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diff --git a/42375.txt b/42375.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 095472d..0000000 --- a/42375.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1615 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chincha Plain-weave cloths, by -Lila M. O'Neale and E. Bacon and C. W. Gemmer and R. V. Hall and I. W. Johnson and C. M. Osborne and M. B. Ross - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Chincha Plain-weave cloths - -Author: Lila M. O'Neale - E. Bacon - C. W. Gemmer - R. V. Hall - I. W. Johnson - C. M. Osborne - M. B. Ross - -Release Date: March 19, 2013 [EBook #42375] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINCHA PLAIN-WEAVE CLOTHS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Melissa McDaniel -and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - - Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have - been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal - signs=. - - The symbols in the caption for Fig 6. have been approximated by - characters from the available character set. - - - - - CHINCHA - PLAIN-WEAVE CLOTHS - - BY - - L. M. O'NEALE, E. BACON, C. W. GEMMER, - R. V. HALL, I. W. JOHNSON, C. M. OSBORNE, - M. B. ROSS - - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS - - Vol. 9, No. 2 - - - - - ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS - EDITORS: E. W. GIFFORD, R. F. HEIZER, R. H. LOWIE, R. L. OLSON - Volume 9, No. 2, pp. 133-156, 1 map, 8 figures in text, plates 1-9 - Submitted by editors March 8, 1948 - Issued February, 1949 - Price, 50 cents - - - UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS - BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES - CALIFORNIA - - CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS - LONDON, ENGLAND - - - MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - - -FOREWORD - - -The study presented here was one of a series planned by Professor Lila -M. O'Neale, Associate Curator of Textiles in the Museum of -Anthropology. The fundamental idea was to make use of the wealth of -material in the collections of the Museum of Anthropology, -particularly its pre-Columbian Peruvian textiles, as source material -for study and analysis by advanced students. Professor O'Neale's -sudden death on February 2, 1948, means that, although the paper was -completed and in the hands of the Board of Editors of Anthropological -Records, the final proofreading has not been done by Professor -O'Neale. - -The Board greatly regrets that this outstanding contribution will not -be followed by others produced under the direction and guidance of a -highly esteemed colleague. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Introduction 133 - The material 133 - - Dimensions of the Chincha cloths 135 - Lengths 135 - Widths 136 - - Yarns 138 - - Textures and weaving techniques 138 - - Stitchery 140 - Patching and mending 141 - - Pattern 141 - - Color 143 - - Summary 143 - - Plates 145 - - - - - [Illustration: Map 1 - Chincha Environs] - - - - -CHINCHA PLAIN-WEAVE CLOTHS - -BY - -L. M. O'NEALE, E. BACON, C. W. GEMMER, R. V. HALL, I. W. JOHNSON, C. -M. OSBORNE, M. B. ROSS - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -This study of the Chincha plain-weave materials in the Max Uhle -collection of the University of California has been part of the work -of a Senior course in technical analysis. Six members of the class, -whose names appear as joint authors, are responsible for the data -collected and for the initial organization. - - -The Material - -The Chincha collection, excavated in 1900 by Dr. Max Uhle during the -Peruvian expedition financed by Mrs. Phoebe Apperson Hearst, is -catalogued under two lot prefixes: 4- and 16-. Specimen numbers with -the prefix 4- indicate that the precise provenience as to site and -grave is known. The cloths in this lot have been previously analyzed -and a preliminary report has been published.[1] The cloths in the 16- -lot, as is explained in the report on the pottery,[2] did not identify -perfectly with entries in the collector's field catalogue or their -identification was dubious. - -Six Chincha sites described in Uhle's field catalogue[3] are shown on -map 1. The number of cloth specimens representing each of these sites -varies from 2 to 52 (table 1). Briefly, the time periods indicated by -finds forming the basis of this report are as follows. - -Site A (2 specimens). "On the declivities of the valley towards the -sea, 5 km. from Tambo de Mora to the north." Late Chincha period. - -Site B (3 specimens). La Cumbe cemetery; nearly exhausted; the few -graves opened were "ordinary ones." Late Chincha period. - -Site C (37 specimens). In "the higher Northern part of the valley." -Late Chincha period. - -Site D, and "near" site D (52 specimens). "Chamberlike tombs, which -had been dug out in a mound-like older huaca." Late Chincha period. - -Site E, and "near" site E (20 specimens). "The dry natural terrace ... -in front of the ruins of La Centinela." Several graves at this site -held European articles. Late Chincha period, in part after the Spanish -Conquest. - -Site F (2 specimens). "The natural terraces with slopes directed to -the sea north of La Cumbe (circa Las Palmas)."[4] Late Chincha period. - - Table 1 - - Basic Table: Sites, Periods, and Number - of Specimens in Study - =================================================== - | | No. 4- | No. 16- | Total - Site | Period | specs. | specs. | specs. - ---------+--------------+--------+---------+------- - A | Late Chincha | 2 | ... | 2 - B | Late Chincha | 2 | 1 | 3 - C | Late Chincha | ... | 37 | 37 - | and Inca | | | - D | Late Chincha | 7 | 41 | 48 - "Near" D | | 4 | ... | 4 - E | Late Chincha | 10 | 9 | 19 - | and Inca | | | - "Near" E | | 1 | ... | 1 - F | Late Chincha | 2 | ... | 2 - ---------+--------------+--------+---------+------- - Totals | | 28 | 88 | 116 - --------------------------------------------------- - -Most of the fabrics described in the literature on ancient Peruvian -textiles are characterized by beauty of coloring or arresting designs -or unusual workmanship--sometimes by all three. These all-cotton -Chincha specimens have none of the expectable features. First and last -they seem to have served utilitarian purposes; for that reason, most -of them are comparable to our so-called domestics. The larger ones are -probably mantles: the proportions of the largest two-breadth pieces -with full dimensions (4-3973d, 59.5 in. by 66 in. and 16-1250, 52 in. -by 61 in.) place them in this group; a third specimen (16-1292), also -formed of two breadths (intact breadth 35 in. plus fragmentary breadth -28 in.) was probably a mantle 62 inches by 70 inches over all. The -smaller specimens suggest scarves (or incomplete mantles), carrying -cloths, or kerchiefs (figs. 1, 2). - - [Illustration: Fig. 1. Diagrams of eleven specimens with - length-to-width proportions approximately 1:1, as indicated by - diagonal. Seams in two-breadth textiles shown as broken lines. - Largest specimen, 59.5 inches by 66 inches.