bear and
+  the Mammoth                                                        39
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  The Man of the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch lived in Caverns--
+  Bone Caverns in the Quaternary Rock during the Great Bear and
+  Mammoth Epoch--Mode of Formation of these Caverns--Their
+  Division into several Classes--Implements of Flint, Bone, and
+  Reindeer-horn, found in these Caverns--The Burial Place at
+  Aurignac--Its probable Age--Customs which it reveals--Funeral
+  Banquets during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch                   56
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  Other Caves of the Epoch of the Great Bear and Mammoth--Type
+  of the Human Race during the Epochs of the Great Bear and the
+  Reindeer--The Skulls from the Caves of Engis and Neanderthal       72
+
+
+II.
+
+EPOCH OF THE REINDEER; OR, OF MIGRATED ANIMALS.
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  Mankind during the Epoch of the Reindeer--Their Manners and
+  Customs--Food--Garments--Weapons, Utensils, and Implements--
+  Pottery--Ornaments--Primitive Arts--The principal Caverns--
+  Type of the Human Race during the Epoch of the Reindeer            85
+
+
+III.
+
+THE POLISHED-STONE EPOCH; OR, THE EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS.
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  The European Deluge--The Dwelling-Place of Man during the
+  Polished-stone Epoch--The Caves and Rock-Shelters still used as
+  Dwelling-Places--Principal Caves belonging to the Polished-stone
+  Epoch which have been explored up to the present time--The Food
+  of Man during this Period                                         125
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+  The _Kjoekken-Moeddings_ or "_Kitchen-middens_" of Denmark--Mode
+  of Life of the Men living in Denmark during the Polished-stone
+  Epoch--The Domestication of the Dog--The Art of Fishing during
+  the Polished-stone Epoch--Fishing Nets--Weapons and Instruments
+  of War--Type of the Human Race; the Borreby Skull                 129
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+
+  Tombs and Mode of Interment during the Polished-stone Epoch--
+  _Tumuli_ and other Sepulchral Monuments formerly called
+  _Celtic_--Labours of MM. Alexander Bertrand and Bonstetten--
+  Funeral Customs                                                   184
+
+
+THE AGE OF METALS.
+
+
+I.
+
+THE BRONZE EPOCH.
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  The Discovery of Metals--Various Reasons suggested for explaining
+  the origin of Bronze in the West--The Invention of Bronze--A
+  Foundry during the Bronze Epoch--Permanent and Itinerant
+  Foundries existing during the Bronze Epoch--Did the Knowledge
+  of Metals take its Rise in Europe owing to the Progress of
+  Civilisation, or was it a Foreign Importation?                    205
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  The Sources of Information at our Disposal for reconstructing
+  the History of the Bronze Epoch--The Lacustrine Settlements of
+  Switzerland--Enumeration and Classification of them--Their Mode
+  of Construction--Workmanship and Position of the Piles--Shape
+  and Size of the Huts--Population--Instruments of Stone, Bone,
+  and Stag's Horn--Pottery--Clothing--Food--_Fauna_--Domestic
+  Animals                                                           215
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  Lacustrine Habitations of Upper Italy, Bavaria, Carinthia and
+  Carniola, Pomerania, France, and England--The _Crannoges_ of
+  Ireland                                                           227
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  Palustrine Habitations or Marsh-Villages--Surveys made by
+  MM. Strobel and Pigorini of the _Terramares_ of Tuscany--The
+  _Terramares_ of Brazil                                            232
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  Weapons, Instruments, and Utensils contained in the various
+  Lacustrine Settlements in Europe, enabling us to become
+  acquainted with the Manners and Customs of Man during the
+  Bronze Epoch                                                      240
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  Industrial Skill and Agriculture during the Bronze Epoch--The
+  Invention of Glass--Invention of Weaving                          258
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  The Art of War during the Bronze Epoch--Swords, Spears and
+  Daggers--The Bronze Epoch in Scandinavia, in the British Isles,
+  France, Switzerland and Italy--Did the Man of the Bronze Epoch
+  entertain any religious or superstitious Belief?                  271
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  Mode of Interment and Burial-places of the Bronze Epoch--
+  Characteristics of the Human Race during the same Period          284
+
+
+II.
+
+THE IRON EPOCH.
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  Essential Characteristics of the Iron Epoch--Preparation of Iron
+  in Pre-historic Times--Discovery of Silver and Lead--Earthenware
+  made on the Potter's Wheel--Invention of Coined Money             297
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  Weapons--Tools, Instruments, Utensils, and Pottery--The Tombs
+  of Hallstadt and the Plateau of La Somma--The Lake-Settlements
+  of Switzerland--Human Sacrifices--Type of Man during the Iron
+  Epoch--Commencement of the Historic Era                           312
+
+
+  PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA                                          333
+
+
+  CONCLUSION                                                        343
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES.
+
+
+  FIG.                                                             PAGE
+
+     A Family of the Stone Age (Frontispiece).
+
+  1. Human Jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville,
+        in 1863                                                      18
+
+  2. Skull of a Man belonging to the Stone Age (The _Borreby
+        Skull_)                                                      27
+
+  3. Skull of the Gorilla                                            28
+
+  4. Skull of the Orang-Outang                                     _ib._
+
+  5. Skull of the Cynocephalus Ape                                   29
+
+  6. Skull of the _Macacus_ Baboon                                 _ib._
+
+  7. The Production of Fire (whole page engraving).
+
+  8. _Dendrites_ or Crystallisations found on the Surface of
+        wrought Flints                                               46
+
+  9. Section of a Gravel Quarry at Saint-Acheul, which contained
+        the wrought Flints found by Boucher de Perthes               47
+
+  10. Hatchet of the _Almond-shaped_ type from the Valley of the
+        Somme                                                        48
+
+  11. Flint Hatchet from Saint-Acheul of the so-called
+        _Almond-shaped_ type                                         49
+
+  12. Wrought Flint (_Moustier_ type)                              _ib._
+
+  13. Flint Scraper                                                  50
+
+  14. Flint Knife, found at Menchecourt, near Abbeville            _ib._
+
+  15. Flint Core or Nucleus                                          51
+
+  16. Man in the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole page
+        engraving).
+
+  17. The First Potter (whole page engraving).
+
+  18. Fossil Shells used as Ornaments, and found in the Gravel at
+        Amiens                                                       54
+
+  19. Theoretical Section of a Vein of Clay in the Carboniferous
+        Limestone, _before_ the hollowing out of Valleys by
+        Diluvial Waters                                              56
+
+  20. Theoretical Section of the same Vein of Clay converted
+        into a Cavern, _after_ the hollowing out of Valleys by
+        Diluvial Waters                                              57
+
+  21. The Cave of Galeinreuth, in Bavaria                            59
+
+  22. Section of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac                     62
+
+  23. Flint Knife, found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac          63
+
+  24. Implement made of Reindeer's or Stag's Horn, found in the
+        Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac                                _ib._
+
+  25. Series of Perforated Discs of the _Cardium_ Shell, found
+        in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac                           64
+
+  26. Fragment of the Lower Jaw of a Cave-Bear found in the
+        Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac                                _ib._
+
+  27. Upper Molar of a Bison found in the Ashes of the Fire-Hearth
+        of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac                          65
+
+  28. Arrow-head made of Reindeer's Horn, found in the Sepulchral
+        Cave of Aurignac                                            66
+
+  29. Bodkin made of Roebuck's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave
+        of Aurignac                                                _ib._
+
+  30. Truncated Blade in Reindeer's Horn bearing two Series
+        of transversal Lines and Notches, probably used for
+        numeration                                                   67
+
+  31. Funeral Feast during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole
+        page engraving).
+
+  32. Carved and perforated Canine Tooth of a young Cave-Bear        69
+
+  33. Head of a Cave-Bear found in the Cave of Aurignac              70
+
+  34. Head of the _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, found in the Cave of
+        Aurignac                                                   _ib._
+
+  35. Head of a great Stag (_Megaceros hibernicus_), found in the
+        Cave of Aurignac                                             71
+
+  36. Sketch of the Great Bear on a Stone, found in the Cave of
+        Massat                                                       75
+
+  37. Portion of the Skull of an Individual belonging to the Epoch
+        of the Great Bear and the Mammoth, found in the Cave
+        of Engis                                                     80
+
+  38. Portion of the so-called Neanderthal Skull                   _ib._
+
+  39. Man of the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  40. Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel, a supposed Habitation of Man
+        during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  41. A Feast during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  42. Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for sewing Reindeer Skins, found
+        in the Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord)                         92
+
+  43. Bone Needle for Sewing                                       _ib._
+
+  44. The Canine Tooth of a Wolf, bored so as to be used as an
+        Ornament                                                     93
+
+  45. Ornament made of the bony part of a Horse's Ear              _ib._
+
+  46. Spear-head, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Périgord)     95
+
+  47. Worked Flint from Périgord (Knife)                             96
+
+  48. Worked Flint from Périgord (Hatchet)                         _ib._
+
+  49. Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife)                            97
+
+  50. Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper)                        _ib._
+
+  51. Small Flint Saw, found in the Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel        98
+
+  52. The Chase during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  53. Barbed Arrow of Reindeer Horn                                  99
+
+  54. Arrow of Reindeer Horn with Double Barbs                     _ib._
+
+  55. Animal Bone, pierced by an Arrow of Reindeer Horn             100
+
+  56. Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of
+        Laugerie-Basse (Stiletto?)                                 _ib._
+
+  57. Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of
+        Laugerie-Basse (Needle?)                                   _ib._
+
+  58. Spoon of Reindeer Horn                                        101
+
+  59. Knuckle-bone of a Reindeer's Foot, bored with a hole and
+        used as a Whistle                                           102
+
+  60. Staff of authority, in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave
+        of Périgord                                                _ib._
+
+  61. Another Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn                _ib._
+
+  62. A Geode, used as a Cooking Vessel(?), found in the Cave
+        of La Madelaine (Périgord)                                  103
+
+  63. Earthen Vase, found in the Cave of Furfooz (Belgium)          104
+
+  64. Sketch of a Mammoth graven on a Slab of Ivory                 106
+
+  65. Hilt of a Dagger carved in the Shape of a Reindeer            107
+
+  66. Representation of a Stag drawn on a Stag's Horn               108
+
+  67. Representation of some large Herbivorous Animal on a
+        Fragment of Reindeer's Horn                                _ib._
+
+  68. Arts of Drawing and Sculpture during the Reindeer Epoch
+        (whole page engraving).
+
+  69. Representation of an Animal sketched on a Fragment of
+        Reindeer's Horn                                             109
+
+  70. Fragment of a Slab of Schist bearing the representation of
+        some Animal, and found in the Cave of Les Eyzies           _ib._
+
+  71. A kind of Harpoon of Reindeer's Horn carved in the Shape of
+        an Animal's Head                                            110
+
+  72. Staff of Authority, on which are graven Representations of
+        a Man, two Horses, and a Fish                               111
+
+  73. Skull, found at Furfooz by M. Édouard Dupont                  114
+
+  74. Skull of an Old Man, found in a _Rock-shelter_ at Bruniquel   115
+
+  75. A Funeral Ceremony during the Reindeer Epoch (whole page
+        engraving).
+
+  76. Man of the Polished-stone Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  77. Bone Skewers used as Fish-hooks                               134
+
+  78. Fishing-net with wide Meshes                                  136
+
+  79. Stone Weight used for sinking the Fishing-nets               _ib._
+
+  80. Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch (whole page
+        engraving).
+
+  81. Flint Knife from one of the Danish Beds                       138
+
+  82. Nucleus off which Knives are flaked                          _ib._
+
+  83. Flint Hatchet from one of the Danish Beds                    _ib._
+
+  84. Flint Scraper from one of the Danish Beds                    _ib._
+
+  85. Refuse from the Manufacture of wrought Flints                 139
+
+  86. Weight to sink Fishing-nets                                  _ib._
+
+  87. Danish Axe of the Polished-stone Epoch                        140
+
+  88. Double-edged Axe                                             _ib._
+
+  89. Danish Axe-hammer drilled for handle                          141
+
+  90. Ditto                                                        _ib._
+
+  91. Spear-head from Denmark                                       142
+
+  92. Ditto                                                        _ib._
+
+  93. Toothed Spear-head of Flint                                   143
+
+  94. Flint Poniard from Denmark                                   _ib._
+
+  95. Type of the Danish Arrow-head                                _ib._
+
+  96. Another Type of Arrow-head                                   _ib._
+
+  97. Arrow-head                                                    144
+
+  98. Arrow-head from Denmark                                      _ib._
+
+  99. Flint Chisel from Denmark                                    _ib._
+
+  100. Small Stone Saw from the Danish Deposits                     145
+
+  101. Another Stone Saw from Denmark                              _ib._
+
+  102. Bone Harpoon of the Stone Age, from Denmark                 _ib._
+
+  103. Bone Comb from Denmark                                       146
+
+  104. Necklace and various Ornaments of Amber                     _ib._
+
+  105. Nucleus in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from the Workshop
+        of Grand-Pressigny                                          148
+
+  106. Polisher from Grand-Pressigny, both faces being shown        150
+
+  107. The earliest Manufacture and Polishing of Flints (whole
+        page engraving).
+
+  108. Polisher found by M. Leguay                                  154
+
+  109. Spear-head from Spiennes                                     158
+
+  110. Polished Jade Hatchet in the Museum of Saint-Germain         159
+
+  111. Polished Flint Hatchet with a Sheath of Stag's Horn fitted
+        for a Handle                                                161
+
+  112. Flint Hatchet fitted into a Stag's-horn Sheath having an
+        Oak Handle, from Boucher de Perthes' Illustration           162
+
+  113. Hatchet Handle made of Oak                                   163
+
+  114. Stag's-horn Sheath open at each end, so as to receive two
+        Hatchets                                                   _ib._
+
+  115. Polished Flint Hatchet, from Belgium, fitted into a
+        Stag's-horn Sheath                                         _ib._
+
+  116. Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after Boucher de
+        Perthes)                                                    164
+
+  117. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  118. Ditto                                                        165
+
+  119. Flint Tool in a Bone Handle                                  166
+
+  120. Flint Tool with Bone Handle                                 _ib._
+
+  121. Ornamented Bone Handle                                      _ib._
+
+  122. Necklace made of Boars' Tusks longitudinally divided         167
+
+  123. Flint Knife from the Peat Bogs near Antwerp                  168
+
+  124. Primitive Corn-mill                                          170
+
+  125. The Art of Bread Making in the Stone Age (whole page
+        engraving).
+
+  126. The Earliest Navigators (whole page engraving).
+
+  127. The Earliest regular Conflicts between Men of the Stone Age;
+        or, The Entrenched Camp of Furfooz (whole page engraving).
+
+  128. Flint Arrow-head from Civita-Nova (Italy)                    180
+
+  129. The Borreby Skull                                            182
+
+  130. Danish _Dolmen_                                              185
+
+  131. _Dolmen_ at Assies (department of Lot)                      _ib._
+
+  132. _Dolmen_ at Connéré (Marne)                                  186
+
+  133. Vertical Section of the _Dolmen_ of Lockmariaker, in
+        Brittany. In the Museum of Saint-Germain                   _ib._
+
+  134. _Tumulus-Dolmen_ at Gavr'inis (Morbihan)                     187
+
+  135. A Portion of the _Dolmen_ of Gavr'inis                      _ib._
+
+  136. General Form of a covered Passage-Tomb                       188
+
+  137. Passage-Tomb at Bagneux, near Saumur                        _ib._
+
+  138. Passage-Tomb at Plauharmel (Morbihan)                        189
+
+  139. Passage-Tomb, the so-called _Table de César_, at
+        Lockmariaker (Morbihan)                                    _ib._
+
+  140. A Danish _Tumulus_ or chambered Sepulchre                    190
+
+  141. Usual Shape of a _Menhir_                                    191
+
+  142. The Rows of _Menhirs_ at Carnac                             _ib._
+
+  143. _Dolmen_ with a Circuit of Stones (_Cromlech_), in the
+        Province of Constantine                                     192
+
+  144. Group of Danish _Cromlechs_                                 _ib._
+
+  145. Position of Skeletons in a Swedish Tomb of the Stone Age     194
+
+  146. A _Tumulus_ of the Polished Stone Epoch (whole page
+        engraving).
+
+  147. A Founder's Workshop during the Bronze Epoch (whole page
+        engraving).
+
+  148. Section of the _Ténevière_ of Hauterive                      220
+
+  149. A Swiss Lake Village of the Bronze Epoch (whole page
+        engraving).
+
+  150. Vertical Section of a _Crannoge_ in the Ardakillin Lake      230
+
+  151. Vertical Section of the _Marniera_ of Castione               233
+
+  152. Floor of the _Marniera_ of Castione                          234
+
+  153. Plan of the Piles and Cross-beams in the _Marniera_ of
+        Castione                                                   _ib._
+
+  154. The Chase during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  155. Stone Hatchet from the Lacustrine Habitations of
+        Switzerland                                                 241
+
+  156. Stone Chisel with Stag's-horn Handle, from the Lacustrine
+        Habitations of Switzerland                                  241
+
+  157. Flint Hammer fitted with a Stag's-horn Handle                242
+
+  158. Stone Hatchet with Double Handle of Wood and Stag's Horn    _ib._
+
+  159, 160. Serpentine Hatchet-Hammers from the Lacustrine
+        Habitations of Switzerland                                  243
+
+  161. Another Hatchet-hammer from the Lacustrine Habitations of
+        Switzerland                                                _ib._
+
+  162. Flint Saw fitted into a Piece of Stag's Horn                 244
+
+  163. Flint Spear-head from the Lacustrine Settlements of
+        Switzerland                                                _ib._
+
+  164. Various Shapes of Flint Arrow-heads from the Lacustrine
+        Settlements of Switzerland                                 _ib._
+
+  165. Arrow-head of Bone fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen    245
+
+  166. Stone Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen     _ib._
+
+  167. Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by a Ligature of String       _ib._
+
+  168. Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland  246
+
+  169. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  170. Carpenter's Chisel, from the Lacustrine Habitations of
+        Switzerland                                                _ib._
+
+  171. Bone Needle                                                 _ib._
+
+  172. Pick-axe of Stag's Horn                                      247
+
+  173. Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the Lacustrine
+        Habitations of Switzerland                                 _ib._
+
+  174. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  175. Vessel made of Stag's Horn                                  _ib._
+
+  176. Bronze Winged Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations of
+        Switzerland                                                 249
+
+  177. Winged Hatchet (front and side view), from the Lacustrine
+        Habitations of Switzerland                                 _ib._
+
+  178. Socketed Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations           _ib._
+
+  179. Knife Hatchet (front and side view) from the Lacustrine
+        Habitations                                                _ib._
+
+  180. Carpenter's Chisel, in Bronze                                250
+
+  181. Hexagonal Hammer                                            _ib._
+
+  182. Knife with a Tang to fit into a Handle, from the Lacustrine
+        Settlements of Switzerland                                 _ib._
+
+  183. Socketed Knife, from the Lacustrine Settlements of
+        Switzerland                                                 251
+
+  184. Bronze Sickle, found by M. Desor at Chevroux                _ib._
+
+  185. Bronze Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of
+        Switzerland                                                 252
+
+  186. Double Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of
+        Switzerland                                                _ib._
+
+  187. Hair-pin, found by M. Desor in one of the Swiss Lakes        253
+
+  188. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  189. Hair-pin with Cylindrical Head                              _ib._
+
+  190. Hair-pin with Curled Head                                   _ib._
+
+  191. Bronze Bracelet, found in one of the Swiss Lakes             254
+
+  192. Another Bronze Bracelet                                      255
+
+  193. Bronze Ring                                                 _ib._
+
+  194. Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations of
+        Switzerland                                                 256
+
+  195. Another Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations
+        of Switzerland                                             _ib._
+
+  196. Bronze Ring, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland _ib._
+
+  197. Another Ornamental Ring                                     _ib._
+
+  198. Earthenware Vessel with Conical Bottom, from the Lacustrine
+        Habitations of Switzerland                                  259
+
+  199. Earthen Vessel placed on its Support                        _ib._
+
+  200. Fragment of an Earthen Vessel with a Handle                  259
+
+  201. Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine Settlements of
+        Switzerland                                                 260
+
+  202. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  203. Cloth of the Bronze Age, found in the Lacustrine Settlements
+        of Switzerland                                              262
+
+  204. The First Weaver (whole page engraving).
+
+  205. Spindle-whorls, made of Baked Clay, found in the Lacustrine
+        Settlements of Switzerland                                  263
+
+  206. Principal Designs for the Ornamentation of Pottery during
+        the Bronze Epoch                                            264
+
+  207. The Cultivation of Gardens during the Bronze Epoch (whole
+        page engraving).
+
+  208. A Feast during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  209. Bronze Sword in the Museum of Neuchâtel                      272
+
+  210. Bronze Dagger, found in one of the Swiss Lakes              _ib._
+
+  211. Bronze Spear-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes           273
+
+  212. Bronze Arrow-head, found in a Lacustrine Settlement of
+        Switzerland                                                _ib._
+
+  213. Scandinavian Sword                                           274
+
+  214. Hilt of a Scandinavian Sword                                _ib._
+
+  215. Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet         _ib._
+
+  216. Another Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet _ib._
+
+  217. Danish Bronze Knife of the Bronze Epoch                      275
+
+  218. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  219. Blade of a Danish Razor of the Bronze Epoch                  276
+
+  220. Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, found in 1861, in a Tomb
+        in Denmark                                                  277
+
+  221. Woollen Shawl, found in the same Tomb                       _ib._
+
+  222. Woollen Shirt, taken from the same Tomb                      278
+
+  223. First Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb                   _ib._
+
+  224. Second Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb                  _ib._
+
+  225. Bronze Comb, found in the same Tomb                         _ib._
+
+  226. Warriors during the Bronze Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  227. Bronze Hatchet Mould, found in Ireland                       279
+
+  228. Stone Crescent, found in one of the Swiss Lakes              280
+
+  229. Skull found at Meilen, Front View                            289
+
+  230. Skull found at Meilen, Profile View                         _ib._
+
+  231. Primitive Furnace for Smelting Iron (whole page engraving).
+
+  232. Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel                      310
+
+  233. Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a Bronze Hilt and
+        Iron Blade)                                                 313
+
+  234. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  235. Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze Handle and Iron
+        Blade)                                                      314
+
+  236. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  237. Funeral Ceremonies during the Iron Epoch (whole page
+        engraving).
+
+  238. A Skeleton, portions of which have been burnt, from the
+        Tombs of Hallstadt                                          315
+
+  239. A Necklace with Pendants, from the Tombs of Hallstadt        316
+
+  240. Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt                        317
+
+  241. Ditto                                                       _ib._
+
+  242. Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt                    _ib._
+
+  243. Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt                     317
+
+  244. Warriors of the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  245, 246. Fore-arm encircled with Bracelets, found in the Tombs
+        of Belleville (Savoy)                                       319
+
+  247. Iron Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes                  321
+
+  248. Sword with Damascened Blade, found in one of the Swiss
+        Lakes                                                      _ib._
+
+  249. Sheath of a Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes           322
+
+  250. Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes                  323
+
+  251. Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La
+        Tène (Neuchâtel)                                            324
+
+  252. The Chase during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+  253. Square-socketed Iron Hatchet, found in one of the Lakes of
+        Switzerland                                                 325
+
+  254. Sickle                                                      _ib._
+
+  255. Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland       326
+
+  256. Iron Point of Boat-hook, used by the Swiss Boatmen during
+        the Iron Epoch                                             _ib._
+
+  257. Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel                 _ib._
+
+  258. _Fibula_, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel     327
+
+  259. Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel 328
+
+  260. Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel                _ib._
+
+  261. Iron Spring-scissors, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel        _ib._
+
+  262. Razor                                                        329
+
+  263. Agriculture during the Iron Epoch (whole page engraving).
+
+
+
+
+PRIMITIVE MAN.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Forty years have scarcely elapsed since scientific men first began to
+attribute to the human race an antiquity more remote than that which is
+assigned to them by history and tradition. Down to a comparatively
+recent time, the appearance of primitive man was not dated back beyond a
+period of 6000 to 7000 years. This historical chronology was a little
+unsettled by the researches made among various eastern nations--the
+Chinese, the Egyptians, and the Indians. The _savants_ who studied these
+ancient systems of civilisation found themselves unable to limit them to
+the 6000 years of the standard chronology, and extended back for some
+thousands of years the antiquity of the eastern races.
+
+This idea, however, never made its way beyond the narrow circle of
+oriental scholars, and did nothing towards any alteration in the general
+opinion, which allowed only 6000 years since the creation of the human
+species.
+
+This opinion was confirmed, and, to some extent, rendered sacred by an
+erroneous interpretation of Holy Writ. It was thought that the Old
+Testament stated that man was created 6000 years ago. Now, the fact is,
+nothing of the kind can be found in the Book of Genesis. It is only the
+commentators and the compilers of chronological systems who have put
+forward this date as that of the first appearance of the human race. M.
+Édouard Lartet, who was called, in 1869, to the chair of palæontology in
+the Museum of Natural History of Paris, reminds us, in the following
+passage taken from one of his elegant dissertations, that it is the
+chronologists alone who have propounded this idea, and that they have,
+in this respect, very wrongly interpreted the statements of the Bible:
+
+"In _Genesis_," says M. Lartet, "no date can be found which sets a limit
+to the time at which primitive mankind may have made its first
+appearance. Chronologists, however, for fifteen centuries have been
+endeavouring to make Biblical facts fall in with the preconcerted
+arrangements of their systems. Thus, we find that more than 140 opinions
+have been brought forward as to the date of the creation alone, and
+that, between the varying extremes, there is a difference of 3194
+years--a difference which only applies to the period between the
+commencement of the world and the birth of Jesus Christ. This
+disagreement turns chiefly on those portions of the interval which are
+in closest proximity to the creation.
+
+"From the moment when it becomes a recognised fact that the origin of
+mankind is a question independent of all subordination to dogma, this
+question will assume its proper position as a scientific thesis, and
+will be accessible to any kind of discussion, and capable, in every
+point of view, of receiving the solution which best harmonises with the
+known facts and experimental demonstrations."[1]
+
+Thus, we must not assume that the authority of Holy Writ is in any way
+questioned by those labours which aim at seeking the real epoch of man's
+first appearance on the earth.
+
+In corroboration of M. Lartet's statement, we must call to mind that the
+Catholic church, which has raised to the rank of dogma so many
+unimportant facts, has never desired to treat in this way the idea that
+man was created only 6000 years ago.
+
+There is, therefore, no need for surprise when we learn that certain
+members of the Catholic clergy have devoted themselves with energy
+to the study of pre-historic man. Mgr. Meignan, Bishop of
+Châlons-sur-Marne, is one of the best-informed men in France as respects
+this new science; he cultivates it with the utmost zeal, and his
+personal researches have added much to the sum of our knowledge of this
+question. Under the title of 'Le Monde et l'Homme Primitif selon la
+Bible,'[2] the learned Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne published, in 1869, a
+voluminous work, in which, taking up the subjects discussed by Marcel de
+Serres in his "Cosmogonie de Moïse, comparée aux Faits Géologiques,"[3]
+and enlarging upon the facts which science has recently acquired as to
+the subject of primitive man, he seeks to establish the coincidence of
+all these data with the records of Revelation.
+
+M. l'Abbé Lambert has recently published a work on 'L'Homme Primitif et
+la Bible,'[4] in which he proves that the discoveries of modern science
+concerning the antiquity of man are in no way opposed to the records of
+Revelation in the Book of Moses.
+
+Lastly, it is a member of the clerical body, M. l'Abbé Bourgeois, who,
+more a royalist than the king--that is, more advanced in his views than
+most contemporary geologists--is in favour of tracing back to the
+tertiary epoch the earliest date of the existence of man. We shall have
+to impugn this somewhat exaggerated opinion, which, indeed, we only
+quote here for the sake of proving that the theological scruples which
+so long arrested the progress of inquiry with regard to primitive man,
+have now disappeared, in consequence of the perfect independence of this
+question in relation to catholic dogma being evidently shown.
+
+Thanks to the mutual support which has been afforded by the three
+sister-sciences--geology, palæontology, and archæology,--thanks to the
+happy combinations which these sciences have presented to the efforts of
+men animated with an ardent zeal for the investigation of the
+truth;--and thanks, lastly, to the unbounded interest which attaches to
+this subject, the result has been that the limits which had been so long
+attributed to the existence of the human species have been
+extraordinarily extended, and the date of the first appearance of man
+has been carried back to the night of the darkest ages. The mind, it may
+well be said, recoils dismayed when it undertakes the computation of the
+thousands of years which have elapsed since the creation of man.
+
+But, it will naturally be asked, on what grounds do you base this
+assertion? What evidence do you bring forward, and what are the elements
+of your proof?
+
+In the following paragraphs we give some of the principal means of
+examination and study which have directed the efforts of _savants_ in
+this class of investigation, and have enabled them to create a science
+of the antiquity of the human species.
+
+If man existed at any very remote epoch, he must have left traces of his
+presence in the spots which he inhabited and on the soil which he trod
+under his feet. However savage his state may be assumed to have been,
+primitive man must have possessed some implements of fishing and
+hunting--some weapons wherewith to strike down any prey which was
+stronger or more agile than himself. All human beings have been in
+possession of some scrap of clothing; and they have had at their command
+certain implements more or less rough in their character, be they only a
+shell in which to draw water or a tool for cleaving wood and
+constructing some place of shelter, a knife to cut their food, and a
+lump of stone to break the bones of the animals which served for their
+nutriment. Never has man existed who was not in possession of some kind
+of defensive weapon. These implements and these weapons have been
+patiently sought for, and they have also been found. They have been
+found in certain strata of the earth, the age of which is known by
+geologists; some of these strata precede and others are subsequent to
+the cataclysm of the European deluge of the quaternary epoch.
+
+The fact has thus been proved that a race of men lived upon the earth at
+the epoch settled by the geological age of these strata--that is, during
+the quaternary epoch.
+
+When this class of evidence of man's presence--that is, the vestiges of
+his primitive industry--fails us, a state of things, however, which
+comparatively seldom occurs, his existence is sometimes revealed by the
+presence of human bones buried in the earth and preserved through long
+ages by means of the deposits of calcareous salts which have petrified
+or rather _fossilised_ them. Sometimes, in fact, the remains of human
+bones have been found in quaternary rocks, which are, consequently,
+considerably anterior to those of the present geological epoch.
+
+This means of proof is, however, more difficult to bring forward than
+the preceding class of evidence; because human bones are very liable to
+decay when they are buried at shallow depths, and require for any length
+of preservation a concurrence of circumstances which is but rarely met
+with; because also the tribes of primitive man often burnt their dead
+bodies; and, lastly, because the human race then formed but a very
+scanty population.
+
+Another excellent proof, which demonstrates the existence of man at a
+geological epoch anterior to the present era, is to be deduced from the
+intermixture of human bones with those of antediluvian animals. It is
+evident that if we meet with the bones of the mammoth, the cave-bear,
+the cave-tiger, &c.,--animals which lived only in the quaternary epoch
+and are now extinct--in conjunction with the bones of man or the relics
+of his industry, such as weapons, implements, utensils, &c., we can
+assert with some degree of certainty that our species was
+contemporaneous with the above-named animals. Now this intermixture has
+often been met with under the ground in caves, or deeply buried in the
+earth.
+
+These form the various kinds of proof which have been made use of to
+establish the fact of man's presence upon the earth during the
+quaternary epoch. We will now give a brief recital of the principal
+investigations which have contributed to the knowledge on which is based
+the newly-formed science which treats of the practical starting-point of
+mankind.
+
+Palæontology, as a science, does not count more than half a century of
+existence. We scarcely seem, indeed, to have raised more than one corner
+of the veil which covers the relics of an extinct world; as yet, for
+instance, we know absolutely nothing of all that sleeps buried in the
+depths of the earth lying under the basin of the sea. It need not,
+therefore, afford any great ground for surprise that so long a time
+elapsed before human bones or the vestiges of the primitive industry of
+man were discovered in the quaternary rocks. This negative result,
+however, always constituted the chief objection against the very early
+origin of our species.
+
+The errors and deceptions which were at first encountered tended perhaps
+to cool down the zeal of the earlier naturalists, and thus retarded the
+solution of the problem. It is a well-known story about the fossil
+salamander of the Oeningen quarries, which, on the testimony of
+Scheuchzer, was styled in 1726, the "human witness of the deluge" (_homo
+diluvii testis_). In 1787, Peter Camper recognised the fact that this
+pretended _pre-Adamite_ was nothing but a reptile; this discomfiture,
+which was a source of amusement to the whole of scientific Europe, was
+a real injury to the cause of antediluvian man. By the sovereign
+ascendancy of ridicule, his existence was henceforth relegated to the
+domain of fable.
+
+The first step in advance was, however, taken in 1774. Some human bones,
+mingled with remains of the great bear and other species then unknown,
+were discovered by J. F. Esper, in the celebrated cavern of Gailenreuth,
+in Bavaria.
+
+Even before this date, in the early part of the eighteenth century,
+Kemp, an Englishman, had found in London, by the side of elephants'
+teeth, a stone hatchet, similar to those which have been subsequently
+found in great numbers in various parts of the world. This hatchet was
+roughly sketched, and the design published in 1715. The original still
+exists in the collection at the British Museum.
+
+In 1797, John Frere, an English archæologist, discovered at Hoxne, in
+Suffolk, under strata of quaternary rocks, some flint weapons,
+intermingled with bones of animals belonging to extinct species. Esper
+concluded that these weapons and the men who made them were anterior to
+the formation of the beds in which they were found.
+
+According to M. Lartet, the honour of having been the first to proclaim
+the high antiquity of the human species must be attributed to Aimé Boué,
+a French geologist residing in Germany. In 1823, he found in the
+quaternary loam (loess) of the Valley of the Rhine some human bones
+which he presented to Cuvier and Brongniart as those of men who lived in
+the quaternary epoch.
+
+In 1823, Dr. Buckland, the English geologist, published his 'Reliquiæ
+Diluvianæ,' a work which was principally devoted to a description of the
+Kirkdale Cave, in which the author combined all the facts then known
+which tended in favour of the co-existence of man and the antediluvian
+animals.
+
+Cuvier, too, was not so indisposed as he is generally said to have been,
+to admit the existence of man in the quaternary epoch. In his work on
+'Ossements Fossiles,' and his 'Discours sur les Révolutions du Globe,'
+the immortal naturalist discusses the pros and cons with regard to this
+question, and, notwithstanding the insufficiency of the data which were
+then forthcoming, he felt warranted in saying:--
+
+"I am not inclined to conclude that man had no existence at all before
+the epoch of the great revolutions of the earth.... He might have
+inhabited certain districts of no great extent, whence, after these
+terrible events, he repeopled the world; perhaps, also, the spots where
+he abode were swallowed up, and his bones lie buried under the beds of
+the present seas."
+
+The confident appeals which have been made to Cuvier's authority against
+the high antiquity of man are, therefore, not justified by the facts.
+
+A second and more decisive step in advance was taken by the discovery of
+shaped flints and other implements belonging to primitive man, existing
+in diluvial beds.
+
+In 1826, M. Tournal, of Narbonne, a French archæologist and geologist,
+published an account of the discoveries which he had made in a cave in
+the department of Aude, in which he found bones of the bison and
+reindeer fashioned by the hand of man, accompanied by the remains of
+edible shell-fish, which must have been brought there by men who had
+made their residence in this cave.
+
+Three years afterwards, M. de Christol, of Montpellier, subsequently
+Professor in the University of Science of Grenoble, found human bones
+intimately mixed up with remains of the great bear, hyæna, rhinoceros,
+&c., in the caverns of Pondres and Souvignargues (Hérault). In the last
+of these caverns fragments of pottery formed a part of the relics.
+
+All these striking facts were put together and discussed by Marcel de
+Serres, Professor in the University of Science at Montpellier, in his
+'Essai sur les Cavernes.'
+
+The two bone-caverns of Engis and Enghihoul (Belgium) have furnished
+proofs of the same kind. In 1833, Schmerling, a learned Belgian
+geologist, discovered in these caverns two human skulls, mixed with the
+teeth of the rhinoceros, elephant, bear, hyæna, &c. The human bones were
+rubbed and worn away like those of the animals. The bones of the latter
+presented, besides, traces of human workmanship. Lastly, as if no
+evidence should be wanting, flints chipped to form knives and
+arrow-heads were found in the same spot.
+
+In connection with his laborious investigations, Schmerling published a
+work which is now much esteemed, and proves that the Belgian geologist
+well merited the title of being the founder of the science of the
+antiquity of man. In this work Schmerling describes and represents a
+vast quantity of objects which had been discovered in the caverns of
+Belgium, and introduced to notice the human skull which has since become
+so famous under the name of the _Engis skull_. But at that time
+scientific men of all countries were opposed to this class of ideas, and
+thus the discoveries of the Belgian geologist attracted no more
+attention than those of his French brethren who had brought forward
+facts of a similar nature.
+
+In 1835, M. Joly, at that time Professor at the Lyceum of
+Montpellier--where I (the author) attended on his course of Natural
+History--now Professor in the Faculty of Sciences at Toulouse, found in
+the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère) the skull of a cave-bear, on which an
+arrow had left its evident traces. Close by was a fragment of pottery
+bearing the imprints of the fingers of the man who moulded it.
+
+We may well be surprised that, in the face of all these previous
+discoveries, Boucher de Perthes, the ardent apostle in proclaiming the
+high antiquity of our species, should have met with so much opposition
+and incredulity; or that he should have had to strive against so much
+indifference, when, beginning with the year 1836, he began to maintain
+this idea in a series of communications addressed to the Société
+d'Emulation of Abbeville.
+
+The horizontal strata of the quarternary beds, known under the name of
+_diluvial_, form banks of different shades and material, which place
+before our eyes in indelible characters the ancient history of our
+globe. The organic remains which are found in them are those of beings
+who were witnesses to the diluvial cataclysm, and perhaps preceded it by
+many ages.
+
+"Therefore," says the prophet of Abbeville, "it is in these ruins of the
+old world, and in the deposits which have become his sole archives, that
+we must seek out the traditions of primitive man; and in default of
+coins and inscriptions we must rely on the rough stones which, in all
+their imperfection, prove the existence of man no less surely than all
+the glory of a Louvre."
+
+Strong in this conviction, M. Boucher de Perthes devoted himself
+ardently to the search in the diluvial beds, either for the bony relics
+of man, or, at all events, for the material indications of his primitive
+industry. In the year 1838 he had the honour of submitting to the
+Société d'Emulation, at Abbeville, his first specimens of the
+antediluvian hatchet.
+
+In the course of the year 1839, Boucher de Perthes took these hatchets
+to Paris and showed them to several members of the Institute. MM.
+Alexandre Brongniart, Flourens, Elie de Beaumont, Cordier, and Jomard,
+gave at first some encouragement to researches which promised to be so
+fruitful in results; but this favourable feeling was not destined to
+last long.
+
+These rough specimens of wrought flint, in which Boucher de Perthes
+already recognised a kind of hatchet, presented very indistinct traces
+of chipping, and the angles were blunted; their flattened shape, too,
+differed from that of the polished hatchets, the only kind that were
+then known. It was certainly necessary to see with the eyes of faith in
+order to discern the traces of man's work. "I," says the Abbeville
+archæologist, "had these 'eyes of faith,' but no one shared them with
+me." He then made up his mind to seek for help in his labour, and
+trained workmen to dig in the diluvial beds. Before long he was able to
+collect, in the quarternary beds at Abbeville, twenty specimens of flint
+evidently wrought by the hand of man.
+
+In 1842, the Geological Society of London received a communication from
+Mr. Godwin Austen, who had found in Kent's Hole various wrought objects,
+accompanied by animal remains, which must have remained there since the
+deluge.
+
+In 1844, appeared Lund's observations on the caverns of Brazil.
+
+Lund explored as many as 800 caves. In one of them, situated not far
+from the lake of Semidouro, he found the bones of no less than thirty
+individuals of the human species, showing a similar state of
+decomposition to that of the bones of animals which were along with
+them. Among these animals were an ape, various carnivora, rodents,
+pachyderms, sloths, &c. From these facts, Lund inferred that man must
+have been contemporaneous with the megatherium, the mylodon, &c.,
+animals which characterised the quarternary epoch.
+
+Nevertheless, M. Desnoyers, librarian of the Museum of Natural History
+at Paris, in a very learned article on 'Grottos and Caverns,' published
+in 1845 in the 'Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Naturelle,' still
+energetically expressed himself in opposition to the hypothesis of the
+high antiquity of man. But the discoveries continued to go on; and, at
+the present time, M. Desnoyers himself figures among the partisans of
+the antediluvian man. He has even gone beyond their opinions, as he
+forms one among those who would carry back to the tertiary epoch the
+earliest date of the appearance of our species.
+
+In 1847, M'Enery found in Kent's Hole, a cavern in England, under a
+layer of stalagmite, the remains of men and antediluvian animals mingled
+together.
+
+The year 1847 was also marked by the appearance of the first volume of
+the 'Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes,' by Boucher de Perthes;
+this contained about 1600 plates of the objects which had been
+discovered in the excavations which the author had caused to be made
+since the year 1836.
+
+The strata at Abbeville, where Boucher de Perthes carried out his
+researches, belong to the quaternary epoch.
+
+Dr. Rigollot, who had been for ten years one of the most decided
+opponents of the opinions of Boucher de Perthes, actually himself
+discovered in 1854 some wrought flints in the quaternary deposits at
+Saint Acheul, near Amiens, and it was not long before he took his stand
+under the banner of the Abbeville archæologist.
+
+The _fauna_ of the Amiens deposits is similar to that of the Abbeville
+beds. The lower deposits of gravel, in which the wrought flints are met
+with, have been formed by fresh water, and have not undergone either
+alteration or disturbance. The flints wrought by the hand of man which
+have been found in them, have in all probability lain there since the
+epoch of the formation of these deposits--an epoch a little later than
+the diluvial period. The number of wrought flints which have been taken
+out of the Abbeville beds is really immense. At Menchecourt, in twenty
+years, about 100 well-characterised hatchets have been collected; at
+Saint Gilles twenty very rough, and as many well-made ones; at
+Moulin-Quignon 150 to 200 well-formed hatchets.
+
+Similar relics of primitive industry have been found also in other
+localities. In 1853, M. Noulet discovered some in the Infernat Valley
+(Haute-Garonne); in 1858, the English geologists, Messrs. Prestwich,
+Falconer, Pengelly, &c., also found some in the lower strata of the
+Baumann cavern in the Hartz.
+
+To the English geologists whose names we have just mentioned must be
+attributed the merit of having been the first to bring before the
+scientific world the due value of the labours of Boucher de Perthes, who
+had as yet been unsuccessful in obtaining any acceptation of his ideas
+in France. Dr. Falconer, Vice-president of the Geological Society in
+London, visited the department of the Somme, in order to study the beds
+and the objects found in them. After him, Messrs. Prestwich and Evans
+came three times to Abbeville in the year 1859. They all brought back to
+England a full conviction of the antiquity and intact state of the beds
+explored, and also of the existence of man before the deluge of the
+quaternary epoch.
+
+In another journey, made in company with Messrs. Flower, Mylne, and
+Godwin Austen, Messrs. Prestwich, Falconer, and Evans were present at
+the digging out of human bones and flint hatchets from the quarries of
+St. Acheul. Lastly, Sir C. Lyell visited the spot, and the English
+geologist, who, up to that time, had opposed the idea of the existence
+of antediluvian man, was able to say, _Veni, vidi, victus fui!_ At the
+meeting of the British Association, at Aberdeen, September the 15th,
+1855, Sir C. Lyell declared himself to be in favour of the existence of
+quaternary man; and this declaration, made by the President of the
+Geological Society of London, added considerable weight to the new
+ideas.
+
+M. Hébert, Professor of Geology at the Sorbonne, next took his stand
+under the same banner.
+
+M. Albert Gaudry, another French geologist, made a statement to the
+Academy of Sciences, that he, too, had found flint hatchets, together
+with the teeth of horses and fossil oxen, in the beds of the Parisian
+_diluvium_.
+
+During the same year, M. Gosse, the younger, explored the sand-pits of
+Grenelle and the avenue of La Mothe-Piquet in Paris, and obtained from
+them various flint implements, mingled with the bones of the mammoth,
+fossil ox, &c.
+
+Facts of a similar character were established at Précy-sur-Oise, and in
+the diluvial deposits at Givry.
+
+The Marquis de Vibraye, also, found in the cave of Arcy, various human
+bones, especially a piece of a jaw-bone, mixed with the bones of animals
+of extinct species.
+
+In 1859, M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (department of
+Ariége), not only utensils testifying to the former presence of man, but
+also human teeth mixed up with the remains of the great bear (_Ursus
+spelæus_), the fossil hyæna (_Hyæna spelæa_), and the cave-lion (_Felis
+spelæa_).
+
+In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found in the cave of Lourdes (Tarn),
+certain relics of human industry by the side of the bones of fossil
+animals.
+
+The valleys of the Oise and the Seine have also added their contingent
+to the supply of antediluvian remains. In the sand-pits in the environs
+of Paris, at Grenelle, Levallois-Perret, and Neuilly, several
+naturalists, including MM. Gosse, Martin, and Reboux, found numerous
+flint implements, associated, in certain cases, with the bones of the
+elephant and hippopotamus. In the valley of the Oise, at Précy, near
+Creil, MM. Peigné Delacour and Robert likewise collected a few hatchets.
+
+Lastly, a considerable number of French departments, especially those of
+the north and centre, have been successfully explored. We may mention
+the departments of Pas-de-Calais, Aisne, Loire-et-Cher, Indre-et-Loire,
+Vienne, Allier, Yonne, Saône-et-Loire, Hérault, Tarn-et-Garonne, &c.
+
+In England, too, discoveries were made of an equally valuable character.
+The movement which was commenced in France by Boucher de Perthes, spread
+in England with remarkable rapidity. In many directions excavations were
+made which produced excellent results.
+
+In the gravel beds which lie near Bedford, Mr. Wyatt met with flints
+resembling the principal types of those of Amiens and Abbeville; they
+were found in company with the remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros,
+hippopotamus, ox, horse, and deer. Similar discoveries were made in
+Suffolk, Kent, Hertfordshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire, &c.
+
+Some time after his return from Abbeville, Mr. Evans, going round the
+museum of the Society of Antiquaries in London, found in their rooms
+some specimens exactly similar to those in the collection of Boucher de
+Perthes. On making inquiries as to their origin, he found that they had
+been obtained from the gravel at Hoxne by Mr. Frere, who had collected
+them there, together with the bones of extinct animals, all of which he
+had presented to the museum, after having given a description of them in
+the 'Archæologia' of 1800, with this remark: ... "Fabricated and used by
+a people who had not the use of metals.... The situation in which these
+weapons were found may tempt us to refer them to a very remote period
+indeed, even beyond that of the present world."
+
+Thus, even at the commencement of the present century, they were in
+possession, in England, of proofs of the co-existence of man with the
+great extinct pachyderms; but, owing to neglect of the subject, scarcely
+any attention had been paid to them.
+
+We now come to the most remarkable and most characteristic discoveries
+of this class which have ever been made. We allude to the explorations
+made by M. Édouard Lartet, during the year 1860, in the curious
+pre-historic human burial-place at Aurignac (Haute-Garonne).
+
+Going down the hill on the road leading from Aurignac, after proceeding
+about a mile, we come to the point where, on the other side of the dale,
+the ridge of the hill called _Fajoles_ rises, not more than 65 feet
+above a rivulet. We then may notice, on the northern slope of this
+eminence, an escarpment of the rock, by the side of which there is a
+kind of niche about six feet deep, the arched opening of it facing
+towards the north-west. This little cave is situated forty-two feet
+above the rivulet. Below, the calcareous soil slopes down towards the
+stream.
+
+The discovery of this hollow, which is now cleared out, was made
+entirely by chance. It was hidden by a mass of _débris_ of rock and
+vegetable-earth which had crumbled down; it had, in fact, only been
+known as a rabbits' hole. In 1842, an excavating labourer, named
+Bonnemaison, took it into his head one day to thrust his arm into this
+hole, and out of it he drew forth a large bone. Being rather curious to
+search into the mystery, he made an excavation in the slope below the
+hole, and, after some hours' labour, came upon a slab of sandstone which
+closed up an arched opening. Behind the slab of stone, he discovered a
+hollow in which a quantity of human bones were stored up.
+
+It was not long before the news of this discovery was spread far and
+wide. Crowds of curious visitors flocked to the spot, and many
+endeavoured to explain the origin of these human remains, the immense
+antiquity of which was attested by their excessive fragility. The old
+inhabitants of the locality took it into their heads to recall to
+recollection a band of coiners and robbers who, half a century before,
+had infested the country. This decidedly popular inquest and decision
+was judged perfectly satisfactory, and everyone agreed in declaring that
+the cavern which had just been brought to light was nothing but the
+retreat of these malefactors, who concealed all the traces of their
+crimes by hiding the bodies of their victims in this cave, which was
+known to these criminals only.
+
+Doctor Amiel, Mayor of Aurignac, caused all these bones to be collected
+together, and they were buried in the parish cemetery. Nevertheless,
+before the re-inhumation was proceeded with, he recorded the fact that
+the skeletons were those of seventeen individuals of both sexes. In
+addition to these skeletons, there were also found in the cave a number
+of little discs, or flat rings, formed of the shell of a species of
+cockle (_cardium_). Flat rings altogether similar to these are not at
+all unfrequent in the necklaces and other ornanments of Assyrian
+antiquity found in Nineveh.
+
+Eighteen years after this event, that is in 1860, M. Édouard Lartet paid
+a visit to Aurignac. All the details of the above-named discovery were
+related to him. After the long interval which had elapsed, no one, not
+even the grave-digger himself, could recollect the precise spot where
+these human remains had been buried in the village cemetery. These
+precious relics were therefore lost to science.
+
+M. Lartet resolved, however, to set on foot some excavations in the cave
+from which they had been taken, and he soon found himself in possession
+of unhoped-for treasures. The floor of the cavern itself had remained
+intact, and was covered with a layer of "made ground" mixed with
+fragments of stone. Outside this same cave M. Lartet discovered a bed of
+ashes and charcoal, which, however, did not extend to the interior. This
+bed was covered with "made ground" of an ossiferous and vegetable
+character. Inside the cave, the ground contained bones of the bear, the
+fox, the reindeer, the bison, the horse, &c., all intermingled with
+numerous relics of human industry, such as implements made of stag or
+reindeer's-horn, carefully pointed at one end and bevelled off at the
+other--a pierced handle of reindeer's-horn--flint knives and weapons of
+different kinds; lastly, a canine-tooth of a bear, roughly carved in the
+shape of a bird's head and pierced with a hole, &c.
+
+The excavations, having been carried to a lower level, brought to light
+the remains of the bear, the wild-cat, the cave-hyæna, the wolf, the
+mammoth, the horse, the stag, the reindeer, the ox, the rhinoceros, &c.,
+&c. It was, in fact, a complete Noah's ark. These bones were all broken
+lengthwise, and some of them were carbonised. _Striæ_ and notches were
+found on them, which could only have been made by cutting instruments.
+
+M. Lartet, after long and patient investigations, came to the conclusion
+that the cave of Aurignac was a human burial-place, contemporary with
+the mammoth, the _Rhinocerus tichorhinus_, and other great mammals of
+the quarternary epoch.
+
+The mode in which the long bones were broken shows that they had been
+cracked with a view of extracting the marrow; and the notches on them
+prove that the flesh had been cut off them with sharp instruments. The
+ashes point to the existence of a fire, in which some of these bones had
+been burnt. Men must have resorted to this cavern in order to fulfil
+certain funereal rites. The weapons and animals' bones must have been
+deposited there in virtue of some funereal dedication, of which numerous
+instances are found in Druidical or Celtic monuments and in Gallic
+tombs.
+
+Such are the valuable discoveries, and such the new facts which were the
+result of the investigations made by M. Édouard Lartet in the cave of
+Aurignac. In point of fact, they left no doubt whatever as to the
+co-existence of man with the great antediluvian animals.
+
+In 1862, Doctor Felix Garrigou, of Tarrascon, a distinguished geologist,
+published the results of the researches which he, in conjunction with
+MM. Rames and Filhol, had made in the caverns of Ariége. These explorers
+found the lower jaw-bones of the great bear, which, with their sharp and
+projecting canine-tooth, had been employed by man as an offensive
+weapon, almost in the same way as Samson used the jaw-bone of an ass in
+fighting with the Philistines.
+
+"It was principally," says M. Garrigou, "in the caves of Lombrives,
+Lherm, Bouicheta, and Maz-d'Azil that we found the jaw-bones of the
+great bear and the cave-lion, which were acknowledged to have been
+wrought by the hand of man, not only by us, but also by the numerous
+French and English _savants_ who examined them and asked for some of
+them to place in their collections. The number of these jaw-bones now
+reaches to more than a hundred. Furnished, as they are, with an immense
+canine-tooth, and carved so as to give greater facility for grasping
+them, they must have formed, when in a fresh state, formidable weapons
+in the hands of primitive man....
+
+"These animals belong to species which are now extinct, and if their
+bones while still in a fresh state (since they were gnawed by hyænas)
+were used as weapons, man must have been contemporary with them."
+
+In the cave of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne), which was visited in 1862 by
+MM. Garrigou and Filhol, and other _savants_, there were found, under a
+very hard osseous _breccia_, an ancient fire-hearth with ashes and
+charcoal, the broken and calcined bones of ruminants of various extinct
+species, flint flakes used as knives, facetted nuclei, and both
+triangular and quadrangular arrow-heads of great distinctness, utensils
+in stags' horn and bone--in short, everything which could prove the
+former presence of primitive man.
+
+About three-quarters of a mile below the cave there was subsequently
+found, at a depth of about twenty feet, an osseous _breccia_ similar to
+the first, and likewise containing broken bones and a series of ancient
+fire-hearths filled with ashes and objects of antediluvian industry.
+Bones, teeth, and flints were to be collected in bushels.
+
+At the commencement of 1863, M. Garrigou presented to the Geological
+Society of France the objects which had been found in the caves of Lherm
+and Bouicheta, and the Abbé Bourgeois published some remarks on the
+wrought flints from the _diluvium_ of Pont-levoy.
+
+This, therefore, was the position of the question in respect to fossil
+man, when in 1863, the scientific world were made acquainted with the
+fact of the discovery of a human jaw-bone in the diluvial beds of
+Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville. We will relate the circumstances
+attending this memorable discovery.
+
+On the 23rd of March, 1863, an excavator who was working in the
+sand-quarries at Moulin-Quignon brought to Boucher de Perthes at
+Abbeville, a flint hatchet and a small fragment of bone which he had
+just picked up. Having cleaned off the earthy coat which covered it,
+Boucher de Perthes recognised this bone to be a human molar. He
+immediately visited the spot, and assured himself that the locality
+where these objects had been found was an argilo-ferruginous vein,
+impregnated with some colouring matter which appeared to contain
+organic remains. This layer formed a portion of a _virgin_ bed, as it is
+called by geologists, that is, without any infiltration or secondary
+introduction.
+
+On the 28th of March another excavator brought to Boucher de Perthes a
+second human tooth, remarking at the same time, "that something
+resembling a bone was just then to be seen in the sand." Boucher de
+Perthes immediately repaired to the spot, and in the presence of MM.
+Dimpré the elder and younger, and several members of the Abbeville
+_Société d'Emulation_, he personally extracted from the soil the half of
+a human lower jaw-bone, covered with an earthy crust. A few inches from
+this, a flint hatchet was discovered, covered with the same black patina
+as the jaw-bone. The level where it was found was about fifteen feet
+below the surface of the ground.
+
+After this event was duly announced, a considerable number of geologists
+flocked to Abbeville, about the middle of the month of April. The Abbé
+Bourgeois, MM. Brady-Buteux, Carpenter, Falconer, &c., came one after
+the other, to verify the locality from which the human jaw-bone had been
+extracted. All were fully convinced of the intact state of the bed and
+the high antiquity of the bone which had been found.
+
+Boucher de Perthes also discovered in the same bed of gravel two
+mammoth's teeth, and a certain number of wrought hatchets. Finally, he
+found among the bones which had been taken from the Menchecourt quarries
+in the early part of April, a fragment of another jaw-bone and six
+separate teeth, which were recognised by Dr. Falconer to be also human.
+
+The jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon is very well preserved. It is
+rather small in size, and appears to have belonged to an aged individual
+of small stature. It does not possess that ferocious aspect which is
+noticed in the jaw-bones of certain of the existing human races. The
+obliquity of the molar-tooth may be explained by supposing some
+accident, for the molar which stood next had fallen out during the
+lifetime of the individual, leaving a gap which favoured the obliquity
+of the tooth which remained in the jaw. This peculiarity is found also
+in several of the human heads in the collection of the Museum of Natural
+History in Paris.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Human Jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon, near
+Abbeville, in 1863.]
+
+The jaw-bone of the man of Moulin-Quignon, which is represented here
+(fig. 1) in its natural size, and drawn from the object itself, which is
+preserved in the Anthropological Gallery of the Museum of Natural
+History of Paris, does not show any decided points of difference when
+compared with those of individuals of existing races.
+
+The same conclusion was arrived at as the result of the comparative
+examination which was made of the jaw-bones found by MM. Lartet and De
+Vibraye in the caves of Aurignac and Arcy; the latter remains were
+studied by M. Quatrefages in conjunction with Pruner-Bey, formerly
+physician to the Viceroy of Egypt, and one of the most distinguished
+French anthropologists.
+
+On the 20th of April, 1863, M. de Quatrefages announced to the institute
+the discovery which had been made by Boucher de Perthes, and he
+presented to the above-named learned body the interesting object itself,
+which had been sent from Abbeville.
+
+When the news of this discovery arrived in England it produced no slight
+sensation.
+
+Some of the English _savants_ who had more specially devoted their
+attention to the study of this question, such as Messrs. Christy,
+Falconer, Carpenter, and Busk, went over to France, and in conjunction
+with Boucher de Perthes and several members of the Académie des Sciences
+of Paris, examined the exact locality in which the hatchets and the
+human jaw-bone had been found; they unanimously agreed in recognising
+the correctness of the conclusions arrived at by the indefatigable
+geologist of Abbeville.[5]
+
+This discovery of the hatchets and the human jaw-bone in the quaternary
+beds of Moulin-Quignon completed the demonstration of an idea already
+supported by an important mass of evidence. Setting aside its own
+special value, this discovery, added to so many others, could not fail
+to carry conviction into most minds. From this time forth the doctrine
+of the high antiquity of the human race became an acknowledged idea in
+the scientific world.
+
+Before closing our historical sketch, we shall have to ask, what was the
+precise geological epoch to which we shall have to carry back the date
+of man's first appearance on this our earth.
+
+The beds which are anterior to the present period, the series of which
+forms the solid crust of our globe, have been divided, as is well known,
+into five groups, corresponding to the same number of periods of the
+physical development of the earth. These are in their order of age: the
+_primitive rocks_, the _transition rocks_, the _secondary rocks_, the
+_tertiary_ and _quaternary rocks_. Each of these epochs must have
+embraced an immense lapse of time, since it has radically exhausted the
+generation both of animals and plants which was peculiar to it. Some
+idea may be formed of the extreme slowness with which organic creatures
+modify their character, when we take into consideration that our
+contemporary _fauna_, that is to say, the collection of animals of every
+country which belong to the geological period in which we exist, has
+undergone little, if any, alteration during the thousands of years that
+it has been in being.
+
+Is it possible for us to date the appearance of the human race in those
+prodigiously-remote epochs which correspond with the primitive, the
+transition, or the secondary rocks? Evidently no! Is it possible,
+indeed, to fix this date in the epoch of the tertiary rocks? Some
+geologists have fancied that they could find traces of the presence of
+man in these tertiary rocks (the miocene and pliocene). But this is an
+opinion in which we, at least, cannot make up our minds to agree.
+
+In 1863, M. Desnoyers found in the upper strata of the tertiary beds
+(pliocene) at Saint-Prest, in the department of Eure, certain bones
+belonging to various extinct animal species; among others those of an
+elephant (_Elephas meridionalis_), an animal which did not form a part
+of the quaternary _fauna_. On most of these bones he ascertained the
+existence of cuts, or notches, which, in his opinion, must have been
+produced by flint implements. These indications, according to M.
+Desnoyers, are signs of the existence of man in the tertiary epoch.
+
+This opinion, however, Sir Charles Lyell hesitates to accept. Moreover,
+we could hardly depend upon an accident so insignificant as that of a
+few cuts or notches made upon a bone, in order to establish a fact so
+important as that of the high antiquity of man. We must also state that
+it is a matter of question whether the beds which contained these
+notched bones really belong to the tertiary group.
+
+The beds which correspond to the quaternary epoch are, therefore, those
+in which we find unexceptionable evidence of the existence of man.
+Consequently, in the quaternary epoch which preceded the existing
+geological period, we must place the date of the first appearance of
+mankind upon the earth.
+
+If the purpose is entertained of discussing, with any degree of
+certainty, the history of the earliest days of the human race--a subject
+which as yet is a difficult one--it is requisite that the long interval
+should be divided into a certain number of periods. The science of
+primitive man is one so recently entered upon, that those authors who
+have written upon the point can hardly be said to have properly
+discussed and agreed upon a rational scheme of classification. We shall,
+in this work, adopt the classification proposed by M. Édouard Lartet,
+which, too, has been adopted in that portion of the museum of
+Saint-Germain which is devoted to pre-historic antiquities. Following
+this course, we shall divide the history of primitive mankind into two
+great periods:
+
+1st. The Stone Age;
+
+2nd. The Metal Age.
+
+These two principal periods must also be subdivided in the following
+mode. The "Stone Age" will embrace three epochs:
+
+1st. The epoch of extinct animals (or of the great cave-bear and the
+mammoth).
+
+2nd. The epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer epoch).
+
+3rd. The epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the polished-stone
+epoch).
+
+The "Metal Age" may also be divided into two periods:
+
+1st. The Bronze Epoch;
+
+2nd. The Iron Epoch.
+
+The following synoptical table will perhaps bring more clearly before
+the eyes of our readers this mode of classification, which has, at
+least, the merit of enabling us to make a clear and simple statement of
+the very incongruous facts which make up the history of primitive man:
+
+                 { 1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear
+                 {       and mammoth).
+  THE STONE AGE. { 2nd. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the
+                 {       reindeer epoch).
+                 { 3rd. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the
+                 {       polished-stone epoch).
+
+  THE METAL AGE. { 1st. The Bronze Epoch.
+                 { 2nd. The Iron Epoch.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] 'Nouvelles Recherches sur la Coexistence de l'Homme et des grands
+Mammifères Fossiles réputés charactéristiques de la dernière période
+Géologique,' by Éd. Lartet, 'Annales des Sciences Naturelles,' 4th ser.
+vol. xv. p. 256.
+
+[2] 1 vol. 8vo., Paris, 1869; V. Palme.
+
+[3] 2 vols. 12mo., 3rd edit., Paris, 1859; Lagny frères.
+
+[4] Pamphlet, 8vo., Paris, 1869; Savy.
+
+[5] It should rather have been said, that the ultimate and
+well-considered judgment of the English geologists was against the
+authenticity of the Moulin-Quignon jaw.--See Dr. Falconer's
+'Palæontological Memoirs,' vol. ii. p. 610; and Sir C. Lyell's
+'Antiquity of Man,' 3rd ed. p. 515. (Note to Eng. Trans.)
+
+
+
+
+THE STONE AGE.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+
+THE EPOCH OF EXTINCT SPECIES OF ANIMALS; OR, OF
+THE GREAT BEAR AND MAMMOTH.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     The earliest Men--The type of Man in the Epoch of Animals of
+     extinct Species--Origin of Man--Refutation of the Theory which
+     derives the Human Species from the Ape.
+
+
+Man must have lived during the time in which the last representatives of
+the ancient animal creation--the mammoth, the great bear, the
+cave-hyæna, the _Rhinoceros tichorinus_, &c.--were still in existence.
+It is this earliest period of man's history which we are now about to
+enter upon.
+
+We have no knowledge of a precise nature with regard to man at the
+period of his first appearance on the globe. How did he appear upon the
+earth, and in what spot can we mark out the earliest traces of him? Did
+he first come into being in that part of the world which we now call
+Europe, or is it the fact that he made his way to this quarter of our
+hemisphere, having first seen the light on the great plateaux of Central
+Asia?
+
+This latter opinion is the one generally accepted. In the work which
+will follow the present volume we shall see, when speaking of the
+various races of man, that the majority of naturalists admit nowadays
+one common centre of creation for all mankind. Man, no doubt, first came
+into being on the great plateaux of Central Asia, and thence was
+distributed over all the various habitable portions of our globe. The
+action of climate and the influences of the locality which he inhabited
+have, therefore, determined the formation of the different races--white,
+black, yellow, and red--which now exist with all their infinite
+subdivisions.
+
+But there is another question which arises, to which it is necessary to
+give an immediate answer, for it has been and is incessantly agitated
+with a degree of vehemence which may be explained by the nature of the
+discussion being of so profoundly personal a character as regards all of
+us: Was man created by God complete in all parts, and is the human type
+independent of the type of the animals which existed before him? Or, on
+the contrary, are we compelled to admit that man, by insensible
+transformations, and gradual improvements and developments, is derived
+from some other animal species, and particularly that of the ape?
+
+This latter opinion was maintained at the commencement of the present
+century by the French naturalist, de Lamarck, who laid down his views
+very plainly in his work entitled 'Philosophie Zoologique.' The same
+theory has again been taken up in our own time, and has been developed,
+with no small supply of facts on which it might appear to be based, by a
+number of scientific men, among whom we may mention Professor Carl Vogt
+in Switzerland, and Professor Huxley in England.
+
+We strongly repudiate any doctrine of this kind. In endeavouring to
+establish the fact that man is nothing more than a developed and
+improved ape, an orang-outang or a gorilla, somewhat elevated in
+dignity, the arguments are confined to an appeal to anatomical
+considerations. The skull of the ape is compared with that of primitive
+man, and certain characteristics of analogy, more or less real, being
+found to exist between the two bony cases, the conclusion has been
+arrived at that there has been a gradual blending between the type of
+the ape and that of man.
+
+We may observe, in the first place, that these analogies have been very
+much exaggerated, and that they fail to stand their ground in the face
+of a thorough examination of the facts. Only look at the skulls which
+have been found in the tombs belonging to the stone age, the so-called
+_Borreby skull_ for instance--examine the human jaw-bone from
+Moulin-Quignon, the Meilen skull, &c., and you will be surprised to see
+that they differ very little in appearance from the skulls of existing
+man. One would really imagine, from what is said by the partisans of
+Lamarck's theory, that primitive man possessed the projecting jaw of the
+ape, or at least that of the negro. We are astonished, therefore, when
+we ascertain that, on the contrary, the skull of the man of the stone
+age is almost entirely similar in appearance to those of the existing
+Caucasian species. Special study is, indeed, required in order to
+distinguish one from the other.
+
+If we place side by side the skull of a man belonging to the Stone Age,
+and the skulls of the principal apes of large size, these
+dissimilarities cannot fail to be obvious. No other elements of
+comparison, beyond merely looking at them, seem to be requisite to
+enable us to refute the doctrine of this debased origin of mankind.
+
+The figure annexed represents the skull of a man belonging to the stone
+age, found in Denmark; to this skull, which is known by the name of the
+Borreby skull, we shall have to allude again in the course of the
+present work; fig. 3 represents the skull of a gorilla; fig. 4 that of
+an orang-outang; fig. 5 that of the _Cynocephalus_ ape; fig. 6 that of
+the _Macacus_. Place the representation of the skull found in Denmark in
+juxtaposition with these ill-favoured animal masks, and then let the
+reader draw his own inference, without pre-occupying his mind with the
+allegations of certain anatomists imbued with contrary ideas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Skull of a Man belonging to the Stone Age (the
+_Borreby Skull_).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Skull of the Gorilla.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Skull of the Orang-Outang.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Skull of the Cynocephalus Ape.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Skull of the _Macacus_ Baboon.]
+
+Finding themselves beaten as regards the skulls, the advocates of
+transmutation next appeal to the bones. With this aim, they exhibit to
+us certain similarities of arrangement existing between the skeleton of
+the ape and that of primitive man. Such, for instance, is the
+longitudinal ridge which exists on the thigh-bone, which is as prominent
+in primitive man as in the ape. Such, also, is the fibula, which is very
+stout in primitive man, just as in the ape, but is rather slender in the
+man of the present period.
+
+When we are fully aware how the form of the skeleton is modified by the
+kind of life which is led, in men just as in animals, we cannot be
+astonished at finding that certain organs assume a much higher
+development in those individuals who put them to frequent and violent
+use, than in others who leave these same organs in a state of
+comparative repose.
+
+If it be a fact that the man of the epoch of the great bear and the
+mammoth had a more robust leg, and a more largely developed thigh-bone
+than most of the races of existing man, the reason simply is, that his
+savage life, which was spent in the midst of the wild beasts of the
+forest, compelled him to make violent exertions, which increased the
+size of these portions of his body.
+
+Thus it is found that great walkers have a bulky calf, and persons
+leading a sedentary life have slender legs. These variations in the
+structure of the skeleton are owing, therefore, to nothing but a
+difference in the mode of life.
