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diff --git a/42275-0.txt b/42275-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ea546f --- /dev/null +++ b/42275-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11057 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42275 *** + +[Transcriber's note: Underscores have been used to indicate _italic_ +fonts. Original spelling variants have not been standardized. In the +tables, _s._ or s. was used for Shillings; and _d._ or d. for Pence. "It +should also be noted that slight errors of a few farthings in the +additions have crept into the totals of some of the columns, but as they +do not affect the accuracy of the wage figures the Appendix has been +copied exactly as it was published." (Appendix VI.)] + + +WOMEN IN THE PRINTING TRADES: + +A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY. + +EDITED BY + +J. RAMSAY MACDONALD, + +WITH A PREFACE BY PROFESSOR F. Y. EDGEWORTH. + +INVESTIGATORS: + +MRS. J. L. HAMMOND, MRS. H. OAKESHOTT, MISS A. BLACK, MISS A. HARRISON, +MISS IRWIN, and Others. + +LONDON: P. S. KING & SON, + +ORCHARD HOUSE, WESTMINSTER. + +1904. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +My only qualification for writing this preface is the circumstance that, +as a representative of the Royal Economic Society, I attended the +meetings of the Committee appointed to direct and conduct the +investigations of which the results are summarised in the following +pages. From what I saw and heard at those meetings I received the +impression that the evidence here recorded was collected with great +diligence and sifted with great care. It seems to constitute a solid +contribution to a department of political economy which has perhaps not +received as much attention as it deserves. + +Among the aspects of women's work on which some new light has been +thrown, is the question why women in return for the same or a not very +different amount of work should often receive very much less wages. It +is a question which not only in its bearing on social life is of the +highest practical importance, but also from a more abstract point of +view is of considerable theoretical interest, so far as it seems to +present the paradox of _entrepreneurs_ paying at very different rates +for factors of production which are not so different in efficiency. + +The question as stated has some resemblance to the well-known demand for +an explanation which Charles II. preferred to the Royal Society: there +occurs the preliminary question whether the circumstance to be explained +exists. The alleged disproportion between the remuneration of men and +women is indeed sometimes only apparent, or at least appears to be +greater than it is really. Often, however, it is real and great where it +is not apparent. + +On the one hand, in many cases in which at first sight women seem to be +doing the same work as men for less pay, it is found on careful inquiry, +that they are not doing the same work. "The same work nominally is not +always the same work actually," as the Editor reminds us (Chapter IV. +par. 1). "Men feeders, for instance, carry formes and do little things +about the machine which women do not do." In this and other ways men +afford to the employer a greater "net advantageousness," as Mr. Sidney +Webb puts it in his valuable study on the "Alleged Differences in the +Wages paid to Men and to Women for similar Work" (_Economic Journal_, +Vol. I. pp. 635 _et seq._). The examples of this phenomenon adduced by +Mr. Webb, and in the evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour, are +supplemented by these records. To instance one of the less obvious ways +in which a difference in net advantageousness makes itself felt, +employers say: "It does not pay to train women: they would leave us +before we got the same return for our trouble as we get from men." At +the same time it is to be noticed in many of these cases that though the +work of women is less efficient, it is not so inferior as their pay. For +instance, a Manchester employer "estimated that a woman was two-thirds +as valuable in a printer's and stationer's warehouse as a man, and she +was paid 15_s._ or 20_s._ to his 33_s._," (p. 47, note). + +In other cases the difference between the remuneration of men and women +for similar work is not obvious because they work in different branches +of industry. For example, only five instances of women being employed as +lithographic artists are on record (Chapter IV. par. 1). Other branches +of the printing trade are as exclusively women's work. Such data afford +no direct and exact comparison between the remuneration of the two +classes in relation to the work done by them respectively. As Mr. Webb +concludes, the inferiority of women's wages cannot be gathered "from a +comparison of the rates for identical work, for few such cases exist, +but rather from a comparison of the standards of remuneration in men's +and women's occupations respectively." "Looked at in this light," he +continues, "it seems probable that women's work is usually less highly +paid than work of equivalent difficulty and productivity done by men." +As Mrs. Fawcett points out in an important supplement to Mr. Webb's +article (_Economic Journal_, Vol. II. p. 174), women are crowded into +classes of industry which are less remunerative than those open to men. + +Recognising the fact of different remuneration for the same amount of +work, we have next to consider the causes. It is evident that the sort +of explanation offered by Adam Smith for difference of wages in +different employments will not avail much in the case with which we are +dealing. The lower remuneration of women is not brought about by way of +compensation for the greater "agreeableness" or other pleasurable +incident or perquisite of their tasks. Possibly we might refer to this +head, as well as to others, the circumstance that women having in +prospect the hopes of domestic life are likely to take less interest in +their trade than men do who cast in their lot for life, if this +difference in future prospects is attended with a difference in the +effort of attention given to work in the present. But doubtless the +explanation is to be found chiefly not in compensation produced by the +levelling action of competition, but in the absence of competition +between men and women--in the existence of monopoly whether natural or +artificial, to use Mill's distinction (_Political Economy_, Vol. II. +Chapter XIV.), together with custom and what Mill calls "the unintended +effect of general social regulations." + +A natural monopoly is constituted by the superior strength of man, the +occasional exercise of which, as just noticed, entitles him to some +superiority of pay for work which at first sight may appear almost +identical with that of women. The experience recorded in the following +pages does not afford any expectation that this kind of superiority +tends to vanish. "There is an almost unanimous chorus of opinion that +women's work as compositors is so inferior to men's that it does not +pay in the long run" (Chapter IV.). Speaking of the physiological +differences between men and women in relation to their work, the Editor +concludes that "when all false emphasis and exaggeration have been +removed a considerable residuum of difference must remain." + +Custom and the somewhat capricious sense of decorum counts for more than +might have been expected in restricting women to certain industries, and +accordingly, on the principle emphasised by Mrs. Fawcett, depressing +their wages. "I know my place, and I'm not going to take men's work from +them," said a female operative to an employer who wanted her to varnish +books (Chapter IV.). "Why, that is men's work, and we shouldn't think of +doing it," was the answer given by forewomen and others to the question +why they did not turn their hands to simple and easy processes which +were being done by men (Chapter V.). + +Among artificial monopolies must be placed that which is constituted by +legislation. The Factory Laws, of which a lucid summary is given +(Chapter VI. § 1), impose certain conditions on the work of women which, +it may be supposed and has been asserted, place them at a sensible +disadvantage in their competition with men, who are free from those +restrictions. But the evidence now collected goes to prove that the +disadvantage occasioned to women in their competition with men by the +Factory Acts is not appreciable; thus confirming the conclusions +obtained by the Committee which the British Association appointed to +consider this very question (Report, 1903). The evidence of the large +majority of employers in the printing trade is in favour of the Acts; +the evidence of employees is almost unanimous. Of a hundred and three +employers "not half-a-dozen remembered dismissing women in consequence +of the new enactment" (Chapter VI. § 2). Of a hundred and three +employers, who expressed an opinion, twenty-six stated that in their +opinion legislation had not affected women's labour at all, sixty +considered it to have been beneficial, and seventeen looked on all +legislation as grandmotherly and ridiculous (p. 82). The opinion of the +employers is much influenced by the experience that "after overtime the +next day's work suffers." The still stronger feeling of the workers in +favour of the Factory Acts is partly based on the same fact: "Long +hours," said one, "don't do any good, for they mean that you work less +next day: if you work all night, then you are so tired that you have to +take a day off; you have gained nothing" (p. 86). Upon the whole the +moderate conclusion appears to be that "except in a few small houses the +employment of women as compositors has not been affected by the Factory +Acts" (p. 75). What little evidence there is to the contrary is +exhibited by the Editor with creditable candour (p. 80). It is admitted +that a "slight residuum of night work" may have been transferred to male +hands. + +Trades unionism forms another species of "artificial monopoly," the +organisation of men in the printing trades being much stronger than that +of women. The difference is partly accounted for by the fact, already +noticed in other connections, that woman having an eye to marriage is +not equally wedded to her trade. Some frankly admit that "marriage is +sure to come along, and then they will work in factories and workshops +no longer" (p. 42). Whatever the cause, it appears from the Editor's +historical retrospect that women's unions have not flourished in the +trades under consideration. All attempts to organise women in the +printing trade proper, as distinguished from the bookbinding industry, +have failed. Even the Society of Women Employed in Bookbinding, though +organised by Mrs. Emma Paterson, seems to have had only a moderate +success. Thus the men unionists have had their way in arranging that +their standard wage should not be lowered by the influx of cheap labour +offered by women. + +Some unions indeed admit women on equal terms with men, with less +advantage to the former than might have been expected. A regulation of +this sort adopted by the London Society of Compositors is followed by +the result that "it is practically impossible for any woman to join the +society" (p. 28). At Perth a few years ago, when women began to be +employed on general bookwork and setting up newspaper copy, the men's +union decided that the women must either be paid the same rates as the +men or be got rid of altogether (p. 46). One general result of such +_primâ facie_ equalitarian regulations is probably to promote that +crowding of women into less remunerative occupations which was above +noticed as a cardinal fact of the situation. It is for this reason +apparently that Mrs. Fawcett does not welcome the principle that +"women's wages should be the same as men's for the same work." "To +encourage women under all circumstances to claim the same wages as men +for the same work would be to exclude from work altogether all those +women who were industrially less efficient than men" (see the article by +Mrs. Fawcett referred to in the _Economic Journal_, Vol. III. p. 366, +and compare her article in that Journal, Vol. II. p. 174, already +cited). + +Of course it may be argued that, in view of the circumstance that women +workers are often subsidised by men and of other incidents of family +life, to permit the unrestricted competition of men with women would +tend to lower the remuneration and degrade the character of labour as a +whole. Without expressing an opinion on this matter, seeking to explain +rather than to justify the cardinal fact that the industrial competition +between men and women is very imperfect, one may suggest that it is +favoured by another element of monopoly. The employer in a large +business has some of the powers proper to monopoly. As Professor +Marshall says (in a somewhat different connection) "a man who employs a +thousand others is in himself an absolutely rigid combination to the +extent of one thousand units in the labour market." This consideration +may render it easier to understand how it is possible for certain +employers to give effect to the dispositions which are attributed to +them in the following passages: "Conservative notions about women's +sphere, and chivalrous prejudices about protecting them, influence +certain employers in determining what work they _ought_ to do" (p. 52). +"A rigid sense of propriety based on a certain amount of good reason, +seems to determine many employers to separate male from female +departments" (p. 53). + +A notice of this subject would be inadequate without reference to the +relation between the use of machinery and the competition of women +against men. In some cases the cheapness of women's work averts the +introduction of machinery. "One investigator whilst being taken over +certain large printing works was shown women folding one of the +illustrated weekly papers. Folding machines were standing idle in the +department, and she was told that these were used by the men when +folding had to be done at times when the Factory Law prohibited women's +labour" (p. 98). A well-known bookbinder said: "If women would take a +fair price for work done it would not be necessary to employ machinery." +In the Warrington newspaper offices the cheapness of women's labour +makes it unnecessary to introduce linotypes (pp. 46 and 98). On the +other hand, in the case of bookbinding, the employment of machinery +makes it possible for the less skilled and lower-paid women to do work +formerly done by men (p. 48). But the relations are not in general so +simple. Rather, as the Editor remarks, "what really happens is an +all-round shifting of the distribution of labour-power and skill, and a +rearrangement of the subdivision of labour" (p. 48). The cheerful +assumption proper to abstract economics, that labour displaced by the +introduction of machinery can turn to some other employment, is seldom, +it is to be feared, so perfectly realised as in the case of the +bookbinders below mentioned (p. 48, note): "There was much gloom among +the men when the rounding and backing machine came in, but though +profitable work was taken away from the 'rounders' and 'backers' they +had more 'lining up' and other work to do in consequence, so nobody was +turned off." + +So far I have adverted to only one of the problems which are elucidated +by this investigation. A sense of proportion might require that I should +dwell on other topics of great interest such as home work and the work +of married women, the technique of the industries connected with +printing which the Editor has described minutely, and the statistics +relating to women's wages, in the treatment of which a master hand, that +of Mr. A. L. Bowley, may be recognised. But I must not go on like the +chairman who with a lengthy opening address detains an audience eager to +hear the principal speaker. I will only in conclusion express the hope +that the Committee which has obtained such useful results may be enabled +to prosecute further investigations with like diligence. + +F. Y. EDGEWORTH. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + INTRODUCTION xv + + I. + + I. THE TRADES DESCRIBED 1 + II. WOMEN IN THE TRADES 17 + III. WOMEN'S WORK AND ORGANISATION 24 + IV. MEN AND WOMEN AS WORKERS 44 + V. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 55 + VI. LEGISLATION 69 + VII. WOMEN AND MACHINERY 94 + VIII. HOME WORK 99 + IX. MARRIED AND UNMARRIED 102 + X. WAGES 113 + + II.--APPENDICES. + + I. POINTS UPON WHICH ENQUIRIES WERE MADE 139 + II. DESCRIPTIONS OF CERTAIN TYPICAL FIRMS 141 + III. GENERAL GLASGOW REPORT 170 + IV. WOMEN IN THE PRINTING TRADES IN BIRMINGHAM 179 + V. TABLES OF INDIVIDUAL EARNINGS FOR CONSECUTIVE WEEKS + THROUGH LENGTHENED PERIODS 184 + VI. MR. DUNNING'S STATEMENT OF WAGES, 1849 199 + VII. TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF MALES AND FEMALES ENGAGED + IN THESE TRADES AT VARIOUS AGES IN 1901 203 + + INDEX 205 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The investigation upon which this book is based was undertaken by the +Women's Industrial Council; the Royal Statistical Society, the Royal +Economic Society, and the Hutchinson Trustees consenting to be +represented on the Committee responsible for the work. Upon this +Committee, the Women's Industrial Council was represented by Miss A. +Black, Miss C. Black, Mrs. Hammond, Mr. Stephen N. Fox, and Mr. J. +Ramsay Macdonald; the Royal Statistical Society by Mr. J. A. Baines; the +Royal Economic Society by Professor F. Y. Edgeworth, and the Hutchinson +Trustees by Mr. A. L. Bowley. Mrs. Hogg also represented the Women's +Industrial Council up to her death in 1900. + +The Committee takes this opportunity of thanking the Hutchinson Trustees +for their liberal financial assistance, and of expressing its +appreciation of the services so carefully and enthusiastically performed +by the investigators, especially those of Mrs. Hammond, who is mainly +responsible for the work done in London; of Mrs. Oakeshott, who assisted +Mrs. Hammond; of Mrs. Muirhead, who supplied information about +Birmingham; of Miss Harrison, who investigated Bristol and the +South-West, and Leeds and district; and of Miss Irwin and Mr. Jones, who +were in charge of the Scottish enquiries. To the many employers, Trade +Union secretaries, and others who were so willing to give assistance to +the investigators, the Committee also desires to express its gratitude. + +Whoever has had experience in collecting and sifting such evidence as is +dealt with in this investigation knows how difficult it is to arrive at +proper values and just conclusions. And women's trades seem to offer +special difficulties of this kind. There are no Trade Union conditions, +no general trade rules, no uniformity in apprenticeships, so far as the +woman worker is concerned, and the variations in conditions are most +striking, even between neighbouring employers drawing their supply of +labour from practically the same district, though perhaps not from the +same social strata. That difference in strata is in some cases a +predominating factor in women's employment, and it everywhere confuses +economic and industrial considerations. When to this irregularity of +conditions is added a reticence as to "one's personal affairs," due +partly to women's lack of the sense that their position is of public +interest, and also partly to an unwillingness shown by many employers to +disclose the facts of cheap labour, it can readily be seen that the +Committee had to exercise the greatest care in its work. + +When the investigation was begun there was an idea that it should be the +commencement of an enquiry into women's labour in every trade of any +importance, but whether that will be carried on or not will now depend +on the reception of this volume and on what further financial assistance +is forthcoming. The group of trades selected for first treatment shows +neither an overwhelming preponderance of women nor a very marked +increase in the employment of women. But it illustrates in a specially +normal way the main problems of women's labour under ordinary modern +conditions. Upon one important point this group does not throw much +light. The employment of Women in the Printing Trades does not show to +any satisfactory extent the family influence of married and unmarried +women wage earners. What information the Committee was able to gather is +dealt with in its proper place, but careful enquiries will have to be +made in the highly-organised factory industries before that wealth of +fact can be obtained from which conclusions can be drawn, with details +properly filled in, regarding the influence of women's earnings upon +family incomes. + +In other respects these trades have yielded most interesting +information. They illustrate the industrial mind and capacity of women +in the different aspects of training, rates of pay, competition with +men, influence of machinery, effect of legislation, and so on. These +subjects are dealt with under separate chapters, and though it has been +the chief aim of the Committee to present well-sifted and reliable +facts, it has stated some conclusions which are most obvious, and which +appear to be necessary, if bare figures and dry industrial data are to +carry any sociological enlightenment. The volume is therefore offered +not as a mere description of industrial organisation, but as a study in +sociology which indicates a path ahead as well as points out where we +stand at the moment. + +Miss Clementina Black is responsible for the description of the Trades, +Mr. A. L. Bowley for the Chapter on Wages, and Mr. Stephen Fox for the +legal and historical part of that on Legislation. For the rest, the +Editor is responsible. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +_THE TRADES DESCRIBED._ + + +The trades covered by this enquiry include a great number of processes, +some brief account of which is necessary if the succeeding chapters are +to be comprehensible. It will, perhaps, be the easiest way to follow the +stages by which paper is converted into books and to return afterwards +to such accessory matters as envelope making, relief stamping, +lithography, etc. + +_Paper-making._--Paper-making is carried on mainly in the counties of +Kent, Lancashire, Buckingham, Yorkshire, Fife, Lanark, Aberdeen and +Midlothian, but mills are found scattered over the country where water +is favourable to the manufacture.[1] In London, there is one mill only, +and not more than thirteen women are employed in it. Of these the +majority are occupied in sorting esparto grass, and throwing it by means +of pitchforks into machines where the abundant dust is shaken out, and +from which the grass is carried on moving bands to the vats where it is +boiled into pulp. A few older married women are engaged in cutting rags, +removing buttons, etc.; but at the present day paper is but rarely made +from rags, and the rags so used are generally sorted and cut by +machinery. This is an instance in which machinery has undoubtedly +superseded the work of women; but, perhaps, few persons will regret +that an occupation so uninviting as the cutting up of old rags should be +undertaken rather by a machine than by a human being. With the later +processes in the manufacture of paper--the boiling, mixing, bleaching, +and refining--women have nothing to do; but a few women are employed in +"counting" the sheets of paper before they leave the mill. + +[Footnote 1: _The Directory of Paper-makers_ for 1903 gives the +following number of paper mills as being situated in the following +counties:--Bucks, 16; Devon, 10; Durham, 9; Kent, 30; Lancashire, 44; +Yorkshire, 27; Edinburgh, 17; Lanark, 9; Stirling, 8; Fife, 7; Aberdeen, +5; Dublin, 6.] + +The work of the women, who are time-workers at from 8_s._ to 10_s._ a +week, requires no training. The working day begins at 6 a.m., an earlier +hour than that of any other factory or shop dealt with in this enquiry. +The machinery is kept in constant action, double shifts of men being +employed, and when it becomes necessary to feed the machines with grass +at night men do the work performed in the day by women. + +_Letter-press Printing._--The primary business of the "compositor" is to +"set-up type," _i.e._, to arrange the separate movable types in required +order for printing successive lines of words. These lines are then +arranged in frames called _chases_, each of which containing the types +is known as a _forme_; the _formes_ are "locked up," that is, made firm +by wooden or metal wedges called _quoins_, and are then carried to the +press for a proof impression. The printed page passes on in the shape of +proof to the "corrector," and from him to the author, and is then +returned in order that corresponding alterations may be made in the +placing of the type. Finally, when the whole corrected impression has +been printed off, comes the "distributing"--the removal of the types +from their places and re-sorting into the proper divisions in the +"case." Were books the only form of printed matter, this description +would cover the whole business of the compositor, but there are also +handbills and newspapers--to say nothing of lithographic printing, which +will be dealt with farther on. The printing of handbills, etc., and the +printing of newspapers, require, each in its own way, a high degree of +skill and experience, to which women, the vast majority of whom leave +the trade comparatively young, seldom attain. + +In the provinces, however, a few women are engaged upon the printing of +weekly or bi-weekly newspapers; and in London, one establishment has +been visited in which women regularly do "jobbing" or "display +work"--terms which cover the printing of advertisements, posters, +handbills, etc.--while at least two other firms employ each one girl +upon such work. "None of the other workers," it is reported, "seem to +care to learn." + +The difference between skilful and unskilful work in this department is +far greater than an uninitiated person might suppose; and the +attractiveness of a poster, advertisement or invitation card depends +very largely upon the way in which the type is spaced. + +In all printing houses employing women compositors, setting up, +correcting, and distributing are done by women; in the Women's Printing +Society women regularly "impose," that is, divide up the long galleys of +type into pages and place the pages so that they may follow in proper +order when the sheet is folded, and in another firm a woman was found +who could impose; but as a general rule the "imposing" is the work of +the man or men employed to lock-up and carry about the heavy formes. No +instance has been found in which this latter work, which in some cases +is extremely heavy, is done by women. + +_Bookbinding._--This trade covers at least two main divisions, and one +of these is minutely subdivided into a great variety of processes. The +first process is, in all cases, that of folding. All printed matter +occupying more than a single page has to be so folded as to bring the +pages into consecutive order, and this process is essentially the same +whether the printed sheet be that of a book, a pamphlet, a magazine, or +a newspaper. From the trade point of view, however, there is a +distinction between the folding of matter intended to be bound up in a +real book cover (book-folding) and matter which is not to be bound +(printers' folding). As a general rule--liable, however, to many +exceptions--book-folding is performed in a binder's shop and printers' +folding in a printing house, whence the names. But many printers now +have a regular binding department, and periodical or pamphlet work is on +the other hand often folded in the workshop of the publisher's binder. +The line of demarcation is therefore no very distinct one. Prospectus +work is _par excellence_ printers' folding, and so are such weekly +papers as are still folded by hand. + +Book-folding is done by women, of whom in theory nearly all, and in +practice many, are regularly employed. The process is practically +identical in both cases. Printers' folding is carried on in large firms +chiefly by a regular staff; but in times of pressure "job hands" or +"grass hands" are called in; and in smaller workplaces job hands do the +whole of the work. Great sheets of matter, fresh from the press, are +distributed in thousands to the workers to be folded either by hand or +by machine. In the latter case, the woman merely feeds the machine, +taking care to lay the sheet in exactly the right place. In the former, +she becomes practically a machine herself, so monotonous is the +occupation. The sheet is folded once, twice, three, or even four times, +as the case may be, on a fixed plan, and sometimes has to be cut with a +long knife as well as folded. The various sheets of a book having been +folded, the process of _gathering_ follows. Each folder has received a +fixed number (probably a thousand) copies of the same sheet, and when +she has finished folding the gatherer places the sheets in piles of each +"signature," _e.g._ the index letter which one observes on the first +page of each sheet in a book, in regular order on a long table. She then +walks up and down the side of this table collecting one copy of each +sheet and so forming a complete book. The collection thus made passes +from the gatherer to the _collator_, who runs over it, noting by means +of the printer's "signature" that all the sheets are in order, and +placing her mark on the book, thereby becoming responsible for its +accuracy. In the case of illustrated books the process of _placing_ +comes at this stage. The plates to be inserted are "fanned out"--_i.e._, +laid out in fan shape--each receives a narrow strip of paste at the back +and is placed next, and stuck to, its proper page. This placing is +sometimes done by the collator, sometimes by a separate hand. The whole +process of collating is often omitted in the case of pamphlets and small +work, and the sheets then pass straight from the folder to the stitcher +or sewer. Of _sewing_ or _stitching_ there are many varieties. The +threads of hand-sewn books generally pass through three bands of tape +kept taut by being attached at one end to the table at which the worker +sits and at the other to a horizontal bar above. Sometimes the book will +have been prepared by the sawing of grooves in the back to receive the +sewing. This sawing is done by men. Stitching machines vary greatly. The +simplest kind merely inserts the unpleasant "staple-binder" of wire that +is so large a factor in the rapid decomposition of cheap books. In these +machines, one variety of which uses thread and knots it, the pamphlet or +other work in hand is placed at a particular place in a kind of trough; +the operator presses a treadle and the wire is mechanically passed +through and pressed flat. Other machines of a more complicated sort will +sew with thread upon tapes. In this case one girl is required to +superintend and a younger assistant to cut apart the books which are +delivered by the machine fixed at intervals upon a long continuous tape. +Such machines are worked by power and set going by the pressure of a +treadle. Pamphlets or newspapers having neither "cover" nor "wrapper" +are now finished--unless, indeed, _inserts_ or _insets_ are to be placed +between the pages. These are those unattached advertisements which fall +out upon the reader's knee on a first opening, and thereby certainly +succeed in catching his attention, though not perhaps his approval. +Magazines or paper-covered books are sometimes "wrappered" by women, a +simple process consisting of glueing the back of each book and clapping +on the cover. Bound books have end-papers added to them by women, who +also paste down the projecting tapes to the fly-pages. At this stage the +book passes into the hands of men to be touched no more by women, except +perhaps in a few subsidiary processes. But since much debate has taken +place over the allotment to men and women of other parts of the work, it +becomes necessary to give a cursory glance at the further stages of a +book's progress. + +On leaving the women's hands the book--now no longer a collection of +loose sheets but an entity--is placed in a machine to be "nipped," that +is, to have the back pressed; then the edges are cut smooth in a +"guillotine"; the back is glued upon muslin and rounded, and a groove is +made, by hand or machine, at each side of the back, so that the cover +may lie flat; this is called "backing," the covering boards and cloth +are cut out and pasted together; the design and lettering are stamped +upon them in the "blocking-room"; the books are "pasted down," that is, +are fixed into their covers by means of pasting down the end leaves, and +are "built up" in a large press. If the designs and lettering of the +cover are to be gilded, the gold-leaf is laid on by hand according to +the stamped-out pattern, which is then restamped, and any gold-leaf not +firmly adhering is rubbed off with an old stocking. The stocking is +burned in a crucible, and the precious remainder of the gold collected +again. "Gold laying-on" is done by women; and the workers engaged in +this task do nothing else. Much dexterity is needed, the gold-leaf +being apt to break or blow away at the slightest breath. One +investigator describes as "seeming almost marvellous" the skill with +which this difficult material is laid in exactly the right place by +means of a knife. Women also "open-up," _i.e._, look through the books +ready to be sent out to see that there are no flaws. Such is the +life-history of the ordinary book as it comes from the publisher, but +"publishers' binding" is not the only section of the binding trade, and +is indeed regarded by the workers as "decidedly inferior" to +"leather-work," which is emphatically distinguished as "bookbinding." +Leather-binding is employed mainly for rebinding. It forms, as may be +supposed, a comparatively small part of the whole trade, and is +practically confined to three large firms in the West End, a few small +places, and separate rooms in some general binding establishments. The +chief difference of method lies in the better fixing together of back +and cover, the "bound" book being laced into the cover, and in the +presence of a "head-band," at top and bottom of the back. Books to be +re-bound are picked to pieces by women and cleaned from glue, etc., +re-folded, if necessary, collated, and after being rolled flat (by a +man) are sewn at a hand press. Repairs to torn pages or plates and the +removal of stains are also done by women. This last process demands +great care and skill, "foxed" pages requiring to be dipped into a +preparation of acid which destroys not only the objectionable stain but +also the body of the paper, so that the leaf has to be newly sized and +strengthened, and naturally needs very tender handling throughout this +whole course of treatment. The best head-bands, too, are made by women +by hand, but the head-bands of cheaper books--when they exist at +all--are machine-made. Head-band makers form a special and extremely +small class of workers. + +A third branch of the trade is "vellum-binding," a name which covers the +binding of all ledgers, account books, and bank books, whether bound in +vellum or no. The workers engaged in this branch form a separate group, +are rarely found on the premises of regular bookbinders, and work +chiefly in a separate department in printing houses. The employments of +women in vellum-binding are much the same as in publishers' binding; +they fold and sew much in the usual manner, the only marked difference +arising in the case of large day-books, etc., which are elaborately +hand-sewn in frames, each section of the book having a separate guard of +linen. + +It is difficult to draw lines of demarcation between the various workers +whose occupations have now been described. In large workplaces a worker +will probably be kept at one minute process; the folder will do nothing +but fold, the sewer will only sew, the collator only collate, and the +inserter only insert. Some forewomen, however, think it better to give +the women a change of employment. Gold layers-on and openers-up are +always entirely apart from folders and sewers, but collators begin with +folding and sewing, and in small houses sometimes combine one or both +these processes with collating. + +The divisions of work between men and women are not made upon any +discernible principle of fitness, and except in the case of folding and +sewing, which have belonged to women from time immemorial, the various +processes began in the hands of men and have been gradually taken up by +women. This gradual encroachment has been generally resented and often +resisted by the men, and in May, 1893, an elaborate agreement was drawn +up by the Bookbinding Trade Section of the London Chamber of Commerce +representing the masters, and the secretaries of the men's unions +representing the men working in the trade. The women workers were not +represented or consulted. The agreement is as follows:-- + + LONDON SOCIETIES OF JOURNEYMEN BOOKBINDERS. + + _London Consolidated Society; Bookbinders' and Machine Rulers' + Consolidated Union, London Branch; Society of Day-working + Bookbinders._ + + That this meeting of representatives of the Bookbinding Section of + the London Chamber of Commerce, with representatives of the + Journeymen Bookbinders' Trade Societies, deeming it desirable that + a definition of bookbinding should be agreed upon for the + delimitation of work to be paid for at recognised rates, hereby + agrees that the following divisions or sub-divisions of labour be + for the future recognised as the work of bookbinders or + apprentices, taking the book from the time of leaving the women + after sewing, except wrappering, which is unaffected by this + agreement:-- + + Forwarding, and the following sub-divisions of bookbinding: + + Nipping, knocking down, or pressing. + Cutting books or magazines. + Colouring edges of books (where done indoors). + Cutting leather, except corners, and backs for flush work from + sheep and roan. + Cutting cloth. + Cutting hollows and linings. + Cutting boards. + Bevelling boards. + Case making. + Pasting down and building up. + Flush work throughout. + Finishing throughout. + Assistant finishing throughout. + Blocking throughout. + Circuit and box work. (Bible trade.) + + PROVIDED:--That the representatives of the journeymen agree that + they will not make it a grievance if female or unskilled labour is + placed upon:-- + + The rolling, pressing before sewing, sawing up, or papering of + outboard work. + + The laying on, washing up, or cleaning off of cloth work. + + The varnishing of cloth or Bible work. + + The paper mounts and pictures on cloth cases. + + Taking work out of the press after pasting down, and opening up. + + The carrying of loads of work about the workshop. + + Further, that the representatives of the journeymen will not + object to the introduction of unskilled labour upon cloth cutting, + if the recognised rate of wages of 32_s._ per 48 hours be paid + after a probationary period of twelve months, in which the novice + may learn the work. + + Owing to the difficulties of drafting a clause affecting the + laying on in such a manner as to lay down a line of demarcation + between cloth and leather work, it is hereby agreed to leave the + subject of laying on _in statu quo_, upon the understanding that + it shall not be the policy of the Trade Societies to interfere, + except in the case of innovations upon existing custom.