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 2. Diagrams of seven rectangular specimens with - length-to-width proportions approximately 2:1 as indicated by - diagonal. Largest specimen, 62 inches by 22.5 inches.] - -The fact that many of the Chincha cloths in the 16- lot had apparently -been roughly torn to rectangular shapes leads us to believe that the -excavator used them to wrap pottery specimens. Indeed, the majority -seem to have been used even by their makers as wrappings. A number of -them have long loose stitches or hanging cordlike threads, which -originally may have held several layers together. Many of the single -breadths have traces of seaming stitches on one or both selvages, -indicating that the original wrapping was two or three times its -preserved width. - -A large proportion of the cloths in this group are badly worn and -clumsily patched. Two, three, and sometimes more pieces of irregular -shape applied to the base material and even on top of a first patch -are not infrequent (pl. 3,d). The mended fragments do not appear to -be either the original sizes or shapes. Many of them have been reduced -to their present rectangular shape by tearing off tattered (?) edges. - -One small group of striped textiles in the 16- lot is a noteworthy -exception to the majority. Finely striped cottons similar to the one -in plate 5,d must certainly have been made for other than utility -cloths, probably for garments. - -There are four small bags (or pads?) in the Chincha 4- lot. Three of -these were formed of small whole cloths sewed together at the sides -with running, double running, and whipping stitches respectively. The -fourth is made of a piece of an edge-stripe material and has one -loomstring end and one side selvage. On this bag the torn edges have -been turned in and seamed with a running stitch. - -Ties for one of the bags have been made by plaiting in a 4-strand flat -braid the elements consisting of the two loomstrings plus an -additional 12-ply cord drawn through the corner of the bag to its -center point, thus giving two ends. Another of the bags has a draw -string formed by a 9-ply cord drawn through the top end with a running -stitch. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] L. M. O'Neale and A. L. Kroeber, Textile Periods in Ancient -Peru:I, UC-PAAE, 28:23-56, 1930. - -[2] A. L. Kroeber and W. D. Strong, The Uhle Collections from Chincha, -UC-PAAE, 21:1-54, 1924; Max Uhle (A. L. Kroeber, ed.), Explorations at -Chincha, UC-PAAE, 21:55-94, 1924. - -[3] Max Uhle, Explorations at Chincha, pl. 1, pp. 87-90. - -[4] Ibid., pp. 68, 69. - - - - -DIMENSIONS OF THE CHINCHA CLOTHS - - -One hundred twelve cloths in the plain-weave group were measured. -Because some of the specimens could not be placed under tension, the -forefinger was drawn along the cloth beside a steel tape to smooth out -wrinkles. Measurements taken by this method approximate those on a -cloth stretched between the bars of a loom. - - -Lengths - -Complete dimensions can be taken on eighteen Chincha specimens in lots -4- and 16-. As figures 1 and 2 show, these dimensions cluster around -two sets of proportions: the eleven cloths represented in the diagram -in figure 1 are squarish; the seven in figure 2, with a -length-to-width proportion of approximately two-to-three to one, are -rectangular. Four of the squarish cloths are formed of two separately -woven breadths of material. All the rectangular cloths are single -breadths. - -Measurements of these specimens with complete dimensions are given -below under the two classifications. - - Squarish cloths Measurements in inches - Specimen 4-3633b 15.5 by 14 - 16-1260 19 by 14 - 4-3890a 23.5 by 26 - 4-3883a 26.5 by 27 - 4-4056 27 by 26 - 16-1253 28.5 by 24 - 4-4027 29 by 28 - 4-4022a 40 by 35 (2 breadths) - 4-3883b 43.5 by 38.5 (2 breadths) - 16-1250 52 by 61 (2 breadths) - 4-3973d 59.5 by 66 (2 breadths) - - Rectangular cloths - Specimen 4-3889c 9.5 by 5 - 4-4029 10.5 by 4 - 4-3962 11.5 by 9 - 4-3882f 13 by 7 - 4-3710m 18 by 11.5 - 4-3883d 53.5 by 21 - 4-4059a 62 by 22.5 - -From the twenty Chincha plain-weave cloths with intact lengths (fig. -4) it is possible to know (1) that the cloths were woven by methods -standard among the ancient Peruvians; (2) that each breadth represents -a separate warping operation which established its ultimate length; -(3) that each breadth was made singly on the loom. The evidence for -such procedures and the identifying features of the end selvages on -Peruvian cloths are to be recognized in the continuous thread which -forms the warp skein--in contradistinction to cut ends of warps--and -in the presence of two or more heavy wefts, the first ones put across -the web. The cords binding the end loops of the warp skein to the loom -bars hold the first of these loomstring wefts, as they are called, to -the bars. The two or more succeeding wefts, which are interlaced with -the warps, establish the width of the piece and give it a certain -firmness. On the ends of some cloths the strand of cord for -loomstrings was long enough to carry across the web only twice. In the -majority of our plain-weave cloths it was carried across three times; -in over a fifth of the total number of intact ends in the 16- lot the -loomstring carried across four times. The frequencies of two, three, -and four loomstrings at the ends of webs in this group are -approximately as 6:32:16. A number of these occurrences are on cloths -in which the heavy cord is not long enough to make a complete -crossing; the remainder of the breadth is completed with weft of the -size used for the regular