+
+Why is it, however, that the skeleton is the only point taken into
+consideration when analogies are sought for between man and any species
+of animal? If equal investigation were given to other organs, we should
+arrive at a conclusion which would prove how unreasonable comparisons of
+this kind are. In fact, if man possesses the osseous structure of the
+ape, he has also the anatomical structure of many other animals, as far
+as regards several organs. Are not the viscera of the digestive system
+the same, and are they not organised on the same plan in man as in the
+carnivorous animals? As the result of this, would you say that man is
+derived from the tiger, that he is nothing but an improved and developed
+lion, a cat transmuted into a man? We may, however, just as plausibly
+draw this inference, unless we content ourselves with devoting our
+attention to the skeleton alone, which seems, indeed, to be the only
+part of the individual in which we are to interest ourselves, for what
+reason we know not.
+
+But, in point of fact, this kind of anatomy is pitiable. Is there
+nothing in man but bones? Do the skeleton and the viscera make up the
+entire sum of the human being? What will you say, then, ye blind
+rhetoricians, about the faculty of intelligence as manifested in the
+gift of speech? Intelligence and speech, these are really the attributes
+which constitute man; these are the qualities which make him the most
+complete being in creation, and the most privileged of God's creatures.
+Show me an ape who can speak, and then I will agree with you in
+recognising it as a fact that man is nothing but an improved ape! Show
+me an ape who can make flint hatchets and arrow-heads, who can light a
+fire and cook his food, who, in short, can act like an intelligent
+creature--then, and then only, I am ready to confess that I am nothing
+more than an orang-outang revised and corrected.
+
+It is not, however, our desire to speak of a question which has been the
+subject of so much controversy as that of the anatomical resemblance
+between the ape and the man without thoroughly entering into it; we
+have, indeed, no wish to shun the discussion of the point. On the
+present occasion, we shall appeal to the opinion of a _savant_ perfectly
+qualified in such matters; we allude to M. de Quatrefages, Professor of
+Anthropology in the Museum of Natural History at Paris.
+
+M. de Quatrefages, in his work entitled 'Rapport sur le Progrès de
+l'Anthropologie,' published in 1868, has entered rather fully into the
+question whether man is descended from the ape or not. He has summed up
+the contents of a multitude of contemporary works on this subject, and
+has laid down his opinion--the perfect impossibility, in an anatomical
+point of view, of this strange and repugnant genealogy.
+
+The following extract from his work will be sufficient to make our
+readers acquainted with the ideas of the learned Professor of
+Anthropology with regard to the question which we are now considering:
+
+"Man and apes in general," says M. de Quatrefages, "present a most
+striking contrast--a contrast on which Vicq-d'Azyr, Lawrence, and M.
+Serres have dwelt in detail for some considerable time past. The former
+is a _walking animal_, who walks upon his hind legs; all apes are
+_climbing animals_. The whole of the locomotive system in the two groups
+bears the stamp of these two very different intentions; the two types,
+in fact, are perfectly distinct.
+
+"The very remarkable works of Duvernoy on the 'Gorilla,' and of MM.
+Gratiolet and Alix on the 'Chimpanzee,' have fully confirmed this result
+as regards the anthropomorphous apes--a result very important, from
+whatever point of view it is looked at, but of still greater value to
+any one who wishes to apply _logically_ Darwin's idea. These recent
+investigations prove, in fact, that the ape type, however highly it may
+be developed, loses nothing of its fundamental character, and remains
+always perfectly distinct from the type of man; the latter, therefore,
+cannot have taken its rise from the former.
+
+"Darwin's doctrine, when rationally adapted to the fact of the
+appearance of man, would lead us to the following results:
+
+"We are acquainted with a large number of terms in the Simian series. We
+see it branching out into secondary series all leading up to
+anthropomorphous apes, which are not members of one and the same family,
+but corresponding superior _terms_ of three distinct families
+(Gratiolet). In spite of the secondary modifications involved by the
+developments of the same natural qualities, the orang, the gorilla, and
+the chimpanzee remain none the less fundamentally mere _apes_ and
+_climbers_ (Duvernoy, Gratiolet, and Alix). Man, consequently, in whom
+everything shows that he is a _walker_, cannot belong to any one of
+these series; he can only be the higher term of a distinct series, the
+other representatives of which have disappeared, or, up to the present
+time, have evaded our search. Man and the anthropomorphous apes are the
+final terms of two series, which commence to diverge at the very latest
+as soon as the lowest of the apes appear upon the earth.
+
+"This is really the way in which a true disciple of Darwin must reason,
+even if he solely took into account the _external morphological
+characteristics_ and the _anatomical characteristics_ which are the
+expression of the former in the adult animal.
+
+"Will it be said that when the degree of organisation manifested in the
+anthropomorphous apes had been once arrived at, the organism underwent a
+new impulse and became adapted for walking? This would be, in fact,
+adding a fresh hypothesis, and its promoters would not be in a position
+to appeal to the organised gradation presented by the quadrumanous order
+as a whole on which stress is laid as leading to the conclusion against
+which I am contending: they would be completely outside _Darwin's
+theory_, on which these opinions claim to be based.
+
+"Without going beyond these purely morphological considerations, we may
+place, side by side, for the sake of comparison, as was done by M.
+Pruner-Bey, the most striking general characteristics in man and in the
+anthropomorphous apes. As the result, we ascertain this general
+fact--that there exists 'an _inverse order_ of the final term of
+development in the sensitive and vegetative apparatus, in the systems of
+locomotion and reproduction' (Pruner-Bey).
+
+"In addition to this, this _inverse order_ is equally exhibited in the
+series of phenomena of individual development.
+
+"M. Pruner-Bey has shown that this is the case with a portion of the
+permanent teeth. M. Welker, in his curious studies of the sphenoïdal
+angle of Virchow, arrived at a similar result. He demonstrated that the
+modifications of the base of the skull, that is, of a portion of the
+skeleton which stands in the most intimate relation to the brain, take
+place inversely in the man and ape. This angle diminishes from his birth
+in man, but, on the contrary, in the ape it becomes more and more
+obtuse, so as sometimes to become entirely extinct.
+
+"But there is also another fact which is of a still more important
+character: it is that this inverse course of development has been
+ascertained to exist even in the brain itself. This fact, which was
+pointed out by Gratiolet, and dwelt upon by him on various occasions,
+has never been contested either at the _Société d'Anthropologie_ or
+elsewhere, and possesses an importance and significance which may be
+readily comprehended.
+
+"In man and the anthropomorphous ape, _when in an adult state_, there
+exists in the mode of arrangement of the cerebral folds a certain
+similarity on which much stress has been laid; but this resemblance has
+been, to some extent, a source of error, for the result is attained by
+an _inverse course of action_. In the ape, the temporo-sphenoïdal
+convolutions, which form the middle lobe, make their appearance, and are
+completed, before the anterior convolutions which form the frontal lobe.
+In man, on the contrary, the frontal convolutions are the first to
+appear, and those of the middle lobe are subsequently developed.
+
+"It is evident that when two organised beings follow an inverse course
+in their growth, the more highly developed of the two cannot have
+descended from the other by means of evolution.
+
+"Embryology next adds its evidence to that of anatomy and morphology, to
+show how much in error they are who have fancied that Darwin's ideas
+would afford them the means of maintaining the simial origin of man.
+
+"In the face of all these facts, it may be easily understood that
+anthropologists, however little in harmony they may sometimes be on
+other points, are agreed on this, and have equally been led to the
+conclusion that there is nothing that permits us to look at the brain of
+the ape as the brain of man smitten with an arrest of development, or,
+on the other hand, the brain of man as a development of that of the ape
+(Gratiolet); that the study of animal organism in general, and that of
+the extremities in particular, reveals, in addition to a general plan,
+certain differences in shape and arrangement which specify two
+altogether special and distinct adaptations, and are incompatible with
+the idea of any filiation (Gratiolet and Alix); that in their course of
+improvement and development, apes do not tend to become allied to man,
+and conversely the human type, when in a course of degradation, does not
+tend to become allied to the ape (Bert); finally, that no possible point
+of transition can exist between man and the ape, unless under the
+condition of inverting the laws of development (Pruner-Bey), &c.
+
+"What, we may ask, is brought forward by the partisans of the simial
+origin of man in opposition to these general facts, which here I must
+confine myself to merely pointing out, and to the multitude of details
+of which these are only the abstract?
+
+"I have done my best to seek out the proofs alleged, but I everywhere
+meet with nothing but the same kind of argument--exaggerations of
+morphological similarities which no one denies; inferences drawn from a
+few exceptional facts which are then generalised upon, or from a few
+coincidences in which the relations of cause and effect are a matter of
+supposition; lastly, an appeal to _possibilities_ from which conclusions
+of a more or less affirmative character are drawn.
+
+"We will quote a few instances of this mode of reasoning.
+
+"1st. The bony portion of the hand of man and of that of certain
+anthropomorphous apes present marked similarities. Would it not
+therefore have been possible for an almost imperceptible modification to
+have ultimately led to identity?
+
+"MM. Gratiolet and Alix reply to this in the negative; for the muscular
+system of the thumb establishes a profound difference, and testifies to
+an _adaptation_ to very different uses.
+
+"2nd. It is only in man and the anthropomorphous apes that the
+articulation of the shoulder is so arranged as to allow of rotatory
+movements. Have we not here an unmistakable resemblance?
+
+"The above-named anatomists again reply in the negative; for even if we
+only take the bones into account, we at once see that the movements
+could not be the same; but when we come to the muscular system, we find
+decisive differences again testifying to certain special _adaptations_.
+
+"These rejoinders are correct, for when _locomotion_ is the matter in
+question, it is evident that due consideration must be paid to the
+muscles, which are the active agents in that function at least as much
+as the bones, which only serve as points of attachment and are only
+passive.
+
+"3rd. In some of the races of man, the arch of the skull, instead of
+presenting a uniform curve in the transverse direction, bends a little
+towards the top of the two sides, and rises towards the median line (New
+Caledonians, Australians, &c.). It is asked if this is not a preliminary
+step towards the bony crests which rise in this region in some of the
+anthropomorphous apes?
+
+"Again we reply in the negative; for, in the latter, the bony crests
+arise from the walls of the skull, and do not form any part of the arch.
+
+"4th. Is it not very remarkable that we find the orang to be
+brachycephalous, just like the Malay, whose country it inhabits, and
+that the gorilla and chimpanzee are dolichocephalous like the negro? Is
+not this fact a reason for our regarding the former animal as the
+ancestor of the Malays, and the latter of the African nations?
+
+"Even if the facts brought forward were correct, the inference which is
+drawn from them would be far from satisfactory. But the coincidence
+which is appealed to does not exist. In point of fact, the orang, which
+is essentially a native of Borneo, lives among the Dyaks and not among
+the Malays; now the Dyaks are rather dolichocephalous than
+brachycephalous. With respect to gorillas being dolichocephalous, they
+cannot at least be so generally; as out of _three_ female specimens of
+this ape which were examined, two were brachycephalous (Pruner-Bey).
+
+"5th. The brains of microcephalous individuals present a mixture of
+human and simial characteristics, and point to some intermediate
+conformation, which was normal at some anterior epoch, but at the
+present time is only realised by an arrest of development and a fact of
+atavism.
+
+"Gratiolet's investigations of the brain of the ape, normal man and
+small-brained individuals, have shown that the similarities pointed out
+are purely fallacious. People have thought that they could detect them,
+simply because they have not examined closely enough. In the last named,
+the human brain is simplified; but this causes no alteration in the
+_initial plan_, and this plan is not that which is ascertained to exist
+in the ape. Thus Gratiolet has expressed an opinion which no one has
+attempted to controvert: 'The human brain differs the more from that of
+the ape the less the former is developed, and an arrest of development
+could only exaggerate this natural difference.... The brains of
+microcephalous individuals, although often less voluminous and less
+convoluted than those of the anthropomorphous apes, do not on this
+account become like the latter.... The idiot, however low he may be
+reduced, is not a beast; he is nothing but a deteriorated man.'
+
+"The laws of the development of the brain in the two types, laws which I
+mentioned before, explain and justify this language; and the laws of
+which it is the summary are a formal refutation of the comparison which
+some have attempted to make between the _contracted human brain_, and
+the _animal brain, however developed_.
+
+"6th. The excavations which have been made in intact ancient beds have
+brought to light skulls of ancient races of man, and these skulls
+present characteristics which approximate them to the skull of the ape.
+Does not this pithecoïd stamp, which is very striking on the Neanderthal
+skull in particular, argue a transition from one type to another, and
+consequently _filiation_?
+
+"This argument is perhaps the only one which has been brought forward
+with any degree of precision, and it is often recurred to. Is it, on
+this account, more demonstrative? Let the reader judge for himself.
+
+"We may, in the first place, remark that Sir C. Lyell does not venture
+to pronounce affirmatively as to the high antiquity of the human remains
+discovered by Dr. Fuhlrott, and that he looked upon them, at the most,
+as contemporary with the Engis skull, in which the Caucasian type of
+head was reproduced.
+
+"Let us, however, admit that the Neanderthal skull belongs to the remote
+antiquity to which it has been assigned; what, then, is in reality the
+significance of this skull? Is it actually a link between the head of
+the man and that of the ape? And does it not find some analogy in
+comparatively modern races?
+
+"Many writings have been published on these questions, and, as it
+appears to me, some light has gradually been thrown upon the subject.
+There is no doubt that this skull is really remarkable for the enormous
+size of its superciliary ridges, the length and narrowness of the bony
+case, the slight elevation of the top of the skull. But these features
+are found to be much less exceptional than was at first supposed, in
+default of any means of instituting a just comparison; very far, indeed,
+from justifying the approximation which some have endeavoured to make,
+this skull is, in all its characteristics, essentially human. Mr. Busk,
+in England, has pointed out the great affinity which is established, by
+the prominence of the superciliary ridges and the depression of the
+upper region, between certain Danish skulls from Borreby and the
+Neanderthal skull. Dr. Barnard Davis has described the still greater
+similarities existing between this very _fossil_ and a skull in his
+collection. Gratiolet forwarded to the Museum the skull of an idiot of
+the present time, which was almost identical with it in everything,
+although in slighter proportions, &c.
+
+"The following appears to me to be decisive:
+
+"In spite of its curious characteristics, the Neanderthal skull none the
+less belonged to an individual, who, to judge by other bones which have
+been found, diverged but little from the average type of the present
+Germanic races, and by no means approximated to that of the ape.
+
+"Is it probable, proceeding even on the class of ideas which I am
+opposing, that in a being in a state of transition between man and the
+anthropomorphous apes, the body would have become entirely human in its
+character, whilst the head presented its simial peculiarities? If a fact
+like this is admitted, does it not render the hypothesis absolutely
+worthless?
+
+"Notwithstanding all the discussion to which these curious remains have
+given rise, it appears to me impossible to look upon them in any other
+light than as the remains of an individuality, exceptional, no doubt,
+but clearly belonging to the human species, and, in addition to this, to
+the Celtic race, one of the branches of our Aryan stock. M. Pruner-Bey
+appears to me to have placed this fact beyond all question by the whole
+mass of investigations which he has published on this subject. The most
+convincing proofs are based on the very great similarity which may be
+noticed in a Celtic skull taken from a tumulus in Poitou to the skull
+which has become so well known and, indeed, so celebrated owing to the
+writings of Doctor Schaaffhausen. This similarity is not merely
+external. An internal cast taken from one skull fits perfectly into the
+interior of the other. It was, therefore, the _brains_ and not merely
+the _skulls_ which bore a resemblance to one another. The proof appears
+to me to be complete, and, with the learned author of this work, I feel
+no hesitation in concluding that the Neanderthal skull is one of Celtic
+origin.
+
+"After all, neither experience nor observation have as yet furnished us
+with the slightest data with regard to man at his earliest origin.
+Science, therefore, which pretends to solidity of character, must put
+this problem on one side till fresh information is obtained. We really
+approach nearer to the truth when we confess our ignorance than when we
+attempt to disguise it either to ourselves or others.
+
+"With regard to the simial origin of man, it is nothing but pure
+hypothesis, or rather nothing but a mere _jeu d'esprit_ which everything
+proves utterly baseless, and in favour of which no solid fact has as yet
+been appealed to."
+
+In dealing with this question in a more general point of view, we must
+add that the most enlightened science declares to us in unmistakable
+accents, that species is immutable, and that no animal species can be
+derived from another; they may change, but all bear witness to an
+independent creation. This truth, which has been developed at length by
+M. de Quatrefages in his numerous works, is a definitive and scientific
+judgment which must decide this question as far as regards any
+unprejudiced minds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+     Man in the condition of Savage Life during the Quaternary
+     Epoch--The Glacial Period, and its Ravages on the Primitive
+     Inhabitants of the Globe--Man in Conflict with the Animals of the
+     Quaternary Epoch--The Discovery of Fire--The Weapons of Primitive
+     Man--Varieties of Flint-hatchets--Manufacture of the earliest
+     Pottery--Ornamental objects at the Epoch of the Great Bear and the
+     Mammoth.
+
+
+After this dissertation, which was necessary to confute the theory which
+gives such a degrading explanation of our origin, we must contemplate
+man at the period when he was first placed upon the earth, weak and
+helpless, in the midst of the inclement and wild nature which surrounded
+him.
+
+However much our pride may suffer by the idea, we must confess that, at
+the earliest period of his existence, man could have been but little
+distinguished from the brute. Care for his natural wants must have
+absorbed his whole being; all his efforts must have tended to one sole
+aim--that of insuring his daily subsistence.
+
+At first, his only food must have been fruits and roots; for he had not
+as yet invented any weapon wherewith to destroy wild animals. If he
+succeeded in killing any creatures of small size he devoured them in a
+raw state, and made a covering of their skins to shelter himself against
+the inclemency of the weather. His pillow was a stone, his roof was the
+shadow of a wide-spreading tree, or some dark cavern which also served
+as a refuge against wild beasts.
+
+For how many ages did this miserable state last? No one can tell. Man is
+an improvable being, and indefinite progress is the law of his
+existence. Improvement is his supreme attribute; and this it is which
+gives him the pre-eminence over all the creatures which surround him.
+But how wavering must have been his first steps in advance, and how many
+efforts must have been given to the earliest creation of his mind and
+to the first work of his hands--doubtless some shapeless attempt in
+which we nowadays, perhaps, should have some difficulty in recognising
+the work of any intelligent being!
+
+Towards the commencement of the quaternary epoch, a great natural
+phenomenon took place in Europe. Under the influence of numerous and
+varied causes, which up to the present time have not been fully
+recognised, a great portion of Europe became covered with ice, on the
+one hand, making its way from the poles down to the most southern
+latitudes, and, on the other, descending into the plains from the
+summits of the highest mountain chains. Ice and ice-fields assumed a
+most considerable extension. As all the lower parts of the continent
+were covered by the sea, there were only a few plateaux which could
+afford a refuge to man and animals flying from this deadly cold. Such
+was the _Glacial Period_, which produced the annihilation of so many
+generations of animals, and must have equally affected man himself, so
+ill-defended against this universal and sudden winter.
+
+Man, however, was enabled to resist the attacks of revolted nature.
+Without doubt, in this unhappy period, he must have made but little
+progress, even if his intellectual development were not completely
+stopped. At all events, the human species did not perish. The glacial
+period came to an end, the ice-fields shrank back to their original
+limits, and Nature reassumed its primitive aspect.
+
+When the ice had gradually retired into the more northern latitudes, and
+had become confined to the higher summits, a new generation of
+animals--another _fauna_, as naturalists call it--made its appearance on
+the globe. This group of animals, which had newly come into being,
+differed much from those that had disappeared in the glacial cataclysm.
+Let us cast an inquiring glance on these strange and now extinct
+creatures.
+
+First we have the mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_), or the woolly-haired
+and maned elephant, carcases of which were found, entire and in good
+preservation, in the ice on the coasts of Siberia. Next comes the
+rhinoceros with a complete nasal septum (_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_),
+likewise clad in a warm and soft fur, the nose of which is surmounted
+with a remarkable pair of horns. Then follow several species of the
+hippopotamus, which come as far north as the rivers of England and
+Russia; a bear of great size inhabiting caverns (_Ursus spelæus_), and
+presenting a projecting forehead and a large-sized skull; the cave lion
+or tiger (_Felis spelæa_), which much surpassed in strength the same
+animals of the existing species; various kinds of hyænas (_Hyæna
+spelæa_), much stronger than those of our epoch; the bison or aurochs
+(_Biso europæus_), which still exists in Poland; the great ox, the Urus
+of the ancients (_Bos primigenius_); the gigantic Irish elk (_Megaceros
+hibernicus_), the horns of which attained to surprising dimensions.
+Other animals made their appearance at the same epoch, but they are too
+numerous to mention; among them were some of the Rodent family. Almost
+all these species are now extinct, but man certainly existed in the
+midst of them.
+
+The mammoth, elephant, rhinoceros, stag, and hippopotamus were then in
+the habit of roaming over Europe in immense herds, just as some of these
+animals still do in the interior of Africa. These animals must have had
+their favourite haunts--spots where they assembled together in
+thousands; or else it would be difficult to account for the countless
+numbers of bones which are found accumulated at the same spot.
+
+Before these formidable bands, man could dream of nothing but flight. It
+was only with some isolated animal that he could dare to engage in a
+more or less unequal conflict. Farther on in our work, we shall see how
+he began to fabricate some rough weapons, with a view of attacking his
+mighty enemies.
+
+The first important step which man made in the path of progress was the
+acquisition of fire. In all probability, man came to the knowledge of it
+by accident, either by meeting with some substance which had been set on
+fire by lightning or volcanic heat, or by the friction of pieces of wood
+setting a light to some very inflammable matter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--The Production of Fire.]
+
+In order to obtain fire, man of the quaternary epoch may have employed
+the same means as those made use of by the American aborigines, at the
+time when Christopher Columbus first fell in with them on the shores of
+the New World--means which savage nations existing at the present day
+still put in practice. He rubbed two pieces of dry wood one against the
+other, or turned round and round with great rapidity a stick sharpened
+to a point, having placed the end of it in a hole made in the trunk of a
+very dry tree (fig. 7).
+
+As among the savages of the present day we find certain elementary
+mechanisms adapted to facilitate the production of fire, it is not
+impossible that these same means were practised at an early period of
+the human race. It would take a considerable time to set light to two
+pieces of dry wood by merely rubbing them against one another; but if a
+bow be made use of, that is, the chord of an arc fixed firmly on a
+handle, so as to give a rapid revolution to a cylindrical rod of wood
+ending in a point which entered into a small hole made in a board, the
+board may be set on fire in a few minutes. Such a mode of obtaining fire
+may have been made use of by the men who lived in the same epoch with
+the mammoth and other animals, the species of which are now extinct.
+
+The first rudiments of combustion having been obtained, so as to serve,
+during the daytime, for the purposes of warmth and cooking food, and
+during the night, for giving light, how was the fire to be kept up? Wood
+from the trees that grew in the district, or from those which were cast
+up by the currents of the rivers or sea; inflammable mineral oils; resin
+obtained from coniferous trees; the fat and grease of wild animals; oil
+extracted from the great cetaceans;--all these substances must have
+assisted in maintaining combustion, for the purposes both of warmth and
+light. The only fuel which the Esquimaux of the present day have either
+to warm their huts or light them during the long nights of their gloomy
+climate, is the oil of the whale and seal, which, burnt in a lamp with a
+short wick, serves both to cook their food and also to warm and illumine
+their huts.
+
+Even, nowadays, in the Black Forest (Duchy of Baden), instead of
+candles, long splinters of very dry beech are sometimes made use of,
+which are fixed in a horizontal position at one end and lighted at the
+other. This forms an economical lamp, which is really not to be
+despised.
+
+We have also heard of the very original method which is resorted to by
+the inhabitants of the Faroe Isles in the northern seas of Europe, in
+order to warm and light up their huts. This method consists in taking
+advantage of the fat and greasy condition of the young Stormy Petrel
+(Mother Carey's Chicken), so as to convert its body into a regular
+lamp. All that is necessary is to draw a wick through its body,
+projecting at the beak, which when lighted causes this really animal
+candle to throw out an excellent light until the last greasy morsel of
+the bird is consumed.
+
+This bird is also used by the natives of the Isles as a natural fuel to
+keep up their fires and cook other birds.
+
+Whatever may have been the means which were made use of by primitive man
+in order to procure fire, either the simple friction of two pieces of
+wood one against the other, continued for a long time, the _bow_, or
+merely a stick turning round rapidly by the action of the hand, without
+any kind of mechanism--it is certain that the acquisition of fire must
+be classed amongst the most beautiful and valuable discoveries which
+mankind has made. Fire must have put an end to the weariness of the long
+nights. In the presence of fire, the darkness of the holes and caverns
+in which man made his first retreat, must have vanished away. With the
+aid of fire, the most rigorous climates became habitable, and the damp
+which impregnated the body of man or his rough garments, made of the
+skin of the bear or some long-haired ruminant, could be evaporated. With
+fire near them, the danger arising from ferocious beasts must have much
+diminished; for a general instinct leads wild animals to dread the light
+and the heat of a fire. Buried, as they were, in the midst of forests
+infested with wild beasts, primitive men might, by means of a fire kept
+alight during the night, sleep in peace without being disturbed by the
+attacks of the huge wild beasts which prowled about all round them.
+
+Fire, too, gave the first starting-point to man's industry. It afforded
+means to the earliest inhabitants of the earth for felling trees, for
+procuring charcoal, for hardening wood for the manufacture of their
+rudimentary implements, and for baking their primitive pottery.
+
+Thus, as soon as man had at his disposal the means for producing
+artificial heat, his position began to improve, and the kindly flame of
+the hearth became the first centre round which the family circle was
+constituted.
+
+Ere long man felt the need of strengthening his natural powers against
+the attacks of wild beasts. At the same time he desired to be able to
+make his prey some of the more peaceable animals, such as the stag, the
+smaller kinds of ruminants, and the horse. Then it was that he began to
+manufacture weapons.
+
+He had remarked, spread about the surface of the ground, certain flints,
+with sharp corners and cutting edges. These he gathered up, and by the
+means of other stones of a rather tougher nature, he broke off from them
+pieces, which he fashioned roughly in the shape of a hatchet or hammer.
+He fixed these splinters into split sticks, by way of a handle, and
+firmly bound them in their places with the tendons of an animal or the
+strong stalks of some dried plant. With this weapon, he could, if he
+pleased, strike his prey at a distance.
+
+When man had invented the bow and chipped out flint arrow-heads, he was
+enabled to arrest the progress of the swiftest animal in the midst of
+his flight.
+
+Since the time when the investigations with regard to primitive man have
+been set on foot in all countries, and have been energetically
+prosecuted, enormous quantities have been found of these chipped flints,
+arrow-heads, and various stone implements, which archæologists designate
+by the common denomination of _hatchets_, in default of being able, in
+some cases, to distinguish the special use for which they had been
+employed. Before going any further, it will be necessary to enter into
+some details with regard to these flint implements--objects which are
+altogether characteristic of the earliest ages of civilisation.
+
+For a long time past chipped stones of a somewhat similar character have
+been met with here and there in several countries, sometimes on the
+surface of, and sometimes buried deeply in, the ground; but no one
+understood what their significance was. If the common people ever
+distinguished them from ordinary stones, they attached to them some
+superstitious belief. Sometimes they called them "thunder-stones,"
+because they attributed to them the power of preserving from lightning
+those who were in possession of them. It was not until the middle of the
+present century that naturalists and archæologists began to comprehend
+the full advantage which might be derived from the examination of these
+chipped stones, in reconstructing the lineaments of the earliest of the
+human race and in penetrating, up to a certain point, into their
+manners, customs, and industry. These stone-hatchets and arrow-heads
+are, therefore, very plentiful in the present day in collections of
+antiquities and cabinets of natural history.
+
+Most of these objects which are found in Europe are made of flint, and
+this circumstance may be easily explained. Flint must have been
+preferred as a material, on account both of its hardness and its mode of
+cleavage, which may be so readily adapted to the will of the workman.
+One hard blow, skilfully applied, is sufficient to break off, by the
+mere shock, a sharp-edged flake of a blade-like shape. These sharp-edged
+blades of silex might serve as knives. Certainly they would not last
+long in use, for they are very easily notched; but primitive men must
+have been singularly skilful in making them.
+
+Although the shapes of these stone implements are very varied, they may
+all be classed under a certain number of prevailing types; and these
+types are to be found in very different countries. The flint hatchets
+are at first very simple although irregular in their shape; but they
+gradually manifest a much larger amount of talent exhibited in their
+manufacture, and a better judgment is shown in adapting them to the
+special uses for which they were intended. The progress of the human
+intellect is written in ineffaceable characters on these tablets of
+stone, which, defended as they were, by a thick layer of earth, bid
+defiance to the injuries of time.
+
+Let us not despise these first and feeble efforts of our primitive
+forefathers, for they mark the date of the starting-point of
+manufactures and the arts. If the men of the stone age had not
+persevered in their efforts, we, their descendants, should never have
+possessed either our palaces or our masterpieces of painting and
+sculpture. As Boucher de Perthes says, "The first man who struck one
+pebble against another to make some requisite alteration in its form,
+gave the first blow of the chisel which has resulted in producing the
+Minerva and all the sculpture of the Parthenon."
+
+Archæologists who have devoted their energies to investigating the
+earliest monuments of human industry, have found it necessary to be on
+their guard against certain errors, or rather wilful deceptions, which
+might readily pervert their judgment and deprive their discoveries of
+all character of authenticity. There is, in fact, a certain class of
+persons engaged in a deceptive manufacture who have taken a delight in
+misleading archæologists by fabricating apocryphal flint and stone
+implements, in which they drive a rather lucrative trade. They assert,
+without the least scruple, the high antiquity of their productions,
+which they sell either to inexperienced amateurs, who are pleased to put
+them in their collections duly labelled and ticketed, or--which is a
+more serious matter--to workmen who are engaged in making excavations in
+fossiliferous beds. These workmen hide the fictitious specimens in the
+soil they are digging, using every requisite precaution so as to have
+the opportunity of subsequently extracting them and fingering a reward
+for them from some too trusting naturalist. These imitations are,
+moreover, so cleverly made, that it sometimes requires well-practised
+eyes to recognise them; but they may be recognised with some degree of
+facility by the following characteristics:--
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8.--_Dendrites_ or Crystallisations found on the
+surface of wrought Flints.]
+
+The ancient flints present a glassy surface which singularly contrasts
+with the dull appearance of the fresh cleavages. They are also for the
+most part covered with a whitish coating or _patina_, which is nothing
+but a thin layer of carbonate of lime darkened in colour by the action
+of time. Lastly, many of these flints are ornamented with branching
+crystallisations, called _dendrites_, which form on their surface very
+delicate designs of a dark brown; these are owing to the combined action
+of the oxides of iron and manganese (fig. 8).
+
+We must add that these flint implements often assume the colour of the
+soil in which they have been buried for so many centuries; and as Mr.
+Prestwich, a learned English geologist, well remarks, this agreement in
+colour indicates that they have remained a very considerable time in the
+stratum which contains them.
+
+Among the stone implements of primitive ages, some are found in a state
+of perfect preservation, which clearly bears witness to their almost
+unused state; others, on the contrary, are worn, rounded, and blunted,
+sometimes because they have done good service in bygone days, and
+sometimes because they have been many times rolled over and rubbed by
+diluvial waters, the action of which has produced this result. Some,
+too, are met with which are broken, and nothing of them remains but mere
+vestiges. In a general way, they are completely covered with a very
+thick coating which it is necessary to break off before they can be laid
+open to view.
+
+They are especially found under the soil in grottos and caves, on which
+we shall remark further in some detail, and they are almost always mixed
+up with the bones of extinct mammalian species.
+
+Certain districts which are entirely devoid of caves contain, however,
+considerable deposits of these stone implements. We may mention in this
+category the alluvial quarternary beds of the valley of the Somme, known
+under the name of drift beds, which were worked by Boucher de Perthes
+with an equal amount of perseverance and success.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Section of a Gravel Quarry at Saint-Acheul,
+which contained the wrought Flints found by Boucher de Perthes.]
+
+This alluvium was composed of a gravelly deposit, which geologists refer
+to the great inundations which, during the epoch of the great bear and
+the mammoth, gave to Europe, by hollowing out its valleys, its present
+vertical outline. The excavations in the sand and gravel near Amiens and
+Abbeville, which were directed with so much intelligence by Boucher de
+Perthes, have been the means of exhuming thousands of worked flints,
+affording unquestionable testimony of the existence of man during the
+quaternary epoch.
+
+All these worked flints may be classed under some of the principal
+types, from which their intended use may be approximately conjectured.
+
+One of the types which is most extensively distributed, especially in
+the drift beds of the valley of the Somme, where scarcely any other kind
+is found, is the _almond-shaped_ type (fig. 10).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Hatchet of the _Almond-shaped_ type, from the
+Valley of the Somme.]
+
+The instruments of this kind are hatchets of an oval shape, more or less
+elongated, generally flattened on both sides, but sometimes only on one,
+carefully chipped all over their surface so as to present a cutting
+edge. The workmen of the Somme give them the graphic name of _cats'
+tongues_.
+
+They vary much in size, but are generally about six inches long by three
+wide, although some are met with which are much larger. The Pre-historic
+Gallery in the Universal Exposition of 1867, contained one found at
+Saint-Acheul, and exhibited by M. Robert, which measured eleven inches
+in length by five in width. This remarkable specimen is represented in
+fig. 11.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Flint Hatchet from Saint-Acheul of the
+so-called _Almond-shaped type_.]
+
+Another very characteristic form is that which is called the _Moustier
+type_ (fig. 12), because they have been found in abundance in the beds
+in the locality of Moustier, which forms a portion of the department of
+Dordogne. This name is applied to the pointed flints which are only
+wrought on one side, the other face being completely plain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Wrought Flint (_Moustier type_).]
+
+To the same deposit also belongs the flint _scraper_, the sharp edge of
+which forms the arc of a circle, the opposite side being of some
+considerable thickness so as to afford a grasp to the hand of the
+operator.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Flint Scraper.]
+
+Some of these instruments (fig. 13) are finely toothed all along their
+sharp edge; they were evidently used for the same purposes as our saws.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Flint Knife, found at Menchecourt, near
+Abbeville.]
+
+The third type (fig. 14) is that of _knives_. They are thin and narrow
+tongue-shaped flakes, cleft off from the lump of flint at one blow. When
+one of the ends is chipped to a point, these knives become scratchers.
+Sometimes these flints are found to be wrought so as to do service as
+augers.
+
+The question is often asked, how these primitive men were able to
+manufacture their weapons, implements, and utensils, on uniform models,
+without the help of metallic hammers. This idea has, indeed, been
+brought forward as an argument against those who contend for the
+existence of quaternary man. Mr. Evans, an English geologist, replied
+most successfully to this objection by a very simple experiment. He took
+a pebble and fixed it in a wooden handle; having thus manufactured a
+stone hammer, he made use of it to chip a flint little by little, until
+he had succeeded in producing an oval hatchet similar to the ancient one
+which he had before him.
+
+The flint-workers who, up to the middle of the present century, prepared
+gun-flints for the army, were in the habit of splitting the stone into
+splinters. But they made use of steel hammers to cleave the flint,
+whilst primitive man had nothing better at his disposal than another and
+rather harder stone.
+
+Primitive man must have gone to work in somewhat the following way: They
+first selected flints, which they brought to the shape of those cores or
+_nuclei_ which are found in many places in company with finished
+implements; then, by means of another and harder stone of elongated
+shape, they cleft flakes off the flint. These flakes were used for
+making knives, scratchers, spear or arrow-heads, hatchets, tomahawks,
+scrapers, &c. Some amount of skill must have been required to obtain the
+particular shape that was required; but constant practice in this work
+exclusively must have rendered this task comparatively easy.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Flint Core or Nucleus.]
+
+How, in the next place, were these clipped flints fitted with handles,
+so as to make hatchets, poniards and knives?
+
+Some of them were fixed at right angles between the two split ends of a
+stick: this kind of weapon must have somewhat resembled our present
+hatchets. Others, of an oval shape and circular edge, might have been
+fastened transversely into a handle, so as to imitate a carpenter's
+adze. In case of need, merely a forked branch or a piece of split wood
+might serve as sheath or handle to the flint blade. Flints might also
+have been fixed as double-edged blades by means of holes cut in pieces
+of wood, to which a handle was afterwards added.
+
+These flint flakes might, lastly, be fitted into a handle at one end.
+The wide-backed knives, which were only sharp on one side, afforded a
+grasp for the hand without further trouble, and might dispense with a
+handle. The small flints might also be darted as projectiles by the help
+of a branch of a tree forming a kind of spring, such as we may see used
+as a toy by children.
+
+The mere description of these stone hatchets, fitted on to pieces of
+wood, recall to our mind the natural weapons used by some of the
+American savages, and the tribes which still exist in a state of freedom
+in the Isles of Oceania. We allude to the tomahawk, a name which we so
+often meet with in the accounts of voyages round the world. Among those
+savage nations who have not as yet bent their necks beneath the yoke of
+civilisation, we might expect to find--and, in fact, we do find--the
+weapons and utensils which were peculiar to man in primitive ages. A
+knowledge of the manners and customs of the present Australian
+aborigines has much conduced to the success of the endeavours to
+reconstruct a similar system of manners and customs in respect to man of
+the quaternary age.
+
+It was with the weapons and implements that we have just described that
+man, at the epoch of the great bear and mammoth, was able to repulse the
+attacks of the ferocious animals which prowled round his retreat and
+often assailed him (fig. 16).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Man in the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch.]
+
+But the whole life of primitive man was not summed up in defending
+himself against ferocious beasts, and in attacking them in the chase.
+Beyond the needs which were imposed upon him by conflict and hunting, he
+felt, besides, the constant necessity of quenching his thirst. Water is
+a thing in constant use by man, whether he be civilised or savage. The
+fluid nature of water renders it difficult to convey it except by
+enclosing it in bladders, leathern bottles, hollowed-out stumps of
+trees, plaited bowls, &c. Receptacles of this kind were certain
+ultimately to become dirty and unfit for the preservation of water;
+added to this they could not endure the action of fire. It was certainly
+possible to hollow out stone, so as to serve as a receptacle for water;
+but any kind of stone which was soft enough to be scooped out, and would
+retain its tenacity after this operation, is very rarely met with.
+Shells, too, might be used to hold a liquid; but then shells are not to
+be found in every place. It was, therefore, necessary to resolve the
+problem--how far it might be possible to make vessels which would be
+strong, capable of holding water, and able to stand the heat of the fire
+without breaking or warping. What was required was, in fact, the
+manufacture of pottery.
+
+The potter's art may, perhaps, be traced back to the most remote epochs
+of man. We have already seen, in the introduction to this work, that, in
+1835, M. Joly found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozère), a skull of the
+great bear pierced with a stone arrow-head, and that by the side of this
+skull were also discovered fragments of pottery, on which might still be
+seen the imprint of the fingers which moulded it. Thus, the potter's art
+may have already been exercised in the earliest period which we can
+assign to the development of mankind.
+
+Other causes also might lead us to believe that man, at a very early
+period of his existence, succeeded in the manufacture of rough pottery.
+
+The clay which is used in making all kinds of pottery, from the very
+lowest kitchen utensil up to the most precious specimens of porcelain,
+may be said to exist almost everywhere. By softening it and kneading it
+with water, it may be moulded into vessels of all shapes. By mere
+exposure to the heat of the sun, these vessels will assume a certain
+amount of cohesion; for, as tradition tells us, the towers and palaces
+of ancient Nineveh were built entirely with bricks which had been baked
+in the sun.
+
+Yet the idea of hardening any clayey paste by means of the action of
+fire is so very simple, that we are not of opinion that pottery which
+had merely been baked in the sun was ever made use of to any great
+extent, even among primitive man. Mere chance, or the most casual
+observation, might have taught our earliest forefathers that a morsel of
+clay placed near a fire-hearth became hardened and altogether
+impenetrable to water, that is, that it formed a perfect specimen of
+pottery. Yet the art, though ancient, has not been universally found
+among mankind.
+
+Ere long, experience must have taught men certain improvements in the
+manufacture of pottery. Sand was added to the clay, so as to render it
+less subject to "flying" on its first meeting the heat of the fire;
+next, dried straw was mixed with the clay in order to give it more
+coherence.
+
+In this way those rough vessels were produced, which were, of course,
+moulded with the hand, and still bear the imprints of the workman's
+fingers. They were only half-baked, on account of the slight intensity
+of heat in the furnace which they were then obliged to make use of,
+which was nothing more than a wood fire, burning in the open air, on a
+stone hearth.
+
+From these data we give a representation (fig. 17) of the _workshop of
+the earliest potter_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--The First Potter.]
+
+In the gravel pits in the neighbourhood of Amiens we meet with small
+globular bodies with a hole through the middle, which are, indeed,
+nothing but fossil shells found in the white chalk (fig. 18). It is
+probable that these stony beads were used to adorn the men contemporary
+with the diluvial period. The natural holes which existed in them
+enabled them to be threaded as bracelets or necklaces. This, at least,
+was the opinion of Dr. Rigollot; and it was founded on the fact that he
+had often found small heaps of these delicate little balls collected
+together in the same spot, as if an inundation had drifted them into the
+bed of the river without breaking the bond which held them together.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Fossil Shells used as Ornaments, and found in
+the Gravel at Amiens.]
+
+The necklaces, which men and women had already begun to wear during the
+epoch of the great bear and the mammoth, were the first outbreak of
+the sentiment of adornment, a feeling so natural to the human species.
+The way in which these necklaces were put together is, however, exactly
+similar to that which we meet with during the present day among savage
+tribes--a thread on which a few shells were strung, which was passed
+round the neck.
+
+It has been supposed, from another series of wrought flints, found at
+Saint-Acheul by Boucher de Perthes, that the men of the epoch of the
+great bear and mammoth may have executed certain rough sketches of
+art-workmanship, representing either figures or symbols. Boucher de
+Perthes has, in fact, found flints which he considered to show
+representations, with varying degrees of resemblance, of the human head,
+in profile, three-quarter view, and full face; also of animals, such as
+the rhinoceros and the mammoth.
+
+There are many other flints, evidently wrought by the hand of man, which
+were found by Boucher de Perthes in the same quaternary deposits; but it
+would be a difficult matter to decide their intention or significance.
+Some, perhaps, were religious symbols, emblems of authority, &c. The
+features which enable us to recognise the work of man in these works of
+antediluvian art, are the symmetry of shape and the repetition of
+successive strokes by which the projecting portions are removed, the
+cutting edges sharpened, or the holes bored out.
+
+The natural colour of all the wrought flints we have just been
+considering, which bring under our notice the weapons and utensils of
+man in the earliest epoch of his existence, is a grey which assumes
+every tint, from the brightest to the darkest; but, generally speaking,
+they are stained and coloured according to the nature of the soil from
+which they are dug out. Argillaceous soils colour them white; ochreous
+gravels give them a yellowish brown hue. Some are white on one side and
+brown on the other, probably from having lain between two different
+beds.
+
+This _patina_ (to use the established term) is the proof of their
+long-continued repose in the beds, and is, so to speak, the stamp of
+their antiquity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+     The Man of the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch lived in Caverns--Bone
+     Caverns in the Quaternary Rock during the Great Bear and Mammoth
+     Epoch--Mode of Formation of these Caverns--Their Division into
+     several Classes--Implements of Flint, Bone, and Reindeer-horn found
+     in these Caverns--The Burial-place at Aurignac--Its probable
+     Age--Customs which it reveals--Funeral Banquets during the Great
+     Bear and Mammoth Epoch.
+
+
+Having given a description of the weapons and working implements of the
+men belonging to the great bear and mammoth epoch, we must now proceed
+to speak of the habitations.
+
+Caverns hollowed out in the depth of the rocks formed the first
+dwellings of man. We must, therefore, devote some degree of attention to
+the simple and wild retreats of our forefathers. As the objects which
+have been found in these caverns are both numerous and varied in their
+character, they not only throw a vivid light on the manners and customs
+of primitive man, but also decisively prove the fact of his being
+contemporary with mammals of species now extinct, such as the mammoth,
+the great bear, and the _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_.
+
+But before proceeding any further, it is necessary to inquire in what
+way these caverns could have been formed, in which we find accumulated
+so many relics of the existence of primitive man.
+
+M. Desnoyers, Librarian of the Museum of Natural History at Paris, is of
+opinion that these caverns are crevices of the same class as
+metalliferous _lodes_, only instead of containing metallic ores they
+must have been originally filled by the deposits of certain thermal
+springs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Theoretical Section of a Vein of Clay in the
+Carboniferous Limestone, _before_ the hollowing out of Valleys by
+diluvial Waters.]
+
+Fig. 19 represents, according to M. Desnoyers' treatise on _caverns_,
+one of these primordial veins in the carboniferous limestone. At the
+time of the diluvial inundation, these veins were opened by the
+impetuous action of the water. When thus cleared out and brought to the
+light of day, they assumed the aspect of caves, as represented in fig.
+20.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Theoretical section of the same Vein of Clay
+converted into a Cavern, _after_ the hollowing out of Valleys by
+diluvial Waters.]
+
+The European diluvial inundation was, as we know, posterior to the
+glacial epoch.
+
+It is also likely that caverns were sometimes produced by the falling in
+of portions of some of the interior strata, or that they were formerly
+the natural and subterranean channels of certain watercourses; many
+instances of this kind being now known in different countries.
+
+We must also add that it is not probable that all caverns originated in
+the same way; but that one or other of the several causes just
+enumerated must have contributed to their formation.
+
+Under the general denomination of _caverns_, all kinds of subterranean
+cavities are comprehended; but it will be as well to introduce several
+distinctions in this respect. There are, in the first place, simple
+clefts or crevices, which are only narrow pits deviating but slightly
+from the vertical. Next we have grottos (or _baumes_ as they are called
+in the south of France), which generally have a widely opening inlet,
+and are but of small extent. Lastly, we must draw a distinction between
+these and the real bone caverns, which consist of a series of chambers,
+separated by extremely narrow passages, and are often of very
+considerable dimensions. Some of these caverns occupy an extent of
+several leagues underground, with variations of level which render their
+exploration very difficult. They are generally very inaccessible, and it
+is almost always necessary to ply the pick-axe in order to clear a way
+from one chamber to another.
+
+In most of these grottos and caverns the ground and sides are covered
+with calcareous deposits, known by the name of _stalactite_ and
+_stalagmite_, which sometimes meet one another, forming columns and
+pillars which confer on some of these subterranean halls an elegance
+replete with a kind of mysterious charm.
+
+These deposits are caused by the infiltrated water charged with
+carbonate of lime, which, oozing drop by drop through the interstices of
+the rock, slowly discharge the carbonic acid which held the carbonate of
+lime in solution, and the salts gradually precipitating form the
+crystalline or amorphous deposits which constitute these natural
+columns.
+
+The calcareous deposits which spread over the ground of the caverns are
+called _stalagmite_, and the name of _stalactite_ is given to those
+which hang down from the roof, forming pendants, natural decorations,
+and ornaments as of alabaster or marble, producing sometimes the most
+magnificent effects.
+
+Under the stalagmite the largest number of animal bones have been found.
+This crust, which has been to them a preservatory grave, is so thick and
+hard that a pick-axe is required in order to break it. Thanks to the
+protecting cover, the bones have been sheltered from all the various
+causes of decomposition and destruction. The limestone formed a kind of
+cement which, uniting clay, mud, sand, flints, bones of men and animals,
+weapons and utensils into a compact mass, has preserved them for the
+study and consideration of scientific men in our own days.
+
+The soil called _bone-earth_ is, in fact, found under the crystalline
+bed which covers the ground of the caverns.
+
+Fig. 21, which represents a section of the cave of Galeinreuth, in
+Bavaria, will enable us clearly to understand the position occupied by
+the bones in most of these caverns.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--The Cave of Galeinreuth, in Bavaria.]
+
+Bone-earth consists of a reddish or yellowish clay, often mixed with
+pebbles, which seem to have come from some distant beds, for they cannot
+be attributed to the adjacent rocks. This stratum varies considerably in
+depth; in some spots it is very thin, in others it rises almost to the
+top of the cavern, to a height of forty or fifty feet. But in this case
+it is, in reality, composed of several strata belonging to different
+ages, and explorers ought to note with much attention the exact depth of
+any of the organic remains found in their mass.
+
+There are, however, in several bone-caverns certain peculiarities which
+demand a special explanation. Caves often contain large heaps of bones,
+situated at heights which it would have been absolutely inaccessible to
+the animals which lived in these places. How, then, was it possible that
+these bones could have found their way to such an elevated position? It
+is also a very strange fact, that no cavern has ever produced an entire
+skeleton or even a whole limb of the skeleton of a man, and scarcely of
+any animal whatever. The bones, in fact, not only lie in confusion and
+utter disorder, but, up to the present time, it has been impossible to
+find all the bones which in times past formed an individual. It must,
+therefore, be admitted, that the accumulation of bones and human remains
+in most of the caves are owing to other causes than the residence of man
+and wild animals in these dark retreats.
+
+It is supposed, therefore, that the bones in question were deposited in
+these hollows by the rushing in of the currents of diluvial water, which
+had drifted them along in their course. A fact which renders this
+hypothesis likely is that drift-pebbles are constantly found in close
+proximity to these bones. Now these pebbles come from localities at
+considerable distances from the cavern; often, indeed, terrestrial and
+fluviatile shells accompany these bones. It may sometimes be remarked
+that the femurs and tibias of large mammals have their points rubbed
+off, and the smallest bones are reduced to rounded fragments. These are
+all evident indications that these bones had been carried along by rapid
+currents of water, which swept away everything in their course; or, in
+other words, by the current of the waters of the deluge which signalised
+the quaternary epoch.
+
+During this period of the existence of primitive man, all these caverns
+were not applied to the same purpose. Some were the dens of wild beasts,
+others formed the habitations of man, and others again were used as
+burial-places.
+
+There is no difficulty in the idea that dens of wild beasts might very
+readily be occupied by man, after he had killed or driven out the fierce
+inhabitants; no discovery, however, has as yet confirmed this
+supposition. It can hardly be doubted that primitive man seldom dared to
+take up his abode in dens which had been, for some time, the refuge of
+any of the formidable carnivora; if he did, it was only after having
+assured himself that these retreats had been altogether abandoned by
+their terrible inhabitants.
+
+We shall now proceed to consider these three classes of caverns.
+
+Caves which, during the quaternary epoch, have served as dens for wild
+animals, are very numerous. Experienced _savants_ are enabled to
+recognise them by various indications. The bones they contain are never
+fractured; but it may be seen that they have been gnawed by carnivorous
+animals, as they still bear the marks of their teeth. Into these
+retreats the cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_) and the hyæna (_Hyæna spelæa_)
+were accustomed to drag their prey, in order there to tear it to pieces
+and devour it, or divide it into portions for their young ones. In fact,
+in these caverns, excrements of the hyæna mixed with small and
+undigested bones are often found. The cave bear retired into the same
+retreats, but he probably only came there to pass the period of his
+hibernal sleep. Lastly, the same dens no doubt offered a refuge to sick
+or dying animals, who resorted thither in order to expire in peace. We
+have a proof of this in the traces of wounds and caries on some of the
+bones of animals found by Schmerling in the caverns of the Meuse; also
+in the skull of a hyæna, the median ridge of which had been bitten and
+appeared to be half healed.
+
+Those caverns which formed a shelter for primitive man are, like the
+preceding ones, to be recognised by a mere inspection of the bones
+contained in them. The long bones of the ox, horse, stag, rhinoceros,
+and other quadrupeds which formed the food of man during the quaternary
+epoch, are always split; and they are all broken in the same way, that
+is, lengthwise. The only cause for their having been split in this
+manner must have been the desire of extracting the marrow for the
+purpose of eating. Such a mode of breaking them would never have been
+practised by any animal.
+
+This apparently trivial circumstance is, however, of the highest
+importance. In fact, it leads to the following conclusion: "That man,
+having eaten large mammals of species now extinct, must have been
+contemporary with these species."
+
+We shall now proceed to examine the caverns which were used as
+burial-places for man.
+
+To M. Édouard Lartet, the celebrated palæontologist, the honour must be
+ascribed of having been the first to collect any important data bearing
+on the fact that caverns were used for burial-places by the primitive
+man of the great bear and mammoth epoch. We have thus been led to
+discover the traces of a funeral custom belonging to the man of these
+remote ages; we allude to the _funeral banquet_. The source of this
+information was the discovery of a pre-historic burial-place at Aurignac
+(Haute-Garonne), of which we have given an account in the Introduction
+to this work, which, however, we must again here refer to.
+
+Near the town of Aurignac rises the hill of Fajoles, which the
+inhabitants of the country, in their _patois_, call "_mountagno de las
+Hajoles_" (beech-tree mountain), a circumstance showing that it was
+formerly covered with beech-trees. As we have already stated, in the
+Introduction to this work, it was on one of the slopes of this hill
+that, in the year 1842, an excavator, named Bonnemaison, discovered a
+great slab of limestone placed in a vertical position and closing up an
+arched opening. In the cave closed up by this slab the excavator
+discovered the remains of seventeen human skeletons!
+
+We have already told how these skeletons were removed to the village
+cemetery, and thus, unfortunately, for ever lost to the researches of
+science.
+
+Eighteen years after, in 1860, M. Lartet, having heard of the event,
+repaired to the spot, accompanied by Bonnemaison; he quite understood
+how it had happened that, during a long course of centuries, the cave
+had escaped the notice of the inhabitants of the country. The entrance
+to it was concealed by masses of earth which, having been brought down
+from the top of the hill by the action of the water, had accumulated in
+front of the entrance, hiding a flat terrace, on which many vestiges of
+pre-historic times were found. As no disturbance of the ground had taken
+place in this spot subsequent to the date of the burial, this _talus_
+had been sufficient to protect the traces of the men who were
+contemporary with the mammoth, and to shield their relics from all
+exterior injury.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Section of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.]
+
+Fig. 22, taken from M. Lartet's article, represents a vertical section
+of the sepulchral cave at Aurignac.
+
+After a rapid inspection of the cave and its surroundings, M. Lartet
+resolved to make complete and methodical excavations, aided by
+intelligent workmen labouring under his superintendence; the following
+are the results he obtained.
+
+A bed of "made ground" two feet thick covered the ground of the cave. In
+this were found some human remains which had escaped the first
+investigations; also bones of mammals in good preservation, and
+exhibiting no fractures or teeth-marks, wrought flints, mostly of the
+_knife_ type (fig. 23), and carved reindeer horns, among which there was
+an instrument carefully tapered off and rounded, but deprived of its
+point (fig. 24), the other end being bevelled off, probably to receive a
+handle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Flint Knife found in the Sepulchral Cave at
+Aurignac.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Implement made of Reindeer's or Stag's Horn,
+found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.]
+
+We must here add, that at the time of his discovery Bonnemaison
+collected, from the midst of the bones, eighteen small discs which were
+pierced in the centre, and doubtless intended to be strung together in a
+necklace or bracelet. These discs, which were formed of a white compact
+substance were recognised as sea-shells of a _Cardium_ species.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Series of perforated Discs of the _Cardium_
+Shell found in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.]
+
+The cavern of Aurignac was a burial-place of the quaternary epoch, for
+M. Lartet found in it a quantity of the bones of the cave-bear, the
+bison, the reindeer, the horse, &c.
+
+In fig. 26, we give a representation of a fragment of the lower jaw of a
+great bear as an example of the state of the bones found in this cavern.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Fragment of the Lower Jaw of a Cave-Bear, found
+in the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.]
+
+The perfect state of preservation of these bones shows that they were
+neither broken to furnish food for man nor torn by carnivorous animals,
+particularly by hyænas, as is seen in a great many caverns. We must
+therefore conclude from this peculiarity, that the stone which closed
+the entrance to the cave was moved away for every interment and
+carefully put back into its place immediately afterwards.
+
+In order to explain the presence of so many foreign objects by the side
+of the human skeletons--such as animals' bones--implements of flint and
+reindeers' horn--necklaces or bracelets--we must admit as probable that
+a funeral custom existed among the men of the great bear and mammoth
+epoch, which has been preserved in subsequent ages. They used to place
+in the tomb, close to the body, the weapons, hunting trophies, and
+ornaments of all sorts, belonging to the defunct. This custom still
+exists among many tribes in a more or less savage state.
+
+In front of the cave, there was, as we have already said, a kind of flat
+spot which had afterwards become covered with earth which had fallen
+down from the top of the hill. When the earth which covered this flat
+spot was cleared away, they met with another deposit containing bones.
+This deposit was situated on a prolongation of the ground on which the
+skeletons were placed in the interior of the cavern. Under this deposit,
+was a bed of ashes and charcoal, 5 to 7 inches thick. This was,
+therefore, the site of an ancient fire-hearth.
+
+In other words, in front of the sepulchral cave there was a kind of
+terrace upon which, after the interment of the body in the cavern, a
+feast called the _funeral banquet_ was held.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Upper Molar of a Bison, found in the Ashes of
+the Fire-hearth of the Sepulchral Cave at Aurignac.]
+
+In this bed, situated in front of the cavern an immense number of the
+most interesting relics were discovered--a large number of the teeth and
+broken bones of herbivorous animals (fig. 27); a hundred flint knives;
+two chipped flints, which archæologists believe to be sling projectiles;
+a rounded pebble with a depression in the middle, which, according to
+Mr. Steinhauer, keeper of the Ethnographical Museum at Copenhagen, was
+used to flake off flint-knives; lastly, a large quantity of implements
+made of reindeers' horn, which exhibit the most varied shapes. We may
+mention, for instance, the arrow-heads fashioned very simply, without
+wings or barbs (fig. 28); some of these heads appear to have been
+subjected to the action of fire, as if they had been left in the body of
+the animal during the process of cooking; a bodkin made of roebuck's
+horn (fig. 29) very carefully pointed, and in such a good state of
+preservation that it might still be used, says M. Lartet, to perforate
+the skins of animals before sewing them; and this must, in fact, have
+been its use; a second instrument, similar to the preceding, but less
+finely pointed, which M. Lartet is inclined to consider as an instrument
+for tatooing; some thin blades of various sizes, which, according to
+Steinhauer, much resemble the reindeer-horn polishers still used by the
+Laplanders to flatten down the seams of their coarse skin-garments;
+another blade, accidentally broken at both ends, one of the sides of
+which is perfectly polished and shows two series of transversal lines at
+equal distances apart; the lateral edges of this blade are marked with
+deeper notches at almost regular intervals (fig. 30). M. Lartet
+considers that these lines and notches are signs of numeration, and Mr.
+Steinhauer has propounded the idea that they are hunting-marks. Both
+hypotheses are possible, and the more so as they do not contradict each
+other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Arrow-head made of Reindeer's Horn, found in
+the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Bodkin made of Roebuck's Horn, found in the
+Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac].
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Truncated Blade in Reindeer's Horn, bearing two
+Series of transversal Lines and Notches, probably used for numeration.]
+
+Among the bones, some were partly carbonised, others, only scorched, but
+the greater number had not been subjected at all to the action of fire.
+All the bones having medullary hollows, and commonly called
+marrow-bones, were broken lengthwise, a certain indication that this
+operation had been effected to extract the marrow, and that these bones
+had been used at a feast carried on according to the manners and customs
+of that epoch, when the marrow out of animal bones was regarded as the
+most delicious viand--many men of our own days being also of this
+opinion.
+
+A certain number of these bones exhibited shallow cuts, showing that a
+sharp instrument had been used to detach the flesh from them. Nearly all
+those which had not been subjected to the action of fire bore the mark
+of the teeth of some carnivorous animal. This animal, doubtless, came to
+gnaw them after man had taken his departure from the spot. This
+carnivorous animal could have been none other than the hyæna, as is
+shown by the excrements left in the place.
+
+The ossiferous mound situated immediately above the fire-hearth
+contained, like the subjacent ashes, a large number of the bones of
+certain herbivorous animals.
+
+The discovery of the fire-hearth situated in front of the cave of
+Aurignac, and the various remains which were found intermingled
+underneath it, enable us to form some idea of the way in which funeral
+ceremonies took place among the men of the great bear epoch. The parents
+and friends of the defunct accompanied him to his last resting-place;
+after which, they assembled together to partake of a feast in front of
+the tomb soon to be closed on his remains. Then everyone took his
+departure, leaving the scene of their banquet free to the hyænas, which
+came to devour the remains of the meal.
+
+This custom of funeral-feasts is, doubtless, very natural, as it has
+been handed down to our days; though it now chiefly exists among the
+poorer classes.
+
+In accordance with the preceding data we here represent (fig. 31) a
+_funeral feast during the great bear and mammoth epoch_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Funeral Feast during the Great Bear and Mammoth
+Epoch.]
+
+On a flat space situated in front of the cave destined to receive the
+body of the defunct, some men covered merely with bears' skins with the
+hair on them are seated round a fire, taking their part in the
+funeral-feast. The flesh of the great bear and mammoth forms the _menu_
+of these primitive love-feasts. In the distance may be seen the colossal
+form of the mammoth, which forms the chief dish of the banquet. The
+manner of eating is that which distinguishes the men of that epoch; they
+suck the marrow from the long bones which have previously been split
+lengthwise, and eat the flesh of the animals cooked on the hearth. The
+dead body is left at the entrance of the cavern; the primitive
+grave-stone will soon close on it for ever.
+
+The relics found in the interior of the sepulchral cave of Aurignac have
+led to a very remarkable inference, which shows how interesting and
+fertile are the studies which have been made by naturalists on the
+subject of the antiquity of man. The weapons, the trophies, the
+ornaments, and the joints of meat, placed by the side of the
+defunct--does not all this seem to establish the fact that a belief in a
+future life existed at an extraordinarily remote epoch? What could have
+been the use of these provisions for travelling, and these instruments
+of war, if the man who had disappeared from this world was not to live
+again in another? The great and supreme truth--that the whole being
+of man does not die with his material body is, therefore, innate in the
+human heart; since it is met with in the most remote ages, and even
+existed in the mental consciousness of the man of the stone age.
+
+An instinct of art also appears to have manifested itself in the human
+race at this extremely ancient date. Thus, one of the articles picked up
+in the sepulchral cave of Aurignac consisted of a canine tooth of a
+young cave-bear, perforated so as to allow of its being suspended in
+some way or other. Now this tooth is so carved that no one can help
+recognising in it a rough outline of some animal shape, the precise
+nature of which is difficult to determine, although it may, perhaps, be
+the head of a bird. It was, doubtless, an amulet or jewel belonging to
+one of the men interred in the cave, and was buried with him because he
+probably attached a great value to it. This object, therefore, shows us
+that some instincts of art existed in the men who hunted the great bear
+and mammoth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Carved and perforated Canine Tooth of a young
+Cave-Bear.]
+
+We shall close this account of the valuable discoveries which were made
+in the sepulchral cave of Aurignac, by giving a list of the species of
+mammals the bones of which were found either in the interior or at the
+exterior of this cavern. The first six species are extinct; the others
+are still living:--
+
+The great cave-bear (_Ursus spelæus_); the mammoth (_Elephas
+primigenius_); the rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_); the great
+cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_); the cave-hyæna (_Hyæna spelæa_); the
+gigantic stag (_Megaceros hibernicus_); the bison, the reindeer, the
+stag, the horse, the ass, the roe, the wild boar, the fox, the wolf,
+the wild-cat, the badger, and the polecat.
+
+We think it as well to place before the eyes of our readers the exact
+forms of the heads of the three great fossil animals found in the cave
+of Aurignac, which geologically characterise the great bear and mammoth
+epoch, and evidently prove that man was contemporary with these extinct
+species. Figs. 33, 34, and 35 represent the heads of the cave-bear, the
+_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, and the _megaceros_ or gigantic stag; they are
+taken from the casts which adorn the great hall of the Archæological and
+Pre-historic Museum at Saint-Germain, and are among the most curious
+ornaments of this remarkable museum.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Head of a Cave-Bear found in the Cave of
+Aurignac.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Head of the _Rhinoceros Tichorhinus_ found in
+the Cave of Aurignac.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Head of a great Stag (_Megaceros hibernicus_)
+found in the Cave of Aurignac.]
+
+Of all these species, the fox has left behind him the largest number of
+remains. This carnivorous animal was represented by about eighteen to
+twenty individual specimens. Neither the mammoth, great cave-lion, nor
+wild boar appear to have been conveyed into the cave in an entire state;
+for two or three molar or incisive teeth are the only remains of their
+carcases which have been found.
+
+But still it is a certain fact that the men who fed on the _Rhinoceros
+tichorinus_ buried their dead in this cavern. In fact, M. Lartet asserts
+that the bones of the rhinoceros had been split by man in order to
+extract the marrow. They had also been gnawed by hyænas, which would not
+have been the case if these bones had not been thrown away, and left on
+the ground in a fresh state.
+
+The burial-place of Aurignac dates back to the earliest antiquity, that
+is to say, it was anterior to the European diluvial period. Thus,
+according to M. Lartet, the great cave-bear was the first of the extinct
+species to disappear; then the mammoth and _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_ were
+lost sight of; still later, the reindeer first, and then the bison,
+migrated to the northern and eastern regions of Europe. Now, the
+_diluvium_, that is to say, the beds formed by drifted pebbles and
+originating in the great derangement caused by the inundation of the
+quaternary epoch, does not contain any traces of the bones of the
+cave-bear. It, therefore, belongs to an epoch of the stone age more
+recent than the cave of Aurignac.[6] All this goes to prove that this
+sepulchral cave, which has furnished the science of the antiquity of man
+with so much valuable information, belonged to the great bear and
+mammoth epoch, which preceded the diluvial cataclysm.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[6] 'Nouvelles Recherches sur la Coexistence de l'Homme et des grands
+Mammifères fossiles.' ('Annales de Sciences naturelles, Zoologie,' vol.
+xv.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+     Other Caves of the Epoch of the Great Bear and Mammoth--Type
+     of the Human Race during the Epochs of the Great Bear and the
+     Reindeer--The Skulls from the Caves of Engis and Neanderthal.
+
+
+With regard to the bone-caves, which have furnished us with such
+valuable information as to the men who lived in the epoch of the great
+bear and the mammoth, we have laid down a necessary distinction,
+dividing them into caves which served as dens for wild beasts, those
+which have afforded a refuge for man, and those which were used as his
+burial-places. In order to complete this subject and set forth the whole
+of the discoveries which have been made by science on this interesting
+point, we will say a few words as to the principal bone-caves belonging
+to the same epoch which have been studied in France, England and
+Belgium.
+
+We will, in the first place, call attention to the fact that these
+caverns, taken together, embrace a very long period of time, perhaps an
+enormous number of centuries, and that hence a considerable difference
+must result in the nature of the remains of human industry which they
+contain. Some certainly manifest a perceptible superiority over others
+in an industrial point of view; but the reason is that they belong to a
+period somewhat nearer our own, although still forming a part of the
+epoch of the great bear and mammoth.
+
+We shall divide the caves in France into three groups--those of the
+east, those of the west and centre, and those of the south.
+
+In the first group, we shall mention the _Trou de la Fontaine_ and the
+_Cave of Sainte-Reine_, both situated in the environs of Toul (Meurthe).
+These two caves have furnished bones of bears, hyænas, and the
+rhinoceros, along with the products of human industry. That of
+Sainte-Reine has been explored by M. Guérin, and especially by M.
+Husson, who has searched it with much care.
+
+The second group includes the grottos _des Fées_, of Vergisson,
+Vallières, and La Chaise.
+
+The Grotte des Fées, at Arcy (Yonne), has been searched and described by
+M. de Vibraye, who ascertained the existence of two distinct beds, the
+upper one belonging to the reindeer epoch, the lower one to the great
+bear epoch. These two beds were divided from each other by matter which
+had formed a part of the roof of the cave, and had fallen down on the
+earlier deposit. In the more ancient bed of the two, M. de Vibraye
+collected fractured bones of the bear and cave-hyæna, the mammoth, and
+the _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_, all intermingled with flints wrought by
+the hand of man, amongst which were chips of hyaline quartz
+(rock-crystal.) His fellow-labourer, M. Franchet, extracted from it a
+human _atlas_ (the upper part of the vertebral column).
+
+The cave of Vergisson (Saône-et-Loire), explored by M. de Ferry,
+furnished the same kind of bones as the preceding cave, and also bones
+of the bison, the reindeer, the horse, the wolf, and the fox, all
+intermixed with wrought flints and fragments of rough pottery. The
+presence of this pottery indicated that the cave of Vergisson belonged
+to the latter period of the great bear epoch.
+
+The cave of Vallières (Loir-et-Cher), was worked, first by M. de
+Vibraye, and subsequently by the Abbé Bourgeois. There was nothing
+particular to be remarked.
+
+The cave of La Chaise, near Vouthon (Charente), explored by MM.
+Bourgeois and Delaunay, furnished bones of the cave-bear, the
+rhinoceros, and the reindeer, flint blades and scrapers, a bodkin and a
+kind of hook made of bone, an arrow-head in the shape of a willow-leaf
+likewise of bone, a bone perforated so as to hang on a string, and, what
+is more remarkable, two long rods of reindeer's horn, tapering at one
+end and bevelled off at the other, on which figures of animals were
+graven. These relics betray an artistic feeling of a decided character
+as existing in the men, the traces of whom are found in this cave.
+
+Among the caves in the south of France, we must specify those of
+Périgord, those of Bas-Languedoc, and of the district of Foix
+(department of Ariége).
+
+The caves of Périgord have all been explored by MM. Lartet and Christy,
+who have also given learned descriptions of them. We will mention the
+caves of the _Gorge d'Enfer_ and _Moustier_, in the valley of the
+Vézère, and that of _Pey de l'Azé_, all three situate in the department
+of Dordogne (arrondissement of Sarlat).