[2] + + This agreement not to be construed to the prejudice of the + existing holders of situations. + + Adopted by the Bookbinding Trade Section of the London Chamber of + Commerce at its annual meeting on 7th May, 1893. + + JOHN DIPROSE, _Chairman_. + + Ratified by the executives of the hereunder-mentioned Societies on + May 30th, 1893, and signed on their behalf. + + HENRY R. KING, _Secretary, London Consolidated Society_. + WILLIAM BOCKETT, _Secretary, Day Working Bookbinders' Society_. + THOMAS E. POWELL, _Secretary, Bookbinders and Machine Rulers' + Consolidated Union_ (_London Branch_). + +[Footnote 2: This clause has been interpreted by the award given in +March, 1903, by Mr. C. J. Stewart, the arbitrator appointed by the Board +of Trade to settle a dispute in the trade regarding wages, hours, +apprentices and piece work. The 6th clause in that award is as +follows:--"That the right or practice existing with regard to female +labour employed on wrappering and for laying on gold in case work, cloth +or leather, or other material, in certain workshops in the trade, shall +be made to apply to all workshops in the trade, it being agreed by the +employers that no man exclusively employed in gold laying-on shall lose +his employment by reason of the employment of women on such work."] + +Closely connected with vellum-binding are the processes of +machine-ruling, numbering, paging and perforating. + +_Machine-ruling_ is the process by which lines are ruled for ledgers, +invoices, etc. The machine employed resembles a hand-loom in appearance, +and is in effect a framework in which pens are fixed at the required +distances. Ink is conveyed into these from a pad of thick flannel above, +and the page to be ruled lies on a broad band below. The re-inking of +the flannel is in some cases effected by means of a reservoir and tap +supplying a regulated flow, in others the ink is laid on from bowls of +red or blue colour by means of a brush. Machines worked by a handle +still survive in a few places, but as a general rule the machine is +driven by power and the operator merely superintends, correcting the +machine if it goes wrong, setting the pens and regulating the supply of +ink. The newest machines require the services of neither "feeders" nor +"wetters," and the simple old picturesque accessories, the cords, the +wooden frame, the bowls of colour, are disappearing. Women are employed +in some houses to feed the machines, which is purely mechanical work; +our investigators found four establishments in London in which women can +rise to the higher position of "minder," and one other in which they are +allowed to damp the flannel and partially "mind." + +_Numbering_ is the process by which consecutive figures are stamped upon +cheques, bills, receipts, tickets, or other loose sheets. A machine +worked by hand is employed, the number types changing automatically. The +attention of the worker is required on three points only: the paper must +be placed so as to bring the number into the right position; the machine +must not be allowed to skip numbers at a jump--as it is inclined to do; +and whenever an additional figure becomes necessary, a certain change +must be made. The handle of the machine works up and down, and the +process is different from that of stamping, to be described later. There +are no power machines for numbering. + +Numbering is said to try the eyes, and the working of a machine handle +is considered bad for girls who have any weakness of the chest. + +_Paging_ is the process by which numbers are printed upon the pages of a +bound volume. As in numbering, a change has to be made at each "100"; +and there is need of further care to avoid missing pages. Where these +are thin or interleaved with tissue paper omissions are very easily +made. + +_Perforating_ is done by machines generally worked by power, but +sometimes by treadle, with one foot; and this treadle work was described +by a woman constantly employed at it as excessively hard work. + +_Lithography._--The work of women and girls in lithography seems to be +confined to the feeding of machines. In London the introduction of +female labour is comparatively recent, dating from about six or seven +years ago, but in the provinces women have been employed for more than +thirty years. Employers are, for some reason or another, not very ready +to give information about this branch of work; but some of the +investigators engaged in this enquiry have succeeded in seeing the +process. A girl stands on a high platform putting sheets into the proper +place in the machine until she has completed the job. A long interval +may follow in which she may sew, knit or read. The noise of the machine +is incessant, and the work hard, monotonous and mechanical, but if done +under proper conditions not necessarily unhealthy. Many working-places +in London, however, where space is so valuable, are partly underground, +dark and ill-ventilated, and in these the ceaseless whirring noise and +the smell of the ink grow unendurably trying. Workers in such places are +rough and of low social standing. Most men working in the general +stationery trades, and some employers who do not employ women, condemn +the doing of this work by women, and since the women have superseded not +men but boys, the views of the workmen are not those of trade rivals. +Girls are said to be in various ways better workers than +boys--cleaner-handed, more careful and accurate, less disposed to meddle +with the machinery, and therefore less liable to accidents; above all, +quieter, more docile, and less apt to strike. The men employed in +lithography look favourably on the employment of girls, because no girl +attempts to rise into the higher grades and "pick up" the trade without +apprenticeship. Girls do not, and boys as feeders do, "constitute a +danger to the Society." Moreover, a trade that offers only so uncertain +a chance of rising is generally disapproved for a boy. + +The objection to the employment for girls is that they work among +men--an objection which may be a very grave one indeed, or a +comparatively slight one, according to the character of the foreman and +the management of the workshop. It may be noted that respectable +working-class parents almost always consider this objection serious. + +A few women are reported to be employed as lithographic artists, but no +one has been seen in the course of this enquiry. + +Minor stationery trades are envelope-making, black bordering, plain and +relief stamping. + +_Envelope-making_ has several subdivisions. The paper is first cut to +shape in machines worked by men, then passed to women to be "cemented," +_i.e._, to be gummed upon the flaps, folded or "creased," and stuck +together. Finally the envelopes are packed by women. + +Cementing and folding are reckoned distinct trades. One cementer +explained to an investigator, however, that she described herself as a +folder, "for people are so ignorant that if you say you are a cementer +they think you have something to do with the pavement." Cementing may be +done by hand or by machine, and the workers are not interchangeable. The +hand-worker spreads out the envelopes in the shape of a fan, and passes +her brush over all the flaps at once. The machine-cementer puts 500 or +1,000 envelopes into a small machine, which grips them and drips gum +upon their flaps. The worker extricates the envelopes one by one, and +spreads them out to dry. A more complex machine is being introduced +which performs the various processes for itself, requiring one girl to +feed and one to take-off. + +The flaps being dry, the envelopes are taken in bundles to the +_folders_, who first "crease" them--that is, fold in the sides--then +"gum" them with a brush at the required points, and fasten them. This +process can also be performed by a machine, and the operator in that +case merely feeds the machine with the cemented paper, and the envelope +is delivered made. + +The envelopes are then handed on to the "packers," who count them and +make them up into packets, and the packets into parcels. + +Except the original cutting, still done by men, all these processes have +always been executed by women. + +The trade of _black bordering_ is carried on by women who seldom or +never perform any other process. Black bordering is usually done by +hand. The worker spreads out a number of sheets, cards or envelopes, in +such a manner as to expose only a certain width of border, and over this +exposed portion she passes a brush. Of course, only two edges of each +sheet, etc., can be laid ready at one time, and each object has to be +"laid out" a second time after drying. "It is marvellous to see the +speed and dexterity with which the women do the 'laying-out.' They +gather up a large number of sheets, lay them on the board and fan them +out with a piece of wood used for the purpose, showing the most +astounding accuracy of eye in leaving just the right width exposed. +Sometimes the 'laying out' is done by a machine, and only the blacking +by hand." This trade--a steady one on the whole--has, unlike nearly all +the other stationery trades, been more prosperous owing to the South +African war--a grim little example of the way in which large public +events eddy away into undreamed of backwaters! Men now never do black +bordering, but are reported to have done so once. Machinery is now being +more widely introduced. + +_Plain, Relief and Cameo Stamping._--Under these heads are included all +the various processes by which crests, monograms, addresses, etc., are +embossed upon notepaper, cards, programmes, or private Christmas cards. +The trade has increased enormously of late years, and a new process has +been introduced which renders it possible to employ the printing press. +This, however, is only worth while when the order to be executed is a +very large one; and most stamping is done by hand machines, a die being +fixed into the machine and impressed by tightly screwing down. The +machine is worked (like an ordinary copying press) by a horizontal bar, +having a ball at each end, and swung from right to left. The lighter +machines can be worked by one hand; the heavier require two, and are +found fatiguing. Some are so heavy that they can only be worked by men. +Practice is necessary in order to get the stamp in exactly the right +place, and, in relief or cameo work, in order to mix the colours, which +are rubbed on the die, to precisely the right thickness. + +Plain stamping--the easiest process--is that in which letters, a coat of +arms, or a trade mark, are raised but not coloured; in relief stamping +the raised surface is coloured; and in cameo stamping (of which the +registered letter envelope is an example) a white device stands out from +a coloured background. + +When two or more colours are employed considerable care, skill, and +patience are needed. This work, in two or more colours, is called +_illuminating_; in one branch of it--the highest--gold and silver are +employed on a coloured surface, and here women are not employed. + +_Show-card Mounting._--Card mounting is a distinct trade, and is almost +entirely in female hands. Almanacs, advertisements, and texts for +hanging up, all belong to the province of the card mounter, whose main +business is to unite the picture and cardboard that arrive separately in +her workshop. The board is first cut either by a man at a cutting +machine--or "guillotine"--or occasionally by a girl at a rotary machine +adjustable to different gauges; then "lined," by having paper pasted +over the back and edges. Inferior work is not lined. Finally, the +picture or print is pasted on the card, the backs of three or four +pictures being pasted at once, and each in succession being applied to +its own card. Some means of hanging up is still needed, and various +methods are in use. Sometimes eyelets are inserted into a punched hole +by means of a small machine which a girl works by hand. Sometimes the +edge is bound with a strip of tin, having loops attached to it; in this +case the tin strips are cut by men, and applied by hand machines, again +worked by girls. Sometimes, as in the case of maps, charts, and large +diagrams, a wooden rod is fixed at the top, this fixing being done by +girls. + +The trade is not, it will readily be perceived, one that demands great +skill, practice or intelligence, and the majority of the workers are +very young. Still, a certain degree of experience is necessary, since +the application of either too much or too little paste results in a +"blister," and blistered work is spoiled. One investigator was shown a +lot of 500 cards, the estimated value of which was 6_d._ each, no less +than 385 of which had thus been spoiled and rendered quite useless. The +workers stand at their work and report that it exhausts them. It used, +till about twenty-eight years ago, to be done by men; but the trade was +at that time a much smaller one. Night work, when considered necessary, +is still done by men. + +A little laying-on of gold is done in connection with card mounting. The +process has been described already under bookbinding. + +The Christmas card industry (which may be considered as a variety of +show-card mounting) serves to exemplify one of the anomalies of the +Factory Act. These cards may be sorted, packed, etc., to any hours of +the night, because mere packing is not regarded as manufacture; but if a +"bow of ribbon" is to be affixed to each card, the process becomes +"preparation for sale," and the regulations of the Act apply.[3] + +[Footnote 3: Cf. pp. 76,77.] + +_Typefounding._--Typefounding is a small, ancient and conservative trade +into which women have only crept during the last few years. In London +there are only about eight typefoundries proper, and in these labour is +elaborately subdivided, every workman performing but one process. +Recently, however, some large printing houses have begun to cast their +own type, and in these the few men employed perform all the processes, +or, to use their own term, "do the work through," thus, curiously +enough, reverting to an earlier stage in the development of the trade. + +Women are employed in the large foundries, where they perform certain +subsidiary parts of the work. Each type when it comes from the machine +wherein it has been cast has a little superfluous bit of thin metal, +known as a "break" on its end or "foot." These bits are broken off by +girls, the "foot" of the type being pressed against a table and the +"break" snapped off. No great skill is required, but quickness only +comes with practice. The type is also "set-up"--_i.e._, put in rows in a +long stick or "galley"--by girls; here, again, nothing is needed beyond +a certain manual dexterity. Sometimes another stage, "rubbing," +intervenes between the "breaking" and the "setting-up." Rubbing is +merely the smoothing off on a flat grindstone of any roughness that may +be left by the machine round the "face" end of the type. In one case, in +London, one or two women were once employed in rubbing, but none appear +to be so engaged at present, and the newer appliances have made rubbing +unnecessary. "Dressing," the final process through which the type +passes, is said to be in some places performed by women; but no such +instances have been found in London in the course of this investigation. +The dresser receives the lines or sticks of type, polishes the sides, +measures their length and breadth with a delicate spanner, "nicks" the +foot of each type, and finally "picks over" the type--that is, scans the +row of "faces" through a magnifying glass, and rejects any on which the +letters are not absolutely truly placed. + +One large London firm, employing many girls, has a different process. +The types are cast in long lines and have to be divided, no breaking or +setting-up being required. As one of the workers said, "This is not a +trade; just any one can do it!" + +Girls began to do "breaking" and "setting-up" in London about thirteen +years ago. There were then but thirteen so employed. During the last few +years their numbers have increased, and it is estimated that those now +employed number from 100 to 150. One firm is known to employ fifty and +another forty. They have superseded boys, and were mainly introduced +because boys were difficult to get. The chances of rising being small +for boys, they were disinclined to enter the trade. The chances for +girls are _nil_, but this consideration does not weigh much with girls +belonging to the class that supplies workers to typefounding. The female +workers are all young, and at present no married women seem to be +employed, a fact which may perhaps be due to the comparatively recent +entrance of women into the trade. + +The occupation has a special feature of unhealthiness--the danger of +lead-poisoning; and the Factory Act, recognising this, prohibits women, +young persons or children, from taking a meal upon the premises where +typefounding is carried on. As in other lead industries, much depends on +the care and cleanliness of the worker. To eat with hands lead-blackened +by some hours of "breaking-off" is to run considerable risk of +lead-poisoning. It is suggested that girls, being more fastidious than +boys upon such points, may possibly suffer less frequently from the +dangers involved in the industry of typefounding. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +_WOMEN IN THE TRADES._ + + +[Sidenote: Census figures.] + +Before 1841 the census occupation tables do not state the numbers +employed in the detailed trades, and even in that year we find either +that no separate return was made for some of the industries with which +this volume deals, or that no women were employed at all. Presumably, +therefore, previous statistics would not have shown that women were +employed in these industries to any appreciable extent. + +The following tables show the employment of women in England and Wales +and Scotland in the Printing and Kindred Trades according to the census +returns from 1841 to 1901. The figures must be used with caution, as +they include employers as well as employed (an error, however, which is +immaterial in the case of women workers). Subsidiary helpers are also +classified with those actually entitled to be regarded as members of the +trade, and the tables do not discriminate sufficiently between the +various subdivisions of occupations. These last two errors considerably +affect the figures relating to women. In the bookbinding section, for +instance,[4] the figures are altogether misleading, since by far the +greater number of women included as bookbinders are really paper and +book-folders, and are no more entitled to the name bookbinder than a +bricklayer's labourer is to that of bricklayer. + +[Footnote 4: Since 1881 in the Scottish returns.] + + ENGLAND AND WALES. + Males. Females. + + _Census 1841. (Employers and Employed included.)_ + Booksellers, bookbinders, etc. 8,873 2,035 + Printers 15,582 161 + Lithographers, etc. 667 12 + Paper manufacture 4,375 1,287 + Paper rulers 113 16 + Paper stainers 1,243 92 + Type founders 629 6 + Vellum binders 131 3 + + _Census 1851._ (_Employers and Employed included._) + Bookbinders 5,501 } 3,926 + Printers, etc 23,568 } + Lithographers (Great Britain) 1,984 6 + Paper manufacture 6,123 4,686 + Paper stainers 2,001 Not enumerated. + + _Census 1861._ (_Employers and Employed included._) + Bookbinders 6,556 5,364 + Printers 30,171 419 + Lithographers, etc. 3,588 -- + Paper manufacture 7,746 5,611 + Machine rulers 564 54 + Envelope makers 179 860 + Paper stainers 1,556 399 + Type founders 863 11 + + _Census 1871._ (_Employers and Employed included._) + Bookbinders 7,917 7,557 + Printers 44,073 741 + Lithographers, etc 3,785 Not enumerated. + Paper manufacture 10,142 6,630 + Envelope makers Not enumerated. 1,477 + Paper stainers 1,311 448 + + _Census 1881._ (_Employers and Employed included._) + Bookbinders 9,505 10,592 + Printers 59,088 2,202 + Lithographers, etc 6,009 147 + Paper manufacture 10,352 8,277 + Envelope makers 175 1,933 + Paper stainers 1,822 445 + Type cutters and founders 1,137 32 + + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | _Census | Employ- | Employ- | Working | Others | TOTAL. | + | 1891._ | ers. | ed. | on | not | | + | | | | Own | Speci- | | + | | | | Account. | fied. | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Book- | M. 615 | 10,038 | 355 | 479 | 11,487 | + | binders | F. 72 | 13,401 | 74 | 702 | 14,249 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Printers | M. 3,979 | 73,288 | 1,052 | 3,640 | 81,959 | + | | F. 158 | 4,133 | 32 | 204 | 4,527 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Litho- | M. 499 | 7,486 | 359 | 292 | 8,636 | + | graphers, | F. 9 | 309 | 7 | 24 | 349 | + | etc. | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper | M. 396 | 11,081 | 97 | 440 | 12,014 | + | manu- | F. 12 | 7,598 | 29 | 390 | 8,029 | + | facture | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Envelope | M. 9 | 260 | 6 | 14 | 289 | + | makers | F. 2 | 2,339 | 13 | 104 | 2,458 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper | M. 135 | 1,861 | 60 | 78 | 2,134 | + | stainers | F. 10 | 370 | 7 | 16 | 403 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Type | M. 35 | 1,204 | 23 | 52 | 1,314 | + | cutters | F. 1 | 49 | 0 | 5 | 55 | + | and | | | | | | + | founders | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | _Census | Employ- | Employ- | Working | Others | TOTAL. | + | 1901._ | ers. | ed. | on | not | | + | | | | Own | Speci- | | + | | | | Account. | fied. | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Book- | M. 554 | 11,609 | 388 | 113 | 12,664 | + | binders | F. 46 | 18,933 | 82 | 162 | 19,223 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Printers | M. 4,805 | 89,306 | 1,603 | 774 | 96,488 | + | | F. 117 | 9,463 | 48 | 65 | 9,693 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Litho- | M. 496 | 9,648 | 445 | 93 | 10,682 | + | graphers, | F. 7 | 1,015 | 14 | 7 | 1,043 | + | etc. | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper | M. 337 | 14,920 | 47 | 55 | 15,359 | + | manu- | F. 11 | 8,815 | 7 | 18 | 8,851 | + | facture | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Envelope | M. 14 | 352 | 1 | 3 | 370 | + | makers | F. 6 | 3,113 | 1 | 23 | 3,143 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper | M. 45 | 1,928 | 34 | 25 | 2,032 | + | stainers | F. 2 | 280 | 1 | 4 | 287 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Type | M. 35 | 1,223 | 15 | 14 | 1,287 | + | cutters | F. 0 | 181 | 0 | 2 | 183 | + | and | | | | | | + | founders | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Sta- | M. 352 | 3,910 | 91 | 28 | 4,381 | + | tionary | F. 24 | 4,615 | 12 | 47 | 4,698 | + | manu- | | | | | | + | facture | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + + SCOTLAND. + Males. Females. + + _Census 1841. (Employers and Employed included.)_ + Booksellers, etc. 2,164 283 + Printers 2,446 21 + Lithographers, etc. 234 1 + Paper manufacture 732 738 + Paper rulers 61 8 + Paper stainers 31 1 + Type founders 292 -- + + _Census 1851._ (_Employers and Employed included._) + Bookbinders 1,09 } 710 + Printers, etc. 3,526 } + Paper manufacture 1,265 2,159 + Paper stainers 49 Not enumerated. + + _Census 1861._ (_Employers and Employed included._) + Bookbinders 1,174 100 + Printers 4,400 70 + Lithographers, etc. 1,101 2 + Engravers 651 6 + Bookfolders 2 1,094 + Machine rulers 171 18 + Paper manufacture 1,648 2,773 + Envelope makers 5 309 + Paper stainers 77 -- + Type founders 434 -- + + _Census 1871._ (_Employers and Employed included._) + Bookbinders 1,293 174 + Printers 5,476 113 + Lithographers, etc. 1,125 36 + Print and map colourers 192 57 + Bookfolders -- 1,646 + Paper manufacture 2,770 3,504 + Envelope makers 7 412 + Paper rulers 214 100 + Paper stainers 110 50 + Type founders 496 -- + + _Census 1881._ (_Employers and Employed included._) + Bookbinders 1,433 2,587(a) + Printers 6,936 839 + Lithographers, etc. 1,269 153 + Map and print colourers and sellers 50 41 + Paper rulers 188 115 + Paper manufacture 3,363 4,612 + Envelope makers 32 580 + Paper stainers 34 97 + Type cutters and founders 471 71 + + (a) Bookfolders are included here. + + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | _Census | Employ- | Employ- | Working | Not | TOTAL. | + | 1891._ | ers. | ed. | on | Speci- | | + | | | | Own | fied. | | + | | | | Account. | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Book- |M. 68 | 1,413 | 13 | 22 | 1,516 | + | binders |F. 3 | 2,865 | 3 | 18 | 2,889 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Printers |M. 322 | 8,367 | 69 | 84 | 8,842 | + | |F. 5 | 1,417 | 1 | 7 | 1,430 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Litho |M. 109 | 1,516 | 22 | 10 | 1,657 | + | graphers, |F. -- | 397 | 1 | 2 | 400 | + | etc. | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper |M. 10 | 315 | 1 | 13 | 339 | + | rulers |F. 1 | 192 | -- | 4 | 197 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper |M. 107 | 4,332 | 21 | 51 | 4,511 | + | manu- |F. 3 | 4,546 | 4 | 66 | 4,619 | + | facture | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Envelope |M. 3 | 33 | 2 | -- | 38 | + | makers |F. -- | 698 | 1 | -- | 699 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper |M. 6 | 113 | 1 | -- | 120 | + | stainers |F. -- | 28 | -- | -- | 28 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Type |M. 9 | 496 | 3 | 4 | 512 | + | cutters |F. -- | 75 | -- | -- | 75 | + | and | | | | | | + | founders | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | _Census | Employ- | Employ- | Working | Not | TOTAL. | + | 1901._ | ers. | ed. | on | Speci- | | + | | | | Own | fied. | | + | | | | Account. | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Book | M. 67 | 1,422 | 16 | -- | 1,505 | + | binders | F. 4 | 3,522 | 4 | -- | 3,530 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Printers | M. 378 | 9,643 | 54 | 2 | 10,077 | + | | F. 7 | 2,852 | 1 | -- | 2,860 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Litho | M. 87 | 1,640 | 25 | -- | 1,752 | + | graphers, | F. 2 | 728 | 1 | -- | 731 | + | etc. | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper | M. 103 | 4,860 | 6 | 1 | 5,000 | + | manu- | F. 2 | 4,653 | -- | -- | 4,655 | + | facture | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Envelope | M. 4 | 53 | -- | -- | 57 | + | makers | F. 1 | 895 | -- | -- | 896 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Paper | M. 1 | 120 | 1 | -- | 122 | + | stainers | F. -- | 52 | 1 | -- | 53 | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Type | M. 6 | 419 | 5 | -- | 430 | + | cutters | F. -- | 53 | -- | -- | 53 | + | and | | | | | | + | founders | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + | Sta- | M. 22 | 95 | 1 | -- | 118 | + | tionery | F. 1 | 492 | 3 | -- | 496 | + | manu- | | | | | | + | facture | | | | | | + +-----------+----------+---------+----------+--------+--------+ + + +[Sidenote: Chief Factory Inspector's figures.] + +In 1896 the Home Office began to publish as an appendix to the Chief +Factory Inspector's Report a series of figures of occupation which were +exceedingly valuable for purposes of comparison, and in time would have +been the best existing statistical index of industrial movements. +Unfortunately these figures have not been published since 1899; but for +the years that they were issued, those relating to the printing trades +were as follows:-- + + FACTORY INSPECTOR'S REPORTS. + + _Paper, Printing, Stationery, Etc. (Includes all the industries + under this section.)_ + + Total Total Male Female + Male. Female. over 18. over 18. + + 1895 Factories 159,987 63,626 123,895 42,904 + Workshops 3,355 4,692 2,224 3,073 + ------- ------ ------- ------ + Total 163,342 68,318 126,119 45,977 + + 1896 Factories 169,500 68,769 131,166 45,632 + Workshops 4,508 5,919 3,152 3,898 + ------- ------ ------- ------ + Total 174,008 74,688 134,318 49,530 + + 1897 Factories 171,151 69,898 134,221 45,479 + Workshops 4,458 6,305 3,192 4,192 + ------- ------ ------- ------ + Total 175,609 76,203 137,413 49,671 + + 1898-99(a) 173,964 72,833 137,504 46,681 + + + SOME DETAILS OF ABOVE. + Total Total Male Female + Male. Female. over 18. over 18. + _Paper-making._ + 1895 Factories 21,263 11,008 18,271 8,935 + 1896 " 22,091 11,744 18,777 9,403 + 1897 " 22,174 11,309 19,086 9,138 + 1898-99(a) " 22,340 11,506 19,158 9,197 + + _Bookbinding._ + 1895 Factories 11,791 16,098 9,304 10,802 + 1896 " 13,300 17,159 10,580 11,498 + 1897 " 14,661 20,877 11,705 13,985 + 1898-99(a) " 14,893 22,555 12,046 14,653 + + _Letter-press Printing._ + 1895 Factories 104,162 19,974 80,232 12,699 + 1896 " 104,860 20,634 80,719 12,732 + 1897 " 100,629 14,473 79,124 8,725 + 1898-99(a) " 102,800 13,348 81,598 8,283 + + _Lithography, Engraving and Photography._ + 1895 Factories 12,789 4,516 9,024 2,735 + Workshops 2,226 1,425 1,494 943 + 1896 Factories 14,854 5,252 10,572 3,076 + Workshops 3,116 2,146 2,224 1,437 + 1897 Factories 17,960 6,278 12,867 3,451 + Workshops 2,794 2,115 2,076 1,477 + 1898-99(a) Factories 17,737 6,457 12,727 3,522 + + _Machine Ruling._ + 1895 Factories 664 482 408 170 + Workshops 233 134 97 45 + 1896 Factories 981 599 594 197 + Workshops 269 168 135 59 + 1897 Factories 1,764 1,414 1,115 538 + Workshops 322 166 163 57 + 1898-99(a) Factories 2,062 1,571 1,328 534 + + _Paper Staining, Colouring and Enamelling._ + 1895 Factories 4,254 983 2,916 540 + Workshops 102 28 74 16 + 1896 Factories 4,468 1,065 3,114 577 + Workshops 138 70 111 42 + 1897 Factories 4,795 1,368 3,395 784 + Workshops 40 66 33 38 + 1898-99(a) Factories 4,874 1,320 3,529 746 + + _Envelope Making._ + 1897 Factories 1,203 4,156 8 96 2,865 + Workshops 37 292 25 191 + 1898-99(a) Factories 1,405 4,996 1,030 3,313 + + (a) Factories only. + +These figures must not be compared with the census returns as they +relate only to those establishments making reports to the Factory +Inspectors under the Factory and Workshop Law. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +_WOMEN'S WORK AND ORGANISATION._ + + +[Sidenote: Women as Compositors. Historical.] + +The subdivision of labour which has broken up the original printing +"profession" into a score or so of different trades, each minutely +subdivided in turn, has been the chief cause of the employment of women +in this industry in modern times, although it appears that nuns were +engaged as compositors at the Ripoli Monastery Press in Florence towards +the end of the fifteenth century,[5] within half a century of the +introduction of printing. Only very exceptional women could obtain a +footing in a profession which embraced typefounding, ink-making, +press-carpentry, composing, folding, and bookbinding. The United States, +where, in so many respects, women have stepped in advance of European +conditions, boasts of Jenny Hirsch, who carried on a printer's business +in Boston about 1690, and during the next two centuries women printers +were common in the thirteen States. It was a woman, Mary Catherine +Goddard, who printed the first issue of the "Declaration of +Independence." The years of the French Revolution also seem to be marked +by the number of women engaged in the printing trade, whether owing to +the general emancipating impulses of the time or to the increased demand +for compositors, is not quite clear. The amiable and eccentric Thomas +Beddoes, moved by the interest he took in social affairs, and inspired +by the emancipatory movement of his time, had been struck with the +opening which the printing trades seemed to offer to women, and gave his +"Alexander's Expedition"[6] to a woman of his village, Madely, to set +up. "I know not," he wrote in the Advertisement to the book, "if women +be commonly engaged in printing, but their nimble and delicate fingers +seem extremely well adapted to the office of compositor, and it will be +readily granted that employment for females is amongst the greatest +_desiderata_ of society." In England, however, the labour of women +outside their homes continued to be extremely limited, and the printing +trades were confined to men. During the eighteenth century women seem to +have been employed in folding and sewing book and news sheets, but they +did not come into the trade in any considerable numbers until the +nineteenth century was half spent. This was very largely owing to the +heavy nature of the work and the long apprenticeship necessary to master +the varied details of the craft. The Provincial Typographical Society's +first constitution, issued in 1849, shows that at so recent a date the +typographical apprentice had to learn "printing and bookbinding" or +"printing and stationery."[7] The printing press used in 1800 was +practically the same as that used by Gutenberg in 1450. + +[Footnote 5: _Printers' Register_, August 6th, 1878, quoting _Journal +für Buchdruckerkunst_.] + +[Footnote 6: Published in 1792.] + +[Footnote 7: Typographical Association: "Fifty Years' Record," p. 4.] + +The enormous advance in the printing trades owing to the abolition of +the stamp duties and the paper tax, together with the spread of +education and improvement in the facilities for publishing, with their +resulting large demand for printed matter, speedily revolutionised these +trades and led to the introduction of the great machines. Pressmen +became differentiated from compositors, "minders" from layers-on or +takers-off, jobbers from book-hands, folders from makers-up; whilst +bookbinding finally became a separate trade altogether. Some of these +separate processes, needing but little skill and requiring no +apprenticeship, involving no heavy labour and no responsibility, offered +openings for women. + + +[Sidenote: Conflict between men and women.] + +One of the earliest references to women made by the Typographical +Association occurs in 1860, when the Executive of the Union mentioned +them in its half-yearly report. Printing houses were then closed to +Union members on account of the employment of women. The Typographical +Society's _Monthly Circular_ for August, 1865, for instance, states that +a Bacup newspaper office was closed to members of the Typographical +Union, owing to the employment of female labour. The exact form of +employment is not given. Again, in the report for June, 1866, the +Executive of the Union refers to having trouble with an employer who +tried to employ female labour, but who had failed "to get suitable +applicants of the gentle sex." In 1886 it was agreed that women should +be admitted to both the Typographical Association and the London Society +of Compositors on the same terms as men, but only one woman has availed +herself of this resolution.[8] + +[Footnote 8: She joined the London Society of Compositors on August +30th, 1892, but she has now ceased to be a member.] + +[Sidenote: Printing Trades and the Women's Movement.] + +At this point, the movement for the emancipation of women contributes an +interesting chapter to the history of these trades. + +The printing trades were regarded by a few of the leading spirits in the +agitation for "Women's Rights" as being well adapted to women's skill +and _physique_, and in 1860 Miss Emily Faithfull not only started the +Victoria Press, in which women alone were to be employed, but directed +the attention of women generally to the openings afforded them by this +group of trades. "The compositor trades," the _Englishwoman's Journal_ +(June, 1860) said, "should be in the hands of women only." Miss +Faithfull's experiments produced some considerable flutter amongst men. +At first, the men looked down upon them with the contempt of traditional +superiority; women compositors were "to die off like birds in winter" +(_cf._ _Printers' Journal_, August 5th, 1867, where a correspondent +stated that "the day is far distant when such labour can hope to +supersede our own"); but some trepidation was speedily caused when it +was found that women's shops were undercutting men's, and an alarmist +article in the _Printers' Register_ of February 6th, 1869, states that +"the exertions of the advocates of female labour in the printing +business have resulted in the establishment of a printing office where +printing can be done on lower terms than those usually charged." That +year Miss Faithfull was engaged in her libel action against Mr. Grant +for calling her an atheist, and the _Publishers' Circular_ furiously +attacked her work. By-and-by, however, the controversy died down. Miss +Faithfull's several attempts[9] to establish permanently a printing +establishment bore fruit in the still existing Women's Printing Society, +started in 1874. + +[Footnote 9: 1860, 1869, 1873; in 1869 another Women's Printing Office +was started as a means of finding employment for educated ladies: +_Printers' Register_, January 6th, 1869.] + +As an industrial factor, however, the "Women's Movement" has been +altogether secondary, and women have been induced to enter the trades +under review mainly because the subdivision of labour and the +application of mechanical power had created simple processes; because +they were willing to accept low wages; and because, unlike the men, who +were members of Unions, they made no efforts to interfere in the +management of the works. + + +[Sidenote: The London experience.] + +Partly owing to the nature of the work done and partly to the power of +the London Society of Compositors, no systematic attempt seems to have +been made generally to introduce women compositors into London houses +since 1878, and it is of some significance to note that most of the +London firms which employed women compositors between 1873 and 1878--the +period when the attempt was most actively made--have since disappeared, +owing to bad equipment and the inferior character of their trade. + +But the opposition to women lingered on after the attempts to introduce +them more generally had ceased. In 1879 the London Society of +Compositors decided that none of their members should finish work set up +by women, and the firm of Messrs. Smyth and Yerworth was struck by the +men's Union.[10] + +[Footnote 10: It is interesting to note that in these days also the +women only set up the type and the men "made it up."] + +Commenting on this trouble, the _Standard_, in a leading article +(October 8th, 1879) cynically remarked: "What women ask is not to be +allowed to compete with men, which the more sensible among them know to +be impossible, but to be allowed the chance of a small livelihood by +doing the work of men a little cheaper than men care to do it. This is +underselling of course, but it is difficult to see why, when all is said +and done, men should object to be undersold by their own wives and +daughters." + +"_Capital and Labour_," as quoted by the _Victoria Magazine_,[11] put +the case for the women thus: "This work is much more remunerative, and +far less toilsome and irritating than the occupation of the average +nursery governess, and we anticipate that, with proper arrangements, +there will be a large addition to the number of women compositors. The +reasons assigned against their employment in this capacity seem to be +the outcome of pedantry, prejudice, and jealousy; and no trade rules can +be permitted to interpose obstacles to the attainment of such a +desirable object as furnishing occupation to a number of females who are +qualified by deftness of hand and mental capacity to earn in it an +honourable livelihood. What would one of the men, who chose to leave +Messrs. Smyth and Yerworth at the behest of the Union, say, if having a +daughter of his own to assist him in his occupations, she were to be +compelled to sit idle while he was made to employ a male assistant at +high wages? Yet these men, though intelligent, capable, and industrious, +deliberately throw themselves out of work, and become for the time +paupers of their Union, because it will not permit them to assist in +perfecting any processes which have been begun by women. This is the way +in which men run their heads against a brick wall." + +[Footnote 11: November, 1879.] + +In December, 1882, the _Printers' Register_ published the following +notice: "In a West End office, objection having been made to the +introduction of female labour, and an undue number of turnovers, a +strike appeared imminent, but the Committee of the Society succeeded in +settling the dispute to the satisfaction of both sides." + +The question does not appear to have troubled the London Society again, +but in 1886, a Conference of the Typographical Societies of the United +Kingdom and Continent, held in London (October 21st-23rd), resolved: + +"That while strongly of opinion that women are not physically capable of +performing the duties of a compositor, this Conference recommends their +admission to membership of the various Typographical Unions, upon the +same conditions as journeymen, provided always the females are paid +strictly in accordance with scale." + +This resolution was subsequently adopted by the London Society of +Compositors as noted above, and is at present in force, with the result +that it is practically impossible for any woman to join the Society.[12] + +[Footnote 12: A curious point in connection with the work being sent out +of London is that except in the case of Edinburgh the greater cheapness +of the work outside London is not due so much to cheaper labour as to +lower rent, etc. Several firms out in the country in England where there +is no question of a Union preventing them, have tried to introduce +women, but with very little success. This is put down as lack of +intelligence in the women. No doubt a girl who has had only a village +elementary education is not the best material out of which to make a +good compositor, and the wages offered are not high enough to tempt town +bred girls to undergo the tedium of country life.] + + +[Sidenote: Provincial experience.] + +The Scottish compositors are organised in the Scottish Typographical +Association, which has no women members. Women, particularly in +Edinburgh and Perth, and to a smaller extent in Aberdeen, have been +employed to defeat the ends of the Society.[13] + +[Footnote 13: See p. 45.] + +The few attempts made to organise women in the printing trades have +failed. Women have been introduced into these trades at times of trouble +with the men's Unions, and are consequently not likely to form +organisations of their own. Their work has been so precarious and so +largely confined to the mechanical and lower grades of labour,[14] that +they have had no incentive to aspire to high standards of wages or other +industrial conditions. The women employed in the actual printing +processes do not seem to have regarded their work as their permanent +means of livelihood to the same extent as folders, for instance, have +done, and have been less interested, consequently, in improving their +trade conditions; and, finally, the men's Societies, for various +reasons, some well-founded and some groundless, have regarded women +printers as a form of cheap labour--"undercutters"--and have looked upon +them as dangerous intruders. + +[Footnote 14: _Cf._ pp. 64-68.] + +When, however, we turn to the organisation of women in the trades +dealing with printed matter, especially folding and bookbinding, we find +much greater collective activity and closer co-operation both amongst +themselves and with the men. Their Trade Union record is still but +scanty, nevertheless, the frequent and persistent efforts of women to +act jointly, without establishing a permanent organisation, form one of +the characteristic features of the trade. This apparently is almost +entirely due to the fact that women's labour in bookbinding, _e.g._, in +folding, was accepted by the men, and that in all workshop matters women +were the fellow-workers and not the rivals of the men. This distinction +between printing and bookbinding is most marked and requires to be +emphasised. + + +[Sidenote: Organisation amongst bookbinders.] + +The bookbinders' organisation sprang up in 1779-80, as most +organisations then did, from friendly meetings in certain houses of +call. It was at first known as "The Friends." In 1786, the working day +was from 6 a.m. to 8 p.m., with certain breaks for meals, giving, +perhaps, an actual working time of twelve and a half hours per day. But +in March of that year, a Conference of the sections decided to ask for a +reduction of an hour per day, and their petition was followed by the +discharge of workmen.