weaving. - - [Illustration: Fig. 3. Complete widths of textiles in Chincha - plain-weave group. Separately woven webs of two-breadth cloths - indicated by chevrons. Narrowest width, 4 inches.] - - [Illustration: Fig. 4. Complete lengths of textiles in Chincha - plain-weave group. Separately woven webs of two-breadth cloths - indicated by chevrons. Shortest length, 9.5 inches.] - -In the Chincha 4- lot, loomstrings of from 2- to 12-ply formed the -weft for from two to six courses of weaving. In seven of the -twenty-four specimens showing finished ends, the loomstring stopped -partway across its course in the web and was there joined to the -regular weft yarn. In two the joining was effected by finger knots, in -the other by splicing (?). The two specimens (4-3889c and 4-4029) -having strong 12-ply loomstrings were small but complete cloths which -had been doubled and stitched along the sides to form bags. The -loomstrings thus served to reinforce the open mouth of the bag. - -In eleven specimens the loomstrings had an initial S and final Z -twist; twelve show the opposite combination. In one specimen (4-4056) -the separate plies have an S twist, but the final yarn is untwisted. - -Complete lengths of Chincha plain-weave cloths in order from shortest -to longest: - - Spec. no. Inches - - 4-3889c 9.5 - 4-4029 10.5 - 4-3962 11.5 - 4-3882f 13 - 4-3633b 15.5 - 4-3710m 18 - 16-1260 19 - 4-3890a 23.5 - 4-3882a 26.5 - 4-4056 27 - 16-1253 28.5 - 4-4027 29 - 4-4022a 40 (x 2) - 4-3883b 43.5 (x 2) - 16-1250 52 (x 2) - 16-1290 53 - 4-3883d 53.5 - 4-3973d 59.5 (x 2) - 4-4059a 62 - 16-1292 62 - -Ninety-odd of the measured cloths are incomplete as to length. These -preserved lengths fall within arbitrary groupings as follows: - - From 5 inches to 20 inches in length 29 pieces - From 21 inches to 30 inches in length 33 pieces - From 31 inches to 40 inches in length 17 pieces - From 41 inches to 50 inches in length 7 pieces - From 51 inches to 60 inches in length 4 pieces - From 61 inches to 70 inches in length 2 pieces - - -Widths - -There are three times as many weavings with complete widths as with -complete lengths; 60 as compared to 20. Clues to the wrappings or -blankets of which these breadths were sections are frequently -furnished by traces of stitchery and broken threads on the side -selvages. As shown by table 2 and figure 3, the five narrowest -complete breadths (Group 1) are within a range of 4 to 12 inches. -Narrow widths can be woven most rapidly on the backstrap loom. -Complete breadths in Group 2 (18 specimens) fall within the range of -14 to 20 inches. These widths, also, can be woven without much effort. -Seaming together narrow breadths appears to have been preferred to -weaving wider ones equal to the two or three which compose some of the -rectangular specimens. - -Table 2 - -Frequencies of Complete Width Measurements - - ======================================+========+===========+======= - |Width in|Number of |Total - |inches |occurrences|occur- - | | |rences - --------------------------------------+--------+-----------+------- - Group 1 | | | - 4-4029 | 4 | 1 | - 4-3889c | 5 | 1 | - 4-3882f | 7 | 1 | - 4-3962 | 9 | 1 | - 4-3710m | 11.5 | 1 | 5 - | | | - Group 2 | | | - 4-3633b, 16-1240, -1256, -1260, | | | - -1274 | 14 | 5 | - 4-3970, -4075d, 16-1274, -1280 (2) | 15.5 | 5 | - 16-1240, -1248 | 16 | 2 | - 4-4022a (2), 16-1225 | 17.5 | 3 | - 4-3883b (2) | 19.5 | 2 | - 4-4068b | 20.5 | 1 | 18 - | | | - Group 3 | | | - 4-3883d | 21 | 1 | - 4-4059a | 22.5 | 1 | - 4-4068b, 16-1291 | 23 | 2 | - 16-1237, -1238, -1242, -1251, -1253 | 25 | 5 | - 4-3890a, -4056 | 26 | 2 | - 4-3883a, -4068d, 16-1251, -1265 | 27 | 4 | - 4-4023 (2), -4027, 16-1257, -1265, | | | - -1271, -1272, -1289 | 28 | 8 | - 4-3633a, -4055, 16-1261 | 29 | 3 | 26 - | | | - Group 4 | | | - 16-1259 | 30 | 1 | - 16-1250, -1294 | 31 | 2 | - 4-3973d (2), 16-1283, -1304d | 33 | 4 | - 16-1252, -1269b | 34 | 2 | - 16-1266, -1292 | 35 | 2 | - 16-1286 | 41 | 1 | 12 - --------------------------------------+--------+-----------+------- - -Group 3, as listed in table 2, comprises breadths falling within a -range of 21 inches through 29 inches. These widths reduce weaving -speed and bring about problems in manipulation of the loom parts. The -twelve widest complete breadths in the Chincha lot range from 30 -inches to 35 inches with a single specimen measuring 41 inches. For -this last piece, and possibly for several of the narrower ones in the -same group, a two-bar loom not attached to the weaver's waist seems -indicated. - -Complete widths of Chincha plain-weave fabrics in order from narrowest -to widest: - - Spec. no. Inches - - 4-4029 4 - 4-3889c 5 - 4-3882f 7 - 4-3962 9 - 4-3710m 11.5 - 16-1274 13.5 + 14.5 - 4-3633b 14 - 16-1256 14 - 16-1260 14 - 16-1240 14.5 + 15.5 - 4-3970 15 - 16-1280 15 + 15 - 4-4075d 15.5 - 16-1248 16 - 16-1225 16.5 - 4-4022a 17.5 + 17.5 - 4-3883b 19 + 19.5 - 4-4068b 20.5 + 23 - 4-3883d 21 - 4-4059a 22.5 - 16-1291 23 - 16-1253 24.5 - 16-1237 25 - 4-3890a 26 - 4-4056 26 - 4-3883a 27 - 16-1251 27 + 24.5 - 4-4068d 27.5 - 16-1265 27.5 - 4-4027 28 - 16-1257 28 - 16-1271 28 - 16-1272 28 - 16-1289 28 - 4-4023 28 + 28.5 - 16-1261 28.5 - 4-3633a 29 - 4-4055 29 - 16-1259 30 - 16-1250 30 + 31 - 16-1294 31 - 16-1283 33 - 16-1304b 33 - 4-3973d 33 + 33 - 16-1252 33.5 + 33.5 - 16-1269b 34 - 16-1266 34.5 - 16-1292 35 - 16-1286 41 - -Seventy-odd individually woven breadths of material are incomplete as -to width. The arbitrary groupings in which these fall are as follows: - - Under 10 inches in width 3 specimens - 11 inches to 20 inches 42 specimens - 21 inches to 30 inches 22 specimens - 31 inches to 40 inches 7 specimens - -Side selvages strengthened by any one of the several methods we know -from commercial weavings are rare in textiles from primitive looms. It -is not uncommon, however, to find four or five edge yarns drawn more -closely together than are the others in the web. Familiarity with -these two facts made our discovery of a unique selvage finish a matter -of unusual interest. The edges of specimens 16-1228 and 16-1236 have -been reinforced by two stitchery techniques. Plate 8,i shows the -ordinary whipping stitches which form the foundation for the second -technique. Plate 8,h shows this second line of work to consist of a -double strand twined, but always from back to front, with the tops of -the