+
+The two caves of the _Gorge d'Enfer_ were, unfortunately, cleared out in
+1793, in order to utilise the deposits of saltpetre which they contained
+in the manufacture of gunpowder. They have, however, furnished flints
+chipped into the shapes of scrapers, daggers, &c., a small pebble of
+white quartz, hollowed out on one side, which had probably been used as
+a mortar, and instruments of bone or reindeer's horn, three of which
+showed numerous notches. Bones of the great bear clearly indicated the
+age of these settlements.
+
+The cave of Moustier, situated about 80 feet above the Vézère, is
+celebrated for the great number and characteristic shapes of its stone
+implements, which we have before spoken of. Hatchets of the
+almond-shaped type, like those of the _diluvium_ of Abbeville and
+Saint-Acheul, were very plentiful. Bi-convex spear-heads were also
+found, of very careful workmanship, and instruments which might be held
+in the hand, some of them of considerable dimensions; but no pieces of
+bone or of reindeer's horn were discovered which had been adapted to any
+purpose whatever. The bones were those of the great bear and cave-hyæna,
+accompanied by separate _laminæ_ of molars of the mammoth, the use of
+which it is impossible to explain. Similar fragments were met with in
+some of the other Périgord settlements, and M. Lartet also found some at
+Aurignac.
+
+Next to the cave of Pey de l'Azé, on which we shall not dwell, come the
+caverns of Bas-Languedoc, which we shall only enumerate. They consist of
+the caves of Pondres and Souvignargues (Hérault), which were studied in
+1829 by M. de Christol, who recognised, from the data he derived from
+them, the co-existence of man and the great extinct mammals; also those
+of Pontil and La Roque, the first explored by M. Paul Gervais, the
+second by M. Boutin.
+
+We shall now consider the caves of the department of Ariége, some of
+which furnish objects of very considerable interest. They consist of the
+caves of _Massat_, _Lherm_, and _Bouicheta_.
+
+Two caves, very remarkable on account of their extent, have been
+explored by M. Fontan; they are situate in the valley of Massat, which
+contains others of less importance. One is placed at the foot of a
+limestone mountain, about 60 feet above the bottom of the valley; the
+opening of the other is much higher up; only the latter belongs to the
+great bear epoch.
+
+From the results of his explorations, M. Fontan is of opinion that the
+ground in them has been greatly altered by some violent inundation which
+has intermingled the remains of various geological epochs. This _savant_
+found in the cave of Massat the bones of the bear, the hyæna and the
+great cave-lion, the fox, the badger, the wild boar, the roe, &c., two
+human teeth, and a bone arrow-head. Two beds of ashes and charcoal were
+also remarked at different depths.
+
+In the upper cave of Massat was found the curious stone on which is
+designed with tolerable correctness a sketch of the great cave-bear
+(fig. 36). This singular record marks out for us the earliest trace of
+the art of design, which we shall find developing itself in a more
+decisive way during the pre-historic period which follows the one we are
+now considering.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Sketch of the Great Bear on a Stone found in
+the Cave of Massat.]
+
+The caves of Lherm and Bouicheta were inspected by MM. Garrigou and
+Filhol, who found in them bones of most of the great mammals belonging
+to extinct species, and particularly those of the great bear, many of
+which are broken, and still show the marks of the instruments which were
+used for cutting the flesh off them. Some have been gnawed by hyænas, as
+proved by the deep grooves with which they are marked. Lower jaw-bones
+of the great bear, and of the great cave-lion, have been found
+fashioned, according to a uniform plan, in the shape of hoes. MM.
+Garrigou and Filhol were of opinion that these jaw-bones, when thus
+modified, might have been used as offensive weapons.
+
+The cave of Lherm contained also human bones; namely, three teeth, a
+fragment of a _scapula_, a broken _ulna_ and _radius_, and the last
+joint of the great toe; all these remains presented exactly the same
+appearance and condition as those of the _Ursus spelæus_, and must,
+therefore, have belonged to the same epoch.
+
+We have stated that numerous caves have been explored in England,
+Belgium, and several other countries. We shall not undertake to give
+with regard to each details which would only be a reproduction of those
+which precede. We therefore confine ourselves to mentioning the most
+celebrated of the caverns belonging to the epoch of the great bear and
+the mammoth.
+
+In England we have the Kent's Hole and Brixham caverns, near Torquay in
+Devonshire, the latter of which is many hundred yards in extent; the
+caves of the Gower peninsula, in Glamorganshire (South Wales), which
+have been carefully studied within the last few years by Messrs.
+Falconer and Wood; in these were found flint instruments along with
+bones of the _Elephas antiquus_ and the _Rhinoceros hemitæchus_, species
+which were still more ancient than the mammoth and the _Rhinoceros
+tichorhinus_; those of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, explored by Dr. Buckland,
+the geologist; those near Wells in Somersetshire, Wokey Hole, Minchin
+Hole, &c.
+
+We must mention, in the north of Italy, the caves of Chiampo and Laglio,
+on the edge of the Lake of Como, in which, just as at Vergisson,
+fragments of rough pottery have been discovered, indicating some degree
+of progress in the manufacture; also the caves in the neighbourhood of
+Palermo, and especially those of San Ciro and Macagnone.
+
+In the last-mentioned cave, in the midst of an osseous _breccia_ which
+rose to the roof, Dr. Falconer collected flint instruments, splinters of
+bone, pieces of baked clay and wood charcoal mixed up with large
+land-shells (_Helix vermiculata_), in a perfect state of preservation,
+horses' teeth, and the excrements of the hyæna, all cemented together in
+a deposit of carbonate of lime. In a lower bed were found the bones of
+various species of the hippopotamus, the _Elephas antiquus_, and other
+great mammals.
+
+Lastly, Spain, Algeria, Egypt, and Syria also present to our notice
+caves belonging to the Stone Age.
+
+In the New World various bone-caverns have been explored. We must
+especially mention Brazil, in which country Lund searched no less than
+eight hundred caves of different epochs, exhuming in them a great number
+of unknown animal species. In one of these caves, situated near the Lake
+of Sumidouro, Lund found some human bones which had formed a part of
+thirty individuals of different ages, and were "in a similar state of
+decomposition, and in similar circumstances to the bones of various
+extinct species of animals."
+
+Thus far we have designedly omitted to mention the Belgian caves. They
+have, in fact, furnished us with such remarkable relics of former ages
+that, in dealing with them, we could not confine ourselves to a mere
+notice. The caves in the neighbourhood of Liége, which were explored in
+1833 by Schmerling, deserve to be described in some detail.
+
+Schmerling examined more than forty caves in the Valley of the Meuse and
+its tributaries. The access to some of these caves was so difficult that
+in order to reach them it was necessary for the explorer to let himself
+down by a cord, and then to crawl flat on his face through narrow
+galleries, so as to make his way into the great chambers; there he was
+obliged to remain for hours, and sometimes whole days, standing up to
+his knees in mud, with water dripping from the walls upon his head,
+while overlooking the workmen breaking up with their pick-axes the layer
+of stalagmite, so as to bring to light the bone earth--the records on
+which are inscribed the palpable evidences of the high antiquity of man.
+Schmerling was compelled to accomplish a perilous expedition of this
+kind in his visit to the cave of Engis, which has become celebrated by
+the two human skulls found there by him.
+
+Nearly all the caves in the province of Liége contain scattered bones of
+the great bear, the cave-hyæna, the mammoth, and the rhinoceros,
+intermixed with those of species which are still living, such as the
+wolf, the wild boar, the roe, the beaver, the porcupine, &c. Several of
+them contained human bones, likewise much scattered and rubbed; they
+were found in all positions, and at every elevation, sometimes above and
+sometimes below the above-mentioned animal remains; from this it may be
+concluded that these caves had been filled with running water, which
+drifted in all kinds of _débris_. None of them, however, contained any
+gnawed bones, or the fossil excrement of any animal species, which puts
+an end to the hypothesis that these caves had been used as dens by wild
+beasts. Here and there bones were found belonging to the same skeleton,
+which were in perfect preservation, and lying in their natural
+juxtaposition; they were probably drifted into the cave by gently
+flowing water, while still covered with their flesh, and no movement of
+the ground had since separated them. But no complete skeleton has as yet
+been discovered, even among the smaller species of mammiferous animals,
+the disjunction of which is generally less complete.
+
+In almost all the caves Schmerling met with flint implements chipped
+into the form of hatchets and knives, and he calls attention to the fact
+"that none of them could have been introduced into the caves at a
+posterior epoch, as they were found in the same position as the animal
+remains which accompanied them." In the cave of Clokier, about two and a
+half miles from Liége, he picked up a polished bone in the shape of a
+needle, having an eye pierced at the base; in the cave of Engis he
+likewise found a carved bone, and also some worked flints.
+
+We here close our enumeration of the various sources of the
+archæological records which have served to reconstruct the history of
+primitive man during that period of the stone age which we have
+designated under the name of the epoch of the great bear and the
+mammoth. Before concluding our remarks as to this period, there is one
+question which we must enter upon, although there is a great deficiency
+in any positive records by which it might be solved. What was the
+organic type of man during this epoch? Could we, for instance, determine
+what amount of intellect man possessed in this earliest and ancient date
+of his history?
+
+The answer to this question--although a very uncertain answer--has been
+supposed to have been found in the caves of Engis and Engihoul, of which
+we have just spoken as having been explored by Schmerling with such
+valuable results.
+
+The cave of Engis contained the remains of three human beings, among
+which were two skulls, one that of a youth, the other that of an adult.
+The latter only was preserved, the former having fallen into dust while
+it was being extracted from the ground. Two small fragments of a human
+skull were likewise found at Engihoul; also a great many of the bones of
+the hands and feet of three individuals.
+
+The Engis skull has been a subject of protracted argument to the
+palæontologists and anatomists of the present day. Floods of ink have
+been spilt upon the question; discussions without end have taken place
+with respect to this piece of bone, in order to fix accurately the
+amount of intellect possessed by the inhabitants of Belgium during the
+epoch of the great bear and the mammoth. Up to a certain point the
+development of the brain may, in fact, be ascertained from the shape of
+the cranial envelope, and it is well known that a remarkable similarity
+exists between the cerebral capacity and the intellectual development of
+all mammiferous animals. But in a question of this kind we must
+carefully avoid a quicksand on which anthropologists too often make
+shipwreck; this danger consists in basing a theory on a too limited
+number of elements, and of generalising conclusions which are perhaps
+drawn from one special case. Because we find a portion of a skull--not
+even a whole skull--belonging to a human being contemporary with the
+great bear, we assume that we can determine the amount of intellect
+possessed by man during this epoch. But what proof have we that this
+skull is not that of an idiot, or, on the contrary, the skull of an
+individual possessing a superior degree of intelligence? What deduction
+can be logically drawn from the examination of one single skull? None
+whatever! "_Testis unus testis nullus_;" and what is said by
+jurisprudence, which is nothing but good sense in legal
+matters--science, which is nothing but good sense in learned questions,
+ought likewise to repeat. If we found ten or twelve skulls, each
+presenting the same characteristics, we should be justified in thinking
+that we had before our eyes the human type corresponding to the epoch we
+are considering; but, we again ask, what arguments could be based on a
+few fragments of one single skull?
+
+These reservations having been laid down, let us see what some of our
+great anatomical reasoners have thought about the Engis skull.
+
+The representation which we here give (fig. 37) of the Engis skull was
+taken from the cast in the Museum of Saint-Germain, and we may perceive
+from it that the skull is not complete; the entire base of the skull is
+wanting, and all the bones of the face have disappeared. Consequently it
+is impossible either to measure the facial angle or to take account of
+the development of the lower jaw.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Portion of a Skull of an Individual belonging
+to the Epoch of the Great Bear and the Mammoth, found in the Cave of
+Engis.]
+
+We shall not, therefore, surprise any of our readers when we state that
+the opinions on this subject differ in the most extraordinary degree.
+In the eyes of Professor Huxley, the English anatomist, this skull
+offers no indication of degradation; it presents "a good average," and
+it might just as well be the head of a philosopher as the head of an
+uncivilised savage. To others--for instance, to Carl Vogt--it indicates
+an altogether rudimentary degree of intellect.
+
+Thus Hippocrates-Huxley says _yes_, Galen-Vogt says _no_, and
+Celsus-Lyell says neither _yes_ nor _no_. This causes us but little
+surprise, but it induces us not to waste more time in discussing a
+question altogether in the dark, that is, upon altogether incomplete
+data.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Portion of the so-called Neanderthal Skull.]
+
+We will now turn our attention to another skull, equally celebrated,
+which was found in 1857 by Dr. Fuhlrott, near Dusseldorf, in a deep
+ravine known by the name of Neanderthal. This skull (fig. 38) was
+discovered in the midst of a small cave under a layer of mud about 5
+feet in thickness. The entire skeleton was doubtless buried on the same
+spot, but the workmen engaged in clearing out the cave must have
+inadvertently scattered a great portion of the bones, for the largest
+only could be collected.
+
+It is well to call attention to the fact that no animal remains were
+found near these bones; there is, therefore, no certain proof that the
+latter can be assigned to the epoch of the great bear: they might, in
+fact, be either more recent or more modern. Most geologists are,
+however, of opinion that they ought to be referred to the above-named
+early date.
+
+The Neanderthal skull, of which we possess even a smaller portion than
+of the preceding, differs from the Engis skull. It is characterised by
+an extraordinary development of the frontal sinuses; that is, by an
+enormous projection of the superciliary ridges, behind which the frontal
+bone presents a considerable depression. The cranium is very thick, and
+of an elongated elliptical shape; the forehead is narrow and low.
+
+These remarks were made by Professor Schaaffhausen, who also established
+the fact of the identity in length of the femur, the humerus, the
+radius, and the ulna, with the same bones of a modern European of equal
+size. But the Prussian _savant_ was surprised at the really remarkable
+thickness of these bones, and also at the large development of the
+projections and depressions which served for the insertion of the
+muscles.
+
+Fig. 38 represents this skull, which is drawn from the cast in the
+Museum of St. Germain.
+
+Professor Schaaffhausen's opinion with regard to this skull is, that it
+manifests a degree of intelligence more limited than that of the races
+of negroes who are least favoured by nature, in other words, it
+approaches the nature of the beast more nearly than any other known
+human skull. But, on the other hand, Mr. Busk and Dr. Barnard Davis look
+upon this skull as very closely allied to the present race of men; and
+Professor Gratiolet produced before the Anthropological Society of Paris
+an idiot's head of the present day, which showed all the osteological
+characteristics peculiar to the Neanderthal skull. Lastly, an
+anthropologist of great authority, Dr. Pruner-Bey, has brought forward
+all requisite evidence to prove that the Neanderthal skull is identical,
+in all its parts, with the cranium of the Celt.
+
+We see, therefore, that the opinion propounded by Dr. Schaaffhausen at
+the commencement of his studies was not able to stand its ground before
+the opposition resulting from subsequent labours on the point; and that
+this head of a man belonging to the epoch of the great bear and mammoth,
+which he regarded as manifesting the most limited amount of
+intelligence, differed in no way from the heads belonging to Celts of
+historic times, whose moral qualities and manly courage make Frenchmen
+proud to call themselves their descendants.
+
+We need scarcely add that the examination of this latter skull, which
+dated back to the first origin of mankind, is sufficient to set at
+naught all that has been written as to the pretended analogy of
+structure existing between primitive man and the ape, and to wipe out
+for ever from scientific phraseology the improper and unhappy term
+_fossil man_, which has not only been the cause of so many lamentable
+misunderstandings, but has also too long arrested the formation and the
+progress of the science of the first starting-point of man.
+
+Other remains of human skulls, appearing to date back to a very ancient
+epoch, have been found in various countries, since the discovery of
+those above-named. We will mention, a jaw-bone found by M. Édouard
+Dupont in the cave of Naulette, near Dinant, in Belgium--a frontal and
+parietal bone, extracted from the _Lehm_ in the valley of the Rhine, at
+Eggisheim near Colmar, by Dr. Faudel--a skull found by Professor Bocchi,
+of Florence, in the Olmo pass, near Arezzo--lastly, the celebrated
+jaw-bone from Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, found in 1863 by Boucher
+de Perthes, in the _diluvium_, of which bone we have given an
+illustration in the introduction to this volume. It is acknowledged by
+all anthropologists that this portion of the skull of the man of
+Moulin-Quignon bears a perfect resemblance to that of a man of small
+size of the present age.
+
+From the small number of skulls which we possess, it is impossible for
+us to estimate what was the precise degree of intelligence to be
+ascribed to man at the epoch of the great bear and mammoth. No one,
+assuredly, will be surprised at the fact, that the human skull in these
+prodigiously remote ages did not present any external signs of great
+intellectual development. The nature of man is eminently improvable; it
+is, therefore, easily to be understood, that in the earliest ages of his
+appearance on the earth his intelligence should have been of a limited
+character. Time and progress were destined both to improve and extend
+it; the flame of the first-lighted torch was to be expanded with the
+lapse of centuries!
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+
+EPOCH OF THE REINDEER, OR OF MIGRATED ANIMALS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     Mankind during the Epoch of the Reindeer--Their Manners and
+     Customs--Food--Garments--Weapons, Utensils, and Implements--
+     Pottery--Ornaments--Primitive Arts--The principal Caverns--
+     Type of the Human Race during the Epoch of the Reindeer.
+
+
+We have now arrived at that subdivision of the stone age which we
+designate by the name of the _Reindeer Epoch_, or the _Epoch of migrated
+animals_. Many ages have elapsed since the commencement of the
+quaternary geological epoch. The mighty animals which characterised the
+commencement of this period have disappeared, or are on the point of
+becoming extinct. The great bear (_Ursus spelæus_) and the cave-hyæna
+(_Hyæna spelæa_) will soon cease to tread the soil of our earth. It will
+not be long before the final term will be completed of the existence of
+the cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_), the mammoth, and the _Rhinoceros
+tichorhinus_. Created beings diminish in size as they improve in type.
+
+To make up for these losses, numerous herds of reindeer now inhabit the
+forests of western Europe. In that part of the continent which was one
+day to be called France, these animals make their way as far as the
+Pyrenees. The horse (_Equus caballus_), in no way different from the
+present species, is the companion of the above-named valuable ruminant;
+also the bison (_Biso europæus_), the urus (_Bos primigenius_), the
+musk-ox (_Ovibos moschatus_), the elk, the deer, the chamois, the ibex,
+and various species of rodents, amongst others, the beaver, the
+hamster-rat, the lemming, the spermophilus, &c.
+
+After the intense cold of the glacial period the temperature has become
+sensibly milder, but it is still much lower than at the present day in
+the same countries; as the reindeer, an animal belonging to a
+hyperborean climate, can both enjoy life and multiply in the
+comparatively southern part of Europe.
+
+The general composition of the _fauna_ which we have just described is a
+striking proof of the rigorous cold which still characterised the
+climate of central Europe. Animals which then inhabited those countries
+are now only met with in the high northern latitudes of the old and new
+worlds, in close proximity to the ice and snow, or on the lofty summits
+of great mountain-chains. To localities of this kind have now retired
+the reindeer, the musk-ox, the elk, the chamois, the wild-goat, the
+hamster-rat, the lemming and the spermophilus. The beaver, too, is at
+the present day confined almost entirely to Canada.
+
+Mr. Christy, an English naturalist, has remarked with much acuteness
+that the accumulations of bones and other organic remains in caves
+actually imply the existence of a rigorous climate. Under the influence
+of even a merely moderate temperature, these accumulations of bones and
+animal remains would, in fact, have given forth putrid exhalations which
+would have prevented any human being from living in close contiguity to
+these infectious heaps. The Esquimaux of the present day live, in this
+respect, very much like the people of primitive ages, that is, close by
+the side of the most fetid _débris_; but, except in the cold regions of
+the north, they would be quite unable to do this.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Man of the Reindeer Epoch.]
+
+What progress was made by the man of the reindeer epoch (fig. 39) beyond
+that attained by his ancestors? This is the question we are about to
+consider. But we must confine the sphere of our study to the only two
+countries in which a sufficient number of investigations have been made
+in respect to the epoch of the reindeer. We allude to that part of
+Europe which nowadays forms France and Belgium.
+
+During the reindeer epoch, man wrought the flint to better effect than
+in the preceding period. He also manufactured somewhat remarkable
+implements in bone, ivory, and reindeers' horn. In the preceding period,
+human bones were found in caves, mixed up indiscriminately with those of
+animals; in the epoch we are now considering, this promiscuous
+intermingling is no longer met with.
+
+We shall first pass in review man as existing in this epoch, in respect
+to his habitation and food. We shall then proceed to speak of the
+productions of his industry, and also of the earliest essays of his
+artistic genius. Lastly, we shall briefly consider his physical
+organisation.
+
+With respect to his habitation, man, during the reindeer epoch, still
+took up his abode in caves. According to their depth and the light
+penetrating them, he either occupied the whole extent of them or
+established himself in the outlet only. About the centre of the cavern
+some slabs of stone, selected from the hardest rocks, such as sandstone
+or slate, were bedded down in the ground, and formed the hearth for
+cooking his food. During the long nights of winter the whole family must
+have assembled round this hearth.
+
+Sometimes, in order the better to defend himself against the various
+surprises to which he was exposed, the man of the reindeer epoch
+selected a cavern with a very narrow inlet which could only be entered
+by climbing.
+
+A cave formed naturally in the deepest clefts and hollows of some rock
+constituted, in every climate, the earliest habitation of man. In cold
+climates it was necessary for him to find some retreat in which to pass
+the night, and in warmer latitudes he had to ward off the heat of the
+day. But these natural dwellings could only be met with in districts
+where rocks existed which offered facilities for cover in the way of
+clefts and holes. When man took up his abode in a level country, he was
+compelled to construct for himself some place of shelter. By collecting
+together stones, brought from various directions, he then managed to
+build an artificial cavern. Choosing a spot where some natural
+projection overhung the ground, he enlarged, as far as he was able, this
+natural roof, and, bringing art to the assistance of nature, he
+ultimately found himself in possession of a convenient retreat.
+
+We must not omit to add that the spot in which he established his
+dwelling was always in the vicinity of some running stream.
+
+In this way, therefore, the inhabitants of the plains formed their
+habitations during the epoch which we are considering.
+
+We have, also, certain proofs that primitive tribes, during this period,
+did not take up their abode in natural caverns exclusively, but that
+they were able to make for themselves more convenient sheltering-places
+under the cover of some great overhanging rock. In various regions of
+France, especially in Périgord, numerous ancient open-air human
+settlements have been discovered. They must have been mere sheds or
+places of shelter, leaning against the base of some high cliff, and
+protected against the inclemency of the weather by projections of the
+rock which, more or less, hung over them, forming a kind of roof. The
+name of _rock-shelters_ has been given to these dwellings of primitive
+man.
+
+These wild retreats are generally met with in the lower part of some
+valley in close proximity to a running stream. They, like the caverns,
+contain very rich deposits of the bones of mammals, birds and fishes,
+and also specimens of hatchets and utensils made of flint, bone, and
+horn. Traces of hearths are also discovered.
+
+One of the most remarkable of these natural shelters belonging to the
+reindeer epoch has been discovered at Bruniquel, in the department of
+Tarn-et-Garonne, not far from Montauban.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Rock-shelter at Bruniquel, a supposed
+Habitation of Man during the Reindeer Epoch.]
+
+On the left bank of the river Aveyron, under the overhanging shelter of
+one of the highest rocks of Bruniquel and in close proximity to a
+_château_, the picturesque ruins of which still stand on the brow of the
+cliff above, there was discovered, in 1866, a fire-hearth of the
+pre-historic period; this hearth and its surroundings have afforded us
+the most complete idea of one of the rock-shelters of man during the
+reindeer epoch.
+
+This rock, known by the name of Montastruc, is about 98 feet high, and
+it overhangs the ground below for an extent of 46 to 49 feet. It covers
+an area of 298 square yards. In this spot, M. V. Brun, the Director of
+the Museum of Natural History at Montauban, found a host of objects of
+various descriptions, the study of which has furnished many useful ideas
+for the history of this epoch of primitive humanity.
+
+By taking advantage of the photographic views of the pre-historic
+settlement of Bruniquel, which M. V. Brun has been kind enough to
+forward to us, we have been enabled to compose the sketch which is
+presented in fig. 40 of a rock-shelter, or an open-air settlement of man
+in the reindeer epoch.
+
+Men during the reindeer epoch did not possess any notion of agriculture.
+They had not as yet subdued and domesticated any animal so as to profit
+by its strength, or to ensure by its means a constant supply of food.
+They were, therefore, like their forefathers, essentially hunters; and
+pursued wild animals, killing them with their spears or arrows. The
+reindeer was the animal which they chiefly attacked. This mammal, which
+then existed all over Europe, in the centre as well as in the south
+(although it has now retired or migrated into the regions of the extreme
+north), was for the man of this period all that it nowadays is to the
+Laplander--the most precious gift of nature. They fed upon its flesh and
+made their garments of its skin, utilising its tendons as thread in the
+preparation of their dress; its bones and its antlers they converted
+into all kinds of weapons and implements. Reindeer's horn was the
+earliest raw material in the manufactures of these remote ages, and to
+the man of this epoch was all that iron is to us.
+
+The horse, the ox, the urus, the elk, the ibex, and the chamois, all
+formed a considerable part of the food of men during this epoch. They
+were in the habit of breaking the long bones and the skulls of the
+recently-killed animals, in order to extract the marrow and the brain,
+which they ate all steaming with the natural animal heat, as is done in
+the present day by certain tribes in the Arctic regions. The meat of
+this animal was cooked on their rough hearths; for they did not eat it
+raw as some naturalists have asserted. The animal bones which have been
+found, intermingled with human remains, in the caverns of this epoch
+bear evident traces of the action of fire.
+
+To this animal prey they occasionally added certain birds, such as the
+great heath-cock, willow-grouse, owl, &c. When this kind of game fell
+short, they fell back upon the rat. Round the hearthstone, in the cave
+of Chaleux, M. Dupont found more than twenty pounds weight of the bones
+of water-rats, half roasted.
+
+Fish is an article of food which has always been much sought after by
+man. By mere inference we might, therefore, readily imagine that man
+during the reindeer epoch fed on fish as well as the flesh of animals,
+even if the fact were not attested by positive evidence. This evidence
+is afforded by the remains of fish-bones which are met with in the caves
+of this epoch, intermingled with the bones of mammals, and also by
+sketches representing parts of fishes, which are found roughly traced on
+a great number of fragments of bone and horn implements.
+
+The art of fishing, therefore, must certainly have been in existence
+during the reindeer epoch. We cannot assert that it was practised during
+that of the great bear and the mammoth; but, as regards the period we
+are now considering, no doubt can be entertained on the point. In an
+article on the 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' M. G. de
+Mortillet expresses himself as follows:
+
+"The epoch of the reindeer presents to our notice several specimens of
+fishing-tackle. The most simple is a little splinter of bone, generally
+about one to two inches long, straight, slender, and pointed at both
+ends. This is the primitive and elementary fish-hook. This small
+fragment of bone or reindeer horn was fastened by the middle and covered
+with a bait; when swallowed by a fish, or even by an aquatic bird, it
+became fixed in the interior of the body by one of the pointed ends, and
+the voracious creature found itself caught by the cord attached to the
+primitive hook. At the museum of Saint-Germain, there are several of
+these hooks which came from the rich deposits of Bruniquel, near
+Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne).
+
+"Hooks belonging to the reindeer epoch have also been found in the caves
+and retreats of Dordogne, so well explored by MM. Lartet and Christy.
+Along with those of the simple form which we have just described, others
+were met with of a much more perfect shape. These are likewise small
+fragments of bone or reindeer's horn, with deep and wide notches on one
+side, forming a more or less developed series of projecting and sharp
+teeth, or barbs. Two of them are depicted in Plate B, VI. of the
+'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.' M. Lartet is in possession of several of them;
+but the most remarkable specimen forms a part of the beautiful
+collection of M. Peccadeau de l'Isle, of Paris."[7]
+
+There are strong reasons for believing that man during this epoch did
+not confine himself to a diet of an exclusively carnivorous character,
+for vegetable food is in perfect harmony with the organisation of our
+species. By means of wild fruits, acorns, and chestnuts, he must have
+introduced some little variety into his ordinary system of sustenance.
+
+From the data which we have been considering, we furnish, in fig. 41, a
+representation of _a feast during the reindeer epoch_. Men are engaged
+in cleaving the head of a urus, in order to extract and devour the
+smoking brains. Others, sitting round the fire in which the flesh of the
+same animal is being cooked, are sucking out the marrow from the long
+bones of the reindeer, which they have broken by blows with a hatchet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.--A Feast during the Reindeer Epoch.]
+
+It becomes a very interesting question to know whether the men of these
+remote periods practised cannibalism or not. On this point we have as
+yet no certain information. We will, however, state some facts which
+seem to make in favour of this idea.
+
+Human skulls have been found in Scotland mixed up promiscuously with
+sculptured flints, remains of pottery, and children's bones; on the
+latter, Professor Owen thinks that he can recognise the trace of human
+teeth.
+
+At Solutré, in Mâconnais, M. de Ferry has discovered human finger-joints
+among the remains of cooking of the epoch of the great bear and mammoth,
+and of that of the reindeer.
+
+The appearance of certain bones from the caves of Ariége, dug up by MM.
+Garrigou and Filhol, has led both these _savants_ to the opinion "that
+pre-historic man may have been anthropophagous."
+
+The same conclusion would be arrived at from the explorations which have
+been undertaken in the grottos and caves of Northern Italy by M. Costa
+de Beauregard. This latter _savant_ found in the caves the small
+shin-bone of a child which had been carefully emptied and cleansed,
+leading to the idea that the marrow had been eaten.
+
+At a point near Finale, on the road from Genoa to Nice, in a vast cave
+which was for a long period employed as a habitation for our race, M.
+Issel discovered some human bones which had evidently been calcined.
+Their whitish colour, their lightness, and their friability left no room
+for doubt on the point. Added to this, the incrustations on their
+surface still contained small fragments of carbon. Moreover, many of the
+bones showed notches which could not have been made without the help of
+some sharp instrument.
+
+It is, therefore, probable that men in the stone age practised
+anthropophagy; we have, really, no cause to be surprised at this; since,
+in our own days, various savage tribes are addicted to cannibalism,
+under a considerable diversity of circumstances.
+
+Not the least trace has been discovered of animals' bones being gnawed
+by dogs in any of the human settlements during the reindeer epoch. Man,
+therefore, had not as yet reduced the dog to a state of domesticity.
+
+How did primitive man dress himself during this epoch? He must have made
+garments out of the skins of the quadrupeds which he killed in hunting,
+and especially of the reindeer's hide. There can be no doubt on this
+point. A large number of reindeers' antlers found in Périgord have at
+their base certain cuts which evidently could only have been produced in
+flaying the animal.
+
+It is no less certainly proved that these men knew how to prepare
+animals' skins by clearing them of their hair, and that they were no
+longer compelled, like their ancestors, to cover themselves with rough
+bear-skins still covered with their fur. To what purpose could they have
+applied the flint scrapers which are met with everywhere in such
+abundance, except for scraping the hair off the skins of wild beasts?
+Having thus taken off the hair, they rendered them supple by rubbing
+them in with brains and the marrow extracted from the long bones of the
+reindeer. Then they cut them out into some very simple patterns, which
+are, of course, absolutely unknown to us; and, finally, they joined
+together the different pieces by rough sewing.
+
+The fact that man at this epoch knew how to sew together reindeer skins
+so as to convert them into garments, is proved by the discovery of
+numerous specimens of instruments which must have been used for this
+work; these are--and this is most remarkable--exactly the same as those
+employed nowadays by the Laplanders, for the same purpose. They consist
+of bodkins or stilettoes made of flint and bone (fig. 42), by means of
+which the holes were pierced in the skin; also very carefully fashioned
+needles, mostly of bone or horn (fig. 43).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for sewing Reindeer
+Skins, found in the Cave of Les Eyzies (Périgord).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Bone Needle for sewing.]
+
+The inspection of certain reindeer bones has likewise enabled us to
+recognise the fact that the men of this age used for thread the sinewy
+fibres of this animal. On these bones transverse cuts may be noticed,
+just in those very spots where the section of the tendon must have taken
+place.
+
+No metal was as yet known; consequently, man continued to make use of
+stone instruments, both for the implements of labour, and also for
+offensive and defensive weapons. The hatchet was but little employed as
+a weapon of war, and the flint-knife was the arm most extensively used.
+We must add to this, another potent although natural weapon; this was
+the lower jaw-bone of the great bear, still retaining its sharp and
+pointed canine tooth. The elongated and solid bone furnished the handle,
+and the sharp tooth the formidable point; and with this instrument man
+could in the chase attack and pierce any animal with which he entered
+into a hand-to-hand conflict.
+
+It may be noticed that this weapon is placed in the hand of the man in
+fig. 39, which represents him during the reindeer epoch.
+
+It must certainly be the case that the human race possesses to a very
+high degree the taste for personal ornament, since objects used for
+adornment are found in the most remote ages of mankind and in every
+country. There can be no doubt that the men and women who lived in the
+reindeer epoch sacrificed to the graces. In the midst of their
+precarious mode of life, the idea entered into their minds of
+manufacturing necklaces, bracelets, and pendants, either with shells
+which they bored through the middle so as to be able to string them as
+beads, or with the teeth of various animals which they pierced with
+holes with the same intention, as represented in fig. 44.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.--The Canine Tooth of a Wolf, bored so as to be
+used as an ornament.]
+
+The horny portion of the ear of the horse or ox (fig. 45), was likewise
+used for the same purpose, that is, as an object of adornment.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Ornament made of the bony part of a Horse's
+Ear.]
+
+It becomes a question whether man at this epoch had any belief in a
+future life, and practised anything which bore a resemblance to
+religious worship. The existence, round the fire-hearths of the
+burial-caverns in Belgium, of large fossil elephant (mammoth's) bones--a
+fact which has been pointed out by M. Édouard Dupont--gives us some
+reason for answering this question in the affirmative. According to M.
+Morlot, the practice of placing bones round caverns still survives, as a
+religious idea, among the Indians. We may, therefore, appeal to this
+discovery as a hint in favour of the existence of some religious feeling
+among the men who lived during the reindeer epoch.
+
+In the tombs of this epoch are found the weapons and knives which men
+carried during their lifetime, and sometimes even a supply of the flesh
+of animals used for food. This custom of placing near the body of the
+dead provisions for the journey to be taken _post mortem_ is, as
+remarked in reference to the preceding period, the proof of a belief in
+another life.
+
+Certain religious, or rather superstitious, ideas may have been attached
+to some glittering stones and bright fragments of ore which have been
+picked up in several settlements of these primitive tribes. M. de
+Vibraye found at Bourdeilles (Charente), two nodules of hydrated oxide
+of iron mixed with _débris_ of all kinds; and at the settlement of
+Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne), in the middle of the hearth, a small mass of
+copper covered with a layer of green carbonate. In other spots there
+have been met with pieces of jet, violet fluor, &c., pierced through the
+middle, doubtless to enable them to be suspended to the neck and ears.
+The greater part of these objects may possibly be looked upon as
+amulets, that is, symbols of some religious beliefs entertained by man
+during the reindeer epoch.
+
+The social instinct of man, the feeling which compels him to form an
+alliance with his fellow-man, had already manifested itself at this
+early period. Communication was established between localities at some
+considerable distance from one another. Thus it was that the inhabitants
+of the banks of the Lesse in Belgium travelled as far as that part of
+France which is now called Champagne, in order to seek the flints which
+they could not find in their own districts, although they were
+indispensable to them in order to manufacture their weapons and
+implements. They likewise brought back fossil shells, of which they made
+fantastical necklaces. This distant intercourse cannot be called in
+question, for certain evidences of it can be adduced. M. Édouard Dupont
+found in the cave of Chaleux, near Dinant (Belgium), fifty-four of these
+shells, which are not found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne.
+Here, therefore, we have the rudiments of commerce, that is, of the
+importation and exchange of commodities which form its earliest
+manifestations in all nations of the world.
+
+Again, it may be stated that there existed at this epoch real
+manufactories of weapons and utensils, the productions of which were
+distributed around the neighbouring country according to the particular
+requirements of each family. The cave of Chaleux, which was mentioned
+above, seems to have been one of these places of manufacture; for from
+the 8th to the 30th of May, during twenty-two days only, there were
+collected at this spot nearly 20,000 flints chipped into hatchets,
+daggers, knives, scrapers, scratchers, &c.
+
+Workshops of this kind were established in the settlements of
+Laugerie-Basse and Laugerie-Haute in Périgord. The first was to all
+appearance a special manufactory for spear-heads, some specimens of
+which have been found by MM. Lartet and Christy of an extremely
+remarkable nature; exact representations of them are delineated in fig.
+46. In the second were fabricated weapons and implements of reindeers'
+horn, if we may judge by the large quantity of remains of the antlers of
+those animals, which were met with by these _savants_, almost all of
+which bear the marks of sawing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Spear-head found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse
+(Périgord).]
+
+It is not, however, probable that the objects thus manufactured were
+exported to any great distance, as was subsequently the case, that is,
+in the polished stone epoch. How would it be possible to cross great
+rivers, and to pass through wide tracts overgrown with thick forests, in
+order to convey far and wide these industrial products; at a time, too,
+when no means of communication existed between one country and another?
+But it is none the less curious to be able to verify the existence of a
+rudimentary commerce exercised at so remote an epoch.
+
+The weapons, utensils and implements which were used by man during the
+reindeer epoch testify to a decided progress having been made beyond
+those of the preceding period. The implements are made of flint, bone,
+or horn; but the latter kind are much the most numerous, chiefly in the
+primitive settlements in the centre and south of France. Those of
+Périgord are especially remarkable for the abundance of instruments made
+of reindeers' bones.
+
+The great diversity of type in the wrought flints furnishes a very
+evident proof of the long duration of the historical epoch we are
+considering. In the series of these instruments we can trace all the
+phases of improvement in workmanship, beginning with the rough shape of
+the hatchets found in the _diluvium_ at Abbeville, and culminating in
+those elegant spear-heads which are but little inferior to any
+production of later times.
+
+We here give representations (fig. 47, 48, 49, 50), of the most curious
+specimens of the stone and flint weapons of the reindeer epoch. Knives
+and other small instruments, such as scrapers, piercers, borers, &c.,
+form the great majority; hatchets are comparatively rare. Instruments
+are also met with which might be used for a double purpose, for
+instance, borers and also piercers. There are also round stones which
+must have been used as hammers; it may, at least, be noticed that they
+have received repeated blows.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Worked Flint from Périgord (Knife).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Worked Flint from Périgord (Hatchet).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Chipped Flint from Périgord (Knife).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Chipped Flint from Périgord (Scraper).]
+
+Sir J. Lubbock is of opinion that some of these stones were employed in
+heating water, after they had been made red-hot in the fire. According
+to the above-named author, this plan of procuring hot water is still
+adopted among certain savage tribes who are still ignorant of the art of
+pottery, and possess nothing but wooden vessels, which cannot be placed
+over a fire.[8]
+
+We must also mention the polishers formed of sandstone or some other
+material with a rough surface. They could only be used for polishing
+bone and horn, as the reindeer epoch does not admit of instruments of
+polished stone.
+
+There have also been collected here and there pebbles of granite or
+quartzite hollowed out at the centre, and more or less perfectly rounded
+on the edges. It has been conjectured that these were mortars, although
+their small dimensions scarcely countenance this hypothesis. Neither is
+it probable that they were used for pounding seed, as fancied by M. de
+Vibraye. Nor does the idea which has been entertained of their being
+used for producing fire seem to have any sufficient ground.
+
+Among the most interesting specimens in the vast collection of flints
+belonging to the reindeer epoch which have been found in the countries
+of France and Belgium, we must mention the delicate and very
+finely-toothed double-edged saws. The one we here represent (fig. 51) is
+in the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain. It does not measure more
+than three-quarters of an inch in length, and about one-tenth of an inch
+in width. It was found by M. V. Brun in one of the _rock-shelters_ at
+Bruniquel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Small Flint Saw, found in the Rock-shelter at
+Bruniquel.]
+
+Saws of this kind were, no doubt, employed for fashioning the antlers of
+the reindeer, and other ruminants that shed their horns. The antler was
+cut into on each side, and the fracture was finished by hand.
+
+The objects of bone and reindeer-horn found in the caves of Périgord
+show a still greater variety, and a no less remarkable skilfulness in
+workmanship.
+
+We may mention, for instance, the arrow and javelin-heads. Some are
+slender and tapering off at both ends; in others, the base terminates in
+a single or double bevel. Among the latter, the greater part seem made
+to fix in a cleft stick; some are ornamented with lines and hatching
+over their surface. Others have notches in them, somewhat similar to an
+attempt at barbing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.--The Chase during the Reindeer Epoch.]
+
+We now come to the barbed dart-heads, designated by the name of
+_harpoons_. They taper-off considerably towards the top, and are
+characterised by very decided barbs, shaped like hooks, and distributed
+sometimes on one side only, and sometimes on both (figs. 53, 54). In the
+latter case the barbs are arranged in pairs, and are provided with a
+small furrow or middle groove, which, according to some naturalists, was
+intended to hold some subtle poison. Like the present race of Indians
+of the American forests, primitive man may possibly have poisoned his
+arrows; and the longitudinal groove, which is noticed in so many
+reindeer arrow-heads, may have served to contain the poison.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Barbed Arrow of Reindeer Horn.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54--Arrow of Reindeer Horn with double Barbs.]
+
+We must not, however, fail to state that this opinion has been abandoned
+since it has been ascertained that the North American Indians used in
+former times to hunt the bison with wooden arrows furnished with grooves
+or channels of a similar character. These channels are said to have been
+intended to give a freer vent to the flow of the animal's blood, which
+was thus, so to speak, sucked out of the wound. This may, therefore,
+have been the intention of the grooves which are noticed on the
+dart-heads of the reindeer epoch, and the idea of their having been
+poisoned must be dismissed.
+
+These barbed darts or harpoons are still used by the Esquimaux of the
+present day, in pursuing the seal. Such arrows, like those of the
+primitive hordes of the reindeer epoch which are represented above
+(figs. 53, 54), are sharply pointed and provided with barbs; they are
+fastened to a string and shot from a bow. The Esquimaux sometimes attach
+an inflated bladder to the extremity of the arrow, so that the hunter
+may be apprized whether he has hit his mark, or in order to show in what
+direction he should aim again.
+
+We give here (fig. 55) a drawing of a fragment of bone found in the cave
+of Les Eyzies (Périgord); a portion of one of these harpoons remains
+fixed in the bone.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Animal Bone, pierced by an Arrow of Reindeer
+Horn.]
+
+We must assign to the class of implements the bone bodkins or stilettoes
+of different sizes, either with or without a handle (figs. 56, 57), and
+also a numerous series of needles found in the caves of Périgord, some
+of which are very slender and elegant, and made of bone, horn, and even
+ivory. In some of the human settlements of the reindeer epoch, bones
+have been found, from which long splinters had been detached, fitted for
+the fabrication of needles. The delicate points of flint have also been
+found which were used to bore the eyes of the needles, and, lastly, the
+lumps of sandstone on which the latter were polished.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave
+of Laugerie-Basse (Stiletto?).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave
+of Laugerie-Basse (Needle?).]
+
+We must, likewise, point out the _smoothers_, intended to flatten down
+the seams in the skins used for garments.
+
+One of the most important instruments of this epoch is a perfect drill
+with a sharpened point and cutting edge. With this flint point rapidly
+twirled round, holes could be bored in any kind of material--bone,
+teeth, horn, or shells. This stone drill worked as well as our tool made
+of steel, according to the statement of certain naturalists who have
+tried the effect of them.
+
+The primitive human settlement at Laugerie-Basse has furnished several
+specimens of an instrument, the exact use of which has not been
+ascertained. They are rods, tapering off at one end, and hollowed out at
+the other in the shape of a spoon. M. Édouard Lartet has propounded the
+opinion that they were used by the tribes of this epoch as spoons, in
+order to extract the marrow from the long bones of the animals which
+were used for their food. M. Lartet would not, however, venture to
+assert this, and adds: "It is, perhaps, probable that our primitive
+forefathers would not have taken so much trouble." Be this as it may,
+one of these instruments is very remarkable for the lines and ornaments
+in relief with which it is decorated, testifying to the existence in the
+workman of some feeling of symmetry (fig. 58).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Spoon of Reindeer Horn.]
+
+In various caves--at Les Eyzies, Laugerie-Basse, and Chaffant, _commune_
+of Savigné (Vienne)--whistles of a peculiar kind have been found (fig.
+59). They are made from the first joint of the foot of the reindeer or
+some other ruminant of the stag genus. A hole has been bored in the base
+of the bone, a little in front of the metatarsal joint. If one blows
+into this hole, placing the lower lip in the hollow answering to the
+above-named joint, a shrill sound is produced, similar to that made by
+blowing into a piped key. We ourselves have had the pleasure of
+verifying the fact, at the Museum of Saint-Germain, that these primitive
+whistles act very well.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Knuckle-Bone of a Reindeer's Foot, bored with a
+hole and used as a Whistle.]
+
+The settlements at Périgord have also furnished a certain number of
+staves made of reindeer horn (figs. 60, 61), the proper functions of
+which no one has succeeded in properly explaining. They are invariably
+bored with one or more holes at the base, and are covered with designs
+to which we shall hereafter refer. M. Lartet has thought that they were
+perhaps symbols or staves of authority.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn, found in
+the Cave of Périgord.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Another Staff of authority in Reindeer's Horn.]
+
+This explanation appears the correct one when we consider the care with
+which these bâtons were fashioned. If the hypothesis of their being
+symbols of authority be adopted, the varying number of the holes would
+not be without intention; it might point to some kind of hierarchy, the
+highest grade of which corresponded to the bâton with the most holes.
+Thus, in the Chinese empire, the degree of a mandarin's authority is
+estimated by the number of buttons on his silk cap. And just as in the
+Mussulman hierarchy there were pachas of from one to three tails, so it
+may be fancied that among primitive man of the reindeer epoch there were
+chiefs of from one to three holes!
+
+We have already stated that in the epoch of the great bear and the
+mammoth the art of manufacturing a rough description of pottery was,
+perhaps, known in Europe. The men of the reindeer epoch made, however,
+but little progress in this respect. Nevertheless, if certain relics
+really belong to this period, they may have known how to make rough
+vessels, formed of clay, mixed with sand, and hardened by the action of
+fire. This primitive art was, as yet, anything but generally adopted:
+for we very rarely find _débris_ of pottery in close contiguity with
+other remains of the reindeer epoch.
+
+The Archæological Museum of Saint Germain is in possession of a hollow
+vessel, a natural geode, very large and very thick (fig. 62). It was
+found in the cave of La Madelaine (department of Dordogne); on one side
+it has evidently been subjected to the action of fire, and may therefore
+be presumed to have been used as a large vessel for culinary purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.--A Geode, used as a cooking Vessel (?), found in
+the Cave of La Madelaine (Périgord).]
+
+In a cave at Furfooz, near Dinant in Belgium, to which we shall
+subsequently refer, M. Édouard Dupont found, intermingled with human
+bones, an urn, or specimen of rough pottery, which is perhaps one of the
+most ancient monuments of the ceramic art as practised by our primitive
+ancestors. This urn (fig. 63) was partly broken; by the care of M.
+Hauzeur it has been put together again, as we represent it from the work
+of M. Le Hon.[9]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Earthen Vase found in the Cave of Furfooz
+(Belgium).]
+
+It is in the reindeer epoch that we find the earliest traces of any
+artistic feeling manifested in man.
+
+It is a circumstance well worthy of remark, that this feeling appears to
+have been the peculiar attribute of the tribes which inhabited the
+south-west of the present France; the departments of Dordogne, Vienne,
+Charente, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Ariége, are, in fact, the only localities
+where designs and carvings representing organised beings have been
+discovered. The departments in the east have not furnished anything of a
+similar character, any more than Belgium, which has been so thoroughly
+explored by M. Édouard Dupont, or Wurtemburg, where M. Fraas has lately
+described various settlements of this primitive epoch.
+
+It is not sufficient to allege, in order to explain this singular
+circumstance, that the caves in the south of France belong to a later
+period of the reindeer epoch, and that the others go back to the
+earliest commencement of the same age. Apart from the fact that this
+assertion is in no way proved, a complete and ready answer is involved
+in the well verified circumstance, that even in later ages--in the
+polished stone, and even in the bronze epoch--no representation of an
+animal or plant is found to have been executed in these localities. No
+specimen of the kind has, in fact, been found in the _kitchen-middens_
+of Denmark, or in the lacustrine settlements of the stone age, or even
+of the bronze age.
+
+It must, then, be admitted that the tribes which were scattered over
+those portions of the European continent which now correspond to the
+south-west of France, possessed a special talent in the art of design.
+There is, moreover, nothing unreasonable in such a supposition. An
+artistic feeling is not always the offspring of civilisation, it is
+rather a gift of nature. It may manifest its existence in the most
+barbarous ages, and may make its influence more deeply felt in nations
+which are behindhand in respect to general progress than in others which
+are much further advanced in civilisation.
+
+There can be no doubt that the rudiments of engraving and sculpture of
+which we are about to take a view, testify to faculties of an
+essentially artistic character. Shapes are so well imitated, movements
+are so thoroughly caught, as it were, in the sudden fact of action, that
+it is almost always possible to recognise the object which the ancient
+workman desired to represent, although he had at his disposal nothing
+but the rudest instruments for executing his work. A splinter of flint
+was his sole graving-tool, a piece of reindeer horn, or a flake of slate
+or ivory, was the only plate on which primitive man could stamp his
+reproductions of animated nature.
+
+Perhaps they drew on stone or horn with lumps of red-chalk or ochre, for
+both these substances have been found in the caves of primitive man.
+Perhaps, too, as is the case with modern savages, the ochre and
+red-chalk were used besides for painting or tatooing his body. When the
+design was thus executed on stone or horn, it was afterwards engraved
+with the point of some flint instrument.
+
+Those persons who have attentively examined the interesting gallery of
+the _Histoire du Travail_ in the International Exposition of 1867, must
+have remarked a magnificent collection of these artistic productions of
+primeval ages. There were no less than fifty-one specimens, which were
+exhibited by several collectors, and were for the most part extremely
+curious. In his interesting work, 'Promenades Préhistoriques à
+l'Exposition Universelle,' M. Gabriel de Mortillet has carefully
+described these objects. In endeavouring to obtain some knowledge of
+them, we shall take as our guide the learned curator of the
+Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain.
+
+We have, in the first place, various representations of the mammoth,
+which was still in existence at the commencement of the reindeer epoch.
+
+The first (fig. 64) is an outline sketch, drawn on a slab of ivory, from
+the cave of La Madelaine. When MM. Lartet and Christy found it, it was
+broken into five pieces, which they managed to put together very
+accurately. The small eye and the curved tusks of the animal may be
+perfectly distinguished, as well as its huge trunk, and even its
+abundant mane, the latter proving that it is really the mammoth--that is
+the fossil--and not the present species of elephant.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Sketch of a Mammoth, graven on a Slab of
+Ivory.]
+
+The second figure is an entire mammoth, graven on a fragment of reindeer
+horn, from the rock-shelters of Bruniquel, and belongs to M. Peccadeau
+de l'Isle. This figure forms the hilt of a poniard, the blade of which
+springs from the front part of the animal. It may be recognised to be
+the mammoth by its trunk, its wide flat feet, and especially by its
+erect tail, ending in a bunch of hair. In point of fact, the present
+species of elephant never sets up the tail, and has no bunch of hair at
+the end of it.
+
+A third object brought from the pre-historic station of Laugerie-Basse
+(M. de Vibraye's collection) is the lower end of a staff of authority
+carved in the form of a mammoth's head. The prominent forehead, and the
+body of the animal stretching along the base of the staff, may both be
+very distinctly seen.
+
+On another fragment of a staff of authority, found at Bruniquel by M. V.
+Brun, the cave-lion (_Felis spelæa_) is carved with great clearness. The
+head, in particular, is perfectly represented.
+
+Representations of reindeer, either carved or scratched on stone or
+horn, are very common; we mention the following:--
+
+In the first place the hilt of a dagger in reindeer's horn (fig. 65) of
+the same type as that shaped in the form of a mammoth. This specimen is
+remarkable, because the artist has most skilfully adapted the shape of
+the animal to the purpose for which the instrument was intended. The
+hilt represents a reindeer, which is carved out as if lying in a very
+peculiar position; the hind legs are stretched along the blade, and the
+front legs are doubled back under the belly, so as not to hurt the hand
+of anyone holding the dagger; lastly, the head is thrown back, the
+muzzle turned upwards, and the horns flattened down so as not to
+interfere with the grasp.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Hilt of a Dagger, carved in the shape of a
+Reindeer.]
+
+This is, at all events, nothing but a rough sketch. The same remark,
+however, does not apply to two ivory daggers found at Bruniquel by M.
+Peccadeau de l'Isle. These objects are very artistically executed, and
+are the most finished specimens that have been found up to the present
+time. Both of them represent a reindeer with the head thrown back as in
+the preceding plate; but whilst in one dagger the blade springs from the
+hinder part of the body, in the same way as in the rough-hewn horn, in
+the other it proceeds from the front of the body, between the head and
+the forelegs. The hind legs are stretched out and meet again at the
+feet, thus forming a hole between them, which was probably used as a
+ring on which to suspend the dagger.
+
+We must not omit to mention a slab of slate, on which is drawn in
+outline a reindeer fight. It was found at Laugerie-Basse by M. de
+Vibraye. The artist has endeavoured to portray one of those furious
+contests in which the male reindeer engages during the rutting season,
+in order to obtain possession of the females; he has executed his
+design in a spirited manner, marked by a certain _naïveté_.
+
+There are a good many other fragments on which reindeer are either drawn
+or carved; we shall not dwell upon them, but add a few remarks as to
+several specimens on which are representations of the stag, the horse,
+the bison, the ibex, &c.
+
+A representation of a stag (fig. 66) is drawn on a fragment of stag's
+horn found in the cave of La Madelaine by MM. Lartet and Christy. The
+shape of the antlers, which are very different to those of the reindeer,
+leave no doubt as to the identity of the animal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Representation of a Stag, drawn on a Stag's
+Horn.]
+
+The ox and the bison are represented in various fashions. We will
+mention here a carved head which was found in the cave of Laugerie-Basse
+by M. de Vibraye. It forms the base of a staff of authority.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Representation of some large herbivorous Animal
+on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn.]
+
+We must, doubtless, class under the same category a fragment of
+reindeer's horn, found at Laugerie-Basse, on which the hind-quarters of
+some large herbivorous animal are sketched out with a bold and practised
+touch (fig. 67). Various indications have led M. Lartet to think that
+the artist has not endeavoured to represent a horse, as was at first
+imagined, but a bison of rather a slender shape. Unfortunately the
+fragment is broken at the exact spot where the bushy mane should begin,
+which characterises the species of the bison sub-genus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Arts of Drawing and Sculpture during the
+Reindeer Epoch.]
+
+In the same locality another fragment of reindeer's horn was found, on
+which some horned animal is depicted (fig. 69), which appears to be an
+ibex, if we may judge by the lines under the chin which seem to indicate
+a beard.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Representation of an Animal, sketched on a
+Fragment of Reindeer's Horn.]
+
+In the cave of Les Eyzies, in the department of Dordogne, MM. Lartet and
+Christy came upon two slabs of quartziferous schist, on both of which
+are scratched animal forms which are deficient in any special
+characteristics. In one (fig. 70), some have fancied they could
+recognise the elk; but, as the front part only of the other has been
+preserved, it is almost impossible to determine what mammiferous animal
+it is intended to represent. An indistinct trace of horns seems to
+indicate a herbivorous animal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Fragment of a Slab of Schist, bearing the
+representation of some Animal, and found in the Cave of Les Eyzies.]
+
+On each side of a staff of authority made of reindeer's horn, found by
+MM. Lartet and Christy in the cave of the Madelaine, may be noticed
+three horses in demi-relief, which are very easily recognisable.
+
+On a carved bone, found at Bruniquel by M. de Lastic, the head of a
+reindeer and that of a horse are drawn in outline side by side; the
+characteristics of both animals are well maintained.
+
+Lastly, we may name a round shaft formed of reindeer's horn (fig. 71),
+found at Laugerie-Basse by MM. Lartet and Christy, on which is carved an
+animal's head, with ears of a considerable length laid back upon the
+head. It is not easy to determine for what purpose this shaft was
+intended; one end being pointed and provided with a lateral hook. It was
+perhaps used as a harpoon.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.--A kind of Harpoon of Reindeer's Horn, carved in
+the shape of an Animal's Head.]
+
+Representations of birds are more uncommon than those of mammals.
+
+There are, on the other hand, a good many rough delineations of fish,
+principally on the so-called wands of authority, on which numbers may
+often be noticed following one another in a series. We have one
+delineation of a fish, skilfully drawn on a fragment of the lower
+jaw-bone of a reindeer, which was found at Laugerie-Basse.
+
+Also in the cave of La Vache (Ariége), M. Garrigou found a fragment of
+bone, on which there is a clever design of a fish.
+
+Very few representations of reptiles have come to light, and those found
+are in general badly executed. We must, however, make an exception in
+favour of the figure of a tadpole, scratched out on an arrow-head, found
+in the cave of the Madelaine.
+
+Designs representing flowers are very rare; in the _Galerie du Travail_,
+at the Exposition, only three specimens are exhibited; they came from La
+Madelaine and Laugerie-Basse, and were all three graven on spear-heads.
+
+But did the men of the reindeer epoch make no attempts to portray their
+own personal appearance? Have not the excavations dug in the settlements
+of primitive man, found in Périgord, ever brought to light any imitation
+of the human form? Nothing could exceed the interest of such a
+discovery. Research has not been entirely fruitless in this respect, and
+it is hoped that the first attempt in the art of statuary of this
+primitive people may yet be discovered. In the cave of Laugerie-Basse,
+M. de Vibraye found a little ivory statuette, which he takes to be a
+kind of idol of an indecent character. The head and legs, as well as the
+arms, are broken off.
+
+Another human figure (fig. 72), which, like the preceding one, is long
+and lean, is graven on a staff of authority, a fragment of which was
+found in the cave of La Madelaine by MM. Lartet and Christy. The man is
+represented standing between two horses' heads, and by the side of a
+long serpent or fish, having the appearance of an eel. On the reverse
+side of the same bâton, which is not given in the figure, the heads of
+two bisons are represented.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Staff of Authority, on which are graven
+representations of a Man, two Horses, and a Fish.]
+
+On a fragment of a spear-head, found in the same settlement of
+Laugerie-Basse, there is a series of human hands, provided with four
+fingers only, represented in demi-relief. M. Lartet has called attention
+to the fact, that certain savage tribes still depict the hand without
+noticing the thumb.
+
+In fig. 39, which represents man during the reindeer epoch, such as we
+must suppose him to have been from the sum total of our present stock of
+information on the point, we see a man clothed in garments sewn with a
+needle, carrying as his chief weapon the jaw-bone of a bear armed with
+its sharp fang, and also provided with his flint hatchet or knife. Close
+to him a woman is seated, arrayed in all the personal ornaments which
+are known to have been peculiar to this epoch.
+
+The question now arises, what were the characteristics of man during the
+reindeer epoch, with regard to his physical organisation?
+
+We know a little of some of the broader features of his physiognomy from
+studying the objects found in the Belgian bone-caves, of which we have
+spoken in the introduction to this work. These caves were explored by M.
+Édouard Dupont, assisted by M. Van Beneden, a Belgian palæontologist and
+anatomist. The excavations in question were ordered by King Leopold's
+Government, which supplied the funds necessary for extending them as far
+as possible. The three caves, all situated in the valley of the Lesse,
+are the _Trou des Nutons_, the _Trou du Frontal_, at Furfooz, near
+Dinant, and the _Caverne de Chaleux_, in the neighbourhood of the town
+from which its name is derived.
+
+The _Trou des Nutons_ and the _Trou du Frontal_ have been completely
+thrown into confusion by a violent inroad of water; for the _débris_
+that they contained were intermingled in an almost incredible confusion
+with a quantity of earthy matter and calcareous rocks, which had been
+drifted in by the inundation.
+
+In the _Trou des Nutons_, which is situated about 164 feet above the
+level of the Lesse, M. Van Beneden recognised a great many bones of the
+reindeer, the urus, and many other species which are not yet extinct.
+These bones were indiscriminately mixed up with bones and horns of the
+reindeer carved into different shapes, knuckle-bones of the goat
+polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a goat, from
+which sounds could still be produced, fragments of very coarse pottery,
+some remains of fire-hearths, &c.
+
+The _Trou du Frontal_ was thus named by M. Édouard Dupont, from the fact
+of a human frontal-bone having been found there on the day that the
+excavations commenced. This was not the only discovery of the kind that
+was to be made. Ere long they fell in with a great quantity of human
+bones, intermixed with a considerable number of the bones of reindeer
+and other animals, as well as implements of all kinds. M. Van Beneden
+ascertained that the bones must have belonged to thirteen persons of
+various ages; some of them are the bones of infants scarcely a year old.
+Among them were found two perfect skulls which are in good preservation;
+these remains are also very valuable, because they afford data from
+which deductions may be drawn as to the cranial conformation of the
+primitive inhabitants of the banks of the Lesse.
+
+M. Édouard Dupont is of opinion that this cave was used as a
+burial-place. It is, in fact, very probable that such was the purpose
+for which it was intended; for a large flag-stone was found in it, which
+was probably used to close up the mouth of the cave, and to shield the
+dead bodies from profanation. If this be the case, the animal bones
+which were scattered around are the remains of the funeral banquets
+which it was the custom to provide during the epoch of the great bear
+and the mammoth.
+
+It is interesting to establish the existence of such a similarity
+between the customs of men who were separated by vast tracts of land and
+an interval of many thousands of years.
+
+Immediately above the _Trou du Frontal_ there is a cave called _Trou
+Rosette_, in which the bones of three persons of various ages were found
+intermingled with the bones of reindeer and beavers; fragments of a
+blackish kind of pottery were also found there, which were hollowed out
+in rough grooves by way of ornamentation, and merely hardened in the
+fire. M. Dupont is of opinion that the three men whose remains were
+discovered were crushed to death by masses of rock at the time of the
+great inundation, traces of which may still be seen in the valley of the
+Lesse.
+
+By the falling in of its roof, which buried under a mass of rubbish all
+the objects which were contained in it at the time of the catastrophe
+and thus kept them in their places, the cave of Chaleux escaped the
+complete disturbance with which the above-mentioned caverns were
+visited. The bones of mammals, of birds, and of fish were found there;
+also some carved bones and horns of the reindeer, some fossil shells,
+which, as we have before observed, came from Champagne, and were used as
+ornaments; lastly, and chiefly, wrought flints numbering at least
+30,000. In the hearth, which was placed in the middle of the cave, a
+stone was discovered with certain signs on it, which, up to the present
+time, have remained unexplained. M. Dupont, as we have previously
+stated, collected in the immediate vicinity about twenty-two pounds'
+weight of the bones of the water-rat either scorched or roasted; this
+proves that when a more noble and substantial food failed them, the
+primitive inhabitants of this country were able to content themselves
+with these small and unsavoury rodents.
+
+The two skulls which were found at Furfooz have been carefully examined
+by MM. Van Beneden and Pruner-Bey, who are both great authorities on
+the subject of anthropology. These skulls present considerable
+discrepancies, but Pruner-Bey is of opinion that they are heads of a
+male and female of the same race. In order to justify his hypothesis the
+learned anthropologist says, that there is often more difference between
+the skulls of the two sexes of the same race, than between the skulls of
+the same sex belonging to two distinct races.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Skull found at Furfooz, by M. Édouard Dupont.]
+
+One of these skulls is distinguished by a projecting jaw; the other,
+which is represented in fig. 73, has jaws even with the facial outline.
+The prominent jaw of the first, which is the indication of a degraded
+race (like that of the negro), does not prevent its having a higher
+forehead and a more capacious cranium than the other skull. We find here
+an actual intermingling of the characteristics which belong to the
+inferior races with those peculiar to the Caucasian race, which is
+considered to be the most exalted type of the human species.
+
+According to Pruner-Bey, the Belgian people during the reindeer epoch
+were a race of small stature but very sturdy; the face was
+lozenge-shaped, and the whole skull had the appearance of a pyramid.
+This race of a Turanian or Mongolian origin was the same as the Ligurian
+or Iberian race, which still exists in the north of Italy (Gulf of
+Genoa), and in the Pyrenees (Basque districts).
+
+These conclusions must be accepted with the highest degree of caution,
+for they do not agree with the opinions of all anthropologists. M. Broca
+is of opinion that the Basques have sprung from a North African race,
+which spread over Europe at a time when an isthmus existed where the
+Straits of Gibraltar are now situated. This idea is only reasonable;
+for certain facts prove that Europe and Africa were formerly connected
+by a neck of land; this was afterwards submerged, at the spot where the
+Straits of Gibraltar now exist, bringing about the disjunction of Europe
+and Africa. It will be sufficient proof, if we point to the analogy
+subsisting between the _fauna_ of the two countries, which is
+established by the existence of a number of wild monkeys which, even in
+the present day, inhabit this arid rock, and are also to be met with on
+the opposite African shore.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Skull of an old Man, found in a _Rock-shelter_
+at Bruniquel.]
+
+In the interesting excavations which were made in the _rock-shelters_ at
+Bruniquel, M. V. Brun found a quantity of human bones, and particularly
+two skulls--one that of an old man, the other that of an adult. We here
+(fig. 74) give a representation of the old man's skull taken from a
+photograph which M. V. Brun has been kind enough to send us.
+
+If we measure the facial angle of this skull, we shall find that it does
+not differ from the skulls of the men who at the present time inhabit
+the same climates. From this fact, it may be gathered how mistaken the
+idea may be which looks upon primitive man, or the man of the stone
+epoch as a being essentially different from the men of the present day.
+The phrase _fossil man_, we must again repeat, should be expunged from
+the vocabulary of science; we should thus harmonise better with
+established facts, and should also do away with a misunderstanding which
+is highly detrimental to the investigations into the origin of man.
+
+In concluding this account of the manners and customs of man during the
+reindeer epoch, we must say a few words as to the funeral rites of this
+time, or rather, the mode of burial peculiar to this period of primitive
+man's history.
+
+Those who lived in caves buried their dead in caves. It is, also, a fact
+to be remarked, that man often uses the same type for both his
+burial-places and dwelling-places.
+
+The burial-places of the Tartars of Kasan, says M. Nilsson, are exact
+likenesses, on a small scale, of their dwelling-places, and like them,
+are constructed of beams placed close to one another. A Circassian
+burial-place is perfectly similar to a Circassian dwelling. The tombs of
+the Karaite Jews, in the valley of Jehoshaphat, resemble their houses
+and places of worship, and the Neo-Grecian tombs, in the Crimea, are
+likewise imitations of their churches.[10]
+
+We shall not, therefore, be surprised to learn that man during the
+reindeer epoch buried his dead in caves, just in the same way as was
+done by his ancestors during the epoch of the great bear and the
+mammoth, that is to say, the dead were interred in the same kind of
+caves as those which were then generally used as places of abode.
+
+Fig. 75 represents a funeral ceremonial during the reindeer epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.--A Funeral Ceremony during the Reindeer Epoch.]
+
+The corpse is borne on a litter of boughs, a practice which is still in
+use among some modern savages. Men provided with torches, that is
+branches of resinous trees, preceded the funeral procession, in order to
+light the interior of the cavern. The cave is open, ready to receive the
+corpse, and it will be closed again after it is deposited there. The
+weapons, ornaments, and utensils which he had prized during his
+lifetime, are brought in to be laid by the side of the dead.
+
+We will sum up the principal facts which we have laid before our readers
+in this account of the condition of mankind during the reindeer epoch,
+by quoting an eloquent passage from a report addressed by M. Édouard
+Dupont to the Belgian Minister of the Interior, on the excavations
+carried on by this eminent Belgian geologist in the caves in the
+neighbourhood of Furfooz.
+
+"The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together with those
+which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz, present us," says M.
+Dupont, "with a striking picture of the primitive ages of mankind in
+Belgium.
+
+"These ancient tribes and all their customs, after having been buried
+in oblivion for thousands and thousands of years, are again vividly
+brought before our eyes; and, like the wondrous bird, which, in its
+ashes, found a new source of life, antiquity lives again in the relics
+of its former existence.
+
+"We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark and subterranean
+retreats, crouching round their hearths, and skilfully and patiently
+chipping out their flint instruments and shaping their reindeer-horn
+tools, in the midst of all the pestilential emanations arising from the
+various animal remains which their carelessness has allowed to remain in
+their dwellings. Skins of wild beasts are stripped of their hair, and,
+by the aid of flint needles, are converted into garments. In our mind's
+eye, we may see them engaged in the chase, and hunting wild
+animals--their only weapons being darts and spears, the fatal points of
+which are formed of nothing but a splinter of flint.
+
+"Again, we are present at their feasts, in which, during the period when
+their hunting has been fortunate, a horse, a bear, or a reindeer becomes
+the more noble substitute for the tainted flesh of the rat, their sole
+resource in the time of famine.
+
+"Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting the region now
+called France, and procuring the jet and fossil shells with which they
+love to adorn themselves, and the flint which is to them so precious a
+material. On one side they are picking up the fluor spar, the colour of
+which is pleasing to their eyes; on the other, they are digging out the
+great slabs of sandstone which are to be placed as hearthstones round
+their fire.
+
+"But, alas! inauspicious days arrive, and certainly misfortune does not
+seem to spare them. A falling in of the roof of their cave drives them
+out of their chief dwelling-place. The objects of their worship, their
+weapons, and their utensils--all are buried there, and they are forced
+to fly and take up their abode in another spot.