[15] The employers then went further, and in May, +1786, indicted twenty-four of the ringleaders for conspiracy. In a +manifesto to the public, the men complained that their wages were only +from 15_s._ to 18_s._ per week, rising in a few cases to a guinea, and +proceeded to charge the employers with having "with vindictive rage +forced into the sweet retreats of domestic felicity" wives who were +employed in the trade. This action on the part of the employers was not +prompted, however, by an objection to women, for, according to the +testimony of Mr. W. M. Hall,[16] one of the men indicted, an attempt was +made to supply the book market as a temporary makeshift during the +dispute with the imperfect work of women. He says, "I cannot remember +the exact time of striking the women. This I remember, it was on account +of them and the apprentices doing books in boards, by the booksellers +consenting to take them so for a time, I was appointed to strike Black +Jock's[17] women. I went at one o'clock to see Maria, his forewoman, who +used to dine in the shop, she being single. I told her she must inform +the other women of the injury they were doing us by continuing at work. +If they were willing to serve our interest and leave their work, they +should receive their wages for doing nothing. If we gained our cause, +they should be sure of employ, and the advantage of the hour also. +Coming downstairs, I met Mr. McKinley. + +"'Well, Mr. Hall, are you coming to work again directly?' + +"'Sir, if you will grant the hour----' + +"'Come in here,' he says, going into his dining-room, and setting down a +large square bottle of Hollands to give me a glass, taking one himself +and pouring out another. Pat, pat, pat! came our ladies downstairs. +'What is all this about?' I was glad to make my escape. The six or seven +women were all subpoenaed against me on the trial." + +[Footnote 15: In the Report of the Committee on Trades' Societies +published in 1860 by the National Association for the Promotion of +Social Science, Mr. Dunning tells the history of the London Consolidated +Society of Bookbinders. pp. 93-104.] + +[Footnote 16: _The Finishers' Friendly Circular_, May, 1846, No. 4.] + +[Footnote 17: An employer named John McKinley.] + +The narrative of this famous struggle--one of the most important in the +history of Trade Unionism, involving persecution, imprisonment, and +death--contains no further records of the part played by women in it, +but Mr. Hall's reminiscence indicates how they behaved. The men were +successful, and in 1794, the working day was again reduced, so that it +lasted from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. Presumably the women shared in these +advantages, and also in that of an afternoon tea half-hour, which was +theirs exclusively until 1806, when the men, during a period of active +trade and overtime, demanded the same privilege. James Watson, in his +"Recollections,"[18] hints that the kind indulgence of the women to the +men, permitted in some shops, made the afternoon tea half-hour a general +demand. "Their kind friends, the ladies, while preparing for their own +comfort, neglected not those of their less fortunate companions, but +contrived by making their tea to accommodate them as much as possible, +and the men, if not immediately under the eye of their employer, would +seat themselves on the end of their presses for ten minutes or so and +thus partake of it." A strike to secure the half-hour was unsuccessful, +but the men gradually won their point. Mr. Watson tells how, after the +strike, it happened that he was being engaged by one of the opposing +masters. The master, "being pressed upon the point, damned the +half-hour, but said I might come in and do as I liked. I accordingly +accepted the situation, and at tea-time, when I prepared to sit down, I +expected to be supported by the men of the shop who were well aware of +my intention, but not one of them would move. I was thus placed in an +awkward position, and could only turn to my good friends, the ladies, to +countenance my proceedings, who kindly invited me to their tea table." +In about a month, Mr. Watson informs us, every man in the place was +following his example.[19] + +[Footnote 18: _British Bookmaker_, June, 1892.] + +[Footnote 19: The friendly conduct of "the ladies" was long remembered +in the trade, and was celebrated as late as 1847 in a song:-- + + "What we enjoy we dearly bought, + And nobly they the battle fought, + Who--though the ladies' aid they sought, + Would--right or wrong--have tea. + _Chorus_ + "Then let us all our voices raise, + And loudly chant to-night in praise + Of those who gained in byegone days, + The time we have for tea."] + + +[Sidenote: The Bible Society controversy.] + +The struggle which the bookbinders fought with most pertinacity +was, however, that which they waged against the Religious +Societies--particularly the British and Foreign Bible Society--when +attempting to cheapen the production of religious literature by means +which, the bookbinders contended, involved unreasonably low rates of +pay. In this struggle women played a prominent part. + +It broke out as early as 1825 when the Society for Promoting Christian +Knowledge reduced its prices and the master bookbinders working for it +reduced wages. The strike which followed collapsed for want of funds. In +1833 the contest was resumed with the British and Foreign Bible Society. +That year the five houses then employed by the Society reduced wages, +and it appears that when the dispute was about to be settled by both +sides accepting a compromise, a representative of the Bible Society +instructed the masters to hold out. The men appealed to the Society, but +were told that it could not intervene. No definite settlement was ever +arrived at. + +The first petition which the men addressed to the Society in 1833 made +special reference to the condition of the women workers. "Your +memorialists beg leave to state," they wrote, "that there are a number +of females (about 200) employed in binding the books of your Society, +the whole of whose wages have been reduced in consequence of the late +alteration in the prices of these books. Their wages were before very +low. Your memorialists respectfully submit that the making it more +difficult, and in some cases impossible, for females to earn an honest +subsistence, by their labour, is in the same proportion to give potency +to the seducers of female virtue." Reply and counter-reply were made, +and the Society was heartily attacked by the Union with texts from +Scripture and reflections on applied Christianity. In the defence which +the Society issued in 1834, it is stated that its binders informed it +that "competent and industrious men in our employ earn on an average +6_d._ an hour or 30_s._ weekly when in constant work; and women in the +same description from 8_s._ to 10_s._ and upwards." + +Mr. Dunning, the Union Secretary, replied that he could prove that the +scale given was an "entire falsehood," and published a second "Address +to the Religious Public," in which the wages paid by the principal firm +were given, the average for thirteen men working out at a small fraction +over a guinea per week, and of twenty-four women at 5_s._ 11_d._ per +week. In 1843 the dispute was allowed to end, when the five firms +promised to pay the women on timework at rates between 7_s._ 6_d._ and +15_s._ per week, and to work them only ten hours per day. + +In 1845 the Society decided to give all its binding to one firm, the +proprietress of which was Miss Watkins, and four years later the most +famous dispute of the series broke out. The "controversy," as it is +called in the bookbinders' records, opened by an appeal addressed to the +Society on August 17th, 1849, by the journeymen bookbinders of London +and Westminster, in which it was alleged that Miss Watkins had returned +to piecework, and that the wages she was paying to women averaged only +5_s._ 6_d._ to 6_s._ per week for a longer day than ten hours. Learners +were taken on and were discharged so soon as they were entitled to +increases in wages, and a rule was said to be in operation by which, so +soon as a woman worker was qualified to be paid more than 7_s._ a week, +she was discharged. "Exorbitant" fines were also imposed. "Females," +remarks the appeal, "often have not the power to plead their own cause +in such matters, and being helpless in many respects where their wages +are concerned, they are trodden down until a state of things such as +described in the 'Song of the Shirt' appals the mind with the enormity +of their injuries, their suffering, and their moral condition." The +appeal contained the following table, showing the difference in wages +paid to women working for the Bible Society and those working for the +Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. + + Bible Society for Promoting + Society. Christian Knowledge. + + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + 5 0 Pearl Bibles, per 100 vols. 7 6 + 5 1½ Ruby " " 7 0 + 6 10½ Large Pica Bibles, " 8 4 + 6 8 Small " " " 8 4 + +One of the grievances specially mentioned in this appeal was that women +were not allowed hot water, except between 4 and 4.30 p.m., and were +then charged 1_d._ per week for it. + +Immediately (August 22nd, 1849) after the issue of the "Appeal" the +women employed by Miss Watkins were asked to sign a statement that they +were perfectly satisfied with their pay and conditions. Several signed, +not knowing the purport of the paper; others refused. On the advice of +the men's Union a counter-statement was drawn up and signed, and sent in +to the Bible Society, and on finding that the forewoman who had taken +their part, together with the active promoters of the counter-petition, +were to be discharged, the women left work, and demanded:-- + +1. That prices should be raised to the standard paid by the Society for +Promoting Christian Knowledge. + +2. That fines should be abolished. + +3. That they should have access to cold water as well as hot for tea. + +4. That after the learners then employed had completed their +apprenticeship, not more than twenty learners should be employed at one +time. + +About a hundred women had come out, and the men's Union organised a +relief fund.[20] + +[Footnote 20: It may not be amiss to copy a few sentences from Mr. +Dunning's obituary notice in the _Bookbinder's Trade Circular_, January +21st, 1862, of the women's leader, Mary E. Zugg, an early and humble +worker in women's organisations. "Nothing could exceed the temper, +moderation and firmness she displayed. Possessing great energy, strong +sense and great acuteness of perception, detecting at a glance pretence +from reality, she was not what was termed a strong-minded woman, +commanding great respect and but little affection, for her goodness of +heart and great regard for the feelings and welfare of others endeared +her to all." She died at the age of thirty-three of consumption on +November 13th, 1861, and is buried in Bow Cemetery.] + +Miss Watkins replied, denying every charge made by Mr. Dunning, and +giving 10_s._ as the earnings for a week of sixty hours. The Union +replied by asking that a deputation should be allowed to inspect the +wages books of the firm. It claimed to be in possession of the rates of +wages paid to ninety-seven folders and sewers for three weeks in August, +and gave the average as 6_s._ 2½_d._ for a sixty-hours' week, and in +other respects it supported its original charges. + +The _Times_ of January 25th, 1850, contains in its advertisement columns +the report of a Committee of the Southwark Auxiliary of the Bible +Society, which examined Miss Watkins' books, and it supported her +statements. The women earned from 9_s._ to 14_s._ per week. But Mr. +Dunning was not silenced, and on March 25th he issued a long pamphlet, +the last of the "controversy" for the time. In it, it is stated that the +committee of investigation had been deceived so as to mistake wages paid +for ten days as though they were paid for a week, and a table of wages +for three weeks in September and October, for the week ending July 28th, +1849, and for the four weeks preceding the strike, was printed.[21] The +wage average of the periods was from 5_s._ 9½_d._ to 6_s._ 4½_d._ per +week of sixty hours. + +[Footnote 21: See p. 184.] + +The agitation failed. The women either found work elsewhere, or went +back under the conditions against which they had struck. Mr. Dunning +could only say that the dispute had arrested a downward tendency in +prices and wages. + +The dispute cost the men's Union £146. This was spent mostly in printing +and postage, but it included grants amounting to £22 given to the +separate Women's Committee, which had collected an additional fund of +£650 to aid the strikers. + +The finishers had strongly opposed the support which the Union had given +to the women, and their section, to the number of 150, was finally +expelled from the Union. + +But whilst this unusual harmony existed between the men's Union and the +women workers, no serious attempt had been made to organise the women +permanently, either as members of the men's Society, or in one of their +own. In 1833, in an address to the London journeymen bookbinders, a Mr. +Benjamin Teasdale, of Manchester, advised the formation of a women's +Society, but nothing appears to have been done. In 1855 they were +allowed to borrow books from the men's library on the payment of 6_d._ a +quarter. It is impossible to ascertain how far the agreement between +men and masters for a nine hours' day in 1872 really affected women, as +a considerable proportion of them had been working only for nine hours +before the agreement was made. + + +[Sidenote: The Society of Women employed in Bookbinding.] + +Not till 1874 was there a determined and successful attempt made to +organise women bookbinders into a Union. On September 12th of that year +"the first Society formed for women," the Society of Women employed in +Bookbinding, was formed by Mrs. Emma Paterson, the pioneer of women's +Trade Unions in England,[22] and in the following year Mrs. Paterson was +sent as its delegate to the Trade Union Congress meeting in Glasgow. +This was the first time that a woman had appeared at these parliaments +of Trade Unionism, which had been held annually since 1868. From the +commencement the relations between the men's and the women's Societies +were most cordial, and at the first annual meeting of the latter Mrs. +Paterson read a letter she had received "some years ago" from Mr. +Dunning, in which he advised "the formation of Trades' Societies for +women." The cordial greetings extended to the new Society by its brother +organisation did not meet it everywhere. A congratulatory resolution was +moved at the London Trades' Council, and though it received the support +of the veteran George Odger, it was met with considerable opposition. +Women's labour was cheap labour, and many of the delegates to the +Trades' Council could not get beyond that fact. + +[Footnote 22: Mrs. Paterson was born in London on April 5th, 1848, and +was the daughter of H. Smith, headmaster of St. George's, Hanover +Square, parish school. In 1867 she became assistant secretary to the +Club and Institute Union, and in 1872 secretary to the Women's Suffrage +Association. Next year she married Thomas Paterson, a cabinet-maker and +wood carver. With him she visited America where she saw the Female +Umbrella Makers' Union at work. On her return to London in 1874 she +formed the Women's Protective and Provident League, the membership of +which was mainly middle class, though its object was to promote Trade +Unionism amongst women. She died December 1st, 1886, and was buried in +the Paddington Cemetery. See art. _Dictionary of National Biography_.] + +It is unnecessary to detail the somewhat uneventful career of the Union. +Mrs. Paterson, at the end of eighteen months, was succeeded by Miss +Eleanor Whyte, who still occupies the position of secretary.[23] The +membership began at 66 and reached 275--of whom only 200 were financial +members--at the end of the first year. From that time till now the +membership has been exceedingly variable, and no full and reliable +records seem to exist. But from the disconnected information which is at +our disposal, it would appear that the two most successful years of the +Society were 1876 (when 63 new members were enrolled), and 1890 (when 67 +were enrolled). In 1870 the membership was given at 210; in 1884 at 200; +in 1891 at 240; in 1901 at 270; the period of depression from 1883 to +1889 seems to have tried the Society very severely. + +[Footnote 23: December, 1903.] + +The objects of this Society are stated to be: "To maintain and protect +the rights and privileges of the trade and to grant relief to such +members as may be out of work, or afflicted with illness." The +subscription is 2_d._ per week, and an entrance fee of 1_s._ is imposed. + +It can hardly be expected that a Society whose membership has probably +never exceeded 270, could have much fighting force. But agitation has +never been the policy of the Society. It has refused to join with the +men in making demands upon the employers; its representatives at Trade +Union Congresses and elsewhere have steadily resisted legal restrictions +upon labour; it has not shown itself anxious to seize what the men +regarded as opportunities to make itself felt.[24] + +[Footnote 24: In 1891 the women's Society refused to support the men's +in agitating for an eight-hours' day. In 1875 Mrs. Paterson said at the +Trade Union Congress that "the more they pressed for additional +legislation the greater obstacles they threw in the way of working +women. She should rather say let them suffer a little longer the evils +of overwork and long hours." The Union's representatives, however, have +always pressed for women factory inspectors, and on this matter Mrs. +Paterson was for a good many years a voice crying in the wilderness.] + +Perhaps the Union has been too willing to make requests to good +employers for better conditions, and too timorous in helping to level up +the general conditions of the trade. Employers have not been hostile. +Mr. B. Collins, the publisher, for instance, presided over the annual +meeting for 1891, and Mr. Longmans and other publishers have done the +same in other years. "I know an employer," says a writer in the _British +Bookmaker_ of September, 1891, "who will give £100 to see a good women's +Union established. Why? Because if it could be done, its effect upon +other employers would remove the gross inequalities of prices that at +present exist to his detriment." But this Union has never reached that +point of strength when it could bring pressure to bear on the trade for +the mutual advantage of the good employer and the woman worker. + +As a consequence, the good relations between the men and the women in +the trade have not always been maintained, and there was considerable +ill-feeling between the two sections during the eight hours' agitation +from 1891 to 1894.[25] + +[Footnote 25: It should be noted, however, that the sentiment amongst +the women as a whole was friendly during the eight hours' agitation, +although the Society was taking no part in it officially. A writer in +the _British Bookmaker_ for December, 1891, tells how all the women in +the lacing department of Messrs. Waterlow's (Hill Street) struck on a +certain job, and how "at another place as I stood with the pickets +outside, about five o'clock one cold afternoon, I saw something +descending from an upper storey and found it was a quart of hot tea for +the benumbed men on duty below, lowered out by a string from the women's +shop."] + +At the present moment this Society is regarded by both men and women +mainly as a benefit club. In this respect it has been most successful +and has paid with excellent regularity. + + +[Sidenote: The Book-folders' Union.] + +An attempt was made in 1892 to start another Union for women engaged in +folding in printing houses. The sponsor of the new Society was the +Printers' and Stationers' Warehousemen's and Cutters' Union. It is a +significant fact, and one which throws a great deal of light upon the +very little which one section of workers knows even of those working at +their elbow, that the organisers of the new Union were quite unaware of +the existence of the Women Bookbinders' Society. The new Society, which +called itself the Book-folders' Union, was started during the flood of +Trade Union sentiment which followed the London Dock Strike in 1889, and +its membership grew rapidly. Within five months of its formation it is +said to have numbered 500,[26] and later on the figure of 700 was +quoted. A popular employer, Mrs. Bond, had been elected secretary, and +an assistant was appointed at a wage of 18_s._ per week. This new Union +was determined to be as active as the older one had been inactive. It +demanded a minimum wage of 15_s._, time-and-a-quarter pay for overtime, +and "no apprentices." It also demanded exemption from the nightwork +prohibition clauses of the Factory and Workshop Acts. But the Union was +doomed to an early and ignominious end. During the absence of the +secretary the finances became hopelessly involved, and a deficit in cash +decided the members to close the whole matter.[27] + +[Footnote 26: _Women's Trade Union Journal_, January 15th, 1893.] + +[Footnote 27: The fact that all definite recollection of this Union is +passing away, and that for the above information we have had to rely +upon the memory of two ladies who were indirectly interested in it, +throws some light upon the carelessness in industrial matters of the +woman worker. No minutes nor other documents can be found. "The person +who had them, married," and that was taken to have settled the matter.] + +The Society would not even formally amalgamate with the older Society, +partly owing to differences in method, and partly to its disgust with +its failure and disgrace. + + +[Sidenote: National Book-folders and Kindred Trades Union.] + +One more attempt to found a fighting women's Union was made in 1894 by +the Printing and Kindred Trades Federation. All women employed in the +Printing and Kindred Trades were to be eligible for membership. The +attempt arose out of two disputes. In one, the women employed by a +certain firm had successfully struck for an increase of wages and +against certain conditions of labour; in the second, women had come out +to show their sympathy with some locked-out men.[28] In recognition of +the women's "courage and loyalty" the men promoted the Union. In a month +or two its membership stood at 100, and by March 1896, 350 members had +joined. The membership at the end of 1902 was 150, mostly book-folders, +and the following points are prominent in the Union's demands:-- + + 1. To obtain and maintain the recognised minimum scale of pay for + every member; + + 2. To reduce hours of labour; + + 3. To regulate the relations between employers and employed. + +[Footnote 28: It is interesting to note that whilst the cheapness of +women's work as compositors in Edinburgh seems to have attracted a +certain class of work from London, the men's success in keeping up wages +in the London bookbinding trade does not seem to have driven bookbinding +into the provinces. There are one or two bookbinding firms in the +provinces and in Scotland which employ girls, but mainly upon diary and +account book work, the book trade being practically untouched. _Cf._ +f.n., 28-29.] + +It had no sick benefits, but paid £5 at death, and offered strike pay on +condition that the strike was sanctioned by the committee. The reserve +fund in 1902 was under £100. + +In 1903 the Society approached the Printers' and Stationers' +Warehousemen praying to be recognised as a branch of that Union. A +ballot of the men was taken, when 700 voted that the request be granted +and 334 that it be not. The Women's Society has therefore ceased to +exist as a separate organisation. + + +[Sidenote: The Manchester Society.] + +A Manchester Society,[29] "The Manchester and Salford Society of Women +Employed in the Bookbinding and Printing Trades" has gained some +definite success in increasing wages during its six years of existence. +In its third Annual Report, 1899, it is stated that in May, 1898, the +Society began an attempt to increase wages to a 10_s._ minimum after a +three or four years' apprenticeship, that as a consequence the wages of +forty girls were raised in September from 9_s._ to 10_s._, and that +subsequently thirty others received the shilling advance. In its next +Report, 1899-1900, it states, without giving the number of girls +affected, that "they now all receive 11_s._ and 12_s._ per week, where, +prior to joining the Union, they earned 9_s._ and 10_s._ per week." Next +year the membership was 165, and the last issued Report, 1902, whilst +stating that "a slight increase of membership" had taken place during +the year, gives no figures. "Losses through marriage and other +circumstances," the 1901 Report says, "have been great," and the Society +is kept going mainly by the devotion of one or two persons.[30] + +[Footnote 29: The existing Society is the second attempt to organise the +women in these trades in Manchester.] + +[Footnote 30: The last balance sheet gives at a glance the position of +this Society, and indicates its activities:-- + + BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDING APRIL 30th, 1902.-- + + _Income._ £ _s._ _d._ + To balance from April + 30th, 1901 114 0 4½ + " contributions 72 3 3 + " Bank interest 2 9 11 + ---------------- + £188 13 6½ + ================ + + _Expenditure._ £ _s._ _d._ + By sick pay 29 10 0 + " out-of-work pay 17 1 8 + " printing 2 15 9 + " postages 0 8 6 + " secretary's salary 5 12 6 + " collector's commission 1 9 9 + " grant to Women's + Trades Council 2 0 0 + " grant to treasurer 0 5 0 + " auditing accounts 0 4 0 + " deputation expenses 0 2 0 + ---- -- ---- + 59 9 2 + " cash in Bank on + April 30th, 1902 125 2 5 + " cash in hands of + secretary 4 1 11½ + ---------------- + £188 13 6½] + ================ + +Attempts have been made to organise women elsewhere as, for instance, in +Edinburgh, where a Union of women compositors existed for a year; also +in Birmingham, where ten years ago a Union was formed specially to +include the machine-rulers who had been introduced about ten years +previously. But the movements have failed. + +Such is the record of the organisation of women in the trades with which +we are dealing. It is almost exclusively confined to London and +Manchester, and in London, out of 19,000 women connected with +bookbinding, most of whom are book and paper-folders, certainly not more +than 500 are organised. In 1901, in the seven Men's Unions covering +these trades there were 41,907 members, whilst the total membership of +the Women's Unions was well under 1,000. + + +[Sidenote: Maintaining standards without organisation.] + +Our enquiries have discovered, however, the existence of a kind of loose +organisation of majority-rule and custom in some firms. Standards of +prices and conditions are thus kept up. It must not be forgotten that +where men and women work together all concessions won by the men's +Unions are shared by women, as for instance, when the Typographical +Association of Scotland secured a fifty hours' week for Aberdeen +compositors. This is an interesting feature of feminine methods. In one +house we came across two collating-rooms, one of which was staffed by +older hands, who stood upon their dignity and would not accept inferior +work or tolerate reductions in wages. The other room was conducted after +the methods of the ordinary employer of cheap women's labour; the +workpeople were careless and casual and the room had no traditions and +no industrial "public opinion." This force of opinion, which assumes +almost the nature of caste, is most strongly developed amongst job +hands. These women manage to keep up a comparatively high standard of +pay, and we have discovered the most unusual circumstance that in one or +two instances the wages of job women have been cut down to the Union +rates. We have been told on most trustworthy authority that the +unwritten laws of these job hands are sometimes enforced upon +recalcitrant work-women by "a hiding." + + +[Sidenote: Organisation in the miscellaneous trades.] + +As regards organisation in the more miscellaneous trades included in our +investigation, little has to be said. A few card mounters once joined +the Women's Printing and Kindred Trades Union after a strike, but soon +fell away, and a Union started in 1890, of which little information can +now be obtained, included some envelope makers: but by 1893 it, too, +seems to have died. + +No attempt has been made to organise women engaged in the preparation of +materials for printing either in London or the provinces. + + +[Sidenote: The attitude of employers.] + +The attitude of employers and employed to Trade Unions at the present +moment is most varied. Naturally, a good many employers are in no mood +to encourage Unions, because they do not know what might happen if the +women's organisations became as strong as the men's. But, on the other +hand, a considerable number of employers working under fair conditions +and doing a trade of good quality, would welcome combination. It would +help them against their cutting competitors, and they do not object to +meet the reasonable demands of their women. In thirty-four cases +employers were not aware of the existence of a Union at all. Fourteen +forewomen knew about a Union, eleven denied its existence.[31] In no +instance in London was a non-Union woman bookbinder discovered who knew +of the existence of both the Unions, though the majority of the women +knew of the existence of one or the other. + +[Footnote 31: It is important to note in connection with this point that +the power of a forewoman over women is generally more unquestioned than +that of a foreman over men.] + + +[Sidenote: The women's attitude.] + +We were anxious to find out why they did not join. Some spoke with scorn +of the older Union because it was only a benefit Society; others said, +"No use in joining; you get nothing out of it;" others thought it +dangerous; others suspected all Unions; others frankly admitted that +marriage was sure to come along, and then they would work in factories +and workshops no longer. An eloquent commentary upon this sentiment is +to be found in the figures extracted from the Factory Inspector's Annual +Reports and printed in Chapter II. When one works out from these tables +the proportion between the males of over 18 years of age and the total +number of males employed in the various trades and compares it with +that of the females, it will be found that a comparatively excessive +percentage of the latter are under 18 years of age. The same point is +brought out with more emphasis and detail in Appendix VII. The women do +not, in fact, feel it necessary to organise themselves, and a manager of +a Co-operative Printing Works, where membership of a Union is compulsory +upon women, informed us that they grumble when they are made to join and +surrender their membership as soon as they can. The notes of some of the +conversations reported are valuable indications of the mind of the woman +wage-earner in this respect. + +We can only say in conclusion that, in the first place, women do not +take that strenuous interest in their labour conditions which is +essential to successful organisation. In the second place, it appears +that, except at occasional times of dispute, their work is so well +marked off from that of men, that the men's Unions in these trades are +coming more and more to the conclusion that it does not pay them to +organise the women. In the third place, we have been surprised to find +that the great majority of employers and of their women employées assume +that wages are fixed and that any effort to alter them by organisation +will be doomed to failure.[32] Our investigators have been given +instance after instance of both increase and reduction in wages, but the +general tenor of conversation is a pessimist and listless view that +whatever _is_, is fixed. + +[Footnote 32: _Cf._ p. 90.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +_MEN AND WOMEN AS WORKERS._ + + +[Sidenote: Do women displace men?] + +One of the most important questions relating to women as workers is the +exact relationship between their work and that of men, _i.e._, how far +they are rivals in competition and how far they are helpers in +co-operation. In some of these trades, such as that of the lithographic +artists, this question has never arisen, because women have rarely +entered the trade. Only five instances of women working as lithographic +artists are known to the head of St. Bride's Institute. But that men and +women have been rivals from time to time is placed beyond doubt, +although it must always be remembered that the same work nominally is +not always the same work actually.[33] + +[Footnote 33: Men feeders, for instance, carry formes and do little +things about the machine which women do not do. In one instance it was +reported that a firm with a London and a country house, employed women +in the latter to do binding done by men in the former. On enquiry it was +found that the heavy work was done in London and the light work in the +country. An interesting case in point is reported by a Scottish +investigator. "Stated that in another workshop a man had been displaced +at a paper-ruling machine and two girls taken on instead. I took special +note of this case when visiting the workshop in question later. There +were two girls employed at the machine, but they appeared to be working +along with the manager of that department, who was supervising it." But +there is work, such as the minding of platen machines which men do in +London but which women do in Edinburgh and Aberdeen.] + +Gold laying for cloth binding has, within the last quarter of a century, +become the work of women who have taken the place of old "finishers" in +some bookbinding firms,[34] and at Dunstable women are reported as +doing binding throughout. Women are employed as compositors much more +frequently in the provinces than in London. In Edinburgh and Aberdeen, +for instance, women are reported as being engaged in every process, +except making-up and the heavy work of carrying type, in which men alone +are employed. Type-setting and distribution of type are often done by +women in Scotland. In some of the Edinburgh printing establishments +women do practically the same work as men. The extensive employment of +women during the compositors' strike in Edinburgh in 1872 to secure a +fifty-one hours' working week[35] was the result of the determination of +the employers to defeat the Typographical Association, and at least one +firm in London tried the same policy during the bookbinders' strike for +an eight-hours' day in 1902 though apparently with no success. The +enthusiasts for the introduction of women into the printing trades had +for some time been trying to get a hold upon Edinburgh printing offices, +but had failed until the strike of 1872. An enterprising employer then +trained some girls from the Merchant Company's Schools--a better class +of girls whom we find described sometimes as "stickit teachers"--to +compose. The results were satisfactory, and the example was speedily +followed. The strike failed and the displacement of men continued. + +[Footnote 34: Reporting to their members in May, 1903, the Wages +Committee of the London Society of Journeymen Bookbinders (Third Report) +state regarding the award just given on certain points of dispute +between the Unions and the Employers: "The right of employment of women +in laying-on of gold has also been awarded against us, notwithstanding +that no part of the proceedings evoked more strenuous opposition from +your representatives. The hands of your delegates were weakened by the +fact that the practice already existed: in some cases had crept in, and +in others been extended unawares; yet they strove to preserve the right +of the workman, whilst willing and anxious that the supercession of the +workwoman, where she had been introduced, should be gradual and +considerate.--The argument for the employers is that the employment of +women on the class of gold laying-on indicated, will enable them fairly +to compete in other fields, and will tend to increase men's work instead +of to reduce it. This view, the arbitrator adopted."] + +[Footnote 35: So also in Aberdeen. "About a dozen years ago during a +dispute about apprentices, seventeen men and three or five boys went +out, and girls were then taken on."] + + +[Sidenote: The Perth dispute.] + +Something similar happened in Perth, where twenty-five years ago four +girls were taken into the newspaper department of the offices of the +_Perthshire Advertiser_. About seven years ago they were introduced into +a commercial printing office, and a year later the _Perthshire +Constitutional_ began to employ them on general bookwork and setting-up +newspaper copy, the proprietor claiming that he had the same right as +the other offices to have cheap female labour. Thus the practice +threatened to spread throughout the other commercial printing offices, +and the men's Union thought it was time to bestir itself. It decided +that the women must either be paid the same rates as the men or be got +rid of altogether. This ultimatum was sent to the employers. The +_Constitutional_ complied with the demands of the Union and dismissed +its women workers. The _Advertiser_ at first proposed gradually to +replace the girls by men in the commercial department, but to continue +to run the newspaper department by female labour. The proprietor +contended that this would not give him an unfair advantage over the +other firms, as they employed linotype machines. The Union then decided +to strike, and took thirty men out of the _Advertiser_ office. Four +remained in, and some other non-Union men were also engaged. The office +continues to work under this system. + + +[Sidenote: Value of women's work.] + +There has also been trouble in Grimsby (1899), owing to the employment +of women on a bi-weekly newspaper, at Redhill (1898-1900), and at +Reading (1902). Other places where the Typographical Association report +women to be employed are, Louth (Lincolnshire), Aylesbury, Beccles, +Fakenham, Warrington,[36] etc.; whilst in Birmingham the experiment was +tried about 1890, but has been abandoned. They are also employed at +Bungay, but in decreasing numbers, because their proofs require so much +more correcting than the men's that the valuable time thus lost is not +compensated for by the cheapness of their labour. The same is true of +Edinburgh, where their wages have fallen from a rate of 1_s._ 6_d._ to +1_s._ per average page. In Leicester a firm tried to employ women in +distributing type at low rates of pay, but a protest from the local +executive of the Typographical Association led immediately to the +experiment being discontinued. There is an almost unanimous chorus of +opinion that women's work as compositors is so inferior to men's that +it does not pay in the long run. From the days of Miss Faithfull's +experiments, the men have been able to boast that women could not touch +them at the case. In Aberdeen the unwillingness of boys to submit to a +long apprenticeship and the fear of parents that the linotype has +spoiled the typographical trade, are said to be the main reasons +necessitating the employment of women compositors. + +[Footnote 36: Women were introduced into Warrington newspaper offices +early in the decade beginning with 1880. They have been found to be +quicker than men in plain setting-up and simple straightforward work. +They do not stay very long--the eldest girl compositor employed, when +our investigator called, being only twenty-five. They are not employed +in locking the formes; nor curiously enough are they employed in the +machine-room to feed the printing presses, though they are so engaged in +Manchester. The women compositors are paid one-third of the men's rate. +Here it was definitely stated that the cheapness of women's labour made +it unnecessary to introduce linotypes.] + + +[Sidenote: The men's view.] + +Men in these trades have never looked upon women competitors with a +friendly eye, the reason being that so many branches are just on the +margin line of those occupations which are so light and easily picked up +that women can supplant men in them altogether.