whipping stitches. - -On one of the Chincha 4- specimens (4-4068a) the half-inch selvage is -distinguished from the body of the fabric by the use of warp yarns -lighter in color than those appearing in the body of the fabric and by -the two-over-one weave of the right-hand selvage in contrast to the -one-over-one weave found elsewhere in the fabric. In specimen 4-4027 -the edges are strengthened on each side for some six inches of the -length by a single heavy 4-ply warp unit. - -In the Chincha 4- specimens, where congestion of edge yarns occurs, -its extent in from the edge varies from 5 threads (in 3 specimens) to -24 threads (1 specimen); in the majority of these specimens, the -congestion ranges from 6 to 12 threads (8 specimens). Textures in -plate 4,a, c are comparable to those in which maximum congestion -occurs. - - - - - -YARNS - - -All yarns are initially spun as single plies. In the ancient Peruvian -textiles, there are evidences of preferences for single-ply yarns or -at least the use of them even in fabrics we should consider called for -heavier elements. The Chincha domestic cloths are good examples. We -made yarn analyses on half of the total number of cloths in the study. -All but ten of the fifty-seven examined were woven with single-ply -warp and weft elements and of these ten, only one coarse cloth had -2-ply warps and wefts; the remaining nine had 2-ply warps crossed by -single-ply wefts. The majority of these fabrics classified as "fine" -weavings. - -Yarns may be twisted (spun) in two directions. The spirals formed by -twisting may extend upward to the left (the S-twist) or to the right -(the Z-twist). The frequencies of the left and the right twist in -yarns are indicative of motor habits, if nothing more. - -The largest Chincha group comprises twenty-nine cloths in which the -warp and weft elements have left spirals; a much smaller group (5 -specimens) shows yarns with right spirals. Two other groups (6 and 3 -pieces, respectively) have warps with left spirals crossed by wefts -with right spirals and vice versa. The other cloths in which yarns -with different twists are combined perhaps may represent the use of -odds and ends of yarns. The following combinations were found: - -1. Single-ply S-twist and Z-twist warps crossed by single-ply S-twist -wefts (2 specimens) or crossed by single-ply Z-twist wefts (1 -specimen). - -2. Single-ply S-twist warps crossed by single-ply S-twist and Z-twist -wefts (1 fine-texture specimen). - -Yarns are characterized as soft- or slack-twist, medium-twist, hard- or -tight-twist, with various intermediate degrees depending upon the -angle taken by the spiral in relation to a vertical axis. A 25-degree -angle, for example, characterizes a medium-twist yarn tending toward -hard-twist. Yarns with 30-degree to 45-degree angles of twist are -hard-twist yarns. More than half of an unselected sample of twenty -yarns fell within the 25-degree to 45-degree range. The remaining -seven had angles from 50 degrees to 90 degrees in some sections of -their lengths. An idea of the variations in any one weaving element -may be gained from plate 4,c and the enlarged section of fabric in -plate 7,c. - - - - -TEXTURES AND WEAVING TECHNIQUES - - -In general, the Chincha weavings are smooth and closely woven (pls. -3,b, and 4,b). There appears to have been little or no interest in -varying the textures by employing yarns of different weights, although -the usual irregularities to be noted in lengths of hand-spun yarns -are also evident in these. Counts taken on the warps and wefts per -inch give a fair indication of the textures, but these are to a degree -dependent upon the spinning. - - [Illustration: Figure 5. Scatter diagram of thread counts per inch. - Figures indicate number of specimens. Symbols: triangle, apex down, - unit consists of one warp and one weft element; open square, unit - consists of one warp, two weft elements; concentric circles, unit - consists of two warps, one weft element; triangle, apex up, unit - consists of warp and weft pairs.] - -Several variations of the elemental over-one-under-one plain weave are -exemplified by the Chincha cloths. Included are the following: -combinations of pairs of warps or wefts with single yarns of the -opposite system, and pairs of warps and wefts as in the two-by-two -basket weave. The one hundred and twelve specimens represented in the -scatter diagram (fig. 5) fall into groups, according to the variations -of the plain weave these are listed below in the order of their -frequency: - - Group 1. Paired warps crossed by paired wefts: 8 - - Group 2. Single warps crossed by paired wefts: 20 - - The thread counts of 18 in this group are approximately 58 - warps by 40 wefts per inch. - - Group 3. Single warps crossed by single wefts: 22 - - Thread counts in this group range from 13 warps by 18 wefts to - 156 warps by 40 wefts per inch. Pl. 5,d shows a fabric with - count of 108 warps by 42 wefts per inch. - - Group 4. Paired warps crossed by single wefts: 62 - - Thread counts range from 16 warp pairs by 12 wefts to 44 warp - pairs by 32 wefts per inch with one specimen having the high - count of 80 warp pairs by 28 wefts per inch. - -In terms of weaving units, whether single yarns or pairs of yarns, 56 -of the 112 counts taken fall within a range of 26 to 44 warp units and -24 to 36 weft units. Figure 5 shows this concentration within the -frame. - -Weaving techniques, other than the basic structural types, are few in -number. Drawing in colored warps for stripes is a preliminary to the -actual interlacing of the elements. The results of this procedure can -best be discussed under the heading "Pattern." - -The join is a technical feature that indicates standards of -craftsmanship. It is customary in weaving materials with end as well -as side selvages to give more or less attention to the closing of the -space between the weaving proper and the heading strip. When the warps -in the form of a skein had been spread out evenly and bound in place -to the end bars, the ancient weavers on two-bar looms first wove a -shallow heading strip to secure the warps in their positions and to -establish the ultimate width of the fabric, a practice followed by -some modern weavers today. Then the weaver reversed the loom end for -end to begin what became the weaving proper, and continued until the -length was complete. Difficulties or indifference to appearance very -often resulted in a general looseness of texture where standard-size -tools had to be removed and the interlacing done more or less by the -fingers. Plate 2,a, b shows heading strips of different depths, -fairly wide join areas in which the wefts are more widely spaced, and -above these, the compact texture of the weaving proper. - -Three finely woven cloths, one of them shown in plate 5,d, exemplify -warp locking, end-to-end. This technique is known from the earliest -periods on the coast in the so-called patchworks from Nazca Valley -graves. It occurs also in Middle- and Late-period textiles.