+
+"The ravages of death break in upon them; how great are the cares which
+are now lavished upon those whom they have lost! They bear the corpse
+into its cavernous sepulchre; some weapons, an amulet, and perhaps an
+urn, form the whole of the funeral furniture. A slab of stone prevents
+the inroad of wild beasts. Then begins the funeral banquet, celebrated
+close by the abode of the dead; a fire is lighted, great animals are cut
+up, and portions of their smoking flesh are distributed to each. How
+strange the ceremonies that must then have taken place! ceremonies like
+those told us of the savages of the Indian and African solitudes.
+Imagination may easily depict the songs, the dances and the invocations,
+but science is powerless to call them into life.
+
+"The sepulchre is often reopened; little children and adults came in
+turn to take their places in the gloomy cave. Thirteen times the same
+ceremonial occurs, and thirteen times the slab is moved to admit the
+corpses.
+
+"But the end of this primitive age is at last come. Torrents of water
+break in upon the country. Its inhabitants, driven from their abodes, in
+vain take refuge on the lofty mountain summits. Death at last overtakes
+them, and a dark cavern is the tomb of the wretched beings, who, at
+Furfooz, were witnesses of this immense catastrophe.
+
+"Nothing is respected by the terrible element. The sepulchre, the object
+of such care on the part of the artless tribe, is burst open before the
+torrent, and the bones of the dead bodies, disjointed by the water, are
+dispersed into the midst of the crumbling earth and stones. Their former
+habitation alone is exempt from this common destruction, for it has been
+protected by a previous catastrophe--the sinking in of its roof on to
+the ground of the cave."
+
+Having now given a sketch of the chief features presented by man and his
+surroundings during the reindeer epoch; having described the most
+important objects of his skill, and dwelt upon the products of his
+artistic faculties; it now remains for us to complete, in a scientific
+point of view, the study of this question, by notifying the sources from
+which we have been able to gather our data, and to bring home to our
+minds these interesting ideas. Under this head, we may state that almost
+all the information which has been obtained has been derived from caves;
+and it will, therefore, be best to make a few brief remarks on the
+caverns which have been the scene of these various discoveries.
+
+Honour to whom honour is due. In mentioning these localities, we must
+place in the first class the settlements of Périgord, which have
+contributed to so great an extent towards the knowledge which we possess
+of primitive man. The four principal ones are, the cave of Les Eyzies
+and the rock-shelters or caverns of La Madelaine, Laugerie-Haute, and
+Laugerie-Basse. All of them have been explored by MM. Lartet and
+Christy, who, after having directed the excavations with the greatest
+ability, have set forth the results of their researches in a manner no
+less remarkable.[11]
+
+The settlement of Laugerie-Basse has also been explored by M. de
+Vibraye, who collected there some very interesting specimens.
+
+We have no intention of reverting to what we have before stated when
+describing the objects found in these various localities. We will
+content ourselves with mentioning the lumbar vertebral bone of a
+reindeer found in the cave of Eyzies, of which we have given a
+representation in fig. 55; it was pierced through by an arrow-head,
+which may still be seen fixed in it. If any doubts could still exist of
+the co-existence, in France, of man and the reindeer, this object should
+suffice to put an end to them for ever.
+
+We will mention, as next in importance, the cave and rock-shelters at
+Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne). They have been carefully examined by a
+great many explorers, among whom we must specify M. Garrigou, M. de
+Lastic (the proprietor of the cavern), M. V. Brun, the learned Director
+of the Museum of Natural History at Montauban, and M. Peccadeau de
+l'Isle.
+
+It is to be regretted that M. de Lastic sold about fifteen hundred
+specimens of every description of the relics which had been found on his
+property, to Professor Owen, for the British Museum. In this large
+quantity of relics, there were, of course, specimens which will never be
+met with elsewhere; which, therefore, it would have been better in every
+respect to have retained in France.
+
+The cave of Bruniquel has also furnished us with human bones, amongst
+which are two almost perfect skulls, one of which we have previously
+represented; also two half jaw-bones which resemble those found at
+Moulin-Quignon. M. V. Brun has given, in his interesting work, a
+representation of these human remains.[12]
+
+We will now mention the _Cave of Bize_ near Narbonne (Aude); the _Cave
+of La Vache_ in the valley of Tarascon (Ariége), in which M. Garrigou
+collected an immense quantity of bones, on one of which some peculiar
+characters are graven, constituting, perhaps, a first attempt in the art
+of writing; the _Cavern of Massat_ in the same department, which has
+been described by M. Fontan, and is thought by M. Lartet to have been a
+summer dwelling-place, the occupiers of which lived on raw flesh and
+snails, for no traces of a hearth are to be seen, although it must have
+been used for a considerable time as a shelter by primitive man; the
+_Cave of Lourdes_, near Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées), in which M.
+Milne-Edwards met with a fragment of a human skull, belonging to an
+adult individual; the _Cave of Espalungue_, also called the _Grotto of
+Izeste_ (Basses-Pyrénées), where MM. Garrigou and Martin found a human
+bone, the fifth left metatarsal; the _Cave of Savigné_ (Vienne),
+situated on the banks of the Charente, and discovered by M.
+Joly-Leterme, an architect of Saumur, who there found a fragment of a
+stag's bone, on which the bodies of two animals are graven with
+hatchings to indicate shadows; the _Grottos of La Balme and Bethenas_,
+in Dauphiné, explored by M. Chantre; lastly, the settlement of Solutré,
+in the neighbourhood of Mâcon, from which MM. Ferry and Arcelin have
+exhumed two human skulls, together with some very fine flint instruments
+of the Laugerie-Haute type.
+
+These settlements do not all belong to the same epoch, although most of
+them correspond to the long period known as the reindeer epoch. It is
+not always possible to determine their comparative chronology. From the
+state of their _débris_ it can, however, be ascertained, that the caves
+of Lourdes and Espalungue date back to the most ancient period of the
+reindeer epoch; whilst the settlements of Périgord, of Tarn-et-Garonne,
+and of Mâconnais are of a later date. The cave of Massat seems as if it
+ought to be dated at the beginning of the wrought stone epoch, for no
+bones have been found there, either of the reindeer or the horse; the
+remains of the bison are the sole representatives of the extinct animal
+species.
+
+In concluding this list of the French bone-caves which have served to
+throw a light upon the peculiar features of man's existence during the
+reindeer epoch, we must not omit to mention the Belgian caves, which
+have been so zealously explored by M. Édouard Dupont. From the preceding
+pages, we may perceive how especially important the latter have been in
+the elucidation of the characteristics of man's physical organisation
+during this epoch.
+
+France and Belgium are not the only countries which have furnished
+monuments relating to man's history during the reindeer epoch. We must
+not omit to mention that settlements of this epoch have been discovered
+both in Germany and also in Switzerland.
+
+In 1866 a great quantity of bones and broken instruments were found at
+the bottom of an ancient glacier-moraine in the neighbourhood of
+Rabensburg, not far from the lake of Constance. The bones of the
+reindeer formed about ninety-eight hundredths of these remains. The
+other _débris_ were the bones of the horse, the wolf, the brown bear,
+the white fox, the glutton and the ox.
+
+In 1858, on a mountain near Geneva, a cave was discovered about 12 feet
+deep and 6 feet wide, which contained, under a layer of carbonate of
+lime, a great quantity of flints and bones. The bones of the reindeer
+formed the great majority of them, for eighteen skeletons of this animal
+were found. The residue of the remains were composed of four horses, six
+ibex, intermingled with the bones of the marmot, the chamois, and the
+hazel-hen; in short, the bones of the whole animal population which, at
+the present time, has abandoned the valleys of Switzerland, and is now
+only to be met with on the high mountains of the Alps.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[7] 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche.' Paris, 1867, p. 25.
+
+[8] 'Pre-Historic Times,' 2d ed. p. 319.
+
+[9] 'L'Homme Fossile.' Brussels, 1868 (page 71).
+
+[10] 'The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,' by Sven Nilsson, p.
+155. London, 1868.
+
+[11] 'Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,' by Éd. Lartet and H. Christy. London, 1865,
+&c.
+
+[12] 'Notice sur les Fouilles Paléontologiques de l'Age de la Pierre
+exécutées à Bruniquel et Saint-Antonin,' by V. Brun. Montauban, 1867.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+
+THE POLISHED-STONE EPOCH; OR, THE EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     The European Deluge--The Dwelling-place of Man during the
+     Polished-stone Epoch--The Caves and Rock-shelters still used as
+     Dwelling-places--Principal Caves belonging to the Polished-stone
+     Epoch which have been explored up to the present Time--The Food of
+     Man during this period.
+
+
+Aided by records drawn from the bowels of the earth, we have now
+traversed the series of antediluvian ages since the era when man first
+made his appearance on the earth, and have been enabled, though but very
+imperfectly, to reconstruct the history of our primitive forefathers. We
+will now leave this epoch, through the dark night of which science seeks
+almost in vain to penetrate, and turn our attention to a period the
+traces of which are more numerous and more easily grasped by our
+intelligence--a period, therefore, which we are able to characterise
+with a much greater degree of precision.
+
+A great catastrophe, the tradition of which is preserved in the memory
+of all nations, marked in Europe the end of the quaternary epoch. It is
+not easy to assign the exact causes for this great event in the earth's
+history; but whatever may be the explanation given, it is certain that a
+cataclysm, caused by the violent flowing of rushing water, took place
+during the quaternary geological epoch; for the traces of it are
+everywhere visible. These traces consist of a reddish clayey deposit,
+mixed with sand and pebbles. This deposit is called in some countries
+_red diluvium_, and in others _grey diluvium_. In the valley of the
+Rhone and the Rhine it is covered with a layer of loamy deposit, which
+is known to geologists by the name of _loess_ or _lehm_, and as to the
+origin of which they are not all agreed. Sir Charles Lyell is of opinion
+that this mud was produced by the crushing of the rocks by early Alpine
+glaciers, and that it was afterwards carried down by the streams of
+water which descended from these mountains. This mud covers a great
+portion of Belgium, where it is from 10 to 30 feet in thickness, and
+supplies with material a large number of brickfields.
+
+This deposit, that is the _diluvial beds_, constitutes nearly the most
+recent of all those which form the earth's crust; in many European
+countries, it is, in fact the ground trodden under the feet of the
+present population.
+
+The inundation to which the _diluvium_ is referred closes the series of
+the quaternary ages. After this era, the present geological period
+commences, which is characterised by the almost entire permanency of the
+vertical outline of the earth, and by the formation of peat-bogs.
+
+The earliest documents afforded us by history are very far from going
+back to the starting-point of this period. The history of the ages which
+we call historical is very far from having attained to the beginning of
+the present geological epoch.
+
+In order to continue our account of the progressive development of
+primitive man, we must now turn our attention to the _Polished-stone
+Epoch_, or the _Epoch of Tamed Animals_, which precedes the Metal Age.
+
+As the facts which we shall have to review are very numerous, we will,
+in the first place, consider this epoch as it affects those parts of our
+continent which form the present France and Belgium; next, with
+reference to Denmark and Switzerland, in which countries we shall have
+to point out certain manners and customs of man of an altogether special
+character.
+
+We shall consider in turn:--
+
+1st. The habitation of man during the polished-stone epoch.
+
+2nd. His system of food.
+
+3rd. His arts and manufactures.
+
+4th. The weapons manufactured by him, and their use in war.
+
+5th. His attainments in agriculture, fishing, and navigation.
+
+6th. His funeral ceremonies.
+
+7th. Lastly, the characteristics of mankind during this epoch.
+
+
+_Habitation._--In that part of the European continent which now forms
+the country called France, man, during that period we designate under
+the name of the polished-stone epoch, continued for a considerable time
+to inhabit rock-shelters and caves which afforded him the best retreat
+from the attacks of wild beasts.
+
+This fact has been specially proved to have been the case in the extreme
+south of the above-mentioned country. Among the investigations which
+have contributed towards its verification, we must give particular
+notice to those made by MM. Garrigou and Filhol in the caves of the
+Pyrenees (Ariége). These two _savants_ have also explored the caves of
+Pradières, Bedeilhac, Labart, Niaux, Ussat, and Fontanel.[13]
+
+In one of these caves, which we have already mentioned in the preceding
+chapter, but to which we must again call attention--for they belong both
+to the polished stone, and also to the reindeer epoch--MM. Garrigou and
+Filhol found the bones of a huge ox, the urus or _Bos primigenius_, a
+smaller kind of ox, the stag, the sheep, the goat, the antelope, the
+chamois, the wild boar, the wolf, the dog, the fox, the badger, the
+hare, and possibly those of the horse. Neither the bones of the reindeer
+nor the bison are included in this list of names; on account of the
+mildness of the climate, these two species had already migrated towards
+the north and east in search of a colder atmosphere.
+
+The remains of hearths, bones split lengthwise, and broken skulls,
+indicate that the inhabitants of these caves lived on much the same food
+as their ancestors. It is probable that they also ate raw snails, for a
+large quantity of their shells were found in this cave, and also in the
+cavern of Massat,[14] the presence of which can only be accounted for in
+this way.
+
+These remains were found intermingled with piercers, spear-heads, and
+arrow-heads, all made of bone; also hatchets, knives, and scratchers,
+made of flint, and also of various other substances, which were more
+plentiful than flint in that country, such as siliceous schist,
+quartzite, leptinite and serpentine stones. These instruments were
+carefully wrought, and a few had been polished at one end on a slab of
+flag-stone.
+
+In the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrénées), which has been explored by M.
+Alphonse Milne-Edwards, two layers were observed; one belonging to the
+reindeer epoch, and the other to the polished-stone epoch.[15] The cave
+of Pontil (Hérault), which has been carefully examined by Professor
+Gervais,[16] has furnished remains of every epoch including the bronze
+age; we must, however, except the reindeer epoch, which is not
+represented in this cave.
+
+Lastly, we will mention the cave of Saint-Jean-d'Alcas (Aveyron), which
+has been explored, at different times, by M. Cazalis de Fondouce. This
+is a sepulchral cave, like that of Aurignac. When it was first explored,
+about twenty years ago, five human skulls, in good preservation, were
+found in it--a discovery, the importance of which was then unheeded, and
+the skulls were, in consequence, totally lost to science. Flint, jade,
+and serpentine instruments, carved bones, remains of rough pottery,
+stone amulets, and the shells of shell-fish, which had formed necklaces
+and bracelets, were intermingled with human bones.
+
+At Saint-Jean-d'Alcas, M. Cazalis de Fondouce did not meet with any
+remains of funeral banquets such as were found at Aurignac and Furfooz;
+he only noticed two large flag-stones lying across one another at the
+mouth of the cave, so as to make the inlet considerably narrower.
+
+This cave, according to a recent publication of M. Cazalis, must be
+referred to a more recent epoch than was at first supposed, for some
+fragments of metallic substances were found in it. It must, therefore,
+have belonged to a late period of the polished-stone epoch.[17]
+
+
+_Man's System of Feeding during the Polished-stone Epoch._--In order to
+obtain full information on the subject of man's food in the north and
+centre of Europe during the polished-stone epoch, we must appeal to the
+interesting researches of which Denmark has been the scene during the
+last few years; but these researches, on account of their importance,
+require a detailed account.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Man of the Polished-stone Epoch.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] 'L'Homme Fossile des Cavernes de Lombrive et de Lherm.' Toulouse,
+1862. Illustrated. 'L'Age de Pierre dans les Vallées de Tarascon'
+(Ariége). Tarascon, 1863.
+
+[14] 'Sur deux Cavernes découvertes dans la Montagne de Kaer à Massat'
+(Ariége). Quoted by Lyell, Appendix to 'The Antiquity of Man,' p. 247.
+
+[15] 'De l'Existence de l'Homme pendant la Période quaternaire dans la
+grotte de Lourdes' (Hautes-Pyrénées). ('Annales des Sciences
+Naturelles,' 4th series, vol. xvii.)
+
+[16] 'Mémoires de l'Académie de Montpellier' ('Section des Sciences'),
+1857, vol. iii, p. 509.
+
+[17] 'Sur une Caverne de l'Age de la Pierre, située près de
+Saint-Jean-d'Alcas' (Aveyron), 1864. 'Derniers Temps de l'Age de la
+Pierre Polie dans l'Aveyron', Montpellier, 1867. Illustrated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+     The _Kjoekken-Moeddings_ or "Kitchen-middens" of Denmark--Mode of
+     Life of the Men living in Denmark during the Polished-stone
+     Epoch--The Domestication of the Dog--The Art of Fishing during the
+     Polished-stone Epoch--Fishing-nets--Weapons and Instruments of
+     War--Type of the Human Race; the Borreby Skull.
+
+
+Although classed in the lowest rank on account of the small extent of
+its territory and the number of its inhabitants, the Danish nation is,
+nevertheless, one of the most important in Europe, in virtue of the
+eminence to which it has attained in science and arts. This valiant,
+although numerically speaking, inconsiderable people, can boast of a
+great number of distinguished men who are an honour to science. The
+unwearied researches of their archæologists and antiquarians have
+ransacked the dust of bygone ages, in order to call into new life the
+features of a vanished world. Their labours, guided by the observations
+of naturalists, have brought out into the clear light of day some of the
+earliest stages in man's existence and progress.
+
+There is no part of the world more adapted than Denmark to this kind of
+investigation. Antiquities may be met with at every step; the real point
+in question is to know how to examine them properly, so as to obtain
+from them important revelations concerning the manners, customs, and
+manufactures of the pre-historic inhabitants. The Museum of Copenhagen,
+which contains antiquities from various Scandinavian states, is, in this
+respect, without a rival in the world.
+
+Among the objects arranged in this well-stocked Museum a great many
+specimens may be observed which have come from the so-called
+_kitchen-middens_.
+
+In the first place, what are these _kjoekken-moeddings_, or
+kitchen-middens, with their uncouth Scandinavian name?
+
+Immense accumulations of shells have been observed on different points
+of the Danish coast, chiefly in the north, where the sea enters those
+narrow deep creeks, known by the name of _fiords_. These deposits are
+not generally raised more than about 3 feet above the level of the sea;
+but in some steep places their altitude is greater. They are about 3 to
+10 feet in thickness, and from 100 to 200 feet in width; their length is
+sometimes as much as 1000 feet, with a width of from 150 to 250 feet. On
+some of the more level shores they form perfect hills, on which, as at
+Havelse, windmills are sometimes built.
+
+What do we meet with in these heaps? An immense quantity of sea-shells,
+especially those of the oyster, broken bones of mammiferous animals,
+remains of birds and fish; and, lastly, some roughly-wrought flints.
+
+The first idea formed with regard to these kitchen-middens was that they
+were nothing but banks of fossil shells, beds which had formerly been
+submerged, and subsequently brought to light by an upheaval of the earth
+caused by some volcanic cause. But M. Steenstrup, a Danish _savant_,
+opposed this opinion, basing his contradiction on the fact that these
+shells belong to four different species which are never found together,
+and consequently they must have been brought together by man. M.
+Steenstrup also called attention to the fact that almost all these
+shells must have belonged to full-grown animals, and that there were
+hardly any young ones to be found amongst them. A peculiarity of this
+kind is an evident indication of the exercise of some rational purpose,
+in fact, of an act of the human will.
+
+When all the _débris_ and relics which we have enumerated were
+discovered in these kitchen-middens, when the remains of hearths--small
+spots which still retained traces of fire--were found in them, the
+origin of these heaps were readily conjectured. Tribes once existed
+there who subsisted on the products of fishing and hunting, and threw
+out round their cabins the remains of their meals, consisting especially
+of the _débris_ of shell-fish. These remains gradually accumulated, and
+constituted the considerable heaps which we are discussing; hence the
+name of _kjoekken-moedding_, composed of two words--_kjoekken_, kitchen;
+and _moedding_, heap of refuse. These "kitchen-middens," as they are
+called, are, therefore, the refuse from the meals of the primitive
+population of Denmark.
+
+If we consider the heaps of oyster-shells and other _débris_ which
+accumulate in the neighbourhood of eating-houses in certain districts,
+we may readily understand, comparing great things with small, how these
+Danish kitchen-middens were produced. I myself well recollect having
+noticed in the environs of Montpellier small hillocks of a similar
+character, formed by the accumulation of oyster-shells, mussels, and
+clams.
+
+When the conviction was once arrived at that these kitchen-middens were
+the refuse of the meals of the primitive inhabitants, the careful
+excavation of all these heaps scattered along the Danish coast became an
+extremely interesting operation. It might be justly expected that some
+data would be collected as to the customs and manufactures of the
+ancient dwellers in these countries. A commission was, in consequence,
+appointed by the Danish Government to examine these deposits, and to
+publish the results of its labours.
+
+This commission was composed of three _savants_, each of whom were
+eminent in their respective line--Steenstrup, the naturalist,
+Forchhammer, a geologist, and the archæologist, Worsaae--and performed
+its task with as much talent as zeal. The observations which were made
+are recorded in three reports presented to the Academy of Sciences at
+Copenhagen. From these documents are borrowed most of the details which
+follow.
+
+Before proceeding to acquaint our readers with the facts brought to
+light by the Danish commission, it will be well to remark that Denmark
+does not stand alone in possessing these kitchen-middens. They have been
+discovered in England--in Cornwall and Devonshire--in Scotland, and even
+in France, near Hyères (Bouches-du-Rhône).[18]
+
+MM. Sauvage and Hamy have pointed out to M. de Mortillet the existence
+of deposits of this kind in the Pas-de-Calais. They may be noticed, say
+these naturalists, at La Salle (Commune of Outreau) at certain parts of
+the coast of Portel, and especially a very large heap at Cronquelets
+(Commune of Etaples.) They chiefly consist of the _cardium edule_, which
+appear to abound in the kitchen-middens of the Pas-de-Calais.
+
+Messrs. Evans, Prestwich, and Lubbock observed one of these deposits at
+Saint-Valery, near the mouth of the Somme. Added to this, they have been
+described by various travellers as existing in different parts of the
+world. Dampier studied them in Australia, and Darwin in Tierra del
+Fuego, where deposits of the same character are now in the course of
+formation. M. Pereira da Costa found one on the coast of Portugal; Sir
+C. Lyell has testified to the existence of others on the coasts of
+Massachusetts and Georgia, in the United States; M. Strobel, on the
+coasts of Brazil. But those in Denmark are the only deposits of this
+kind which have been the subject of investigations of a deliberate and
+serious character.
+
+Almost all these kitchen-middens are found on the coast, along the
+_fiords_, where the action of the waves is not much felt. Some have,
+however, been found several miles inland; but this must be owing to the
+fact that the sea once occupied these localities, from which it has
+subsequently retired. They are not to be met with on some of the Danish
+coasts, as those of the western side; this, on the one hand, may be
+caused by their having been washed away by the sea, which has there
+encroached on the land, or, on the other hand, by the fact that the
+western coast was much less sheltered than the other parts of the Danish
+peninsula. They are not unfrequently to be found in the adjacent
+islands.
+
+These kitchen-middens form, in a general way, undulating mounds, which
+sink in a gentle incline from the centre to the circumference. The spot
+where they are thickest indicates the site of the habitations of man.
+Sometimes, we may notice one principal hillock, surrounded by smaller
+mounds; or else, in the middle of the heaps, there is a spot which must
+have been the site of the encampment.
+
+These refuse deposits are almost entirely made up of shells of various
+kinds of molluscs; the principal species are the oyster, the cockle, the
+mussel, and the periwinkle. Others, such as whelks, _helices_ (edible
+snails), _nassa_, and _trigonella_, are also found; but they are
+comparatively few in number.
+
+Fishes' bones are discovered in great abundance in the kitchen-middens.
+They belong to the cod, herring, dab, and eel. From this we may infer
+that the primitive inhabitants of Denmark were not afraid of venturing
+out to brave the waves of the sea in their frail skiffs; for the herring
+and the cod cannot, in fact, be caught except at some little distance
+from the shore.
+
+Mammalian bones are also plentifully distributed in the Danish
+kitchen-middens. Those most commonly met with are the remains of the
+stag, the roe, and the boar, which, according to M. Steenstrup's
+statement, make up ninety-seven hundredths of the whole mass. Others are
+the relics of the urus, the wolf, the dog, the fox, the wild-cat, the
+lynx, the marten, the otter, the porpoise, the seal, the water-rat, the
+beaver and the hedgehog.
+
+The bison, the reindeer, the elk, the horse, and the domestic ox have
+not left behind them any trace which will permit us to assume that they
+existed in Denmark at the period when these deposits were formed.
+
+Amongst other animals, we have mentioned the dog. By various
+indications, we are led to the belief that this intelligent creature had
+been at this time reduced to a state of domesticity. It has been
+remarked that a large number of the bones dispersed in these
+kitchen-middens are incomplete; exactly the same parts are almost always
+missing, and certain bones are entirely wanting. M. Steenstrup is of
+opinion that these deficiencies may be owing to the agency of dogs,
+which have made it their business to ransack the heaps of bones and
+other matters which were thrown aside by their masters. This hypothesis
+was confirmed, in his idea, when he became convinced, by experience,
+that the bones which were deficient in these deposits were precisely
+those which dogs are in the habit of devouring, and that the remaining
+portions of those which were found were not likely to have been subject
+to their attacks on account of their hardness and the small quantity of
+assimilable matter which was on or in them.
+
+Although primitive man may have elevated the dog to the dignity of being
+his companion and friend, he was, nevertheless, sometimes in the habit
+of eating him. No doubt he did not fall back upon this last resort
+except in cases when all other means of subsistence failed him. Bones of
+the dog, broken by the hand of man, and still bearing the marks of
+having been cut with a knife, are amongst the remains found, and place
+the fact beyond any question.
+
+We find, besides, the same taste existing here which we have seen
+manifested in other ages and different countries. All the long bones
+have been split in order to extract their marrow--the dainty so highly
+appreciated by man during the epochs of the reindeer and the mammoth.
+
+Some remains of birds have been found in the kitchen-middens; but most
+of the species are aquatic--a fact which may be readily explained by the
+seaboard position of the men who formed these deposits.
+
+As the result of this review of the various substances which were made
+use of for food by the men of the polished-stone epoch, we may infer
+that they were both hunters and fishermen.
+
+Animals of rapid pace were hunted down by means of the dart or arrow,
+and any more formidable prey was struck down at close quarters by some
+sharp stone weapon.
+
+Fishing was practised, as at the present day, by means of the line and
+net.
+
+We have already seen that men, during the reindeer epoch, probably used
+hooks fastened at the end of lines. These hooks, as we have before
+remarked, were made with splinters of bone or reindeer horn. During the
+polished-stone epoch this fishing instrument was much improved, and they
+now possessed the real hook with a recurvate and pointed end. This kind
+of hook was found by Dr. Uhlmann in one of the most ancient lacustrine
+stations of Switzerland. But a curved hook was both difficult to make
+and also not very durable; instead of it was used another and more
+simple sort--the straight skewer fixed to serve as a hook. This is a
+simple fragment of bone, about an inch long, very slender and pointed at
+the two ends (fig. 77). Sometimes it is a little flattened in the
+middle, or bored with a hole, into which the line was fastened.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Bone Skewers used as Fish-hooks.]
+
+This little splinter of bone, when hidden by the bait and fastened to a
+line, was swallowed by the fish and could not be disgorged, one of the
+pointed ends being certain to bury itself in the entrails of the
+creature.
+
+Some of our readers will perhaps be surprised to learn that men of the
+polished-stone epoch were in the habit of fishing with nets; but it is a
+fact that cannot be called into question, for the very conclusive
+reason, that the remains of these nets have been found.
+
+How could it possibly come to pass that fishing-nets of the
+polished-stone epoch should have been preserved to so late a period as
+our times? This is exactly the question we are about to answer.
+
+On the lakes of Switzerland and of other countries, there used to exist
+certain habitations of man. These are the so-called _lacustrine
+dwellings_ which we shall have hereafter to consider in some
+considerable detail, when we come to the Bronze Age. The men who lived
+on these lakes were necessarily fishers; and some traces of their
+fishing-nets have been discovered by a circumstance which chemistry
+finds no difficulty in explaining. Some of these lake-dwellings were
+destroyed by fire; as, for instance, the lacustrine settlements of
+Robenhausen and Wangen in Switzerland. The outsides of these cabins,
+which were almost entirely constructed of wood, burnt, of course, very
+readily; but the objects inside, chiefly consisting of nets--the sole
+wealth of these tribes--could not burn freely for want of oxygen, but
+were only charred with the heat. They became covered with a slight
+coating of some empyreumatic or tarry matter--an excellent medium for
+insuring the preservation of any organic substance. These nets having
+been scorched by the fire, fell into the water with the _débris_ of the
+hut, and, in consequence of their precipitate fall, never having come in
+actual contact with the flame, have been preserved almost intact at the
+bottom of the lakes. When, after a long lapse of centuries, they have
+been again recovered, these _débris_ have been the means of affording
+information as to the manufacture both of the fishing-nets, and also as
+to the basket-work, vegetable provisions, &c., of these remote ages.
+
+In one of Dr. Keller's papers on these _lacustrine dwellings_, of which
+we shall have more to say further on, we find a description and
+delineation of certain fishing-nets which were recovered from the lake
+of Robenhausen. In the Museum of Saint-Germain we inspected with
+curiosity several specimens of these very nets, and we here give a
+representation of one of them. There were nets with wide meshes like
+that shown in fig. 78, and also some more closely netted. The mesh is a
+square one, and appears to have been made on a frame by knotting the
+string at each point of intersection. All these nets are made of flax,
+for hemp had not yet been cultivated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Fishing-net with wide Meshes.]
+
+These nets were held suspended in the water by means of floats, made,
+not of cork, but of the thick bark of the pine-tree, and were held down
+to the bottom of the water by stone weights. We give a representation
+here (fig. 79), of one of these stone weights taken from a specimen
+exhibited in the Museum of Saint-Germain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Stone Weight used for sinking the
+Fishing-nets.]
+
+These stone weights, large quantities of which are to be seen in
+museums, and especially in that of Saint-Germain, are, in almost every
+case, nothing but pebbles bored through the centre. Sometimes, however,
+they were round pieces of soft stone, having a hole made in the middle.
+Through this hole the cord was passed and fastened by a knot on the
+other side. By means of the floats and weights the nets were made to
+assume any position in the water which was wished.
+
+The large size of the meshes in the nets belonging to the polished-stone
+epoch proves, that in the lakes and rivers of this period the fish that
+were used for food were of considerable dimensions. Added to this,
+however, the monstrous hooks belonging to this epoch which have been
+found in the Seine tend to corroborate this hypothesis.
+
+Thus, then, the art of fishing had arrived in the polished-stone epoch
+to a very advanced stage of improvement.
+
+In plate 80 we give a representation of fishing as carried on during the
+polished-stone epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch.]
+
+Returning to the subject of the ancient Danes, we must add, that these
+men, who lived on the sea-coasts, clad themselves in skins of beasts,
+rendered supple by the fat of the seal and marrow extracted from the
+bones of some of the large mammals. For dwelling-places they used tents
+likewise made of skins prepared in the same way.
+
+
+_Arts and Manufactures._--What degree of skill in this respect was
+attained by the men who lived during the polished-stone epoch? To give
+an answer to this question, we must again ransack those same
+kitchen-middens which have been the means of furnishing us with such
+accurate information as to the system of food of the man of that period.
+We shall also have to turn our attention to the remains found in the
+principal caves of this epoch.
+
+An examination of the instruments found in the kitchen-middens shows us
+that the flints are in general of a very imperfect type, with the
+exception, however, of the long splinters or knives, the workmanship of
+which indicates a considerable amount of skill.
+
+Fig. 81 represents a flint knife from one of the Danish deposits,
+delineated in the Museum of Saint-Germain; and fig. 82 a _nucleus_, that
+is, a piece of flint from which splinters have been taken off, which
+were intended to be used as knives.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Flint Knife, from one of the Danish Beds.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Nucleus off which Knives are flaked.]
+
+We also give a representation of a hatchet (fig. 83) and a scraper (fig.
+84), which came from the same source.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Flint Hatchet, from one of the Danish Beds.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Flint Scraper, from one of the Danish Beds.]
+
+Besides these instruments, bodkins, spear-heads, and stones for slings
+have also been found in the kitchen-middens, without taking into account
+a quantity of fragments of flint which do not appear to have been
+wrought with any special purpose in view, and were probably nothing but
+rough attempts, or the mere refuse of the manufacture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Refuse from the Manufacture of wrought Flints.]
+
+In the same deposits there are also found a good many pebbles, which,
+according to the general opinion, must have been used as weights to sink
+the fishing-nets to the bottom of the water. Some are hollowed out with
+a groove all round them, like that depicted in fig. 86, which is
+designed from a specimen in the Museum of Saint-Germain. Others have a
+hole bored through the middle. This groove or hole was, doubtless,
+intended to hold the cord which fastened the stone weight to the net.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Weight to sink Fishing-nets.]
+
+
+_Weapons and Tools._--We shall now pass on to the weapons and tools
+which were in use among the people in the north of Europe during the
+period we are considering.
+
+During the latter period of the polished-stone epoch working in stone
+attained to a really surprising degree of perfection among the people of
+the North. It is, in fact, difficult to understand how, without making
+use of any metallic tools, men could possibly impart to flint, when
+fashioned into weapons and implements of all kinds, those regular and
+elegant shapes which the numerous excavations that have been set on foot
+are constantly bringing to light. The Danish flint may, it is true, be
+wrought with great facility; but nevertheless, an extraordinary amount
+of skill would be none the less necessary in order to produce that
+rectitude of outline and richness of contour which are presented by the
+Danish specimens of this epoch--specimens which will not be surpassed
+even in the Bronze Age.
+
+The hatchets found in the north of Europe, belonging to the
+polished-stone epoch, differ very considerably from the hatchets of
+France and Belgium. The latter are rounded and bulging at the edges; but
+the hatchets made use of by the people of the North (fig. 87) were
+flatter and cut squarely at the edge. They were nearly in the shape of a
+rectangle or elongated trapezium, with the four angles cut off. Their
+dimensions are sometimes considerable; some have been found which
+measured nearly 16 inches in length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Danish Axe of the Polished-stone Epoch.]
+
+Independently of this type, which is the most plentiful, the northern
+tribes used also to manufacture the drilled hatchet, which is combined
+in various ways with the hammer. In these instruments, the best
+workmanship and the most pleasing shapes are to be noticed. The figs.
+88, 89 and 90, designed in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from authentic
+specimens sent by the Museum of Copenhagen, represent double-edged axes
+and axe-hammers. They are all pierced with a round hole in which the
+handle was fixed. The cutting edge describes an arc of a circle, and
+the other end is wrought into sharp angular edges.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Double-edged Axe]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Danish Axe-hammer, drilled for handle.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Danish Axe-hammer, drilled for handle.]
+
+These hatchets are distinguished from those of the reindeer epoch by a
+characteristic which enables us to refer them without hesitation to
+their real date, even in cases in which they have not yet been subject
+to the operation of polishing. The hatchets of the reindeer epoch have
+their cutting edge at the narrowest end, whilst those of the
+polished-stone epoch are sharp at their widest end. This observation
+does not apply specially to the Danish hatchets; it refers equally to
+those of other European countries.
+
+The spear-heads are masterpieces of good taste, patience, and skill.
+There are two sorts of them. The most beautiful (figs. 91, 92) assume
+the shape of a laurel-leaf; they are quite flat, and chipped all over
+with an infinite amount of art. Their length is as much as 15 inches.
+Others are shorter and thicker in shape, and terminate at the base in an
+almost cylindrical handle. Sometimes they are toothed at the edge (fig.
+93). These spear-heads were evidently fixed at the end of a staff, like
+the halberds of the middle ages and the modern lance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Spear-head from Denmark.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Spear-head from Denmark.]
+
+The poniards (fig. 94) are no less admirable in their workmanship than
+the spear-heads, from which they do not perceptibly differ, except in
+having a handle, which is flat, wide, solid, and made a little thicker
+at the end. This handle is always more or less ornamented, and is
+sometimes covered with delicate carving. To chip a flint in this way
+must have required a skilful and well-practised hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Toothed Spear-head of Flint.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Flint Poniard, from Denmark.]
+
+After these somewhat extraordinary instruments, we must mention the
+arrow-heads, the shapes of which are rather varied in their character.
+
+The arrow-heads most frequently found are formed in the shape of a
+triangular prism, terminating at the lower end in a stem intended to be
+inserted into a stick (fig. 95); others are deeply indented at the base
+and quite flat. Many are finely serrated on the edges, and occasionally
+even on the inside edge of the indentation.
+
+Figs. 95, 96, 97, and 98 represent the various types of Danish
+arrow-heads, all of which are in the Museum of Saint-Germain, and from
+which these designs were made.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Type of the Danish Arrow-head.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Another Type of Arrow-head.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Arrow-head.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Arrow-head from Denmark.]
+
+The chisels and gouges equally merit a special mention.
+
+The chisel (fig. 99) is a kind of quadrangular prism, chipped in a bevel
+down to the base.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Flint Chisel from Denmark.]
+
+The gouges are hollowed out on one of their faces, so as to act as the
+tool the name of which has been applied to them.
+
+We next come to some curious instruments, of which we have given designs
+taken from the specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain; the purpose
+they were applied to is still problematical. They are small flakes, or
+blades, in the shape of a crescent (figs. 100, 101). The inner edge,
+which was either straight or concave, is usually serrated like a saw;
+the convex side must have been fixed into a handle; for the traces of
+the handle may still be detected upon many of them. These instruments
+were probably made use of as scrapers in the preparation of skins for
+garments; perhaps, also, they were used as knives or as saws.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Small Stone Saw from the Danish Deposits.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.--Another Stone Saw from Denmark.]
+
+We must now turn our attention to instruments made of bone or stag's
+horn. They are much less numerous than those of stone, and have nothing
+about them of a very remarkable character. The only implement that is
+worthy of notice is the harpoon (fig. 102). It is a carved bone, and
+furnished with teeth all along one side, the other edge being completely
+smooth. The harpoon of the reindeer epoch was decidedly superior to it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Bone Harpoon of the Stone Age from Denmark.]
+
+On account of its singularity, we must not omit to mention an object
+made of bone, composed of a wide flat plate, from which spring seven or
+eight teeth of considerable length, and placed very close together;
+there is a kind of handle, much narrower, and terminating in a knob,
+like the top of a walking-stick. This is probably one of the first combs
+which ever unravelled the thickly-grown heads of hair of primitive man.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Bone Comb from Denmark.]
+
+It is a well-known fact that amber is very plentiful on the coasts of
+the Baltic. Even in the Stone Age, it was already much appreciated by
+the northern tribes, who used to make necklaces of it, either by merely
+perforating the rough morsels of amber and stringing them in a row, or
+by cutting them into spherical or elliptical beads, as is the case
+nowadays.
+
+Fig. 104 represents a necklace and also various other ornaments made of
+yellow amber, which have been drawn from specimens in the Museum of
+Saint-Germain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Necklace and various Ornaments of Amber.]
+
+Although these northern tribes of the polished-stone epoch were such
+skilful workmen in flint, they were, nevertheless, but poor hands at
+pottery. The _débris_ of vessels collected from the Danish
+_kitchen-middens_, and also from the peat-bogs and tombs, are in every
+way rough, and testify to a very imperfect knowledge of the art of
+moulding clay. They may be said to mark the first efforts of a
+manufacturing art which is just springing into existence, which is
+seeking for the right path, although not, as yet, able to find it. The
+art of pottery (if certain relics be relied on) was more advanced at a
+more ancient period, that is, during the reindeer epoch.
+
+We have already stated that during the reindeer epoch there existed
+certain manufactories of weapons and tools, the productions of which
+were distributed all round the adjacent districts, although over a
+somewhat restricted circle. In the epoch at which we have now arrived,
+certain _workshops_--for really this is the proper name to give
+them--acquired a remarkable importance, and their relations became of a
+much more extensive character. In several of the Belgian caves, flints
+have been found which must have come from the celebrated workshop of
+Grand-Pressigny, situated in that part of the present France which forms
+the department of Indre-et-Loire, and, from their very peculiar
+character, are easily recognisable. Commerce and manufacture had then
+emerged from their merely rudimentary state, and were entering into a
+period of activity implying a certain amount of civilisation.
+
+The great principle of division of labour had already been put into
+practice, for there were special workshops both for the shaping and
+polishing of flints.
+
+The most important of all the workshops which have been noticed in
+France is, unquestionably, that of Grand-Pressigny, which we have
+already mentioned. It was discovered by Dr. Léveillé, the medical man of
+the place; but, to tell the truth, it is not so much in itself a centre
+of manufacture as a series of workshops distributed in the whole
+neighbourhood round Pressigny.
+
+At the time of this discovery, that is in 1864, flints were found in
+thousands imbedded in the vegetable mould on the surface of the soil,
+over a superficies of 12 to 14 acres. The Abbé Chevalier, giving an
+account of this curious discovery to the _Académie des Sciences_ at
+Paris, wrote: "It is impossible to walk a single step without treading
+on some of these objects."
+
+The workshops of Grand-Pressigny furnish us with a considerable variety
+of instruments. We find hatchets in all stages of manufacture, from the
+roughest attempt up to a perfectly polished weapon. We find, also, long
+flakes or flint-knives cleft off with a single blow with astonishing
+skill.
+
+All these objects, even the most beautiful among them, are nevertheless
+defective in some respect or other; hence it may be concluded that they
+were the refuse thrown aside in the process of manufacture. In this way
+may be explained the accumulation of so many of these objects in the
+same spot.
+
+There were likewise narrow and elongated points forming a kind of
+piercer, perfectly wrought; also scrapers, and saws of a particular type
+which seem to have been made in a special workshop. They are short and
+wide, and have at each end a medial slot intended to receive a handle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Nucleus in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from
+the Workshop of Grand-Pressigny.]
+
+But the objects which are the most numerous of all, and those which
+obviate any doubt that Pressigny was once an important centre of the
+manufacture of flint, are the _nuclei_ (fig. 105), or the remnants of
+the lump of flint, from which the large blades known under the name of
+knives were cleft off. Some of these lumps which we have seen in the
+Museum of St. Germain were as much as 11 and 13 inches in length; but
+the greater part did not exceed 7 inches. The labourers of Touraine, who
+often turn up these flints with their plough-shares, call them _pounds
+of butter_, looking at the similarity of shape. At the present day these
+_nuclei_ are plentiful in all the collections of natural history and
+geology.
+
+A strange objection has been raised against the antiquity of the
+hatchets, knives, and weapons found at Pressigny. M. Eugène Robert has
+asserted that these flints were nothing else but the refuse of the
+siliceous masses which, at the end of the last century and especially at
+the beginning of the present, were used in the manufacture of
+gun-flints!
+
+The Abbé Bourgeois, M. Penguilly l'Haridon, and Mr. John Evans did not
+find much difficulty in proving the slight foundation there was for this
+criticism. In the department of Loire-et-Cher, in which the gun-flint
+manufacture still exists, the residue from the process bears no
+resemblance whatever to the _nuclei_ of Pressigny; the fragments are
+much less in bulk, and do not present the same constantly-occurring and
+regular shapes. Added to this, they are never chipped at the edges, like
+a great number of the flakes coming from the workshops of Touraine.
+
+But another and altogether peremptory argument is that the flints of
+Pressigny-le-Grand are unfitted, on account of the texture, for the
+manufacture of gun-flints. Moreover, the records of the Artillery Depôt,
+as remarked by M. Penguilly l'Haridon, librarian of the Artillery
+Museum, do not make mention of the locality of Pressigny having ever
+been worked for this purpose. Lastly, the oldest inhabitants of the
+commune have testified that they never either saw or heard of any body
+of workmen coming into the district to work flints. M. Eugène Robert's
+hypothesis, which MM. Decaisne and Elie de Beaumont thought right to
+patronise, is, therefore, as much opposed to facts as to probability.
+
+Very few polished flints are found in the workshops of
+Pressigny-le-Grand; it is, therefore, imagined that their existence
+commenced before the polished-stone epoch. According to this idea, the
+_nuclei_ would belong to a transitional epoch between the period of
+chipped stone, properly so called, and that of polished stone. The first
+was just coming to an end, but the second had not actually commenced. In
+other words, most of the Pressigny flints have the typical shapes and
+style of cutting peculiar to the polished-stone age, but the polishing
+is wanting.
+
+This operation was not practised in the workshops of Pressigny until
+some considerable period after they were founded, and were already in
+full operation. In the neighbourhood of this locality a number of
+polishers have been found of a very remarkable character. They are large
+blocks of sandstone (fig. 106), furrowed all over, or only on a portion
+of their surface, with grooves of various depths, in which objects might
+be polished by an energetic friction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Polisher from Grand-Pressigny, both faces
+being shown.]
+
+Some polishers of the same kind, which have been found in various
+departments, are rather different from the one we have just named. Thus,
+one specimen which was found by M. Leguay in the environs of Paris, in
+the burial-places of Varenne-Saint-Hilaire, of which we give a
+representation further on, is provided not only with grooves but also
+hollows of a basin-like shape, and of some little depth.
+
+The polishing of the flints was carried into effect by rubbing them
+against the bottom of these hollows, which were moistened by water, and
+no doubt contained siliceous dust of a harder nature than the stone
+which had to be polished.
+
+We must here pause for a moment to remark that all these operations
+which were carried out by our ancestors in fashioning the flint could
+not fail to have presented certain difficulties, and must have required
+a remarkable development of intelligence and skill.
+
+Working flints into shape, which appears at first sight a very simple
+matter, is, however, a rather complicated operation, on account of the
+properties of this mineral substance and the beds in which it lies.
+
+In its natural state the flint presents itself in the shape of nearly
+round lumps, which are brittle, but nevertheless very hard, and which,
+like glass, can be split in any direction by a blow, so as to furnish
+scales with sharp edges. In consequence of this circumstance, all that
+would be requisite in order to produce sharp objects is to cleave off
+flakes in the shape of a knife or poniard, by striking a flint, held in
+the left hand, with another and harder flint or hammer. Instead of
+holding in the left hand the flint which was to be wrought, it might
+also be placed on a rest and, being held fast with the left hand,
+suitable blows might be applied to the stone.
+
+We must not, however, omit to mention, that to enable the flint to be
+cut up into sharp splinters and to be broken in any desired direction,
+it is necessary for it to have been very recently extracted from the
+bosom of the earth; it must possess the humidity which is peculiar to
+it, with which it is impregnated when in its natural bed. If pieces of
+flint are exposed to the open air they cannot afterwards be readily
+broken with any degree of regularity; they then afford nothing but
+shapeless and irregular chips, of an entirely different character from
+that which would be required in fashioning them. This moisture was well
+known to the workmen who used to manufacture the gun-flints, and was
+called the _quarry damp_.
+
+The necessity that the flint should be wrought when newly extracted from
+the earth, and that the stones should only be dug just in proportion as
+they were wanted, brought about as a proximate result the creation and
+working of mines and quarries, which are thus almost as ancient as
+humanity itself. Being unable to make use of flints which had been dried
+in the air, and consequently rendered unfit for being wrought, the
+workmen were compelled to make excavations, and to construct galleries,
+either covered or exposed to the open air, to employ wooden battening,
+shores, supports; in short, to put in use the whole plant which is
+required for working a stone-quarry. As, in order not to endanger the
+lives of the labourers, it was found necessary to prevent any downfalls,
+they were induced to follow out a certain methodical system in their
+excavations, by giving a sufficient thickness to the roofs of the
+galleries, by sinking shafts, by building breast-walls, and by adopting
+the best plan for getting out the useless _detritus_. When, as was often
+the case, water came in so as to hinder the miners, it was necessary to
+get rid of it in order that the workmen should not be drowned. It was
+also sometimes requisite that the galleries and the whole system of
+underground ways should be supplied with air.
+
+Thus their labour in fashioning the flint must have led our ancestors to
+create the art of working quarries and mines.
+
+It has been made a subject of inquiry, how the tribes of the Stone Age
+could produce, without the aid of any iron tool, the holes which are
+found in the flints; and how they could perforate these same flints so
+as to be able to fit in handles for the hatchets, poniards, and knives;
+in fact, lapidaries of the present day cannot bore through gun-flints
+without making use of diamond dust. We are of opinion that the _bow_,
+which was employed by primitive man in producing fire by rubbing wood
+against wood, was also resorted to in the workshops for manufacturing
+stone implements and weapons for giving a rapid revolving motion to a
+flint drill which was sufficient to perforate the stone. Certain
+experiments which have been made in our own day with very sharp
+arrow-heads which belonged to primitive man have proved that it is thus
+very possible to pierce fresh flints, if the action of the drill is
+assisted by the addition of some very hard dust which is capable of
+increasing the bite of the instrument. This dust or powder, consisting
+of corundum or zircon, might have been found without any great
+difficulty by the men of the Stone Age. These substances are, in fact,
+to be met with on the banks of rivers, their presence being betrayed by
+the golden spangles which glitter in the sand.
+
+Thus the flint-drill, assisted by one of these powders, was quite
+adequate for perforating siliceous stones. When it is brought to our
+knowledge that the workmen of the Black Forest thus bore into Bohemian
+granite in less than a minute, we shall not feel inclined to call this
+explanation in question.[19]
+
+Fig. 107 attempts to give a representation of the workshop at
+
+Pressigny for shaping and polishing flints--in other words, a
+manufacturing workshop of the polished-stone epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.--The earliest Manufacture and Polishing of
+Flints.]
+
+In this sketch we have depicted the polisher found by M. Leguay, of
+which we give a representation in fig. 108. In this picture it was
+indispensable for us to show the operation of polishing, for the latter
+is a characteristic of the epoch of mankind which we are now describing,
+that is, the polished-stone period. It must, in fact, be remarked that
+during the epoch of the great bear and the mammoth, and the reindeer
+epoch, stone instruments were not polished, they were purely and simply
+flakes or fragments of stone. During the epoch at which we have now
+arrived, a great improvement took place in this kind of work, and stone
+instruments were polished. It is therefore essential to call attention
+to the latter operation.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Polisher found by M. Leguay.]
+
+We think we ought to quote here the brief account M. Leguay has given of
+the polisher represented in our figure. In his 'Note sur une Pierre à
+polir les Silex trouvée en Septembre, 1860, à la Varenne-Saint-Hilaire
+(Seine),' M. Leguay thus writes:--
+
+"Amongst the many monuments of the Stone Age which I have collected at
+Varenne-Saint-Hilaire, on the site of the ancient settlement which once
+existed there, there is one which has always struck me, not only by its
+good state of preservation, but also by the revelations which it affords
+us as to one of the principal manufactures of these tribes--the
+fabrication of flint weapons and utensils.
+
+"This object is a stone for polishing and fashioning the finest kind of
+hatchets. I discovered it in September, 1860, at a spot called _La
+Pierre au Prêtre_, along with several other monuments of primitive art
+which I intend before long to make public. This stone is a rough
+sandstone of cubical shape, showing no trace whatever of having been
+hewn. It is 13 inches in its greatest thickness, and measures 37 inches
+long by 21 wide, and, just as in many boulders, one of its faces is well
+adapted to the use for which it was employed.
+
+"This is the face which was used for many long years for rubbing and
+polishing the weapons made in the place, the remains of which are still
+found in small quantities in the neighbourhood, and abound in the
+burial-places, where they have been deposited as votive offerings.
+
+"Almost the whole of its surface is occupied. In the centre is a basin
+presenting an oval surface 25 inches the long way, and 12 inches the
+narrow way. The stone, which has been considerably worn away in
+consequence of long use, has been rubbed off to a central depth of about
+1 inch; this portion must have been used for rubbing the larger objects
+after they had been roughly shaped by chipping. The length of the basin
+allowed a motion of considerable length to be given to the stone which
+was being worked, at the same time giving facilities to the workman for
+the exercise of all his strength. Added to this, this cavity enabled the
+almond-like shape to be given to the objects--a form which they nearly
+all present.
+
+"Either in front or to the right, according to the position in which the
+observer stands, and almost touching the edge of this basin, there is a
+hole deeply hollowed in the stone, being 30 inches long; it extends
+along almost the whole length of the sandstone, with the maximum breadth
+of about 1 inch, and presents the shape of a very elongated spindle
+hollowed out to a depth of something less than half an inch in the
+centre, which tapers off to nothing at the two ends.
+
+"The wear of the stone and the shape of this groove point out its
+intention. It must have been used to reduce the edges or the sides of
+the hatchet, which after the chipping and flat polishing were left
+either too thick or too sharp for a handle to be easily fitted to them.
+Added to this, it smoothed down the roughnesses caused by chipping,
+which it replaced by a round form of no great thickness, which was again
+and again rubbed flatly on the stone to give it a square and sharp-edged
+level. This last operation took place in a basin, and it gave to the
+hatchet a curve in a lengthwise direction which is by no means
+ungraceful.
+
+"The thinning off of the edges of the groove was not an immaterial
+matter. It not only assisted in forming the above-named curve, but also
+prevented the cutting edge being distorted, and avoided the need of
+subsequent repolishing, which spoiled the object by rubbing it away too
+much.
+
+"It must not be for a moment imagined that the edge of the hatchet was
+made in this groove. Examination proves the contrary, and that it was
+done flatwise while polishing the rest of the object; and if sometimes
+its thickness did not allow this, it was preliminarily done, and then
+finished in the general polishing.
+
+"But although this basin, and its accompanying groove, on account of
+their dimensions, acted very well for polishing the large hatchets, the
+case was different with the smaller ones. This is the reason why two
+other smaller basins, and also a small groove, were made on the flat
+part of the stone by the side of the others.
+
+"These two basins were placed at two corners of the face of the stone,
+but still parallel to the larger basin and also to the larger groove, so
+as to be convenient for the requirements of the workman engaged in
+polishing without compelling him to shift his position; one is 10
+inches, and the other 13 inches in length, with a mean breadth of about
+2-1/2 inches. They are both in the shape of a rather narrow almond, and
+end almost in a point, which seems to show that they also were used in
+polishing somewhat narrow objects--perhaps to set right the edges of
+hatchets, in which the rubbing in the larger basin had produced cavities
+prejudicial to the perfection of the faces.
+
+"The small groove, placed very near the larger one, is 9 inches long. It
+is the same shape as the other, but is not so deep, and scarcely half an
+inch wide.
+
+"Not far from the end of this latter groove, at the point where it
+approaches the larger one, there are traces of a groove scarcely
+commenced.
+
+"Lastly, the flat portions of the stone which are not occupied by the
+basins and grooves, were sometimes used for touching up the polish, or
+even for smoothing various objects.
+
+"Thus, as we see, this polishing-stone, which is one of the most
+complete in existence, has on it three basins of different sizes, two
+well-defined grooves, and one only just sketched out. It would serve for
+finishing off all the instruments that could be required; but,
+nevertheless, two other sandstones of moderate size were found near it;
+one round, and the other of a spindle-like shape; these, which were worn
+and rubbed all over their surfaces, must also have been used in
+polishing objects.
+
+"Finding these stones was, however, a thing of frequent occurrence in
+several spots of this locality, where I often met with them; they were
+of all sizes and all shapes, and perfectly adapted for polishing small
+flints, needles, and the cutting edges of knives, deposited with them in
+the sepulchres.
+
+"This polishing-stone, which is thickly covered with _dendrites_ or
+incrustations, must have been in use at the time it was abandoned. I
+found it about 2 feet below the surface of the soil, in which it was
+turned upside down; that is, the basin lay next the earth. The few
+monuments that were with it--one among which I looked upon as an idol
+roughly carved in a block of sandstone--were all likewise turned upside
+down. There had been sepulchres in the neighbourhood, but they had been
+violated; and the displaced stones, as well as the bones themselves,
+only served to point out the presence of the former burial-place."
+
+The polishing of stone instruments was effected by rubbing the object
+operated upon in a cavity hollowed out in the centre of the polisher, in
+which cavity a little water was poured, mixed with zircon or corundum
+powder, or, perhaps, merely with oxide of iron, which is used by
+jewellers in carrying out the same operation.
+
+It is really surprising to learn what an enormous quantity of flints
+could be prepared by a single workman, provided with the proper
+utensils. For information on this point, it is requisite to know what
+could be done by our former flint-workers in the departments of Indre
+and Loire-et-Cher, who are, in fact, the descendants of the workmen of
+the Stone Age. Dolomieu, a French naturalist, desired at the beginning
+of the century to acquaint himself with the quantity which these
+workmen could produce, and at the same time to thoroughly understand the
+process which they employed in manufacturing gun-flints.
+
+By visiting the workshops of the flint-workers, M. Dolomieu ascertained
+that the first shape which the workmen gave to the flint was that of a
+many-sided prism. In the next place, five or six blows with the hammer,
+which were applied in a minute, were sufficient to cleave off from the
+mass certain fragments as exact in shape, with faces as smooth, outlines
+as straight, and angles as sharp, as if the stone had been wrought by a
+lapidary's wheel--an operation which, in the latter case, would have
+required an hour's handiwork. All that was requisite, says Dolomieu, is
+that the stones should be fresh, and devoid of flaws or heterogeneous
+matter. When operating upon a good kind of flint, freshly extracted from
+the ground, a workman could prepare 1000 proper flakes of flint in a
+day, turning out 500 gun-flints, so that in three days he would
+perfectly finish 1000 ready for sale. In 1789, the Russian army was
+furnished with gun-flints from Poland. The manufactory was established
+at Kisniew. At this period, according to Dolomieu, 90,000 of these
+gun-flints were made in two months.
+
+Besides those at Grand-Pressigny, some other pre-historic workshops have
+been pointed out in France. We may mention those of Charente, discovered
+by M. de Rochebrune; also those of Poitou, and lastly, the field of
+Diorières, at Chauvigny (Loire-et-Cher), which appears to have been a
+special workshop for polishing flint instruments. There is, in fact, not
+far from Chauvigny, in the same department, a rock on which twenty-five
+furrows, similar to those in the polishing-stones, are still visible; on
+which account the inhabitants of the district have given it the name of
+the "Scored Rock." It is probable that this rock was used for polishing
+the instruments which were sculptured at Diorières.
+
+The same kind of open-air workshops for the working of flints have also
+been discovered in Belgium.
+
+The environs of Mons are specially remarkable in this respect. At
+Spiennes, particularly, there can be no doubt that an important
+manufactory of wrought flints existed during the polished-stone epoch. A
+considerable number of hatchets and other implements have been found
+there; all of them being either unfinished, defective, or scarcely
+commenced. We here give a representation (fig. 109) of a spear-head
+which came from this settlement.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Spear-head from Spiennes.]
+
+Sometimes these workshops were established in caverns, and not in the
+open air. We are told this by M. J. Fournet, a naturalist of Lyons, in
+his work entitled, 'Influence du Mineur sur la Civilisation.'
+
+"For a very long time past," says M. Fournet, "the caves of Mentone had
+been known to the inhabitants of the district, on account of the
+accumulation of _débris_ contained in them, a boxful of which were sent
+to Paris, before 1848, by the Prince of Monaco; the contents of it,
+however, were never subjected to any proper explanation. Since this
+date, M. Grand, of Lyons, to whom I am indebted for a collection of
+specimens from these caves, carefully made several excavations, by which
+he was enabled to ascertain that the most remarkable objects are only to
+be met with at a certain depth in the clayey deposit with which the soil
+of these caves is covered. All the instruments are rough and rudimentary
+in their character, and must, consequently, be assigned to the first
+commencement of the art. Nevertheless, among the flints some agates were
+found, which, in my opinion, certainly came from the neighbourhood of
+Frejus; and with them also some pieces of hyaline quartz in the shape of
+prisms terminated by their two ordinary pyramids. We have a right to
+suppose that these crystals, which resembled the _Meylan diamonds_ found
+near Grenoble, did not come there by chance, and that their sharp
+points, when fixed in a handle and acting as drills, were used for
+boring holes in stone."
+
+Flint was not, however, the only substance used during this epoch in the
+manufacture of stone-hatchets, instruments and tools. In the caves of
+France, Belgium and Denmark a considerable number of hatchets have been
+found, made of gneiss, diorite, ophite, fibrolite, jade, and various
+other very hard mineral substances, which were well adapted to the
+purpose required and the use to which they were put.
+
+Among the most remarkable we may mention several jade hatchets which
+were found in the department of Gers, and ornamented with small hooks on
+each side of the edge. One of these beautiful jade hatchets (fig. 110),
+the delineation of which is taken from the specimen in the Museum of
+Saint-Germain, was found in the department of Seine-et-Oise; it has a
+sculptured ridge in the middle of each face.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Polished Jade Hatchet in the Museum of
+Saint-Germain.]
+
+But neither flint, gneiss, nor diorite exist in every country. For these
+stones some less hard substance was then substituted. In Switzerland the
+instruments and tools were generally made of pebbles which had been
+drifted down by the streams. They were fashioned by breaking them with
+other stones, by rubbing them on sandstone, or by sawing them with
+toothed blades of flint according to their cohesive nature.
+
+In some localities also objects of large size were made of serpentine,
+basalts, lavas, jades, and other rocks chosen on account of their
+extreme cohesiveness.
+
+Manual skill had, however, attained such a pitch of perfection among the
+workmen of this period, in consequence of their being habituated to one
+exclusive kind of labour, that the nature of the stone became a matter
+of indifference to them. The hammer, with the proper use of which our
+workmen are almost unacquainted, was a marvellous instrument in the
+hands of our ancestors; with it they executed prodigies of workmanship,
+which seem as if they ought to have been reserved for the file and
+grindstone of the lapidary of the present day.
+
+We shall not, perhaps, surprise our readers if we add that as certain
+volcanic lavas, especially obsidian, fracture with the same regularity
+and the same facility as the flint, obsidian was employed by the natives
+of America as a material for making sharp instruments. The ancient
+quarries whence the Indians procured this rock for the manufacture of
+instruments and tools, were situate at the _Cerro de Navajas_--that is,
+the _Mountain of Knives_--in Mexico. M. H. de Saussure, the descendant
+of the great geologist, was fortunate enough to meet with, at this spot,
+pieces of mineral which had merely been begun upon, and allowed a series
+of double-edged blades to be subsequently cut off them; these were
+always to be obtained by a simple blow skilfully applied. According to
+M. H. de Saussure, the first fashioning of these implements was confined
+to producing a large six-sided prism, the vertical corners of which were
+regularly and successively hewn off, until the piece left, or _nucleus_,
+became too small for the operation to be further continued.
+
+Hernandez, the Spanish historian, states that he has seen 100 blades an
+hour manufactured in this way. Added to this, the ancient aborigines of
+Peru, and the Guanches of Teneriffe, likewise carved out of obsidian
+both darts and poniards. And, lastly, we must not omit to mention that
+M. Place, one of the explorers of Nineveh, found on the site of this
+ancient city, knives of obsidian, supposed to be used for the purpose of
+circumcision.
+
+Having considered the flint instruments peculiar to the polished-stone
+epoch, we must now turn our attention to those made of stag's horn.
+
+The valley of the Somme, which has furnished such convincing proof of
+the co-existence of man with the great mammals of extinct species, is a
+no less precious repository for instruments of stag's horn belonging to
+the polished-stone epoch. The vast peat-bogs of this region are the
+localities where these relics have been chiefly found. Boucher de
+Perthes collected a considerable number of them in the neighbourhood of
+Abbeville.
+
+These peat-bogs are, as is well known, former marshes which have been
+gradually filled up by the growth of peat-moss (sphagnum), which, mixed
+with fallen leaves, wood, &c., and being slowly rotted by the
+surrounding water, became converted after a certain time into that kind
+of combustible matter which is called peat. The bogs in the valley of
+the Somme in some places attain to the depth of 34 feet. In the lower
+beds of this peat are found the weapons, the tools, and the ornaments of
+the polished-stone epoch.
+
+Among these ancient relics we must mention one very interesting class;
+it is that formed by the association of two distinct component parts,
+such as stone and stag's horn, or stone and bone.
+
+The hatchets of this type are particularly remarkable; they consist of a
+piece of polished flint half buried in a kind of sheath of stag's horn,
+either polished or rough as the case may be (fig. 111).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Polished Flint Hatchet, with a Sheath of
+Stag's Horn fitted for a Handle.]
+
+The middle of this sheath is generally perforated with a round or oval
+hole intended to receive a handle of oak, birch, or some other kind of
+wood adapted for such a use.
+
+Fig. 112, taken from the illustration in Boucher de Perthes' work
+('Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes'), represents this hatchet
+fitted into a handle made of oak.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Flint Hatchet fitted into a Stag's-horn
+Sheath, having an Oak Handle, from Boucher de Perthes' illustration.]
+
+It is difficult to understand how it was that a hatchet of this kind did
+not fall out of its sheath in consequence of any moderately violent
+blow; for it seems as if there was nothing to hold it in its place. This
+observation especially applies to hatchets, the whole length of
+which--even the portion covered by the sheath--was polished; for the
+latter would certainly slide out of their casing with ease. The fact is,
+that complete specimens are seldom found, and, generally speaking, the
+flints are separated from their sheaths.
+
+With regard to the handles, the nature of the material they were made
+from was unfavourable to their preservation through a long course of
+centuries; it is, therefore, only exceptionally that we meet with them,
+and even then they are always defaced.
+
+Fig. 113 is given by Boucher de Perthes, in his 'Antiquités Celtiques,'
+as the representation of an oaken handle found by him.
+
+A number of these sheaths have been found, which were provided at the
+end opposite to the stone hatchet with strong and pointed teeth. These
+are boar's tusks, firmly buried in the stag's horn. These instruments
+therefore fulfilled a double purpose; they cut or crushed with one end
+and pierced with the other.
+
+Sheaths are also found which are not only provided with the boar's
+tusks, but are hollowed out at each end so as to hold two flint hatchets
+at once. This is represented in fig. 114 from one of Boucher de Perthes'
+illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.--Hatchet-handle made of Oak.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Stag's-horn Sheath, open at each end so as to
+receive two Hatchets.]
+
+The hatchet fitted into a sheath of stag's horn which we here delineate
+(fig. 115), was picked up in the environs of Aerschot, and is an object
+well worthy of note; it is now in the Museum of Antiquities at Brussels.
+Its workmanship is perfect, and superior to that of similar instruments
+found in the peat-bogs of the valley of the Somme.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Polished Flint Hatchet from Belgium, fitted
+into a Stag's-horn Sheath.]
+
+Stag's horn was often used alone as a material for the manufacture of
+tools which were not intended to endure any very hard work; among these
+were instruments of husbandry and gardening.
+
+We here give representations (figs. 116, 117, 118) from Boucher de
+Perthes' illustrations, of certain implements made of stag's horn which
+appear to have had this purpose in view. It is remarked that they are
+not all perforated for holding a handle; in some cases, a portion of the
+stag's antler formed the handle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after
+Boucher de Perthes).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after
+Boucher de Perthes).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after
+Boucher de Perthes).]
+
+In the course of his explorations in the peat-bogs of Abbeville, M.
+Boucher de Perthes found numerous flakes of flint of irregular shapes,
+the use of which he was unable to explain. But there have also been
+discovered in the same deposits some long bones belonging to
+mammals--tibia, femur, radius, ulna--all cut in a uniform way, either
+in the middle or at the ends; he was led to imagine that these bones
+might have been the handles intended to hold the flints. In order to
+assure himself that this idea was well founded, he took one of the bones
+and a stone which came out of the peat, and, having put them together,
+he found he had made a kind of chisel, well-adapted for cutting,
+scooping-out, scratching and polishing horn or wood. He tried this
+experiment again several times, and always with full success. If the
+stone did not fit firmly into the bone, one or two wooden wedges were
+sufficient to steady it.
+
+After this, Boucher de Perthes entertained no doubt whatever that these
+bones had been formerly employed as handles for flint implements. The
+same handle would serve for several stones, owing to the ease with which
+the artisan could take one flint out and replace it with another, by the
+aid of nothing but these wooden wedges. This is the reason why, in the
+peat-bogs, flints of this sort are always much more plentiful than the
+bone handles. We must also state that it seems as if they took little or
+no trouble in repairing the flints when they were blunted, knowing how
+easy it would be to replace them. They were thrown away, without further
+care; hence their profusion.
+
+These handles are made of extremely hard bone, from which we may
+conclude that they were applied to operations requiring solid tools.
+Most of them held the flint at one end only; but some were open at both
+ends, and would serve as handles for two tools at once.
+
+Figs. 119 and 120 represent some of these flint tools in bone
+handles--the plates are taken from those in Boucher de Perthes' work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--Flint Tool in a Bone Handle.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.--Flint Tool with Bone Handle.]
+
+Generally speaking, these handles gave but little trouble to those who
+made them. They were content with merely breaking the bone across,
+without even smoothing down the fracture, and then enlarging the
+medullary hollow which naturally existed; next they roughly squared or
+rounded the end which was intended to be grasped by the hand.
+
+In fig. 121, we delineate one of these bone handles which is much more
+carefully fashioned; it has been cut off smooth at the open end, and the
+opposite extremity has been rounded off into a knob, which is ornamented
+with a design.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.--Ornamented Bone Handle.]
+
+During the polished-stone epoch, as during that which preceded it, the
+teeth of certain mammals were used in the way of ornament. But they were
+not content, as heretofore, with merely perforating them with holes and
+hanging them in a string round their necks; they were now wrought with
+considerable care. The teeth of the wild boar were those chiefly
+selected for this purpose. They were split lengthwise, so as to render
+them only half their original thickness, and were then polished and
+perforated with holes in order to string them.
+
+In the peat-mosses of the valley of the Somme a number of boars' tusks
+have been found thus fashioned. The most curious discovery of this kind
+which has been made, was that of the object of which we give a sketch in
+fig. 122. It was found in 1834, near Pecquigny (Somme), and is composed
+of nineteen boars' tusks split into two halves, as we before mentioned,
+perfectly polished, and perforated at each end with a round hole.