[37] The Typographical +Association for over a quarter of a century has had to carry on a +constant struggle with the employers in order to protect the journeymen +printers against three forms of cheap labour--apprentices, unskilled men +and women.[38] Employers in a small way of business, maintaining +establishments on little capital, where efficiency is not high, employ +women on work done in larger and better equipped establishments +exclusively by men. Here there is rivalry and competition, and women are +preferred mainly because they accept lower wages, and because they are +not members of Unions;[39] and their lack of technical skill is not +found to be a sufficient counterpoise to these advantages. But in these +places an inferior kind of work is done, and if men were employed they +would either have to accept wages below the generally enforced scale, or +the whole character of the work and organisation of the business would +have to be changed. + +[Footnote 37: It is interesting to note that an official of the +Lithographic Printers' Society, entitled to explain the attitude of the +Union, stated, "The Lithographic Society distinctly encourages girls; +when boys feed the machines they are apt to pick up too much and want to +become litho-printers before going through the apprenticeship. The +women, not desiring to become litho-printers, are better from the +Society's point of view."] + +[Footnote 38: This is the real opposition which the men offer to women. +In Perth and Bungay, for instance, the women put in a bill at the end of +each week, worked out on the men's scale of rates. The cashier then +divides the total by two and pays the women accordingly. In Edinburgh +women's piece rates for composing average about two-thirds those of men. +At Warrington, women do machine-ruling for prices ranging from 15_s._ to +20_s._, whilst men are paid 32_s._ for the same work. A more definite +statement is made by a Manchester employer. He estimated that a woman +was two-thirds as valuable in a printer's and stationer's warehouse as a +man, and she was paid 15_s._ or 20_s._ to his 33_s._ A further example +of this is given in connection with a Scottish firm executing Government +work. "As the Government insists upon the men's Union price being paid, +the work is being done by men, although in the ordinary way it would +have been done by women." "But they would never allow the women," said +our informant of her employers, "to make such big money as that."] + +[Footnote 39: This is why the Typographical Association offers a steady +resistance to the employment of women. It does not object to them as +women, but as forms of cheap and unskilled labour.] + + +[Sidenote: Apparent rivalry.] + +In the better equipped houses, where women are employed on work +generally done by men, as in composing, only parts of a compositor's +duty are performed by women, and the heavier or the more technical +duties, such as carrying about the formes or imposing, are done as a +rule by boys or men.[40] So that here the rivalry is but partial, and, +moreover, the employment of women does not always pay. It appears that +in some cases, particularly in bookbinding, the application of +machinery[41] makes it possible for the less skilled and lower paid +women to do work formerly done by men, so that men regard women _plus_ +the machine as their competitor. On the other hand machines have +displaced women and have made new openings for men, as in the case of +one of the most recently introduced folding machines which feeds itself. +But the re-organisation of the workshop which follows the introduction +of the machine cannot be regarded merely as a substitution of men's +labour by women's or the opposite, for what really happens is an +all-round shifting of the distribution of labour-power and skill, and a +re-arrangement of the subdivision of labour.[42] Men are transferred +from one kind of work to another, owing mainly to a change in the +volume of production; women are introduced not so much to take men's +places as to fill places created by the re-organisation of work; youths +also find a footing more often at the expense of women than of men. At +certain points the machine simplifies processes and abolishes the need +of paying for skill in the worker; at others it makes skill (sometimes, +perhaps, a new kind of skill) more necessary; at one point it abolishes +the need of paying for strength, at another it makes a new opening for +strength. Thus the displacement which occurs, and the competition set up +are often more apparent than real. + +[Footnote 40: As a type of the reports from firms employing women +compositors, the following from Edinburgh firms may be summarised: Seven +girls are employed on each machine (monotype), five on the keyboards and +two correcting proofs. A man is kept for every ten or twelve girls, his +work being to "make up" the girls' work. Another firm employs a man to +attend to every three monotype machines used, for the purpose of keeping +things going. Another says it employs two men compositors and one +labourer for thirty-eight girls.] + +[Footnote 41: Machinery has also tended to increase the employment of +women in stamping and embossing.] + +[Footnote 42: An official of a Bookbinders' Union states: "In A works +there was much gloom among the men when the rounding and backing machine +came in; profitable work was taken away from the 'rounders' and +'backers,' but they had more 'lining-up' and other work to do in +consequence, so nobody was turned off."] + + +[Sidenote: A miscellaneous survey.] + +In the more miscellaneous trades over which this enquiry ranged a +considerable mass of evidence points to the displacement of men by +women. General statements to this effect are common in the evidence of +both employers and employed. In firm A. it is alleged that women do the +same work in card mounting as used to be done by men, and are paid 2_s._ +for work which used to be paid for at 10_s._ Paging and numbering used +to be men's work, but is now almost exclusively done by women. Plain +relief stamping and black bordering have also drifted into the hands of +women, whilst in various directions, such as the making and binding of +cases, wrappering, or feeding printing and particularly lithographic +machines, women are beginning to encroach upon men. These displacements +are very often only local. Manchester has one experience; Edinburgh +another. Leeds was agitated because women were displacing men on a +French ruling machine, whilst elsewhere no similar move was taking +place. But it must be emphasised again that in many of these instances +careful enquiry shows that when men were employed they did something +that the women do not now do,[43] and that the employment of women was +owing to an increased volume of trade, when new machinery or some other +change had made a greater subdivision of labour possible and profitable. +In some cases girls displace boys for no other reason than that boys +cannot be found to do the work; this was the case in Manchester some ten +years ago, when girls took the place of boys in letterpress work. + +[Footnote 43: An Edinburgh employer put that in this way: "If women were +paid the same rates as men they would have to pay for their overseers +and assistants."] + + +[Sidenote: Conclusions.] + +Generally, the results of our investigations show the following summary +of the advantages and disadvantages of women's labour to the employer, +and their employment in preference to men depends upon how far in any +given case or under any given circumstances the balance of these +advantages and disadvantages is on the side of the women--or, it must +also be said, how far the employer is bound by conservative use and wont +so as to be protected against any impulse to employ the best +organisation for the efficient conduct of his business. + +The advantages of the woman worker are:-- + +1. That she will accept low wages; she usually works for about half the +men's wages. + +2. That she is not a member of a Union, and is, therefore, more amenable +to the will of the employer as the absolute rule of the workshop. + +3. That she is a steady[44] worker (much emphasis must not be placed +upon this, as the contrary is also alleged), and nimble at mechanical +processes, such as folding and collecting sheets. + +[Footnote 44: "In Mr. W----'s youth, men used to do all the card +mounting. Women were introduced for it about twenty-nine years ago. They +were brought in because the men drank so and kept away." But later on +the same informant said that he had to introduce a varnishing machine +because women "kept away so."] + +4. That she will do odd jobs which lead to nothing.[45] + +[Footnote 45: Birmingham boys, for instance, would not feed printing +machines, because it "leads to nothing," so girls were employed. _Cf._ +Aberdeen, p. 47, etc.] + +Her disadvantages are:-- + +1. That she has less technical skill than a man, and is not so useful +all round. + +2. That she has less strength at work and has more broken time owing to +bad health and, especially should she be married, domestic duties, and +that her output is not so great as that of a man.[46] + +[Footnote 46: An employer with considerable experience both of men and +women in the printing trade in Scotland, says, "given a certain area of +floor space for men and women, on the former would probably be produced +half more than on the latter."] + +3. That she is more liable to leave work just when she is getting most +useful; or, expressing this in a general way, that there are more +changes in a crowd of women workers than in a crowd of men workers. + +4. That employers object to mixed departments.[47] + +[Footnote 47: 1, 2, and 4, together lead London employers to conclude +that an extension of women's employment is impossible, because it would +mean larger workshops in proportion to the numbers employed, and +consequently ruinous rents.] + +One interesting point must be noted in connection with these +conclusions. In London, where women mainly work on the more unskilled +and irregular processes, it is often difficult to see what industrial +influence they are exerting. In Edinburgh or Aberdeen that is not so +much the case. And one thing which is observable in these places is that +the employment of women of itself leads to those minute subdivisions of +labour characteristic of machine industry. "There are more subdivisions +of labour amongst women than amongst men in the printing trade. For +example, one girl will set-up the type, another will "brass-out" (put in +heads and finish it), or two may sometimes be employed in finishing +it."[48] + +[Footnote 48: So in bookbinding. A Dundee manager of a general binding +establishment, says: "The subdivision of labour system has certainly +favoured the increased employment of women in the trade."] + +Cheap, mechanical and light work consequently tends to be done by women, +whilst the men enjoy almost undisputed possession of the rest. The woman +worker, for instance, competes with the man in binding the cheap light +note-book, whilst she rarely interferes with him in binding heavy +ledgers.[49] On the other hand, in some of the more mechanical +departments, such as examining sheets of paper by touch, she attains a +wonderful dexterity. + +[Footnote 49: The following report from Aberdeen gives an interesting +account of the subdivision of labour in a firm which has introduced +women for cloth-case making: + +"The department where girls are beginning to encroach on men is in +cloth-case work, that is, making the cases and putting them on. In the +higher reaches of the trade the women do not show themselves to be so +skilful. As yet the men's Unions have not shown much active opposition +to women's work in this branch, provided always that one man is set to +work with every five girls employed on it. The making of a 'case' is +divided into five sections and illustrates the modern development of the +division of labour system. + + 1st girl glues. + 2nd girl lays on boards. + Man cuts corners. + 3rd girl turns in ends. + 4th girl turns in fore-edge. + 5th girl (young) puts it through rolling machine."] + +We have also to note how very effectively conservative notions about +women's sphere and chivalrous prejudices about protecting them, +influence certain employers in determining what work they _ought_ to do. + + +[Sidenote: Technical training.] + +We have endeavoured to ascertain how far technical training would +increase the pressure of competition between men and women, but in the +present rudimentary state of such training there are few data to guide +us to any very positive conclusion. + +It is difficult, however, to see how in these trades the technical +training of women would threaten men, except perhaps in the artistic +branches. The use of the various mechanical type-setting machines has +already led to some displacement of labour, and though the _technique_ +of setting and spacing might be taught to women in trade classes, the +greater regularity of the male worker, and his remaining longer at the +trade must always, in so skilled an industry as this, give him +advantages over his female competitor. Nor would classes for women in +bookbinding injure men bookbinders. For in this as in other trades women +are not handicapped only by a want of skill, and if they attended +classes, presumably they would be taught chiefly the arts and crafts +side of bookbinding, and thus be led into branches of the trade at +present undeveloped. + + +[Sidenote: "Use and wont."] + +Moreover, a curious fact has to be kept in mind. Women workers are so +lethargic that they are largely governed by use and wont. No remark is +more frequent in the investigators' reports, than one to this effect, +"That is men's work. Why? We do not know, but it _is_ men's work, and we +do not think about it." In some instances this use and wont is based on +experience; in others, as in the backwardness of London employers in +putting women to feed lithographic machines, its rational explanation +is not obvious.[50] In this respect the women themselves are very +"loyal." "Once the employer wanted her," writes an investigator, "to +varnish books, and offered her 5_s._ a book: she has a steady hand and +could have done it quite well. It meant following a delicate zig-zag +pattern with a paint brush. She refused indignantly, and said, 'I know +my place and I'm not going to take men's work from them.'" And, again, a +rigid sense of propriety, based on a certain amount of good reason, +seems to determine many employers to separate male from female +departments without further question.[51] + +[Footnote 50: Except perhaps, as has been suggested, that the premises +where lithographic work is done are generally so unsuitable for the +employment of women.] + +[Footnote 51: A similar division exists in women's work; certain kinds +are done by women of an inferior social grade, _e.g._, machine-feeding, +and these are strictly kept at arm's length by women working in +different departments in the same factory.] + + +[Sidenote: Girls _v._ Women.] + +So much is heard of women as rivals of men that we forget that women +themselves are often preyed upon by still cheaper rivals, and the real +value of technical training for women seems to lie in the fact that such +training might protect them against these. Owing to the unskilled nature +of their work, however, even technical education can afford to them only +an unsatisfactory security against younger and cheaper persons. One of +the investigators, for instance, reports:-- + +"It is the regular custom in A.'s now to have little girls at 3_s._ and +4_s._ a week doing work which women at 11_s._ and 12_s._ ought to do. +They put a little girl beside a regular hand, and as soon as the little +one masters the work [show-card mounting is being reported upon], they +discharge the big one. When the little one asks for a rise, they give +her 6_d._ or 1_s._ more, and when she wants still more, she goes." +Figures follow showing that just under one-ninth of the women employed +in this department at A.'s are "old hands." Then the report proceeds: +"A. discharged about forty hands on the plea of slackness a little while +ago, and then put up bills for learners." The investigators found that +amongst the employées there was a very widespread opinion that "the +learners always get all the best work," and that one of the regular +features of the trade is, that it employs a large fluctuating number of +learners, whilst a smaller number of skilled hands are kept in tolerably +regular work.[52] + +[Footnote 52: This, however, is not a problem special to women's work, +but is one of general industrial conditions, although it is marked with +special distinctness in the case of women.] + +The old hands occasionally object to teach the young ones, but nothing +comes of their opposition to a system by which they are compelled to +train their own executioners. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +_INDUSTRIAL TRAINING._ + + +1. THE TRAINING. + +[Sidenote: How girls are taught.] + +At the present moment such training as is given generally begins in the +workshops so soon as the girl has left school.[53] Girls are, in the +best houses, employed on the recommendation of workers already there. +Much of the work, such as folding, is merely a matter of mechanical +quickness and accuracy, and after a few weeks' practice the girl is as +useful as she is ever likely to have an opportunity to be. A great deal +of the work women do in stationery factories (such as stamping, black +bordering, numbering pages) is of a routine nature, and this work is +generally paid by the piece. For such departments, no premium is asked +as a rule.[54] Sometimes the beginner is paid a small wage--2_s._ 6_d._ +or thereabouts--to encourage her at first. Sometimes she works a few +weeks for nothing.[55] Sometimes she has to pay a tuition fee to the +woman under whose charge she is put. Sometimes this woman gives her a +small sum as a gift in respect of the help she renders. Some firms make +the training period fairly long, in order that it may be impossible for +the lower class of girls to accept the conditions of employment. +By-and-by the learner is paid half of what she earns, and finally she is +put on regular piecework, her advancement depending on her nimbleness. +If she is in a large house she is only taught one process, but if quick, +and employed in a smaller house, she may be taught several. In almost +every instance she is put upon piecework as soon as possible after she +begins. In an overwhelming number of cases the beginners are simply +placed beside a regular hand, and pick up their skill by watching the +old hand and then turning and doing it themselves. The girl who "picked +up vellum-sewing and wire-stitching" whilst engaged as a folder, and +she who was transferred from tie-making to stitching and folding, are +types. The phrase "serving her time" survives, but the apprenticeship +which is indicated hardly now exists. + +[Footnote 53: "A boy learns nothing after fifteen, a girl after +fourteen," is the way one employer puts it.] + +[Footnote 54: Very few premiums are reported upon. In one case it was +said that £10 were asked as a premium in relief stamping, but the +informant admitted that the sum varied; in another well-known stationery +firm a premium of £2 is asked for, but is returned with 5 per cent. +interest at the end of three years. The premiums of £50 or £100 charged +by certain bookbinding teachers are of course quite special.] + +[Footnote 55: LEADING LONDON HIGH-CLASS STATIONERY FIRM:--_Paging +Department._--Girls come for a few months for nothing, _i.e._ six +months, no premium. They go on getting quicker. + +_Lithographic Department._ + +Girls come in and pick it up: show one another how to do it. + +_Vellum-binding Department._ + +Girls come for three years and are paid 5_s._ per week. + +LEADING EDUCATIONAL SUPPLY FIRM: + +_Copybook and similar Work._ + +"Has several little girls running about on errands for a few shillings a +week, and if any of them seem promising they are helped on. Training +nothing like what it used to be; girls learn only one branch." + +LARGE LONDON PRINTING FIRM:--_Vellum-sewing Department._ + +"Regular apprenticeship still the system here." Three years given as the +period for training and during this time no wages are paid. Girls come +straight from school. + +_Folding, etc., Department._ + +"No regular apprenticeship. Girls come in and pick it up; if quick they +are taught other branches, like numbering, relief stamping, etc." + +LONDON STATIONERY FIRM: + +_Envelope Folding and Hand-cementing Department._ + +"Girls are put under an experienced party to whom they pay 10_s._ For +six weeks, they receive nothing. For next six weeks they receive half +earnings, then they are put on piecework." + +_Black Bordering._ + +"A regular hand teaches and gets any benefit of the work during six +months in return for the time she wastes in teaching." This practice is +also adopted in some firms in envelope folding by hand. + +LONDON PUBLISHING FIRM: + +_Bookbinding Department._ + +"System of indenture has just been revived because it was found that +otherwise the firm had no hold over the girls, so that the quick ones as +soon as they had learnt went off elsewhere as full earners." Indenture +for two years. + +An ex-forewoman in bookbinding, who knew the London trade well, stated +that much less trouble is taken with learners now than formerly. In her +own case she was apprenticed without indentures for two years, and +learned "all the branches right through," old work included. + +Another forewoman in work stated she was in training for four years: two +years at bookbinding, one year at vellum work, and one year at +stationery.] + +Of the firms about which we have information for bookwork and printers' +folding, seven require a three years' training; twenty, two years; +thirty-three, one and a half years; nineteen, one year; two, fifteen +months; and seven, periods under a year. Eleven firms have no settled +apprenticeship time, advancement depending entirely on the quickness of +the learner. In places where gold laying-on is done the same time is +usually served as for the other branches, _i.e._, from a few weeks to +three years. In the case of vellum work, seven firms require three +years; eight, two years; three, one and a half years; one, one and a +half to two years; two, six months; and eight, no settled time. + +In some of these firms, however, a genuine attempt to teach apprentices +is made;[56] and in at least one large and well-known London house the +system of indenture has been revived, owing to the difficulty which was +experienced in retaining girls after they became competent. On the other +hand, several well-known firms have ceased to employ learners because +they are too troublesome, and depend upon women trained elsewhere. But +we have found that in only a very few cases is the beginner, whether an +apprentice or not, thoroughly taught every process of her trade. She is +generally put to one process and kept at it, so that the mechanical +dexterity she may acquire is in no sense genuine trade skill.[57] This +distinction between trade skill and mechanical dexterity in one process +must be kept in mind as a fundamental consideration in every problem +concerning the woman wage-earner. + +[Footnote 56: Apprenticeship is still common in vellum-sewing where +skill and intelligence are required, and in places where women are doing +more than supplementary work, _e.g._ Edinburgh, a regular period of +training varying from two to four years is agreed upon. Apprenticeship +seems to be most common in Scotland. In London our investigation into +vellum work, printers' folding, and bookwork only discovered seven +indentured women apprentices, two of these being engaged in vellum work. +Curiously enough in paper-staining firms, although the processes are +practically unskilled, indentures are signed for two years; the girl +receives 4_s._ a week for the first year and a portion of her piece +earnings for the second year. At the end of two years she is a full +wage-earner and is paid by piece rates. What her earnings are it is +difficult to discover; 12_s._ 6_d._ was given as an average, but this is +probably too high. It is reported that she may make 6_d._ in less than +an hour when the colours are mixed and she is finishing a job, whereas +next day she will spend the whole morning before she earns her 6_d._] + +[Footnote 57: _E.g._, one of the large stationery firms in London +reports regarding machine ruling: "Girls come in and feed the machinery, +and afterwards rise to wet the flannel. They never mind the machines, +_e.g._, arrange pens and so on." Another interesting note is, "Men +nearly always do illuminating, _e.g._, stamping crests, etc., in more +than one colour, on notepaper, as the process requires more skill than +women possess. If the women did it, the ladies would not like their +notepaper." An employer defended the employment of women on the grounds +of his own experience of one woman who "had been working at a secret +process for years, and there is no fear of the secret being betrayed as +she is without understanding or interest for the machine."] + +The question of how much a girl learns during her time is a vital one. +Much depends on the forewoman. As one of the workers put it, "How much +you learn depends on the forelady, and whether she takes a fancy to you; +some girls will have a turn at everything, others only learn sewing or +folding. Dress makes a great difference; the poorer you are, the less +chance you have of getting on." + +The obverse of this from the forewoman's point of view is that "girls if +quick are taught all branches, but with some girls it is all you can do +to teach them one." It seems the general opinion amongst all the older +hands that the "training is not what it used to be;" and, certainly, the +few instances we have come across of women who can do bookwork, vellum +work, and also stationery work, are amongst the older hands. The +complaint, however, that the trade was not properly taught, occurs in +the evidence given to the Commission of 1843, when it seemed to be one +of the principal grievances complained of. Masters, it was said by one +worker, often took girls, pretended to teach them, and discharged them +at the end of their time, when they had to go elsewhere to learn. Three +girls gave evidence that they were tricked into serving from three to +eight months for nothing, and came away no wiser. At another shop the +employer expatiated on the thoroughness of the training offered by him; +but seven of his journeywomen, aged nineteen, eighteen, seventeen, and +sixteen, declared indignantly that they had not learnt their business +thoroughly, and would never have gone to him if they had known his +methods. The truth apparently is that in 1843, as to-day, some firms +are better for apprentices than others, and that a generation ago a good +firm doing general work offered better opportunities for training than +good firms conducted under up-to-date conditions can now give. + +The following table shows the changes that have been made in the +conditions of apprenticeship by certain leading London firms. + + +----------------------------------------------------------------+ + | TABLE SHOWING CHANGES IN PERIOD, ETC., OF TRAINING | + | IN PARTICULAR FIRMS IN LONDON.[58] | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | | Period | Premium | Wages (per week) | + | | | and | during | + | | | Indentures. | Apprenticeship. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 1. STATIONER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 1867 Commission | 2 years | -- | -- | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 25 years ago | 2 years | No premium | 12 months no pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 15 years ago | 1½ | No premium, | 6 months no pay, | + | | years | no | 12 months half | + | | | indentures | pay. | + +-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+ + | At present | 1½ | | 6 months 2_s._, 12 | + | time[58] | years | | months half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 2. STATIONER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 20 years ago | 2 years | No premium, | 1 year no pay, 1 | + | | | no | year half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+ indentures +--------------------+ + | Till recently | 1 year | | 6 months no pay, | + | | | | 6 months half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+ + | At present time | 15 | | 6 months 2_s._, 9 | + | | months | | months half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 3. PUBLISHER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | Till recently | 2 years | No premium, | 6 months 1_s._, | + | | | no | 6 months 2_s._ | + | | | indentures | 6_d._, | + | | | | 6 months 4_s._, | + | | | | 6 months half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+ + | At present time | 1½ | | 6 months 2_s._ | + | | years | | 6_d._, | + | | | | 6 months 4_s._, 6 | + | | | | months half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 4. BOOKBINDER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 21 years ago | 3 years | No premium, | 6 months 1_s._, 12 | + | | | no | months 3_s._, 18 | + | | | indentures | months 6_s._ | + +-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+ + | At present time | 1½ | | 6 months 1_s._, 12 | + | | years | | months 3_s._ | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 5. PRINTER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 25 years ago | 3 years | No premium, | 18 months 2_s._, | + | | | no | 18 months half | + | | | indentures | pay. | + +-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+ + | At present time | 1½ | | 1 month no pay, | + | | years | | 5 month 2_s._, | + | | | | 12 months half | + | | | | pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 6. STATIONER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 40 years ago | 2 years | No premium, | 12 months half | + | | | no | pay, 12 months | + | | | indentures | three-quarter | + | | | | pay. | + +-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+ + | At present time | 1½ | | 12 months half | + | | years | | pay, 6 months | + | | | | three-quarter | + | | | | pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 7. PUBLISHER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 30 years ago | 2 years | No premium, | No pay part, | + | | | no | 2_s._ 6_d._ | + | | | indentures | remainder. | + +-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+ + | At present time | 2 years | | Half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 8. BOOKBINDER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 20 years ago | 1½ | No | 1 year 1_s._, | + | | years | information | 6 months half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | At present time | 2 years | No premium; | 12 months 3_s._, | + | | | no | 12 months 4_s._ | + | | | indentures | | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 9. PUBLISHER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 22 years ago | 1 year | No premium; | 3 months no pay, | + | | | no | 9 months 1_s._ | + +-------------------+---------+ indentures +--------------------+ + | At present time | 2 years | | 6 months 2_s._, | + | | | | 18 months half | + | | | | pay. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 10. PRINTER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 25 years ago | 1 year | No premium; | 1 year | + | | | no | no pay. | + +-------------------+---------+ indentures +--------------------+ + | At present time | 1 year | | 6 months 1_s._, | + | | | | 6 months 2_s._ | + | | | | or 3_s._ | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 11. BOOKBINDER'S. | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + | 10 years ago | 1½ | No premium; | 6 months | + | | years | no | no pay, | + | | | indentures | 1 year half pay. | + +-------------------+---------+ +--------------------+ + | At present time | 1½ | | 9 months 2_s._ | + | | years | | 6_d._, | + | | | | 9 months 5_s._ | + +-------------------+---------+-------------+--------------------+ + +[Footnote 58: This information was procured in 1901.] + +The important point, however, is not so much the nominal length of +apprenticeship, but the fact that the work which an "apprentice" now +does is less educative than it was, and that wage-earning considerations +now enter at an earlier stage into the apprentice's thoughts. + +[Sidenote: The learner as workwoman.] + +The low wages paid to learners offer great temptations to employers to +set these extra cheap workgirls upon certain "fat" kinds of work. Some +kinds of work, _e.g._, gathering, have thus come to be regarded as +learners' perquisites, and in one extreme instance a worker made as much +money when a learner on half pay as she did subsequently on whole +pay.[59] + +[Footnote 59: These figures from typical houses showing proportions of +learners and journeywomen are interesting:-- + + Workers. Learners. + A. 75 14 + B. 87 19 + C. 7 3 + D. 8 3 + E. 12 11 + F. 26 20 + +These houses are engaged in various kinds of bookbinding and printing.] + +In several cases we have been able to trace the exact amount gained by +the employer:-- + +1. A. in the last sixteen weeks of her half-pay period made £3 18_s._ +6_d._, an average of 4_s._ 10¾ _d._ per week. For the next sixteen +weeks, when a full hand, her average was 9_s._ 8_d._ + +2. B. in twenty-three weeks before she became a full hand made £4 9_s._ +10_d._, or an average of 3_s._ 10¾ _d._ per week. During the next +twenty-three weeks her average was 7_s._ 0½_d._, a few pence less than +double. + +3. C. in fifty-one weeks made £15 5_s._ 4½_d._, practically 6_s._ per +week; if on full wage, her average would have been 11_s._ 11½_d._ + +4. D. in thirty-seven weeks made £10 19_s._ 5½_d._, practically 6_s._ +per week; if on full wage her average would have been 11_s._ 10½_d._ + +5. E. in forty-seven weeks made £14 9_s._ 4½_d._, or 6_s._ 2_d._ per +week; if on full pay her average would have been 12_s._ 3¾ _d._ + +6. F. in forty-three weeks made £12 12_s._ 3_d._, 5_s._ 1½_d._ per week; +if on full pay her earnings would have been 11_s._ 8¾ _d._ + +It is obvious that when a worker is sufficiently expert to make an +average of 11_s._ or 12_s._ on full pay, it is a great temptation to +save on the bills by giving her as much work as possible at half-price. +The employer looks upon this profit as the return made to him for +teaching the girl, or, to speak more correctly, for allowing her to +pick up the trade in his shop. It really means that a heavy premium is +being paid in instalments. Possibly, when small fixed wages are paid, +the employer's profits are even higher, but in that case the learner has +not that temptation to sacrifice quality to quantity, and to be content +with "slapdash" work which is the inevitable consequence of a piecework +system worked under such conditions, and which is specially injurious to +the young hands. + +[Sidenote: Compositors.] + +The training given to women compositors varies very much. As is well +known, boys are apprenticed to this trade for seven years at wages which +usually begin at 8_s._ a week, and rise 2_s._ a year. In some cases, +however, a proportion of their piece-rate earning is given in addition. + +When Miss Faithfull started the Victoria Press, girls were indentured +for four years, and paid a premium of ten guineas. During the first six +months they received nothing; for the remaining three and a half years +they were given two-third piece rates. By 1869, when Mr. Head was +running the business, this system had been changed. In an article in the +_Printers' Register_ for October 6th, 1869, we read that at the Victoria +Press, apprenticeship, "a relic of the ignorance and shortsightedness of +our forefathers, which is maintained in our own day chiefly by the +prejudices of Trades Unions, is entirely abolished. Girls begin to earn +at once," with the consequence that the work is much better. The Women's +Printing Society started with an apprenticeship of three or four years, +the wages rising from 2_s._ 6_d._ to 10_s._ + +At the present time the training varies in different houses, from one +where the girls are regularly indentured for four years, pay a premium +of £5, and receive 4_s._ for the first year and 5_s._, 6_s._, 7_s._ a +week in the ensuing years, to one where, with a premium of three +guineas, the training lasts for three months only, and the worker is put +on piecework after that period. + +Two women compositors who had served for four years gave it as their +opinion that two years were sufficient to learn; during the remaining +years "you are expected to do as much as a full hand and get only half +wages." + +It is obvious, however, that much depends on the amount of work taught, +and the complaint is reiterated over and over again that girls will only +learn the easy, plain work: "they want to make money at once." + +[Sidenote: Women and technical classes.] + +Enquiries were addressed to the Secretaries of Technical Education +Committees in every town in the kingdom where the printing and kindred +trades are of any importance, asking-- + + "1. Whether, in connection with your technical and other schools, + any provision is made for the training of women in the bookbinding + or in any of the printing or stationery trades; + + "2. Whether the classes have been attended by any numbers of + women; and + + "3. Whether you have received at any time from employers + statements showing the effect of such classes upon these trades?" + +Seventeen replied that no provisions were made, six that the matter was +under consideration, but only in one case was it stated that classes had +been opened, and then the women had not taken advantage of them. The +London County Council Technical Education Board has had only one +application (to which it could not accede [60]) from a woman who desired +to attend bookbinding classes. + +[Footnote 60: The woman was an amateur who had no connection with the +trade, and the Board refused admission on that ground. See this Board's +Special Report on Technical Instruction of Women.] + +This shows that in these trades the school, so far as women are +concerned, has not yet been brought into contact with the workshop. +Nominally the classes are open to women actually engaged in the trade, +but women do not attend. This seems to be partly owing to the attitude +of the men, and partly owing to the lack of interest on the part of the +woman worker in the few facilities afforded to her by Technical +Education Committees. + +The Home Arts and Crafts Association and kindred movements have taught +women amateurs bookbinding and leather work in a good many centres, but +this training has had no general industrial effect. The Association for +the Employment of Women has offered facilities for the training of women +in working the linotype, but it has met with but scanty response. "It is +work which needed more skill," said one employer, "than women +possessed."[61] + +[Footnote 61: We have heard since this was written that women are +employed on linotype machines in a prosperous provincial newspaper and +general printing office.] + +Here again we have had evidence of the most conclusive nature to show +that the work of women is special in its simplicity, and that the +craftswoman is hardly to be found anywhere. And they seem to have +accepted the position, and make no attempt to move out of it.