[5] The -methods of lengthening the warps by the addition of new ones vary, but -one feature is common to all those examined: the supplementary -transverse yarns are in effect scaffold or skeleton wefts.[6] In the -Chincha cloths, the two warps interlock as shown in the reconstruction -in plate 5,a. In two Chincha plain-weave cloths, as in the Nazca -patchworks, the warps of two colors meet on the skeleton weft. - -Two specimens in lot 4- (3890a and 4056) are poor in quality of -craftsmanship. Careless weaving resulted in the breaking of several -warps, uneven shedding, and puckering in the center of the web. A -three-inch difference in the length between the two side edges of -specimen 4-4056 was probably due to slanting of the warping stakes -(fig. 6). There is also a difference between the widths of the ends of -each cloth, in one of them as much as three inches. Different weights -of yarn are used, their twists ranging from soft-to-medium to crepe. - - [Illustration: =4-4056= - Fig. 6. Diagram of a web showing an irregular shape which may have - resulted from careless warping. Occurrences of plain-weave variations - are indicated by symbols for units: +, one-by-one; =|, - one-by-two; ++, two-by-one; and #, two-by-two (27 in. x 26 in. - over all).] - -In specimen 4-3890a the warps were grouped in pairs throughout the -breadth of the cloth. In the first eight and one-half inches of the -length, the weft is single and for the remaining fifteen and one-half -inches the wefts are paired. This results in plain-weave variations of -two-by-one, or semibasket weave, and two-by-two, or basket weave. - -In setting up the loom for specimen 4-4056, twelve inches of the -breadth were warped with units of single 2-ply warp yarns (fig. 6, -right) and the remaining fourteen inches were set up for units of twin -warps (fig. 6, left). Several plain-weave variations were found. The -weaver introduced single and twin wefts at irregular intervals -throughout the length of the cloth. Therefore, in the portion where -the single warp unit interlaces with single wefts, a simple -one-by-one, or plain weave results; where the single warp unit -interlaces with twin wefts, a one-by-two, or semibasket weave occurs. -In the portion of the breadth where warps are paired, interlacings of -two-by-one, or semibasket weave, and two-by-two, or basket weave, -occur. - -Owing to the difference in length between the two side edges of -specimen 4-4056, the weaver started making adjustments before she had -woven half the length of her cloth. In order to restore a working edge -at right angles to her warps, she introduced incomplete or fill-in -wefts; that is, weft yarns entered on the long side and carried a -distance across the web and then turned back in the next shed (pl. -8,a). The largest number of fill-in wefts occurs roughly at a point -about a third up from the end. Here, seven wefts were introduced, one -after the other, all entering from the same side of the web (pl. -5,e). The distance across the web that these various wefts were -carried ranges from ten to twenty inches. At each turning point of the -weft there is a kelim slit. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[5] L. M. O'Neale and A. L. Kroeber, Textile Periods in Ancient Peru: -I, basic tables at end of plates. - -[6] L. M. O'Neale, Textiles of the Early Nazca Period, Field Mus. Nat. -Hist., Anthrop. Mem., 2:180, 1937. - - - - -STITCHERY - - -Three very familiar needle techniques occur on the Chincha plain-weave -cloths. Breadths are seamed together with whipping stitches or running -stitches, or are laced together with the antique seam, often called -the baseball stitch (pl. 8,d). The effects vary with the depth and -tightness of the seaming. Some of the whipping stitches are left loose -so the two breadths lie flat, their selvages barely touching; other -stitches are drawn so tightly that the selvages form a ridge (pl. -5,b). The smallest stitches are taken under two or three warps less -than one-eighth inch deep and about one-eighth inch apart. Deeper -stitches found on the coarse wrappings and one bag (4-3889) range from -a quarter-inch to three-eighths of an inch in depth and the same -distances apart. - -The baseball stitch, if well done, can bring the selvages of two -breadths together in a flat seam (pl. 5,d). The Chincha types range -from very loosely drawn to tightly drawn threads. - -Running and double running stitches (pl. 8,b, c), never very -carefully executed on the plain-weave specimens, fasten down all the -patches, hems, and occasionally the edges of lapped seams in which one -breadth is extended conspicuously over another. Specimen 16-1229 has -such a seam with a six-inch overlap. When running stitches are small, -they range from one-eighth to one-quarter inch in length with -approximately the same distance between them. Many more are from -one-quarter to one-half inch long, especially on the numerous patches -(pl. 3,d), and the distances between the stitches may be even -longer. When running stitches are used for the hems, the cloth edges, -including selvages, are turned under twice, just as is our customary -procedure. Double running stitches on a bag (4-3889c) are about a -quarter-inch long. - -Because of the variety of uses to which running stitches are put, they -outnumber the other types two to one in the 16- lot, being often -combined with the whipping and baseball techniques. - -Needleknitting, a decorative stitch which occurs frequently on -Cahuachi (Early Nazca) textiles[7] is the edge finish on four of the -Chincha plain-weave cloths (pl. 5,c). From the side, the stitch -resembles a whipping stitch except for