+Through these holes was passed a string of some tendinous substance, the
+remains of which were, it is stated, actually to be seen at the time of
+the discovery. A necklace of this kind must have been of considerable
+value, as it would have necessitated a large amount of very tedious and
+delicate work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--Necklace made of Boars' Tusks, longitudinally
+divided.]
+
+In the peat-bogs near Brussels polished flints have likewise been found,
+associated with animal bones, and two specimens of the human _humerus_,
+belonging to two individuals.
+
+The peat-bogs of Antwerp, in which were found a human frontal bone,
+characterised by its great thickness, and its small surface, have also
+furnished fine specimens of flint knives (fig. 123), which are in no way
+inferior to the best of those discovered at Grand-Pressigny.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.--Flint Knife, from the Peat-bogs near Antwerp.]
+
+On none of the instruments of bone or horn, of which we have been
+speaking, are to be found the designs which we have described as being
+the work of man during the reindeer epoch. The artistic instinct seems
+to have entirely vanished. Perhaps the diluvial catastrophe, which
+destroyed so many victims, had, as one of its results, the effect of
+effacing the feeling of art, by forcing men to concentrate their ideas
+on one sole point--the care of providing for their subsistence and
+defence.
+
+A quantity of remains, gathered here and there, bear witness to the fact
+that in the polished-stone epoch the use of pottery was pretty widely
+spread. Most of the specimens are, as we have said, nothing but
+attempts of a very rough character, but still they testify to a certain
+amount of progress. The ornamentation is more delicate and more
+complicated. We notice the appearance of open-work handles, and
+projections perforated for the purpose of suspension. In short, there is
+a perceptible, though but preliminary step made towards the real
+creations of art.
+
+In the caves of Ariége, MM. Garrigou and Filhol found some remains of
+ancient pottery of clay provided with handles, although of a shape
+altogether primitive. Among the fragments of pottery found by these
+_savants_, there was one which measured 11 inches in height, and must
+have formed a portion of a vase 20 inches high. This vessel, which was
+necessarily very heavy, had been hung to cords; this was proved by
+finding on another portion of the same specimen three holes which had
+been perforated in it.
+
+
+_Agriculture._--We have certain evidence that man, during the
+polished-stone epoch, was acquainted with husbandry, or, in other words,
+that he cultivated cereals. MM. Garrigou and Filhol found in the caves
+of Ariége more than twenty mill-stones, which could only have been used
+in grinding corn. These stones are from 8 to 24 inches in diameter.
+
+The tribes, therefore, which, during the polished-stone epoch, inhabited
+the district now called Ariége, were acquainted with the cultivation of
+corn.
+
+In 1869, Dr. Foulon-Menard published an article intended to describe a
+stone found at Penchasteau, near Nantes, in a tomb belonging to the
+Stone Age.[20] This stone is 24 inches wide, and hollowed out on its
+upper face. It was evidently used for crushing grain with the help of a
+stone roller, or merely a round pebble, which was rolled up and down in
+the cavity. The meal obtained by this pressure and friction made its way
+down the slope in the hollowing out of the stone, and was caught in a
+piece of matting, or something of the kind.
+
+To enable our readers to understand the fact that an excavation made in
+a circular stone formed the earliest corn-mill in these primitive ages,
+we may mention that, even in our own time, this is the mode of
+procedure practised among certain savage tribes in order to crush
+various seeds and corn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.--Primitive Corn-mill.]
+
+In the 'Voyage du Mississippi à l'Océan,' by M. Molhausen, we read:--
+
+"The principal food of the Indians consisted of roasted cakes of maize
+and wheat, the grains of which had been pulverised _between two
+stones_."[21]
+
+In Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi (Central Africa), it is
+stated that "the corn-mills of the Mangajas, Makalolos, Landines and
+other tribes are composed of a block of granite or syenite, sometimes
+even of mica-schist, 15 to 18 inches square by 5 or 6 inches thick, and
+a piece of quartz, or some other rock of equal hardness about the size
+of a half-brick; one of the sides of this substitute for a millstone is
+convex, so as to fit into a hollow of a trough-like shape made in the
+large block, which remains motionless. When the woman wants to grind any
+corn, she kneels down, and, taking in both hands the convex stone, she
+rubs it up and down in the hollow of the lower stone with a motion
+similar to that of a baker pressing down his dough and rolling it in
+front of him. Whilst rubbing it to and fro, the housewife leans all her
+weight on the smaller stone, and every now and then places a little more
+corn in the trough. The latter is made sloping, so that the meal as soon
+as it is made falls down into a cloth fixed to catch it."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.--The Art of Bread-making in the Stone Age.]
+
+Such, therefore, was the earliest corn-mill. We shall soon see it
+reappear in another form; two mill-stones placed one over the other, one
+being set in motion above the other by means of a wooden handle. This is
+the corn-mill of the bronze epoch. This type maintained its place
+down to historic times, as it constituted the earliest kind of mill
+employed by the Roman agriculturist.
+
+In order to represent the existence of agriculture during the
+polished-stone epoch, we have annexed a delineation of a woman grinding
+corn into meal in the primitive mill (fig. 125).
+
+In the same figure may be noticed the way of preparing the meal coming
+from the mill for making a rough kind of cake. The children are heating
+in the fire some flat circular stones. When these stones are
+sufficiently heated, they rapidly withdraw them from the fire, using for
+the purpose two damp sticks; they then place on the stones a little of
+the meal mixed with water. The heat of the stones sufficed to bake the
+meal and form a sort of cake or biscuit.
+
+We may here state, in order to show that we are not dealing with a mere
+hypothesis, that it is just in this way that, in the poor districts of
+Tuscany, the _polenta_ is prepared even in the present day. The dough
+made of chestnut-meal, moistened with water, is cooked between flat
+stones that are placed one over the other in small piles as portrayed in
+the annexed plate.
+
+In the background of the same sketch we see animals, reduced to the
+state of domestic cattle, being driven towards the group at work. By
+this particular feature we have wished to point out that the
+polished-stone epoch was also that of the domestication of animals, and
+that even at this early period the sheep, the dog and the horse had been
+tamed by man, and served him either as auxiliaries or companions.
+
+The traces of agriculture which we have remarked on as existing in the
+caves of Ariége, are also found in other parts of France. Round the
+hearths in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, M. Pommerol discovered
+carbonised wheat intermingled with pottery and flint instruments. The
+men of the period we are now considering no longer devoted themselves
+exclusively to the pursuits of hunting and fishing. They now began to
+exercise the noble profession of agriculture, which was destined to be
+subsequently the chief source of national wealth.
+
+
+_Navigation._--The first origin of the art of navigation must be
+ascribed to the polished-stone epoch. With regard to this subject, let
+us pay attention to what is said on the point by M. G. de Mortillet,
+curator at the Archæological and Pre-historic Museum of
+Saint-Germain--one of the best-informed men we have in all questions
+relating to the antiquity of man.
+
+In M. de Mortillet's opinion, navigation, both marine and inland, was in
+actual existence during the polished-stone epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.--The earliest Navigators.]
+
+The earliest boats that were made by man consisted simply of great
+trunks of trees, shaped on the outside, and hollowed out in the
+interior. They were not provided with any rests or rowlocks for the oars
+or paddles, which were wielded by both hands. In hollowing out the tree
+they used both their stone implements and also the action of fire.
+
+In the earliest boats, the trunk of the tree, cut through at the two
+ends as well as their imperfect tools allowed, preserved its original
+outward form. The boat, in fact, was nothing but the trunk of a tree
+first burnt out and then chipped on the inside by some cutting
+instrument, that is, by the stone-hatchet.
+
+Some improvement subsequently took place in making them. The outside of
+the tree was also chipped, and its two ends, instead of being cut
+straight through, were made to terminate in a point. In order to give it
+more stability in the water and to prevent it from capsizing, it was
+dressed equally all over, and the bottom of the canoe was scooped out.
+Cross-stays were left in the interior to give the boat more solidity,
+and perhaps, also, to serve as a support to the back, or, more probably,
+to the feet of the rowers, who sat in the bottom of the canoe.
+
+Sails must soon have been added to these means of nautical progression.
+But it would be a difficult matter to fix any precise date for this
+important discovery, which was the point of transition between
+elementary and primitive navigation, and more important voyages. This
+progress could not have been made without the help of metals.
+
+In an article entitled 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' M. de
+Mortillet passes in review all the discoveries, which have been made in
+different countries, of the earliest boats belonging to pre-historic
+man.
+
+After stating that the Museum of Copenhagen contains drawings of three
+ancient canoes, he goes on to say:--
+
+"The first canoe is the half-trunk of a tree 17 inches wide, cut
+straight at the two ends, about 7 feet in length, and hollowed out in a
+trough-like shape. This canoe much resembles that of Switzerland.
+
+"The second was about 10 feet in length, one end terminating in a point,
+the other more rounded. It was formed of the trunk of a tree hollowed
+out into two compartments, a kind of cross-stay or seat being left at a
+point about one-third of the length from the widest end.
+
+"The third canoe, No. 295, likewise made of the trunk of a tree, was
+much longer, having a length of at least 13 feet, and was terminated by
+a point at both ends. At the sharpest end, the hollow is finished off
+squarely, and there is also a small triangular seat at the extremity.
+Two cross-stays were left in the interior.
+
+"These three canoes are classed in the bronze series; a note of
+interrogation or doubt is, however, affixed to the two latter.
+
+"Ireland, like Scandinavia, has a history which does not go back very
+far into the remote past; like Scandinavia, too, Ireland has been one of
+the first to collect with care not only the monuments, but even the
+slightest relics of remote antiquity and of pre-historic times. The
+Royal Irish Academy has collected at Dublin a magnificent Museum, and
+the praiseworthy idea has also been put in practice of publishing a
+catalogue illustrated with 626 plates.
+
+"In these collections there are three ancient canoes. The first is about
+23 feet long, 31 inches wide, and 12 inches deep, and is hollowed out of
+the trunk of an oak, which must have been at least 4-1/2 feet in
+diameter. This boat, which came from the bogs of Cahore on the coast of
+Wexford, is roughly squared underneath. One of the ends is rounded and
+is slightly raised; the other is cut across at right angles, and closed
+with a piece let in and fitted into grooves which were caulked with
+bark. In the interior there are three cross-stays cut out of the solid
+oak.
+
+"The interior, at the time the canoe was discovered, contained a wooden
+vessel, intended to bale out the boat, and two rollers, probably meant
+to assist in conveying it down to the sea.
+
+"The second is a canoe made of one piece of oak, rather more than 23
+feet long, about 12 inches wide, and 8 inches deep. It terminates in a
+point at both ends, and contains three cross-stays cut out of the solid
+wood, and a small terminal triangular seat.
+
+"The third, likewise made of one piece, is rather more than 20 feet long
+and about 21 inches wide. On each side the wood is cut out so as to
+receive a seat. This boat appears less ancient than the others, although
+these may not have belonged to any very remote antiquity. In fact, Ware
+states that in his time there were still to be seen on some of the Irish
+rivers canoes hollowed out of a single trunk of oak.
+
+"It is also well known that the lacustrine habitations constructed on
+the artificial islands called _Crannoges_, existed to a late period in
+Ireland. All the boats found round these island-dwellings are canoes
+made all in one piece and hollowed out of the trunks of large trees.
+
+"The trough-shaped canoe, consisting merely of the trunk of a tree cut
+straight through at the two ends, and in no way squared on the outside,
+also exists in Ireland. A very singular variety has been found in the
+county of Monaghan;[22] at the two ends are two projections or handles,
+which were probably used for carrying the boat from one place to
+another, or to draw it up upon the beach after a voyage.
+
+"According to Mr. John Buchanan, quoted by Sir C. Lyell,[23] at least
+seventeen canoes have been found in the low ground along the margin of
+the Clyde at Glasgow. Mr. Buchanan examined several of them before they
+were dug out. Five of them were found buried in the silt under the
+streets of Glasgow. One canoe was discovered in a vertical position,
+with the prow upwards, as if it had foundered in a tempest; it contained
+no small quantity of sea-shells. Twelve other canoes were found about
+100 yards from the river, at the average depth of about 19 feet below
+the surface of the ground, or about 7 feet below high-water mark. A few
+only of them were found at a depth of no more than 4 or 5 feet, and
+consequently more than 20 feet above the present level of the sea. One
+was stuck into the sand at an angle of 45°; another had been turned over
+and lay keel upwards; the others were in a horizontal position, as if
+they had sunk in still water.
+
+"Almost every one of these ancient boats had been formed of a single
+trunk of oak, and hollowed out with some blunt instrument, probably
+stone hatchets, assisted also by the action of fire. A few of them
+presented clean-made cuts, evidently produced by a metallic tool. Two of
+them were constructed of planks. The most elaborate of the number
+bore the traces of square metal nails, which, however, had entirely
+disappeared. In one canoe was found a diorite hatchet, and at the bottom
+of another, a cork bung, which certainly implies relations with southern
+France, Spain, or Italy.
+
+"The Swiss lakes, with their lacustrine habitations, have furnished
+numerous specimens of canoes. Dr. Keller, in his fifth Report on
+Lake-Dwellings (plate X. fig. 23), represents a canoe from Robenhausen;
+it is the half trunk of a tree 12 feet long and 29 inches wide, hollowed
+out to a depth of from 6 to 7 inches only. Taking the centre as the
+widest part, this trunk has been chipped off so as to taper towards the
+two points which are rounded. It is, however, very probable that the
+whole of this work was executed with stone implements; for the primitive
+settlement of Robenhausen, situated in a peat-bog near the small lake
+Pfæffikon in the canton of Zurich, although very rich in many kinds of
+objects, has not, up to the present time, furnished us with any metal
+instruments.
+
+"In his first report (plate IV. fig. 21), Dr. Keller had given the
+sketch of another canoe which came from the Lake of Bienne. Like the
+first, mentioned by M. Worsaae, it is the half of the trunk of a tree
+cut almost straight through, its two ends hollowed out inside in the
+shape of a trough, the exterior being left entirely unwrought.
+
+"Professor Desor mentions several canoes found in the Lake of Bienne.
+One of them, near the island Saint-Pierre, was still full of stones.
+According to M. Desor the builders of the lacustrine habitations during
+the polished-stone epoch, in order to consolidate the piles which were
+intended to support their dwellings, were accustomed to bank them up
+with stones which they fetched in boats from the shore; the bottom of
+the lake being completely devoid of them. The canoe found at the isle of
+Saint-Pierre had therefore sunk to the bottom with its cargo, and thus
+may be dated back to the polished-stone epoch. M. Troyon[24] gives some
+still more circumstantial details as to this canoe. It is partly buried
+in the mud at the northern angle of the isle, and is made of a single
+piece of the trunk of an oak of large dimensions; it is not much less
+than 49 feet long with a breadth of from 3-1/2 feet to 4 feet.
+
+"M. Desor, in his _Palafittes_, informs us that the Museum of Neuchâtel
+has lately been enriched by the addition of a canoe which was
+discovered in the lake; unfortunately, it was dreadfully warped in
+drying.
+
+"Also M. Troyon, in his 'Habitations Lacustres,' speaks of several
+canoes at Estavayer and Morges.
+
+"Estavayer is situated on the Lake of Neuchâtel. There are two
+settlements near it, one of the Stone Age, and one of the bronze age.
+One canoe is still lying at the bottom of the lake, near these
+settlements. Another was brought out of the water by the fishermen some
+years ago; it was about 10 feet in length, and 2 feet in width. The end
+which had been preserved was cut to a point and slightly turned upwards.
+
+"Morges is on the Lake of Geneva, in the Canton of Vaud. M. Forel
+discovered there two interesting settlements of the bronze age. Two
+canoes were found. According to M. Troyon, one of them which had been
+carried up on to the bank was not long before it was destroyed. It was
+formed of the trunk of an oak, hollowed out like a basin. The other
+still lay near some piles in 13 to 15 feet of water. One portion of it
+is buried in the sand, the other part, which is not covered, measures
+about 10 feet in length by 2 feet in width. It terminates in a point and
+has been cut out so as to provide a kind of seat, taken out of the
+thickness of the wood at the end, just as in the third canoe represented
+in the catalogue of the Copenhagen Museum.
+
+"In France, too, several canoes have been found which date back to
+pre-historic times.
+
+"On the 6th of January, 1860, the labourers who were working at the
+fortifications which the engineers were making at Abbeville found a
+canoe in the place called Saint-Jean-des-Prés, on the left bank of the
+canal; it was discovered in the peat, 36 feet below the road and about
+220 yards from the railway station. It was made out of a single stick of
+oak and was about 22 feet in length; its ends were square and cut in a
+slope, so that its upper surface was 8 feet longer than its bottom,
+which was flattened off to a width of about 14 inches. The greatest
+width of its upper surface, the widest part being placed at about
+one-third of its length, measured nearly 3 feet; from this point the
+canoe contracted in width, and was not more than 18 inches in width at
+the furthest end. Now, as no tree exists which diminishes to this extent
+in diameter on so short a length, we must conclude that the trunk which
+formed the canoe must have been shaped outside.
+
+"Two projections about 4 inches in thickness, placed 6-1/2 feet from the
+narrowest end, and forming one piece with the sides and the bottom,
+which in this part are very thick, left between them an empty space
+which was probably intended to fit against the two sides of a piece of
+wood cut square at the bottom and meant to serve as a mast. The deepest
+internal hollow had not more than 10 inches in rise, and the side, which
+at the upper part was not more than an inch in thickness, followed the
+natural curve of the trunk, and united with the much thicker portion at
+the bottom. This canoe, although it was completely uncovered and still
+remained in a very good state of preservation, has not been got out from
+the place in which it lay.
+
+"In 1834, another canoe was discovered at Estreboeuf, 33 feet long,
+about 21 inches wide, and 18 inches deep. The bottom was flat, the sides
+cut vertically both within and without, which gave it nearly the shape
+of a squared trough. In its widest part it bore some signs of having
+carried a mast. It was conveyed to the Museum at Abbeville and became
+completely rotten; nothing now is left but shapeless remains.
+
+"The Abbé Cochet relates that between 1788 and 1800, during the
+excavation of the basin of _La Barre_, at Havre, at 11 feet in depth, a
+canoe was discovered, more than 44 feet in length, and hollowed out of
+one trunk of a tree. The two ends were pointed and solid, and the
+interior was strengthened with curved stays formed out of the solid
+wood. This canoe was found to be made of elm and was hollowed out to a
+depth of nearly 4 feet. It was in so good a state of preservation that
+it bore being carried to a spot behind the engineer's house on the south
+jetty; but when it was deposited there, it gradually wasted away by the
+successive action of the rain and sun.
+
+"The same archæologist also mentions another canoe, with a keel of from
+16 to 20 feet long, which was discovered in the year 1680, at
+Montéviliers, in the filled-up ditches known under the name of La
+Bergue.
+
+"The Archæological Museum of Dijon also contains a canoe found in the
+gravel in the bed of the Loue, on the boundaries of the department of
+Jura, between Dôle and Salins. It is made of a single colossal trunk of
+oak, shaped, in M. Baudot's opinion, by means of fire. Its present
+length is 17 feet, and its width, 2 feet 4 inches; but it has become
+much less in the process of drying. Some iron braces which were fixed to
+keep the wood in position plainly showed that the width had diminished
+at least 6 inches. In the interior, the traces of two seats or supports,
+which had been left in the solid wood in order to give strength to the
+canoe, might be very distinctly seen. The first was about a yard from
+one end, the other 5-1/2 feet from the other. Both extremities terminate
+in a point, one end being much sharper and longer than the other.
+
+"At the Museum of Lyons there is a canoe which was found in the gravel
+of the Rhone, near the bridge of Cordon, in the department of Ain. It is
+41 feet in length, and hollowed out of a single trunk of oak tapering
+off at the two ends. The middle of it is squared, and the interior is
+strengthened by two braces left in the solid wood.
+
+"Lastly, we must mention the canoe that was dug out of the bed of the
+Seine in Paris, and presented by M. Forgeais to the Emperor. It is now
+in the Museum of Saint-Germain. It was made of a single trunk of oak and
+had been skilfully wrought on the outside, terminating in a point at
+both ends. This canoe was bedded in the mud and gravel at the extremity
+of the _Cité_, on the Notre-Dame side. Close by a worked flint was met
+with, and various bronze weapons; among others, a helmet and several
+swords were also found. In the beds of rivers objects belonging to
+different epochs readily get mixed up. This flint appears to have
+accidentally come thither; the bronze arms, on the contrary, seem to
+mark the date of the canoe."[25]
+
+We have previously spoken of the _primitive workshop of human industry_,
+of which, indeed, we gave a design. In contrast to this peaceful
+picture, we may also give a representation of the evidences which have
+been preserved even to our own days of the earliest means of attack and
+defence constituting regular war among nations. War and battles must
+have doubtless taken their rise almost simultaneously with the origin of
+humanity itself. The hatred and rivalry which first sprung up between
+individuals and families--hatred and rivalry which must have existed
+from all time--gradually extended to tribes, and then to whole
+nations, and were outwardly expressed in armed invasions, pillage and
+slaughter. These acts of violence were, in very early days, reduced to a
+system in the art of war--that terrible expedient from which even modern
+nations have not been able to escape.
+
+In order to find the still existing evidence of the wars which took
+place among men in the Stone Age, we must repair to that portion of
+Europe which is now called Belgium. Yes, even in the Stone Age, at a
+date far beyond all written record, the people of this district already
+were in the habit of making war, either among themselves or against
+other tribes invading them from other lands. This fact is proved by the
+fortified enclosures, or _entrenched camps_, which have been discovered
+by MM. Hannour and Himelette. These camps are those of Furfooz,
+Pont-de-Bonn, Simon, Jemelle, Hastedon, and Poilvache.
+
+All these different camps possess certain characteristics in common.
+They are generally established on points overhanging valleys, on a mass
+of rock forming a kind of headland, which is united to the rest of the
+country by a narrow neck of land. A wide ditch was dug across this
+narrow tongue of land, and the whole camp was surrounded by a thick wall
+of stones, simply piled one upon another, without either mortar or
+cement. At the camp of Hastedon, near Namur, this wall, which was still
+in a good state of preservation at the time it was described, measured
+10 feet in width, and about the same in height. When an attack was made,
+the defenders, assembled within the enclosure, rained down on their
+assailants stones torn away from their wall, which thus became at the
+same time both a defensive and offensive work (fig. 127).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.--The earliest regular Conflicts between Men of
+the Stone Age; or, the Entrenched Camp of Furfooz.]
+
+These entrenched positions were so well chosen that most of them
+continued to be occupied during the age which followed. We may mention,
+as an instance, the camp of Poilvache. After having been a Roman citadel
+it was converted in the middle ages into a strongly fortified castle,
+which was not destroyed until the fifteenth century.
+
+The camps of Hastedon and Furfooz were likewise utilised by the Romans.
+
+Over the whole inclosure of these ancient camps worked flints and
+remains of pottery have been found--objects which are sufficient to
+testify to the former presence of primitive man. The enormous ramparts
+of these camps also tend to show that pre-historic man must have
+existed in comparatively numerous associations at the various spots
+where these works are found.
+
+If we were to enter into a detailed study of the vestiges of the
+polished-stone epoch existing in the other countries of Europe, we
+should be led into a repetition of much that we have already stated with
+regard to the districts now forming France and Belgium. Over a great
+portion of Europe we should find the same mode of life, the same manners
+and customs, and the same degree of nascent civilisation. From the
+scope, therefore, of our present work, we shall not make it our task to
+take each country into special consideration.
+
+We will content ourselves with stating that the caves of Old Castille in
+Spain, which were explored by M. Ed. Lartet, have furnished various
+relics of the reindeer and polished-stone epochs. Also in the provinces
+of Seville and Badajos, polished hatchets have been found, made for the
+most part of dioritic rocks.
+
+Numerous vestiges of the same epoch have, too, been discovered in
+various provinces of Italy.
+
+We give in fig. 128 the sketch of a very remarkable arrow-head found in
+the province of Civita-Nova (the former kingdom of Naples). It is
+provided with a short stem with lateral grooves, so as to facilitate the
+point being fitted into a wooden shaft.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.--Flint Arrow-head, from Civita-Nova (Italy).]
+
+Elba, too, was surveyed by M. Raffaello Foresi, who found in this
+Mediterranean isle a large quantity of arrows, knives, saws, scrapers,
+&c., formed of flint, jasper, obsidian, and even rock crystal. There
+were also found in the Isle of Elba workshops for shaping flints. Great
+Britain, Wurtemburg, Hungary, Poland, and Russia all furnish us with
+specimens of polished stone instruments; but, for the reason which we
+stated above, it would be superfluous to dwell upon them.
+
+We shall now pass on to an examination of the type of the human race
+which existed among the northern nations of Europe during the
+polished-stone age.
+
+There is a cavern of Ariége which belongs to the polished-stone epoch,
+and has been explored by MM. Garrigou and Filhol--this is the cavern of
+_Lombrive_, or _des Echelles_; the latter name being given it because it
+is divided into two portions placed at such very different levels that
+the help of five long ladders is required in order to pass from one to
+the other. This cave has become interesting from the fact that it has
+furnished a large quantity of human bones, belonging to individuals of
+both sexes and every age; also two entire skulls, which M. Garrigou has
+presented to the Anthropological Society of Paris.
+
+These two skulls, which appear to have belonged, one to a child of eight
+to ten years of age, the other to a female, present a somewhat peculiar
+shape. The forehead, which is high in the centre, is low at the sides;
+and the orbits of the eyes and also the hollows of the cheeks are deep.
+
+We shall not enter into the diverse and contrary hypotheses which have
+been advanced by MM. Vogt, Broca, Pruner-Bey, Garrigou and Filhol, in
+order to connect the skulls found in the cave of Ariége with the present
+races of the human species. This ethnological question is very far from
+having been decided in any uniform way; and so it will always be, as
+long as scientific men are compelled to base their opinions on a limited
+number of skulls, which are, moreover, always incomplete; each _savant_
+being free to interpret their features according to his own system.
+
+Neither in the Danish kitchen-middens nor in the lower beds of the
+peat-bogs have any human bones been discovered; but the tombs in
+Denmark belonging to the polished-stone epoch have furnished a few human
+skulls which, up to a certain point, enable us to estimate the
+intellectual condition and affinities of the race of men who lived in
+these climates. We may particularly mention the skull found in the
+_tumulus_ at Borreby in Denmark, which has been studied with extreme
+care by Mr. Busk.
+
+This skull (fig. 129) presents a somewhat remarkable similarity to that
+of Neanderthal, of which we have spoken in a previous chapter. The
+superciliary ridges are very prominent, the forehead is retiring, the
+occiput is short and sloped forward. It might, therefore, find its
+origin among the races of which the skulls of Neanderthal and Borreby
+are the representatives and the relics, and the latter might well be the
+descendants of the former.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.--The Borreby Skull.]
+
+Anthropologists have had much discussion about the question, to what
+particular human race of the present time may the skulls found in the
+_tumulus_ at Borreby be considered to be allied? But all these
+discussions are deficient in those elements on which any serious and
+definite argument might be founded. It would, therefore, be going
+beyond our purpose should we reproduce them here. If, in the sketch of
+the Borreby skull, we place, before the eyes of our readers the type of
+the human cranium which existed during the period of the Stone Age, our
+only object is to prove that the primitive Northerner resembles the
+present race of man, both in the beauty and in the regularity of the
+shape of his skull; also, in order once more to recall to mind how false
+and trivial must the judgment be of those short-sighted _savants_ who
+would establish a genealogical filiation between man and the ape.
+
+As we stated in the Introduction to this volume, a mere glance cast upon
+this skull is sufficient to bring to naught all that has been written
+and propounded touching the organic consanguinity which is asserted to
+exist between man and the ape, to say nothing of the objects produced by
+primitive man--objects which, in this work, we are studying in all
+necessary detail. An examination of the labours of primitive man is the
+best means of proving--every other consideration being set aside--that a
+great abyss exists between him and the animal; this is the best argument
+against our pretended _simial_ origin, as it is called by those who seek
+to veil their absurd ideas under grand scientific phrases.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] 'Note sur un Amas de. Coquilles mélées à des Silex taillés, signalé
+sur les Côtes de Provence,' by M. A. Gory ('Revue Archéologique').
+Quoted in the 'Matériaux de l'histoire positive de l'Homme,' by M. de
+Mortillet, vol. i. p. 535.
+
+[19] See J. Evans, 'On the Manufacture of Stone Implements in
+Pre-historic Times,' in Trans. of the International Congress of
+Pre-historic Archæology (Norwich, 1868), p. 191; and C. Rau, 'Drilling
+in Stone without Metal,' in Report of Smithsonian Institution, 1868.
+
+[20] 'Les Moulins Primitifs,' Nantes, 1869. Extract from the 'Bulletin
+de la Société Archéologique de Nantes.'
+
+[21] 'Tour du Monde,' p. 374, 1860.
+
+[22] Shirley's 'Account of the Territory of Farney.'
+
+[23] J. Buchanan, 'British Association Reports,' 1855; p. 80. Sir C.
+Lyell, 'Antiquity of Man,' p. 48.
+
+[24] 'Habitations Lacustres des Temps anciens et modernes,' pp. 119,
+159, 166.
+
+[25] 'Origine de la Navigation et de la Pêche,' pp. 11-21. Paris, 1867.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+     Tombs and Mode of Interment during the Polished-stone Epoch--
+     _Tumuli_ and other sepulchral Monuments formerly called
+     _Celtic_--Labours of MM. Alexandre Bertrand and Bonstetten--
+     Funeral Customs.
+
+
+Having in our previous chapters described and delineated both the
+weapons and instruments produced by the rudimentary manufacturing skill
+of man during the polished-stone epoch; having also introduced to notice
+the types of the human race during this period; we now have to speak of
+their tombs, their mode of interment, and all the facts connected with
+their funeral customs.
+
+A fortunate and rather strange circumstance has both facilitated and
+given a degree of certainty to the information and ideas we are about to
+lay before our readers. The tombs of the men of the polished-stone
+epoch--their funeral monuments--have been thoroughly studied, described,
+and ransacked by archæologists and antiquarians, who for many years past
+have made them the subject of a multitude of publications and learned
+dissertations. In fact, these tombs are nothing but the _dolmens_, or
+the so-called _Celtic_ and _Druidical_ monuments; but they by no means
+belong, as has always been thought, to any historical period, that is,
+to the times of the Celts, for they go back to a much more remote
+antiquity--the pre-historic period of the polished-stone age.
+
+This explanatory _datum_ having been taken into account, we shall now
+study the _dolmens_ and other so-called _megalithic_ monuments--the
+grand relics of an epoch buried in the night of time; those colossal
+enigmas which impose upon our reason and excite to the very highest
+pitch the curiosity of men of science.
+
+_Dolmens_ are monuments composed of a great block or slab of rock, more
+or less flat in their shape according to the country in which they are
+situate, placed horizontally on a certain number of stones which are
+reared up perpendicularly to serve as its supports.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.--Danish _Dolmen_.]
+
+This kind of sepulchral chamber was usually covered by earth, which
+formed a hillock over it. But in the course of time this earth often
+disappeared, leaving nothing but the naked stones of the sepulchral
+monument.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.--_Dolmen_ at Assier.]
+
+These are the bare stones which have been taken for _stone altars_,
+being referred to the religious worship of the Gauls. The supposed
+Druidical altars are, in fact, nothing but ruined _dolmens_. The
+purpose, therefore, for which they were elevated was not, as has always
+been stated, to serve as the scene of the sacrifices of a cruel
+religion; for, at the present day, it is completely proved that the
+_dolmens_ were the tombs of a pre-historic epoch.
+
+These tombs were intended to receive several dead bodies. The corpses
+were placed in the chamber which was formed by the upper slab and the
+supports. Some of these chambers had two stages or stories, and then
+furnished a larger number of sepulchres.
+
+Figs. 132 and 133 represent different _dolmens_ which still exist in
+France.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.--_Dolmen_ at Connéré (Marne).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.--Vertical Section of the _Dolmen_ of
+Locmariaker, in Brittany. In the Museum of Saint-Germain.]
+
+Some _dolmens_ are completely open to view, like that represented in
+fig. 132, nothing impeding a perfect sight of them; others, on the
+contrary, are covered with a hillock of earth, the dimensions of which
+vary according to the size of the monument itself.
+
+This latter kind of _dolmen_ more specially assumes the nature of a
+_tumulus_; a designation which conveys the idea of some mound raised
+above the tomb.
+
+Figs. 134 and 135 represent the _tumulus-dolmen_ existing at Gavr'inis
+(Oak Island), in Brittany, or, more exactly, in the department of
+Morbihan. It is the diminished sketch of an enormous model exhibited in
+the Museum of Saint-Germain. This model in relief has a portion cut off
+it which, by means of a cord and pulley, can be elevated or lowered at
+will, thus affording a view of the interior of the _dolmen_. It is
+composed of a single chamber, leading to which there is a long passage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.--_Tumulus-Dolmen_ at Gavr'inis (Morbihan).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.--A portion of the _Dolmen_ of Gavr'inis.]
+
+Were all these _dolmens_ originally covered by earth? This is a question
+which still remains unsolved. M. Alexandre Bertrand, Director of the
+Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain, to whom we owe some very
+remarkable works on the primitive monuments of ancient Gaul, decides it
+in the affirmative; whilst M. de Bonstetten, a Swiss archæologist of
+great merit, is of the contrary opinion. The matter, however, is of no
+very great importance in itself. It is, at all events, an unquestionable
+fact that certain _dolmens_ which are now uncovered were once buried;
+for they are noticed to stand in the centre of slightly raised mounds in
+which the supports are deeply buried. As we before stated, the action of
+time has destroyed the covering which the pre-historic peoples placed
+over their sepulchres in order to defend them from the injuries of time
+and the profanation of man. Thus, all that we now see is the bare stones
+of the sepulchral chambers--for so long a time supposed to be altars,
+and ascribed to the religious worship of the Gauls.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.--General Form of a covered Passage-Tomb.]
+
+In considering, therefore, the _dolmens_ of Brittany, which have been so
+many times described by antiquarians and made to figure among the number
+of our historical monuments, we must renounce the idea of looking upon
+them as symbols of the religion of our ancestors. They can now only be
+regarded as sepulchral chambers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.--Passage-Tomb at Bagneux, near Saumur.]
+
+_Dolmens_ are very numerous in France; much more numerous, indeed, than
+is generally thought. It used to be the common idea that they existed
+only in Brittany, and those curious in such matters wondered at the
+supposed Druidical altars which were so plentifully distributed in this
+ancient province of France. But Brittany is far from possessing the
+exclusive privilege of these megalithic constructions. They are found in
+fifty-eight of the French departments, belonging, for the most part, to
+the regions of the south and south-west. The department of Finisterre
+contains 500 of them; Lot, 500; Morbihan, 250; Ardèche, 155; Aveyron,
+125; Dordogne, 100; &c.[26]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--Passage-Tomb at Plouharnel (Morbihan).]
+
+The authors who have written on the question we are now considering,
+especially Sir J. Lubbock in his work on 'Pre-historic Times,' and
+Nilsson, the Swedish archæologist, have given a much too complicated
+aspect to their descriptions of the tombs of pre-historic ages, owing to
+their having multiplied the distinctions in this kind of monument. We
+should only perplex our readers by following these authors into all
+their divisions. We must, however, give some few details about them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.--Passage-Tomb; the so-called _Table de César_,
+at Locmariaker (Morbihan).]
+
+Sir J. Lubbock gives the name of _passage grave_, to that which the
+northern archæologists call _Ganggraben_ (tomb with passages); of these
+we have given four representations (figs. 136, 137, 138, 139), all
+selected from specimens in France. This name is applied to a passage
+leading to a more spacious chamber, round which the bodies are ranged.
+The gallery, formed of enormous slabs of stone placed in succession one
+after the other, almost always points towards the same point of the
+compass; in the Scandinavian states, it generally has its opening facing
+the south or east, never the north.
+
+The same author gives the name of _chambered tumuli_ (fig. 140) to tombs
+which are composed either of a single chamber or of a collection of
+large chambers, the roofs and walls of which are constructed with stones
+of immense size, which are again covered up by considerable masses of
+earth. This kind of tomb is found most frequently in the countries of
+the north.
+
+Fig. 140 represents, according to Sir J. Lubbock's work, a Danish
+_chambered tumulus_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--A Danish _Tumulus_, or chambered Sepulchre.]
+
+Before bringing to a close this description of megalithic monuments, we
+must say a few words as to _menhirs_ and _cromlechs_.
+
+_Menhirs_ (fig. 141) are enormous blocks of rough stone which were set
+up in the ground in the vicinity of tombs. They were set up either
+separately, as represented in fig. 141, or in rows, that is, in a circle
+or in an avenue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.--Usual shape of a _Menhir_.]
+
+There is in Brittany an extremely curious array of stones of this kind;
+this is the range of _menhirs_ of Carnac (fig. 142). The stones are here
+distributed in eleven parallel lines, over a distance of 1100 yards,
+and, running along the sea-shore of Brittany, present a very strange
+appearance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--The rows of _Menhirs_ at Carnac.]
+
+When _menhirs_ are arranged in circles, either single or several
+together, they are called _cromlechs_. They are vast circuits of stones,
+generally arranged round a _dolmen_. The respect which was considered
+due to the dead appears to have converted these enclosures into places
+of pilgrimage, where, on certain days, public assemblies were held.
+These enclosures are sometimes circular, as in England, sometimes
+rectangular, as in Germany, and embrace one or more ranks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--_Dolmen_ with a Circuit of Stones
+(_Cromlech_), in the Province of Constantine.]
+
+Fig. 143 represents a _dolmen_ with a circuit of stones, that is, a
+_cromlech_, which has been discovered in the province of Constantine; in
+fig. 144 we have a group of Danish _cromlechs_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.--Group of Danish _Cromlechs_.]
+
+Among all these various monuments the "passage-tombs" and the _tumuli_
+are the only ones which will come within the scope of this work; for
+these only have furnished us with any relics of pre-historic times, and
+have given us any information with respect to the peoples who occupied a
+great part of Europe at a date far anterior to any traditionary record.
+
+These stone monuments, as we have already stated, are neither Celtic nor
+Druidical. The Celts--a nation which occupied a portion of Gaul at a
+period long before the Christian era--were altogether innocent of any
+megalithic construction. They found these monuments already in existence
+at the time of their immigration, and, doubtless, looked upon them with
+as much astonishment as is shown by observers of the present day.
+Whenever there appeared any advantage in utilising them, the Celts did
+not fail to avail themselves of them. The priests of this ancient
+people, the Druids, who plucked from off the oak the sacred mistletoe,
+performed their religious ceremonies in the depths of some obscure
+forest. Now, no _dolmen_ was ever built in the midst of a forest; all
+the stone monuments which now exist stand in comparatively unwooded
+parts of the country. We must, therefore, renounce the ancient and
+poetical idea which recognised in these _dolmens_ the sacrificial altars
+of the religion of our ancestors.
+
+Some _tumuli_ attain proportions which are really colossal. Among these
+is Silbury Hill, the largest in Great Britain, which is nearly 200 feet
+high. The enormous amount of labour which would be involved in
+constructions of this kind has led to the idea that they were not raised
+except in honour of chiefs and other great personages.
+
+On consulting those records of history which extend back to the most
+remote antiquity, we arrive at the fact that the custom of raising
+colossal tombs to the illustrious dead was one that was much in vogue in
+the ancient Eastern world. Traces of these monuments are found among the
+Hebrews, the Assyrians, the Greeks, the Egyptians, &c.
+
+Thus Semiramis, Queen of Nineveh, raised a mound over the tomb of Ninus,
+her husband. Stones were likewise piled up over the remains of Laïus,
+father of Oedipus. In the 'Iliad,' Homer speaks of the mounds that were
+raised to the memory of Hector and Patroclus. That dedicated to
+Patroclus--the pious work of Achilles--was more than 100 feet in
+diameter. Homer speaks of the _tumuli_ existing in Greece, which, even
+in his time, were considered very ancient, and calls them the tombs of
+the heroes. A _tumulus_ was raised by Alexander the Great over the ashes
+of his friend Hephæstio, and so great were the dimensions of this
+monument that it is said to have cost 1200 talents, that is about
+£240,000 of our money. In Roman history, too, we find instances of the
+same kind. Lastly, the pyramids of Egypt, those costly and colossal
+funeral monuments, are the still visible representations of the highest
+expression of posthumous homage which was rendered by the generations of
+antiquity to their most illustrious and mighty men.
+
+This, however, could not have been in every case the prevailing idea in
+the men of the Stone Age, in causing the construction of these _tumuli_.
+The large number of bodies which have been found in some of these
+monuments completely does away with the notion that they were raised in
+honour of a single personage, or even of a single family. They were
+often sepulchres or burial-places common to the use of all. Among this
+class we must rank the _tumuli_ of Axevalla and of Luttra, situated not
+far from one another in Sweden. The first, which was opened in 1805,
+contained twenty tombs of an almost cubical form, each containing a
+skeleton in a crouching or contracted attitude. When the second was
+opened, the explorers found themselves in the presence of hundreds of
+skeletons placed in four rows one upon another, all in a contracted
+position like those at Axevalla; along with these human remains various
+relics of the Stone Age were also discovered.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.--Position of Skeletons in a Swedish Tomb of the
+Stone Age.]
+
+Fig. 145 represents the position in which the skeletons were found. M.
+Nilsson has propounded the opinion that the "passage-graves" are nothing
+but former habitations, which had been converted into tombs after the
+death of those who had previously occupied them. When the master of the
+house had breathed his last--especially in the case of some illustrious
+individual--his surviving friends used to place near him various
+articles of food to provide for his long journey; and also his weapons
+and other objects which were most precious to him when in life; then the
+dwelling was closed up, and was only reopened for the purpose of bearing
+in the remains of his spouse and of his children.
+
+Sir J. Lubbock shares in this opinion, and brings forward facts in its
+favour. He recites the accounts of various travellers, according to
+which, the winter-dwellings of certain people in the extreme north bear
+a very marked resemblance to the "passage-tombs" of the Stone Age. Of
+this kind are the habitations of the Siberians and the Esquimaux, which
+are composed of an oval or circular chamber placed a little under the
+surface of the ground, and completely covered with earth. Sir J. Lubbock
+thinks, therefore, that in many cases habitations of this kind may have
+been taken for _tumuli_--a mistake, he adds, all the more likely to be
+made because some of these mounds, although containing ashes, remains of
+pottery, and various implements, have not furnished any relics of human
+bones.
+
+In his work on the 'Sépultures de l'Age de la Pierre chez les Parisii,'
+M. Leguay, a learned architect and member of the Archælogical Society,
+has called attention to the fact that the construction of these
+_dolmens_ betrays, as existing in the men of this epoch, a somewhat
+advanced degree of knowledge of the elements of architecture:--
+
+"The interment of the dead," says M. Leguay, "took place, during the
+polished-stone epoch, in vaults, or a kind of tomb constructed on the
+spot, of stones of various thicknesses, generally flat in shape, and not
+elevated to any very great height, being laid without any kind of cement
+or mortar. These vaults, which were at first undivided, were
+subsequently separated into compartments by stones of a similar
+character, in which compartments bodies were placed in various
+positions. They were covered with earth or with flat stones, and
+sometimes we meet with a circular eminence raised over them, formed of a
+considerable heap of stones which had been subsequently brought
+thither; this fact was verified by M. Brouillet in 1862 at the _Tombelle
+de Brioux_ (Vienne).
+
+"This kind of interment bears evidence of some real progress. Polished
+flint instruments are met with intermingled with worked stones which
+have been brought from a distance. Pottery of a very significant
+character approaches that of the epoch at which ornamentation commenced;
+and the _Tombelle de Brioux_ has furnished two vessels with projecting
+and perforated handles formed in the clay itself. I met with specimens
+similar to these both in shape and workmanship in the cremation-tombs at
+Villeneuve-Saint-Georges, which, as I have previously stated, appeared
+to me to be later in date than the simple interment situated below them.
+
+"The first element in the art of construction, that is, stability, is
+manifested in these latter monuments. They do not come up to the fine
+_dolmens_, or to the monuments which followed them, but the principle on
+which stones should be laid together is already arrived at. The slab
+forming the covering is the first attempt at the lintel, the primitive
+base of architectural science. By insensible degrees the dimensions of
+the monument increased, the nature of the materials were modified, and,
+from the small elementary monument to the grand sepulchral _dolmen_, but
+one step remained to be made--a giant step, certainly, but not beyond
+the reach of human intelligence.
+
+"This step, however, was not accomplished suddenly and without
+transitional stages. We find a proof of this in the beautiful ossuary
+discovered in 1863, at Chamant near Senlis (Oise), on the property of
+the Comte de Lavaulx. This monument does not yet come up to the most
+beautiful of the class; but it possesses all the inspirations which
+suggested the form of its successors, of which, indeed, it is the type.
+
+"Almost flat slabs of stone, of a greater height than those forming the
+vaults, and of rather considerable dimensions, are placed on edge so as
+to form a square chamber. A partition, formed of stones of a similar
+character, leaving a space or passage between them, separates the
+chamber into two unequal portions. Some arrangement of this kind has
+been observed in most of the finest _dolmens_; it is found at a spot not
+far from Chamant, in a covered way known under the name of the _Pierres
+Turquoises_, in the forest of Carnelle, near Beaumont-sur-Oise
+(Seine-et-Oise).
+
+"At Chamant, however, the chamber was not more than 3 to 4 feet in
+height under the roof, which was formed of large flat stones, and was
+large enough to allow of a considerable number of bodies to be deposited
+within it, either in a recumbent or contracted position. Near them there
+were placed delicately-wrought flints, and also some fine-polished
+hatchets, one of which was of serpentine; another of large dimensions,
+sculptured after the fashion of the diluvial hatchets, appeared to me to
+have been prepared for polishing.
+
+"The researches which have been made have brought to light but slight
+traces of pottery, and the small fragments that I have examined do not
+point out any very remote age for this monument. Nevertheless, the
+investigation of this sepulchre, in which I was guided by a somewhat
+different idea from that of merely studying the monument itself, was not
+carried out with the exact care that would be necessary for collecting
+all the indications which it might have furnished.
+
+"Between the sepulchre of Chamant and the finest _dolmens_, the
+distinction is nothing more than a question of dimensions rather than
+any chronological point. The latter are formed of colossal stones, and
+when one examines them and seeks to realise the process which must have
+been employed for raising them, the mind is utterly perplexed, and the
+imagination finds a difficulty in conceiving how it was possible to move
+these immense masses, and, especially, to place them in the positions
+they now occupy; for at the present day, in order to arrive at similar
+results, it would be necessary to employ all the means which science has
+at command."[27]
+
+The megalithic constructions do not all date back to the same epoch.
+Some were raised during the Stone Age, others during the Bronze Age.
+There is nothing in their mode of architecture which will enable us to
+recognise their degree of antiquity; but the relics which they contain
+afford us complete information in this respect. Thus, in France,
+according to M. Alexandre Bertrand, the _dolmens_ and the
+_tumuli-dolmens_ contain, in a general way, nothing but stone and bone
+articles; those of bronze and gold are very rare, and iron is never met
+with. In the _true tumuli_, on the contrary, bronze objects predominate,
+and iron is very abundant; this is an evident proof that these monuments
+are of less ancient origin than the _dolmens_. In the same way we
+ascertain that the Danish _dolmens_ and the great sepulchral chambers
+of Scandinavia, all belong to the polished-stone epoch. When, therefore,
+we class the _dolmens_ in this last-named epoch of man's history, we are
+deciding in full harmony with the great body of _data_ which bear upon
+the point.
+
+In order to fix the period with still greater accuracy, we might add
+that the _dolmens_ belong to the latter portion of the polished-stone
+epoch and the commencement of the bronze age. But, as we before said, we
+do not attach any importance to these distinctions, which would only
+uselessly embarrass the mind of the reader.
+
+An examination of the Danish _dolmens_ has led the author of the
+'Catalogue of Pre-historic Objects sent by Denmark to the Universal
+Exposition of 1867,' to sum up in the following words the details
+concerning these sepulchral monuments:--
+
+"As regards the Danish _dolmens_, the number of skeletons contained in
+them varies much; in the largest, there are as many as twenty, and in
+the smallest there are not more than five or six; sometimes they are
+placed in stages one above the other.
+
+"The bones are never found in natural order; the head lies close to the
+knees, and no limb is in its natural place. It follows from this, that
+in the course of interment the body was contracted into a crouching
+position.
+
+"The bottom of the sepulchral chamber of a _dolmen_ is generally covered
+with a layer of flints which have been subjected to fire; this is the
+floor on which the body was deposited; it was then covered with a thin
+coating of earth, and the tomb was closed. Yet, as we have just
+observed, it was but very rarely that _dolmens_ contained only one
+skeleton. They must, therefore, have been opened afresh in order to
+deposit other bodies. It must have been on these occasions, in order to
+contend with the miasma of putrefaction, that they lighted the fires, of
+which numerous and evident traces are seen inside the _dolmens_. This
+course of action continued, as it appears, until the time when the
+_dolmen_ was entirely filled up: but even then, the tomb does not, in
+every case, seem to have been abandoned. Sometimes the most ancient
+skeletons have been displaced to make room for fresh bodies. This had
+taken place in a _dolmen_ near Copenhagen, which was opened and searched
+in the presence of the late King Frederick VII.
+
+"A _dolmen_ situated near the village of Hammer, opened a few years ago
+by M. Boye, presented some very curious peculiarities. In addition to
+flint instruments, human bones were discovered, which had also been
+subjected to the action of fire. We are, therefore, led to suppose, that
+a funeral banquet had taken place in the vicinity of the tomb, and that
+some joints of human flesh had formed an addition to the roasted stag.
+This is, however, the only discovery of the kind which has been made up
+to the present time, and we should by no means be justified in drawing
+the inference that the inhabitants of Denmark at this epoch were
+addicted to cannibalism.
+
+"The dead bodies were deposited along with their weapons and implements,
+and also with certain vessels which must have contained the food which
+perhaps some religious usage induced them to leave close to the body.
+For a long time it was supposed that it was the custom to place these
+weapons by the side of _men_ only. But in a _dolmen_ at Gieruen, a
+hatchet was found near a skeleton which was evidently that of a woman.
+
+"We now give the inventory of a 'find' made in a Danish _dolmen_, that
+of Hielm, in the Isle of Moen, which was opened in 1853. The sepulchral
+chamber was 16-1/2 feet in length, 11-1/2 feet in width, and 4-1/2 feet
+in height.
+
+"In it were discovered twenty-two spear-heads, the largest of which was
+11 inches in length, and the smallest 5-1/2 inches; more than forty
+flint flakes or knives from 2 to 5 inches in length; three flat
+hatchets, and one rather thicker; three carpenter's chisels, the longest
+of which measured 8 inches; a finely-made hammer 5 inches long; three
+flint nuclei exactly similar to those found in the kitchen-middens; and
+lastly, in addition to all these flint articles, some amber beads and
+forty earthen vessels moulded by the hand."[28]
+
+What were the funeral customs in use among men during the polished-stone
+epoch? and what were the ceremonies which took place at that period when
+they buried their dead? These are questions which it will not be
+difficult to answer after a due investigation of the _dolmens_ and
+_tumuli_.
+
+In a great number of _tumuli_, animal bones have been found either
+broken or notched by sharp instruments. This is an indication that the
+funeral rites were accompanied by feasts just as in the preceding
+epochs.
+
+The body which was about to be enclosed in the _tumulus_ was borne upon
+boughs of trees, as is the case among some savage tribes of the present
+day. The men and women attending wore their best attire; necklaces of
+amber and shells adorned their necks. Men carrying torches walked in
+front of the procession, in order to guide the bearers into the dark
+recesses of the sepulchral chambers.
+
+From these data fig. 146 has been designed, which gives a representation
+of _a funeral ceremony during the polished-stone epoch_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--A _Tumulus_ of the Polished-stone Epoch.]
+
+If we may judge by the calcined human bones which are rather frequently
+met with in tombs, there is reason to believe that sometimes victims
+were sacrificed over the body of the defunct, perhaps slaves, perhaps
+even his widow--the custom of sacrificing the widow still being in
+practice in certain parts of India.
+
+Sir J. Lubbock is, besides, of opinion that when a woman died in giving
+birth to a child, or even whilst she was still suckling it, the child
+was interred alive with her. This hypothesis appears a natural one, when
+we take into account the great number of cases in which the skeletons of
+a woman and child have been found together.
+
+M. Leguay in his 'Mémoire sur les Sépultures des Parisii,' which we
+quoted above, expresses the opinion that after each interment, in
+addition to the funeral banquet, a fire was lighted on the mound above
+the _tumulus_, and that each attendant threw certain precious objects
+into the flames.
+
+The objects which were most precious during the polished-stone epoch
+were flints wrought into hatchets, poniards, or knives.
+
+"On to this burning hearth," says M. Leguay, "as numerous instances
+prove, those who were present were in the habit of casting stones, or
+more generally wrought flints, utensils and instruments, all made either
+of some kind of stone or of bone; also fragments of pottery, and,
+doubtless, other objects which the fire has destroyed.
+
+"There are many of these objects which have not suffered any injury from
+the fire; some of the flints, indeed, seem so freshly cut and are so
+little altered by the lapse of time, that it might be readily imagined
+that they had been but recently wrought; these were not placed in the
+sepulchre, but are met with intermingled with the earth which covers or
+surrounds the hearth, and appear in many cases to have been cast in
+after the extinction of the fire as the earth was being filled in.
+
+"Sometimes, indeed, when the archæologist devotes especial care to his
+digging, he comes across a kind of layer of wrought flints which are, in
+fact, to be looked upon as refuse rather than wrought articles. Their
+position appears to indicate the surface of the soil during that epoch,
+a surface which has been covered up by the successive deposits of
+subsequent ages; and although some of these flakes may have been due to
+some of the objects which had been placed in the sepulchre having been
+chipped on the spot, there are many others which have not originated in
+this way, and have come from objects which have been deposited in other
+places.
+
+"All these stones, which are common to three kinds of burial-places,
+have fulfilled, in my opinion, a votive function; that is to say, that
+they represent, as regards this epoch, the wreaths and coronals of
+_immortelles_, or the other objects which we in the present day place
+upon the tombs of our relations or friends; thus following out a custom
+the origin of which is lost in the night of time.
+
+"And let not the reader treat with ridicule these ideas, which I hold to
+be not far from the truth. Men, as individuals, may pass away, and
+generations may disappear; but they always hand down to their progeny
+and those that succeed them the customs of their epoch; which customs
+will undergo little or no change until the causes which have produced
+them also disappear. Thus it is with all that concerns the ceremonies
+observed in bearing man to his last resting-place--a duty which can
+never change, and always brings with it its train of sorrow and regret.
+Nowadays, a small sum of money is sufficient to give outward expression
+to our grief; but at these remote epochs each individual fashioned his
+own offering, chipped his own flint, and bore it himself to the grave of
+his friend.
+
+"This idea will explain the diversity of shape in the flints placed
+round and in the sepulchres, and especially the uncouthness of many of
+the articles which, although all manufactured of the same material,
+betray a style of workmanship exercised by numerous hands more or less
+practised in the work.
+
+"It may, however, be readily conceived that during an epoch when stones
+were the chief material for all useful implements, every wrought flint
+represented a certain value. To deprive themselves of these objects of
+value in order to offer them to the manes of the dead was considered a
+laudable action, just as was the case subsequently as regards still
+more precious objects; and this custom, which was observed during many
+long ages, although sometimes and perhaps often practised with the
+declining energy inherent in every religious custom, was the origin of a
+practice adopted by many of the nations of antiquity, that, namely, of
+casting a stone upon the tomb of the dead. Thus were formed those
+sepulchral heaps of stones called _gal-gals_, some of which still exist.
+
+"It is, without doubt, to this votive idea that we must attribute the
+fact that so many beautiful objects which ornament our museums have been
+found deposited in these sepulchres; but we must remark that the large
+and roughly-hewn hatchets, and also the knives of the second epoch, are
+replaced, in the third epoch, by polished hatchets often even fitted
+with handles, and also by knives of much larger size and finer
+workmanship.
+
+"As an additional corroboration of my ideas, I will mention a curious
+fact which I ascertained to exist in two sepulchres of this kind which I
+searched; the significance of this fact can only be explained by a
+hypothesis which any one may readily develop.
+
+"Each of them contained one long polished hatchet, broken in two in the
+middle; the other portion of which was not found in the sepulchre.
+
+"One is now in the Museum at Cluny, where I deposited it; the other is
+still in my own possession. It is beyond all dispute that they were thus
+broken at the time of the interment.
+
+"Numerous hatchets broken in a similar way have been found by M. A.
+Forgeais in the bed of the Seine at Paris, and also in various other
+spots; all of them were broken in the middle, and I have always been of
+opinion that they proceeded from sepulchres of a like kind, which,
+having been placed on the edge of the river, had been washed away by the
+flow of water which during long ages had eaten away the banks."
+
+At a subsequent period, that is, during the bronze epoch, dead bodies
+were often, as we shall see, reduced to ashes either wholly or in part,
+and the ashes were enclosed in urns.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[26] Alexandre Bertrand's 'Les Monuments Primitifs de la Gaule.'
+
+[27] 'Des Sépultures à l'Age de la Pierre,' pp. 15, 16. 1865.
+
+[28] 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle de 1867.' Paris. 1868.
+
+
+
+
+THE AGE OF METALS.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+
+THE BRONZE EPOCH.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     The Discovery of Metals--Various Reasons suggested for explaining
+     the Origin of Bronze in the West--The Invention of Bronze--A
+     Foundry during the Bronze Epoch--Permanent and Itinerant Foundries
+     existing during the Bronze Epoch--Did the knowledge of Metals take
+     its rise in Europe owing to the Progress of Civilisation, or was it
+     a Foreign Importation?
+
+
+The acquisition and employment of metals is one of the greatest facts in
+our social history. Thenard, the chemist, has asserted that we may judge
+of the state of civilisation of any nation by the degree of perfection
+at which it has arrived in the workmanship of iron. Looking at the
+matter in a more general point of view, we may safely say that if man
+had never become acquainted with metals he would have remained for ever
+in his originally savage state.
+
+There can be no doubt that the free use of, or privation from, metals is
+a question of life and death for any nation. When we take into account
+the important part that is played by metals in all modern communities,
+we cannot fail to be convinced that, without metals civilisation would
+have been impossible. That astonishing scientific and industrial
+movement which this nineteenth century presents to us in its most
+remarkable form--the material comfort which existing generations are
+enjoying--all our mechanical appliances, manufactures of such diverse
+kinds, books and arts--not one of all these benefits for man, in the
+absence of metals, could ever have come into existence. Without the help
+of metal, man would have been condemned to live in great discomfort;
+but, aided by this irresistible lever, his powers have been increased a
+hundredfold, and man's empire has been gradually extended over the whole
+of nature.
+
+In all probability, gold, among all the metals, is the first with which
+man became acquainted. Gold, in a metallic state, is drifted down by the
+waters of many a river, and its glittering brightness would naturally
+point it out to primitive peoples. Savages are like children; they love
+everything that shines brightly. Gold, therefore, must, in very early
+days, have found its way into the possession of the primitive
+inhabitants of our globe.
+
+Gold is still often met with in the Ural mountains; and thence, perhaps,
+it originally spread all over the north of Europe. The streams and the
+rivers of some of the central countries of Europe, such as Switzerland,
+France, and Germany, might also have furnished a small quantity.
+
+After gold, copper must have been the next metal which attracted the
+attention of men; in the first place, because this metal is sometimes
+found in a native state, and also because cupriferous ores, and
+especially copper pyrites, are very widely distributed. Nevertheless,
+the extraction of copper from the ores is an operation of such a
+delicate character, that it must have been beyond the reach of the
+metallurgic appliances at the disposal of men during the early
+pre-historic period.
+
+The knowledge of tin also dates back to a very high antiquity. Still,
+although men might become acquainted with tin ores, a long interval must
+have elapsed before they could have succeeded in extracting the pure
+metal.
+
+Silver did not become known to men until a much later date; for this
+metal is very seldom met with in the _tumuli_ of the bronze epoch. The
+fact is, that silver is seldom found in a pure state, and scarcely ever
+except in combination with lead ores; lead, however, was not known until
+after iron.
+
+Bronze, as every one knows, is an alloy of copper and tin (nine parts of
+copper and one of tin). Now it is precisely this alloy, namely bronze,
+which was the first metallic substance used in Europe; indeed the sole
+substance used, to the exclusion of copper. We have, therefore, to
+explain the somewhat singular circumstance that an alloy and not a pure
+metal was the metallic substance that was earliest used in Europe; and
+we must also inquire how it was that bronze could have been composed by
+the nations which succeeded those of the polished-stone epoch.
+
+At first sight, it might appear strange that an alloy like bronze should
+have been the first metallic substance used by man, thus setting aside
+iron, deposits of which are very plentiful in Europe. But it is to be
+remarked, in the first place, that iron ores do not attract the
+attention so much as those of tin and copper. Added to this, the
+extraction of iron from its ores is one of the most difficult operations
+of the kind. When dealing with ferruginous ores, the first operation
+produces nothing more than rough cast iron--a very impure substance,
+which is so short and brittle that it possesses scarcely any metallic
+qualities, and differs but little from stone as regards any use it could
+be applied to. It requires re-heating and hammering to bring it into the
+condition of malleable iron. On the other hand, by simply smelting
+together copper and tin ores and adding a little charcoal, bronze might
+be at once produced, without any necessity for previously extracting and
+obtaining pure copper and tin in a separate state. This will explain how
+it came to pass that the earliest metal-workers produced bronze at one
+operation, without even being acquainted with the separate metals which
+enter into its composition.
+
+We are left entirely to hypothesis in endeavouring to realise to
+ourselves how men were led to mix together copper and tin ores, and thus
+to produce bronze--a hard, durable and fusible alloy, and consequently
+well adapted, without much trouble, for the fabrication, by melting in
+moulds, of hatchets, poniards, and swords, as well as agricultural and
+mechanical instruments.
+
+Bronze was endowed with all the most admirable qualities for aiding the
+nascent industrial skill of mankind. It is more fusible than copper and
+is also harder than this metal; indeed, in the latter respect, it may
+compete with iron. It is a curious fact that bronze has the peculiarity
+of hardening when cooled gradually. If it is made red-hot in the fire
+and is then suddenly cooled by plunging it into water, the metal becomes
+more ductile and may be easily hammered; but it regains its original
+hardness if it is again heated red-hot and then allowed to cool slowly.
+This, as we see, is just the contrary to the properties of steel.
+
+By taking advantage of this quality of bronze they were enabled to
+hammer it, and, after the necessary work with the hammer was finished,
+they could, by means of gradual cooling, restore the metal to its
+original hardness. At the present day, cymbals and tom-toms are made
+exactly in this way.
+
+All these considerations will perhaps sufficiently explain to the
+reader why the use of bronze preceded that of iron among all the
+European and Asiatic peoples.
+
+On this quasi-absence of manufactured copper in the pre-historic
+monuments of Europe, certain archæologists have relied when propounding
+the opinion that bronze was brought into Europe by a people coming from
+the East, a more advanced and civilised people, who had already passed
+through their _copper age_, that is, had known and made use of pure
+copper. This people, it is said, violently invaded Europe, and in almost
+every district took the place of the primitive population; so that, in
+every country, bronze suddenly succeeded stone for the manufacture of
+instruments, weapons and implements.
+
+By the side of these _savants_, who represent to some extent, in
+ethnological questions, the partisans of the great geological cataclysms
+or revolutions of the globe, there are others who would refer the
+appearance of bronze in Europe to a great extension of commercial
+relations. They utterly reject the idea of any conquest, of any great
+invasion having brought with it a complete change in manners, customs,
+and processes of industrial skill. In their opinion, it was commerce
+which first brought bronze from the East and introduced it to the men of
+the West. This is the view of Sir Cornewall Lewis, the archæologist and
+statesman, and also of Prof. Nilsson, who attributes to the Phoenicians
+the importation of bronze into Europe.
+
+Without attaining any great result, Nilsson has taken much trouble in
+supporting this idea by acceptable proofs. We are called upon to agree
+with the Danish archæologist in admitting that the Phoenicians, that is,
+the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon went _with their ships_ to procure tin
+from Great Britain, in order to make an alloy with it in their own
+country, which alloy they subsequently imported into Europe.
+
+This is nothing but historic fancy. To this romance of archæology we
+shall oppose the simple explanation which chemistry suggests to us. Our
+belief is that the bronze was fabricated on the spot by the very people
+who made use of it. All that was requisite in order to obtain bronze,
+was to mix and smelt together the ores of oxidised copper or copper
+pyrites, and tin ore, adding a small quantity of charcoal. Now, copper
+ore abounds in Europe; that of tin is certainly rare; and it is this
+rarity of tin ore which is appealed to in support of the conjecture
+against which we are contending. But, although tin ores are nowadays
+rare in Europe, except in England and Saxony, they are, nevertheless, to
+be met with in the centre and south of the Continent; and, doubtless, in
+the early ages of mankind the quantities were quite sufficient to supply
+the slender requirements of the dawning efforts of industrial skill. We
+may, perhaps, be permitted to allege that the cause of the supplies of
+tin ores being so poor in the centre and south of Europe, may be the
+fact that they were exhausted by the workings of our ancestors. Thus, at
+least, many of the deposits of copper, silver, and lead, have been
+exhausted by the Romans, and we now find nothing more than the mere
+remains of mines which were once very productive.
+
+We may easily see that, in order to account for the presence of bronze
+in Europe during the primitive epochs of mankind, it was not necessary
+to build up such a framework of hypothesis as Prof. Nilsson has so
+elaborately raised.
+
+To sum up the whole matter, we may say that the use of bronze preceded
+that of iron in the primitive industry of Europe and Asia; and that the
+people of our hemisphere were acquainted with bronze before they came to
+the knowledge of pure copper and tin; this is all that we can safely
+assert on the point.
+
+It might of course have been the case that copper and tin were first
+used alone, and that the idea was subsequently entertained of combining
+the two metals so as to improve both. But the facts evidently show that,
+so far as regards Europe, things did not take place in this way, and
+that bronze was employed in the works of primitive industry before
+copper and tin were known as existing in a separate state.[29]
+
+We must, however, state that in the New World the matter was different.
+The Indians of North America, long before they knew anything about
+bronze, were in the habit of hammering the copper which was procured
+from the mines of Lake Superior, and of making of it weapons, ornaments
+and implements.
+
+After considering these general and theoretical points, we shall now
+pass on to the history of the employment of bronze among men of
+pre-historic ages, and shall endeavour to give some description of their
+works for the manufacture of metals.
+
+Facts handed down by tradition evidently show that, among the peoples
+both of Europe and Asia, the use of bronze preceded that of iron.
+
+Homer tells us that the soldiers of the Greek and Trojan armies were
+provided with iron weapons, yet he reserves for the heroes weapons made
+of bronze. It seems that bronze being the most ancient, was therefore
+looked upon as the more noble metal; hence, its use is reserved for
+chiefs or great warriors. Among all nations, that which is the most
+ancient is ever the most honourable and the most sacred. Thus, to
+mention one instance only, the Jews of our own times still perform the
+ceremony of circumcision with a knife made of stone. In this case, the
+stone-knife is an object consecrated by religion, because the antiquity
+of this instrument is actually lost in the night of time.
+
+Bronze (or brass) is often mentioned in the Book of Genesis. Tubal-cain,
+the first metal-worker of the Scriptures, who forged iron for all kinds
+of purposes, also wrought in bronze (or brass). This alloy was devoted
+to the production of objects of ornament.
+
+We read in the First Book of Kings (vii. 13, 14), "And King Solomon sent
+and fetched Hiram out of Tyre. He was a widow's son of the tribe of
+Naphtali, and his father was a man of Tyre, a worker in brass: and he
+was filled with wisdom, and understanding, and cunning to work all works
+in _brass_."
+
+The word _brass_ must be here understood as being synonymous with
+bronze, and certainly the Hebrew term had this signification.
+
+As a specially remarkable object of bronze work, we may mention the "sea
+of brass" of the Hebrews, which contained 3000 measures of water.
+
+Herodotus[30] speaks of another colossal basin made of bronze, which was
+sixty times the size of that which Pausanias, son of Cleobrontos,
+presented to the temple of Jupiter Orios, a temple which had been built
+near the Euxine, on the borders of Scythia. Its capacity was six hundred
+_amphoræ_, and it was six "fingers" in thickness. The Greeks used to
+employ these enormous basins in their religious ceremonies.
+
+In Sweden and Norway, large receptacles of a similar kind were in
+primitive ages employed in sacrificial ceremonies; they used to receive
+the blood which flowed from the slaughtered animals.
+
+In order to produce objects of this magnitude it was of course necessary
+to have at disposal large foundries of bronze. These foundries, which
+existed during historic periods, were preceded by others of less
+importance used during the pre-historic epochs which we are considering,
+that is, during the bronze epoch.
+
+Vestiges of these ancient foundries have been discovered in Switzerland,
+at Devaine, near Thonon, and at Walflinger, near Wintherthur; especially
+also at Echallens, where objects have been found which evidently
+originated from the working of some pre-historic foundry.
+
+At Morges, in Switzerland, a stone mould has been discovered, intended
+for casting hatchets. By running bronze into this ancient mould, a
+hatchet has been made exactly similar to some of those in our
+collections.
+
+The casting was also effected in moulds of sand, which is the more usual
+and more easy plan.
+
+From these _data_, it is possible to imagine what sort of place a
+foundry must have been during the bronze epoch.