[62] + +[Footnote 62: This note is typical of a good many which occur in the +reports of the investigators. "There are two girls now on the +black-bordering machine whom the forewoman has offered to teach to place +out by hand, but they won't learn it; it is too much trouble."] + + +2. WHY WOMEN DO NOT TRAIN. + +Some explanation is required for the fact that women have so little +ambition to become skilled, especially seeing that their lack of +technical knowledge and their willingness to remain at work which is +merely mechanical, _i.e._, folding, etc., explain their low wages, +casual employment, and careless organisation. + +[Sidenote: Marriage as an industrial influence.] + +The physiological differences between men and women have sociological +results. These differences have no doubt been exaggerated and emphasised +by traditions of propriety, and the change of opinion indicated +generally by the expression, "the woman movement," has done a great deal +to bring down those differences to their natural proportions and +relations. If certain claims of equality, such as women's suffrage, were +generally accepted, men and women might tend to occupy a much more equal +industrial status. But when all false emphasis and exaggeration have +been removed, a considerable residuum of difference must remain. + +The special status of the married woman will no doubt survive all +readjustment of traditional modes of thought, and will tend to withdraw +her mind from the steady pursuit of industrial efficiency, because she +will never consider wage earning to be her special task in the world. +That has tempted her hitherto to steer off from the currents in the +mid-stream of industrial life, and float upon those that flow more +sluggishly by the margin. Hence she has entered industry, not with +expectations of long employment, but with hopes of a speedy release, and +she has therefore been in haste to earn money at once, and unwilling to +sink capital (either in time or money) in making herself efficient. She +is found in the more mechanical and more easily acquired branches of +work, and also in those which provide no future for men,[63] and her +willingness to take low wages has been her great protection against +competing machinery. She has preferred to remain incompetent. "Out of +twenty-six girls," is the report from the manager of a well-known firm +for high-class artistic bookbinding, "not one could he trust as a +forewoman." + +[Footnote 63: An interesting illustration of this is afforded by the +recent employment of women in typefounding in London. London has not +been a place where women were much employed in this industry. For twenty +or thirty years girls have been employed in Edinburgh typefoundries, at +certain processes through which the type, when cast, has to go, but they +have been introduced only within the last year or two in London, to take +the place of boys who could not be got because the work offers no very +satisfactory prospects for them, and because the introduction of the +linotype and mono-type threatens the future of the typefounding +industry. _Cf._ Aberdeen, p. 47, Manchester and Birmingham, p. 50.] + +[Sidenote: The lack of openings and ambition.] + +Moreover, this enquiry has shown that there is but little chance for +women in these trades to improve themselves. Openings for responsible +employment are few, and the ambition of the woman is not stirred by the +possibility of material improvement as the reward of skill and industry. +When responsible places become vacant, it is sometimes difficult to get +women to consent to fill them. They seem to have little of that divine +discontent which is the mainspring of progress. "They never ask for a +rise as a man would, ... though after a time when they are useful, the +firm would be quite willing to give one." "He finds that girls want to +earn a certain wage. As a rule they will not take less, and they don't +trouble to earn more." A Manchester correspondent reports: "There is +very little chance of rising, and no particular desire for it, on the +part of the ordinary girl, whose main aspirations are otherwise +directed." + +Reporting generally on her enquiries, an investigator writes: "The +progressive young woman, eager to show that she is man's equal and can +do man's work, seems to be a product of the middle classes. I never met +girls with ambitions of that sort among the employees I talked with. On +the other hand, I have met with cutting reproofs from forewomen and +others in the bookbinding houses when I tried, in my innocence, to find +out why they did not turn their hands to simple and easy processes which +were being done by men. 'Why, that is man's work, and we shouldn't think +of doing it!' is the usual answer given with a toss of the head and a +tone insinuating that there is a certain indelicacy in the question." +Another investigator reports: "In a paper-staining department an attempt +was once made to have a forewoman instead of a foreman over the girls, +but she was not successful in watching the colours and had to be +replaced by a man. The employer in consequence came to the conclusion +that such a feat was beyond a woman's power, and the workers themselves +are of the same opinion and scorn the idea of a forewoman." + +[Sidenote: Sex reputation.] + +Women in slowly increasing numbers seem to be settling down to a +thorough industrial training, but except when they start businesses of +their own, the general reputation of woman as workers, especially their +liability to marry and leave, must permanently handicap the most +efficient in search of employment. + +Even the woman who has paid a premium of £50 or £100 for thorough +instruction in the art of bookbinding is warned that "a worker cannot be +taken on anywhere, but has to set up on her own account," and even then +she often does not enter the regular open competitive market, but +attaches certain customers to herself, owing to her special work. + +The exceptional woman will always have to bear the burden of the average +woman. + +The questions put to employers upon this point received very emphatic +replies: "It does not pay us to train women," they said in some form or +another; "We only want them for simple processes such as folding, and if +we tried to make them skilled in more complicated work they would leave +us before we got the same return for our trouble as we get from men." + +[Sidenote: Physique, hours, etc.] + +The low standard of women's living also diminishes their stamina and +strength, and though in the course of this enquiry we have not +discovered any very serious complaint that women were irregular at their +work owing to ill-health (a common complaint against women in offices), +yet the drawback has been mentioned. + +Moreover, it must be noted that when a girl's work in the workshop is +finished she has often to go home to commence a new round of domestic +tasks from which a boy is exempted. This aggravates the seriousness of +her long hours of mechanical work as a wage-earner, and increases the +difficulties placed in her way should she desire to attend evening +technical classes. The directors of several educational institutions +and the teachers of technical classes for women have strongly urged this +point upon us. + +We have to face the fact that, for various reasons, in modern industrial +society there is of necessity a tendency to specialise the work of men +and women and centre the one in the workshop and the other in the home, +and to incline women to take a place in industry second to their male +relations. Hence, in the workshop women have hitherto been adjuncts to +machines; they have taken up simple mechanical processes, and have shown +little interest in complete series of industrial operations. They have +picked up the arts, but have shunned the sciences. The factory and the +workshop have been to them the scenes of "meanwhile" employment. + +[Sidenote: Gentility in trade.] + +In such circumstances one is not surprised to find such considerations +as conventional gentility determining the branches of trade taken up by +the women. The printing trades generally do not attract the most genteel +girls, but there are grades within them. One informant says, "In +Manchester, up to 1870, to be a folder was looked upon as being next +door to being on the streets;" but now folders look down upon feeders. +"Folding and sewing girls look down on the machine girls tremendously, +and would not sit at the same table with them for anything." Perhaps the +manager who said in a shocked tone of voice that "The women never care +to talk of the Sunday's sermon" was hypercritical, but undoubtedly +certain sections of these trades are staffed by rather rough specimens +of women. + +Then again, a folder, despised herself by those above her, is reported +to "look down upon the litho and bronzing girls. They are of the very +lowest class (she says), with hardly a shoe on their feet. They are on +quite a different floor and have nothing to do with the folders." Or +again, for reasons of gentility, girls prefer to become book-folders, +where the hours are longer and the pay lower, rather than to become +paper-bag makers. The distinction between these various sections is not +similar to that between skilled and unskilled labour. The simple +explanation is that amongst women engaged in industry convention is +particularly potent in determining what trades are desirable and proper +and what are not, so that when certain employments acquire a reputation +for gentility, the others will be filled by a goodly proportion of +unassorted girls, and will ultimately acquire characteristics which +appear to justify the feminine prejudices against them. It has been +suggested that these notions of gentility have, as a matter of fact, a +deeper significance, and that the favoured trades are the lighter ones. +To some extent this is true. The heavier employments are staffed by a +rougher class of women. But, as in the case of the Manchester folders +cited above, fashions change, and we must recognise that reputation for +gentility is a very important factor in determining the distribution of +character amongst the trades. This appears to be the main reason why +high wages do not always attract the better class of girls to certain +kinds of employment, and also why there is a reluctance on the part of +many self-respecting girls to enter a course of industrial training. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +_LEGISLATION._ + + +1. THE LAW. + +The printing and allied trades were not brought within the scope of +legislation until Mr. Walpole's Factory Acts' Extension Act of 1867. + +[Sidenote: Conditions of employment, 1866.] + +The Commission on Children's Employment in 1866[64] first disclosed the +fact that substantial abuses prevailed throughout the printing and +kindred trades. Long hours, frequent nightwork, Sunday labour, +irregularities regarding meal times, and insanitary conditions--such, +roughly speaking, were the hardships which made it desirable to bring +them under State supervision. Mr. Lord, who took an active part on these +Commissions, said that the general state of printing houses in London +was very bad; not only were the composing rooms generally overcrowded +and ill-ventilated, but even machine rooms were often extremely dirty, +close and unhealthy. He cites the case of a machine room, where the roof +was so low that a hole was cut in the ceiling for the head of the boy +who was "laying-on" to go through. "The heat of steam printing," says +he, "is very deleterious in close cellars, such as many places in this +town are." + +[Footnote 64: Children's Employment Commission, 1862-1866 (Report V.).] + +Speaking of the factories of wholesale stationers, the same witness +says, "Many of the workrooms are ill-ventilated and overcrowded. The +cubical contents of one large room measured by me were 136 ft. per head; +those of another only 87 ft. per head." + +With regard to hours, the Commissioners report: "These ordinary hours +(viz., 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. for females, 7 a.m. to 9 p.m. for men and boys) +are from time to time exceeded to the extent of one or two hours, and +sometimes more. In the case of those who bind for publishing houses the +four or five winter months are the busy season, and the six weeks +immediately preceding Christmas those of the greatest pressure; at one +such place work often continued from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m. in those six +weeks. The 'push' of 'magazine day' also affects this trade as it does +the printer, keeping the workpeople for several days at the end of each +month until 10 or 11 p.m., and on rare occasions till 1 or 2 a.m. The +case of railway guides is even worse than that of magazines, for females +sometimes have to work the whole night through till 6 a.m., returning to +work at 10 on the same morning, and when the first of a month is on a +Monday, work the whole of the preceding Sunday. On Sunday, April 30th +this year, at one place twenty females worked from 10 a.m. to 8 p.m., +and after a rest of two hours went on again through the night. Even +girls of thirteen had worked in the same week once from 4 a.m. to 10 +p.m., and twice from 9 a.m. to 10 p.m. Another rather older (fourteen +and a half) worked on one day from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. and on the +preceding day from 7 a.m. to 9 p.m. A boy aged fourteen had worked two +or three times in a week from 7 a.m. to 10 or 11 p.m. and three Sundays +through." + +"With paper-box makers," the Commissioners say, "it is not uncommon to +make two or even three hours overtime (this after a day of from 9 a.m. +to 8 or 9 p.m.). For two months in spring and six weeks in autumn +fourteen hours is the usual length of a female's working day. At one +place females over fifteen are said to work constantly in the busy time +from 9 a.m. to 12 p.m., and in some places till 1 or 2 a.m., especially +with 'little men' working at home with their family and two or three +girls to help. These are instances of London work, but in Manchester the +hours are even longer. One girl worked, at sixteen years old, night +after night in succession, from 6 a.m. to 12 p.m.; the younger ones +there worked from 6 a.m. to 9 p.m.; at another place the same witness +had frequently worked from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. Another, at nine years old, +worked from 8 a.m. to 9 p.m. generally; she said that the older ones +worked a good deal later than that. Some young women had worked on three +or four occasions all the night through." + +"Boys of fourteen and fifteen employed at making cardboard, have in some +cases worked from 8 a.m. till 10 or 11 p.m. twice a week for four or +five weeks running, but that is not general in the trade. Girls of that +age have worked at making paper bags nearly every night for a similar +period, till 10 or 11 p.m. from 8 a.m., and were very much tired by it. +As paper-box making is all handwork and paid for by the piece, it is not +uncommon for work to go on in the meal hours--'they please themselves.'" + +The following was the experience of one girl which she gave before the +Commissioners. "I am thirteen; I have been here twelve months. Some of +the girls worked all night last month for two nights together. I call +'till 4 in the morning' all night. We generally work one night till 4 +a.m., and three or four nights till 12. My mother thought all night hurt +me and so would not let me go on, but I work till 12. Last month I +worked five times in the night till 12. It is only in that week; we get +very tired towards the end of it." + +With regard to the moral conditions of the workers the Commissioners +reported: "The indiscriminate mixing of the sexes which still prevails +in many workrooms is generally condemned. The evil of such a practice is +especially conspicuous where they are late and irregular in their hours. +The bad language and conduct of the boys is made the subject of very +strong comment by two witnesses, who go so far as to say that there is a +marked deterioration in this respect during the last ten years." + +Again, "The younger children were in many cases unable to read. The evil +of late and irregular work in letting women loose on the streets at all +hours of the night is justly censured by an employer as necessarily +leading to great immorality." + +[Sidenote: Legislation, 1867.] + +In consequence of the Report of the Commissioners, the Factory Act +Extension Act, 1867, was passed. It applied specifically to any premises +where paper manufacture, letter-press printing and bookbinding were +carried on; and generally to any premises where fifty or more people +were employed in any manufacturing process. The hours allowed for women +and young persons were from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., or from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m., +with intervals amounting to one and a half hours for meals; on Saturday, +work had to cease at 2 p.m. By way of exception, women employed in +bookbinding could work fourteen hours a day, provided that their total +hours did not exceed sixty per week. + +To those trades, such as litho-printing, that did not come under the +above Act, was applied the Workshops Regulation Act of the same year, +the provisions of which resembled, though they did not coincide with +those of the foregoing enactment. The same aggregate number of hours +per day and week was established, but more elasticity was permitted in +workshops, women and young persons being allowed to work in them for the +hours specified at any time between 5 a.m. and 9 p.m., and until 4 p.m. +on Saturdays. + +[Sidenote: Factory and Workshop Act, 1878.] + +The discrepancies in the regulations applying to different classes of +work were productive of a good deal of inconvenience, and after the +Commission of 1876 came the Factory and Workshop Act, 1878, having as +its object the consolidation and amendment of the existing statutes with +a view to rendering their administration more even and secure. The main +provisions of the law as it now affects the printing and kindred trades +were laid down, although since that date there have been various +additions and amendments. By this Act a distinction was drawn between +factories and workshops, the chief difference being that, in the former, +machinery propelled by steam, water, or other mechanical power must be +in use; while in the latter, no such agency must be employed. Certain +classes of works, however, apart from all question of mechanical power, +were defined as factories and not workshops. Under these came +paper-staining works, foundries (including typefoundries), except +premises in which such process was carried on by not more than five +persons, and as subsidiary to the repair or completion of some other +work--paper mills, letter-press printing works, and bookbinding +establishments. + +[Sidenote: Factory and Workshop Act, 1901.] + +As regards hours of work and overtime, slight modifications have been +effected by legislation subsequent to the year 1878, and the present +state of the law as laid down in the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, is +as follows:--The regular hours for women and young persons except +Saturday, are 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., 7 a.m. to 7 p.m., or 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., +with an allowance of one and a half hours for meals, one hour of such +meal-time being before 3 p.m. On Saturday the period of employment may +be 6 a.m. to 2 p.m., 7 a.m. to 3 p.m., or 8 a.m. to 4 p.m., with not +less than half-an-hour for meals. But where a woman or young person has +not been actually employed for more than eight hours on any day in a +week, and notice of this has been affixed in the factory or workshop and +served on the inspector, she may be at work on Saturday from 6 a.m. to 4 +p.m., with an interval of not less than two hours for meals. + +There are various special restrictions and exceptions applying to +different classes of work. No protected person may take a meal or remain +during meal-time in any part of a factory or workshop where typefounding +is carried on, or where dry powder or dust is used in litho-printing, +playing-card making, paper-staining, almanac-making, paper-colouring and +enamelling. In certain industries, including printing, bookbinding, +machine ruling and envelope making, women may work three days a week, +and for thirty days during the year, two hours overtime, provided that +such employment ceases at 10 p.m., and that they have two hours for +meals. But this limit of overtime applies to the factory or workshop as +a whole, and not to the overtime of individual workers. + + +2. ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL EFFECTS OF LEGISLATION. + +The foregoing brief summary of the law has naturally preceded the +question as to how far legislation has affected women in these +particular trades. When restrictions are imposed upon the labour of any +class of wage-earners, their economic position must be altered for good +or evil, unless the trade can so adjust itself as to meet exactly the +requirements of these restrictions. If the worker is of great +importance, an effort will be made to adapt the trade to the novel +conditions; if another class of workers or machinery, free from all +restrictions, can be as easily used, it is probable that the labour +affected will be ousted. + +[Sidenote: Has legislation displaced women?] + +Is there, then, evidence to show that any material displacement of women +or girls in these trades followed the enforcement of factory +legislation? Instances of dismissal must obviously be sought for soon +after the Act of 1867, as the employer then knew on what terms he +engaged his staff, and, except in a few cases where deliberate evasions +of the law might be attempted, the effect of legislation would be to +deter him from employing women, rather than lead him to dismiss them. +Owing to the lapse of time, it is difficult to find out from those in +the trade the immediate consequences of this Act, nor does the +Commission of 1876 give much assistance. Of 103 employers questioned by +us, not half a dozen remembered dismissing women in consequence of the +new enactment. + +One employer turned off ten or twelve women "folders" and introduced +machinery, alleging as his reason the want of elasticity in the Factory +Act. His ordinary hours were from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., but on certain days +in the week it was necessary to begin work at 6 a.m. He made +arrangements that the total number of hours should not exceed those +sanctioned by the Act, but the variation was not allowed. If his women +began work at 6 a.m. on any day, his hours had to be regularly 6 a.m. to +6 p.m., except in the case of thirty nights in the year when overtime +was permitted. As this did not suit his business, he dismissed the women +and had recourse to folding machines. Personally he gained, as the +machinery proved an economy, but it told hardly on the women, whom +otherwise he would have kept on as they were old hands. + +Another employer told a similar tale regarding the introduction of +folding machinery, but stated that he had been obliged to dispense with +female operatives by reason of the strict enforcement of the regulations +regarding overtime only. + +In both these cases it is clear that the state of the trade was such +that it required only a very slight disability on the part of the worker +to make it worth while for the employer to use machinery. + +Quite apart from any effect of legislation the machine was destined to +supplant manual labour; its advent was merely accelerated by the Act. +Its first introduction caused isolated cases of hardship, but its +ultimate results were beneficial. Thus at the present day women and +girls are largely employed upon the very machines which once seemed to +threaten their industrial existence. + +[Sidenote: The case of women compositors.] + +In the _Economic Journal_ of 1899 an interesting paper by Miss Bradby +and Miss A. Black discusses the position of women compositors in +Edinburgh, and deals with the subject of legislation. After an +exhaustive investigation, no single instance was discovered of the +displacement of a woman by a man owing to the Factory Acts. + +The chief contention of those who oppose special factory legislation on +the ground that it limits the usefulness of women compositors is, that +women are not employed on newspaper work, and they give the legal +prohibition of nightwork for women as the reason. Careful enquiry has +shown that reason to be purely imaginary. Women are not employed on +evening papers, though the factory law does not stand in their way. In +the provinces women set-up one or two weekly or bi-weekly journals, the +firms employing them preferring them solely on the ground of cheapness. +Experience shows that women are not suited for newspaper work, unless +the paper does not appear more frequently than, say, twice a week, and +if the factory code disappeared to-morrow, morning daily newspapers +would afford to women compositors no fresh openings. + +[Sidenote: Have their opportunities been limited?] + +As regards the further point whether more women would be employed if +they were unprotected by law, the views of representative employers and +managers of labour are here set forth. + +Out of thirty-five,[65] twenty-eight were emphatic in their assurance +that the Factory Acts did not affect the question. Seven, on the other +hand, were inclined to think otherwise. Of these, five were unable to +say that they really would employ more women if freed from restrictions, +but two of them thought that "there might be something in it," though +the point had "never occurred to them before." Only three of them were +of the opinion emphatically that legislation was certainly one amongst +the obstacles to the employment of women. + +[Footnote 65: These are the firms interviewed by Miss Bradby and Miss A. +Black as above.] + +When, on the other hand, we turn to the opinions of those acquainted +with the conditions of the trade, either as workers (chiefly women) or +Trade Union officials, we find practical unanimity. The eighteen +persons[66] of this description questioned were strong in their +declarations that the employment of women was not affected by the +Factory Acts. To most of them, indeed, the idea of any harmful +connection between the two was novel and ridiculous. This of course +proves nothing; but if legislation had, to any considerable extent, +hampered the work of women, the women themselves would doubtless have +become aware of it. + +[Footnote 66: Compositors only.] + +The evidence available leads to the conclusion that, except in a few +small houses, the employment of women as compositors has not been +affected by the Factory Acts. + +[Sidenote: Legislation and home work.] + +The earlier stages during which the protection conferred by the +Legislature was enforced, were marked by attempts on the part of certain +employers to evade the spirit of the law by means of home work.[67] + +[Footnote 67: See pp. 99-101.] + +One example of this practice was given by the Rev. H. W. Blunt in his +evidence before the Commission of 1876. He says that much work was sent +to be completed after factory hours. For instance, in one book-folding +firm which had occasional rushes of work, a girl was employed till 11 +p.m. on the Monday before Christmas. She was then told with the other +girls that they must take home 1,000 quarto sheets to fold by the +morning. Several did so, but she refused, because her mother was on the +point of death, and the doctor said there must not be a light in the +room. She was consequently dismissed at once. Mr. Blunt says further +that religious "weeklies," the sheets of which came off the press at 12 +o'clock at night, were sent out to be folded by 8 a.m. They were taken +away in perambulators, children being employed to do this every week. + +[Sidenote: Work sent to "folding houses."] + +Another immediate result of legislation was the expedient of sending out +work to "folding houses" which did not come within the definition of a +factory or workshop. Such places may be premises belonging to a factory +and yet separate from it. Mr. Henderson, of the Factory Department, in +giving evidence before the Commission of 1876, says: "Some years ago I +came across Messrs. X., where newspapers were folded wholesale by steam +machinery, and I thought it was a factory. Messrs. X. resisted the idea. +Boys were employed at irregular hours, but the Crown officers decided +that it was not a factory." Christmas card packing and sorting are in +the same position. Miss Deane, a lady factory inspector, who made a +special investigation into the conditions of the Christmas card industry +as recently as 1899, points out that many of the workplaces are outside +the operation of the Act. + +In the Report on Factories and Workshops for 1899, she says: "A large +number of Christmas cards, almanacs, etc., are made in Germany and are +sent to England, where girls are employed in sorting and repacking and +arranging them, for the purpose of being sold wholesale. Such places, +unless attached to some factory or workshop, being unregulated by the +Act, the girls are without the protection afforded by the law regarding +length of hours, meal-times, etc. It was impossible not to be struck by +the difference between the conditions found in one such place and those +found in the large airy sorting rooms of a publishing factory close +by--yet the girls in the stuffy workroom of the former were without the +protection given by the law in the latter workplace. A curious instance +arose in connection with one such place where about forty girls had been +employed in packing and sorting for illegal hours. The occupier took to +employing some of them in affixing a minute bow of ribbon to the cards, +and during this temporary employment all the girls could claim and were +accorded the protection of the Factory Acts. Excessive hours in hitherto +unsuspected workrooms were also found to be worked in the processes of +adapting and preparing bonbons for sale. In some cases, baskets, boxes +and bags, were trimmed for the reception of these articles, in others +they were merely selected and arranged in patterns in fancy boxes +subsequently tied up with ribbon. In the first case clearly, and in the +last also probably, the definition of workshop under the Act applies. +Instructions were given and better conditions have gained the day." +Speaking of these unregulated workplaces, in the same report, Miss Deane +remarks: "In the course of some inspections after midnight last winter +near the City, I came across several of these workplaces where women, +girls and children, were then at work under deplorable conditions--dirty +rooms, foul, gassy air, and overcrowding. In one of them I was met by +the observation that 'I might come in if I liked, but I could do nothing +there.'" + +The experience of two of our investigators corroborates the above +statement. One of them says: "At about 2.45 a.m. we went to see +newspapers folded by women in the City. It was done in an old +tumble-down room opposite a printing shop. We peeped in through a chink +in the shutters--it was a boiling night, and the shutters were +closed--and we could see a man carrying in a load of paper from time to +time. When we entered we found four women streaming with perspiration in +the foul hot atmosphere, folding away at the ... _News_. They were quite +friendly and communicative, and told us they came every Thursday night +about 11 p.m. and stayed till they had done. They were paid three times +as much as day-workers and did no regular work in the daytime. Before +beginning work they had a cup of tea. They said they liked the work and +were glad that the Factory Act could not stop them; the police had been +round to them and also two young ladies, but nothing had happened; and +they considered that they were quite old enough to do nightwork if they +liked." + +Folding houses are growing fewer in number owing, no doubt, to the fact +that rent is so high in the City and space so valuable, that it is not +worth while to erect them separate from a factory. Viewed also with +dislike by factory inspectors as a means of evading the law, their +tenure of life is not likely to be long. + +[Sidenote: Nightwork.] + +Employers admit that the effect of the Factory Acts has been to make +them reduce nightwork. In criticising the Act before the Commission of +1876, Mr. Bell, of the firm of Darton, Bell and Thomas, bookbinders, +says: "The Factory Act of 1867 has been a boon to employers and +employed, because it has enabled us to put pressure on customers. Now we +can say to the public 'We can't go beyond certain hours,' and, +therefore, work not new has to be sent in earlier." + +Mr. Darton, of the same firm, adds: "We have persuaded booksellers to +give out stock work in June and July instead of September or October, +and so begin the work earlier and avoid nightwork." This stimulus is +undoubtedly good, and these views are echoed by other employers. + +The whole question of how far the practical prohibition of overtime for +women has limited the volume of work available for them, and thus +diminished their aggregate wages, needs very careful consideration, as +mistaken conclusions may easily be formed. The matter was carefully +considered by a Committee of the Economic Section of the British +Association, appointed in 1901, to enquire into the effect of special +legislation on women, and the following extracts from its final +report[68] are of some interest:-- + +"A very important, perhaps from the economic point of view the most +important, effect of legislation has been to spread the period of work +more uniformly through the week, month, and year than had been the case +before regulation" (p. 5). + +"The tendency to put off giving orders to the last moment is easily +checked when the customer can be met with a universal legal prohibition" +(p. 7). + +"Restriction is met by adaptation of manufacture or rearrangement of +numbers employed and time at which work is done, women being still +employed at the work" (p. 13). + +"Except for a few complaints as to the abolition of the possibility of +payment for overtime, which, as has been pointed out, by no means prove +any loss of earnings ... the Committee have no record ... of any loss of +wages or earnings traceable to the [Factory] Acts" (p. 25). + +[Footnote 68: Presented at Southport in 1903.] + +Thus, it will be seen that the loss of overtime is not necessarily a +loss of work, but a re-distribution (and an economical one, too) of the +times at which work is done, and does not therefore mean a loss in +income, but a steadying and regulation of income. + +Nevertheless, before the re-organisation which has been consequent on +Factory legislation, overtime and nightwork were necessary in order to +turn out a certain volume of trade by a certain number of workpeople, +and the influence of restrictive legislation has been shown in the +following directions:-- + +1st. An increase in the class of workers called "job hands"; + +2nd. An enlargement of the permanent staff; + +3rd. A rearrangement of the employment of male and female labour. + +The third of these changes we have found to be practically +imperceptible, whilst the second has affected women most beneficially. + +[Sidenote: The job hand.] + +On the margin of casual and regular labour the job hand stands--the +reserve battalion of this section of the labour army. She is generally a +married woman, and commonly the wife of a faulty husband. She does not +want regular work, and only desires to earn a certain limited wage. When +she goes to a factory in search of work, she has to wait idle for hour +upon hour, but she generally stays at home until summoned by her +forewoman. Certain kinds of cheap seasonal work as, for instance, penny +almanacs, are almost exclusively done by her,[69] and she is commonly +employed either periodically, _e.g._, for weekly papers and monthly +magazines, or casually, _e.g._, prospectus work, for rushes. A notice in +certain public-houses, or information supplied to certain known agents, +brings her to the place where she is wanted. + +[Footnote 69: "The majority of the almanac makers are married women who +stay at home from February to July": Leeds.] + +Job hands existed before 1867, but at that time they did not hold quite +the same position in the trade as they do now. They were the _hands_ who +went to different firms for two or three nights a month to help in a +recognised rush of work which occurred regularly. In the Commissioners' +Report for 1876, mention is made several times of job hands who were +employed quite regularly for definite pieces of work at definite times +during the month. Firms publishing certain weekly papers were in the +habit of employing women in folding during the early hours of the +morning before distributing the papers to the newsagents. Firms which +printed monthly magazines needed women to fold all night for two or +three nights or more at the end of each month. Such employment naturally +came to an end as soon as the Act of 1867 came into operation; but the +job hand only changed her hours. It became necessary during rushes of +work to call in extra hands, in order to comply with the clauses of the +Act, and many firms solved the difficulty by employing job hands during +the day instead of at night, for a few days to meet the emergency.[70] +This work was generally taken up by married women who had served in the +trade before marriage, and who were glad to get a few days' employment +from time to time. + +[Footnote 70: But this is not the invariable rule. A manager of a firm +dealing largely in magazines and periodical issues says: "The effect of +legal restrictions on our business is to make women work hard for two +weeks and slacken off for two weeks. There is no thought of giving the +work to men, or of sending it home, or of employing job hands."] + +[Sidenote: Increase of permanent staff.] + +The second method of solving the difficulty--by employing a larger +permanent staff--involves the erection of more extensive premises, and +can only be adopted by firms whose financial position enables them to +meet a considerable outlay. It is probably the best means for ensuring +that work shall be done efficiently for the employer, and conducted +under the most favourable conditions for the employed. + +[Sidenote: Nightwork and overtime.] + +But there still remains a slight residuum of nightwork which has to be +done by men. To this extent, and to this extent only, can restriction be +said to have hindered the employment of women. + +We have tried to ascertain how much this really means to the women +workers. Thirty-three firms stated that work of the same character as +that performed by women in the daytime was sometimes given out to men +at night. We cannot, however, assume that the work is always given to +men on account of legal restrictions, and it does not follow that the +abolition of such restrictions would induce all masters to introduce +women for nightwork. Several of them, indeed, emphatically deny that +they would adopt this practice; and in some instances we have been told +that it was not observed in the best firms before the law prohibited it, +_e.g._, "Mr. A. remembers the time before the Act of 1867 (he has been +in the trade since 1851). He could have worked women at night, but never +would because of questions of morality." + +These statements are, however, only part of the case, because nightwork +is generally overtime, and we must consider how far employers care to +practise it. + +There seems to be an almost unanimous opinion against overtime, and any +mention of factory legislation appears to suggest overtime at once to +both employers and employed. Experience has driven it home to them that +overtime is a most uneconomical method of work;[71] and as there does +not appear to be any demand for women's labour at night except +occasionally as overtime, the factory law in this respect is only a +protection to the employée engaged by the employer who is still +experimenting with this unproductive use of labour. + +[Footnote 71: "When the factory (now a large provincial lithographer's, +almanac maker's, etc.), was a small one, and it employed only a few +hands, they used to work a great deal of overtime. They used all the +time they were allowed by the Factory Acts and sometimes tried to get in +more. But now they do not find it pays to work overtime."