its compactness and the fact -that the lines of thread are upright, not slanting; from the edge, -the stitch resembles a chain (pl. 8,f, g). The Chincha variety -differs slightly from that on the Early Nazca textiles: stitches taken -straight over the edge alternate with those linked together with the -chain effect. - - -Patching and Mending - -Any form of repair technique in Peruvian textiles is rare. Many of the -materials show wear and occasionally coarse stitches are put through -the cloth to draw the edges of a tear together; otherwise there is -little to suggest concern with prolonging the life of a garment. - -In a series of Chincha domestic cloths there are eleven patched -specimens but not one trace of reweaving as in darning techniques. -Apparently the unusual number of mended cloths interested the -collectors in the field for, although a half dozen fragments appear to -have been reduced to their present size, the patched portions have -been carefully preserved. Fragmentary lengths of these textiles ranged -from 14 to 28 inches; widths ranged from 13 to 30 inches. - -Certain generalizations are pertinent to all the mended fragments. -There is no evidence of the use of a cutting tool; the edges of the -patching pieces were torn or snagged along a thread. If the selvages -were somewhat worn, the seamstress did not remove them but made a deep -turn to fold the worn part to the underside. Much of the patching -material was perceptibly worn to begin with; three brown specimens -were badly disintegrated. On specimen 16-1259 there are four -overlapping layers of patching material in one spot. Generally, the -worn spot covered by a patch or several patches is an area in which -the weaving was poorly done. - -The patched fabrics are in the medium- and coarse-texture groups with -the exception of one fine cloth (16-1224). The repair materials fall -within all three texture groups. A third of the patches (11 out of -31) were of striped materials, most of which are of better quality -than the base fabric. Patches too small to cover the entire worn area -are pieced out by overlapping them with a second piece of material. -More than a third of the patches were taken from the edges of the -breadths, as the stripes indicate. - -Techniques used to fasten down the edges are hemming and whipping. The -workmanship is fairly coarse, the lengths of the individual stitches -approximately a quarter-inch long. Standards were much below those -held by the weaver, but this difference is not surprising. - -Threads employed for the patching suggest that the seamstress used -odds and ends of weaving yarns. Two or more kinds ordinarily appear on -a single patch, one of them usually a coarse white cotton thread of -fairly loose twist. Some threads are used single in the needle, some -double. Colors are browns, blues, orange, yellow, the last happening -to be short lengths of wool. There is no evidence that the seamstress -attempted to match the yarn to either the ground or the patch -materials. Where we start a new length of thread with a knot made at -the end, these Chincha threads begin with a half-hitch around the -first stitch taken through the cloth (16-1238) or with a stitch -through the cloth and a knot tied with the short and long sections of -the thread (16-1261). - -Plate 3,d shows one of the typical patched cloths. Four fabrics are -represented: the base material, medium fine; and the three patching -fabrics, the lower patch very fine and the upper right and left -patches coarse. The most complicated arrangement of patches is found -on a specimen (16-1240) composed of two breadths seamed together. The -overall measurements of the torn rectangular fragment are 17 inches -warpwise by 30 inches weftwise. Within this area are nine different -pieces of cloth, seven of them covering worn spots or poorly woven -areas. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[7] Ibid., pl. 53, a-c, p. 210. - - - - -PATTERN - - -The only colored decoration on the Chincha domestic cloths is in the -form of stripes. This section presents an analysis of the types found -on thirty-odd specimens. - -Stripes in this sample group either border the edge of the cloth or -make an allover pattern. With the exception of four cloths, the -stripes are warpwise of the materials; these four have stripes both -warpwise and weftwise, and thus may be classified as plaids. Edge -stripes occur in combination with an allover strip pattern in specimen -16-1287 and in combination with plaid in specimen 4-3973d (pl. 6,f). -There are no cloths crossbanded only with colored wefts. - -Apparently there was no preference as to the texture most appropriate -for patterning by stripes; both fine and coarse cloths are thus -decorated. For example, specimen 16-1225 is very fine (thread count, -102 warps by 42 wefts per in.) and specimen 16-1234 is medium coarse -(count, 36 warps by 28 wefts per in.). Both cloths are allover -striped. Edge stripes occur on a relatively fine cloth, specimen -16-1255a (count, 62 warps by 40 wefts per in.), and also on a coarse -cloth (count, 28 warps by 24 wefts per in.). - -Five cloths in the Chincha lot are allover striped. One (16-1252) has -solid blue and brown stripes at irregular intervals. The arrangement -contrasts with the regularity of the other allover-striped materials -and of the symmetrical plaids. Other allover stripes (fig. 8,a; pl. -7,c) have units a quarter-inch wide, brown on a neutral ground. -There is both color and texture interest in these specimens. The brown -warp units are in pairs, the neutral-color warp units between each two -brown units are alternately all single warps and all pairs of warps. -As a result, every other neutral-color stripe is appreciably thinner -than its neighbor stripes (pl. 7,c). The third allover striped -specimen (16-1224) is alternately blue and neutral color, each stripe -unit approximately one-sixteenth inch wide (fig. 8,c). Specimen -16-1225 has striping in the same colors and to it is seamed a piece -with blue on a reddish-orange ground. The blues appear to have been -the same, but the cloth, otherwise in good condition, is so badly -faded that the photograph does not reveal the stripes in the -blue-orange section (pl. 5,d). The fourth allover-stripe pattern is -common to two specimens, one of them shown in figure 8,b. The colors -blue and tan stand out from a neutral ground. The sequence is -blue-blue-tan, blue-blue-tan, and repeat. The stripes measure -one-sixteenth inch in width and are about the same distance apart. - - [Illustration: Fig. 7. Schematic representations of stripings with - color changes indicated by symbols. Units consisting of pairs of warps - represented by pairs of triangles. Chevron marks center of bilateral - groupings of colors.] - -The four fragments symmetrically plaided with an identical arrangement -of warp and weft stripes (16-1279; 16-1303) probably came from the -same cloth despite the different numbers. - -Edge stripes, the most numerous group, vary in width from -three-sixteenths inch to one and three-eighths inch. They are simple -in construction, eight of the thirteen being symmetrical both in -arrangement and count of colored warps. The semblance of balance is -marked, also, in those stripes which are not symmetrical. - -The edge stripes with two exceptions (16-1260, a kerchief, and full -breadth 16-1287) border only one of the selvages on the complete -widths analyzed for this section. The opposite selvages have hanging -threads, remnants of the stitchery which originally seamed two -breadths together. The stripes decorated the outside edges of this -seamed rectangle. - -No specimen in the Chincha plain-weave group has stripes showing more -than three colors, exclusive of the color of the ground material. The -ground color is usually neutral and may originally have been white or -brown cotton. The most frequently occurring color in the stripes is -brown, followed by blue. Red and rose occur only twice. - -In five specimens we found the warps used in pairs. In specimens -16-1224 (fig. 7,a) and 16-1280 (fig. 7,k) the colored warps are -paired, the ground is set up with single warps; in 16-1240 (fig. -7,j), the stripe warps and certain sections of the ground warps are -paired, the greater portion is set up with single warps. In several -specimens the otherwise uniform setup of single colored warps is -broken by a warp unit comprising a pair (fig. 7,f), and in two -specimens (cf. fig. 7,d) the series of single warps is broken by two -pairs of warps in one of the stripes. These units may have been -deliberately planned by the weaver, since they are maintained for the -entire length of the preserved stripe. - -All of the Chincha striped cloths examined for this study were woven -either in the over-one-under-one interlacing or its variation, twin -warps crossed by single weft, a technique sometimes designated as the -semibasket weave. What textural differences there are between the -colored stripes and the ground material are the results of combining -the single-warp plain weave with its twin-warp variation. The -following tabulation shows the occurrences of these two techniques -among the thirteen striped pieces in figure 7: - - No. of - Weave of ground material Weave in stripes specimens - - Single warps, single wefts same as ground 1 - - Single warps, single wefts single and twin - warps, single wefts 2 - - Twin warps, single wefts single warps, - single wefts 7 - - Twin warps, single wefts same as ground 1 - - Twin warps, single wefts single and twin - warps, single wefts 2 - - - - -COLOR - - -Fifty-odd yarns, samplings from the striped and plain cloths of the -Chincha lots, were matched against the printed samples in Maerz and -Paul's _Dictionary of Color_.[8] We found yarns corresponding to -thirty-two samples representing five of the eight color groups. We -found no dyed yarns in these cloths for colors in the yellow-to-green, -the blue-to-red, and the purple-to-red groups. Only four yarns out of -three hundred and fifty matched in a previous study,[9] corresponded -to colors in the purple-to-red group and these four matched very dark -samples on plate 56. The available evidence indicates either that the -ancients had not developed dyestuffs to produce such hues as our -fuchsias, magentas, and heliotropes or that they did not favor these -colors. - -Over a dozen yarns matched samples on plates 14 and 15 of the -orange-to-yellow groups; as many more matched the browns on plate 37. -Some of the yarns in this series are darker than any of the printed -samples on plate 39. The third largest series, approximately twenty, -match eight samples in the blue-green-to-blue group. The fewest number -represent the green-to-blue-green group. Yarns in four cloths are -similar to poplar and bottle greens. - -Stripes are in one, two, or three colors (fig. 8). Most of the -one-color stripes (approximately 10) are blue (37F3, 37I5), one is an -orange-red (5K10), and one clay color (14F8). For the two-color -stripes we were able to distinguish blue (37F3), golden browns -(approximating 15A12), and orange reds (approximating 5K10). In only -one of the six two-color examples, however, were the two colors -sufficiently clear to match the printed samples. Specimen 16-1251 -combines brown (15A12) and blue (38C3) stripes. - -The three-color stripes in the 16-lot were similarly difficult to -match with the samples in the Dictionary. Yarns from the four -specimens matched samples as follows: - - 16-1268: yellow (10C7) and two browns (14L10, 15A12) - - 16-1277: two yellows (11K8 and one other darker than any in the - group) and blue (36F6) - - 16-1283: yellow (9J5), blue (35D4), and one other color too - dull to match any printed sample in the blue group - - 16-1287: yellows and browns (7C12, 11K6, and 14F6) - -One three-color specimen in the 4- lot (pl. 6,f) has a number of -well-preserved portions. The weaving proper is natural-color white -cotton with plaiding in dark brown (15C12) and gray similar to adobe -(14D7). The wide edge stripe has the same dark brown, a lighter, more -golden brown (14D12), and central pinkish stripes which approximate -printed samples 3C10 or 3C11. - - [Illustration: Fig. 8. Diagrams of stripings in Chincha plain-weave - cloths: a, two-color stripe, blue and natural color cotton; b, - two-color stripe, blue and brown on natural-color ground; c, allover - stripe of blue on natural-color ground.] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[8] A. Maerz and M. R. Paul, A Dictionary of Color, 1930. - -[9] L. M. O'Neale, Textiles of the Early Nazca Period, p. 144. - - - - -SUMMARY - - -Analyses of over a hundred plain-weave cloths in the Max Uhle -collection from Late-period sites at Chincha form the material of this -report. - -The utilitarian character of most of the cloths is conspicuous. A few -plain-weave fabrics undoubtedly belong to garments of the better type, -although these specimens, too, are without decoration except for -stripings. - -Measurements and textures suggest that some weavings may have been -mantles or other large wrappings. All the intact ends have the -customary Peruvian selvages with heavy loomstring wefts. Intact single -breadths range in widths between 4 inches and 41 inches. The wider -breadths suggest that the loom upon which these specimens were woven -was not the type ordinarily attached to the weaver's waist. - -Smooth textures and the uniformly good edges indicate that the weaving -yarns were of the high quality we have learned to expect in the -ancient cloths. Thread counts show a wide range, as shown in figure 5. - -Technical features in these plain cloths are the standard ones in most -respects. Warp locking of the end-to-end variety and a unique finish -on a side selvage are the most noteworthy deviations from the norm. -Perhaps the least expected feature is the patching of weak or worn -spots in the cloths. In their present condition, the several repaired -examples reveal hard wear subsequent even to the patching. - -Ornamentation in the Chincha plain-weave cloths analyzed for this -study consists solely of stripes and plaids; an occasional edge finish -is as much a strengthening device as a decorative detail. A few cloths -are allover striped; a greater number are bordered on one edge with a -series of colors, mainly yellow, browns, and blues. - -The group as a whole represents the many fabrics which must have been -woven solely for ordinary wear or use, being used later as grave -wrappings. - - - - -PLATES - - -EXPLANATION OF PLATES - -(Numbers preceded by 4- and 16- are University of California Museum of -Anthropology specimen-catalogue numbers.) - - -Plate 1 - -Chincha doll (4-4116) dressed in scrap of plain-weave material. Height -overall, 7 inches. Head, a knob wrapped with fiber; black human hair -folded over top and drawn in at neck with fiber string. Body composed -of 2 tortoras separated to form legs; all elements wrapped with fiber -and with one extra "toe" applied to each foot. Arms of wrapped tortora -with fingers (3) applied at ends. - -Garment of plain cotton material torn crosswise; fold at one side; -lapped seam held with coarse stitches at opposite side; seam across -shoulders; no openings for arms. Tatters at bottom edge turned to -outside and secured with running stitches. Length 51/4 inches; breadth -71/4 inches. - - -Plate 2 - -Loomstring ends of Chincha fabrics, a, b, detail of ends of two -webs (16-1304b, 16-1270) to show heading strip (1) and weaving proper -(2) comparable in texture; (3) section between them, the join, more -loosely woven. Width of sections shown, 3.5 inches. - - -Plate 3 - -a, b, c, examples of medium-coarse Chincha fabrics (16-1282, -16-1217, 16-1252), fair to good qualities of weaving; d, worn -material reinforced by patches held down by running stitches -(16-1222). Dark section of b, 1.25 inches wide; a and c in -proportion; upper patch of d, 9 inches by 6 inches. - - -Plate 4 - -Textures of fine fabrics. a, comparable to modern cheesecloth -(4-4058b); b, canvaslike (16-1255a); c, open plain weave showing -high twist of single-ply yarns (4-3883b). - - -Plate 5 - -a, reconstruction of end-to-end warp locking, shown in d, by -methods which make possible the change from monochrome to stripes; -b, close-texture, semibasket weave with three heavy loomstring wefts -at end selvage, whipped seam (16-1292); c, end selvage reinforced -with needleknitting (16-1217) (cf. pl. 8,f, g); d, fine cotton -garment material with stripes below monochrome section (16-1225), -right-hand striped section faded; e, section of textile (x2) with -turn of fill-in straightening wefts indicated by black threads -(4-4056) (cf. pl. 8,a). Width of b and c, 3 inches. - - -Plate 6 - -a-e, border stripes on Chincha cloths (16-1268, 16-1277, 16-1214, -16-1251, 16-1255a), colors, brown and blue; f, section of plaid with -border stripe (4-3973d). Selvages at left. Width of narrowest border -stripe, one-fourth inch; others in proportion. - - -Plate 7 - -a, reconstruction of border stripes of fabric in plate 6,e; b, -reconstruction of stripe found on several specimens; c, section of -fabric (x2) showing variations in plain weave and amount of twist -given to weaving elements (16-1240); d, section of fabric (x2) -showing two-and-two basket weave varied in appearance by arrangement -of colored yarns (4-3962). - - -Plate 8 - -Reconstructions, a, fill-in weft to straighten working edge (cf. pl. -5,e); b, plain running stitch; c, double running stitch shown in -two colors for clarity; d, seam in saddler's or baseball stitch, -also called antique seam; e, seam in whipping stitch: f, g, top -and side view of needleknitting type found on Chincha edge (pl. -5,c), alternate stitches plain whipping stitches; h, i, two -views of reinforced selvage showing strand of twining through tops of -whipping stitches. - - -Plate 9 - -Weaving and sewing equipment: a-g, undressed thorns, 3.5 to 6 inches -long (4-3653); h-o, bunch of fine wooden needles (n shows eye) -4.5 inches long, black and pale color wood (4-3651); p, copper -needle (4-4094); q, headed and pointed stick, possibly a warp-lifter -(4-3865f); r-w, sticks, some of cane including pointed and headed -tools (4-3865a-e, g, h): s, u, weaving swords; t, loom bar; x, -weaving sword, 18 inches long. - - [Illustration: Plate 1. Chincha Doll] - - [Illustration: Plate 2. Loomstring Ends] - - [Illustration: Plate 3. Chincha Fabrics] - - [Illustration: Plate 4. Textures of Fine Fabrics] - - [Illustration: Plate 5. Weaving Techniques] - - [Illustration: Plate 6. Pattern: Stripes and Plaids] - - [Illustration: Plate 7. Pattern: Stripes and Variations in Plain - Weaves] - - [Illustration: Plate 8. Reconstructions of Stitches] - - [Illustration: Plate 9. Weaving and Sewing Equipment] - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chincha Plain-weave cloths, by -Lila M. O'Neale and E. Bacon and C. W. Gemmer and R. V. Hall and I. W. Johnson and C. M. Osborne and M. B. 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