+
+In the production of bronze, they used to mix oxydated tin ore, in the
+proportions which experience had taught them, with oxydated copper ore
+or copper pyrites; to this mixture was added a small quantity of
+charcoal. The whole was placed in an earthen vessel in the midst of a
+burning furnace. The two oxides were reduced to a metallic state by
+means of the charcoal; the copper and tin being set free, blended and
+formed bronze.
+
+When the alloy was obtained, all that was necessary was to dip it out
+and pour it into sand or stone moulds which had been previously arranged
+for the purpose.
+
+The art of casting in bronze must have played a very essential part
+among primitive peoples. There was no instrument that they used which
+could not be made by casting it in bronze. The sword-blades were thus
+made; and, in order to harden the edge of the weapon, it was first
+heated and then cooled suddenly, being afterwards hammered with a stone
+hammer.
+
+In fig. 147, we represent the workshop of a caster in bronze during the
+epoch we are considering. The alloy, having been previously mixed, has
+been smelted in a furnace, and a workman is pouring it into a
+sand-mould. Another man is examining a sword-blade which has just been
+cast.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.--A Founder's Workshop during the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+Bronze being precious, it is probable that in these ancient communities
+bronze weapons and implements were reserved for rich and powerful
+personages, and that stone weapons remained the attribute of the common
+people. The use of bronze could only become general after the lapse of
+time.
+
+The high value of bronze would lead to its being economised as much as
+possible. The Pre-historic Museum at Copenhagen contains unquestionable
+proofs of this scarcity of the metal, and the means which were used for
+obviating it. Among the bronze hatchets in the Museum of Copenhagen,
+there are some which could only have served as ornaments, for they
+contained a nucleus of clay, and the metal of which they were composed
+was not thicker than a sheet of paper.
+
+We must also add that worn-out instruments of bronze and utensils which
+were out of use were carefully preserved in order to be re-cast; the
+same material re-appearing in various forms and shapes.
+
+We have just given a representation of the _workshop of a founder of
+bronze_; but we must also state that in addition to these fixed
+establishments there must have existed, at the epoch of which we are
+speaking, certain itinerant founders who travelled about, carrying all
+their necessary utensils on their backs, and offered their services
+wherever they were required.
+
+Every one is acquainted with the travelling-tinkers who, at the present
+day, make their way down from the mountains of Auvergne, the Black
+Forest, the Alps, or the Cévennes, and are called _péirerous_ and
+_estama-brazaïres_ in the south of France, and _épingliers_ in other
+districts. These men are in the habit of working at separate jobs in the
+villages and even in the public places of the towns. Of course they
+travel with no more of the utensils of their craft than strict necessity
+requires; but, nevertheless, what they carry is sufficient for every
+purpose. A hollow made in the ground is the furnace in which they place
+the nozzle of their portable bellows, and they hammer the iron on a
+small anvil fixed in the earth.
+
+Aided by these merely rudimentary means they execute pieces of
+metal-work, the dimensions of which are really surprising. They make
+nails and tacks, and even worm screws, repair locks, clean clocks, make
+knives, mend skimmers, and restore umbrella-frames. They make bronze
+rings out of republican _décimes_, and sell these popular trinkets to
+the village beauties.
+
+Incomparable in their line of business, these men are unequalled in
+patching or re-tinning vessels made of tin and wrought or sheet-iron.
+The mending of crockeryware also forms one of their numerous vocations;
+and the repairing of a broken plate by means of an iron rivet is mere
+play-work for their dexterous fingers. But melting down and
+re-casting--these are the real triumphs of their art. The village
+housewife brings to them her worn-out pewter vessel, and soon sees it
+reappear as a new, brilliant, and polished utensil. Lamps, cans, covers,
+and tin-plates and dishes are thus made to reappear in all their
+primitive brightness.
+
+The fusion and casting of bronze does not perplex them any more than
+working in tin. They are in the habit of casting various utensils in
+brass or bronze, such as candlesticks, bells, brackets, &c. The crucible
+which they use in melting brass is nothing but a hole dug in the earth
+and filled up with burning charcoal, the fire being kept up with the
+help of their bellows, the nozzle of which is lengthened so as to open
+into the middle of the charcoal. On this furnace they place their
+portable crucible, which is a kind of earthen ladle provided with a
+handle.
+
+Their system of casting is simple in the extreme. The pressed sand,
+which serves them for a mould, is procured from the ditch at the side of
+the road. Into this mould they pour the alloy out of the very crucible
+in which it has been melted.
+
+These itinerant metallurgists, these _estama-brazaïres_, who may be
+noticed working in the villages of Lower Languedoc, whose ways we have
+just depicted (not without some degree of pleasant reminiscence), are
+nothing but the descendants of the travelling metal-workers of the
+pre-historic bronze epoch. In addition to the permanent establishment of
+this kind--the foundries, the remains of which have been found in
+Switzerland, the French Jura, Germany and Denmark, there certainly
+existed at that time certain workmen who travelled about singly, from
+place to place, exercising their trade. Their stock of tools, like the
+objects which they had to make or repair, was of a very simple
+character; the sand from the wayside formed their moulds, and their fuel
+was the dry wood of the forest.
+
+The existence, at this remote epoch in the history of mankind, of the
+itinerant workers in metal is proved by the fact, that practitioners of
+this kind were known in the earliest _historic_ periods who had already
+to some extent become proficients in the art. Moses, the Hebrew
+lawgiver, was able in the wilderness to make a brazen serpent, the sight
+of which healed the Israelites who had been bitten by venomous snakes;
+and, during the retirement of the prophet to Mount Sinai, Aaron seemed
+to find no difficulty in casting the golden calf, which was required of
+him by the murmurs of the people. Itinerant founders must therefore have
+accompanied the Jewish army.
+
+We have been compelled to dwell to some extent on the general
+considerations which bear upon the introduction of bronze among the
+ancient inhabitants of Europe who succeeded the men of the Stone Age. In
+the chapters which follow we intend as far as possible to trace out the
+picture of that period of man's history, which is called _the Bronze
+Epoch_, and constitutes the first division of _the Age of Metals_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[29] It must, however, be observed that the author's theory does not
+agree with the opinion of metallurgists, who do not consider the
+reduction of mixed copper and tin ore a practically effective process,
+and would favour the more usual view that the metals were smelted
+separately, and afterwards fused together to form bronze.--(_Note to
+Eng. Trans._)
+
+[30] Book iv. p. 81.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+     The Sources of Information at our Disposal for reconstructing the
+     History of the Bronze Epoch--The Lacustrine Settlements of
+     Switzerland--Enumeration and Classification of them--Their Mode of
+     Construction--Workmanship and Position of the Piles--Shape and Size
+     of the Huts--Population--Instruments of Stone, Bone, and Stag's
+     Horn--Pottery--Clothing--Food--_Fauna_--Domestic Animals.
+
+
+In endeavouring to trace out the early history of the human race we
+naturally turn our attention to all the means of investigation which
+either study or chance have placed at our disposal. Grottos and caves,
+the rock-shelters, the ancient camps, the centres of flint-working, the
+Scandinavian kitchen-middens, the _dolmens_, and the _tumuli_--all have
+lent their aid in affording those elements for the representation of the
+earliest epoch of the history of primitive man which we have already
+considered. The data which we shall resort to for delineating the bronze
+epoch will be of a different kind.
+
+Among all the sources of authentic information as to the manners and
+customs of man in his earliest existence, none, certainly, are more
+curious than those ancient remains which have lately been brought to
+light and explored, and have received the name of _lacustrine
+dwellings_.
+
+The question may be asked, what are these _lacustrine dwellings_, and in
+what way do they serve to elucidate the history of the bronze epoch?
+These are just the points which we are about to explain.
+
+The most important discoveries have often depended on very slight
+causes. This assertion, although it has been made common by frequent
+repetition, is none the less perfectly correct. To what do we owe the
+knowledge of a multitude of curious details as to pre-historic peoples?
+To an accidental and unusual depression of the temperature in
+Switzerland. But we will explain.
+
+The winter of 1853-1854 was, in Switzerland, so dry and cold that the
+waters of the lakes fell far below their ordinary level. The inhabitants
+of Meilen, a place situated on the banks of the Lake of Zurich, took
+advantage of this circumstance, and gained from the lake a tract of
+ground, which they set to work to raise and surround with banks.
+
+In carrying out these works they found in the mud at the bottom of the
+lake a number of piles, some thrown down and others still upright,
+fragments of rough pottery, bone and stone instruments, and various
+other relics similar to those found in the Danish peat-bogs.
+
+This extraordinary accumulation of objects of all kinds on the dried bed
+of the lake appeared altogether inexplicable, and every one was at fault
+in their remarks; but Dr. Keller of Zurich, having examined the objects,
+at once came to a right understanding as to their signification. It was
+evident to him that they belonged to pre-historic times. By an
+association of ideas which no one had previously dreamt of, he perceived
+that a relation existed between the piles and the other relics
+discovered in the vicinity, and saw clearly that both dated back to the
+same epoch. He thus came to the conclusion, that the ancient inhabitants
+of the Lake of Zurich were in the habit of constructing dwellings over
+the water, and that the same custom must have existed as regards the
+other Swiss lakes.
+
+This idea was developed by Dr. Keller in five very remarkable memoirs,
+which were published in German.[31]
+
+This discovery was the spark which lighted up a torch destined to
+dissipate the darkness which hung over a long-protracted and
+little-known period of man's history.
+
+Previous to the discovery made on the dried-up bed of the Lake of
+Zurich, various instruments and singular utensils had been obtained from
+the mud of some of the lakes of Switzerland, and piles had often been
+noticed standing up in the depth of the water; but no one had been able
+to investigate these vestiges of another age, or had had any idea of
+ascribing to them anything like the remote antiquity which has since
+been recognised as belonging to them. To Dr. Keller the honour is due of
+having interpreted these facts in their real bearing, at a time when
+every one else looked upon them as nothing but objects of curiosity. It
+is, therefore, only just to pronounce the physician of Zurich to have
+been the first originator of pre-historic archæological science in
+Switzerland.
+
+In 1854, after the publication of Dr. Keller's first article, the Swiss
+lakes were explored with much energy, and it was not long before
+numerous traces of human settlements were discovered. At the present day
+more than 200 are known, and every year fresh ones are being found.[32]
+
+Thanks to the activity which has been shown by a great number of
+observers, magnificent collections have been formed of these
+archæological treasures. The fishermen of the lakes have been
+acquainted, for many years back, with the sites of some of these
+settlements, in consequence of having, on many occasions, torn their
+nets on the piles sticking up in the mud. Numerous questions were asked
+them, and they were taken as guides to the different spots, and ere long
+a whole system of civilisation, heretofore unknown, emerged from the
+beds of the Swiss lakes.
+
+Among the lakes which have furnished the largest quantity of relics of
+pre-historic ages, we may mention that of Neuchâtel, in which, in 1867,
+no less than forty-six settlements were counted; in Lake Constance
+(thirty-two settlements); in the Lake of Geneva (twenty-four
+settlements); in the Lake of Bienne, canton of Berne (twenty
+settlements); in the Lake of Morat, canton of Fribourg (eight
+settlements).
+
+Next come several other lakes of less importance. The Lake of Zurich
+(three settlements); the Lake of Pfæffikon, canton of Zurich (four
+settlements); the Lake of Sempach, canton of Lucerne (four settlements);
+the Lake of Moosseedorf, canton of Berne (two settlements); the Lake of
+Inkwyl, near Soleure (one settlement); the Lake of Nussbaumen, canton of
+Thurgau (one settlement); the Lake of Zug, &c.
+
+Pile-work has also been discovered in former lakes now transformed into
+peat-bogs. We must place in this class the peat-bog of Wauwyl, canton of
+Lucerne (five settlements).
+
+We will mention, in the last place, the settlement at the bridge of
+Thièle, on the water-course which unites the lakes of Bienne and
+Neuchâtel. This settlement must once have formed a portion of the Lake
+of Bienne, at the time when the latter extended as far as the bridge of
+Thièle.
+
+The lacustrine villages of Switzerland do not all belong to the same
+period. The nature of the remains that they contain indubitably prove
+that some are far more ancient than others. The vestiges have been
+discovered of three successive epochs--the polished-stone epoch and the
+epochs of bronze and of iron.
+
+The lacustrine settlements of Switzerland, when considered under the
+heads of the various pre-historical epochs to which they belong, may be
+divided in the following way:--
+
+_The Stone Age_:--The Lake of Constance (about thirty settlements); the
+Lake of Neuchâtel (twelve settlements); the Lake of Geneva (two
+settlements); the Lake of Morat (one settlement); the lakes of Bienne,
+Zurich, Pfæffikon, Inkwyl, Moosseedorf, Nussbaumen, Wanger, &c.; the
+settlements of Saint-Aubin and Concise, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and the
+settlement at the Bridge of Thièle.
+
+_The Bronze Epoch_:--The Lake of Geneva (twenty settlements); the Lake
+of Neuchâtel (twenty-five settlements); the Lake of Bienne (ten
+settlements); also the lakes of Morat and Sempach.
+
+_The Iron Epoch_:--The lakes of Neuchâtel and Bienne.
+
+It may appear strange that the primitive inhabitants of Switzerland
+should have preferred aquatic dwellings to habitations built on _terra
+firma_, which could certainly have been constructed much more easily.
+Further on in our work we shall have something to say as to the
+advantages which men might derive from such a peculiar arrangement of
+their dwellings; but we may now remark that this custom was somewhat
+prevalent among the earliest inhabitants of Europe. Ancient history
+furnishes us with several instances of it. Herodotus, speaking of the
+Pæonians, of the Lake Prasias, in Thrace, says:--
+
+"Their habitations are built in the following way. On long piles, sunk
+into the bottom of the lake, planks are placed, forming a floor; a
+narrow bridge is the means of access to them. These piles used to be
+fixed by the inhabitants at their joint expense; but afterwards it was
+settled that each man should bring three from Mount Orbelus for every
+woman whom he married. Plurality of wives, be it observed, was permitted
+in this country. On these planks each has his hut with a trap-door down
+into the lake; and lest any of their children should fall through this
+opening they took care to attach a cord to their feet. They used to feed
+their horses and beasts of burden on fish. In this lake fish was so
+abundant that if a basket was let down through the trap-door it might be
+drawn up a short time afterwards filled with fish."
+
+Sir J. Lubbock, repeating the statement of one of his friends who
+resides at Salonica, asserts that the fishermen of the Lake Prasias
+still inhabit wooden huts built over the water, as in the time of
+Herodotus. There is nothing improbable in this, since the town of
+Tcherkask in Russia is constructed in a similar way over the River Don,
+and Venice itself is nothing but a lacustrine city built during historic
+times over a lagune of the Adriatic sea.
+
+We may add that even in modern times this custom of building villages on
+piles still exists in some parts of the world. According to the evidence
+of Dampier and Dumont d'Urville, habitations built on piles are to be
+met with in New Guinea, Celebes, Ceram, Mindanao, the Caroline Islands,
+&c. The city of Borneo is, indeed, entirely built on this plan. In some
+of the isles of the Pacific Ocean there are several tribes of savages
+who likewise make their dwellings over water. The Indians of Venezuela
+have adopted this custom with the sole intention of sheltering
+themselves from the mosquitoes.
+
+It is quite permissible to suppose that the need for security was the
+motive which induced the ancient inhabitants of Switzerland, and other
+countries, thus to make settlements and live upon the lakes. Surrounded
+as they were by vast marshes and impenetrable forests, they lived in
+dread of the attacks of numerous wild beasts. They therefore taxed their
+ingenuity to insure their safety as far as they possibly could, and no
+means appeared more efficacious than that of surrounding themselves with
+water. At a subsequent period, when men commenced to make war against
+one another, these aquatic habitations became still more valuable. They
+then constituted something in the nature of camps or fortification in
+which, being well-protected from all danger of sudden surprise, the
+people of the country could defy the efforts of their enemies.
+
+We must, however, add, that in more recent times these buildings on
+piles were--according to M. Desor--used only as storehouses for utensils
+and provisions; the actual dwellings for men being built on _terra
+firma_.
+
+These lacustrine dwellings are designated under various names by
+different authors. Dr. Keller, who was the first to describe them, gave
+them in German the name of _pfahlbauten_ (buildings on piles) which the
+Italians have translated by the word _palafitta_. This latter
+appellation, when gallicized by M. Desor, becomes _palafitte_. Lastly,
+the name _ténevières_ or _steinbergs_ (mountains of stone) is given to
+constructions of a peculiar character in which the piles are kept up by
+masses of stone which have been brought to the spot. By Dr. Keller, this
+latter kind are called _packwerkbauten_.
+
+When we examine as a whole the character of the lacustrine settlements
+which have hitherto been discovered, it may, in fact, be perceived that
+those who built them proceeded on two different systems of construction;
+either, they buried the piles very deeply in the bed of the lake, and on
+these piles placed the platform which was to support their huts; or,
+they artificially raised the bed of the lake by means of heaps of
+stones, fixing in these heaps somewhat large stakes, not so much for the
+purpose of supporting the habitations themselves as with a view of
+making the heaps of stones a firm and compact body.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.--Section of the _Ténevière_ of Hauterive.]
+
+This latter mode of construction is represented in fig. 148, taken from
+a design given by M. Desor in his remarkable work 'Les Palafittes.'[33]
+
+One or the other of these modes of construction was employed according
+to the nature of the bed of the lake. In lakes with a muddy bottom, the
+first plan could be easily employed; but when the bed was rocky, it was
+necessary to have recourse to the second. This is the reason why on the
+northern shore of the Lake of Neuchâtel, where the banks of limestone
+come very close to the surface, a comparatively large number of
+_ténevières_ may be observed.
+
+These are the facts as generally noticed, especially in wide and deep
+lakes; the edifice, however, was not always constructed in this mode. In
+marshes and small lakes, which have now become peat-bogs, another system
+was frequently applied, a remarkable instance of which is furnished by
+the peat-moss at Wauwyl. In this locality were found several
+quadrangular spaces very distinctly enclosed by piles, between which
+were raised as many as five platforms one above the other. These piles
+are naturally very long, and some are buried as much as seven feet in
+the solid ground--an operation which must have required an enormous
+amount of labour. The intervals between the platforms are filled up with
+boughs of trees and clay, and the floors themselves are made in nearly
+the same way as those we have before mentioned. The lowest rested
+directly on the bed of the lake, and on the upper one the huts were
+placed.
+
+It is sometimes the case that these heaps of stones rise above the
+water; they then form perfect artificial islands, and the habitations
+which covered them are no longer, properly speaking, dwellings on piles.
+Of this kind is the station on the Lake of Inkwyl in Switzerland; of
+this kind, also, are the _crannoges_ of Ireland, of which we shall
+subsequently make special mention. Some of these artificial islands have
+braved the destructive action of ages, and are still inhabited at the
+present time. M. Desor mentions the Isle of Roses in the Lake of
+Starnberg (Bavaria) which has never been known to have been unfrequented
+by man; it now contains a royal residence.
+
+Let us revert to the mode of construction of the aquatic dwellings of
+Switzerland.
+
+In all probability the stones used were conveyed to the required spot by
+means of canoes made of hollowed-out trunks of trees. Several of these
+canoes may still be seen at the bottom of Lake Bienne, and one, indeed,
+is still laden with pebbles, which leads us to think that it must have
+foundered with its cargo. But it is very difficult to raise these canoes
+from the bottom, and it is, besides, probable that when exposed to the
+open air they would fall to dust. Nevertheless, one of them is exhibited
+in the Museum at Neuchâtel.
+
+In the Museum at Saint-Germain there is a canoe very similar to that of
+Neuchâtel. It is made out of the trunk of a hollow tree. A second canoe,
+very like the first, but with the bark still on it, and in a bad state
+of preservation, lies in the entry of the same Museum of Saint-Germain.
+It was taken out of the Seine, as we stated when speaking in a previous
+chapter of the first discovery of the art of navigation during the Stone
+Age.
+
+It may very easily be explained how the constructors went to work in
+felling the trees and converting them into piles. M. Desor has remarked
+that the pieces of wood composing the piles are cut cleanly through
+round their circumference only; the central part shows inequalities just
+like those which are noticed when a stick is broken in two by the hand
+after having been cut into all round the outside. The builders of the
+lacustrine villages, therefore, when they wanted to fell a tree must
+have acted much as follows: having cut all round it to a depth of 3 or 4
+inches, they fixed a cord to the top, and broke the tree down by
+forcibly pulling at the upper part. They then cut it through in the same
+way with stone or bronze hatchets, giving it the requisite length,
+hewing it into a point at one end so that it should more easily
+penetrate the mud. Sometimes a fire applied to the base of the tree
+prepared for, and facilitated, the effect of the sharp instruments used.
+A great number of the piles that have been found still bear the marks of
+the fire and the cuts made by stone hatchets. In constructing the
+_ténevières_, the labour of pointing the piles was needless, as the
+latter were thoroughly wedged in by the accumulation of stones of which
+we gave a representation in fig. 148.
+
+When the piles were prepared, they had to be floated to the spot fixed
+upon for the village, and to be fixed in the bed of the lake. If we
+consider that, in many cases, the length of these piles reached to as
+much as 16 or 20 feet, some idea may be formed of the difficulty of an
+undertaking of this kind. In the construction of the _ténevières_ much
+thicker piles were used, and the labour was much less difficult. For
+instance, in the more ancient _ténevières_ of the Lake of Neuchâtel
+piles are found made of whole trunks of trees which measure 10 to 12
+inches in diameter.
+
+The mind is almost confused when it endeavours to sum up the amount of
+energy and strong will which the primitive population of Switzerland
+must have bestowed on constructing, unaided as they were by metal
+implements, the earliest lacustrine settlements, some of which are of
+very considerable extent. The settlement of Morges, one of the largest
+in the Lake of Geneva, is not less than 71,000 square yards in area.
+That of Chabrey, in the Lake of Neuchâtel, measures about 60,000 square
+yards; another, in the same lake, 48,000 yards; and, lastly, a third,
+that of La Tène, 36,000 yards. There are many others which are smaller,
+although of respectable dimensions.
+
+The number of piles which must have been used in some of these
+constructions is really surprising. M. Löhle has calculated that in the
+single lacustrine village of Wangen, in the Lake of Constance, at least
+40,000 piles have been fixed, and that several generations must have
+been necessary to terminate the work. The more reasonable interpretation
+to give to a fact of this kind is that Wangen, which was very thinly
+populated at first, increased in size gradually as the numbers of
+inhabitants augmented. The same remark may be doubtless applied to all
+the important stations.
+
+This was the plan employed in building a single habitation. When a whole
+village had to be built in the open water, a methodical course of action
+was adopted. They began by placing a certain number of piles parallel to
+the shore, and these they at once threw across the bridge which was
+intended to connect the village with the land, thus rendering the
+carriage of the materials much less difficult.
+
+When the bridge was finished, and before fixing all the piles, the
+platform was commenced immediately; this constituted a base of
+operations, by the help of which the pile work could more easily be
+finished.
+
+This platform was raised 3 or 4 feet above the surface of the water, so
+as to obviate any danger arising from the waves during a tempest. It was
+generally composed of branches and trunks of trees not squared, and
+bound horizontally to each other, the whole cemented together with clay;
+sometimes, also, they used thick rough slabs, which were obtained by
+splitting trunks of trees with wedges. The platform was fixed firmly on
+the pile-work, and in some cases wooden pegs were used to fasten
+together the largest pieces of timber, so that the cohesion and
+incorporation of the floor were rendered more complete. As soon as the
+esplanade was finished, they then proceeded to the construction of the
+huts.
+
+The huts must have opened on to the platform by doors. Did they possess
+windows? Nothing is known as to this point. But in all probability there
+was an opening at the top of the roof, through which the smoke of the
+fire made its way. To avoid any fear of conflagration, a stone
+fire-place was placed in the middle of each dwelling. The daylight must
+have come in through the hole in the roof in a quantity almost
+sufficient to cause the absence of windows to be not much felt.
+
+In each habitation, there was, no doubt, a trap-door in direct
+communication with the lake, such as those which existed in the
+dwellings of the Pæonians described by Herodotus. Under this trap-door
+there was a reservoir made of osiers, intended for the preservation of
+fish.
+
+As the inhabitants of the lacustrine villages only lived upon the water
+with a view of increasing their security, it would be absurd to suppose
+that they would construct a large number of bridges between their
+aquatic settlement and the banks of the lake. There must have been, in
+general, but one bridge for each of these lake villages.
+
+How were the huts constructed, and what were their shape and dimensions?
+These questions certainly seem difficult to answer, for, as may be well
+imagined, no specimen of these ancient dwellings has been preserved to
+our days. Nevertheless, a few relics, insignificant in appearance,
+enable us to reply to these inquiries in a way more or less
+satisfactory.
+
+Everything seems to indicate that the huts were formed of trunks of
+trees placed upright, one by the side of the other, and bound together
+horizontally by interwoven branches. A coating of earth covered this
+wattling.
+
+It has been fancied, from the imprint left by some of the branches which
+were used in building these huts, that it might be inferred that they
+were circular, like those which historians attribute to the ancient
+Gauls. This was Troyon's opinion, and at first Dr. Keller's also. This
+author has even sketched a circular hut in a plate representing a
+restored lacustrine habitation, which accompanies one of his memoirs.
+Sir C. Lyell, also, has reproduced this same plate in the frontispiece
+of his work on the 'Antiquity of Man.' But Dr. Keller has subsequently
+abandoned this idea, and in another of his memoirs he has supplied a
+fresh design showing nothing but huts with flat or sloping roofs.
+
+From this latter plate, taken from Dr. Keller's work, we here give a
+representation of a Swiss lacustrine village (fig. 149).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149--A Swiss Lake Village of the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+The suggestions for this reconstructive sketch were furnished to Dr.
+Keller not only by various scientific indications, but also and
+especially by a drawing made by Dumont d'Urville among the Papuans of
+New Guinea.
+
+According to Dr. Keller, during the last century there still existed on
+the river Limmat, near Zurich, some fishermen's huts built in a similar
+way to those of the lacustrine villages.
+
+What might have been the population of one of these settlements? This
+estimate M. Troyon endeavoured to make--an undertaking of a very
+interesting nature. He adopted as the base of his calculations the
+lacustrine village of Morges (Lake of Geneva), which, as we have already
+stated, had an area of 71,000 square yards. Allowing that only one-half
+of this area was occupied by huts, the other half being reserved for
+gangways between the dwellings, and assuming an average diameter of 16
+feet for each hut, M. Troyon reckoned the number of dwellings in the
+pre-historic village of Morges at 311. Next, supposing that four
+individuals lived in each hut, the total amount of population he arrived
+at was 1244 inhabitants.
+
+We might very justly be surprised if men of the bronze epoch, who were
+provided with metallic weapons, and were consequently in a much better
+position for resisting any violent attack, had continued to dwell
+exclusively in the midst of the water, and should not, to some extent,
+have dispersed over _terra firma_, which is man's natural
+standing-ground. It was, therefore, nothing more than might have been
+expected, when the discovery was made of the relics of dwellings upon
+land, containing remains of the bronze epoch. This discovery, in fact,
+took place, and those investigating the subject came to the conclusion
+that the valleys of Switzerland, as well as the lakes, were occupied
+during this period by an industrious and agricultural people.
+
+At Ebersberg, canton of Zurich, there was discovered--which is a very
+curious fact--the remains of an ancient settlement situated on _terra
+firma_, and containing utensils similar to those found in the lacustrine
+settlements. In 1864, Dr. Clement searched several mounds composed of
+pebbles bearing the traces of fire; these mounds were situated in the
+neighbourhood of Gorgier (canton of Neuchâtel). One of these mounds has
+furnished various objects of bronze intermingled with fragments of
+charcoal, especially a bracelet and some sickles characterised by a
+projection or set-off at the spring of the blade.
+
+On the plateau of Granges (canton of Soleure), Dr. Schild studied a
+certain spot which he considers to be the site of an ancient bronze
+foundry; for, besides finding there pebbles and calcined earth, he also
+discovered a number of reaping-hooks made with a shoulder, and also a
+fragment of a sword and four finely-made knives.
+
+A hatchet-knife was likewise found in the gorge of the Seyon, near
+Neuchâtel; and a bracelet in the vicinity of Morges (canton of Geneva).
+Some other bracelets, accompanied by calcined human bones, were
+discovered near Sion, in the Valais.
+
+Lastly, M. Thioly obtained from a cave of Mont Salève, near Geneva,
+numerous fragments of pottery of the bronze epoch; and in a grotto on
+the banks of the Reuse, in the canton of Neuchâtel, M. Otz found relics
+of pottery of very fine clay, along with a quantity of bones.
+
+Thus the people of this epoch did not dwell exclusively in settlements
+made over the water. They also were in the habit of building habitations
+on _terra firma_, and of furnishing them with everything which was
+necessary for existence.
+
+All the facts which have been observed in Switzerland may, doubtless, be
+applied generally; and it may be said that during the bronze epoch the
+nature of man's habitation became decidedly fixed. The caves of the
+great bear and mammoth period, and the rock-shelters of the reindeer and
+polished-stone periods were now succeeded by dwelling-places which
+differ but little from those of the more civilised peoples who commence
+the era of historic times.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] 'Pfahlbauten,' Zurich, 1854-1856.
+
+[32] Various distinguished _savants_ have taken upon themselves the task
+of making known to the public the results of these unceasing
+investigations, and of bringing before the eyes of the present
+generation the ancient civilisation of the Swiss valleys. Among the
+works which have best attained this end, we must mention Troyon's
+'Habitations Lacustres des Temps anciens et modernes,' Morlot's 'Etudes
+Géologico-archéologiques en Danemark et en Suisse,' and M. Desor's
+'Palafittes, ou Constructions Lacustres du Lac de Neuchâtel.' These
+works, which have been translated into various languages, contain a
+statement of all the archæological discoveries which have been made in
+Switzerland.
+
+[33] 'Les Palafittes, ou Constructions Lacustres du Lac de Neuchâtel.'
+Paris, 1865.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+     Lacustrine Habitations of Upper Italy, Bavaria, Carinthia and
+     Carniola, Pomerania, France, and England--The _Crannoges_ of
+     Ireland.
+
+
+It was difficult to believe that Switzerland alone possessed the
+monopoly of these pile-work-constructions. It was certainly to be
+supposed that the southern slopes of the Alps, which were all dotted
+over with large and beautiful lakes, must likewise contain constructions
+of a similar character; this, at least, was M. Desor's opinion. After
+the numerous pre-historic discoveries which had been made in
+Switzerland, the Zurich professor proceeded in 1860 to explore the lakes
+of Lombardy, being well convinced that there too he should find remains
+of lacustrine habitations.
+
+The hopes he had formed were not deceived. Ere long, in fact, M. Desor
+obtained from the peat-bogs round Lake Maggiore piles and other objects
+similar to those found in the Swiss lakes. These researches were
+continued by MM. Gastaldi and Moro, who discovered in the peat-bogs
+round this lake several ancient villages built upon piles.
+
+In the Lake of Varese, also in Lombardy, which was examined in 1863 by
+MM. Desor, G. de Mortillet, and the Abbé Stoppani, were discovered five
+settlements, some of which were of the Stone Age. Subsequently, the Abbé
+Ranchet pointed out four others, which raise to the number of nine the
+pile works found in this lake. In order to render due honour to MM.
+Keller and Desor, who have contributed so much to the investigation and
+popularity of lacustrine antiquities, the Abbé Stoppani gave the name of
+these _savants_ to two of the settlements.
+
+One of these isles is very curious, as it is inhabited up to the present
+day. It is called _Isoletta_ ("small island"), and the Litta family
+possess a _château_ upon it.
+
+In the peat-mosses of Brianza, a portion of Lombardy situated to the
+north of Milan, the remains of lacustrine constructions have been
+discovered, together with bones, fragments of pottery, pieces of
+charcoal, and carbonised stone; also weapons, both of bronze and flint.
+
+The Lake of Garda has been searched over by various explorers, who have
+discovered in it the sites of several lacustrine habitations. The
+authors of these discoveries are Dr. Alberti, of Verona, and MM.
+Kosterlitz and Silber, two Austrian officers, who presented all the
+objects which they collected to the antiquarian museums of Vienna and
+Zurich. The traces of pile-works were first perceived when the works
+were in progress which were excavated by the Austrians in 1855 round the
+fortress of Peschiera; which proves, at least, that fortresses may
+occasionally serve some useful purpose.
+
+A settlement of the Stone Age, which was examined by M. Paolo Lioy, is
+situated in a small lake in Venetia, the length of which does not exceed
+half a mile, and the depth 30 feet; we allude to the Lake of Fimon, near
+Vicenza. M. Lioy discovered oaken piles partially charred, which proves
+that the village had at one time been burnt down; also slabs of timber
+roughly squared, a canoe hollowed out of a trunk of oak, cakes of clay
+which had come from the sides of huts, and still bore the imprint of the
+reed-stalks, and no doubt formed a kind of coating inside the huts;
+various instruments made of bone, flint, sandstone, granite, and stag's
+horn; rings or spindle-weights made of burnt earth, numerous fragments
+of rough pottery, merely dried in the sun, and, among all these remains,
+a dozen entire vessels.
+
+There were also found stores of acorns, nuts, and water-chestnuts, the
+fruit of the sorb-tree, some sloe-stones, &c. A large quantity of animal
+bones certified to the existence of the bison, the stag, the wild boar,
+the fox, and several other doubtful species. All the long bones were
+broken, as is usually the case, for the extraction of the marrow, but
+not with the ordinary regularity; they had merely been cracked by blows
+with stones.
+
+The investigation of lacustrine antiquities which had been inaugurated
+in Switzerland could hardly stop short in its path of progress. Attempts
+were made to discover _palafittes_ in other countries, and these
+attempts met with success.
+
+Thanks to the initiative action taken by M. Desor, and the liberality of
+the Bavarian Government, pile-works of ancient date have been discovered
+in six of the Bavarian lakes. Most of them go back to the Stone Age,
+but some belong to the bronze epoch. Among the latter we may mention the
+_Isle of Roses_, in the Lake of Starnberg, which is, in fact, an
+artificial island, like the Isoletta in the Lake of Varese. We have
+previously stated that this island has never ceased to be inhabited, and
+that a _château_ now exists on it.
+
+The movement spread from one place to another. Austria made it a point
+of honour not to remain in the rear of Bavaria, and Professor
+Hochstetter was commissioned by the Academy of Sciences at Vienna to
+undertake a search for _palafittes_ in the lakes of Carinthia and
+Carniola.
+
+These explorations were not without result. In four lakes of Carinthia,
+Dr. Hochstetter discovered piles, remains of pottery, bones, nuts, &c.
+In the Lake of Reutschach, which was the most closely investigated, he
+discovered shallows formed by stones, similar to the _steinbergs_ of
+Switzerland. The marshes of Laybach have also furnished instruments of
+stag's horn, a perforated stone, and a canoe.
+
+Next to Austria, Prussia took the matter up. Specimens of pile-work were
+discovered in several provinces of this kingdom; among these were
+Brandenburg and Pomerania, a district rich in marshes. In the environs
+of Lubtow the lacustrine constructions have the same characteristics as
+those of Robenhausen, on the Lake of Pfæffikon (Switzerland). Two
+distinct archæological strata may be distinguished; in the lower are
+found, all mingled together, bronze and stone instruments, fragments of
+pottery, wheat, barley, and charred peas; the upper stratum belongs to
+the iron age.
+
+We have not as yet said anything about France; lacustrine dwellings
+have, however, been discovered in some of the departments which border
+on Switzerland.
+
+The Lakes of Bourget and Annecy, in Savoy, contain several of them. The
+former of these lakes was thoroughly explored by M. Laurent Rabut,
+author of an article on the 'Habitations Lacustres de la Savoie,' which
+obtained a silver medal at the competition of the learned societies in
+1863. In the Lake of Bourget, M. Rabut ascertained the existence of five
+or six settlements of the bronze epoch, three of which, those of
+Tresserve, Grésine and Châtillon, have been distinguished as furnishing
+numerous ancient relics.
+
+The Lake of Paladru (Isère) which has been searched by M. Gustave
+Vallier, has afforded similar results. Pile-works are thought to exist
+in some other small lakes in the same district--those of Sainte-Hélène,
+on the left bank of the Isère, Saint-Martin-de-Belville, and
+Saint-Marcel, near Moutiers. Pile-works have also been discovered on the
+site of an ancient lake on the banks of the Saône; and in a totally
+different district, at the foot of the Pyrenees, as many as five have
+been pointed out.
+
+Everything therefore leads us to believe that if we searched with care
+the peat-mosses and pools which are very common in a good many of the
+French departments, we should discover the vestiges of various
+pre-historic epochs.
+
+In order to complete the enumeration of the lacustrine constructions of
+Europe, we may state that they have been found in Denmark in the Lake of
+Maribo, and in England in the county of Norfolk.
+
+With these constructions we must also connect the _crannoges_ or
+artificial islands of Ireland, the first of which was discovered in 1836
+by Sir W. R. Wilde, a member of the Royal Academy of Dublin. Since this
+date various investigations have been made of these objects, and, at the
+present time, no less than fifty _crannoges_ have been discovered,
+distributed among the various counties of Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 150.--Vertical Section of a _Crannoge_ in the
+Ardakillin Lake.]
+
+Most of these islets were composed of heaps of stones held together by
+piles, nearly in the same way as in the _ténevières_ in Switzerland; but
+the _crannoges_ differ from the latter in being raised above the water.
+Some of them, however, are formed by a collection of vertical piles and
+horizontal joists, constituting an external inclosure, and even internal
+compartments, inside which all kinds of remains were collected. This
+kind are called _stockaded_ islands. They are generally of an oval or
+circular shape, and their dimensions are always kept within rather
+narrow limits. In his work on 'Pre-historic Times,' Sir John Lubbock
+gives the above sketch of a _crannoge_ in the Ardakillin Lake.
+
+Captain Mudge, of the Royal British Navy, has described a hut which he
+found at a depth of 16 feet, in the Drumkellin marsh. Its area was about
+5 feet square, and its height 10 feet; it included two stories, each
+about 4-1/2 feet high. The roof was flat, and the hut was surrounded by
+a fence of piles, doubtless intended to separate it from other adjacent
+huts, the remains of which are still to be perceived. The whole
+construction had been executed by means of stone instruments, a fact
+that was proved by the nature of the cuts that were still visible on
+some of the pieces of wood. Added to this, a hatchet, a chisel, and an
+arrow-head, all made of flint, were found on the floor of the cabin, and
+left no doubt whatever on this point. This, therefore, was in fact a
+habitation belonging to the Stone Age. Some nuts and a large quantity of
+broken shells were scattered over the ground. A large flat stone,
+perforated with a little hole in the middle, was found on the spot; it
+was probably used to break the nuts by means of round pebbles picked up
+outside.
+
+From some of these settlements considerable masses of bones have been
+obtained, which have, alas, been utilised as manure. Sir John Lubbock
+tells us that the _crannoge_ of Dunshauglin alone has furnished more
+than 150 cartloads of bones. These bones belong to the following
+species:--the ox, the pig, the goat, the sheep, the horse, the ass, the
+dog, the fox, the roe, the fallow-deer, and the great Irish stag, now
+extinct. If all other proof were wanting, the presence of the remains of
+this latter animal would be sufficient to indicate that certain
+_crannoges_ date back to the Stone Age; but as in this case we evidently
+have to do with the polished-stone epoch, it is also proved that the
+gigantic antlered stag existed in Ireland at a much later date than on
+the continent.
+
+Various historical records testify to the fact, that the _crannoges_
+were inhabited up to the end of the sixteenth century. They then
+constituted a kind of fortress, in which petty chiefs braved for a long
+time the royal power. After the definitive pacification of the country
+they were completely abandoned.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+     Palustrine Habitations or Marsh-Villages--Surveys made by
+     MM. Strobel and Pigorini of the _Terramares_ of Tuscany--The
+     _Terramares_ of Brazil.
+
+
+Having described the _lacustrine_ habitations which have been discovered
+in various parts of Europe, we must now mention the so-called
+_palustrine_ habitations, as peculiar to the bronze epoch. This name has
+been given to that kind of village, the remains of which have been
+discovered round marshes and pools. Upper Italy is the locality in which
+these settlements have been pointed out.
+
+The name of _palustrine settlements_, or _marnieras_, has been given to
+the sites of ancient villages established by means of piles on marshes
+or pools of no great size, which in the course of time have been filled
+up by mould of a peaty character, containing a quantity of organic and
+other _detritus_.
+
+The discovery of those _palustrine settlements_ is due to MM. Strobel
+and Pigorini, who have designated them by the name of _terramares_.
+
+This term is applied by these _savants_ to the accumulation of ashes,
+charcoal, animal bones, and remains of all kinds which have been thrown
+away by man all round his dwellings, and have accumulated there during
+the lapse of centuries. The name which has been given them was derived
+from the fact that they furnish a kind of earthy ammoniacal manure,
+known in the district by the name of _terra mare_.
+
+These accumulations are the representatives of the Danish
+kitchen-middens; but with this difference, that instead of dating back
+to the Stone Age, the former belong to the bronze epoch.
+
+_Terramares_ are numerous in the districts of Parma and Modena; they
+are, however, almost entirely confined to the plain which extends
+between the Po, the Apennines, the Adda, and the Reno, forming an area
+of about 60 miles long, and 30 miles wide. In a general way, they form
+small mounds which rise from 6 to 12 feet above the level of the plain;
+as they go down some depth in the ground, their total thickness is in
+some places as much as 20 feet. Very few are seen having an area
+exceeding 9 acres.
+
+Excavations which have been made in several spots enable a tolerably
+exact account to be given of the mode of construction adopted in these
+palustrine settlements. The _marniera_ of Castione, in particular, has
+furnished us with valuable information on this point; and we shall
+describe this settlement as a type of the rest. Piles from 6 to 10 feet
+in length, and 4 to 6 inches in diameter (fig. 151), formed of trunks of
+trees, either whole or split, and pointed at the ends by some rough
+tool, were sunk to the depth of some inches in the bed of the hollow.
+Some of them still show on their tops the marks of the blows that they
+received when they were driven in. They were placed at intervals of from
+18 inches to 6 feet; and connecting-beams from 6 to 10 feet in length,
+placed horizontally, and crossing one another, bound the piles together,
+and insured the solidity of the whole construction. On these cross-beams
+rested a floor (fig. 152) formed of joists 1 to 3 inches thick, 6 to 12
+inches wide, and 5 to 7 feet long.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 151.--Vertical Section of the _Marniera_ of
+Castione.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152.--Floor of the _Marniera_ of Castione.]
+
+Fig. 153 gives the plan of the tie-beams and piles of the _marniera_ of
+Castione, taken from the author's work.[34] These slabs or joists were
+not fixed in any way; at least, no trace now exists of any fastening.
+They seemed to have been provided by splitting trunks of trees by means
+of wooden wedges, a number of these wedges having been found in the
+peaty earth. Neither the saw nor the gimlet appear to have been
+employed; but the square holes have been cut out by means of the chisel.
+The timber that was used was principally ash and oak.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 153.--Plan of the Piles and Cross-beams in the
+_Marniera_ of Castione.]
+
+The floor was covered with beaten earth to a thickness of 10 to 12
+inches. Fragments of this kind of paving were found scattered about in
+two sandy heaps, almost entirely devoid of other _débris_, whilst the
+adjacent earth, of a blackish colour, contained a large quantity of
+relics of all kinds. It is probable that the huts of the inhabitants of
+the _marniera_ were situated upon these sandy heaps, and that the
+dark-coloured earth is the final result of the accumulation of refuse
+and various kinds of _detritus_ on the same spot.
+
+It is not known whether the layer of beaten earth extended over the
+whole surface of the floor, or was confined to the interior of the
+habitations. In the former case, it is probable that it was rammed down
+with less care on the outside than on the inside of the huts, as is
+shown by the discovery of a storehouse for corn, the floor of which is
+formed by nothing but a layer of sandy earth placed upon the planks.
+This storehouse, which, from the use to which it was put, could not have
+been used as a dwelling by any one, measured 13 feet in length, and 10
+feet in width. It contained carbonised beans and wheat, spread in a
+layer of about 4 inches thick.
+
+MM. Strobel and Pigorini found no remains of huts in the _marniera_ of
+Castione: probably because, having been built entirely of wood, they
+were completely destroyed by fire, numerous traces of which may still be
+detected. In addition to the carbonised corn and fruit already
+mentioned, many other objects bearing the evident marks of fire were, in
+fact, collected at Castione. The floor-slabs, the tie-beams, and the
+tops of the piles were often found to be half consumed.
+
+But although at Castione there is no evidence forthcoming in respect to
+huts, information which bears upon this point has been obtained at other
+spots. MM. Strobel and Pigorini have ascertained that the palustrine
+dwellings bore a great similarity to those on the Swiss lakes. The sides
+were lined with boughs, and the interior was daubed with clay. In Italy,
+just as in Switzerland, certain fragments of the clayey coating which
+have been hardened and preserved by fire have enabled us to draw these
+inferences.
+
+At Castione several beds of ashes and charcoal containing remains of
+meals, pointed out the sites of the domestic hearths, round which they,
+doubtless, assembled to eat their food. Another bed of charcoal, mixed
+with straw, wheat, and pieces of burnt pottery, was found in a peculiar
+situation--it was embedded in a bank of calcareous pebbles vitrified on
+the surface; this bank was about 5 feet wide, and about 8 inches in
+thickness. The explorers thought that it was, perhaps, a place which had
+been devoted to the fusion of metals.
+
+On the edge of the basin of the marsh, a kind of rampart or defensive
+work was discovered, composed of slabs as much as 16 feet in length,
+laid horizontally one over the other. These slabs were tied down by
+stakes driven in obliquely, and likewise placed one above the other,
+their ends being inserted between the slabs.
+
+This last discovery, added to other indications, led MM. Strobel and
+Pigorini to the supposition that the pile-work of Castione, and
+doubtless also those in all the _marnieras_, were in the first place
+constructed as places of defence, and were subsequently converted into
+fixed and permanent residences. The basin of the marsh having been
+gradually filled up by the accumulations of _débris_ resulting from the
+presence of man, the habitations were built on a solid foundation, and a
+great portion of the former floor was done away with, which would
+account for so little of it now remaining.
+
+The objects discovered in the _terramares_ and _marnieras_ do not
+essentially differ from those found in the pile-works of Switzerland.
+They are almost all worn or broken, just as might be expected from
+finding them in rubbish heaps. There are a great quantity of fragments
+of pottery of a greyish or dark-coloured clay mixed with grains of
+quartz, imperfectly baked, and made without the aid of a potter's wheel.
+The ornamentation is, in general, of a very simple character, but the
+shapes of the ears, or handles, are very varied. Some of the vessels are
+furnished with a spout or holes for the liquid to flow out. The
+_terramares_ also contain supports for vessels with round or pointed
+bottoms.
+
+In the _marniera_ of San Ambrogio a slab of pottery was found,
+elliptical in shape, and about half an inch in thickness, concave on one
+side and convex on the other, and pierced with seventeen circular holes
+about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The idea was entertained that
+this object was used as a kind of fire-grating, for it bore traces of
+the long-continued action of fire.
+
+The other objects most commonly found were weights made of baked earth,
+and perhaps used for the weaving-loom, much worn in the place where the
+cord passed through on which they were hung; _fusaiolas_, or
+spindle-whorls, very varied both in shape and size, likewise made of
+baked earth; large mill-stones with a polished surface. Next, we have
+poniards or spear-heads, hatchets, and hair-pins, all made of bronze.
+The _marniera_ of San Ambrogio has furnished a mould indicating that
+bronze was melted and cast in this district.
+
+An attentive study of the bones of animals contained in the _terramares_
+has led to the following information being obtained as to the _fauna_ of
+Upper Italy during the bronze epoch.
+
+With respect to the mammals which lived in a wild state, the existence
+has been ascertained of a species of stag of much greater size than the
+present variety, and about equal to that of the lacustrine settlements
+of Switzerland (fig. 154); also of a wild-boar, much more powerful than
+that of Sardinia or even of Algeria, the roe, the bear, the rat, and the
+porcupine. In different spots have been found stags' horns and bones,
+and also sloe-stones which have retained the impression of the teeth of
+some small rodent. The bear, the wild-boar, the stag and the roe, have,
+at the present day, disappeared from the country. The porcupine, too,
+has migrated into regions further south, which leads to the supposition
+that the temperature of the provinces of Parma and Modena is a little
+lowered since the date of the bronze epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 154.--The Chase during the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+It is to be remarked that in these settlements, contrary to what has
+been noticed in Switzerland, in the lacustrine habitations belonging to
+the Stone Age, the remains of wild animals are met with much more rarely
+than those of domestic animals; this must be consequent on a superior
+and more advanced stage of civilisation having existed in Italy. Among
+the domestic species found we may mention the dog, two breeds of which,
+of different sizes, must have existed; the pig of the peat-bogs, the
+same variety as that of which the bones were discovered in Switzerland;
+the horse, the remains of which, although rare, testify to the existence
+of two breeds, one large and bulky, the other of slighter and more
+elegant proportions; the ass, of which there are but few bones, could
+not, therefore, have been very common; the ox, the remains of which are
+on the contrary very abundant, like the dog and the horse, is
+represented by two distinct breeds, the more powerful of which appears
+to have descended from the _Bos primigenius_ or _Urus_; lastly, the
+sheep and the goat, the remains of which can scarcely be clearly
+distinguished on account of their great anatomical resemblance.
+
+When we compare the present _fauna_ with that of which we have just
+given the details, we may perceive several important modifications. Thus
+the pig of the peat-bogs, one breed of oxen, and a breed of sheep (the
+smallest) have become entirely extinct; and the common sheep, the goat,
+the horse, and the ass have assumed much more important dimensions. With
+regard to the wild species of mammals, we have already said that some
+have become less in size, and others have disappeared. Hence results one
+proof of a fact which is beyond dispute, although often called in
+question, namely, that the intelligent action of man working by means of
+domestication on wild natures, will ultimately succeed in ameliorating,
+reclaiming, and perfecting them.
+
+The skulls and the long bones found in the _terramares_ are almost
+always broken for the purpose of extracting the brain and the marrow, a
+very ancient usage which had endured to this comparatively late epoch.
+But instead of being split longitudinally, as was the case in preceding
+epochs, they are generally broken across at one end. The _terramares_
+and the _kitchen-middens_ have this peculiarity in common--that all the
+dogs' skulls found in them have been intentionally broken; a fact which
+proves that in Italy, as in Denmark, this faithful guest or servant of
+man was occasionally, in default of some better food, and doubtless with
+much regret, used as an article of subsistence.
+
+No remains of fish have been found in these _marnieras_; from this, MM.
+Strobel and Pigorini have justly concluded that the inhabitants of these
+pile-works were not fishermen, and that, at all events, the water which
+surrounded them was shallow and of limited extent.
+
+The species of birds, molluscs and insects, the remains of which have
+been found in the _terramares_, are likewise determined. The existence
+of the domestic fowl and the duck, no doubt living in complete liberty,
+has been duly recognised; but it is thought that the appearance of these
+species must not be dated further back than the _end_ of the bronze
+epoch, and perhaps even the beginning of that of iron.
+
+The examination of the insect remains has enabled us to ascertain that
+the refuse food and rubbish must have lain for some little time in front
+of the doors of the habitations before it was pushed into the water; for
+in it, flies, and other insects of the kind, found time to be born, to
+mature, and to undergo their whole series of metamorphoses; a fact which
+is proved by the perforated and empty envelopes of their chrysalides.
+
+We mention this last fact as one of the most curious instances of the
+results which science and inference may, in combination, arrive at when
+devoted to the novel and interesting study of some of the earlier
+stages in man's existence. But, on the other hand, it gives us but a
+poor idea of the cleanliness of the Italian race during the bronze
+epoch. It would seem to us that a feeling of the dignity inherent in the
+body of man, and the cares that it so imperiously claims, would have
+been now more strongly developed than at a period when men dwelt
+confined in caves. This, however, is not the case. But have we, in the
+present day, any right to be astonished when we see, even now, the
+prevalence, in some of the great cities of America, of certain practices
+so disgusting in character and so opposed to the public health?
+Osculati, an Italian traveller, relates that at all the street corners
+in the city of Guayaquil, in the republic of Ecuador, heaps of filth are
+to be seen which exhale an insupportable odour. Similar heaps exist at
+the very gates of Mexico, where, at the present time, they form small
+hills. These facts ought to render us indulgent towards the neglect of
+cleanliness by our ancestors during the bronze epoch.
+
+Such were the animal remains collected in the _terramares_. The
+vegetable remains consisted of grains of carbonised corn, broken nuts,
+acorns, halves of burnt apples, stones of the dog-berry, plums and
+grapes.
+
+In concluding our consideration of the palustrine settlements, we may
+add, that some have recently been discovered in Moravia and Mecklenburg.
+At Olmutz, a city of Moravia, M. Jeitteler, a learned Viennese, has
+found piles sunk into the peat, along with various bronze and stone
+objects, ornamented pottery, charcoal, charred wheat, numerous animal
+bones, and a human skeleton of a brachycephalous race. All the facts
+lead to the belief that this will not be the last discovery of the kind.
+
+We must also state that the _terramares_, or deposits of the remains of
+habitations on the edge of marshes, are not peculiar to Europe
+exclusively. On the coast of Africa (at San Vicente) M. Strobel found
+remains of an exactly similar nature; and Dr. Henrique Naegeli, a
+distinguished naturalist of Rio Janeiro, has testified to the existence
+on the coast of Brazil of like deposits, which he proposes to subject to
+a thorough examination.[35]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[34] 'Les Terramares et les Pilotages du Parmesan;' Milan, 1864.
+(Extract from the 'Atti della Società Italiana di Scienze naturali.')
+
+[35] 'Matériaux pour l'histoire positive et philosophique de l'Homme,'
+by G. de Mortillet. Paris, 1865: vol. i. p. 397.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+     Weapons, Instruments, and Utensils contained in the various
+     Lacustrine Settlements in Europe, enabling us to become acquainted
+     with the Manners and Customs of Man during the Bronze Epoch.
+
+
+We have just spoken of the discovery and investigation of the
+_lacustrine habitations_ found in various parts of Europe, and also of
+the _palustrine villages_ of Northern Italy. These rich deposits have
+thrown a considerable light on the primitive history of the human race.
+With the elements that have been thus placed at our disposal, it will be
+possible to reconstruct the domestic life of the tribes of the bronze
+epoch, that is, to describe the weapons, instruments, and utensils which
+were proper to the every-day proceedings of this period.
+
+In order to give perspicuity to our representation or account, we have
+classed the lacustrine habitations under the head of the _bronze _epoch.
+But we must by no means forget that these lacustrine villages contained
+other objects besides those belonging to the bronze epoch; there were
+also found in them a number of articles which must be referred to the
+preceding period, that is, the polished-stone epoch.
+
+It is a question indifferent to our purpose, whether the lacustrine
+villages were constructed during the Stone Age, as inferred from the
+presence in some settlements of stone objects only, or whether the
+habitations were built during the bronze epoch, some of the articles
+made of stone and dating back to the preceding period being still
+preserved in use. For it is certain that the larger number of lacustrine
+settlements do not go back beyond the bronze epoch. But as certain
+objects made of stone form a portion of the implements found in these
+ancient habitations, we must commence by describing these relics of the
+Stone Age; although we shall considerably abridge this description, so
+as to avoid repeating those details which we have already given in the
+preceding chapters.
+
+The stone weapons and instruments are found to consist, in Switzerland
+as elsewhere, of hatchets, spear-heads and arrow-heads, hammers, saws,
+knives and chisels.
+
+The hatchets and hammers are made of various materials, as flint,
+quartzite, diorite, nephrite, jade, serpentine, &c. But the other
+weapons and implements are, nearly all of them, of flint.
+
+The hatchet was in continual use, not merely as a weapon but as a tool;
+thus, very numerous specimens of it are found in the Swiss lakes.
+
+The hatchets, however, are generally speaking, small in size. Their
+length varies from 2 to 8 inches, and their width, at the cutting edge,
+from 1-1/2 to 2 inches. Fig. 155 represents one of the flint hatchets.
+They are the same shape as the Danish hatchets during the polished-stone
+epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 155.--Stone Hatchet from the Lacustrine Habitations
+of Switzerland.]
+
+The most simple plan of fixing a handle to the small-sized hatchets,
+which were in fact chisels, consisted in inserting them into a piece of
+stag's horn, hollowed out for this purpose at one end. In this way they
+obtained a kind of chisel which was very ready of use. Fig. 156
+represents this kind of handle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156.--Stone Chisel with Stag's-horn Handle from the
+Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+There was also another mode of fixing handles to these instruments. The
+shaped flint was previously fixed in a holder of stag's horn. This
+holder was itself perforated through the middle with a round hole, in
+order to receive a wooden handle. It then became a complete hatchet.
+
+Fig. 157 represents one of these hatchets fitted with a handle, in a way
+similar to many of the specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 157.--Flint Hammer, fitted with a Stag's-horn
+Handle.]
+
+This mode of insertion into a handle is frequently met with during the
+polished-stone epoch, as we have already stated upon the authority of
+Boucher de Perthes (see fig. 112).
+
+There was also another way of adapting for use the stone chisels and
+hammers. The following is the mode employed. The flint was inserted into
+a short holder of stag's horn, hollowed out at one end for this purpose,
+the other end of the piece of horn being cut square. This squared end,
+which was thinner than the rest of the holder, was fitted into a wooden
+handle, which had been perforated with a hole of the same shape and
+size.
+
+M. Desor, in his 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes,' supplies the following
+sketch (fig. 158), as representing these double-handled hatchets.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 158.--Stone Hatchet, with double Handle of Wood and
+Stag's Horn.]
+
+It is very seldom that hatchets of this type are met with in a complete
+state in the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland; the handles have
+generally disappeared. In other localities, where the hatchets are very
+plentiful, very few holders are found. Is it not the case that in these
+spots the stone was the special object of work and not the handles?
+There were, in fact, in Switzerland, as in France and Belgium, workshops
+devoted to the manufacture of these articles. The large number of
+hatchets, either just commenced or defective in workmanship, which have
+been found in some of the principal lacustrine settlements leave no
+doubt on this point.
+
+The finest and most carefully-wrought instruments are the hammers and
+double, or hatchet-hammers. Most of them are made of serpentine. One of
+the ends is generally rounded or flattened, whilst the other tapers off
+either into a point or a cutting edge, as represented in figs. 159 and
+160, taken from M. Desor's work. They are perforated with a round hole
+intended to receive a handle of wood. This hole is so sharply and
+regularly cut out, that it is difficult to believe it could have been
+made with nothing better than a flint tool. Metal alone would appear to
+be capable of effecting such finished work. This is one of the facts
+which tend to the idea that the lacustrine settlements, which have been
+ascribed to the Stone Age, belong rather to the bronze epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159-160.--Serpentine Hatchet-hammers, from the
+Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+Fig. 161 represents another hatchet-hammer obtained from the Swiss
+lakes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161.--Another Hatchet-hammer, from the Lacustrine
+Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+The knives and saws have nothing remarkable about them. They are mere
+flakes of flint, long and narrow in shape, the cutting edge or teeth
+being on the widest side. There are some which are fitted into handles
+of stag's horn, as represented in fig. 162, taken from M. Desor's work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162.--Flint Saw fitted into a piece of Stag's Horn.]
+
+They must have been fastened into the handles by means of bitumen, for
+traces of this substance have been found on some of the handles. The
+same plan was adopted in order to fix the hatchets in their holders.
+
+The spear-heads (fig. 163) are very skilfully fashioned; their shape is
+regular, and the chiselling very perfect, although inferior to that
+observed in Denmark. They are made level on one side, and with a
+longitudinal middle ridge on the other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163.--Flint Spear-head from the Lacustrine
+settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+The arrow-heads are very varied in shape (fig. 164). In delicacy of
+workmanship they are in no way inferior to the spear or javelin-heads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164.--Various shapes of Flint Arrow-heads, from the
+Lacustrine settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+The cutting of these small objects must have required much labour and
+skill. Some are toothed on the edges, which must have rendered the
+wounds inflicted by them much more dangerous. The greater part of these
+arrow-heads are made of flint, but some have been found the material of
+which is bone, and even stag's horn.
+
+The arrow-heads were fixed into the shafts by means of bitumen. This
+plan is represented in figs. 165 and 166, which are given by M.
+Mortillet in his 'Promenades préhistoriques à l'Exposition Universelle.'
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 165.--Arrow-head of Bone fixed on the Shaft by means
+of Bitumen.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166.--Stone Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by means
+of Bitumen.]
+
+Sometimes they were merely attached to the shaft by a ligature of string
+(fig. 167).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167.--Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by a Ligature of
+String.]
+
+A few relics have been discovered of the bows which were used to impel
+these arrows. They were made of yew, and roughly cut.
+
+Tools and instruments of bone seem, like those made of flint, to have
+been much in use. In addition to the arrow-heads which we have just
+mentioned, there have also been found piercers, or bodkins of various
+shapes (figs. 168 and 169), chisels for working in wood (fig. 170), pins
+with lenticular heads (fig. 171), needles perforated sometimes with one
+eye and sometimes with two, and occasionally hollowed out round the top
+in a circular groove, so as to attach the thread.
+
+Figs. 168, 169, 170 and 171 are given by M. Desor in his 'Mémoire sur
+les Palafittes.'
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168.--Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations
+of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169.--Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations
+of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170.--Carpenter's Chisel, from the Lacustrine
+Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171.--Bone Needle.]
+
+It is probable that, as during the reindeer epoch, garments were sewn by
+means of the needle and the bodkin, the latter piercing the holes
+through which the needle passed the thread.
+
+That kind of needle which has a hole in the middle and is pointed at the
+two ends, which is found in large numbers in the lacustrine settlements,
+must doubtless have been used as a hook for fishing. When the fish had
+swallowed the bait, the two points stuck into the flesh, and it was
+then easy to pull out the captive. Some of these fish-hooks are carved
+out of boars' tusks.
+
+Stag's horn was likewise employed for several other purposes. A kind of
+pick-axe was sometimes made of it (fig. 172); also harpoons (fig. 173),
+harpoons with a double row of barbs (fig. 174), and small cups of
+conical shape (fig. 175), perforated with a hole in the upper part so
+that they could be suspended if required.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172.--Pick-axe of Stag's Horn.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173.--Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the
+Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174.--Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the
+Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175.--Vessel made of Stag's Horn.]
+
+The taste for personal adornment was not foreign to the nature of the
+primitive people of Switzerland. Canine teeth and incisors of various
+animals, rings and beads made of bone or stag's horn, all united in a
+necklace, formed one of their most usual adornments.
+
+They also made use of hair-pins and bone combs. These pins were finished
+off with a knob, and combined elegance and simplicity in their shape;
+they would, indeed, be no disfigurement to the _coiffure_ of the women
+of modern times.
+
+Such were the instruments, utensils and tools, used for the purpose of
+domestic life, which have been found in the lacustrine habitations of
+Switzerland belonging to the Stone Age. We will now pass on to the
+objects of the same character, peculiar to the bronze epoch.
+
+The quantity of bronze objects which, up to the present time, have been
+collected from the Swiss lakes is very considerable. The finest
+collection in the country, that of Colonel Schwab, contained in 1867,
+according to a catalogue drawn up by Dr. Keller, no less than 4346
+specimens.
+
+Most of these objects have been cast in moulds, as is evident from the
+seams, the traces of which may be observed on several of the specimens.
+
+Among the most remarkable of the relics of the bronze epoch which have
+been recovered from the Swiss lakes, the hatchets or celts are well
+deserving of mention. They are from 4 to 8 inches in length, and weigh
+from 10 to 15 pounds. Their shapes are varied; but all possess the
+distinctive characteristic of being adapted to fit longitudinally on
+their handles, and not transversely, as in the Stone Age. It is but
+seldom that they are not furnished with a hole or ear, so as to furnish
+an additional means of attachment.
+
+We have in the first place the hatchet with wings bent round on each
+side of the blade, so as to constitute a kind of double socket, intended
+to receive a handle divided in the middle and bent into an elbow. This
+is the most prevalent type. Sometimes, as may be noticed in fig. 176,
+the upper end is pierced with an eye, doubtless intended to hold a band
+for fixing firmly the curved handle. This arrangement is peculiar to the
+hatchets of large size, that is, to those which had the most strain put
+upon them.
+
+Another type which is very rare in Switzerland--only one specimen of it
+existing in the Museum of Neuchâtel--is that (fig. 177) in which the
+wings, instead of bending back upon the blade perpendicularly to the
+plane of the cutting edge, turn back in the same plane with it, or in
+the thickness of the blade.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176.--Bronze Winged Hatchet, from the Lacustrine
+Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177.--Winged Hatchet (front and side view), from the
+Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+There is also the hatchet with the ordinary socket, either cylindrical
+(fig. 178) or angular. This shape is very common in France, where they
+are known by the name of _celts_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178.--Socketed Hatchet from the Lacustrine
+Habitations.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179.--Knife Hatchet (front and side view), from the
+Lacustrine Habitations.]
+
+M. Morlot has given the name of _knife-hatchets_ (fig. 179), to those
+instruments, the perforated ears of which are scarcely, if at all
+developed, and could by no means serve to give firmness to a handle. It
+is probable that these instruments were grasped directly by the hand;
+and that the mere rudiments of wings which may be noticed, were merely
+intended to substitute a rounded surface for a sharp ridge. Figures 176,
+177, 178 and 179, are taken from M. Desor's 'Mémoire sur les
+Palafittes.'
+
+Next to the hatchets we must mention the chisels for wood-work (fig.
+180), which are cut out to a great nicety, and in no way differ from our
+present chisels, except in the mode of fitting to the handle, which is
+done by means of a socket.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 180.--Carpenter's Chisel, in Bronze.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181.--Hexagonal Hammer.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182.--Knife with a tang to fit into a Handle, from
+the Lacustrine settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+There has also been discovered a kind of prismatically shaped hexagonal
+hammer (fig. 181), likewise provided with a socket, the length of which
+is about 3 inches. This hammer forms a portion of the collection of
+Colonel Schwab.
+
+The knives are the most numerous of all the sharp instruments. The
+workmanship of them is, in general, very skilfully executed, and their
+shape is very elegant. Some of them have a metallic handle; but the
+greater part terminate in a kind of tang intended to fit into a handle
+of wood or stag's horn, as represented in fig. 182, taken from M.
+Desor's 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.'
+
+We also find knives furnished with a socket (fig. 183). The blade
+measures from 4 to 8 inches in length, and is often adorned with
+tracings; in some instances the back of the blade is very much
+thickened.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183.--Socketed Knife, from the Lacustrine
+settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+Together with the knives we must also class the sickles or reaping
+hooks. These implements have been collected in somewhat large quantities
+in the settlements of Auvernier and Cortaillod (Lake of Neuchâtel). They
+are of good workmanship, and frequently provided with ridges or ribs in
+the metal of the blade. Fig. 184, given by M. Desor in his work,
+represents a sickle of this kind which was found by the author at
+Chevroux.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184.--Bronze Sickle, found by M. Desor at Chevroux.]
+
+The largest of these sickles does not exceed 6 inches in length. They
+were fitted into a wooden handle.
+
+We cannot of course describe all the bronze objects which have been
+recovered from the Swiss lakes. After having mentioned the preceding,
+we shall content ourselves with naming certain saws of various
+shapes--razors, actual razors, indicating no small care given to
+personal appearance--bodkins, or piercers--needles, with eyes either at
+the end or some distance from the end, articles of fishing tackle, such
+as single and double fishing-hooks (figs. 185 and 186), with a plain or
+barbed point--harpoons, various small vessels, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185.--Bronze Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine
+settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186.--Double Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine
+settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+We shall dwell, although briefly, on the various objects of personal
+ornament which have been found in the Swiss lacustrine settlements of
+the bronze epoch.
+
+We will mention, in the first place, the hair-pins, &c. which have been
+recovered from the various lakes. The most curious fact about them is,
+that no one has ever found two exactly alike both in shape and
+dimensions. We borrow from M. Desor's work the four following figures
+representing various shapes of pins. Some have a round head (fig. 187),
+and others a flat (fig. 188), or cylindrical head (fig. 189); others,
+again, are finished off with a twisted end to which is attached a
+movable end (fig. 190).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 187.--Hair-pin, found by M. Desor in one of the
+Swiss Lakes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188.--Hair-pin, found by M. Desor in one of the
+Swiss Lakes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189.--Hair-pin with cylindrical Head.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190.--Hair-pin with curled Head.]
+
+The round-headed pins are sometimes massive in shape and unornamented,
+that is, exactly similar to the bone pins of the Stone Age; sometimes,
+and even more frequently, they are perforated with one or more round
+holes and adorned with a few chasings.
+
+The flat-headed pins differ very much in the diameter of the button at
+the end, which is sometimes of considerable size. There are some, the
+head of which is nothing more than a small enlargement of the pin, and
+others, in which there are two or three of these enlargements, placed a
+little way apart and separated by a twist. Their sizes are very various,
+and in some cases are so exaggerated, that it is quite evident that the
+objects cannot have been used as hair-pins. In Colonel Schwab's
+collection, there is one 33 inches long, and M. Troyon has mentioned
+some 20 and 24 inches long.
+
+At the _Exposition Universelle_ of 1867, in the collection sent by M.
+Desor, the visitors' admiration might have been called forth by some of
+the pins which had been repolished by the care of the learned Swiss
+naturalist. They were certainly very elegant, and ladies of the present
+day might well have decorated themselves with these ornaments, although
+they dated back to an era so many thousands of years ago.