--It is of some +importance to note that a responsible spokesman for the men engaged in +London houses informed one of our investigators that when men are put on +at night to fold "they take it easy, and six men do in two hours what +two women do in two hours. They don't bother to walk up and down +gathering, but sit at it in a row, and hand sheets on from one to the +other."] + +[Sidenote: Testimony of employers.] + +Some employers, like Mr. Bell,[72] admit candidly enough that +legislation enables them to be more humane (and humanity in this respect +pays) than they could otherwise afford to be. The Act is "a great +relief," such an employer has said. "Legislation is an excellent thing; +existing hours are quite long enough. If a person has not done her work +by the time they are up, she never will do it." "The Factory Acts are a +very good thing," another has said. "Long hours diminish the output"; or +again: "Factory legislation is a capital thing; I only wish it could be +extended to men." "Women are not so strong as men, and therefore the law +rightly steps in." "I think it would be very inadvisable to employ women +at night. I think legislation a very good thing. Overtime is not really +worth it." "Legislation is a very good thing. I don't believe in long +hours. Employers are often shortsighted and think that workers are like +machines--the longer you work them the more they do, but this is not +really the case; if they work from 9 to 7 they have done as much as they +are good for." "The good done by the Factory Acts has quite outweighed +any evils or hardships." Another employer remarked: "I shouldn't like my +own daughter to do it, and I don't see why other women should do so. I +should think it a very bad thing for women to go home in the early hours +of the morning." On hearing that restrictions were objected to on the +score that they hindered the employment of women, he replied scathingly +that it was rubbish, but that "ladies must have something to talk +about." + +[Footnote 72: _Cf._ p. 78.] + +From this it is evident that protection is viewed favourably by many +employers, on the specific ground that it prevents systematic overtime. +On the whole, they are of the opinion that nightwork is harmful to +women, and that after overtime the next day's work suffers. Some are +doubtful whether they would employ women at night even if the law +permitted it. Nightwork, they assert, is unfit for women, not merely on +account of the harm to health, but because of the insult and temptation +to which they are exposed in going home. Whether these views would have +been held so generally before the passing of the Factory Acts it is not +possible to say; probably the results have justified the Act, and +experience has provided moral reasons for legal limitations. + + * * * * * + +Such in the main is the attitude of employers towards legislation. Of +103 who expressed an opinion, twenty-six stated that legislation had not +affected women's labour at all, sixty considered it to have been +beneficial, and seventeen looked on all legislation as grandmotherly and +ridiculous--one among these thinking that legislation was all very well, +and much needed in the City, but that Southwark should be free from +interference. The attitude of those employers who objected to +interference was expressed generally in some such way as that it was +"unnecessary" for their trade at least, even if desirable for others. +Pressed to explain what "unnecessary" meant, they said that women could +take care of themselves; that protection was all very well for young +girls, but when women arrived at the age of forty or fifty they could do +what they liked; that it was hard on women that they should not be +allowed to work day and night as well; that women could stand overtime +just as well as men; and, finally, that legislation pressed very +severely on the employer, who had to use the more expensive medium for +doing nightwork, viz., men. + +Such is the attitude of these employers, and it is fairly well expressed +in the following quotation from _The Stationery Trades' Journal_, +September, 1880:-- + +"We report in another column a case in which Messrs. Pardon & Co. were +summoned for an offence under the Factory Acts. Four women were employed +during the night to fold a periodical which is printed by Messrs. P. The +youngest of the four women was a married woman of thirty-five, whose +husband is unable to work, and she, like the rest, prized the job +because it afforded the means of earning a little extra money for the +support of her family. Under the pretence of protecting these women, the +law steps in and says: 'Your families may starve or go to the workhouse, +but you shall not work overtime or go beyond the limits prescribed by +the Act. You cannot be trusted with the care of your own health. You may +fast as much as you like; it will do you good and help your children to +grow up stalwart men and women--but you shall not endanger your health +by working too many hours at a time.' This in substance is what the law +does for women. As regards the employment of children and young persons, +the Act is no doubt beneficial, but surely women of thirty-five and +forty do not need the same legislative protection as children. A great +deal of sentimental nonsense is written and spoken by benevolent +busybodies without practical knowledge of the subjects with which they +meddle; and one of the results is the application of the Factory Acts to +women who are old enough to judge for themselves. In the case alluded to +there was more real benevolence in providing work for women than in +limiting their hours of employment." As a contrast to these opinions, +the views on overtime expressed in the Factory Inspector's Report for +1899 are worth noting:-- + +"The prohibition of overtime for young persons imposed by Section 14 of +the Factory Act of 1895 has, in my opinion, proved to be the most +beneficial clause of that Act. It has, moreover, been carried out +without any serious interference with trade and without causing much +difficulty to the inspectors. + +"The further restriction in the same clause of the overtime employment +of women by reducing the number of times on which it may be worked in +any twelve months from forty-eight to thirty was also a step in the +right direction. If overtime were abolished altogether except for +preserving perishable articles, the season trades would soon accommodate +themselves to doing without overtime in the same way that the cotton, +woollen, linen and silk manufacturing trades have done, for they also +are season trades." + +[Sidenote: Opinion of employées.] + +Among the older workers in the trade are men and women who remember +conditions before the passing of the 1867 Act, and the experience of +some of them and the comparison they make between work done before and +after the Act is worthy of note. + +A. used to work till 10 every night when she first entered the trade. +She was glad when the Act was passed to get home early, and never liked +working late. + +B. used to work from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. regularly, including Saturdays. +Frequently she had to work till 10 or 12 and sometimes to begin at 5 +a.m. The "young governor" used to take her and some of the other girls +home at night as they were afraid to go alone. She disliked overtime, +was tired out at the end of a day's work, and thought the other women +were too, and she had often noticed how badly the work was done after +eight or nine hours at it. Later on, as a forewoman, she noticed that +the girls after overtime always loafed about the next day and did not +work well. Some women liked overtime, but she noticed it was always +those who spent the extra money earned on drink. She did not think that +work had gone from the women in consequence of factory legislation, but +thought that married women were employed for a little while during a +rush of work where before the regular hands were kept working late. She +remembered how tiresome it was for the married women to get home in +time to fetch their babies from the _crêches_ when the hours were from 8 +to 8. + +C. has often heard her mother-in-law say that as a girl she constantly +worked all night and then had to work just the same the next day. She +used to consider that to get home at 7 on Saturday was early, and now +every young lady looks forward to her Saturday afternoon. Workpeople +have a much better time than they used to. There were no proper meal +hours. She used to get "just a snack between her work." + +D. remembers that when they were busy they had to work all night and all +the day before and the next day too. They used to work on Sundays and +were given a glass of gin. She never knew anyone who wanted to do +nightwork, and thinks eight and a half hours quite long enough for +anyone to work, especially when there is housework, too, when one gets +home. + +E. remembers the time when he was a boy and women were kept at work all +night; he remembers shops where they worked regularly all night after +working all day, for two or three times a week. + +F. a bookbinder, remembers women who worked all night frequently. They +were very poor, very rough, and of very low moral standing. "Some of the +women who worked could hardly be said to belong to their sex." +Respectable girls would not come for such low wages, and also because +they had to go home alone through the streets. After the Factory Acts +the moral tone and respectability increased greatly; wages were no lower +and there were fewer hours of work.[73] + +[Footnote 73: This is an interesting comment on the relation between low +wages and long hours on the one hand and character on the other.] + +G. says, "We used to have to come in at 6 in the morning and work till +10 or 11 at night, and then be told to come back again at 6 next day. I +often used to faint; it took all my strength away." She considers the +Factory Act an unmixed blessing. + +H., before the Factory Act, has worked from 9 to 7, 8, 9, or 10. Often +as a learner she stayed till 11 or 12, and once till 12 several nights +running. Once she remembers being turned out in a thunderstorm at +midnight, and how frightened she was. Occasionally she worked all night; +they used to be given coffee at 2 a.m. Once or twice she worked from 9 +a.m. one day to 2 p.m. next day; "Excitement keeps you up." They were +allowed to sing at their work and be as merry as they could; "We didn't +count it much of a hardship." Some women after leaving the factory would +go and work all night in printing houses; one woman would leave at +tea-time and go to spend the night at the "Athenæum" until 7 a.m. After +the Factory Act no one might stay beyond 10 without special permission. +Once she did work all night; they put out the lights in the front and +worked at the back. The only result of the Factory Acts that she could +see was that employers had to have larger premises and employ more +hands, instead of working a small staff hard. + +J. says "I entered the trade in 1863 when I was thirteen. Boys and +porters came at 6 a.m.; journeymen at 8 a.m. (sixty hours a week); women +at 8 or 9 a.m. All had to stay as long as they were wanted, _i.e._, till +10 or 11. Boys were frequently kept till 11 p.m. I was never kept all +night. Conditions have improved for both sexes, men's owing to Trade +Unionism, women's to factory laws." + +[Sidenote: The opinions of forewomen.] + +The testimony of the forewomen is to the same effect. A. a forewoman, +used to work often till 10, 11, or 12 at night, sometimes all night. +Sometimes she was obliged to keep her girls all night when there was +work that had to be finished, but usually she gave them a rest the next +day. She thinks it a very good thing that they should not be allowed to +work all night; the work is piecework and long hours don't do any good, +for they mean that you work less next day: if you work all night, then +you are so tired that you have to take a day off; you have gained +nothing. She used to find that so herself. + +B. a forewoman, thought the Factory Acts a very good thing. Girls +grumbled if they had to stop till 8, and she never heard of any of them +wanting to stay longer. "If you work till 8 for many weeks you get used +up; there is no change in your life, and as soon as you get home you +have to go to bed, you are so tired." + +C. is a forewoman. As a girl she used to work from 8.30 a.m. to 9 or 10 +at night every day from September to Christmas. She had to stay till 2 +a.m. one night and come again just the same next day; she had to work +from 3 a.m. one Good Friday morning and sometimes had to come to work at +1 on Sunday mornings. This nightwork was only occasional, but she +thinks it a very good thing that it has been stopped; she never found it +pay; the girls were so tired the next day. + +Another forewoman gave it as her deliberate opinion that when overtime +is worked the piece workers do not make more as a rule, for they get so +tired that if they stay late one night, they work less the next day. + +This is the unanimous view held by the forewomen, and it comes with +considerable force from them, as it is they who have to arrange to get +work done somehow within a certain time. They are the people who have to +put on the pressure, and are in such a position as to see how any +particular system of getting work done answers. + +[Sidenote: Exceptions.] + +Among the younger women--the girls who have had no experience of +conditions before 1867, the opinion about overtime is not so unanimous. +Some few like what little overtime is allowed to them and say they would +not mind more. One such worker was met, just arrived home from her +factory late one Saturday afternoon. She had been working overtime as a +consequence of the Queen's death--the envelope makers and black +borderers were all working late just then. It was a bleak and wet +afternoon, and she came in in high spirits, evidently regarding all life +as a joke, and frankly confessing that factory life especially was a +joke, particularly when they had overtime. "It is 'larks' working late, +and the governor he up and spoke to us so nice. He says, 'Girls, you +won't mind doing a bit of overtime for the sake of our dear Queen?' and +we says 'No.' _I_ shouldn't mind doing overtime every day of the week. I +like the factory and should hate to be out of it." A few such girls +there are who are in excellent health, like the work and don't find it +monotonous, and, above all, enjoy the larger life that they meet in a +factory just as girls in another social scale enjoy public school or +college life. It is these who revel in their day's work and are not +tired at the end of it, but how in actual fact they would like longer +hours or systematic overtime it is impossible to say. It is probably the +rarity of it, the stimulus and excitement of working against time for +once in a way, the being put on their mettle by the "governor" himself, +that make the enjoyment. We must also remember that the younger hands +are those who take the most anti-social views of work and care least +about industrial conditions. But even by these few, when the idea of +all night work is suggested, it is scouted with horror. On the whole, +the view adopted is that when you have done your day's work, you have +done enough. A worker in the stationers' trade assured us that overtime +means a doctor's bill, so you don't really make anything by it. The +experience of two women who had tried nightwork illegally was also +instructive. + +[Sidenote: Overtime experience.] + +A. an apparently strong woman was once offered a night job when she was +hard up, and thought that it would be a "lark" to take it. She went in +about 8 a.m. on Friday and worked on with intervals for meals till 3 +p.m. on Saturday, being paid piece rates for the day hours and 6_s._ for +the work between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. She was utterly done up in +consequence of this work and lost more money next week than she made by +the whole job. + +B. once worked all night in a City shop for 5_s._ and got no good out of +it, for she was so done up that she could not work at all next day, and +very little the day after. + +Three girls working at the same factory, and speaking of conditions +there, said that when they were busy after 9.30 p.m. men were put on to +do the card mounting. These girls ridiculed the idea that they disliked +this or wanted to stay. "You feel quite done for by 9 o'clock. Girls +sometimes cry, they get so tired in the evening." None of the three had +ever heard of any girls who objected to the Factory Acts. "The little +ones do not mind overtime so much because they get 3_d._ an hour the +same as the full hands, but the full hands do mind. Overtime, _i.e._, +till 4 p.m., on Saturdays is not so bad because you ain't so worn out." + +C. thinks it a very good thing that women may not work at night--"hours +are quite long enough as it is--you feel quite done up after working +from 8 a.m. to 9.30 p.m." + +D. is very much opposed to the idea of women working at night; she hears +that in some places they work till 9 p.m. and thinks that dreadful. She +has never heard anyone grumble that they cannot work longer, and scoffed +at the idea. She herself hates overtime. + +E.'s views are that if you've had work from 9 to 7 that is quite as much +as you can do properly. She never likes her daughters to work overtime, +because it only tires them out. It is sometimes rather provoking when a +job comes in late after you've been sitting idle and you have to leave +it, but thinks that it is better on the whole. Some women wouldn't mind +working "all the hours that God gives," but it is very selfish of them. +Most can't stand it. If she had to be at the factory by 8 a.m. instead +of 9 a.m., she never did any more work, because she was so tired. + +So the instances could be multiplied. There is no mistaking the note of +relief that runs through the experiences of the workers who have worked +both before and after 1867. Forewomen, employers and factory inspectors, +who are in the position of the "lookers-on at the game," from different +standpoints are nearly unanimous in agreeing that protective legislation +is beneficial. + +The thirty-three firms, the authorities of which are returned as having +stated that they give men at night work done by women during the day, +consist for the most part of printing houses, and the work done by women +was folding. The result produced by legislation is that men do the +folding at night and on Saturday afternoons, when there is a press of +business, but in one or two cases, a regular staff of night workers is +employed. As the men are slower workers than the women, and charge a far +higher price for their labour, it is to the employer's interest to +reduce nightwork to a minimum. Prospectuses, however, and weekly +newspapers have to be folded during the night, and this must fall to the +men's lot. In two firms, men occasionally do relief stamping for +Christmas cards when there is a great press of work, and in one firm +they do card mounting. In none of the above firms is there any question +of employing men instead of women in the daytime. In one of the +remaining two--a printing house--the manager said that perhaps he might +have more women for folding; and in another the employer distinctly said +that he would employ women for feeding his printing machines were it not +for the limitations on their hours, which renders it impossible to keep +them when a press of work comes in. These few cases can scarcely claim +to constitute a serious hindrance to women's employment; nor, in view of +the chorus of gratitude for factory legislation, can they be regarded as +a serious indictment against that legislation. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Has legislation affected wages?] + +On the question as to whether the restrictions of the Factory Acts have +affected wages, it is almost impossible to obtain any trustworthy +information. In briefly touching on it, we must be careful to +distinguish between the rate of wages and the sum total earned. There +seems an entire lack of evidence that the _rate_ of wages has been +affected, although the sum total of women's earnings collectively and +individually is obviously lowered, when some of their work is given to +men. But even then the mere deprivation of the chance of working +unlimited overtime is an altogether exaggerated measure of the loss in +wages. A human being differs from a machine, for, even when the work +done is mechanical, an interval of leisure and rest is essential, after +a certain point, before the output can be continued. Experience has +abundantly proved that for the regular worker overtime does not pay, and +is also a wasteful expedient from the point of view of the employer. + +The Factory Commission of 1866 published evidence that may be accepted +as reliable regarding the wages paid in the trade before legislation +intervened. Mention is made in the Report of one firm of printers who +employed four girls for folding and stitching, three of whom, under +thirteen years of age, earned from 2_s._ to 3_s._ 6_d._; the fourth, a +sort of overlooker, earned 12_s._ Another firm of printers paid the +younger girls 4_s._ to 5_s._ a week; the older ones 8_s._ and 10_s._ The +women employed by a third firm earned at least 14_s._ a week and 3_d._ +an hour overtime. In a fourth a young girl earned 9_s._ 10½_d._ for +fifty-three hours, another 12_s._ 10¾ _d._ for forty-eight hours, +another 13_s._ for fifty-seven hours, and the journeywoman 17_s._ 6_d._ +for sixty hours. + +In a firm where women made envelopes, one girl working from 9 a.m. to 8 +p.m. every day, and till 3 p.m. on Saturdays, said she could earn 10_s._ +6_d._, and a journeywoman earned from 10_s._ to 12_s._ Women making +envelopes for another firm earned 9_s._ or 10_s._ a week. + +Paper-box makers earned, on an average, 9_s._ or 10_s._, some made +15_s._ or more. In another firm they earned 7_s._ or 8_s._ up to 25_s._ +on piecework. Timeworkers earned 12_s._ or 14_s._; young girls earned +2_s._ 6_d._ + +These wages are very much the same as those paid to-day, and the hours +then were undoubtedly longer.[74] Nor must it be assumed that wages +would have risen more satisfactorily had there been no Factory Acts. Had +there been any tendency for wages to rise which the Factory Law was +retarding, that tendency would have shown itself in a marked way during +the intervals between each Act, but no such thing is observable, as Mr. +Wood's figures in the footnote indicate. Moreover, taken all together, +the evidence gathered by this investigation proves that neither the +demand for improvement nor the organisation to make that demand +effective exists in the case of the woman worker. On the other hand, +there is no evidence to show that legislation has improved wages, except +in so far as it has reduced hours without apparently having lowered +rates. + +[Footnote 74: _Cf._ "The Course of Women's Wages during the Nineteenth +Century," by Mr. G. H. Wood, printed as an Appendix to "A History of +Factory Legislation," by B. L. Hutchins and A. Harrison, where the +following figures are given as the estimated average weekly earnings of +women and girls in the printing trade: 1840, 6_s._ 3_d._; 1850, 6_s._ +6_d._; 1860, 7_s._ 5_d._; 1866, 7_s._ 10_d._; 1870, 8_s._ 6_d._; 1883, +8_s._ 9_d._; 1886, 8_s._ 9_d._; 1891, 9_s._ 10_d._; 1895, 9_s._ 10_d._; +1900, 10_s._ 1_d._] + +On the whole there seems to be no ground for considering that special +legislation for women in this trade has materially injured the value of +their labour. There is nothing to show that their wages have decreased, +that legislation has acted as a drag upon their income, or that they +have lost employment to any appreciable extent. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Want of elasticity in the law.] + +A lack of elasticity in the law seems to be the greatest complaint of +the employers. On the face of it, it looks like a piece of senseless +red-tape that, because it is usually preferable to an employer to open +his factory between the hours of 8 to 8, he may not when it is more +convenient to him, open it between 6 and 6 or 7.30 and 7.30. It seems +absurd that it was an illegal act of an employer to allow two young +women to begin work at 6 a.m. and work till 8 p.m., whereas it would +have been quite legal if they had begun work at 8 a.m. and worked till +10 p.m., due notice having been given to the Home Office.[75] + +[Footnote 75: _Stationery Trades' Journal_, 1898.] + +Mr. Henderson, as above quoted, gives it as his opinion that "a wide +limit of law is necessary for printing offices where women may not work +after 8 p.m. or before 6 a.m. Hours for adult women other than at +present should be allowed by the Secretary of State, as for instance the +folders of weeklies." + +Again, it is felt that a greater freedom is needed with regard to +overtime. Mr. Vaughan, the Factory Inspector for North London, in the +Factories and Workshops Report for 1899 says: "I find in some trades, +_e.g._, Christmas cards, great dissatisfaction at the curtailment of +overtime from five to three nights a week, when the busy season lasts +only for a month or so; the allowance of thirty nights a year is not +required, but an allowance of more nights during these few weeks would +be an enormous assistance. The temptation in such cases to work more +nights a week than are allowed is universally great." + +It appears to be a great hardship that women who have not been working +by day may not upon occasions work by night, and both employers and +employées are unanimous in demanding that the law should recognise this +distinction. There is a great difference between retaining an ordinary +worker through the night, or for more than a certain number of hours per +week, and drafting in a fresh set of workers to do work by night at +stated periods in the month or at times of emergency. + +Whether or not the law can be made sufficiently elastic to allow of +greater freedom with regard to period of employment, overtime, and +nightwork, raises difficult questions. No doubt it would be an advantage +both to employées and employers, if the law could be made so elastic, +but the difficulty of effective inspection would be so great as to +outweigh any possible advantage. The early history of factory +legislation and its working shows clearly that the intention of the Act +was defeated because employers could so easily evade its clauses. At +present it is known to a factory inspector that a factory that opens at +6 always opens at 6 and closes at 6, unless notice has been given that +overtime is being worked; if, however, an employer were free to open his +factory at 6 or 7 or 8, as occasion demanded, and close accordingly, the +difficulty of administration would obviously be greatly increased. + +The same point arises with regard to nightworkers. It is quite +impossible to know among a staff of nightworkers, who has been working +all day and who are _bonâ fide_ job hands. Such cases as the following, +which was the cause of a prosecution, would occur far more frequently. + +"Twenty-four girls who were employed at a neighbouring printing and +bookbinding firm, worked for twelve hours at that firm on Friday, +November 20th. They then went straight to the Carlyle Press, and worked +all night, going back to their regular work at the other firm at 8 the +next morning. The forewoman employed by the latter firm said that she +did not know these girls had been working all day, or she would not have +admitted them."[76] + +[Footnote 76: _Printers' Register_, January 12th, 1892.] + +It must be remembered that so far as the class of job hands is +concerned, they owe their present position in a large measure to factory +legislation. By utilising them, the employer has been able to meet a +sudden press of work, and yet to comply with the provisions of the law, +so that, without the legislation of which they now complain, many of +them would not have found employment. Moreover, job hands are not +numerous when compared with regular workers, and the provisions in the +Factory Acts which seem to bear hardly on casual labour have rightly +been passed in the interest of the permanent staff. To accede to the +demand for greater elasticity is to suppose a higher code of morals on +the part both of employers and of employed than experience justifies, +and it would also render necessary a far more elaborate and irritating +system of inspection than at present exists. The efficiency of modern +factory industry depends very greatly upon automatic working--upon its +standardisation of conditions, and the existing factory law with its +inelastic provisions is, in reality, a great aid in maintaining those +conditions of efficiency. Now and again an employer complains of some +hard experience, and forgets that a departure from rigid rule would +destroy the certainty which he feels that the law is treating him +exactly as it is his competitors. Such a feeling of security is +essential to business enterprise. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +_WOMEN AND MACHINERY._ + + +There is a general opinion amongst the women workers themselves that the +introduction of machinery has ruined these trades for them. But we have +found that certain opinions prevail, not because they have stood the +test of investigation, but because they are passed round, and have never +been subjected to enquiry. We have already referred to the question in a +general way.[77] + +[Footnote 77: P. 48.] + +[Sidenote: Effect of machinery.] + +The impression of workers that machinery is displacing them, must be +received with a great deal of reserve as they rarely take long or broad +views. + +Mechanical aid is very imperfect in most of these trades, and in book +folding, envelope making, black bordering, etc., its use has hitherto +been greatly restricted owing to the nature of the work. + +The census figures, moreover, seem to be pretty conclusive that, taking +the trade as a whole, machinery cannot have had such a very destructive +influence upon women's employment.[78] + +[Footnote 78: An old-established publisher commits himself to the +statement that machinery has increased women's work by 20 per cent. The +manager of a leading Scottish paper and stationery firm stated, with +reference to envelope making: "The use of machinery is always extending; +but only in the direction of increasing the output; there has been no +displacing of workers; the result has been rather to increase their +employment."] + +The following statement by a Trade Union official is at once the most +emphatic and most detailed of a considerable mass of information on this +subject:-- + + "Folding and stitching machines have largely superseded female + labour and men's labour too. _E.g._, A. (a certain weekly paper), + if folded, etc., by hand, would employ thirty hands--now it is all + done by machinery. B. (another similar paper) by hand would employ + 100 girls and, say, twenty or thirty men--now no girl touches it + except just to insert 'things,' _e.g._, advertisements, and men + merely pack it; machinery does the rest. Even wrapping is done by + machinery--one machine with one man does the work of eight men. + At X. (a well-known London firm) ten folding machines do the work + of 100 girls." + +As a matter of fact the papers referred to have been created by the +cheap work of machines, and no labour has been displaced by their +employment. They have rather increased the demand for labour. But the +statement shows the efficiency of machinery worked under the best +conditions. + +Another statement by a woman worker, typical of many others, is as +follows: + + "Machinery is ruining the trade, and workers are being turned off; + thirty were turned off a few months ago, and twenty more will have + to go soon." + +This applies to a certain well-known London firm of bookbinders, and it +is curiously corroborated by other investigators who found in other +firms traces of the women discharged from this one. The firm's own +statement, however, was that they had to turn away "ten hands (young +ones), the other day, because of the introduction of folding machines"; +but this information was received five months before the woman employed +quoted above was seen.[79] + +[Footnote 79: An Edinburgh firm states that one folding machine can be +managed by two girls and it does the work of eight women hand-folders. +The firm does not state if it turned away hands, but it considered that +there is too great a strain placed upon girls in watching this machine +constantly, so their work is varied.] + +[Sidenote: Displacement.] + +That there is some displacement, either directly or by the substitution +of younger workpeople, cannot be gainsaid with reference to particular +processes. + +The class most affected is the sewers. The evidence in support of their +displacement places it beyond dispute, and though the increased facility +for sewing has created an extra demand for folding, and some sewers have +turned to folding in consequence, this class as a whole has suffered by +machinery. Folders have been less affected. + +The way in which the displacement is brought about is of some interest. +We have, to begin with, the general apparent inability of women to +manage machines, and we find that the folding machine has tended to +reintroduce men to aid in work which for many years has been exclusively +women's.[80] Here we have a case of men and machinery doing women's +work. On the other hand, the sewing machine does not appear to have had +that tendency, the only explanation apparently being that convention +determines that in these trades sewing machines and women go together. +Sewing machines are domestic implements in men's eyes. It is very +curious that it should be so, but we are driven to that as the only +possible explanation of well-observed facts. In this instance machines +alone displace women. + +[Footnote 80: The manager of a firm with an extensive business in +popular periodical literature says: "Folding, which was all hand work +and women's work, is now largely done by machines managed by men. +Wrapping, of which the same was true, is also largely done by machines +which are managed by men.... If the machine is large and complicated, +men will replace women, if it is small and simple, women will replace +men."] + +No process--excepting the few rare instances in the typographical +trade--seems to have been opened up to women in consequence of the +introduction of machinery; and, on the other hand, the instances where +young persons, either boys or girls, have been put to women's work owing +to the introduction of machinery are very rare. So all that has happened +has been that machines have somewhat changed the character of women's +work, and their chief effect, beyond the displacement of sewers, has +been to prevent the taking on of some learners who otherwise might have +been employed in certain branches of these trades. + +Conclusions can be arrived at with more accuracy in respect of the +paper-colouring and enamelling processes. + +Paper colouring and enamelling hardly exists as a separate trade now. +Paper is coloured or enamelled, as a rule, in the mill where it is made, +and the processes are carried out by machinery. + +This trade, then, affords a definite instance of the replacement of +women's work by machinery, handwork being now a rare survival. In one +firm where forty-five women were formerly employed twelve now work. The +process of colouring by hand is very simple. The sheet of paper to be +coloured is placed in front of the woman who wets it over with the +required colour by means of a long thin brush like a whitewash brush, +which she dips into a bowl. She then takes another round brush, about 10 +ins. in diameter, and brushes over the whole surface, so that the colour +shall lie quite evenly. The process is now complete, and the sheet of +paper is taken up and hung on a line to dry. Enamelling is done in +precisely the same way, enamel, instead of colour, being applied. + +These hand processes apparently survive in the case of small quantities +of paper which it is not worth while to colour or enamel by machine. +Those who have seen the process cannot regret the abolition of hand +labour. The work is rough and dirty; the workers and the walls are all +splashed over with the colour, the result being picturesque, but not +healthy. When dry powder or dust is used in the process, meals may not +be taken on the premises. The work does not attract a high grade of +workers; they are of the job-hand type, friendly, rough and ready, and +by no means tidy or "genteel." + +Paper colouring and enamelling was once a man's trade but women replaced +men for the same reason that machinery has now replaced women, _i.e._, +cheapness. + +Machine ruling has also been slightly affected. One of the investigators +reports of an Edinburgh factory: "In this factory I was shown a ruling +machine which was provided with an automatic feeder, in the form of two +indiarubber wheels, which drew each sheet of paper into the machine with +great exactness. The machine, after ruling one side, turned the paper +and ruled the other without any adjustment by hand being necessary. +After being set, this machine required only the occasional supervision +of one man operative. It was estimated that its output equalled that of +twelve persons on the old machines, whilst on some work of a simple kind +which was merely to be run through, it might replace the work of +thirty." + +[Sidenote: Cheap labour and mechanical appliances.] + +In these circumstances it is hardly to be expected that much evidence +could have been collected leading to very definite conclusions regarding +how far the cheapness of women's labour retarded the introduction of +machinery, and the efficient organisation of these industries. + +With the large up-to-date employers, the fact that women's labour is +cheap counts for little in face of the fact that machinery is rapid, and +enables them on a small area and with a productive capital charge, to +turn out large volumes of produce. "When we see a good machine," said +one of these employers, "we try it, and we do not think of the cheapness +or dearness of the labour it may displace." But with small employers, +and with those producing for a lower class or special market, +considerations of wages do enter greatly into calculations of the +utility of a new machine, and to some slight extent the cheapness of +women's labour has retarded the application of machinery in +these trades. One investigator states of a large West End +stationer:--"Undoubtedly he would put up steam folding and stamping +machines if women's labour were not so cheap." A printer who prints some +of the best-known weekly papers and reviews is reported to have +said:--"Taking it broadly, the cheapness of men's or women's work +undoubtedly tends to retard the introduction of machinery." + +But the most striking proof of the connection between cheap labour and +handwork is given by one investigator who, whilst being taken over +certain large printing works was shown women folding one of the +illustrated weekly papers. Folding machines were standing idle in the +department, and she was told that these were used by the men when +folding had to be done at times when the Factory Law prohibited women's +labour.[81] Another employer stated that he had introduced folding +machines as a consequence of the legal restrictions placed upon women's +labour, whilst another well-known bookbinder said:--"If women would take +a fair price for work done it would not be necessary to employ +machinery." + +[Footnote 81: _Cf._ pp 80, 81, etc.] + +A large printer of magazines reports: "The saving in cost, and therefore +the inducement to put in machinery, is much less if higher wages are +paid for men doing the work." The scarcity of women's labour, we are +told, induced a Manchester printing firm to adopt folding machines; +whilst, on the other hand, the cheapness of women's labour has kept +linotypes out of Warrington composing rooms. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +_HOME WORK._ + + +[Sidenote: Census figures.] + +The table of occupations compiled from the census of 1901 for the first +time indicates the number of home workers. For these trades the figures +for women are as follows: + + +----------------+----------------------------------+-----------+ + | _Census | ENGLAND AND WALES. | | + | 1901._ +------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | | Unmarried. | Married or | Total. | Total for | + | | | Widowed. | | Scotland. | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Paper | 9 | 10 | 19 | 0 | + | manufacture | | | | | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Paper | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | + | stainers | | | | | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Stationery | 37 | 25 | 62 | 0 | + | manufacture | | | | | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Envelope | 27 | 42 | 69 | 4 | + | makers | | | | | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Paper box (a) | 524 | 1,153 | 1,677 | 36 | + | and paper bag | | | | | + | makers | | | | | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Other workers | 54 | 52 | 106 | 2 | + | in paper, | | | | | + | etc. | | | | | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Printers | 73 | 46 | 119 | 2 | + | [? folders] | | | | | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Lithographers, | 18 | 12 | 30 | 0 | + | copper | | | | | + | and steel | | | | | + | plate | | | | | + | printers | | | | | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Bookbinders | 129 | 145 | 274 | 9 | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + | Typecutter | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | + +----------------+------------+------------+--------+-----------+ + (a) Paper box making was not investigated. + +It is always difficult to trace out the home worker, and the information +we obtained was collected through communication with School Board +officers, Charity Organisation Society secretaries, district nurses, +sanitary inspectors, and workpeople. The groups of trades investigated +are mainly factory and workshop trades, and are becoming more so. Home +work is not so prevalent in them as it used to be, and it is now +somewhat difficult to trace its effects in its present decayed +importance. + +[Sidenote: Home work drawbacks.] + +There used to be a good deal of home work in these trades, but the +growth of large firms and the introduction of machinery[82] have +discouraged it.[83] The material is very heavy and sometimes costly, and +has to be carefully handled. It is therefore difficult to move from +workshop to dwelling-place; and when handled in kitchens or other living +rooms it runs a great risk of being stained and spoiled. The home +workers find some of their own material, _e.g._, paste and brushes for +bag making, and they save light and rent for employers; but, on the +other hand, they are apt "to send back their work with the mark of +teacups upon it," or spoiled in some other way, and it is difficult to +get them to return it punctually. So in these trades, home work really +does not pay. + +[Footnote 82: This seems to be specially the case in the provinces.] + +[Footnote 83: One of the home workers (also workshop worker) visited +said, "Home work is given less and less and is difficult to get now. +Only three work at it--old hands--and they are going to stop it +altogether, perhaps." Another investigator reports of machine-ruling in +Scotland: "Two elderly women who worked a paper-ruling machine in their +kitchen. They had been at the work for thirty years, having been taught +by their father, and have carried on the business since his death. The +father had a good business, and they can make their living by it, but +say the work has sadly fallen off. They get enough orders to keep them +going, and when very busy employ a girl occasionally to help them. 'It +is useless to try to compete with the new machines they have nowadays. +What used to be given to us at 2_s._ 6_d._, can now be turned out by the +machines for 1_s._ 6_d._ We couldn't afford to do it at those rates.'" +_Cf._ Appendix V.] + +The Trade Unions prohibit home work when they are able to detect it. +There is, generally, a healthy feeling opposed to this method of +employment, and firms deny practising it. + +[Sidenote: Home work processes.] + +Home work is now mainly confined to book and paper folding, sewing +printed matter, black bordering and folding envelopes, making paper +bags, and designing and painting Christmas cards which is done at home +not so much because employers encourage it, but because it is undertaken +by a class of women indisposed to enter a workshop. The folding is +mostly of cheap printed matter like popular almanacs and other street +literature. Also, a good deal of folding thin paper Bibles and prayer +books is done at home. + +Some paper staining is also done in living rooms by workpeople, but the +practice is less common than it was. "One paper colourer, a married +woman, whom we saw, told us that her mother worked at the trade before +her at home, and when she herself was a baby her cradle was rocked on +the colouring board. 'Many was the night' that she sat up as a child +helping her mother to do the work. She certainly throve on it and seemed +immensely proud of her industrial career." + +[Sidenote: The home worker.] + +What home work is still done is given mainly to women employed in the +workshop during the day, and is therefore illegal.[84] In addition, +women who have married whilst working in certain firms, or widows of men +who have been workmen in these trades, keep up old connections by +occasional--if not systematic--home work. But as it hardly pays the +employer to avail himself regularly of domestic workers, the work now +done at home is chiefly given out to meet a temporary pressure of +demand, and would practically disappear if these exceptional pressures +did not take place. + +[Footnote 84: The wording of the section (31 (2)) of the Act, however, +makes it difficult to enforce.] + +[Sidenote: Paper-bag making.] + +The making of paper bags is, of this group of trades, most extensively +and systematically practised as a home industry. This is particularly +the case in the neighbourhood of busy street markets, such as are found +in South London. The work is mostly done by married women of a rough +class, as a supplement to their husbands' wages.[85] Reporting upon one +such worker an investigator says: "Mrs. ---- is one of nine daughters, +and seven are paper-bag makers. All her cousins, aunts and +relations-in-law have taken it up.... A niece of hers was consumptive +and could not earn her living, but she was fond of dress. Mrs. ---- +taught her paper-bag making and she soon earned 8_s._ or 9_s._ a week." +The profit which yielded this income is stated to be 6_d._ or 7_d._ per +thousand bags. Many women who occasionally work at paper-bag making only +do so to earn a particular sum of money of which they are in need--say +10_s._ When that is earned they cease work. Such is the casual nature of +the employment and the disorganised state of the labour employed in it. + +[Footnote 85: "In nearly all the cases that Mrs. ---- (an employing bag +maker in the Borough) knows there are bad husbands. Mrs. ---- is in the +trade herself to supplement her husband's earnings because she has nine +children and he cannot earn enough to keep them in comfort."] + +[Sidenote: The homes.] + +The practically unanimous report of the investigators is that these home +workers' home conditions are of the very worst. "A very squalid and +evil-smelling slum:" "Very poor and miserable house shared by others," +are typical descriptions of the dwellings to which the home work +investigations led us. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +_THE MARRIED AND THE UNMARRIED._ + + +The investigators tried to obtain information bearing upon the +interesting and important question of the influence of the married and +the unmarried woman worker on industry, on the home, and on the family +income. But the difficulty of following up statements and testing their +accuracy has been so great and some of the factors in the problem so +elusive under the conditions of the trades investigated, that +conclusions are stated with considerable reserve. + +The custom in the trades under review undoubtedly is that married women +should not work in them; and, as a rule, only widowhood, or a bad or +sickly husband, or a slack time, brings a woman back to them after +marriage.[86] Sometimes, however, she comes back, because it is too dull +at home.[87] This is more generally the case in the provinces than in +London, where certain job departments, especially certain kinds of +folding, are filled by rather a rough class of women, amongst whom the +proportion of married is exceptionally high. Throughout the reports sent +in, it is most interesting to note how strongly the sense of feminine +respectability opposes their fellow workwomen working after marriage, +"unless they have been unfortunate in their husbands."[88] + +[Footnote 86: For statistics see Appendix VII.] + +[Footnote 87: A woman worker says, "They come back after they have +married, because a girl who has been accustomed to make 18_s._ for +herself is not comfortable when she marries a man on £2 a week who is +accustomed to have that for himself, so she comes back to make extra +money."] + +[Footnote 88: So also it is interesting to note the lingering shadow of +chivalry in this connection. "Mr. ----," said one of the girls, "never +will take married women, but then he is always _such_ a gentleman."] + +The average age of the women regularly employed is low,[89] because as a +rule girls leave at marriage. The investigators generally report that +the age in workrooms appears to be mainly between eighteen and +twenty-three. The report that "Four girls here out of thirty or forty +are over eighteen" (Leeds bookbinder's), is typical of many others. This +fact alone has an enormous influence on women's wages and makes it +necessary to be very careful in drawing conclusions under the headings +dealt with in this chapter. + +[Footnote 89: A manager of a provincial printing establishment estimated +that twelve years was the maximum workshop life of average girls.] + +[Sidenote: Wages and expenditure.] + +An attempt has been made to discover how far the earnings of women +workers in these trades are only supplementary to family income, and how +far the family worker is entirely dependent upon them for her +livelihood. On the whole (but with important exceptions) they appear to +be supplementary. In cases, certain fixed weekly payments are made for +board and lodging to the relatives who are heads of the households, but +these payments are not enforced in times of unemployment and are reduced +when work is slack. Even when being made in full they do not always +represent the actual cost of accommodation and living. It is becoming +less and less common, it seems, for the wives of idle and improvident +husbands to eke out their household income by casual or seasonal work, +but the practice is still followed and in London prevails to a +relatively considerable extent. In such cases the women do not work for +mere pocket-money, nor again, do their wages cover the full cost of +their living. + +"Miss ---- lives at home and her parents are evidently in comfortable +circumstances," runs one report of a book-folder. "I went into the best +parlour, where there was a piano--also a high hat in the corner!" + +The following gives a somewhat fuller picture of these workers:--"Mrs. +---- is a widow and has no children. She looks about sixty and is +probably about fifty. She lives on the top floor in model dwellings +(three rooms, for which she pays 5_s._ 9_d._) Her husband died in 1891 +of consumption, and she does not know what she would have done had she +not been made forewoman (in a book-folding room). She does not see how a +pieceworker can support herself. She must live at home. Most of the +girls working under her live at home and give their mothers 7_s._ a +week, keeping the rest for themselves. She was doing some washing and +mangling when I called. A little girl comes to help clean, but otherwise +she does everything for herself." + +A fairly large employer in London stated that his "girls are living with +their parents and work for pocket-money." Another "would think that +about half lived at home." One woman stated, "A bit of extra money comes +in handy. It is nice for a woman to put a little by--you cannot expect +her to save out of her husband's money"; another said: "A woman ought +never to let her husband know what she earns--if she is foolish enough +to do that, he at once becomes lazy and extravagant. A woman should only +work after marriage either to save a little money, or to help a sick or +delicate husband." A well-known London general stationery dealer +reports: "Some of the women employed are the wives of the porters and +packers, but in the majority of cases the husbands are worthless, and +the earnings of the women are the chief support of the household." In +one case reported upon, a girl, working in a Bible and prayer-book +house, having to support herself, could not do it, and began pilfering +prayer-books to make both ends meet. She was turned away as a thief. + +For the purpose of throwing light upon the problems with which this +chapter deals, particulars have been obtained from one firm in London +where eighty-six women are employed. The married women are described as +follows:-- + +1. A widow. + +2. Has a husband, a bookbinder in good work, but they are extravagant. + +3. Has a husband in work. + +4. A widow. + +5. A widow with a daughter to support. + +6. A widow. + +7. Has a husband in work. Has been summoned for boys not attending +school. + +8. Has a husband who drinks. Looks after her children and goes home at +dinner time. + +9. A widow with recalcitrant boy. + +10. Has a husband in work. + +11. Has a husband irregularly employed. Very poor and slatternly. + +12. Has a husband who drinks. + +Of the unmarried workers, one learned the trade when on in years +because, owing to a misfortune, she had to bring up her brothers and +sisters. She was very slow and her earnings only averaged about 7_s._ +per week. Two support themselves. The others live at home and pay 6_s._ +or 7_s._ per week, or hand over everything they make, and receive back +small sums for pocket-money. + +A report from another well-known firm of bookbinders in London states +that in a room of ten women, five support themselves. In some instances +it is noted that married women have to receive charitable aid in looking +after their children when they themselves go to work. Of a large +printing firm it is said, "Most of the girls at ... don't seem to mind +if they make money or not. They couldn't possibly keep themselves on +what they earned." This was the statement of a girl working with the +firm and erred in being too absolute; but an examination of the wage +returns showed that, somewhat modified and limited, it was true. A +manager of a co-operative bookbinding establishment estimated that, from +his experience, not more than 25 per cent. of the girls working in that +trade, regarded their wages as the only means by which they supported +themselves. The forewoman of a large stationery department stated that +only three out of twenty girls under her had to depend on their own +wages. The conclusion of a report submitted by an official of the +Typographical Association in Coventry may be taken as being true of the +provinces generally. "The females for the most part are young girls, +with a sprinkling of experienced and older hands who leave when about +entering married life." + +Evidently it is a very common thing for such workers to pay so much into +a common purse from which general family expenses are drawn, and into +which the individual contributions vary with the state of trade. + +The industrial effect of these conditions is obvious. The women keep no +vigilant eye upon wages which are fixed rather by use and wont than by +competitive pressure. Employers have rarely[90] to offer high pay as an +inducement to women to enter these trades, and, consequently, there is +always a downward drag upon wages, and although the women spasmodically +interest themselves in their conditions, they feel so little dependence +on wages that they can never be taught to make that steady upward +pressure which would improve the organisation of these trades and yield +more return for labour. Hence, the low rate of wages obtainable by +those who have to maintain themselves is kept down almost solely by the +circumstance that such a large proportion of the women employed remain +part of families and share in general family income. It should be noted +that it is often the policy of employers to be "careful only to take +respectable young girls who live with their parents." The economic +influence of this "respectable" standard is obvious. + +[Footnote 90: The establishment of a laundry in the vicinity of a +well-known provincial firm of printers resulted in an increase of wages +in the shape of a guarantee that no wages should be paid under 6_s._ per +week.] + +[Sidenote: Influence on family income.] + +On the question whether an extensive prevalence of "supplementary +earnings" tends to reduce the wages paid to other members of the family, +our investigations in these trades threw no light. Only in one case, +where a husband and wife were questioned, was the opinion stated that, +"Now that women go into trades so much, a man and a woman together only +make as much as a man used to." The question is one which can be +answered only by investigation in other trades, the circumstances of +which are more favourable for its elucidation. + +[Sidenote: Wages rates and married women.] + +What little influence the married woman has upon wages seems to be to +raise and not to lower them. That is the unanimous opinion of the +forewomen in London, and they know best.[91] + +[Footnote 91: The following are extracts from the opinions of forewomen +on this point:-- + +"They don't lower rates; they want more." + +"They don't lower rates of pay; it is rather the reverse, for they are +most troublesome about the price; _e.g._, the other day a married woman, +a new hand, made four or five girls refuse to do some sewing at the +price quoted, so they and she sat idle and wasted their time till the +forewoman saw what she could do for them. She (the forewoman) pointed +out to the girls how foolish it was to waste their time like that, and +they said that they wouldn't have done it by themselves." + +"So far from working for less if they don't get enough, they say--'Thank +you' and walk off." + +"They are the first to grumble; they don't think it worth coming unless +they can make something good." + +"Married women are more trouble than the unmarried; they are at the +bottom of any agitation, and won't come if you are slack, for they +wouldn't get enough to pay for washing." + +"They are more independent than single workers, and teach the others to +stand out." + +"They think it a favour to do your work." + +"They won't work for less, for they generally have more than themselves +to keep." + +A forewoman of a book-folding department in a large firm said that +though not employing married women on her regular staff, she had had +some experience of them as job hands, and found that they would not do +ordinary work at ordinary rates, it not being worth their while. "They +have not got to earn money, as they have husbands to fall back upon." + +To this should be added the testimony of one thoughtful observer, who +has considered the question during a long experience in the trade. He +has never come across a case where married women have lowered the rate +of pay; on the other hand, the elder women often complain that the young +girls who are living at home don't mind having ¼_d._ or ½_d._ cut +off. + +See also the Report on Home Work, published by the Women's Industrial +Council, 19, Buckingham Street, Strand, 6_d._, for further details +confirming this view.] + +In a good many instances, the married women complained that the +unmarried ones accepted reductions, and at a Conference held at +Manchester in connection with this investigation, the opinion was +unanimously expressed that married women do not lower wages, but, "on +the contrary, the casuals grumble most and get most."[92] "I know of a +case," writes a Plymouth correspondent, "where a married woman would not +work for less than 15_s._, which she obtained and retained for a year or +two." Out of a batch of ninety employers who had definite opinions upon +the influence of married women upon the standard of wages, seventy-seven +said they did not lower it, and thirteen that they did. The married +woman is more able than the unmarried girl to appreciate the relation +between wages and living expenses, and when she returns to the workshop, +it is as a worker who accepts the life of the wage earner as a final +fact and not as a mere interval between school and marriage. + +[Footnote 92: The casually employed sometimes give trouble owing to +unpunctuality, and several employers have complained against married +women on this ground. But the investigation as a whole does not show the +complaint to be at all general.] + +The married woman is more independent and disinclined to accept low +rates when offered, and she is generally chosen to go on deputations +making complaints to employers. A Trade Union official said that +theoretically the married woman ought to reduce wages, but that he was +bound to say that his experience in the trade taught him that she did +not. She has acquired the right to grumble, and she is put down in a +considerable proportion of the reports as the centre from which general +discontent in the workrooms emanates. Many employers object to her in +consequence. + +She seems to regard herself as a permanent worker when she is a widow, +and generally remains for a considerable time--twenty or thirty +years--with her employers without thinking of changing. She is not so +"particular" as her unmarried co-worker, and does not give herself so +many "airs." She cleans litho-rollers without "turning up her nose." She +is, in short, part and parcel of the fellowship of wage earners; her +unmarried sister is not. + +She is more rarely found in the provinces than in London in these +trades. Leeds and Bradford, and Bristol and the surrounding district may +be taken as typical, and the reports of the investigators who visited +these towns are quoted in full below on this point. + +[Sidenote: The employment of married women. (a) London.] + +In London, several firms refuse to employ married women as regular +hands. In some cases this is a policy of the forewoman only, and not a +rule of the firm. In others the head of the firm is responsible for the +order. The motives vary. Some refuse on principle, holding that husbands +should support their wives; _e.g._, "She won't countenance husbands +living on their wives' earnings and idling themselves"; or, again, that +it is "hard on single girls," or undesirable to have married women +working amongst unmarried girls, because, "They spoil a shop by talking +about all sorts of things." Other employers refuse to have them because +they are too irregular--"You can't get them in in time"; others because +"one has no hold over them," or because "they are tiresome, being so +cocky." "Out of seventy-five girls," runs one of our reports, "he had +none married till recently, when he failed to get enough unmarried. +Dislikes having them because influence bad."[93] + +[Footnote 93: Reasons given for not employing married women, taken from +a batch of London reports:-- + + (1) Irregular. (2) Principle. (3) Principle. (4) Principle. (5) No + hold. (6) Chance. (7) Principle. (8) Chance. (9) Irregular. (10) + Irregular. (11) Principle. (12) Moral principle. (13) Moral + principle. (14) Principle (?). (15) Principle (?). (16) + Expediency. (17) Principle. (18) Principle. (19) Principle. (20) + Principle. (21) Principle. (22) Rule. (23) Rule. (24) Rule. (25) + Expediency. (26) Principle. (27) Principle. (28) Principle. (29) + Principle. (30) Principle. (31) Irregular.] + +As a rule, however, there is a certain number of married women on the +staff, and all houses who have recourse to job hands in busy seasons +must, on occasions, have married women on their premises, though they +may object to employ them as regular workers. + +The exact proportion of married to unmarried women in these trades is +impossible to judge. Accuracy could only be obtained by taking a census +of each shop. Estimates vary. A forewoman of experience calculated that +more than half were married. A Trade Union secretary and an experienced +worker estimated that about half were married, whilst of the job hands +taken separately, more than three-fourths were married women. Another +Union official, however, reckoned that, taking the trades as a whole, +there were four unmarried to one married; taking job hands separately, +two were married to one unmarried. Most of those conversant with the +trade are careful to give no figures, "a large proportion" are married, +or a "good few," and so on, are the common expressions. All, however, +agree that the largest proportion of married to unmarried is found +amongst the job hands; that, in fact, the majority of that class of +workers have husbands. A few instances of the proportion amongst the +regular staff in houses taken at random are given below. In most cases, +it was impossible to obtain any figures, but the following may be taken +to be types:-- + + A. _Printing._--12 married out of 86. + + B. _Printing and Magazine Binding._--Half the staff. + + C. _Printing._--2 regular hands unmarried, 1 married taken on when + busy. + + D. _Envelopes, etc._--5 girls, 2 married. + + E. _Binding._--3 married out of 20. + + F. _Card Mounting, etc._--2 married out of 30. + + G. _Binding._--3 married in machine room out of 60; 1 in + perforating department. + + H. _Stationery._--9 married out of 20. + + J. _Printing._--1 married out of 10. + + K. _Binding._--2 married out of 30. + + L. _Printing and Magazine Work._--5 married out of 100. + + M. _Printing._--1 or 2 out of 56. + + N. _Printing._--2 out of 128. (In most departments won't take + them.) + +These houses show a much lower percentage of married workers than anyone +hazarded at a guess. + +[Sidenote: (b) Bristol and district.] + +"Seventeen houses in Bristol, employing about 1,170 women, have no +married hands. In three of these, it is the rule that girls must leave +on marriage, because the employer or the forewoman dislikes having +married women, either 'because they are not such good workers after they +have got the breakfast for their husbands and children, and seen to the +house, and are not then much good for work in a factory,' or else +because of a feeling that it is wrong to take married women from home +duties. + +"In eight houses, employing about 1,200 women, there is no rule against +employing married women, and a few are employed. The exact proportions +were impossible to ascertain, but mostly box-makers. + + Employed. Married. + A. 100 Most leave when married, but a few + good workers kept on. + B. 6 Two. + C. 5 One or two. + D. 30 A very few kept on. + E. 2 Both married. + F. 18 One married. + G. 40 Generally leave; a few kept on. + H. 1,000 A good many married. + +"So few married women are employed in these trades in Bristol that it is +impossible to find any evidence of their influence on rates of pay, and +the generalisations as to the quality of married women's work are made +on very little information. One employer (B.) declared that married +women are better workers because they do not go out unless they have +good-for-nothing husbands and _have_ to be the breadwinners, a remark +corroborated by G., who assigned the same reason for their superiority, +adding that married women make 2_s._ or 3_s._ a week more at piecework +than the unmarried, and seem more anxious to get on. C. regards them as +steadier than girls: "They take life more seriously." + +"In two houses in Gloucester with twenty-two and fifty-five girls, there +are no married women. 'They don't want to stay.' + +"In Frome, a leading printing establishment employs 130 girls, but none +are married. There is a rule against employing married women. It is +regarded as immoral to do so--'It means that the husband spends the +extra money in beer.' + +"In Stroud, amongst thirty girls, none were married. + +"In Bath, in a firm employing forty girls, a few were married, but none +whose husbands were in work. 'That would be considered _infra dig_.' + +[Sidenote: (c) Leeds and Bradford.] + +"Married women are rarely employed in these trades in Leeds. Out of +seventeen houses visited, only three had married women as regular +workers. One of these is an account-book maker's, where a few out of the +thirty hands are married; another is a wallpaper manufacturer's, where +no difference is made when girls marry, and the third is a paper-bag +house, where a few out of the thirty women employed are married. In the +remaining fourteen houses, comprising about 930 girls, no married women +work. It is a custom recognised by masters and workers alike that women +leave on marriage, so that the industrial career of these workers stops +usually at twenty-two or twenty-three. In two houses old hands who have +married are taken on for occasional rushes of work. + +"This dearth of married women in these trades seems strange in a town +where married women's work is such a common feature in the mills, but is +accounted for by the fact that the girls employed in the printing trades +belong to a comparatively comfortable class, marry in their own class, +and are not expected to be breadwinners. One employer suggests that the +work requires more regularity than can be expected from a married woman, +but this does not seem to be a serious difficulty in London. + +"Bradford conditions are practically the same. Seven firms have no +married women, one has one married out of 100 workers, and this is an +exception, married women not being employed as a rule. As in Leeds, the +hands who have married come in to help when there is a rush of work. One +manager remarked that, if the girls think they are not going to marry +they leave for the mills, where pay is higher." + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: The moral influence of the married worker.] + +There seems to be a pretty widespread objection to the moral influence +of married women in the workshop. "Mr. ---- objects to the employment of +married women. He dislikes the way they talk to the unmarried girls.... +Lately he has been obliged to employ them as he could not get enough +unmarried women." + +[Sidenote: Family health.] + +As regards the effect of work in these trades on family life, again the +evidence is sparse, but so far as it is clear it tends to show that the +employment of women makes little difference to the ordinary state of +things. The work is not unhealthy, and the woman worker does not do much +of the heavy tasks, such as lifting formes, using presses, and so on. +The instances where she does this are rare, and the men have always, in +this respect, turned their chivalrous instincts to industrial purpose +and to protect their own interests. One investigator reports that a girl +suffers from weak knees on account of long spells of standing at a +machine for making envelopes, and that a vellum-folder complains of +having to lift heavy weights. Another reports against "powdering" in +book-binding; and employment in typefoundries, where girls handle type, +is dangerous, since it may lead to lead-poisoning. Another says that +bronzing, even when the bronzing machine is used and the precautions +specified by the Factory Act are taken, is unhealthy. A case is given of +a woman permanently injured by the excessive strain of working a +guillotine cutting machine. + +The bookbinders have always been ready to point out that certain parts +of their work are too heavy for women, and the compositors have done the +same. The latter also show that consumption is a trade disease amongst +them, and recently have defended their attempts to exclude women from +working the linotype on the ground that the fumes and gases which are +generated by its typefounding arrangement are injurious to health. They +also maintain that standing for long periods at a stretch is injurious +to women, but in at least one large printing firm in the provinces women +were seen by our investigators setting type whilst sitting on stools in +front of the case. The conditions of some wallpaper factories seem to be +unhealthy, partly owing to the hot air, the smell, and some of the +material used, especially the arsenic. Some reports state that the +constant "standing about" necessary in these trades gives headaches and +produces anæmia. What valid objection there is against married women +leaving their homes and children for long periods at a time during the +day, must of course be added to this, in common with all other kinds of +continuous work in which married women engage, but there is no special +danger to life or health in these industries from which the coming +generation may suffer. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +_WAGES._ + + +We have succeeded in getting the authentic records of wages from about +eighteen firms in London, representing every branch of work in +connection with printing, binding, and despatch, and employing together +1,000 hands--more in busy, less in slack weeks. We have also less +detailed information about some half-dozen other firms. + +These studied together and apart will no doubt give a correct general +impression of the amount and variability of wages paid, but +circumstances have made it very difficult to group them so as to give a +simple bird's-eye view of the whole. + +These circumstances are partly due to the very great differences between +the class of work done by the various firms, and the difficulty of +tabulating the workers under a few definite heads; partly to the +difficulty of collecting records. Our investigators were recommended:-- + +i. To get complete wage sheets for as many weeks as their time and the +courtesy of the manager allowed, making the record as complete as +possible for 1899, and extending their researches back as far as the +books existed, choosing the wage sheets of one week in every month. + +ii. To trace individual workers through as long a period as possible, +choosing workers who would best illustrate all the various conditions of +employment. + +iii. To note any other information. + +As regards i., we have the wage sheets for some 470 separate weeks, in +addition to the complete lists of two very small firms for one and four +years respectively; ii., the complete earnings of about 130 hands for +periods varying from one to fourteen years. + +Owing to the fact that it was impossible to get the complete lists +through 1899 for many firms, and that the periods of slackness and full +work were not the same in different places, it proved very difficult to +handle the wage lists. At last the plan was adopted of getting complete +lists of one busy week, one typical week, and one slack week in 1899, +leaving the employers to choose the weeks, unless our investigators +could make a complete record. In the following analysis we have +endeavoured to bring out the salient features of the statistics of each +firm separately, and we have then grouped together all the typical +weeks, either chosen by the employer or selected by us from the series; +and it is believed that this grouping gives an adequate idea of the +wages at a time which the trade regards as ordinary. + +The earnings of the 130 individual hands is a very valuable and, it may +be, almost unique record. Many interesting facts are brought out by +their study, and the records should have a place in sociological +literature apart from their interest in the present connection. + +It has been necessary to make a technical use of averages in collating +and tabulating the material, and we offer the following explanations. +Where the word "average" is used without qualification, it is the +ordinary arithmetic average, obtained by dividing the total by the +number of payees. This is the best for general quantitative +measurements. + +In most cases the median and quartiles and sometimes the dispersions +have been calculated. They may be explained as follows. Suppose the +wages of, say, sixty persons to be arranged in ascending order, _e.g._, +5_s._, 5_s._ 3_d._, 6_s._, 6_s._ 1_d._ ... 11_s._ 9_d._, 12_s._, 12_s._ +6_d._, then the wage _halfway_ up the list is the _median_ wage; thus, +there are as many individuals above the median as below it. The wages +halfway from the ends to the median (_i.e._, fifteenth and forty-fifth +from bottom), are the _quartiles_, so that between the quartiles half +the wages are grouped. Thus, if the median and quartiles in the above +list were 7_s._ 6_d._, 10_s._ 6_d._, 12_s._ 6_d._, there would be +fifteen earning less than 7_s._ 6_d._, fifteen more than 12_s._ 6_d._, +thirty between 7_s._ 6_d._ and 12_s._ 6_d._, thirty below and thirty +above 10_s._ 6_d._ For a single measurement of the grouping of the wages +about their median, the distance between it and the quartiles is +significant: in this example 3_s._ and 2_s._ are these distances. The +more convenient way of stating this is to express half the distance +between the quartiles (2_s._ 6_d._) as a fraction of their average +10_s._, which is generally very nearly the median. This fraction (¼ or +·25) we call the _dispersion_, and it enables us to study the changing +character of a group in a very simple and efficient manner. + + +I.--STATISTICAL VIEW OF THE VARIOUS FIRMS. + +FIRM A. + +_Information obtained._--Wages of thirty-six hands tabulated week by +week through 1899. + +Total amount paid in wages and total number employed each week, +1885-1899. + +The whole wages sheet for one week in July and one week in November for +each of these fifteen years. + +A. is a firm employing from fifty to one hundred and ten women and girls +as folders, stitchers and sewers. The number employed has changed +gradually; in 1885-7 there were about a hundred: from 1888 to 1894 the +number continually diminished to sixty, and after a brief spurt in the +autumn of 1894 to one hundred and fifteen and a rapid fall, has from +1895 to 1899 gradually risen from fifty to ninety. + +Through the fifteen years which the statistics cover, 1885-1899, the +_annual_ average (roughly calculated) has fluctuated within the narrow +limits of 8_s._ 9_d._ and 10_s._ 6_d._; it was above 10_s._ in 1888, +1889, 1897, 1898, 1899; below 9_s._ in 1886 and 1894. This average +includes the learners. But when examined more minutely it is seen that +the fluctuations week by week and month by month are very rapid. +Briefly, there is a change of about 4_s._ in four-weekly cycles. Thus in +November, 1899, the averages for the five weeks were 10_s._, 11_s._ +2_d._, 13_s._ 9_d._, 13_s._ 10_d._, 12_s._ + +In November the wages are much higher than in July, and evidently more +regular in character; the number earning near the average is also +greater. Thus the "dispersion" in November is generally about ·2 (the +quartiles and median being, for example, 12_s._, 15_s._, 18_s._); while +in July it is generally about ·4 (_e.g._, 3_s._ 9_d._, 6_s._ 3_d._, +8_s._ 9_d._). Again, it seems quite doubtful each year whether there +will be any July wages worth the name; the median in four weeks selected +each year in July changes from 2_s._ 11_d._ to 8_s._ 2_d._; while that +for selected weeks in November is from 10_s._ 8_d._ to 17_s._ 11_d._, a +smaller proportionate variation. + +The majority are piece workers. + +The following table shows the wages in two weeks (slack and busy) in +1899. The figures are probably typical of similar weeks in previous +years. + + +-------------------+------------+------------+ + | FIRM A. | July 14th, | Nov. 29th, | + | | 1899. | 1899. | + | From to | Numbers | Numbers | + | _s.__d._ _s.__d._ | earning. | earning. | + +-------------------+------------+------------+ + | 24 0 26 0 | 1 | 2 | + | 22 0 24 0 | 0 | 5 | + | 20 0 22 0 | 1 | 12 | + | 18 0 20 0 | 0 | 9 | + | 16 0 18 0 | 2 | 5 | + | 14 0 16 0 | 4 | 14 | + | 12 0 14 0 | 5 | 10 | + | 10 0 12 0 | 4 | 11 | + | 8 0 10 0 | 11 | 1 | + | 6 0 8 0 | 17 | 2 | + | 4 0 6 0 | 11 | 2 | + | 2 0 4 0 | 6 | 2 | + | -- -- 2 0 | 1 | 1 | + +-------------------+------------+------------+ + July 14th, 1899: Median, 7_s._; + Quartiles, 5_s._ 8_d._, 9_s._ 11_d._; + Dispersion, ·27. + Nov. 29th, 1899: Median, 14_s._ 6_d._; + Quartiles, 11_s._ 10_d._, 19_s._; + Dispersion, ·23. + + +-------+-----------------------------------+ + | FIRM | Average | + | A. | Wage. | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1st | 2nd | Year. | + | | Six | Six | | + | | Months. | Months. | | + +-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + | 1885 | 8 11 | 9 2 | 9 1 | + | 1886 | 8 4 | 9 5 | 8 10 | + | 1887 | 8 8 | 9 5 | 9 0 | + | 1888 | 8 0 | 10 7 | 9 4 | + | 1889 | 9 5 | 10 11 | 10 1 | + | 1890 | 10 4 | 10 10 | 10 6 | + | 1891 | 9 0 | 10 1 | 9 6 | + | 1892 | 8 4 | 9 8 | 9 0 | + | 1893 | 9 4 | 8 8 | 9 0 | + | 1894 | 8 2 | 9 8 | 8 11 | + | 1895 | 8 5 | 10 4 | 9 4 | + | 1896 | 9 5 | 10 0 | 9 8 | + | 1897 | 9 10 | 10 11 | 10 4 | + | 1898 | 10 6 | 10 1 | 10 4 | + | 1899 | 9 11 | 10 4 | 10 1 | + +-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + +-------+-----------+-----------+ + | FIRM | Median | + | A. | Wage. | + | +-----------+-----------+ + | | Week | Week | + | | in | in | + | | July. | Nov. | + +-------+-----------+-----------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + | 1885 | 8 2 | 15 2 | + | 1886 | 4 5 | 17 0 | + | 1887 | 5 5 | 14 7 | + | 1888 | 8 9 | 14 6 | + | 1889 | 9 3 | 17 2 | + | 1890 | 6 7 | 17 11 | + | 1891 | 6 6 | 16 10 | + | 1892 | 7 0 | 15 4 | + | 1893 | 6 2 | 10 8 | + | 1894 | 3 0 | 13 11 | + | 1895 | 5 4 | 14 4 | + | 1896 | 5 7 | 11 8 | + | 1897 | 6 7 | 15 0 | + | 1898 | 4 7 | 11 4 | + | 1899 | 7 0 | 13 3 | + +-------+-----------+-----------+ + For the 15 years: + 1st six months, 9_s._; + 2nd six months, 10_s._; + year, 9_s._ 6_d._ + +FIRM B. + +_Information obtained._--Wages of five hands tabulated week by week, +for years 1886-99, 1887-99, 1896-99, 1898-99, 1899, respectively. + +Monthly earnings and half-yearly bonus for all regular hands, 1888-99. + +Weekly wages of all hands throughout eighteen months in the years +1886-96 and 1899, three weeks in 1877 and two in 1898. + +This firm employs folders, stitchers, and sewers.