+
+Among many savage tribes, the dressing of the hair, especially among the
+men, is carried to an excessively elaborate pitch. The head of hair of
+an Abyssinian soldier forms a species of lofty system of curls which is
+meant to last a whole lifetime. He carries with him a long pin,
+furnished with a thick button, owing to the impossibility of reaching
+his skin through his _coiffure_ with the extremities of his fingers.
+
+In the same way the New Zealanders wear an enormous "chignon," 2 feet
+high and ornamented with ribbons.
+
+The Chinese and the Japanese also devote excessive attention to the
+dressing of their hair.
+
+It is, therefore, probable that the inhabitants of the lacustrine
+villages, both men and women, devoted an immense amount of care to the
+cultivation of their _coiffure_. In the tombs of the bronze epoch, pins
+have been found 2-1/2 feet in length, with large knobs or buttons at the
+end, similar to those used by the Abyssinian soldiers of our own day.
+The combs, which resembled those of the present New Zealanders, although
+6 inches long, had only six to eight teeth, and must have been better
+fitted to scratch their heads than to dress their hair.
+
+Bracelets, too, have been found in some considerable numbers in the
+Swiss lakes. They are very varied in their shapes, decidedly artistic in
+their workmanship, and often set off with carved designs.
+
+Some (fig. 191) are composed of a single ring of varying width, the
+ends of which almost meet and terminate by a semi-circular clasp; others
+(fig. 192), are a combination of straight or twisted wires ingeniously
+joined to one another.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191.--Bronze Bracelet, found in one of the Swiss
+Lakes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192.--Another Bronze Bracelet.]
+
+We also find certain rings, cylindrical in shape, and made all in one
+piece (fig. 193), which were probably placed round the legs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193.--Bronze Ring.]
+
+Some of these ornaments remain, even up to the present day, in a perfect
+state of preservation. In an urn which was recovered from the settlement
+of Cortaillod, six specimens were discovered, the designs of which
+appeared quite as clearly as if they had only just been engraved. There
+is one point which must be remarked, because it forms an important
+_datum_ in respect to the size of the Swiss people during the bronze
+epoch; this is, that most of the bracelets are so small that they could
+scarcely be worn nowadays. They must, therefore, have been adapted to
+very slender wrists--a fact which naturally leads us to believe that all
+the other limbs were small in proportion. This small size in the
+bracelets coincides with the diminutiveness of the sword-hilts which
+have been found in the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland.
+
+Earrings, also, have been found in great numbers in the Swiss lakes.
+They are either metallic plates, or wires differently fashioned; all,
+however, testifying to a somewhat developed degree of taste.
+
+Next after these trinkets and objects of adornment we must class certain
+articles of a peculiar character which must have been pendants or
+appendages to bracelets.
+
+All these ornaments are, in fact, perforated at the top with a circular
+hole, intended, no doubt, to have a thread passed through it, by which
+it was hung round the neck. Some of them (fig. 194) are small triangular
+plates of metal, frequently ornamented with engraved designs; others
+(fig. 195), are in open-work, and include several branches, each
+terminated by a hole similar to that at the top. Some, again, assume the
+form of a ring not completely closed up (fig. 196), or rather, perhaps,
+of a crescent with wide and almost contiguous horns. In the same class
+may be placed the rings (fig. 197) to which were suspended movable
+ornaments in the shape of a double spiral.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 194.--Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine
+Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 195.--Another Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine
+Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 196.--Bronze Ring, from the Lacustrine Habitations
+of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 197.--Another Ornamental Ring.]
+
+The four bronze objects, representations of which we have just given,
+are designed from the sketches supplied by M. Desor in his 'Mémoire sur
+les Palafittes.'
+
+Some few trinkets of gold have been found in the lacustrine settlements
+of the bronze epoch; but this sort of "find" is very rare. They are in
+the form of earrings, and may be seen in the collection of Colonel
+Schwab.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+     Industrial Skill and Agriculture during the Bronze Epoch--The
+     Invention of Glass--Invention of Weaving.
+
+
+The manufacture of pottery, which appears to have remained stationary
+during the Stone Age, assumed a considerable development during the
+bronze epoch. The clay intended for making pottery was duly puddled, and
+the objects when moulded were baked in properly formed furnaces. At this
+date also commences the art of surfacing articles of earthenware.
+
+The specimens of pottery which have been found in the settlements of man
+of this period are both numerous and interesting; entire vessels have
+indeed been discovered. We notice indications of very marked progress
+beyond the objects of this kind manufactured in the preceding age. They
+are still fashioned by the hand and without the aid of the wheel; but
+the shapes are both more varied in their character and more elegant. In
+addition to this, although in the larger kind of vessels the clay used
+is still rough in its nature and full of hard lumps of quartz like the
+material employed in the Stone Age, that of the smaller vessels is much
+finer, and frequently covered with a black lead coating.
+
+Most of these vessels are characterised by a conical base, a shape which
+we had before occasion to point out in the stag's-horn vessels of the
+Stone Age. If, therefore, it was requisite to place them upright, the
+lower ends of them had to be stuck into the earth, or to be placed in
+holders hollowed out to receive them.
+
+Some of these supports, or holders, have been discovered. They are
+called _torches_, or _torchères_, by French archæologists.
+
+Figs. 198 and 199 give a representation of a bronze vessel from the
+lacustrine habitations of Switzerland with its support or _torchère_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 198.--Earthenware Vessel with Conical Bottom, from
+the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 199.--Earthen Vessel placed on its support.]
+
+In a general way, the vessels made with conical bases have no handles;
+but others, on the contrary, are provided with them (fig. 200). They are
+nearly always ornamented with some sort of design, either mere lines
+parallel to the rim, triangles, chevrons, or rows of points round the
+handle or the neck. Even the very roughest specimens are not altogether
+devoid of ornamentation, and a stripe may often be observed round the
+neck, on which the fingers of the potter have left their traces.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200.--Fragment of an Earthen Vessel with a Handle.]
+
+These vessels were intended to contain beverages and substances used for
+food. Out of one of them M. Desor took some apples, cherries, wild
+plums, and a large quantity of nuts. Some of these vessels, perforated
+with small holes, were used in the manufacture of cheese. Dishes,
+porringers, &c., have also been found.
+
+Relics of the pottery of the Stone Age are very frequently recovered
+from the Swiss lakes; but vessels in an entire state are seldom met
+with. It is, however, stated as a fact, that considerable accumulations
+of them once existed; but, unfortunately, the importance of them was not
+recognised until too late. An old fisherman of the Lake of Neuchâtel
+told M. Desor that in his childhood he had sometimes amused himself by
+pushing at _these old earthen pots_ with a long pole, and that in
+certain parts of the lake there were _real mountains_ of them. At the
+present day, the "old earthen pots" are all broken, and nothing but
+pieces can be recovered.
+
+These relics are, however, sufficient to afford a tolerably exact idea
+of the way in which the primitive Swiss used to fashion clay. They seem
+to denote large vessels either cylindrical (figs. 201 and 202) or
+bulbous-shaped with a flat bottom, moulded by the hand without the aid
+of a potter's wheel. The material of which they are composed is rough,
+and of a grey or black colour, and is always mingled with small grains
+of quartz; the baking of the clay is far from satisfactory.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 201.--Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine
+Settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 202.--Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine
+Settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+The ornamentation is altogether of an ordinary character. It generally
+consists of mere lines traced out in the soft clay, either by the
+finger, a pointed stick, or sometimes a string was used. There are
+neither curves nor arabesques of any kind; the lines are almost always
+straight.
+
+A few of the vessels are, however, decorated in a somewhat better style.
+Some are provided with small projections perforated with holes, through
+which might be passed a string for the purpose of hanging them up; there
+are others which have a row of studs arranged all round them, just below
+the rim, and others, indeed, in which hollows take the place of the
+studs. Several have been met with which are pierced with holes at
+different heights; it is supposed that they were used in the preparation
+of milk-curd, the holes being made to let out the whey. The vessels of
+this period are entirely devoid of handles; this ornament did not appear
+until the bronze age.
+
+Mill-stones, or stones for crushing grain, are not unfrequently found in
+the Swiss lakes.
+
+At some date during the period we are now discussing we must place the
+discovery of glass. Glass beads of a blue or green colour are, in fact,
+found in the tombs of the bronze epoch. What was their origin? Chemistry
+and metallurgy combine to inform us that as soon as bronze foundries
+existed glass must have been discovered. What, in fact, does glass
+consist of? A silicate with a basis of soda and potash, combined with
+some particles of the silicates of iron and copper, which coloured it
+blue and green. As the scoria from bronze foundries is partly composed
+of these silicates it is indubitable that a kind of glass was formed in
+the earliest metal-works where this alloy was made. It constituted the
+slag or dross of the metal works.
+
+Thus, the classic tradition which attributes the invention of glass to
+certain Phoenician merchants, who produced a mass of glass by heating on
+the sand the _natron_, that is _soda_, brought from Egypt, ascribe too
+recent a date to the discovery of this substance. It should properly be
+carried back to the bronze epoch.
+
+The working of amber was carried out to a very great extent by these
+peoples. Ornaments and objects of this material have been discovered in
+great abundance in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland.
+
+On the whole, if we compare the industrial skill of the bronze age with
+that of the preceding age, we shall find that the later is vastly
+superior to the earlier.
+
+The art of weaving seems to have been invented during the stone age. We
+have positive and indisputable proofs that the people who lived during
+this epoch were acquainted with the art of manufacturing cloth.[36] All
+the objects which we have thus far considered do not, in fact, surpass
+those which might be expected from any intelligent savage; but the art
+of preparing and manufacturing textile fabrics marks out one of the
+earliest acquisitions of man's civilisation.
+
+In the Museum of Saint-Germain we may both see and handle some specimens
+of woven cloth which were met with in some of the lacustrine settlements
+in Switzerland, and specially at Robenhausen and Wangen. This cloth,
+which is represented in fig. 203, taken from a specimen in the Museum of
+Saint-Germain, is formed of twists of interwoven flax; of rough
+workmanship, it is true, but none the less remarkable, considering the
+epoch in which it was manufactured. It is owing to the fact of their
+having been charred and buried in the peat that these remains of
+pre-historic fabrics have been kept in good preservation up to the
+present time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 203.--Cloth of the Bronze Age, found in the
+Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+Balls of thread and twine have also been found; likewise ends of cord,
+and ropes made of bark, nets with large and moderately-sized meshes,
+which we have previously represented, and lastly some fragments of a
+basket of straw or osier.
+
+Ribs of animals, split through and tapering off at one end, have been
+considered to be the teeth of the cards or combs which were used for
+unravelling the flax. The whole comb was formed of several of these
+bones joined firmly together with a band.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 204.--The First Weaver.]
+
+There were also found in the Swiss lakes a large number of discs made of
+baked earth perforated with a hole in their centre, of which we here
+give a representation (fig. 205), taken from one of the numerous
+specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain. These are ordinary
+spindle-whorls.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 205.--Spindle-whorls made of baked Clay, found in
+the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland.]
+
+Also, terra cotta weights pierced with a hole through the centre were
+intended to support the thread of flax in the weaving loom. The thread
+passed through the hole and was stopped by a knot at its extremity. We
+think that this interpretation of the use of these objects can hardly be
+called in question.
+
+We also find in the lacustrine settlements woven fabrics, threads,
+strings, combs used for carding the flax, and spindle-whorls; the
+co-existence of all these objects proves that the invention of the art
+of weaving may be fixed at this date. The loom of the weaver may,
+therefore, be traced back to the most remote ages.
+
+Acting upon this idea we have given a representation of _weaving in
+pre-historic times_.
+
+The weaving-loom is so simple a matter that the men of the bronze age
+were enabled to produce it in nearly the same form as that in which it
+exists in the present day for the manufacture of plain kinds of cloth in
+various districts of the world where the art is still in a barbaric
+condition. The loom being upright, not horizontal as with us, the terra
+cotta weights just mentioned were used to keep the threads of the warp
+stretched. This seems to be the only difference. But, as we again
+repeat, the weaver's loom, on the whole, must have differed but very
+slightly from that of the present day. Its productions bear testimony to
+the fact.
+
+Metal weapons and implements were at first obtained by means of
+exchange. But very soon the art of manufacturing bronze became prevalent
+in Switzerland, and foundries were established there. No doubt can be
+entertained on this point, as a mould for celts or hatchets has been
+found at Morges and also a bar of tin at Estavayer.
+
+During this epoch the shape of the pottery became more advanced in
+character, and ornamentation was the rule and not the exception. After
+the indispensable comes the superfluous. Taste in ornamentation made its
+appearance and soon developed itself in ceramic objects of an elegant
+style. Articles of pottery now assumed more pleasing outlines, and were
+ornamented with various designs. Progress in artistic feeling was
+evidently manifested.
+
+The simplicity and monotony of ornamentation during this epoch is
+especially remarkable. Art was then confined to the mere representation
+of a certain number of lines and geometrical figures. They were similar
+to those represented in fig. 206, and were applied to all kinds of
+objects--weapons, vases, utensils and trinkets. None of them attempt any
+delineation of nature; this idea does not seem to have entered into the
+head of man during the bronze epoch. In this respect they were inferior
+to their predecessors, the inhabitants of the caves of Périgord, the
+contemporaries of the mammoth and the reindeer.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 206.--Principal Designs for the ornamentation of
+Pottery during the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+During the period we are now considering, commercial intercourse had
+assumed an activity of a totally different character from that
+manifested during the Stone Age. It became necessary to procure tin,
+which was indispensable for the manufacture of bronze. As no tin ore
+could be found in Switzerland, the inhabitants, doubtless, went to
+Saxony in order to obtain it. The traffic must have been carried out by
+means of barter, as is customary among all infant nations.
+
+Flint, which likewise did not exist in Switzerland, was necessarily
+procured from the surrounding countries which were more fortunate in
+this respect. No country was more favoured on this point than France;
+commerce must, therefore, have existed between the two countries.
+
+At Concise, in Switzerland, some pieces of white coral were found, and
+at Meilen, on the banks of the Lake of Zurich, some fragments of amber;
+from this we may conclude that during the bronze epoch the inhabitants
+of Switzerland traded with the inhabitants of the shores of the
+Mediterranean and the Baltic.
+
+Among the other specimens of foreign productions, we must not omit to
+mention graphite, which was used to surface pottery, amber beads, and
+even a few glass trinkets suitable for female adornment.
+
+We will now pass on to the system of food adopted by man during the
+bronze epoch.
+
+Researches made in various lacustrine settlements have furnished us with
+very circumstantial information upon the system of food customary among
+the earliest inhabitants of Switzerland. From them we learn that these
+men did not live solely upon the products of fishing and hunting, but
+that they possessed certain ideas of agriculture, and also devoted
+themselves to the breeding of cattle. We shall enter into a few details
+as to this eminently interesting aspect of their history, taking as our
+guides Professors Heer and Rütimeyer, the first of whom has carefully
+examined the vegetable remains, and the second the animal relics which
+have been found in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland.
+
+At Meilen, Moosseedorf, and Wangen, some charred cereals have been
+found, viz., barley and wheat. The latter was the most abundant, and, at
+Wangen in particular, there were several bushels of it, either in ears
+or in thrashed corn collected in large heaps. These grains are almost
+the same shape and size as the wheat of the present time. Several ears
+of six-rowed barley (_Hordeum hexastichon_) were found, which differ
+from our common barley in having smaller grains arranged in six rows. De
+Candolle is of opinion that this is the species which was cultivated by
+the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans.
+
+This corn was preserved in large earthen vessels, as may be gathered
+from the contents of some of them, still in an entire state.
+
+What preparation did the corn undergo in order to render it fit for
+human food? On this subject we have tolerably exact data to go upon.
+
+The grain was bruised by hand, either between two stone discs or
+mill-stones, or in a mortar by means of a round pestle. In almost all of
+the lacustrine villages, some of these mill-stones made of granite or
+sandstone have been met with, a few of which are as much as 2 feet in
+diameter. M. Heer is of opinion that the grain was parched before being
+pounded, and then placed in vessels and slightly soaked. In this state
+it was fit for eating.
+
+At the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands by the Spaniards, it
+was remarked that the natives prepared their corn in this manner; and in
+the present day the inhabitants of the same regions still feed on
+parched grain.
+
+Nevertheless, the earliest inhabitants of western Switzerland also made
+real bread, or rather wheat-cakes, for leaven was not then known.
+Charred fragments of these loaves have been found, the grain of which is
+badly ground, thus affording us the opportunity of recognising the
+species of corn of which they are composed. These fragments are flat,
+and indicate that the whole cake was of a circular form. No doubt, after
+being bruised and wetted, the grain was made into a sort of dough, which
+was baked between two heated stones--a process we have previously
+described as having been practised in the Stone Age.
+
+In order to cultivate cereals, it was, of course, necessary for the
+ground to undergo some preliminary preparation. It was at least
+necessary to break it up so as to mellow it, and to make furrows in
+which to sow the seed. We are reduced to mere conjecture as to all the
+details of these operations, for no agricultural implements have been
+discovered in any of the settlements of man belonging to the bronze
+epoch. Perhaps, as M. Heer suggests, they made use of the stem of a tree
+with a projecting crooked branch, and adapted it so as to perform the
+functions of the plough.
+
+Wild fruits and berries formed a considerable portion of the food of the
+earliest lacustrine peoples; and, from certain indications which have
+been brought to our notice, we have reason to believe that several
+varieties of trees were the objects of their intelligent culture; in
+short, that they were cultivated in orchards and gardens. The settlement
+of Robenhausen on the Lake of Pfæffikon, has furnished us with the
+most valuable information on this point. The lacustrine villages of
+Wangen (Lake of Constance), and Concise (Lake of Neuchâtel) have also
+been the scenes of curious discoveries.
+
+In all of these settlements a large number of charred apples have been
+met with, cut in two, and sometimes four pieces, and evidently stored up
+for the winter. These apples are no larger than walnuts, and in many of
+the Swiss forests a species of apple still exists which appears to be
+the same sort as those found in the lacustrine settlements. Pears have
+been discovered only in the settlement of Wangen; they were cut up and
+dried just like the apples.
+
+In the mud of the lakes, stones of the wild plum and the bird-cherry, or
+Sainte-Lucie plum, were found; also the seeds of blackberries and
+raspberries, the shells of beech-nuts and hazel-nuts, and several
+species of the water-chestnut, which is now only to be met with at two
+points of the Swiss Alps.
+
+We must also add that M. Gilliéron collected in the settlement of the
+Isle of Saint-Pierre, oats, peas, lentils, and acorns, the latter
+evidently having been intended for the food of swine. This discovery is
+an important one, because oats had, hitherto, never been met with
+anywhere.
+
+We shall complete this list of names by enumerating the other vegetables
+which have been ascertained to have existed in the lake settlements, the
+berries and seeds of some of which were used as food, &c. They are the
+strawberry, the beech, the yew, the dog-rose, which is found in hedges,
+the white and yellow water-lily, the rush, and the forest and the marsh
+pine. There are no traces of the vine, rye, or hemp.
+
+Fig. 207, representing _the cultivation of gardens during the bronze
+epoch_, is intended to sum up and delineate materially all the ideas we
+have previously suggested concerning the agricultural and horticultural
+knowledge possessed by man during the bronze epoch. A gardener is
+tilling the ground with a horn pick-axe, a representation of which we
+have previously given. Others are gathering fruit from trees which have
+been planted and cultivated with a view of increasing the stock of food.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 207.--The Cultivation of Gardens during the Bronze
+Epoch.]
+
+The sheep and oxen which may be noticed in this figure indicate the
+domestication of these animals and of their having been reared as tame
+cattle. The dog, the faithful companion of man, could scarcely have
+been omitted in this assemblage of the auxiliary or domestic animals of
+the bronze epoch.
+
+The bones which have been found in the lacustrine settlements of
+Switzerland have enabled us to reconstruct with some degree of accuracy
+the _fauna_ of this epoch, and to ascertain what species of animals were
+then in subjugation to the yoke of man.
+
+Professor Rütimeyer is of opinion that the whole of these bones may be
+referred to about seventy species of animals--ten of which are fish,
+three reptiles, twenty birds, and the rest mammiferous animals.
+
+The remains most commonly met with are those of the stag and the ox, the
+former wild, and the latter domestic. Next in order comes the pig,
+remains of which are also very abundant; then follows the roe, the goat,
+and the sheep, all of which are much less common. The remains of the fox
+are met with almost as often as those of the latter species, and in
+spite of the foetid smell of this animal it certainly was used for
+food--a fact which is proved by its bones having been split open and
+notched with knives. It is, however, very probable that this kind of
+sustenance was turned to as a last resort only in cases when no other
+more suitable food could be obtained.
+
+The long bones which have been found in lakes, like those met with in
+caves and kitchen-middens, have been split in order to extract the
+marrow. Just as in the kitchen-middens, the softer parts are always
+gnawed, which shows us that the dog had been there.
+
+The repugnance which is felt by so many nations for the flesh of the
+hare is a very curious fact, and shows us how difficult it is to root
+out certain prejudices. This repugnance may be traced back as far as
+pre-historic ages. Neither the diluvial beds, the caves, the
+kitchen-middens, nor the lacustrine settlements have, in fact, furnished
+us with any traces of the hare. Even in the present day, the Laplanders
+and Greenlanders banish this animal from their alimental list.
+
+Among the Hottentots the women eat it but not the men. The Jews, too,
+look upon it as unclean, and many years have not elapsed since the
+Bretons would hardly endure to hear it spoken of.
+
+The antipathy which is thus shown by certain modern nations to the flesh
+of the hare has, therefore, been handed down to them from the primitive
+ages of mankind.
+
+The researches of Prof. Rütimeyer have led to the conclusion that
+there existed in Switzerland during the Stone Age six species of
+domestic animals--the ox, the pig, the goat, the sheep, the dog, and the
+horse, the latter being very rare. There were, also, three specimens of
+the bovine race; the two wild species of the ox genus, namely, the urus
+and the bison, both very anciently known, had been increased by a third,
+the domestic ox.
+
+The bones belonging to the Stone Age seem to point to the existence of a
+larger proportion of wild beasts than of domestic animals; and this is
+only what might be expected, for the art of domesticating animals was at
+this epoch still in its infancy, but a commencement had been made, and
+the practice continued to spread rapidly during the following age.
+
+In fact, agriculture and the breeding of cattle made considerable
+progress during the bronze epoch. There were brought into use various
+new breeds of cattle. The ox became a substitute for the bison; the
+sheep was bred as well as the goat; and all these animals were devoted
+to the purpose of providing food for man.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 208.--A Feast during the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+We may here pause for a moment and contemplate, with just pride, this
+marvellous resuscitation of an era long ago buried in the darkness of
+bygone ages.
+
+By means of the investigations of science, we know that the primitive
+inhabitants of Switzerland dwelt in wooden villages built on lakes; that
+they were hunters, fishers, shepherds, and husbandmen; that they
+cultivated wheat, barley, and oats; that they brought into a state of
+servitude several species of animals, and devoted to the requirements of
+agriculture the sheep and the goat; that they were acquainted with the
+principal rudiments of the baker's art; that they stored up apples,
+pears, and other fruits or berries for the winter, either for their own
+use or that of their cattle; that they understood the art of weaving and
+manufacturing flaxen fabrics; that they twisted up cord and mats of
+bark; and, lastly, that as a material for the manufacture of their
+implements and weapons they availed themselves of stone, bronze,
+animals' bones, and stag's horn.
+
+It is equally certain that they kept up some kind of commercial
+intercourse with the adjacent countries; this must have been the case,
+if it were only for the purpose, as before mentioned, of procuring
+flints, which are not found in Switzerland; also amber and white coral,
+numerous relics of which have been met with in the settlements of Meilen
+and Concise.
+
+Though there may still remain many an obscure page in the history of
+mankind during the bronze epoch, it must, nevertheless, be confessed
+that, as far as Switzerland is concerned, a bright light has of late
+years been thrown on that branch of the subject which refers to man's
+mode of existence in these regions during the bronze epoch.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[36] See 'The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland,' &c. p. 323, by Dr. F.
+Keller. Translated and edited by Dr. J. E. Lee. London, 1866.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+     The Art of War during the Bronze Epoch--Swords, Spears, and
+     Daggers--The Bronze Epoch in Scandinavia, in the British Isles,
+     France, Switzerland, and Italy--Did the Man of the Bronze Epoch
+     entertain any religious or superstitious Belief?
+
+
+The Swiss lakes have furnished us with elements which afford us some
+knowledge of the state of man's industrial skill during the bronze
+epoch, and also enable us to form a due estimation of the manners and
+customs of the people of these remote ages. But if we wish to become
+acquainted with all the details which concern the art of war at the same
+date, we must direct our attention to the north of Europe, that is to
+say, to the Scandinavian peoples.
+
+Nevertheless, before we touch upon the important pre-historic relics
+found in Denmark, we must say a few words concerning the traces of the
+art of war which have been furnished by the investigations made in the
+Swiss lakes.
+
+The warlike accoutrements of the bronze epoch are, like those of the
+Stone Age, composed of spear-heads and arrow-heads, poniards and, in
+addition, swords. Swords are, however, but rarely met with in the Swiss
+lakes. The few which have been found are straight, short, double-edged,
+and without hilts. In the Museum of Neuchâtel there is a sword (fig.
+209) which was discovered forty years ago at Concise, at a time when no
+one suspected the existence of any such thing as lacustrine settlements;
+M. Desor has supplied a sketch of it in his 'Mémoire sur les
+Palafittes.' This sword measures 16 inches in length, and has on its
+surface four grooves which join together on the middle ridge of the
+blade. The handle, which is terminated by a double volute, is remarkably
+small, being only 3 inches in length.
+
+Daggers (fig. 210), too, like the swords, are but rarely found in the
+Swiss lakes. From a specimen found in the lake of Bienne, we see that
+the blade was fixed to the handle by means of a series of rivets
+arranged in a single line. This dagger is, like the sword found at
+Concise, ornamented with grooves symmetrically placed on each side of
+the projecting ridge which divides the blade into two equal portions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 209.--Bronze Sword, in the Museum of Neuchâtel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 210.--Bronze Dagger, found in one of the Swiss
+Lakes.]
+
+In the collection of Colonel Schwab, there are two daggers of an
+extraordinary character, having hilts enriched with silver.
+
+The spear-heads (fig. 211) are not inferior either to the swords or the
+daggers in the skill and finish of their workmanship. They are formed of
+a nearly oval blade, strongly consolidated in the middle by a rounded
+ridge, which is prolonged so as to form a socket intended to hold a
+thick wooden handle. The length of the daggers varies from 4 to 7
+inches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 211.--Bronze Spear-head, found in one of the Swiss
+Lakes.]
+
+The arrow-heads (fig. 212) are, except in their material, identical with
+those of the preceding age. They are triangular, with more or less
+pointed barbs, and provided with a stem, by which they were fastened to
+the stick. A few have, however, been found which are made with sockets.
+They do not exceed 1 to 2 inches in length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 212.--Bronze Arrow-heads, found in a Lacustrine
+Settlement of Switzerland.]
+
+We shall now pass on to the consideration of the relics found in the
+tombs of Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland and France; which remains
+will throw some light on the subject of the weapons and warlike
+instruments belonging to the bronze epoch.
+
+The Scandinavian States (Denmark, Sweden, and Norway) are very rich in
+instruments belonging to the bronze epoch. The workmanship of the swords
+and other weapons of war is much more elaborate here than anywhere else,
+on account of the tardy introduction of metal into these countries.
+These weapons are nearly always adorned with somewhat complicated
+designs, among which curved lines and spiral scrolls are the most
+prevalent.
+
+The Danish swords of the bronze epoch (figs. 213, 214) are of quite a
+peculiar shape. The hilt is firmly fixed to the blade by means of two or
+more rivets. The daggers and poniards only differ from the swords in the
+smallness of their dimensions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 213.--Scandinavian Sword.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 214.--Hilt of a Scandinavian Sword.]
+
+Some of the hatchets seem to have been copied from models belonging to
+the Stone Age; these are probably the most ancient, and their
+ornamentation is of a very scanty character. Others are winged or with
+sockets, and a few have been found perforated with a transverse hole,
+like those which have long been used by civilised nations. In this hole
+a wooden handle was inserted, which was fixed by means of a strap, or
+merely forcibly driven in. The rarely-found specimens of this kind are
+sharply defined in shape and splendidly ornamented.
+
+Figs. 215 and 216, taken from Sir J. Lubbock's work, represent the
+probable way in which handles were fitted to the various kinds of
+hatchets used in the North.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 215.--Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian
+Hatchet.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Another mode of fixing the Handle to a
+Scandinavian Hatchet.]
+
+The blades of the bronze knives found in Scandinavia are, like those of
+Switzerland, somewhat curved in their shape, but the handles are much
+more richly ornamented. Two of these knives have furnished us with the
+only examples known of any representation of living beings during the
+bronze epoch. We may notice that on one of these knives, which is
+represented in fig. 217, taken from Sir J. Lubbock's work, a swan is
+roughly carved at the offset of the blade.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 217.--Danish Bronze Knife, of the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+In another knife, which is represented in fig. 218, taken from the same
+work, the handle is formed by a human figure, executed with some degree
+of fidelity. The figure is in a standing position, and holds in front of
+it a nearly cylindrical-shaped vessel; the individual is represented as
+wearing large earrings. There is every reason to believe that this
+last-mentioned article belongs to the end of the bronze epoch, or else
+to a transitionary epoch between this and the following, for the blade
+is straight, like those of all the knives belonging to the iron age.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 218.--Danish Bronze Knife of the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+The same thing may, doubtless, be said of several razors (fig. 219) with
+straight blades, which appear even overloaded with ornaments; among
+these embellishments is an attempt to represent a sort of vessel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Blade of a Danish Razor of the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+These designs evidently point to some very advanced period in the bronze
+epoch; and perhaps these objects may belong to the commencement of the
+iron age.
+
+What, we may ask, was the wearing apparel of man during the period we
+are describing?
+
+A very important discovery, made in 1861, in a _tumulus_ in Jutland
+(Denmark), has lately supplied us with the most accurate _data_
+respecting the way in which the inhabitants of the north of Europe were
+clothed during the bronze epoch. In this _tumulus_ MM. Worsaae, and
+Herbst found three wooden coffins, one of which was smaller than the two
+others, and was no doubt that of a child. One of the two larger coffins
+was minutely examined by these _savants_, and measured inside 7 feet in
+length and 20 inches in width. It was closed up by means of a movable
+lid. By an extremely rare chance the soft parts of the body had been to
+some extent preserved, and had become converted into a black greasy
+substance. The bones were decomposed, and had decayed into a kind of
+blue powder. The brain had preserved its normal conformation. They found
+it at one end of the coffin (where the head had lain); it was still
+covered with a woollen cap, about 6 inches high, to which several black
+hairs were adhering.
+
+Several woollen garments, in which the body had been buried, were also
+found in different parts of the coffin. We add a description of these
+garments.
+
+There was in the first place a coarse cloak (fig. 220) which appeared
+shaggy in the inside, and was scalloped out round the neck. This cloak
+was 3 feet 4 inches long, and wide in proportion. Next there were two
+shawls nearly square in shape (fig. 221), ornamented with a long fringe,
+and measuring 4-1/2 feet in length, and 3-1/2 feet in width. Afterwards
+came a shirt (fig. 222), also scalloped out round the neck, and drawn in
+at the waist by means of a long narrow band. Lastly, at the feet of the
+body, two pieces of woollen material were found, which were 14 inches
+long, by 4 inches wide, and bore the appearance of having been the
+remains of gaiters. Close to the latter were also found vestiges of
+leather, evidently belonging to feet-coverings of some kind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, found in
+1861, in a Tomb In Denmark.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Woollen Shawl found in the same Tomb.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Woollen Shirt, taken from the same Tomb.]
+
+The whole body had been wrapped up in the skin of an ox.
+
+The coffin also contained a box, tied up with strips of osier or bark,
+and in this box was a smaller one, in which were found two woven woollen
+caps (fig. 223, 224), a comb (fig. 225), and a bronze razor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 223.--First Woollen Cap found in the same Tomb.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 224.--Second Woollen Cap found in the same Tomb.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Bronze Comb found in the same Tomb.]
+
+We must not forget to mention a bronze sword, placed on the left side of
+the body, in a wooden sheath; this sword measured about 26 inches in
+length.
+
+There is no doubt that all these relics were those of a warrior of the
+bronze epoch; there is the less reason to doubt this, owing to the fact,
+that the objects taken from the two other coffins most certainly
+belonged to that period. These were a sword, a knife, a bodkin, an awl,
+a pair of tweezers, a double button, and a small bronze bracelet; also a
+double tin button, a ball of amber and a flint spear-head.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 226.--Warriors during the Bronze Epoch.]
+
+The shape of the swords and knives shows that this burial-place in
+Jutland must be referred to the latter part of the bronze epoch--to a
+time, perhaps, when iron was first used.
+
+Following out the _data_ afforded by these records, and all the
+discoveries which have been made in other tombs, we have given in fig.
+226, a representation of _warriors of the bronze epoch_.
+
+The accoutrements of the horseman of pre-historic ages are composed of a
+bronze sword, like those found in the tombs in Denmark, and a bronze
+hatchet and sword-belt. His horse is decked with round bronze discs,
+which, in after times, formed among the Romans the chief ornament of
+this faithful and intrepid auxiliary of man in all his combats. The
+horseman's head is bare; for no helmet or metallic head-covering has
+ever, at least, to our knowledge, been discovered in the tombs of the
+bronze epoch. The spear and bronze hatchet are the weapons of the
+foot-soldiers.
+
+Next to the Scandinavian regions, Great Britain and Ireland occupy an
+important place in the history of the civilisation of the bronze epoch.
+The same type of implements are found in these countries as in Denmark
+and Switzerland.
+
+Hatchet-moulds (fig. 227) are also found there--a circumstance which
+proves that the founder's art was known and practised in these
+countries. The Dublin Museum contains a beautiful collection of various
+objects belonging to the bronze epoch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 227.--Bronze Hatchet-mould found in Ireland.]
+
+Some of the departments of France have also furnished objects belonging
+to the same period; but there is nothing peculiar among them which
+deserves mention.
+
+Did any kind of religious worship exist among the men of the bronze
+epoch? Nothing would be more interesting than any discovery bearing on
+this point; but up to the present time no vestiges of anything in the
+shape of an idol have been found, nor anything whatever which authorizes
+us unhesitatingly to answer this question in the affirmative. The only
+thing which might prove the existence of any religious feeling, is the
+discovery, in various lacustrine settlements, of a certain number of
+crescent-shaped objects, most of them made of very coarse baked earth
+and some of stone.
+
+The dimensions of these crescents vary considerably; there are some
+which measure as much as 16 inches from one point to the other. They are
+ornamented with perfectly primitive designs, as shown in fig. 228, drawn
+at the Museum of Saint-Germain from one of the numerous specimens of
+this class of objects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 228.--Stone Crescent found in one of the Swiss
+Lakes.]
+
+Several archæologists consider these crescents to have been religious
+emblems or talismans which were suspended either outside or inside the
+habitations. Dr. Keller is of opinion that they bear some relation to
+the worship of the moon--an hypothesis which is not at all an impossible
+one; for all nations who have not attained to a certain degree of moral
+and intellectual culture adore the heavenly bodies as the sources of
+light and heat.
+
+M. Carl Vogt, in considering the crescents which have been discovered in
+such large quantities in the lacustrine habitations, cannot admit that
+they indicate that any religious belief existed among these ancient
+nations. He attributes to these objects a very different kind of use,
+and, as we shall presently show, rather an odd one.
+
+In the lectures on _pre-historic man_ which were delivered by Prof. Carl
+Vogt at Antwerp, in 1868, and have been reported by the Belgian
+journals,[37] when speaking on the subject of the crescents belonging to
+the bronze epoch, he expresses himself as follows:--
+
+"My opinion is that these crescents were used as resting-places for the
+head during the night. Among many savage tribes we find the attention
+paid to the dressing of the hair carried to a high pitch, especially
+among the men; it was not until a later period that woman also devoted
+her cares to the culture of her _coiffure_. Now this care is, by many
+nations, carried out to a really curious extent. They inflict the most
+severe tortures on themselves in order to satisfy their vanity. Everyone
+has seen, in the 'Magasin Pittoresque' and other illustrated journals,
+the strange head-dresses of the Abyssinian soldiers. They really seem to
+form a kind of fleece, and it may be noticed that each soldier carries
+in this hairy construction a large pin.
+
+"Well, all this tends to explain the use of these crescents. In
+Abyssinia, as soon as a young girl is married it becomes her duty to
+devote herself to her husband's head of hair. This head of hair is made
+to assume a certain shape, which it has to retain during his whole
+lifetime. The labour which this process necessitates lasts for three
+years. Each hair is twisted round a stem of straw, and remains so until
+the straw perishes. The man's head is thus covered with a whole system
+of spirals, the top of which is a foot from the surface of his head.
+During the whole remainder of his life this _coiffure_ must never be
+again disturbed. When asleep, the Abyssinian rests the nape of his neck
+on a triangle which he carries about everywhere with him. He has also a
+long pin, as it would be impossible for him to reach the skin of his
+head with the end of his finger.
+
+"The same custom exists among the New Zealanders, who also have an
+apparatus upon which they rest their necks, in order, when asleep, to
+save their _coiffures_. They wear an enormous chignon, two feet high
+and ornamented with ribbons, of which they are very proud. The only
+difference between this chignon and certain others which I need not
+mention is, that the former cannot be removed at will. This object,
+thus adorned, rests, during the sleep of its owner, on a sort of
+framework.
+
+"The Chinese and Japanese sleep, in the same way, on a bedstead bevelled
+off at the head; and in the Egyptian hieroglyphical drawings we find
+instruments evidently meant for the same use.
+
+"It is very probable that during the bronze epoch great attention was
+devoted to the hair, and this is the more probable as in every tomb
+belonging to this period we find pins from 2 feet to 2-1/2 feet in
+length, furnished with large knobs, and of the same shape as the pins
+used by the Abyssinian soldiers; and also, because during the Stone Age,
+as well as the Bronze Age, a kind of comb is found which is similar to
+that which is now used by the New Zealanders to scratch, rather than to
+comb, their heads. The heads of the pins are often very richly
+ornamented; they are of the most varied shapes, and are extremely common
+both in the tombs and also in the lacustrine dwellings.
+
+"We have the less right to be astonished at our ancestors sleeping with
+their heads resting on such a machine as we have just described,
+knowing, as we do, that the hussars of Frederick the Great used to spend
+the whole night in arranging their _coiffures_!"
+
+Thus, while Dr. Keller and many other archæologists ascribe the
+_crescents_ found in the Swiss lakes to some kind of religious worship,
+M. Vogt, whose idea is of a much more prosaic character, does not
+attribute them to any other worship but that of _self_ as represented by
+the hair! The reader can take his choice between these two explanations.
+We shall only remark, in corroboration of Dr. Keller's opinion, that
+certain Gallic tribes used for a religious symbol this very crescent
+which M. Vogt would make out to be a pillow--a stone pillow which, as it
+seems to us, must have been very hard, even for primitive man.
+
+Various objects found in the dwellings of man belonging to the bronze
+epoch appear to have been religious symbols. Such, for instance, are the
+designs so often met with on swords, vases, &c. These drawings never
+represent objects in nature; they seem rather to be cabalistic signs or
+talismans. Most of them bear some relation to a circle; sometimes they
+are single circles, and sometimes combinations of circles. Many authors
+have had the idea of attributing them to the worship of the sun.
+
+Another sign was still more often used, and it was known even as early
+as the Stone Age--we speak of the cross. It is one of the most ancient
+symbols that ever existed. M. G. de Mortillet, in a work entitled 'La
+Croix avant le Christianisme,' has endeavoured to establish the fact,
+that the cross has always been the symbol of a sect which contended
+against fetishism. This much is at least certain, that it is one of the
+most ancient symbolical signs; for it is found depicted on objects
+belonging to the Stone Age, and on some of the earliest relics of the
+Bronze Age. At the time of the Etruscans the cross was generally
+prevalent as a sign. But at a later period Christianity exclusively
+monopolized this religious symbol.
+
+A third figure is sometimes found on various objects belonging to the
+bronze epoch; this figure is the triangle.
+
+It is, on the whole, very probable that all these signs which are not
+connected with any known object, bear some relation to certain religious
+or superstitious ideas entertained by the men of the bronze epoch; and,
+as a consequence of this, that their hearts must have been inspired with
+some degree of religious feeling.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[37] _Indépendance Belge_, November and December, 1868.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+     Mode of Interment and Burial-places of the Bronze Epoch--
+     Characteristics of the Human Race during the same Period.
+
+
+The question naturally arises--what was the mode of interment, and what
+was the nature of the burial-places employed by man during the bronze
+epoch?
+
+In the early part of this period the dead were still buried in those
+sepulchral chambers which are now called by the name of _dolmens_;
+Nilsson and Lubbock have drawn somewhat confused and arbitrary
+distinctions in discussing these burial-places; but it may be positively
+asserted that towards the conclusion of this period the practice of
+burning dead bodies was commenced.
+
+In a work, published in 1869, and entitled 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition
+Universelle,' being a sort of catalogue of the objects which were
+exhibited in the galleries devoted to the _History of Labour_, in the
+Exhibition in the Champ de Mars, in 1867, we find several pages which we
+shall quote, as they seem to recapitulate pretty clearly the ideas which
+are now current among scientific men concerning the burial-places and
+funeral customs of the bronze epoch:--
+
+"The study which, during the last few years, has been devoted by M.
+Worsaae to the tombs belonging to the bronze epoch, has thrown much
+light," says M. Valdemar Schmidt, "on the commencement of the bronze age
+in Denmark. It appears that at the first beginning of the bronze epoch
+the dead were buried in a manner similar to that practised during the
+stone age, that is to say, the bodies of the defunct were deposited in
+sepulchral chambers made of stone, and covered by _tumuli_; the only
+difference is, these chambers are rather small, and generally contain
+but one skeleton. But to make up for this, several of these small
+sepulchral chambers, or rather stone coffins, are sometimes found in the
+same _tumulus_.
+
+"These chambers present, however, in some respects, great similarities
+with those of the Stone Age; thus, beds of flint which have been
+subjected to the action of fire are often found spread over the ground,
+and on these beds skeletons are met with which appear to have been
+placed in a contracted position before they were buried, exactly
+following the practice of the Stone Age.
+
+"After this class of tombs, we have another, in which the sepulchral
+chamber, though always made of stone, is not covered with a stone slab
+but with a _wooden roof_. Elsewhere, skeletons have been found along
+with bronze weapons deposited in a sort of _wooden framework_, which has
+in many cases entirely perished except a few minute fragments. These
+cases were covered with small stones, which now seem to lie immediately
+upon the skeleton.
+
+"Lastly, in all the Danish provinces large oak coffins are found, formed
+of hollowed-out trunks of trees; these also contain human bodies, which
+seem to have been buried in woollen garments.
+
+"With regard to the funeral rites observed, these tombs do not appear to
+have differed much. The bodies were deposited in them with their
+implements, weapons, and utensils, either of bronze or stone; but, in
+addition, at the bottom of the tomb, animal skins, generally those of
+oxen, were often spread.
+
+"Next, a new period succeeded, when the bodies were burned, and the
+remains collected together. All the ancient customs were not, however,
+at once given up. Thus, as the dead were formerly buried in woollen
+garments, the _débris_ of the bones were now wrapped in pieces of cloaks
+made of the same material. Subsequently, however, this custom also
+disappeared, and the ashes and remains of bones were simply collected
+together in urns. This custom was observed until the bronze epoch, and
+characterises, so to speak, its second and last period--which was,
+however, the longest of that age.
+
+"There were, then, in short, two distinct epochs in the bronze age;
+firstly, that _in which the dead were quite simply interred_, either in
+small sepulchral chambers or wooden coffins, and, secondly, that _in
+which the bodies of the dead were incinerated_.
+
+"One of the most remarkable 'finds,' as regards the first period of the
+bronze epoch, was made in 1861, in the two mounds known by the names of
+Treenhöi and Kengehöi, and situated near Kongeaa, in Jutland. In each of
+these _tumuli_ two people had been buried, both having a double coffin,
+made of magnificent trunks of oak-trees. The skeletons had been almost
+entirely destroyed by the damp which, on the contrary, had preserved the
+garments. These individuals seem to have been dressed almost like the
+Scotch; at least they must have worn a sort of woollen petticoat, and
+bands by way of trousers, very like those worn by the warriors depicted
+in the Carlovingian miniatures, and, in addition, a cloak, a cap, and
+also perhaps a shawl. With these garments were found some bronze swords
+in wooden sheaths; also some bronze knives, a comb, some boxes, cups,
+small wooden coffers, a tin ball, and, lastly, in one of the coffins, a
+small flint arrow-head. A fragment of the cloak was to be seen in the
+Palace of the Champ de Mars (No. 596).
+
+"Another 'find' made a few miles from this _tumulus_, at Höimp, in North
+Schleswig, has also brought to light skeletons in oak coffins together
+with bronze implements.
+
+"Discoveries of no less interest have been made in Zealand. Thus, in
+1845, in a _tumulus_ at Höidegaard, near Copenhagen, a tomb belonging to
+the first period of the bronze epoch was found; it was searched in the
+presence of some of the principal Danish archæologists. The tomb was
+placed at a distance of more than 10 feet below the summit of the
+_tumulus_, and was built of stones; it was more than 6 feet in length,
+and its width on the eastern side was about 2 feet, and on the western
+side 19 inches. The bottom was lined with a layer of small flint stones,
+on which was found, in the first place, a skin, doubtless that of an ox,
+and above it, besides a piece of tissue containing remains of human
+bones, a bronze sword with a wooden sheath, covered with leather, and in
+a perfect state of preservation; lastly, a box containing the following
+articles:--1st, a fragment of an amber bead; 2nd, a piece of reddish
+stone; 3rd, a small shell, which can be none other than the _Conus
+mediterraneus_; it is perforated so as to be worn as a pendant for the
+neck; 4th, a fragment of a flint point, doubtless an amulet; 5th, the
+tail of a serpent (_Coluber lævis_); 6th, a small cube of pine or
+fir-wood, and 7th, a bronze knife with a convex blade and ornamented
+handle.
+
+"According to the investigations of various savants, these bones belong
+to a man, who, to judge from the objects placed by his side in his tomb,
+must have been some distinguished personage, and perhaps combined the
+functions of a warrior and a sorcerer. The cube of pine-wood leads us
+to conjecture that that tree had not then completely disappeared, and
+from this fact we may infer that the period at which the sorcerer in
+question lived was very remote. It is, however, possible that this piece
+of pine-wood, as well as the shell, were introduced from some other
+country. The existence of the _Conus mediterraneus_ seems to establish
+the fact that Denmark had already formed some kind of connection with
+the Mediterranean.
+
+"_The second period of the bronze epoch_ is characterised by the custom
+of the cremation of the dead, which generally took place in the
+following way: the body of the defunct was usually placed, together with
+his weapons and ornaments, on the funeral pile, which was built on the
+exact spot which was destined to form the centre of the _tumulus_; the
+fire was then lighted, and, after the body was consumed, the remains of
+the bones were collected together in an urn. The rubbish that resulted
+was left on the spot, surrounded with stones, and covered with earth
+till the _tumulus_ was complete. The urn which contained the ashes was
+then placed in another part of the _tumulus_. This course of procedure
+was not the only one employed; in some cases the weapons and other
+articles of adornment were not placed upon the funeral-pile, but were
+afterwards brought and placed round the urn.
+
+"The number of tombs of the bronze epoch which have been discovered in
+Denmark is very considerable. There are thousands of _tumuli_, and many
+of them contain a large number of funeral urns. A great many of these
+_tumuli_ have been searched at various times and have produced a number
+of different bronze articles. The Museum of Copenhagen possesses no less
+than 600 swords dating back to the bronze epoch."[38]
+
+Twenty years ago, however, a very curious discovery was made at Lübeck
+(Pomerania), for it exhibited, so to speak, in the same tomb, the three
+modes of interment belonging to the pre-historic epochs of the stone,
+bronze, and iron ages.
+
+At Waldhausen, near Lübeck, a _tumulus_ was found, which was 13 feet 9
+inches in height. This _tumulus_ was pulled down in horizontal layers,
+and the following details were successively brought to light.
+
+At the top was a very ancient burial-place, evidently belonging to the
+iron age; for the skeleton it contained was accompanied by an object
+made of rusty iron and several earthenware articles. It was buried in
+loose earth.
+
+Underneath this, and half way down the _tumulus_, there were some small
+enclosures composed of uncemented walls, each one containing a
+sepulchral urn filled with calcined bones, as well as necklaces,
+hair-pins, and a bronze knife.
+
+Lastly, at the base of the _tumulus_, there was a tomb belonging to the
+Stone Age. It was formed of large rough blocks of stone, and contained,
+in addition to the bones, some coarse specimens of pottery, with flint
+hatchets.
+
+It is evident that the first inhabitants of the country began by
+building a tomb on the bare ground, according to the customs of the age,
+and then covered it up with earth. During the bronze epoch another
+burial-place was made on this foundation, and a fresh heap of earth
+doubled the height of the mound. Lastly, during the iron age, a dead
+body was buried in a grave hollowed out on the top of the same mound.
+Here, then, we have a clear delineation of the three different modes of
+interment belonging to the three pre-historic periods.
+
+In short, during the bronze epoch, the dead were generally buried in
+sepulchral chambers, and sometimes, exceptionally, they were burned. The
+custom of funeral feasts still remained in full force. The pious
+practice of placing by the side of the dead body the instruments or
+weapons which the individual had been fond of during his lifetime, was
+likewise still kept up; and it is, moreover, owing to this circumstance
+that archæological science is now enabled to collect numerous vestiges
+of the ancient customs of these remote ages.
+
+But we must call attention to the fact that, at the end of and after
+this epoch, the hatchets and instruments which were placed in the tombs
+were often of much smaller dimensions than those employed for every-day
+use. They were small and delicately-made hatchets, intended as _votive_
+offerings. Some might, perhaps, conclude from this that the heirs,
+animated by a feeling of economy, had contented themselves with
+depositing very diminutive offerings in the tombs of the dead. The human
+race was already becoming degenerate, since it curtailed its homage and
+its offerings to the dead!
+
+In order to bring to a conclusion all the details which concern the
+bronze epoch, the question will naturally arise, what was the human type
+at this epoch, and did it differ from that of the preceding age?
+Unfortunately, the positive information which is required for the
+elucidation of this question is entirely wanting; this deficiency is
+owing to the extreme rarity of human bones, both in the lacustrine
+settlements of Switzerland, and also in the tombs belonging to that
+epoch which have been searched in different European countries. The
+whole of the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland have furnished no
+more than some seven skeletons, one of which was found at Meilen, two at
+Nidau, one at Sutz, one in the settlement of Bienne, and two at
+Auvernier. The first, that is the skeleton found at Meilen, near lake
+Zurich, is the only one which belongs to the Stone Age; the six others
+are all of the Bronze or Iron Ages.
+
+The skeleton found at Meilen is that of a child; the skull, which is in
+a tolerable state of preservation, although incomplete, occupies,
+according to the observations of MM. His and Rütimeyer, a middle place
+between the long and short heads.
+
+Figs. 229 and 230, representing this skull, are taken from M. Desor's
+work, entitled 'Mémoire sur les Palafittes.' From the mere fact that it
+is a child's skull, it is almost impossible to make any use of it in
+ascertaining the characteristic features of the race to which it
+belongs; for these features are not sufficiently marked at such an early
+age. The skull is of a very elongated shape, that is to say, it belongs
+to the _dolichocephalous_ type. The upper part of the skull is
+flattened, and it has an enormous occipital development; but, on the
+other hand, there is scarcely any forehead. If these special features
+might be generally applied, they would not prove much in favour of the
+intellectual capacity of the Helvetic nation, or of its superiority over
+the races of anterior ages; it represents, in fact, a very low type of
+conformation, which, however, harmonises perfectly with the rough
+manners and cruel practices of the Gallic tribes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 229.--Skull found at Meilen, front view.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Skull found at Meilen, profile view.]
+
+At the time of the discovery, this skull was accompanied by various
+bones belonging to the body and limbs, which show by their extraordinary
+bulk that their owners were men of very large size. We have already
+remarked upon the large size of the men existing in the Stone Age, that
+is to say, at the time of the first appearance of mankind. Thus, the
+human type had changed but little since its first appearance on the
+globe.
+
+The settlement of Auvernier, in the lake of Neuchâtel has, as we have
+before said, contributed two skulls. One belonged to a child about eight
+years of age, and the other to an adult. The child's skull differs very
+slightly from the one found at Meilen. It is small, elongated, and has a
+low and narrow forehead. That of the adult presents the same
+characteristics, and, in addition, an extraordinary development of the
+occiput, a feature which is not observable in the former, probably, on
+account of the youth of the subject. These two skulls seem, therefore,
+to show that the population of the lacustrine settlements had not at all
+changed at the beginning of the bronze epoch.
+
+A discovery made in the neighbourhood of Sion has confirmed these first
+ideas. At this spot, in tombs of rough stone, there were found some
+bodies bent into a contracted position, and accompanied by certain
+bronze objects. According to MM. His and Carl Vogt, the skulls found at
+Sion agree tolerably well with those discovered at Meilen and Auvernier;
+and, in addition to this, the same shape is perpetuated down to our own
+days in German Switzerland, where it strongly predominates, and
+constitutes what is called the Helvetic type.
+
+The _data_ which have been collected up to the present time are not
+sufficient to enable us to make any positive assertion respecting the
+development of the intelligence of man during the bronze epoch. The few
+skulls which have been recovered are always in an incomplete state, and
+do not justify us in forming any exact opinion on this matter. But when
+we are considering the degree of intelligence possessed by our ancestors
+at this period of man's development, there are things which will
+enlighten us far better than any fragments of bones or any remains of
+skeletons; these are the works which have been executed by their hands.
+The fine arts had already begun to throw out promising germs, industrial
+skill had become an established fact, agriculture was in full practice,
+and bronze was made to adapt itself to all the caprices and all the
+boldest ideas of the imagination. What more can be necessary to prove
+that man, at this epoch, was already comparatively far advanced in
+intellectual culture?
+
+In concluding our account of the bronze epoch, the question naturally
+arises whether it is possible to form any estimate of the exact space of
+time embraced by this period of man's history. We shall endeavour here
+to give, not the solution of the problem, but merely an idea of the way
+in which scientific men have entered on the question.
+
+Morlot, the Swiss archæologist and naturalist, who has written a great
+deal upon the subject of the lacustrine settlements, was the first to
+endeavour to estimate the duration of the Stone Age, as well as that of
+the Bronze Epoch, and the following is the way in which he set about it.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Villeneuve there is a cone or hillock formed of
+gravel and _alluvium_, slowly deposited there by the stream of the
+Tinière which falls at this spot into the lake of Geneva. This cone was
+cut in two, to lay down the railway which runs along the side of the
+lake. Its interior structure was thus laid bare, and appeared to be
+perfectly regular, a proof that it had been gradually formed during a
+long course of ages. There were three layers of vegetable earth placed
+at different depths between the deposits of _alluvium_, each of which
+double layers had in its turn formed the outer surface of the cone.
+
+The first layer was found at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches from the top,
+and was 4 to 6 inches thick. In it were found some relics of the Roman
+epoch.
+
+The second, situated 5 feet 3 inches lower, measured 6 inches in depth,
+and was recognised as belonging to the bronze age; it contained a pair
+of bronze pincers and some fragments of unglazed earthenware.
+
+The lower bed lay at a depth of 18 feet from the top, and varied in
+thickness from 6 to 7 inches. It contained some rough earthenware,
+charcoal, and animal bones, all pointing to the Stone Age, but to the
+latest times of that period.
+
+After having carefully examined these different beds and ascertained the
+regular structure of the cone, Morlot fancied that he could calculate
+approximately the age of each of them. He took for his base of
+operations two historical dates; that of the entrance of the Romans into
+Helvetia, fifty-eight years before Christ, and that of their decisive
+expulsion towards the end of the fifth century of the Christian era. By
+comparing these two dates, he came to the conclusion that the Roman
+layer was at the most eighteen and at the least thirteen centuries old.
+Then remarking that since that epoch the cone had increased 3 feet 6
+inches, and always going upon the hypothesis that the increase was the
+same as in subsequent ages, he came to the conclusion that the bed
+corresponding with the bronze epoch was at least 2900 and at the most
+4200 years old; and that the layer belonging to the Stone Age, forming
+the entire remainder of the cone, was from 4700 to 10,000 years old.
+
+Another calculation, the conclusions of which agree tolerably well with
+these, was made by M. Gilliéron, professor at the college of Neuveville.
+We have already said that the remains of a pile-work belonging to the
+Stone Age was discovered near the bridge of Thièle, between the lakes of
+Bienne and Neuchâtel. It is evident that the valley, the narrowest part
+of which was occupied by the lacustrine settlement, was formerly almost
+entirely under water, for below this point it suddenly widens out and
+retains these proportions as far as the lake of Bienne. The lake must,
+therefore, have retired slowly and regularly, as may be ascertained from
+an examination of the mud deposited by it. If, therefore, we know its
+annual coefficient of retreat, that is to say, how much it retired every
+year, we should be able to estimate with a sufficient degree of
+approximation the age of the settlement of the bridge of Thièle.
+
+Now there is, not far from the lake, at about 1230 feet from the present
+shore, an old abbey, that of Saint-Jean, which is known to have been
+built about the year 1100. A document of that time mentions that the
+cloister had the right of fishing in a certain part of the lake; and
+there is some likelihood that it was built on the edge of the lake; a
+supposition which naturally presents itself to the mind. The lake,
+then, must have retired 1230 feet in 750 years. This granted, M.
+Gilliéron easily calculated the time which would be taken for a retreat
+of 11,072 feet, this number representing the distance from the present
+shore to the entrance of the defile which contains the settlement of the
+bridge of Thièle. He found by this means that the settlement is at least
+6750 years old, a figure which confirms those of Morlot.
+
+The preceding calculations assign to the Stone Age in Switzerland an
+antiquity of 6000 to 7000 years before the Christian era, and to the
+bronze epoch an antiquity of 4000 years before the same era. There is
+still much uncertainty in the figures thus given to satisfy public
+curiosity; but there is at least one fact which is altogether
+unquestionable--that these calculations have dealt a fatal blow to
+recognised chronology.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[38] 'Le Danemark à l'Exposition Universelle de 1867, by Valdemar
+Schmidt,' vol. i. pp. 60-64. Paris, 1868.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+
+THE IRON EPOCH.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+     Essential Characteristics of the Iron Epoch--Preparation of Iron in
+     Pre-historic Times--Discovery of Silver and Lead--Earthenware made
+     on the Potter's Wheel--Invention of Coined Money.
+
+
+Without metals, as we have said in one of the preceding chapters, man
+must have remained for ever in a state of barbarism. To this we must
+add, that the civilisation of man has made progress just in proportion
+to the degree of perfection he has arrived at in the working of the
+metals and alloys which he has had at his disposal. The knowledge and
+use of bronze communicated a strong impulse to nascent civilisation, and
+was the means of founding the first human communities. But bronze is far
+from possessing all the qualities which ought to belong to metals when
+applied to various industrial purposes. This alloy is neither hard nor
+elastic enough to make good tools; and, in addition to this, it is
+composed of metals which in a natural state are very scarce. Man
+requires a metal which is cheap, hard, easy to work, and adapted to all
+the requirements which are exacted by industrial skill, which is so
+manifold in its works and wants.
+
+A metal of this sort was at length discovered, and a new era opened for
+the future of men. They learned how to extract from its ore iron--the
+true king of metals, as it may well be called--on account of its
+inestimable qualities. From the day when iron was first placed at man's
+disposal civilisation began to make its longest strides, and as the
+working of this metal improved, so the dominion of man--his faculties
+and his intellectual activity--likewise enlarged in the same proportion.
+
+It is, therefore, with good reason that the name of _Iron Epoch_ has
+been given to the latest period of the development of primitive man,
+and it is not surprising that the last portion of the iron epoch formed
+the commencement of historical times. After this period, in fact, man
+ceased to live in that half-savage state, the most striking features of
+which we have endeavoured to portray.
+
+As the use of iron essentially characterises this epoch in the history
+of mankind, we ought to give an account of the processes of manufacture
+employed by the primitive metallurgists, that is to say, we should
+inquire how they proceeded at this epoch to extract iron from its native
+ore.
+
+The art of metallurgy had made great progress during the bronze epoch.
+There were at that time considerable workshops for the preparation of
+bronze, and small foundries for melting and casting this alloy. When
+once formed into weapons, instruments, and tools, bronze objects were
+fashioned by artisans of various professions. The moulder's art had
+already attained to a high degree of perfection, a fact which is proved
+by the gigantic bronze objects which we have already mentioned, as well
+as the castings, so many of which have been represented in the preceding
+pages. The phenomenon of _tempering_ was well known, that is the
+principal modifications which are experienced by bronze in its cooling,
+whether slow or sudden. It was well known how to vary the proportions of
+the tin and copper so as to obtain bronze of different degrees of
+hardness. All the means of soldering were also familiarly known.
+Damascening was introduced in order to diversify the appearance of
+wrought metallic objects. The cutting qualities of instruments were
+increased by forging them and consolidating them by hammering. They had
+even gone so far as to discover the utility of the addition of certain
+mineral salts in the founder's crucible in order to facilitate the
+fusion of the bronze.
+
+Thus at the end of the bronze epoch the knowledge of metals had attained
+to a comparatively considerable development. Hence we may conclude that
+the substitution of iron for bronze took place without any great
+difficulty. Owing to the natural progress and successive improvements
+made in metallurgic art, the blacksmith made his appearance on the scene
+and took the place of the bronze-moulder.
+
+What, however, was the process which enabled our earliest metallurgists
+to extract iron from its native ore?
+
+Native iron, that is metallic iron in a natural state, is eminently
+rare; except in aërolites it is scarcely ever found. According to
+Pallas, the Russian naturalist, certain Siberian tribes have succeeded,
+with a great amount of labour, in obtaining from the aërolites which
+have been met with in their country small quantities of iron, which they
+have made into knives. The same practice existed among the Laplanders.
+Lastly, we are told by Amerigo Vespucci that in the fifteenth century
+the Indians at the mouth of the La Plata river were in the habit of
+making arrow-heads and other instruments with iron extracted from
+aërolites.[39]
+
+But, as we hardly need observe, stones of this kind do not often drop
+down from the skies, and their employment is of too accidental a
+character ever to have suggested to men the right mode of the extraction
+of iron. It is, therefore, almost certain that the first iron used was
+extracted from its ore just like copper and tin, that is, by the
+reduction of its oxide under the influence of heat and charcoal. In
+opposition to this explanation, some bring forward as an objection the
+prodigiously high temperature which is required for the fusion of iron,
+or, in fact, the almost impossibility of melting iron in the primitive
+furnaces. But the fusion of iron was in no way necessary for the
+extraction of this metal; and if it had been requisite to procure liquid
+iron, primitive industrial skill would never have succeeded in doing it.
+All that was necessary was so to reduce the oxide of iron as to obtain
+the metal in a spongy state without any fusion. The hammering of this
+spongy mass when in a red-hot state soon converted it into a real bar of
+iron.
+
+If we cast a glance on the metallurgic industry of some of the
+semi-barbarous nations of ancient times, we shall find, as regards the
+extraction of iron, a process in use among them which will fully justify
+the idea we have formed of the way in which iron must have been obtained
+in primitive times. Gmelin, the naturalist, during his travels in
+Tartary, was a witness of the elementary process which was employed by
+these northern tribes in procuring iron. There, every one prepares his
+own iron just as every household might make its own bread. The furnace
+for the extraction of iron is placed in the kitchen, and is nothing but
+a mere cavity, 9 inches cube, which is filled up with iron-ore; the
+furnace is surmounted by an earthen chimney, and there is a door in
+front of the furnace for introducing the ore, this door being kept
+closed during the smelting process. In an orifice at the side the nozzle
+of a pair of bellows is inserted, which are blown by one man whilst
+another introduces the ore and charcoal in successive layers. The
+furnace never holds more than 3-1/2 lbs. of ore for each operation. When
+this quantity has been placed in the furnace, in small pieces one after
+the other, all that is done is keeping up the action of the bellows for
+some minutes. Lastly, the door of the furnace is opened, and the ashes
+and other products of combustion having been drawn out, a small mass of
+spongy iron is found, which proceeds from the reduction of the oxide of
+iron by means of the charcoal, without the metal being in a state of
+fusion, properly so called. This small lump of iron was cleaned with a
+piece of wood, and was put on one side to be subsequently welded to
+others, and hammered several times when in a red-hot state; and by means
+of several forgings the whole mass was converted into a single bar.
+
+This same process for the extraction of iron from its natural oxide,
+without fusion, is practised by the negroes of Fouta-Djallon, in
+Senegal.
+
+After having become acquainted with the elementary process which is
+practised by the semi-barbarous tribes of the present day, we shall find
+but little difficulty in understanding all that Morlot, the Swiss
+naturalist, has said as to the iron-furnaces of pre-historic man, and
+shall probably agree in his opinions on the subject. Morlot, in his
+'Mémoires sur l'Archéologie de la Suisse,' has described the vestiges of
+the pre-historic furnaces intended for the preparation of iron, which
+were found by him in Carinthia (Austria).
+
+According to M. Morlot, the plan adopted for extracting iron from its
+oxide in pre-historic times was as follows:--On the side of a slope
+exposed to the wind, a hole was hollowed out. The bottom of this hole
+was filled up with a heap of wood, on which was placed a layer of ore.
+This layer of ore was covered by a second heap of wood; then, taking
+advantage of a strong breeze rising, which had to perform the functions
+of the bellows, the lowest pile of wood was kindled at its base. The
+wood by its combustion was converted into charcoal, and this charcoal,
+under the influence of heat, soon reduced the iron oxide to a metallic
+state. When the combustion had come to an end, a few pieces of iron were
+found among the ashes.
+
+By increasing the size of the apparatus used, far more considerable
+results were of course obtained. In Dalecarlia (Sweden), M. Morlot found
+smelting-houses, so to speak, in which the original hole, of which we
+have just been speaking, is surrounded with stones so as to form a sort
+of circular receptacle. In this rough stone crucible layers of charcoal
+and iron-ore were placed in succession. After having burnt for some
+hours, the heap was searched over and the spongy iron was found mixed
+with the ashes at the bottom of the furnace.
+
+The slowness of the operation and the inconsiderable metallic result
+induced them to increase the size of the stone receptacle. They first
+gave to it a depth of 7 feet and then of 13 feet, and, at the same time,
+coated the walls of it with clay. They thus had at their disposal a kind
+of vast circular crucible, in which they placed successive layers of
+iron-ore and wood or charcoal.
+
+In this altogether elementary arrangement no use was made, as it seems,
+of the bellows. This amounts to stating that the primitive method of
+smelting iron was not, as is commonly thought, an adaptation of the
+_Catalan furnace_. This latter process, which, even in the present time,
+is made use of in the Pyrenean smelting works, does not date back
+further than the times of the Roman empire. It is based on the continual
+action of the bellows; whilst in the pre-historic furnaces this
+instrument, we will again repeat, was never employed.
+
+These primitive furnaces applied to the reduction of iron-ore, traces of
+which had been recognised by Morlot, the naturalist, in Austria and
+Sweden, have lately been discovered in considerable numbers in the
+canton of Berne by M. Quiquerez, a scientific mining engineer. They
+consist of cylindrical excavations, of no great depth, dug out on the
+side of a hill and surmounted by a clay funnel of conical form.
+Wood-charcoal was the fuel employed for charging the furnaces, for
+stores of this combustible are always found lying round the ancient
+smelting works.
+
+In an extremely curious memoir, which was published in 1866 by the Jura
+Society of Emulation, under the title of 'Recherches sur les anciennes
+Forges du Jura Bernois,' M. Quiquerez summed up the results of his
+protracted and minute investigations. A few extracts from this valuable
+work will bring to our knowledge the real construction of the furnaces
+used by pre-historic man; 400 of these furnaces having been discovered
+by M. Quiquerez in the district of the Bernese Jura.
+
+We will, however, previously mention that M. Quiquerez had represented,
+or materialised, as it were, the results of his interesting labours, by
+constructing a model in miniature of a siderurgical establishment
+belonging to the earliest iron epoch. This curious specimen of
+workmanship showed the clay-furnace placed against the side of a hill,
+the heaps of charcoal, the scoriæ, the hut used as a dwelling by the
+workmen, the furnace-implements--in short, all the details which formed
+the result of the patient researches of the learned Swiss engineer.
+
+M. Quiquerez had prepared this interesting model of the ancient
+industrial pursuits of man with a view of exhibiting it in the
+_Exposition Universelle_ of 1867, together with the very substances,
+productions, and implements which he had found in his explorations in
+the Jura. But the commission appointed for selecting objects for
+admission refused to grant him the modest square yard of area which he
+required for placing his model. How ridiculous it seems! In the immense
+Champ de Mars in which so many useless and absurd objects perfectly
+swarmed, one square yard of space was refused for one of the most
+curious productions which was ever turned out by the skilful hands of
+any _savant_!
+
+The result of this unintelligent refusal was that M. Quiquerez' model
+did not make its appearance in the _Exposition Universelle_ in the Champ
+de Mars, and that it was missing from the curious Gallery of the History
+of Labour, which called forth so much of the attention of the public.
+For our readers, however, it will not be altogether lost. M. Quiquerez
+has been good enough to forward to us from Bellerive, where he resides
+(near Délémont, canton of Basle, Switzerland) a photograph of his
+curious model of a pre-historic workshop for the preparation of iron.
+From this photograph we have designed the annexed plate, representing a
+_primitive furnace for the extraction of iron_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 231.--Primitive Furnace for Smelting Iron.]
+
+This composition reproduces with tolerable accuracy the model in relief
+constructed by the author. The furnace is shown; it is nothing but a
+simple cavity surmounted by a conical chimney-funnel, and placed against
+the side of a hill. Steps made of rough stone, placed on each side of
+the mound, enable the workmen to mount to the summit. The height of the
+funnel is about 9 feet. At the side of the furnace stands the hut for
+the labourers, constructed of a number of round poles placed side by
+side; for centuries past huts of this kind have been erected in almost
+every country.
+
+On the right, in the foreground, we may notice a heap of charcoal
+intended to be placed in the furnace in order to reduce the ore; on the
+left, there is the store of ore called in the ironworks the _ore-pen_.
+The provision of iron-ore is enclosed between four wooden slabs, forming
+a quadrangular space. In the centre are the scoriæ which result from the
+operations carried on. A workman is extracting the cake of spongy iron
+from the ashes of the furnace; another is hammering on the anvil a piece
+of iron drawn from the furnace in order to forge it into a bar. Round
+the furnace various implements are scattered about, such as the anvil,
+the pincers, the hammer, &c. All the instruments are designed from
+various specimens found by the author.
+
+After these explanations, we may now give some extracts from M.
+Quiquerez' work, and we trust our readers will find no difficulty in
+comprehending the details given by the learned engineer, describing the
+primitive furnaces for the extraction of iron which he discovered in the
+Bernese Jura.
+
+M. Quiquerez has remarked two kinds of primitive furnaces for the
+fabrication of iron, or, rather, two stages of improvement in their
+construction. The first sort, that which the author considers as dating
+back to the most remote antiquity, is not so numerous as the others; the
+second kind form the largest number of those which he has explored.
+
+"Furnaces of the first kind," says M. Quiquerez, "consisted of nothing
+but a small cylindrical excavation of no great regularity in shape, with
+a cup-shaped bottom, hollowed out in the side of a hill so as to give
+more natural height on one side; the front of the furnace was closed up
+by fire-proof clay, supported with stones. This cavity was plastered
+over with 4 to 6 inches of clay, generally of a whitish colour, which
+became red after coming in contact with the fire. These
+smelting-furnaces were not more than 12 to 18 inches in depth, as seemed
+to be shown by the upper edges being rounded and more or less scoriated.
+The front, which was always more or less broken, had an opening at its
+base to admit a current of air, and to allow the workmen to deal with
+the melted material; but this opening seems to show that the piece of
+metal which had been formed during the operation must have been
+extracted by breaking in the front.
+
+"The second kind of furnace, which is by far the most numerously found
+and widely distributed, is, in fact, nothing but an improvement of that
+which preceded it, the edges of the furnace or crucible being
+considerably raised in height. They vary in depth from 7-1/2 to 8 feet,
+with a diameter of most irregular dimensions, from 18 inches upwards,
+and a thickness of 12 inches to 7 feet. They are likewise formed of
+fire-proof clay, and their average capacity is about 25 gallons.
+
+"The constructor, having dug out in the side of the hill an opening
+circular, or rather semi-circular, at the base, with a diameter nearly
+three times as wide as the future furnace, arranged in the centre of
+this hole a kind of furnace-bed made of plastic clay at bottom, and
+covered with a layer of fire-proof clay on the top of it. The bed of the
+furnace, which lies on the natural and hardly levelled earth, is,
+generally speaking, not so thick as the side walls, which are formed of
+sandy or siliceous clay, always fire-proof on the inside, but sometimes
+of a more plastic nature on the exterior; the empty space left between
+the walls of the furnace and the solid ground round it was filled up
+with earth and other material. In front the furnace was enclosed by a
+rough wall, sometimes straight and sometimes curving, built, without
+mortar, of rough limestone, and dressed with earth to fill up the gaps.
+In front of the furnace an opening was made in this wall, taking its
+rise a few inches above the bottom of the furnace, and increasing in
+size in an outward direction, so as to enable the workmen to see into,
+and work in, the furnace.
+
+"The work thus commenced was carried up to the requisite height; and
+when the excavation in the side of the hill was not lofty enough, the
+dome of the furnace was raised by placing buttresses against the
+fire-clay, so as to prevent the earth falling in. When these furnaces
+were established on almost level ground, as is sometimes the case, they
+form a truncated cone, with a base varying in size according to the
+height of the apparatus.
+
+"The furnace was not always built upright; it often deviated from the
+perpendicular, leaning to one side or the other to an extent as
+considerable as its own diameter, but no constant rule as to this can be
+recognised. The internal shape was just as irregular, changing from
+circular to oval, without any apparent motive beyond want of care in the
+workman. The crucibles or furnaces are sometimes larger at the top than
+at the bottom, and sometimes these proportions are reversed, but always
+with extreme irregularity. We have noticed some which at a point 10 or
+12 inches above the crucible were perceptibly contracted on three sides,
+thus representing the first rudiments of the appearance of our modern
+furnaces. But this, perhaps, was nothing but a caprice on the part of
+the builder.
+
+"The furnace thus being established, the wood was withdrawn which had
+formed the cone, if, indeed, any had been used, and at the hole made at
+the base of the crucible a clod of fire-clay some inches in height was
+placed, so as to form a dam, and to confine in the crucible the molten
+or soft metal; the scoriæ, being of a lighter nature and floating at the
+top, made their escape over the top of the dam. As the latter were not
+very liquid, their issue was promoted by means of pokers or wooden
+poles, perhaps damped, with which also the metal was stirred in the
+crucible.
+
+"In neither of these two kinds of furnaces do we find any trace of
+bellows, and a more or less strong draught must have been procured
+through the opening made for the escape of the scoriæ, according to the
+elevation of the dome of the furnace. The limestones which have been
+found in certain furnaces were probably employed with a view of
+increasing the draught; they doubtless belonged to the upper part of the
+furnace, where they had been fixed so as to add height to the orifice.
+This rudimentary plan must have been likewise used in the earliest
+crucibles. The mode of obtaining a draught which we have just pointed
+out is indicated most plainly by the scorification of the walls of the
+furnace on the side opposite to the air-passage; this side has evidently
+experienced a more intense heat, whilst on the other the walls are much
+less affected by the fire, and in some cases pieces of the mineral still
+remain in a pasty or semi-molten state, just as they were when the work
+of the furnace ceased....
+
+"The absence of any machine in the shape of bellows in the ancient metal
+works of the Jura appears all the more remarkable as these implements
+were known both to the Greeks and Romans; hence we may at least infer,
+not only that these nations did not introduce the art of iron-working
+into the Jura, but that it must have existed at a much earlier period.
+It must also be remarked that the openings in the furnaces are not
+placed in the direction of the winds prevailing in the country--a plan
+which might have increased the draught--but are made quite at hazard,
+just as the nature of the spot rendered the construction of the furnace
+more easy.
+
+"... In respect to fuel it must be remarked that in all the
+siderurgical establishments which we have discovered, certain features
+indicate that wood carbonised in a stack was exclusively used as fuel.
+The furnaces are too small for the employment of rough wood; added to
+this, charcoal stores are placed near the furnaces; and charcoal burnt
+in a stack is constantly met with all round the sites, in the scoriæ,
+and all the _débris_. We must, besides, mention the discovery, at
+Bellelay, of a charcoal store 8 feet in diameter, situated under a
+compact bed of peat 20 feet in thickness. It was established on the
+solid earth, anterior to the formation of the peat. Now from this very
+peat a parcel of coins belonging to the fifteenth century was recovered,
+over which only 2 feet of peat had grown in a period of 400 years.
+There, too, at a depth of 9 feet, were found the scattered bones of a
+horse, with the foot still shod with those undulating edged shoes with
+elongated and strongly punched holes, in which were fitted the ends of
+nails of the shape of a T, the heads of which were conical. This kind of
+shoe is found in the Celtic settlements, the villages, habitations, and
+ironworks, also in the pasturages and forests of the country, but rarely
+in the Roman camps; in the latter they are always in less number than
+the wider metallic shoes, which are larger, and furnished with a groove
+indicating the line in which the nail-holes were punched. The
+calculations which have been made from the discovery of the coins of the
+fifteenth century (A.D. 1478) would give an antiquity of at least twenty
+to twenty-four centuries to the horse-shoe we have just mentioned, for
+the animal must have died and been devoured on the then existing surface
+of the ground, and could not have been buried in the peat, as the bones,
+instead of lying grouped together, were dispersed in every direction.
+These same calculations would carry back the date of the charcoal-store
+to an era 4000 years ago.
+
+"Owing to the imperfection of the furnaces, the quantity of charcoal
+used must have been quadruple the present consumption for the same
+results. The metal, as it was extracted from the ore, fell down into the
+bottom of the crucible. In proportion as the mass of metal increased, a
+workman, with a poker made of damp green wood, brought out the scoriæ
+which floated on the top, and stirred the metal so as to fine it. It is
+proved that these wooden pokers or poles were made use of in all the
+furnace-works. A quantity of morsels of scoriæ is found which, having
+been in a soft state when extracted, have retained the imprint of the
+piece of wood, the end of which was evidently charred. M. Morlot, in his
+article on the Roman ironworks at Wocheim, in Upper Carniola, has also
+noticed the existence, in the scoriæ, of frequent traces of pokers,
+sometimes round and sometimes three-cornered in shape, but all of them
+must have been made of iron, whilst throughout the whole of the Jura we
+have never recognised the traces of any but wooden implements of this
+kind.
+
+"Owing to the imperfection of the furnaces, and especially, the
+deficiency in the draught caused by the want of bellows, the metal
+contained in the ore could be but very imperfectly extracted; the scoriæ
+are therefore still so very rich in iron that, about twenty years ago,
+the manager of the ironworks at Untervelier tried to use them over again
+as ore. Accumulations of this dross, measuring from 100 to 200 yards
+square, may be seen near certain furnaces-a fact which would infer a
+somewhat considerable production of iron. The examination of these
+scoriæ proves that iron was then made by one single operation, and not
+liquid pigs fit for casting, or to be converted into iron by a second
+series of operations.
+
+"The iron produced was introduced into commerce in large blocks, shaped
+like two quadrangular pyramids joined at the base, weighing from 12 to
+16 lbs. One of these pieces was found near a furnace which had been
+demolished in order to establish a charcoal furnace, in the commune of
+Untervelier, and another in one of the furnaces of Boécourt.
+
+"All round the furnaces there have been found numerous remains of rough
+pottery; it is badly baked, and made without the help of the wheel, from
+clay which is mingled with grains of quartz--the pottery, in fact, which
+is called Celtic. Pieces of stag's horn have also been discovered, which
+must have been used for the handles of tools; also iron hatchets. One of
+them has a socket at the end made in a line with the length of the
+implement; it is an instrument belonging to the most remote period of
+the iron age. The others have transversal sockets like our present
+hatchets. One of the latter was made of steel so hard that it could not
+be touched with the file. With regard to coins, both Gallic and Roman
+were found, and some of the latter were of as late a date as that of
+the Constantines. The persistence in practising the routine of all the
+most ancient processes may be explained by the monopoly of the
+iron-working trade being retained in the same families. We have the less
+need to be surprised at this, because we may notice that the
+wood-cutters and charcoal-burners of our own days, when they have to
+take up their abode in a locality for any length of time, and to carry
+on their trade there, always make certain arrangements which have
+doubtless been handed down from the most primitive times. In order to
+protect their beds from the damp, they make a kind of shelf of fir-poles
+which is used as a bedstead. Some of them have two stories; the
+under-one intended for the children, and the one above for the parents.
+Moss, ferns, and dried grass form the mattress. Coverlets impossible to
+describe were made good use of, and some were even made of branches of
+fir-trees. These bedsteads take the place both of benches and chairs. A
+stone fire-place, roughly arranged in the centre of the hut, fills the
+double function of warming in winter and cooking the food all the year
+round. We may also add, that the fire, which is almost always kept
+lighted, and the ashes spread over the floor all round, preserve the hut
+from certain troublesome insects, which lose their lives by jumping
+imprudently into this unknown trap. The smoke finds no other issue but
+through a hole made in the roof."[40]
+
+Such is the description given by M. Quiquerez of the iron furnaces of a
+really pre-historic character, those, namely, which are characterised by
+the absence of bellows. We think, however, that there must have been
+holes below the hearth which afforded access to currents of air, and, by
+being alternately open or closed, served either to increase or diminish
+the intensity of the draught. But bellows, properly so called, intended
+to promote the combustion and chemical reaction between the oxide of
+iron and the charcoal did not then exist.
+
+The addition of the bellows to iron-furnaces brought an essential
+improvement to the art of the manufacture of iron.
+
+Another improvement consisted in making, at the bottom of the stone
+receptacle where the fuel and the ore were burnt together, a door
+composed of several bricks which could be readily moved. At the
+completion of each operation they drew out, through this door, the cake
+of iron, which could not be so conveniently extracted at the upper part
+of the furnace, on account of its height. The hammering, assisted by
+several heatings, finally cleared the iron, in the usual way, from all
+extraneous matter, consolidated it, and converted it into the state of
+bar-iron fit for the blacksmith's use, and for the fabrication of
+utensils and tools.
+
+These improved primitive furnaces are well-known to German miners under
+the name of _Stucköfen_ ("fragment-furnaces"). They are modified in
+different ways in different countries; and according to the arrangement
+of the furnace, and especially according to the nature of the
+ferruginous ores, certain methods or manipulations of the iron have been
+introduced, which are nowadays known under the names of the Swedish,
+German, Styrian, Carinthian, Corsican, and Catalan methods.
+
+The ancient furnaces for the extraction of iron may be combined under
+the name of _smelting-forges_ or _bloomeries_.
+
+The invention of siliceous fluxes as applied to the extraction of iron,
+and facilitating the production of a liquid scoria which could flow out
+in the form of a stream of fire, put the finishing stroke to the
+preparation of iron. The constructors next considerably increased the
+height of the stone crucible in which the fuel and the ore, now mingled
+with a siliceous flux, were placed, and the _blast furnace_, that is,
+the present system of the preparation of iron, soon came into existence.
+
+But, there may be reason to think, neither of these two kinds of
+furnaces belongs to the primitive ages of mankind which are the object
+of this work. In the iron epoch--that we are considering--the furnace
+without bellows was possibly the only one known; the iron was prepared
+in very small quantities at a time, and the meagre metallic cake, the
+result from each operation, had to be picked out from among the ashes
+drawn from the stone receptacle.
+
+Gold, as we have already said, was known to the men of the bronze epoch.
+Silver, on the contrary, did not come into use until the iron epoch.
+
+Another characteristic of the epoch we are now studying is the
+appearance of pottery made on the potter's wheel, and baked in an
+improved kind of furnace. Up to that time, pottery had been moulded by
+the hand, and merely burnt in the open air. In the iron epoch, the
+potter's wheel came into use, and articles of earthenware were
+manufactured on this wheel, and baked in an unexceptionable way in an
+oven especially constructed for the purpose.
+
+There is another fact which likewise characterises the iron epoch; this
+was the appearance of coined money. The earliest known coins belong to
+this period; they are made of bronze, and bear a figure or effigy not
+stamped, but obtained by melting and casting.
+
+The most ancient coins that are known are Greek, and date back to the
+eighth century before Christ. These are the coins of Ægina, Athens, and
+Cyzicum, such as were found many years ago in the duchy of Posen. In the
+lacustrine settlement of Neuchâtel, coins of a remote antiquity have
+also been found. We here represent in its natural size (fig. 232), taken
+from M. Desor's work, a bronze coin found in the settlement of La Tène
+in the lake of Neuchâtel. But these coins are not more ancient than the
+Greek specimens that we have before named. They are shown to be Gallic
+by the horned horse, which is a Gallic emblem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 232.--Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchâtel.]
+
+At Tiefenau, near Berne, coins have been found of a nearly similar
+character associated with others having on them the effigy of Apollo,
+and bearing an imprint of _Massilia_ (Marseilles). As the foundation of
+this Phocæan colony dates back to the sixth century before Christ, these
+coins may be said to be among the most ancient which exist.
+
+Glass became known, as we have before stated, in the bronze epoch.
+
+In short, the essential features which distinguish the iron epoch are,
+iron instruments, and implements combining with those of bronze to
+replace stone in all the uses for which it was anciently employed--the
+knowledge of silver and lead, the improvement of pottery, and the
+introduction of coined money. With regard to its chronological date we
+should adopt that of about 2000 years before the Christian era, thus
+agreeing with the generality of authors--the date of the bronze epoch
+being fixed about 4000 years before Christ.
+
+After these general considerations, we shall pass on to give some
+account of the manners and customs of man during the iron epoch, or, at
+least, during the earlier portion of this period, which ere long became
+blended with historic ages.
+
+When we have completed our study of man in the earlier period of the
+iron epoch, we shall have terminated the rapid sketch which we have
+intended to trace out of primitive man and his labours. This period
+commenced, as we have just stated, about 2000 years before Christ, and
+ultimately merged into the earliest glimmer of historical records. Our
+task now is to describe all we know about man at this date of nascent
+civilisation. Afterwards, the earliest historians--and among them,
+Herodotus, the father of history--are the authorities whom we must
+consult for an account of the actions and exploits of the human race in
+Europe.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[39] Details as to the relation of the Stone Age to the Bronze and Iron
+Ages may be found in 'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' by
+Edward B. Tylor. Chap. VIII., 'Pre-Historic Times,' by Sir J. Lubbock,
+Chaps. I. and II.
+
+[40] 'De l'Age du Fer, Recherches sur les anciennes Forges du Jura
+Bernois,' by A. Quiquerez, Engineer of the Jura Mines. Porrentruy, 1866;
+pp. 35-39, 77-80. Also, 'Matériaux pour l'Histoire positif de l'Homme,'
+by G. de Mortillet, vol. ii. pp. 505-510.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+     Weapons--Tools, Instruments, Utensils, and Pottery--The Tombs of
+     Hallstadt and the Plateau of La Somma--The Lake-Settlements of
+     Switzerland--Human Sacrifices--Type of Man during the Iron
+     Epoch--Commencement of the Historic Era.
+
+
+The most valuable traces of the manners and customs of man during the
+earlier period of the iron epoch have been furnished by the vast
+burial-ground discovered recently at Hallstadt, near Salzburg in
+Austria. M. Ramsauer, Director of the salt-mines of Salzburg, has
+explored more than 1000 tombs in this locality, and has described them
+in a work full of interest, a manuscript copy of which we have consulted
+in the Archæological Museum of Saint-Germain.
+
+As the tombs at Hallstadt belong to the earlier period of the iron
+epoch, they represent to us the natural transition from the epoch of
+bronze to that of iron. In fact, in a great number of objects contained
+in these tombs--such as daggers, swords and various ornaments--bronze
+and iron are combined. One sword, for instance, is formed of a bronze
+hilt and an iron blade. This is represented in figures 233, 234, 235 and
+236, drawn from the sketches in M. Ramsauer's manuscript work entitled
+'Les Tombes de Hallstadt,' in which this combination of the two metals
+is remarked upon; the sword-hilts being formed of one metal and the
+blades of another.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 233.--Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a
+Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 234.--Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a
+Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 235.--Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze
+Handle and Iron Blade).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 236.--Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze
+Handle and Iron Blade).]
+
+By taking a rapid survey of the objects found in the tombs of Hallstadt,
+we can form a somewhat accurate idea of the first outset of the iron
+age.
+
+The first point which strikes us in this period, is the utter change
+which had taken place in the interment of the dead.
+
+During the Stone Age, the dead were placed in small subterranean crypts,
+that is in _dolmens_ or _tumuli_. During the Bronze Age it became to a
+great extent customary for men to burn the dead bodies of their friends.
+
+This custom was destined to become more and more prevalent century after
+century, and during historic times it became universal among a great
+many nations.
+
+In fact, in the tombs of Hallstadt, several little earthen vessels
+containing ashes may be seen. Sometimes only part of the body was burnt,
+so that a portion of a skeleton was found in these tombs, and near it
+the ashes of the parts which the fire had consumed.
+
+The remains found in the tombs of Hallstadt are almost equally divided
+between these two modes of inhumation. About half of the tombs contain
+nothing but ashes; in the other half, corpses are laid extended,
+according to the custom which was most prevalent in the iron age.
+Lastly, as we have just stated, some of them contained skeletons which
+were partially burnt. Sometimes it was the head, sometimes the whole
+bust, or sometimes the lower limbs which were consumed, the ashes being
+deposited by the side of the intact portions of the skeleton. Fig. 238,
+which is designed from one of the illustrations in M. Ramsauer's
+manuscript work 'Les Tombes de Hallstadt,' in the Museum of
+Saint-Germain, represents a skeleton, part of which (the chest) has been
+consumed. The ashes are contained in small earthen vessels which are
+seen near the corpse.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 237.--Funeral Ceremonies during the Iron Epoch.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 238.--A Skeleton, portions of which have been burnt,
+from the Tombs of Hallstadt.]
+
+From the _data_ which we have acquired as to this custom of burning
+dead bodies during the iron epoch, we have been able to represent _the
+funeral ceremonies of the iron epoch_ in the preceding figure.
+
+The corpse is placed on a funeral pile, and the stone door of the
+tumulus is raised in order to deposit in it the cinerary urn. The
+relations of the deceased accompany the procession clothed in their
+handsomest garments and adorned with the bronze and iron ornaments which
+were then in vogue. One of those present may be seen throwing some
+precious objects into the flames of the funeral pile in honour of the
+deceased.
+
+The tombs of Hallstadt are the locality in which the largest number of
+objects, such as weapons, instruments and implements, have been met
+with, which have tended to throw a light upon the history of the
+transition from the bronze to the iron epoch. All these objects are
+either of bronze or iron; but in the weapons the latter predominates.
+Swords, spear-heads, daggers, knives, socketed hatchets and winged
+hatchets form the catalogue of the sharp instruments. In the preceding
+pages (figs. 233, 234, 235 and 236) we have given representations of
+swords and daggers designed from the specimens in the Museum of
+Saint-Germain. In all these weapons the handle is made of bronze and the
+blade of iron. Warriors' sword-belts are frequently formed of plates of
+bronze, and are embellished with a _repoussé_ ornamentation executed by
+the hammer.
+
+In fig. 239 we give a representation of a necklace with pendants which
+is most remarkable in its workmanship. It may be readily seen that art
+had now attained some degree of maturity. This necklace was a prelude to
+the marvellous works of art which were about to be brought to light
+under the skies of Greece.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 239.--A Necklace with Pendants, from the Tombs of
+Hallstadt.]
+
+The bracelets which have been met with by hundreds, hair pins and
+bronze fibulæ are all wrought with taste, and are often adorned with
+very elegant pendants. In figs. 240 and 241 we show two bracelets, the
+sketches for which were taken from the designs in the manuscript of the
+'Tombes de Hallstadt.'
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 240.--Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 241.--Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt.]
+
+We may add a few amber necklace-beads and some of enamel, and we have
+then concluded the series of personal ornaments.
+
+In the tombs of Hallstadt, nearly 200 bronze vessels have been
+discovered, some of which are as much as 36 inches in height. These
+bronze vessels were composed of several pieces skilfully riveted but not
+soldered. Plates 242 and 243 are reproduced from the same beautiful
+manuscript.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 242.--Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 243.--Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt.]
+
+In the tombs of Hallstadt some small glass vessels have also been
+discovered.
+
+Remains of pottery are very plentiful, and a decided improvement is
+shown in their workmanship. Some gold trinkets were also met with in
+these tombs. The gold was, doubtless, obtained from the mines of
+Transylvania.
+
+African ivory abounds in these graves--a fact which indicates commercial
+intercourse with very distant countries. This product, as well as the
+glass, was introduced into Europe by the Phoenicians. The inhabitants of
+central Europe obtained ivory from Tyre and Sidon by means of barter.
+
+The ivory objects which were found at Hallstadt consisted of the heads
+of hair-pins and the pommels of swords.
+
+There were no traces whatever of money, the use of it not being then
+established in that part of Europe.
+
+The population which lived in the vicinity of the Salzburg mines were in
+reality rich; for the salt-mines were a source of great wealth to them
+at a period when the deposits of rock-salt in Poland, being still buried
+in the depths of the earth, were as yet unknown or inaccessible. In this
+way, we may account for the general opulence of these commercial
+nations, and for the elegance and taste displayed in the objects which
+have been found in the tombs of Hallstadt.
+
+Guided by these various remains, it is not difficult to reproduce an
+ideal picture of _the warriors of the iron epoch_, a representation of
+which we have endeavoured to give in fig. 244. The different pieces of
+the ornaments observed on the horseman, on the foot-soldier, and also on
+the horse, are drawn from specimens exhibited in the Museum of
+Saint-Germain which were modelled at Hallstadt. The helmet is in perfect
+preservation and resembles those which, shortly after, were worn by the
+Gallic soldiers. The bosses, also, on the horse's harness, ere long came
+into use both among the Gauls and also the Romans.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 244.--Warriors of the Iron Epoch.]
+
+Next to the tombs of Hallstadt, we must mention the tombs discovered on
+the plateau of La Somma, in Lombardy, which have contributed a valuable
+addition to the history of the earliest period of the iron epoch.
+
+On this plateau there were discovered certain tombs, composed of rough
+stones of a rectangular form. In the interior there were some vases of a
+shape suited to the purpose, containing ashes. The material of which
+they were made was fine clay; they had been wrought by means of the
+potter's wheel, were ornamented with various designs, and also provided
+with encircling projections. On some of them, representations of
+animals may be seen which indicate a considerable progress in the
+province of art. The historic date of these urns is pointed out by
+_fibulæ_ (clasps for cloaks), iron rings and bracelets, sword-belts
+partly bronze and partly iron, and small bronze chains. The tombs of La
+Somma belong, therefore, to a period of transition between the bronze
+and iron epochs. According to M. Mortillet, they date back to the
+seventh century before Christ.
+
+Under the same head we will class the tombs of Saint-Jean de Belleville,
+in Savoy. At this spot several tombs belonging to the commencement of
+the iron epoch have been explored by MM. Borel and Costa de Beauregard.
+The latter, in a splendid work published in Savoy, has given a detailed
+description of these tombs.[41]
+
+Some of the skeletons are extended on their backs, others have been
+consumed, but only partially, like those which we have already mentioned
+in the tombs of Hallstadt. Various objects, consisting chiefly of
+trinkets and ornaments, have been met with in these tombs. We will
+mention in particular the _fibulæ_, bracelets and necklaces made of
+amber, enamelled glass, &c.
+
+In figs. 245 and 246 we give a representation of two skeleton arms,
+which are encircled with several bracelets just as they were found in
+these tombs.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 245, 246.--Fore-arm, encircled with Bracelets,
+found in the Tombs of Belleville (Savoy).]
+
+The lacustrine settlements of Switzerland have contributed a valuable
+element towards the historic reconstruction of the iron epoch.
+
+In different parts of the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel there are
+pile-works which contain iron objects intermingled with the remains of
+preceding ages. But there is only one lacustrine settlement in
+Switzerland which belongs exclusively to the earliest period of the Iron
+Age--that of La Tène on the Lake of Neuchâtel.
+
+Most of the objects which have been met with in this lacustrine
+settlement have been recovered from the mud in which they had been so
+remarkably preserved, being sheltered from any contact with the outer
+air. There are, however, many spots in which piles may be seen, where
+objects of this kind have not been found; but if subsequent researches
+are attended with any results, we shall be forced to attribute to the
+settlement of La Tène a considerable degree of importance, for the piles
+there extend over an area of 37 acres.
+
+The remains of all kinds which have been found in this settlement are
+evidently of Gallic origin. It is an easy matter to prove this by
+comparing the weapons found in this settlement with those which were
+discovered in the trenches of Alise-Sainte-Reine, the ancient _Alesia_,
+where, in its last contest against Cæsar, the independence of ancient
+Gaul came to an end.
+
+M. de Rougemont has called attention to the fact that these weapons
+correspond very exactly to the description given by Diodorus Siculus of
+the Gallic weapons. Switzerland thus seems to have been inhabited in the
+earliest iron epoch by Gallic tribes, that is to say, by a different
+race from that which occupied it during the stone and bronze epochs; and
+it was this race which introduced into Switzerland the use of iron.
+
+Among the objects collected in the lake settlement of La Tène, weapons
+are the most numerous; they consist of swords and the heads of spears
+and javelins. Most of them have been kept from oxidation by the peaty
+mud which entirely covered them, and they are, consequently, in a state
+of perfect preservation.
+
+The swords are all straight, of no very great thickness, and perfectly
+flat. The blade is from 31 to 35 inches in length, and is terminated by
+a handle about 6 inches long. They have neither guards nor crosspieces.
+Several of them were still in their sheaths, from which many of them
+have been drawn out in a state of perfect preservation, and even
+tolerably sharp.
+
+Fig. 247 represents one of the iron swords from the Swiss lakes, which
+are depicted in M. Desor's memoir.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 247.--Iron Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes.]
+
+On another sword, of which we also give a representation (fig. 248), a
+sort of damascening work extends over almost the whole surface, leaving
+the edges alone entirely smooth.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 248.--Sword with Damascened Blade, found in one of
+the Swiss Lakes.]
+
+M. de Reffye, the archæologist, accounts for this fact in the following
+way:--He is of opinion that the body of the blade is made of very hard
+unyielding iron, whilst the edges are made of small strips of mellower
+iron which have been subsequently welded and wrought by the hammer. This
+mode of manufacture enabled the soldier, when his sword was notched, to
+repair it by means of hammering. This was a most valuable resource
+during an epoch in which armies did not convey stores along with them,
+and when the soldier's baggage was reduced to very little more than he
+could personally carry. Several of these damascened blades have been
+found in the trenches of Alise.
+
+The sheaths, the existence of which now for the first time comes under
+our notice, are of great importance on account of the designs with which
+they are ornamented. Most of these designs are engraved with a tool,
+others are executed in _repoussé_ work. All of them show great
+originality and peculiar characteristics, which prevent them from being
+confounded with works of Roman art. One of these sheaths (fig. 249),
+which belongs to M. Desor's collection and is depicted in his memoir,
+represents the "horned horse," the emblem of Gaul, which is sufficient
+proof of the Gallic origin of the weapons found in the Lake of La Tène.
+Below this emblem, there is a kind of granulated surface which bears
+some resemblance to shagreen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 249.--Sheath of a Sword, found in one of the Swiss
+Lakes.]
+
+This sheath is composed of two very thin plates of wrought iron laid one
+upon the other, except at the base, where they are united by means of a
+cleverly-wrought band of iron. At its upper extremity there is a plate,
+on one side of which may be seen the designs which we have already
+described, and on the other a ring, intended to suspend the weapon to
+the belt.
+
+The lance-heads are very remarkable on account of their extraordinary
+shape and large size. They measure as much as 16 inches long, by 2 to 4
+inches wide, and are double-edged and twisted into very diversified
+shapes. Some are winged, and others are irregularly indented. Some have
+perforations in the shape of a half-moon (fig. 250). The halberd of the
+middle ages was, very probably, nothing but an improvement on, or a
+deviation from, these singular blades.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 250.--Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes.]
+
+Fragments of wooden staves have been met with which had been fitted into
+these spear-heads; they are slender, and shod with iron at one end.
+
+The care with which these instruments are wrought proves that they are
+lance-heads, and not mere darts or javelins intended to be thrown to a
+distance and consequently lost. They certainly would not have taken so
+much pains with the manufacture of a weapon which would be used only
+once.
+
+It is altogether a different matter with respect to the javelins, a
+tolerably large number of which have been found in the lacustrine
+settlements of La Tène. They are simple socketed heads (fig. 251),
+terminating in a laurel-leaf shape, about 4 to 5 inches in length.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 251.--Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine
+Settlement of La Tène (Neuchâtel).]
+
+It appears from experiments ordered by the Emperor of the French, that
+these javelins could only have been used as missile weapons, and that
+they were thrown, not by the hand merely grasping the shaft (which would
+be impossible to do effectually on account of their light weight), but
+by means of a cord or thong, which was designated among the Romans by
+the name of _amentum_. These experiments have shown that a dart which
+could be thrown only 65 feet with the hand, might be cast four times
+that distance by the aid of the _amentum_. There probably existed among
+the Gauls certain military corps who practised the use of the _amentum_,
+that is to say, the management of _thonged javelins_, and threw this
+javelin in the same way as other warriors threw stones by means of a
+sling. This conclusion, which has been drawn by M. Desor, seems to us a
+very just one.
+
+Javelins of the preceding type are very common in the trenches of Alise.
+In this neighbourhood a large number of iron arrows have also been
+found which have never been met with in the lacustrine settlement of La
+Tène.
+
+War was not the only purpose for which these javelins were used by the
+men of the iron epoch. Hunting, too, was carried on by means of these
+missile weapons. The bow and the thonged javelin constituted the hunting
+weapons of this epoch. We have depicted this in the accompanying plate,
+which represents _the chase during the iron epoch_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 252.--The Chase during the Iron Epoch.]
+
+Next to the weapons come the implements. We will, in the first place,
+mention the hatchets (fig. 253). They are larger, more solid, and have a
+wider cutting edge than those used in the bronze epoch; wings were no
+longer in use, only a square-shaped socket into which was fitted a
+wooden handle, probably made with an elbow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 253.--Square-socketed Iron Hatchet, found in one of
+the Lakes of Switzerland.]
+
+The sickles (fig. 254) are likewise larger and also more simple than
+those of the bronze epoch; there are neither designs nor ornaments of
+any kind on them.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 254.--Sickle.]
+
+With the pruning-bills or sickles we must class the regular scythes
+(fig. 255) with stems for handling, two specimens of which have been
+discovered in the lake settlement of the Tène. Their length is about 14
+inches, that is, about one-third as large as the scythes used by the
+Swiss harvest-men of the present day. One important inference is drawn
+from the existence of these scythes; it is, that at the commencement of
+the iron epoch men were in the habit of storing up a provision of hay,
+and must consequently have reared cattle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 255.--Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements of
+Switzerland.]
+
+The iron fittings at the ends of the boat-hooks used by the boatmen on
+the lake are frequently found at La Tène; they terminate in a
+quadrangular pyramid or in a cone (fig. 256). Some still contain the end
+of the wooden pole, which was attached to it by means of a nail.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 256.--Iron Point of Boat-hook, used by the Swiss
+Boatmen during the Iron Epoch.]
+
+Next in order to these objects, we must mention the horses' bits and
+shoes; the first being very simply constructed so as to last for a very
+long period of time. They were composed of a short piece of iron chain
+(fig. 257), which was placed in the horse's mouth, and terminated at
+each end in a ring to which the reins were attached.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 257.--Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel.]
+
+The _fibulæ_ (fig. 258), or clasps for cloaks, are especially calculated
+to attract attention in the class of ornamental objects; they are very
+elegant and diversified in their shapes, their dimensions varying from
+2-1/2 to 5 inches. They are all formed of a pin in communication with a
+twisted spring bent in various ways. They are provided with a sheath to
+hold the end of the brooch pin, so as to avoid any danger of pricking. A
+large number of them are in an excellent state of preservation, and
+might well be used at the present day.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 258.--_Fibula_, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of
+Neuchâtel.]
+
+These brooches, which we have already called attention to when speaking
+of the tombs of Hallstadt, were also used by the Etruscans and the
+Romans; their existence in the pre-historic tombs tends to prove that,
+like the above-named nations, the Swiss and Germans wore the toga or
+mantle. These _fibulæ_ have a peculiar character, and it is impossible
+to confuse them with the Roman _fibulæ_. They are, however, similar in
+every way to those which have been found at Alise.
+
+There have also been found in the Swiss lakes, along with the _fibulæ_,
+a number of rings, the use of which is still problematical. Some are
+flat and others chiselled in various ways. It is thought that some of
+them must have been used as buckles for soldiers' sword-belts (fig.
+259); but there are others which do not afford any countenance to this
+explanation. Neither can they be looked on as bracelets; for most of
+them are too small for any such purpose. Some show numerous cuts at
+regular intervals all round their circumference; this fact has given
+rise to the supposition that they might perhaps have served as a kind of
+money.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 259.--Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the
+Lake of Neuchâtel.]
+
+In the lake-settlement of La Tène (Lake of Neuchâtel), iron pincers have
+also been found (fig. 260), which were doubtless used for pulling out
+hair, and are of very perfect workmanship; also scissors with a spring
+(fig. 261), the two legs being made in one piece, and some very thin
+blades (fig. 262), which must have been razors.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 260.--Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchâtel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 261.--Iron Spring-Scissors, found in the Lake of
+Neuchâtel.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 262.--Razor.]
+
+The specimens of pottery belonging to this date do not testify to any
+real progress having been made beyond the workmanship of the bronze
+epoch; the clay is still badly baked, and of a darkish colour. It
+certainly is the case, that along with these remains a quantity of
+fragments of vessels have been picked up, and even entire vessels, which
+have been made by the help of the potter's wheel and baked in an oven,
+and consequently present the red colour usual in modern earthenware. But
+archæologists are of opinion that this class of pottery does not date
+back beyond the Roman epoch; and this opinion would seem to be confirmed
+by the existence, in the midst of the piles at the settlement of La
+Tène, of a mass of tiles, evidently of Roman origin. The conclusion to
+be drawn from these facts is, that many of the pile-works in the Swiss
+lakes continued to be occupied when the country was under the Roman
+rule.
+
+One of the characteristics of the iron epoch is, as we have before
+stated, the appearance of coin or money. In 1864, M. Desor recovered
+from the Lake of La Tène five coins of unquestionable Gallic origin.
+They are of bronze, and bear on one side the figure of the horned horse,
+and on the other a human profile. In fig. 232, we gave a representation
+of these curious specimens of coin found by M. Desor in the lacustrine
+settlements of the Lake of Neuchâtel. The marks of the mould still
+existing on each side show that these coins were cast in a series, and
+that after the casting the coins were separated from one another by
+means of the file.
+
+Coins of a similar character have been discovered, as we before
+observed, at Tiefenau, near Berne, with others bearing the effigy of
+Diana and Apollo, and the imprint of _Massilia_, The latter date from
+the foundation of Marseilles, and could not, therefore, be anterior to
+the sixth century before the Christian era; it is probable that those
+discovered along with them must be referred to nearly the same epoch.
+
+Such are the relics of instruments, tools, weapons, &c., made of iron
+and recovered from the lacustrine settlement of La Tène, that is, from
+the Lake of Neuchâtel. We must add that, near Berne, at a spot which is
+designated by the name of the "Battle-field of Tiefenau," because it
+appears to have been the theatre of a great conflict between the
+Helvetians and the Gauls, a hundred swords and spear-heads have been
+picked up, similar to those found at La Tène; also fragments of coats of
+mail, rings, _fibulæ_, the tires of chariot-wheels, horses' bits, and
+lastly, Gallic and Marseillaise coins in gold, silver, and bronze. This
+field of battle appears, therefore, to have been contemporary with the
+settlement at La Tène.
+
+In addition to these valuable sources of information--La Tène and
+Tiefenau--Switzerland also possesses _tumuli_ and simple tombs, both
+constituting records useful to consult in respect to the iron epoch. But
+on this point, it must be remarked that it is often difficult, with any
+degree of security, to connect them with the two preceding sites; and
+that considerable reserve is recommended in attempting any kind of
+identification.
+
+Upon the whole, the Iron Age, looking even only to its earliest period,
+is the date of the beginning of real civilisation among European
+nations.
+
+Their industrial skill, exercised on the earliest-used materials, such
+as iron and textile products, furnished all that was required by the
+usages of life. Commerce was already in a flourishing state, for it was
+no longer carried on by the process of barter only. Money, in the shape
+of coin, the conventional symbol of wealth, came into use during this
+epoch, and must have singularly facilitated the operations of trade.
+Agriculture, too, had advanced as much as it could at this earliest dawn
+of civilisation. The remains of cereals found in the lake-settlements of
+Switzerland, added to the iron instruments intended to secure the
+products of the cultivation of the ground, such as the scythes and
+sickles which we have previously depicted (figs. 254 and 255), are
+sufficient to show us that agriculture constituted at that time the
+chief wealth of nations. The horse, the ass, the dog, the ox, and the
+pig, had for long time back been devoted to the service of man,
+either as auxiliaries in his field-labours, or as additions to his
+resources in the article of food. Fruit-trees, too, were cultivated in
+great numbers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 263.--Agriculture during the Iron Epoch.]
+
+As a matter of fact, we have no acquaintance with any of the iron and
+bronze instruments which were used by men of the iron epoch in
+cultivation of the ground. Scythes and sickles are the only agricultural
+implements which have been discovered. But even these instruments, added
+to a quantity of remains of the bones of cattle which have been found in
+the lacustrine and palustrine settlements, are sufficient to prove that
+the art of cultivating the earth and of extracting produce from its
+bosom, rendered fertile by practices sanctioned by experience, existed
+in full vigour among the men who lived during the period immediately
+preceding historic times.
+
+The plate which accompanies this page is intended to represent in a
+material form the state of agriculture during the iron epoch. We may
+notice the corn-harvest being carried on by means of sickles, like those
+found in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland. A man is engaged in
+beating out, with a mere stick, the wheatsheaves in order to thrash out
+the grain. The grain is then ground in a circular mill, worked by a
+horizontal handle. This mill is composed of two stones revolving one
+above the other, and was the substitute for the rough primitive
+corn-mill; it subsequently became the mill used by the Romans--the
+_pistrinum_--at which the slaves were condemned to work.
+
+Indications of an unequivocal character have enabled us to recognise as
+a fact, that human sacrifices took place among the Helvetians during
+this period. It is, however, well known, from the accounts of ancient
+historians, that this barbarous custom existed among the Gauls and
+various nations in the north of Europe. In a _tumulus_ situated near
+Lausanne, which contained four cinerary urns, there were also found the
+skeletons of four young females. Their broken bones testified but too
+surely to the tortures which had terminated their existence. The remains
+of their ornaments lay scattered about in every direction, and
+everything was calculated to lead to the belief that they had been
+crushed under the mass of stones which formed the _tumulus_--unhappy
+victims of a cruel superstition. Not far from this spot, another
+_tumulus_ contained twelve skeletons lying in all kinds of unusual
+postures. It is but too probable that these were the remains of
+individuals who had all been immolated together on the altar of some
+supposed implacable divinity.
+
+What was the character of the type of the human race during the iron
+epoch? It must evidently have been that of the present era. Both the
+skulls and the bodies of the skeletons found in the tombs of this epoch
+point to a race of men entirely identical with that of our own days.
+
+We shall not carry on our study of pre-historic mankind to any later
+date. We have now arrived at an epoch upon which sufficient light has
+been thrown by oral tradition combined with historical records. The task
+of the historian begins at the point where the naturalist's
+investigations come to an end.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[41] 'Les Sépultures de Saint-Jean de Belleville,' with lithographed
+plates.
+
+
+
+
+PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA.
+
+
+
+
+PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA.
+
+
+The development of mankind has, doubtless, been of much the same
+character in all parts of the world, so that, in whatever quarter of the
+world man may come under our consideration, he must have passed through
+the same phases of progress ere he arrived at his present state.
+Everywhere, man must have had his Stone Age, his Bronze Epoch, and his
+Iron Epoch, succeeding one another in the same order which we have
+ascertained to have existed in Europe. In the sketch which we have drawn
+of primitive man we have devoted our attention almost entirely to
+Europe; but the cause simply is, that this part of the world has, up to
+the present day, been the principal subject of special and attentive
+studies in this respect. Asia, Africa, and America can scarcely be said
+to have been explored in reference to the antiquity of our species; but
+it is probable that the facts which have been brought to light in
+Europe, would be almost identically reproduced in other parts of the
+world.
+
+This is a fact which, as regards _dolmens_, has been already verified.
+The sepulchral monuments of the Stone Age, which were at first believed
+to be peculiar to France, and, indeed, to one province of France, namely
+Brittany, have since been met with in almost every part of the world.
+Not only have they been discovered all over Europe, but even the coasts
+of Africa bring to our notice numerous relics of them; also, through the
+whole extent of Asia, and even in the interior of India, this same form
+of sepulchre, bearing witness to a well determined epoch in man's
+history, have been pointed out and described by recent travellers.
+
+Thus, the information which we possess on these points as regards
+Europe, may well be generalised and applied to the other quarters of the
+world--to Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania.
+
+America, however, has been the scene of certain investigations
+concerning primitive man which have not been without fertile results; we
+shall, therefore, devote the last few pages of our work to a
+consideration of the pre-historic remains of America, and to giving an
+account of the probable conditions of man's existence there, as they
+have been revealed to us by these relics.
+
+The information which has been made public on these points concerns
+North America only.
+
+It would be useless to dwell on the stone and bone instruments of the
+New World; in their shape they differ but little from those of Europe.
+They were applied to the same uses, and the only perceptible difference
+in them is in the substance of which they were made. We find there
+hatchets, knives, arrow-heads, &c., but these instruments are not so
+almost universally made from flint, which is to a considerable extent
+replaced by obsidian and other hard stones.
+
+In the history of primitive man in North America, we shall have to
+invent another age of a special character; this is the _Age of Copper_.
+In America, the use of copper seems to have preceded the use of bronze;
+native metallic copper having been largely in use among certain races.
+On the shores of Lake Superior there are some very important mines of
+native copper, which must have been worked by the Indians at a very
+early date; in fact, the traces of the ancient workings have been
+distinctly recognised by various travellers.
+
+Mr. Knapp, the agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, was the first to
+point out these pre-historic mines. In 1847, his researches having led
+him into a cavern much frequented by porcupines, he discovered, under an
+accumulation of heaped-up earth, a vein of native copper, containing a
+great number of stone hammers. A short time afterwards, some other
+excavations 25 to 35 feet in depth, and stretching over an extent of
+several miles, came under his notice. The earth dug out had been thrown
+on each side of the excavations; and mighty forest-trees had taken root
+and grown there. In the trunk of a hemlock-tree growing in this "made
+ground," Mr. Knapp counted 395 rings of growth, and this tree had
+probably been preceded by other forest-giants no less venerable. In the
+trenches themselves, which had been gradually filled up by vegetable
+_débris_, trees had formerly grown which, after having lived for
+hundreds of years, had succumbed and decayed; being then replaced by
+other generations of vegetation, the duration of which had been quite as
+long. When, therefore, we consider these workings of the native
+copper-mines of Lake Superior, we are compelled to ascribe the
+above-named excavations to a considerable antiquity.
+
+In many of these ancient diggings stone hammers have been found,
+sometimes in large quantities. One of the diggings contained some great
+diorite hatchets which were worked by the aid of a handle, and also
+large cylindrical masses of the same substance hollowed out to receive a
+handle. These sledges, which are too heavy to be lifted by one man
+alone, were doubtless used for breaking off lumps of copper, and then
+reducing them to fragments of a size which could easily be carried away.
+If we may put faith in Professor Mather, who explored these ancient
+mines, some of the rocks still bore the mark of the blow they had
+received from these granite rollers.
+
+The work employed in adapting the native copper was of the most simple
+character. The Indians hammered it cold, and, taking into account its
+malleable character, they were enabled with tolerable facility to give
+it any shape that they wished.
+
+In America, just as in Europe, a great number of specimens of
+pre-historic pottery have been collected. They are, it must be
+confessed, superior to most of those found in the ancient world. The
+material of which they were made is very fine, excepting in the case of
+the vessels of every-day use, in which the clay is mixed with quartz
+reduced to powder; the shapes of the vessels are of the purest
+character, and the utmost care has been devoted to the workmanship. They
+do not appear to have been constructed by the aid of the potter's wheel;
+but Messrs. Squier and Davis, very competent American archæologists, are
+of opinion that the Indians, in doing this kind of work, made use of a
+stick held in the middle. The workman turned this stick round and round
+inside the mass of clay, which an assistant kept on adding to all round
+the circumference.
+
+In regard to pottery, the most interesting specimens are the pipes,
+which we should, indeed, expect to meet with in the native country of
+the tobacco plant and the classic calumet. Many of these pipes are
+carved in the shape of animals, which are very faithfully represented.
+These figures are very various in character, including quadrupeds and
+birds of all kinds. Indeed, in the state of Ohio seven pipes were found
+on each of which the manatee was so plainly depicted that it is
+impossible to mistake the sculptor's intention. This discovery is a
+curious one, from the fact that at the present day the manatee is not
+met with except in localities 300 or 400 leagues distant, as in Florida.
+
+The pre-historic ornaments and trinkets found in North America consist
+of bracelets, necklaces, earrings, &c. The bracelets are copper rings
+bent by hammering, so that the two ends meet. The necklaces are composed
+of shell beads (of which considerable quantities have been collected)
+shells, animals' teeth, and small flakes of mica, all perforated by a
+hole so as to be strung on a thread. The earrings also are made of the
+same material.
+
+All these objects--weapons, implements, pottery, and ornaments--have
+been derived from certain gigantic works which exhibit some similarity,
+and occasionally even a striking resemblance, to the great earthwork
+constructions of the Old World. American archæologists have arranged
+these works in various classes according to the probable purpose for
+which they were intended; we shall now dwell for a short time on these
+divisions.
+
+In the first place, we have the _sepulchral mounds_ or _tumuli_, the
+numbers of which may be reckoned by tens of thousands. They vary in
+height from 6 feet to 80 feet, and are generally of a circular form;
+being found either separately or in groups. Most frequently only one
+skeleton is found in them, either reduced almost to ashes, or--which is
+more rare--in its ordinary condition, and in a crouching posture. By the
+side of the corpse are deposited trinkets, and, in a few cases, weapons.
+A practice the very contrary to this now obtains in America; and from
+this we may conclude that a profound modification of their ideas has
+taken place among the Indians since the pre-historic epochs.
+
+It is now almost a certain fact that some of the small _tumuli_ are
+nothing but the remains of mud-huts, especially as they do not contain
+either ashes or bones. Others, on the contrary, and some of the largest,
+contain a quantity of bones; the latter must be allied with the
+_ossuaries_ or bone-pits, some of which contain the remains of several
+thousand individuals.
+
+It would be difficult to explain the existence of accumulations of this
+kind if we did not know from the accounts of ancient authors that the
+Indians were in the habit of assembling every eight or ten years in some
+appointed spot to inter all together in one mass the bones of their dead
+friends, which had been previously exhumed. This singular ceremony was
+called "the feast of the dead."
+
+We shall not say much here as to the _sacrificial mounds_, because no
+very precise agreement has yet been arrived at as to their exact
+signification. Their chief characteristics are, that, in the first
+place, they are nearly always found within certain sacred enclosures of
+which we shall have more to say further on, and also that they cover a
+sort of altar placed on the surface of the ground, and made of stone or
+baked clay. In the opinion of certain archæologists, this supposed altar
+is nothing but the site of a former fire-hearth, and the mound itself a
+habitation converted into a tomb after the death of its proprietor. It
+will therefore be best to reserve our judgment as to the existence of
+the human sacrifices of which these places might have been the scene,
+until we obtain some more complete knowledge of the matter.
+
+The _Temple-Mounds_ are hillocks in the shape of a truncated pyramid,
+with paths or steps leading to the summit, and sometimes with terraces
+at different heights. They invariably terminate in a platform of varying
+extent, but sometimes reaching very considerable dimensions. That of
+Cahokia, in Illinois, is about 100 feet in height, and at the base is
+700 feet long and 500 feet wide. There is no doubt that these mounds
+were not exclusively used as temples, and, adopting as our authority
+several instances taken from Indian history, we may be permitted to
+think that on this upper terrace they were in the habit of building the
+dwelling of their chief.
+
+The most curious of these earthworks are, beyond question, those which
+the American archæologists have designated by the name of
+_animal-mounds_. They consist of gigantic bas-reliefs formed on the
+surface of the ground, and representing men, mammals, birds, reptiles,
+and even inanimate objects, such as crosses, pipes, &c. They exist in
+thousands in Wisconsin, being chiefly found between the Mississippi and
+Lake Michigan, and along the war-path of the Indians. Their height is
+never very considerable, and it is but seldom that they reach so much as
+6 feet; but their length and breadth is sometimes enormously developed.
+Many of these figures are copied very exactly from Nature; but there
+are, on the other hand, some the meaning of which it is very difficult
+to discover, because they have been injured by the influence of
+atmospheric action during a long course of ages.
+
+In Dale county there is an interesting group composed of a man with
+extended arms, six quadrupeds, a simple _tumulus_, and seven mounds
+without any artistic pretensions. The man measured 125 feet long, and
+nearly 140 feet from the end of one arm to the other. The quadrupeds are
+from 100 to 120 feet long.
+
+The representation of lizards and tortoises are frequently recognised in
+these monstrous figures. A group of mounds, situate near the village of
+Pewaukee, included when it was discovered two lizards and seven
+tortoises. One of these tortoises measured 470 feet. At Waukesha there
+was found a monstrous "turtle" admirably executed, the tail of which
+stretched over an extent of 250 feet.
+
+On a high hill near Granville, in the state of Ohio, a representation is
+sculptured of the reptile which is now known under the name of
+alligator. Its paws are 40 feet long, and its total length exceeds 250
+feet. In the same state there exists the figure of a vast serpent, the
+most remarkable work of its kind; its head occupies the summit of a
+hill, round which the body extends for about 800 feet, forming graceful
+coils and undulations; the mouth is opened wide, as if the monster was
+swallowing its prey. The prey is represented by an oval-shaped mass of
+earth, part of which lies in the creature's jaws. This mass of earth is
+about 160 feet long and 80 feet wide, and its height is about 4 feet. In
+some localities excavations are substituted for these raised figures;
+that is to say, that the delineations of the animals are sunk instead of
+being in relief-a strange variety in these strange works.
+
+The mind may readily be perplexed when endeavouring to trace out the
+origin and purpose of works of this kind. They do not, in a general way,
+contain any human remains, and consequently could not have been intended
+to be used as sepulchres. Up to the present time, therefore, the
+circumstances which have accompanied the construction of these eminently
+remarkable pre-historic monuments are veiled in the darkest mystery.
+
+We now have to speak of those enclosures which are divided by American
+archæologists into the classes of _defensive_ and _sacred_. This
+distinction is, however, based on very uncertain data, and it is
+probable that a large portion of the so-called _sacred_ enclosures were
+in the first place constructed for a simply _defensive_ purpose. They
+were, in general, composed of a wall made of stones, and an internal or
+external ditch. They often assumed the form of a parallelogram, and even
+of a perfect square or circle, from which it has been inferred that the
+ancient Indians must have possessed an unit of measurement, and some
+means of determining angles. These walls sometimes embraced a
+considerable area, and not unfrequently inside the principal enclosure
+there were other smaller enclosures, flanked with defensive mounds
+performing the service of bastions. In some cases enclosures of
+different shapes are grouped side by side, either joined by avenues or
+entirely independent of one another.
+
+The most important of these groups is that at Newark, in the Valley of
+Scioto; it covers an area of 4 square miles, and is composed of an
+octagon, a square, and two large circles. The external wall of one of
+these circles is even at the present day 50 feet in width at the base,
+and 13 feet high; there are several doorways in it, near which the
+height of the wall is increased about 3 feet. Inside there is a ditch 6
+feet in depth, and 13 feet in the vicinity of the doors, its width being
+about 40 feet. The whole enclosure is now covered by gigantic trees,
+perhaps 500 or 600 years old--a fact which points to a considerable
+antiquity for the date of its construction.
+
+When we reflect on the almost countless multitude, and the magnificent
+proportions of the monuments we have just described, we are compelled to
+recognise the fact that the American valleys must at some early date
+have been much more densely populated than at the time when Europeans
+first made their way thither. These peoples must have formed
+considerable communities, and have attained to a somewhat high state of
+civilisation--at all events a state very superior to that which is at
+present the attribute of the Indian tribes.
+
+Tribes which were compelled to seek in hunting their means of every-day
+existence, could never have succeeded in raising constructions of this
+kind. They must therefore necessarily have found other resources in
+agricultural pursuits.
+
+This inference is moreover confirmed by facts. In several localities in
+the United States the ground is covered with small elevations known
+under the name of _Indian corn-hills_; they take their rise from the
+fact that the maize, having been planted every year in the same spot,
+has ultimately, after a long course of time, formed rising grounds. The
+traces of ancient corn-patches have also been discovered symmetrically
+arranged in regular beds and parallel rows.
+
+Can any date be assigned to this period of semi-civilisation which,
+instead of improving more and more like civilisation in Europe, became
+suddenly eclipsed, owing to causes which are unknown to us? This
+question must be answered in the negative, if we are called upon to fix
+any settled and definite date. Nevertheless, the conclusion to which
+American archæologists have arrived is, that the history of the New
+World must be divided into four definite periods.
+
+The first period includes the rise of agriculture and industrial skill;
+the second, the construction of mounds and inclosures; the third, the
+formation of the "garden beds." In the last period, the American nation
+again relapsed into savage life and to the free occupation of the spots
+which had been devoted to agriculture.
+
+In his work on 'Pre-historic Times' Sir John Lubbock, who has furnished
+us with most of these details, estimates that this course of events
+would not necessarily have required a duration of time of more than 3000
+years, although he confesses that this figure might be much more
+considerable. But Dr. Douler, another _savant_, regards this subject in
+a very different way. Near New Orleans he discovered a human skeleton
+and the remains of a fire, to which, basing his calculations on more or
+less admissible _data_, he attributes an antiquity of 500 centuries!
+Young America would thus be very ancient indeed!
+
+By this instance we may see how much uncertainty surrounds the history
+of primitive man in America; and it may be readily understood why we
+have thought it necessary to adhere closely to scientific ideas and to
+limit ourselves to those facts which are peculiar to Europe. To apply to
+the whole world the results which have been verified in Europe is a much
+surer course of procedure than describing local and imperfectly studied
+phenomena, which, in their interpretation, lead to differences in the
+estimate of time, such as that between 3000 and 50,000 years!
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+
+Before bringing our work to a close we may be permitted to retrace the
+path we have trod, and to embrace in one rapid glance the immense space
+we have traversed.
+
+We have now arrived at a point of time very far removed from that of the
+dweller in caves, the man who was contemporary with the great bear and
+the mammoth! Scarcely, perhaps, have we preserved a reminiscence of
+those mighty quadrupeds whose broad shadows seem to flit indistinctly
+across the dim light of the quaternary epoch. Face to face with these
+gigantic creatures, which have definitively disappeared from the surface
+of our globe, there were, as we have seen, beings of a human aspect who,
+dwelling in caves and hollows of the earth, clothed themselves in the
+skins of beasts and cleft flakes of stone in order to form their weapons
+and implements. We can hardly have failed to feel a certain interest in
+and sympathy with them, when tracing out the dim vestiges of their
+progress; for, in spite of their rude appearance, in spite of their
+coarse customs and their rough mode of life, they were our brethren, our
+ancestors, and the far-distant precursors of modern civilisation.
+
+We have given due commendation to their efforts and to their progress.
+After a protracted use of weapons and implements simply chipped out of
+the rough flint, we have seen them adopt weapons and instruments of
+polished stone, that is, objects which had undergone that material
+preparation which is the germ of the industrial skill of primitive
+nations.
+
+Aided by these polished-stone instruments, added to those of bone and
+reindeer's or stag's horn, they did not fear to enter into a
+conflict--which every day became more and more successful--with all the
+external forces which menaced them. As we have seen, they brought under
+the yoke of servitude various kinds of animals; they made the dog and
+the horse the companion and the auxiliary of their labour. The sheep,
+the ox, and other ruminants were converted into domesticated cattle,
+capable of insuring a constant supply of food.
+
+After the lapse of ages metals made their appearance!--metals, the most
+precious acquisition of all, the pledge of the advent of a new era,
+replete with power and activity, to primitive man. Instruments made of
+stone, bone, reindeer or stag's horn, were replaced by those composed of
+metal. In all the communities of man civilisation and metals seem to be
+constant companions. Though bronze may have served for the forging of
+swords and spears, it also provides the material for implements of
+peaceful labour. Owing to the efforts of continuous toil, owing also to
+the development of intelligence which is its natural consequence, the
+empire of man over the world of nature is still increasing, and man's
+moral improvement follows the same law of progression. But who shall
+enumerate the ages which have elapsed whilst these achievements have
+been realised?
+
+But thy task is not yet terminated! Onward, and still onward, brave
+pioneer of progress! The path is a long one and the goal is not yet
+attained! Once thou wert contented with bronze, now thou hast
+iron--iron, that terrible power, whose function is to mangle and to
+kill--the cause of so much blood and so many bitter tears; but also the
+beneficent metal which fertilises and gives life, affording nutriment to
+the body as well as to the mind. The Romans applied the name of _ferrum_
+to the blade of their swords; but in after times _ferrum_ was also the
+term for the peaceful ploughshare. The metal which had brought with it
+terror, devastation, and death, erelong introduced among nations peace,
+wealth and happiness.
+
+And now, O man, thy work is nearly done! The mighty conflicts against
+nature are consummated, and thy universal empire is for ever sure!
+Animals are subject to thy will and even to thy fancies. At thy command,
+the obedient earth opens its bosom and unfolds the riches it contains.
+Thou hast turned the course of rivers, cleared the mountain sides of the
+forests which covered them, and cultivated the plains and valleys; by
+thy culture the earth has become a verdant and fruitful garden. Thou
+hast changed the whole aspect of the globe, and mayst well call thyself
+the lord of creation!
+
+Doubtless the expanding circle of thy peaceful conquests will not stop
+here, and who can tell how far thy sway may extend? Onward then! still
+onward! proud and unfettered in thy vigilant and active course towards
+new and unknown destinies!
+
+But look to it, lest thy pride lead thee to forget thy origin. However
+great may be thy moral grandeur, and however complete thy empire over a
+docile nature, confess and acknowledge every hour the Almighty Power of
+the great Creator. Submit thyself before thy Lord and Master, the God of
+goodness and of love, the Author of thy existence, who has reserved for
+thee still higher destinies in another life. Learn to show thyself
+worthy of the supreme blessing--the happy immortality which awaits thee
+in a world above, if thou hast merited it by a worship conceived in
+spirit and in truth, and by the fulfilment of thy duty both towards God
+and towards thy neighbour!
+
+
+
+
+ALPHABETICAL INDEX
+
+TO
+
+AUTHORS' NAMES CITED IN THIS VOLUME.
+
+
+  Alberti, 228
+
+  Arcelin, 120
+
+  Austen (Godwin), 9
+
+
+  Baudot, 178
+
+  Bertrand, 187, 197
+
+  Bocchi, 82
+
+  Bonstetten, 187
+
+  Borel, 319
+
+  Boucher de Perthes, 8, 9, 16, 17, 18, 45, 82, 161, 162, 163, 164,
+    165, 166
+
+  Boué (Aimé), 6
+
+  Bourgeois (Abbé), 3, 16, 17, 73, 149
+
+  Boutin, 74
+
+  Broca, 114, 181
+
+  Brun (V.), 88, 98, 106, 115, 119
+
+  Buckland, 6
+
+  Busk, 36, 81, 182
+
+
+  Camper, 5
+
+  Cazalis de Fondouce, 128
+
+  Chantre, 120
+
+  Chevalier (Abbé), 147
+
+  Christel (de), 7, 74
+
+  Christy, 73, 86, 90, 95, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118
+
+  Clément, 225
+
+  Cochet (Abbé), 177
+
+  Costa de Beauregard, 91, 319
+
+  Cuvier, 6, 7
+
+
+  Dampier, 132, 219
+
+  Darwin, 132
+
+  Davis (Dr. Barnard), 36, 81, 337
+
+  Delaunay, 73
+
+  Desnoyers, 9, 20, 57
+
+  Desor, 175, 217 _note_, 220, 221, 227, 242, 244, 251, 252, 257, 260,
+    271, 289, 310, 321, 324, 329
+
+  Dolomieu, 156, 157
+
+  Dumont d'Urville, 219, 225
+
+  Dupont (Édouard), 82, 94, 95, 104, 112, 113, 114, 116, 120
+
+
+  Edwards (Milne), 12, 120, 127
+
+  Esper, 6
+
+  Evans, 11, 12, 51, 131, 149
+
+
+  Falconer, 10, 11, 76
+
+  Faudel, 82
+
+  Ferry (de), 73, 91, 120
+
+  Filhol, 15, 75, 127, 169, 181
+
+  Flower, 11
+
+  Fontan, 11, 74, 119
+
+  Forchhammer, 131
+
+  Forel, 176
+
+  Foresi (Raffaello), 181
+
+  Forgeais, 178, 202
+
+  Foulon-Menard, 169
+
+  Fournet, 158
+
+  Fraas, 104
+
+  Franchet, 73
+
+  Frere, 6, 12
+
+  Fuhlrott, 80
+
+
+  Garrigou, 15, 16, 75, 110, 119, 127, 169, 181
+
+  Gastaldi and Moro, 227
+
+  Gaudry (Albert), 11
+
+  Gervais (Paul), 74, 128
+
+  Gilliéron, 267, 292, 293
+
+  Gmelin, 299
+
+  Gosse, 11, 12
+
+  Gratiolet and Alix, 31, 33, 34
+
+  Guérin, 72
+
+
+  Hannour and Himelette, 179
+
+  Hauzeur, 104
+
+  Hébert, 11
+
+  Heer, 265
+
+  Hernandez, 160
+
+  His, 290
+
+  Hochstetter, 229
+
+  Husson, 72
+
+  Huxley, 26, 80
+
+
+  Issel, 91
+
+
+  Jeitteler, 239
+
+  Joly, 8
+
+  Joly-Leterme, 120
+
+
+  Keller, 135, 175, 216, 220, 225, 227, 280, 282
+
+  Kemp, 6
+
+  Knapp, 336
+
+  Kosterlitz, 228
+
+
+  Lambert (l'Abbé), 3
+
+  Lartet, 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 101, 102,
+    106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118, 120, 180
+
+  Lawrence, 31
+
+  Leguay, 150, 153, 195, 200
+
+  Léveillé, 147
+
+  Lewis (Cornewall), 208
+
+  Lioy (Paolo), 228
+
+  Löhle, 223
+
+  Lubbock (Sir John), 97, 131, 189, 190, 195, 200, 219, 230, 275, 342
+
+  Lund, 9, 77
+
+  Lyell (Sir Charles), 11, 20, 36, 132, 224
+
+
+  Marcel de Serres, 3, 7
+
+  Martin, 12
+
+  Morlot, 94, 217 _note_, 249, 291, 300, 301
+
+  Mortillet, de, 89, 131 _note_, 172, 227, 245, 283, 308 _note_
+
+  Mudge, 231
+
+  Mylne, 11
+
+
+  Naegeli, 239
+
+  Nilsson, 116, 189, 195, 208, 209
+
+  Noulet, 10
+
+
+  Osculati, 239
+
+  Otz, 226
+
+  Owen, 91, 119
+
+
+  Peccadeau de l'Isle, 90, 106, 107, 119
+
+  Peigné Delacour, 12
+
+  Penguelly, 10
+
+  Penguilly l'Haridon, 149
+
+  Pereira de Costa, 132
+
+  Pigorini, 232, 235, 236, 238
+
+  Place, 160
+
+  Pommerol, 171
+
+  Prestwich, 11, 46, 131
+
+  Pruner-Bey, 18, 32, 33, 35, 37, 81, 113, 114, 181
+
+
+  Quatrefages, de, 18, 30, 31, 38
+
+  Quiquerez, 301, 302, 303, 308
+
+
+  Rabut, 229
+
+  Rames, 15
+
+  Ramsauer, 312, 314
+
+  Rauchet, 227
+
+  Reboux, 12
+
+  Reffye, 321
+
+  Rigollot, 10, 54
+
+  Robert (Eugène), 12, 149
+
+  Rochebrune, 157
+
+  Rougemont (de), 320
+
+  Rütimeyer, 265, 268
+
+
+  Saussure, de, 160
+
+  Sauvage and Hamy, 131
+
+  Schaaffhausen, 37, 81
+
+  Scheuchzer, 5
+
+  Schild, 226
+
+  Schmerling, 7, 77
+
+  Schmidt, 284, 287 _note_
+
+  Schwab, 248, 250
+
+  Silber, 228
+
+  Squier, 337
+
+  Steenstrup, 130, 131, 133
+
+  Steinhauer, 66
+
+  Stopani (l'Abbé), 227
+
+  Strobel, 132, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239
+
+
+  Thioly, 226
+
+  Tournal, 7
+
+  Troyon, 175, 217 _note_, 225, 253
+
+
+  Uhlmann, 134
+
+
+  Vallier, 229
+
+  Van Beneden, 112, 113
+
+  Vibraye (Marquis de), 11, 73, 94, 98
+
+  Vicq-d'Azyr, 31
+
+  Vogt, 26, 80, 181, 280, 281, 282
+
+
+  Welker, 32
+
+  Wilde (Sir W. R.), 230
+
+  Wood, 76
+
+  Worsaae, 131, 175, 276
+
+  Wyatt, 12
+
+
+LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING
+CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------- +
+  | Transcriber's Note:                                              |
+  |                                                                  |
+  | * Obvious punctuation and spelling errors repaired.              |
+  | Word combinations that appeared with and without hyphens         |
+  | were changed to the predominant hyphenated form.                 |
+  | Original spelling and its variations were not standardized.      |
+  |                                                                  |
+  | * Corrections in the spelling of names were made when those      |
+  | could be verified.  Otherwise the variations were left as they   |
+  | were.                                                            |
+  |                                                                  |
+  | * Footnotes were moved to the ends of the chapters in which      |
+  | they belonged and numbered in one continuous sequence.           |
+  | The pagination in index entries which referred to these          |
+  | footnotes was not changed to match their new locations           |
+  | and is therefore incorrect.                                      |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------- +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Primitive Man, by Louis Figuier
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42380 ***