--The number of +permanent hands employed increased with slight variations from two in +1886 to twelve in 1899. Jobbers are occasionally employed, sometimes as +many as there are permanent hands. + +Considering the regular hands and choosing each year a wage earner near +the median for that year, we have the following table. + + +--------+-----------+-----------+------------------+ + | FIRM | Total | Bonus. | Average Earnings | + | B. | Wages | | per week, | + | | in Year. | | including bonus. | + +--------+-----------+-----------+------------------+ + | | £ _s._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + | 1887 | 18 0 (a) | 10 6 | 14 3 | + | 1888 | 39 6 | 21 8 | 15 6 | + | 1889 | 38 16 | 20 4 | 15 4 | + | 1890 | 36 6 | 16 6 | 14 4 | + | 1891 | 39 0 | 18 9 | 15 4 | + | 1892 | 39 12 | 20 0 | 15 7 | + | 1893 | 38 8 | 24 0 | 15 2 | + | 1894 | 40 3 | 15 0 | 15 9 | + | 1895 | 37 10 | 19 0 | 14 10 | + | 1896 | 40 7 | 20 0 | 15 9 | + | 1897 | 37 11 | 19 6 | 14 10 | + | 1898 | 40 7 | 20 0 | 15 11 | + | 1899 | 29 11 (b) | 14 9 | 15 6 | + +--------+-----------------------+------------------+ + (a) half-year + (b) 9 months + +In a typical week, January 5th-12th, 1899, the wages were: + + Full workers, average, 16_s._ 2_d._ + 1 at 21_s._ + 5 between 16_s._ and 17_s._ + 4 " 15_s._ and 16_s._ + 1 at 14_s._ 10_d._ + 1 " 12_s._ 9_d._ + + Learners in their third year, 2 at 10_s._ 6_d._ + " " second " 1 " 5_s._ + + 9 jobbers, average 5_s._ 5_d._ + 1 at 7_s._ 2_d._ + 4 between 5_s._ and 7_s._ + 4 less than 5_s._ + + Average, for all except learners, 11_s._ 7_d._ + +FIRM C. + +_Information obtained._--Complete list of wages for first week in every +month, from January, 1897, to February, 1900. + +Full lists in five weeks described as "slack," "busy," or "typical." + +The wages of fifteen hands tabulated, most of them throughout 1897-99. + +The work is divided into four departments:-- + +Binders, from twenty-nine to thirty-eight hands. The median wage +fluctuated in the three years between 11_s._ and 17_s._, excluding +holiday weeks; 13_s._ is the general average. About six are on time +wages. + +In the warehouse, where Government folding is done, five hands are +employed. The median wage of this group fluctuated in 1897 between +16_s._ and 27_s._, being low at the end of 1897. In 1898 and 1899 it was +a little steadier, averaging about 21_s._ (piece rates). + +In the envelope room, where folding and relief stamping is done, seven +to thirteen hands are employed. The median wage is very variable, +fluctuating from 9_s._ to 16_s._, and averaging about 12_s._, chiefly +time wages. + +Machine ruling is done by from four to eleven girls. Their median wage +was nearly steady at 6_s._ in 1897 and 1898, and rose regularly to 8_s._ +in 1899. Nominally these were time wages. + +The following table shows detailed wages in five selected weeks +(learners excluded). + + +------------------+--------------------------+-------+---------+ + | FIRM C. | Typical Weeks. | Busy | Slack | + | | | Week. | Week. | + | +--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+ + | | Nov., | Feb., | Nov., | Dec., | March, | + | | 1898. | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+ + | Binders-- | No. | No. | No. | No. | No. | + | Above 20_s._ | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | + | 18_s._ to 20_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 0 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 5 | 3 | 9 | 13 | 1 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 7 | 10 | 4 | 3 | 0 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 7 | 4 | 7 | 6 | 2 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 8 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 14 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 3 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 9 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 2 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 1 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+ + | Envelope Room-- | | | | | | + | 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+ + | Machine Ruling-- | | | | | | + | 8_s._ to 9_s._ | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 0 | + | 7_s._ " 8_s._ | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 6_s._ " 7_s._ | 1 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | + | 5_s._ " 6_s._ | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 7 | + | 4_s._ " 5_s._ | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | + | 3_s._ " 4_s._ | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | + | 2_s._ " 3_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+ + | Warehouse | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | + | Earnings. | 22 4 | 24 1 | 27 9 | 28 0 | 21 6 | + | | 22 1 | 24 1 | 26 10 | 26 10 | 20 8 | + | | 22 1 | 23 3 | 26 4 | 26 3 | 20 8 | + | | 20 5 | 22 1 | 24 6 | 24 9 | 19 3 | + | | 12 7 | 20 10 | 11 3 | 24 0 | 15 6 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + +FIRM D. + +_Information obtained._--Complete lists of wages in all weeks in 1899. +Wages of thirty-one hands tabulated week by week through 1899. + +The lists are made up in five divisions. + +1. Sixty-five to seventy-eight employed in sewing, folding and collating +(of whom eleven to seventeen are learners). Excluding Bank Holiday weeks +and learners, the average wage fluctuates only between 10_s._ and 13_s._ +9_d._ Average for 1st half, 12_s._; 2nd half, 11_s._ 6_d._; year, 11_s._ +9_d._ + +2. Eighty to ninety (including sixteen to twenty-three learners), +collating and sewing. Average from 10_s._ 7_d._ to 16_s._ 3_d._ Average +for 1st half, 13_s._ 5_d._; 2nd half, 13_s._ 2_d._; year, 13_s._ 3_d._ + +3. Eighty-three to ninety-two (including thirteen to thirty learners), +folding. Average from 10_s._ 6_d._ to 16_s._ 5_d._ Average for 1st half, +13_s._; 2nd half, 13_s._; year, 13_s._ + +4. Layers-on, about six. Average fluctuates from 12_s._ to 24_s._ 8_d._; +1st half, 15_s._ 7_d._; 2nd half, 16_s._ 11_d._; year, 16_s._ 3_d._ + +5. Lookers-over, four or six. Fluctuates from 11_s._ 8_d._ to 15_s._ +10_d._ Average for year, 13_s._ 8_d._ + +The following table shows detailed wages in five selected weeks. + + +------------------+-----------------+-----------------+--------+ + | FIRM D. | Slack Weeks. | Typical Weeks. | Busy. | + | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | Feb. | Feb. | June | Oct. | Dec. | + | | 24th, | 23rd, | 30th, | 13th, | 8th, | + | | 1899. | 1900. | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | Above 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | + | 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 5 | + | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 16 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 6 | 3 | 11 | 10 | 33 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 23 | 20 | 26 | 40 | 36 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 45 | 58 | 51 | 52 | 59 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 40 | 44 | 45 | 38 | 17 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 35 | 32 | 26 | 24 | 19 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 24 | 19 | 15 | 24 | 17 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 15 | 15 | 6 | 18 | 7 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 9 | 9 | 4 | 5 | 0 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | + | Median | 12 9 | 13 4 | 14 0 | 13 8 | 14 10 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | Quartiles | 15 0 | 14 9 | 15 6 | 16 0 | 18 0 | + | | 10 0 | 10 4 | 11 4 | 10 6 | 13 4 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + | Dispersion | ·20 | ·17 | ·18 | ·20 | ·15 | + +------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ + +FIRM E. + +_Information obtained._--Complete wage list for one week each month from +August, 1894, to December, 1899. + +Wages of eight hands tabulated, five through the whole period. + +Folding, stitching and sewing are done. Number employed was nearly +regular, but increased from forty to sixty, and fell back to fifty. + +The median fluctuates rapidly and greatly, but shows a gradual rise from +13_s._ (with fluctuations down to 8_s._ and up to 16_s._) to 16_s._ +(with fluctuations down to 10_s._ and up to 19_s._). The "dispersion" +has changed little, and was about ·15. + +The following weeks (table p. 121) show the general run of wages. + + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | FIRM E. | Feb. | July, | Nov. | Feb. | + | | 1895. | 1895. | 1895. | 1899. | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Above 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 1 | 5 | 3 | 0 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 4 | 10 | 10 | 3 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 8 | 17 | 18 | 4 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 13 | 8 | 14 | 12 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 9 | 7 | 7 | 19 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 4 | 5 | 2 | 10 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | + | Median | 11 4 | 12 7 | 12 5 | 9 10 | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Quartiles | 12 11 | 14 7 | 14 4 | 10 11 | + | | 9 8 | 10 8 | 10 7 | 8 4 | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Dispersion | ·14 | ·16 | ·14 | ·13 | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | FIRM E. | July, | Nov. | Dec. | A Slack | + | | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | Week, | + | | | | | 1900. | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Above 24_s._ | 0 | 4 | 1 | 0 | + | 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | + | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 5 | 9 | 4 | 1 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 9 | 9 | 13 | 2 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 12 | 8 | 7 | 0 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 7 | 10 | 9 | 3 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 9 | 6 | 7 | 9 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 3 | 0 | 4 | 12 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 0 | 1 | 3 | 13 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 | 10 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | + | Median | 16 5 | 17 8 | 16 3 | 10 3 | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Quartiles | 18 7 | 20 1 | 18 10 | 12 0 | + | | 13 5 | 15 5 | 13 9 | 8 4 | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Dispersion | ·16 | ·13 | ·16 | ·17 | + +------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + +FIRM F. + +_Information obtained._--Wages for all hands each week in 1896, and +until March, 1900. So few are employed that no average can be given, and +the wages are treated later under individual hands. + +Also a small bookbinding firm. + + 1. A quick folder; wages generally from 12_s._ to 16_s._, but + fluctuations down to 5_s._ and up to 20_s._ + + 2. A quick sewer; very fluctuating, about 10_s._ + + 3. A collator at 3¼_d._ per hour; 12_s._, with fluctuations. + +FIRM G. + +_Information obtained._--List of wages paid in 2nd week in each month, +1896, February, 1900, and four other weeks. + +Wages of fourteen hands; six throughout the period. + +All Departments. + +_Weeks Selected at Beginning and End of Data._ + + +------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | FIRM G. | 1896. | + | +--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | Feb. | July | Nov. | + | | 8th. | 11th. | 14th. | + | +----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+ + | | -- | Machine | -- | Machine | -- | Machine | + | | | Rulers. | | Rulers. | | Rulers. | + +------------------+----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+ + | Above 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 | + | 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 0 | + | 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 | + | 18_s._ to 20_s._ | 4 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 7 | 0 | + | 16_s._ to 18_s._ | 5 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 9 | 0 | + | 14_s._ to 16_s._ | 7 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 9 | 0 | + | 12_s._ to 14_s._ | 3 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 6 | 0 | + | 10_s._ to 12_s._ | 10 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 2 | 0 | + | 8_s._ to 10_s._ | 1 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 4 | 0 | + | 6_s._ to 8_s._ | 0 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 0 | 2 | + | 4_s._ to 6_s._ | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 4 | + | 2_s._ to 4_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +------------------+----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+ + | (Apprentices excluded.) | + +------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+ + | Median (without | 14s. | -- | 15s. | -- | 16s. | -- | + | rulers). | 8d. | | | | 6d. | | + +------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+ + | FIRM G. | 1899. | + | +--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | July | Nov. | Dec. | + | | 8th. | 11th. | 9th. | + | +--------------+----+---------+----+---------+ + | | -- | Machine | -- | Machine | -- | Machine | + | | | Rulers. | | Rulers. | | Rulers. | + +------------------+----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+ + | Above 24_s._ | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | + | 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 5 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 0 | + | 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 10 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 12 | 0 | + | 18_s._ to 20_s._ | 6 | 0 | 12 | 0 | 11 | 0 | + | 16_s._ to 18_s._ | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 3 | 0 | + | 14_s._ to 16_s._ | 2 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 8 | 0 | + | 12_s._ to 14_s._ | 9 | 0 | 10 | 0 | 8 | 0 | + | 10_s._ to 12_s._ | 13 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | + | 8_s._ to 10_s._ | 3 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 7 | 3 | + | 6_s._ to 8_s._ | 1 | 3 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 7 | + | 4_s._ to 6_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 2_s._ to 4_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +------------------+----+---------+----+---------+----+---------+ + | (Apprentices excluded.) | + +------------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+ + | Median (without | 14s. | -- | 16s. | -- | 18s. | | + | rulers). | | | 6d. | | 2d. | | + +------------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+-------+ + +_Machine Ruling._--Four to nine hands, generally seven to nine. Time +wages. Median moves slowly and steadily from 6_s._ to 7_s._ during +1896-99. + +_Stamping._--Four, increasing to twelve hands, sometimes sixteen. The +low wages are time (presumably learners); the rest piece. Time hands are +excluded in the medians here, and in binding and despatch. Median is +sometimes fluctuating, but not far from 12_s._ or 13_s._ for long. + + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + 1896 1st half-year 14 3 2nd half-year 11 0 + 1897 " " 13 0 " " 13 0 + 1898 " " 12 4 " " 11 11 + 1899 " " 12 6 " " 11 11 + 1900 " " 14 2 (two months) + +_Binding room_, including despatch, till middle of 1897, when numbers +fell from forty to twenty. The despatch room, beginning with twenty, +increased to thirty hands. + + Binding--median varies from 11_s._ to 17_s._ + + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + 1896 1st half-year 14 1 2nd half-year 16 1 + 1897 " " 14 8 " " 15 4 + 1898 " " 15 0 " " 14 4 + 1899 " " 14 2 " " 13 11 + 1900 " " 14 2 (two months) + + Despatch--median steadier and rising. + + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + 1897 1st half-year -- -- 2nd half-year 15 0 + 1898 " " 17 6 " " 18 11 + 1899 " " 19 4 " " 20 9 + 1900 " " 16 3 (two months) + +FIRM H. + +_Information obtained._--Wage list, 3rd week in every month, 1895-98. +Every week in 1899, and eight special weeks. Wages of three hands +tabulated throughout period. + +Work done.--Printers' folding, sewing, magazines. No bookbinding. +Twenty-four to thirty-eight hands. Median very variable; _e.g._, July, +1899, 14_s._ 2_d._, 16_s._ 6_d._, 13_s._ 7_d._, 15_s._ 10_d._ + + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + 1895 1st half-year 11 5 2nd half-year 13 3 + 1896 " " 13 10 " " 12 4 + 1897 " " 12 11 " " 10 2 + 1898 " " 11 5 " " 16 0 + 1899 " " 13 1 " " 14 1 + General trend to 13_s._ + + +------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+ + | FIRM | Feb. | Aug. | Jan. | March | Oct. | Aug. | Sept. | Apr. | + | H. | 15th | 16th | 24th | 9th | 7th | 25th | 15th | 6th | + | | 1895 | 1895 | 1898 | 1898 | 1898 | 1899 | 1899 | 1900 | + | | | | (a) | (b) | (c) | (a) | (c) | (b) | + +------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+ + | 23s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | + | 22s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 20s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | + | 21s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | + +------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+ + | 19s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | + | 18s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | + | 17s. | 3 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 5 | 4 | + | 16s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 2 | + | 15s. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | + +------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+ + | 14s. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 0 | 5 | 1 | + | 13s. | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | + | 12s. | 4 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 1 | + | 11s. | 6 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | + | 10s. | 4 | 4 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | + +------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+ + | 9s. | 4 | 9 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 1 | 0 | + | 8s. | 1 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | + | 7s. | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | + | 6s. | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | + | 5s. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | + | | | | | (d) | | | | | + +------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+ + | 4s. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | + | 3s. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+ + | Me- | 11s. | 9s. | 10s. | 15s. | 17s. | 9s. | 14s. | 17s. | + | dian | | 4d. | 3d. | 6d. | | 3d. | 7d. | 2d. | + +------+------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+ + (a) Slack. + (b) Typical. + (c) Busy. + (d) 3 learners + +FIRM I. + +Publishers and bookbinders. No printers' folding. + +_Information obtained._--Wage lists: 2nd week in each month, October, +1898, to March, 1900. Total wages every week to March, 1900. Wages of +nine hands tabulated throughout. + + +----+-------------+------+-----------------------------+------+ + | FIRM | + + I. +-------------+------+-----------------------------+------+ + | | Median | Quarterly Averages | + | | varies | (excluding Bank Holiday). | + | | from +------+-----------------------------+------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 | + +----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+ + | C. | 11 0 - 21 4 | 20 2 | 19 3 | 16 9 | 13 4 | 20 8 | 17 3 | + +----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+ + | S. | 7 0 - 15 6 | 14 0 | 12 8 | 9 10 | 8 6 | 13 6 | 13 0 | + +----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+ + | F. | 8 3 - 14 2 | 13 2 | 13 0 | 8 11 | 10 0 | 12 2 | 10 5 | + +----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+ + | T. | 13 0 - 16 4 | 15 8 | 15 11 | 13 6 | 13 4 | 15 0 | 14 0 | + +----+-------------+------+-------+-------+------+------+------+ + 48 hours: no record of overtime. + C. = Collators (18 to 23) + S. = Sewers (27 to 40) + F. = Folders (53 to 91) + T. = Time workers putting in plates (17 to 22) + + +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+ + | FIRM I. | Nov. | March | July | Nov. | Feb. | + | | 11th | 10th | 14th | 10th | 9th | + | | 1898 | 1899 | 1899 | 1899 | 1900 | + +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+ + | 32_s._ to 34_s._ | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 | + | 30_s._ " 32_s._ | 1 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | + | 28_s._ " 30_s._ | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | + | 26_s._ " 28_s._ | 1 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | + | 24_s._ " 26_s._ | 5 | 1 | 0 | 8 | 1 | + | 22_s._ " 24_s._ | 2 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 2 | + | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 11 | 9 | 1 | 10 | 3 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 14 | 16 | 0 | 11 | 3 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 20 | 16 | 2 | 14 | 14 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 25 | 22 | 10 | 13 | 15 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 22 | 28 | 18 | 30 | 32 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 24 | 32 | 20 | 25 | 24 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 14 | 17 | 27 | 6 | 15 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 7 | 5 | 30 | 4 | 11 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 3 | 3 | 18 | 1 | 5 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 4 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | + | 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+ + + The total wage bill was:-- + + 1898. £ 1899. £ 1899. £ 1900. £ + Oct. 462 Jan. 428 July 245 Jan. 330 + Nov. 483 Feb. 471 Aug. 263 Feb. 346 + Dec. 430 March 569(a) Sept. 502(a) March 408(a) + -- April 305 Oct. 417 -- + -- May 302 Nov. 403 -- + -- June 383(a) Dec. 420(a) -- + (a) Five weeks. + + £ + Total in 4th quarter, 1898 1375 + " 1st " 1899 1468 + " 2nd " " 990 + " 3rd " " 1010 + " 4th " " 1240 + " 1st " 1900 1084 + +FIRM J. + +A firm undertaking magazine work. _Information obtained._--General +statement of ordinary wages. Wages in three selected weeks. + +Bookfolding, stitching, wrapping, etc. (magazine work). Work is regular +for three weeks; none in the fourth. + + +------------------+-------+---------+------------------+--------+ + | FIRM J. | Wages of all Employed. | + + +-------+---------+------------------+--------+ + | | Slack | Typical | -- | Busy | + | | (a) | (b) | | (c) | + +------------------+-------+---------+--+---------------+--------+ + | 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 0 | 1 | 34_s._ to 36_s._ | 2 | + | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 0 | 0 | 32_s._ " 34_s._ | 0 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 0 | 2 | 30_s._ " 32_s._ | 3 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 0 | 4 | 28_s._ " 30_s._ | 0 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 0 | 4 | 26_s._ " 28_s._ | 3 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 0 | 1 | 24_s._ " 26_s._ | 1 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 3 | 1 | 22_s._ " 24_s._ | 0 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 4 | 1 | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 3 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 6 | 0 | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 1 | + +------------------+-------+---------+------------------+--------+ + | | s. d. | s. d. | | s. d. | + | Median | 8 0 | 15 9 | -- | 26 4 | + | Average | 8 4 | 15 7 | -- | 25 11 | + +------------------+-------+---------+------------------+--------+ + (a) Slack Week, Feb. 8th, 1901. + (b) Typical Week, Feb. 15th, 1901. + (c) Busy Week, March 1st, 1901. + +FIRM K. + +A publisher's bookbinder. _Information obtained._--Wage sheet for three +selected weeks in 1898-9. + +A week as slack as the slack week here given, was only experienced two +or three times. + + +------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | FIRM K. | Typical. | Busy. | Slack. | + +------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | | Av. | Av. | Av. | + | | No. _s._ _d._ | No. _s._ _d._ | No. _s._ _d._ | + +------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | Folders | 46 13 1 | 55 15 8 | 43 8 7 | + | (piece) | | | | + +------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | Sewing | 8 22 2 | 8 31 1 | 8 11 7 | + | machinists | | | | + | (piece) | | | | + +------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | Collators | 3 26 10 | 3 27 2 | 5 14 5 | + | (time) | | | | + +------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | Layers-on | 4 14 0 | 4 19 7 | 3 16 11 | + | (piece) | | | | + +------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + | Learners | 2 4 1½ | 2 8 7 | 2 3 7 | + +------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ + + +-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+ + | FIRM K. | Typical. | Busy. | Slack. | + +-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+ + | 36_s._ to 38_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 | + | 34_s._ " 36_s._ | 0 | 1 | 0 | + | 32_s._ " 34_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 30_s._ " 32_s._ | 0 | 7 | 1 | + | 28_s._ " 30_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 | + | 26_s._ " 28_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 | + | 24_s._ " 26_s._ | 0 | 1 | 1 | + | 22_s._ " 24_s._ | 1 | 2 | 0 | + | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 9 | 4 | 0 | + +-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+ + | 18_s._ to 20_s._ | 3 | 13 | 2 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 6 | 8 | 3 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 7 | 14 | 4 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 11 | 10 | 2 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 13 | 7 | 15 | + +-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+ + | 8_s._ to 10_s._ | 3 | 1 | 16 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 3 | 0 | 9 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 1 | 0 | 4 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 1 | 0 | 2 | + +-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + | Median | 13 3 | 16 10 | 9 6 | + +-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+ + | Quartiles | 19 1 | 19 10½ | 11 1 | + | | 11 1 | 13 10½ | 7 10 | + +-------------------+-----------+---------------+-----------+ + +FIRM L. + +Compositors. _Information obtained_: Complete wages of the six hands +employed through 1900. + +No. 1 has been in the trade two and a half years. In 1900 she was away +seven weeks (three, slack trade; two, holidays; two, ill); in the +remaining forty-five weeks her wages fluctuated between 5_s._ and 18_s._ +3_d._, reached a total of £28 15_s._ 9_d._, making an average of 11_s._ +1_d._ weekly through the year, or 12_s._ 7_d._ per week employed. + +No. 2 lost four weeks in 1900 through slack trade. In the remaining +forty-eight weeks her wages fluctuated between 5_s._ 6_d._ and 23_s._; +reached a total of £40 4_s._ 11_d._, making an average of 15_s._ 6_d._ +weekly through the year. + +No. 3 made £52 9_s._, working fifty-one weeks at £1 per week, making +29_s._ overtime, and taking one week's holiday; average, 20_s._ 2_d._ +weekly for the year. + +No. 4 made £37 16_s._ in forty-four weeks, lost five weeks through +slack trade, and took three weeks' holiday; average, 14_s._ 6_d._ weekly +for the year. + +No. 5 made £39 1_s._ 9_d._ in forty-six weeks, lost four weeks through +slack trade, was ill one week and took one week's holiday; average, +15_s._ weekly for the year. + +No. 6 made £22 1_s._ 6_d._ in forty-eight weeks, lost three weeks +through slack trade, was ill for one week. She was unsuccessful in her +work, and only averaged 8_s._ 4_d._ a week through the year. + +FIRM M. + +A press warehouse. _Information obtained._--Wage list in three selected +weeks. + + +-----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | FIRM M. | Week | Week | Week | + | | Ending | Ending | Ending | + | | Feb. | Nov. | July | + | | 9th, | 24th, | 21st, | + | | 1900. | 1899. | 1899. | + | | Average | Average | Average | + | | wage. | wage. | wage. | + +-----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | | No. s. d. | No. s. d. | No. s. d. | + | Time workers | 36 15 0 | 37 15 6 | 31 13 5 | + | Folders (piece) | 41 13 3 | 50 14 5 | 31 11 10 | + | Sewers " | 7 14 7 | 7 13 6 | 12 9 1 | + | Apprentices | 11 4 1 | 11 4 2 | 5 4 4 | + +-----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + + +------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + | FIRM M. | Feb. | Nov. | July | + | | 9th, | 24th, | 21st, | + | | 1900. | 1899. | 1899. | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + | Above 26_s._ | 1 | 1 | 0 | + | 24_s._ to 26_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | + | 22_s._ " 24_s._ | 0 | 1 | 0 | + | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 1 | 5 | 2 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 3 | 6 | 1 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 14 | 19 | 1 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 25 | 22 | 19 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 16 | 18 | 20 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 12 | 15 | 15 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 8 | 4 | 3 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 3 | 3 | 3 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 0 | 5 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 1 | 0 | 4 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + | Median | 14 3 | 14 9 | 12 9 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + | Quartiles | 15 9 | 17 0 | 14 9 | + | | 10 9 | 12 2 | 11 1 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + | Dispersion | ·19 | ·16 | ·14 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+ + (Excluding Apprentices.) + +FIRM N. + +Bookbinders. _Information obtained._--Complete wage sheets for three +selected weeks. Folders, piece; collators, time. + + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | FIRM N. | Dec. | Oct. | Aug. | + | | 15th, | 6th, | 18th, | + | | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | + | | Busy | Typical | Slack | + | | Week. | Week. | Week. | + | | Average | Average | Average | + | | wage. | wage. | wage. | + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | No. s. d. | No. s. d. | No. s. d. | + | Collators | 18 15 7 | 17 11 3 | 18 11 0 | + | Folders | 20 13 9 | 12 11 10 | 9 9 0 | + | Learners | 16 4 6 | 5 4 1 | 7 2 9 | + +-----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ + 1 Sewing Machinist, 23_s._ 9_d._ + + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | FIRM N. | Dec. | Oct. | Aug. | + | | 15th, | 6th, | 18th, | + | | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | + | | Busy | Typical | Slack | + | | Week. | Week. | Week. | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 4 | 1 | 0 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 3 | 1 | 1 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 10 | 1 | 0 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 10 | 6 | 3 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 1 | 10 | 5 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 4 | 6 | 10 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 2 | 3 | 1 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 2 | 1 | 3 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 0 | 1 | 3 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 2 | 0 | 1 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + | Median | 15 8 | 12 9 | 11 3 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Quartiles | 16 6 | 14 6 | 12 9 | + | | 11 10 | 11 0 | 8 0 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Dispersion | ·16 | ·16 | ·21 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + (Excluding Learners.) + +FIRM O. + +_Information obtained._--Wage lists in three selected weeks, probably in +first half of 1900. Five hands. + + +-----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+ + | FIRM O. | Typical Week. | Busy. | Slack. | + +-----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + | Folder | 17 6 | 20 0 | 12 6 | + | Stitcher | 21 0 | 26 0 | 15 0 | + | Sewer | 12 0 | 15 0 | 8 6 | + | Laying-on | 12 0 | 15 0 | 11 0 | + | Learner | 5 0 | 5 0 | 5 0 | + +-----------+---------------+--------------+--------------+ + +FIRM P. + +_Information obtained._--Wage lists in three selected weeks. Wages of +twelve selected workers in these weeks. + + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | FIRM P. | Aug. | Dec. | Dec. | + | | 11th, | 15th, | 22nd, | + | | 1899. | 1899. | 1899. | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | 1 at | 1 at | 1 at | + | | 27_s._ | 28_s._ | 30_s._ | + | | 4_d._ | 2_d._ | 8_d._ | + | | | | | + | Above 24_s._ | 0 | 2 | 0 | + | 22_s._ to 24_s._ | 0 | 0 | 2 | + | 20_s._ " 22_s._ | 0 | 1 | 12 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 0 | 13 | 24 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 8 | 23 | 21 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 17 | 30 | 21 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 26 | 20 | 13 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 24 | 9 | 9 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 10 | 7 | 1 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 3 | 0 | 1 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 1 | 0 | 0 | + | | -- | --- | --- | + | | 90 | 106 | 105 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + | Median | 15 0 | 15 3 | 16 8 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Quartiles | 14 0 | 17 2 | 19 2 | + | | 10 8 | 13 0 | 14 3 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Dispersion | ·11 | ·14 | ·15 | + +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +FIRM Q. + +_Information obtained._--Wage lists in eleven selected weeks. Work +done--machine ruling in its higher branches, usually done by men; also +paging and numbering (see table, p. 131). + + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | FIRM Q. | 1890. | 1891. | 1897. | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | Nov. 8th. | May 9th. | May 14th. | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 3 | 3 | 0 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 2 | 2 | 3 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 9 | 6 | 4 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 9 | 8 | 11 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 15 | 14 | 12 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 5 | 7 | 6 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 6 | 9 | 6 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 6 | 8 | 10 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 8 | 8 | 6 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 5 | 6 | 1 | + | 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | 68 | 71 | 59 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | Median | 12 6 | 11 3 | 12 2 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | Quartiles | 15 4 | 14 3 | 14 6 | + | | 7 4 | 7 0 | 7 7 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | Dispersion | ·3 | ·3 | ·3 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | FIRM Q. | 1897. | 1898. | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | Nov. 12th. | May 13th. | Nov. 11th. | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 0 | 3 | 0 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 2 | 4 | 2 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 6 | 5 | 7 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 10 | 8 | 10 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 12 | 13 | 12 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 6 | 4 | 5 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 7 | 8 | 8 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 7 | 4 | 4 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 3 | 2 | 4 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 3 | 5 | 6 | + | 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | 56 | 56 | 58 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | | | | + | Median | 12 4 | 12 10 | 12 4 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | Quartiles | 14 9 | 15 6 | 15 0 | + | | 8 2 | 8 9 | 8 0 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | Dispersion | ·3 | ·28 | ·3 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | FIRM Q. | 1899. | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | Feb. 10th. | May 12th. | Aug. 11th. | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 4 | 3 | 2 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 6 | 8 | 1 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 10 | 6 | 4 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 11 | 9 | 6 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 6 | 10 | 10 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 3 | 5 | 8 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 4 | 5 | 6 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 7 | 9 | 4 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 7 | 2 | 8 | + | 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 0 | 0 | 1 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | 58 | 57 | 50 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | Median | 12 0 | 11 4 | 9 6 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | Quartiles | 15 0 | 15 0 | 13 0 | + | | 6 0 | 7 3 | 6 0 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | Dispersion | ·4 | ·35 | ·37 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+------------+ + | FIRM Q. | 1899. | + +------------------+------------+-----------+ + | | Nov. 10th. | Dec. 8th. | + +------------------+------------+-----------+ + | 20_s._ to 22_s._ | 0 | 1 | + | 18_s._ " 20_s._ | 2 | 2 | + | 16_s._ " 18_s._ | 10 | 9 | + | 14_s._ " 16_s._ | 9 | 10 | + | 12_s._ " 14_s._ | 7 | 10 | + | 10_s._ " 12_s._ | 5 | 7 | + | 8_s._ " 10_s._ | 7 | 4 | + | 6_s._ " 8_s._ | 5 | 6 | + | 4_s._ " 6_s._ | 6 | 14 | + | 2_s._ " 4_s._ | 8 | 1 | + | 0_s._ " 2_s._ | 0 | 0 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+ + | | 59 | 64 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+ + | | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ | + +------------------+------------+-----------+ + | Median | 10 0 | 12 0 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+ + | Quartiles | 15 4 | 15 2 | + | | 6 4 | 6 4 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+ + | Dispersion | ·41 | ·35 | + +------------------+------------+-----------+ + + * * * * * + +Additional information from other firms, 1900-1901:-- + +FIRM R. Bookbinders. Folders and sewers, 14_s._, 15_s._; head banders, +15_s._; forty-eight hours weekly all the year. + +FIRM S. Eleven numberers; median, 17_s._ 8_d._ + +FIRM T. Printing works. Piece workers make 5_d._ an hour; time workers, +5½_d._ Four compositors: average, busy week, 23_s._ 2_d._; typical, +19_s._ 11_d._; slack, 18_s._ 9_d._ + +FIRM U. Vellum sewers, 12_s._ to 13_s._ all the year round; numerical +printers, average week, 15_s._ to 16_s._; slack week, 10_s._ + +FIRM V. + + No. Median. Quartiles. + Folders (piece work): _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + Slack week 38 12 1 9 6 16 0 + Typical week 44 15 6 15 6 20 9 + Busy week 38 20 1 17 10 20 0 + + Counters + (time workers). Stitchers. 1 Packer. + No. Median. No. Median. + _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ + Slack Week 16 10 0 9 9 9 19 1 + Typical Week 14 11 6 9 11 7 20 0 + Busy week 14 11 7 9 11 2 20 0 + +In this case there is very little to choose between the weeks entered as +"typical" and "busy" by the employer. + +FIRM W. + +Two compositors make, at 5½_d._ an hour, 22_s._ or 23_s._ nearly every +week in the year. + + * * * * * + +The inclusion of the eighty-four workers, of whom we have sufficient +details in firms R. to W., would affect the figures on p. 133 below very +slightly, raising the median and upper quartile 2_d._, and increasing +the proportion between 18_s._ and 22_s._ to 13½ per cent. of the whole +instead of 12¼ per cent. + + +II.--GENERAL GROUPING OF WAGES. + +The material is not sufficiently complete or homogeneous to allow any +complete account of wages at any date; but the tables now given +(supplemented occasionally by the raw material) allow us to offer an +estimate of the grouping in a typical week of 1899, supposing each firm +to be paying typical wages in one and the same week. This method is +rough, and will not support any fine calculations to be based on it; but +at the same time it affords a view, sufficiently accurate for most +purposes, of the general trend and distribution of wages. All classes of +workers, except apprentices and learners, are included. + + AN ESTIMATE OF WAGES IN A TYPICAL WEEK IN 1899 OF 1,001 WORKERS IN + ALL BRANCHES. + + Less 2_s._ 4_s._ 6_s._ 8_s._ 10_s._ + than to to to to to + 2_s._ 4_s._ 6_s._ 8_s._ 10_s._ 12_s._ + 1 17 41 68 92 131 + + 12_s._ 14_s._ 16_s._ 18_s._ 20_s._ 22_s._ Above + to to to to to to 24_s._ + 14_s._ 16_s._ 18_s._ 20_s._ 22_s._ 24_s._ + 174 177 131 72 55 17 25 + + Of those above 24_s._: + + 24_s._ 26_s._ 28_s._ 30_s._ 32_s._ 36_s._ + to to to to to to + 26_s._ 28_s._ 30_s._ 32_s._ 34_s._ 38_s._ + 11 6 4 1 2 1 + +These figures are so similar in many respects to those which generally +arise when a large group of trades are massed together, that they afford +strong evidence that they make a fair sample. + +Remembering the roughness of the hypothesis, and not assuming that these +wages multiplied by fifty-two give annual earnings, we find, in a week +which the employers regard as typical, the following: Average, 13_s._ +8_d._; median, 13_s._ 8_d._; quartiles, 10_s._ 6_d._, 16_s._ 10_d._; +dispersion .23. Thus, half the wage earners obtain between 10_s._ 6_d._ +and 16_s._ 10_d._; and 80 per cent. obtain from 7_s._ 4_d._ to 20_s._ + +There is some doubt as to who are and who should properly be included at +both ends of the series. At the lower end, no doubt, some learners have +been included, and some piece workers excluded, for in a typical week +there would certainly be some cases where the wages were abnormally low. +On the other hand, in the large number above 24_s._, no doubt many above +the status of the ordinary worker are included, and some are definitely +stated to be forewomen. + +If we omit all above 24_s._, we have: Average, 13_s._ 4_d._; median, +13_s._ 7_d._; quartiles, 10_s._ 5_d._, 16_s._ 6_d._ + +The difference in these averages is not significant. + +The table is best written in percentage. + + 2_s._ 4_s._ 6_s._ 8_s._ 10_s._ 12_s._ + to to to to to to + 4_s._ 6_s._ 8_s._ 10_s._ 12_s._ 14_s._ + 2 4 7 9 13 17 + + 14_s._ 16_s._ 18_s._ 20_s._ 22_s._ + to to to to to Above + 16_s._ 18_s._ 20_s._ 22_s._ 24_s._ 24_s._ + 18 13 7 5½ 2 2½ per cent. earning. + +Note, that if these wages were repeated week by week through the year +the average worker would make about £35. + + +III.--CHANGE OF WAGES BETWEEN 1885 AND 1900. + +Where wages are continually fluctuating week by week and month by month, +while, in addition, there are depressions and inflations affecting +various groups of workers for one or two years, it is a matter of very +great statistical difficulty to determine whether wages have on the +whole been stationary, rising, or falling. Even if we had a complete +account year by year these difficulties would remain; but as it is we +are dependent on the records of only seven firms--good, bad, or +indifferent--since 1885, 1887, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1898, +respectively. No amount of further research would make such records more +than very insufficient, for it is very rarely that the figures are +preserved for any length of time. What changes there are may very likely +be due to peculiarities of a particular firm, to its success, or to +changes in character of work, and only in case of agreement in all the +figures could we generalise. Our conclusions, then, will be chiefly +negative. + +There is no sufficient evidence that wages in 1899 are above or below +wages about 1895, 1890 or 1885; the only difference appears to be due to +individual busy or slack years. + +In the two cases (C. and G.) where machine rulers are separated their +wages have risen from 6_s._ to 8_s._ in 1897-99. + +As regards the years 1896-99, there is no general agreement as to any +two years, but the figures are consistent with a slight general +improvement from 1895 to 1900. + +There is nothing in the figures to show that the course of wages in Firm +A. given above is different from that in the trade in general, while +there is just a little evidence that it is the same. We therefore repeat +the annual average wage in that firm:-- + + 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. + 9_s._ 1_d._ 8_s._ 10_d._ 9_s._ 9_s._ 4_d._ 10_s._ 1_d._ + + 1890. 1891-2. 1892-3. 1894. 1895. + 10_s._ 6_d._ 9_s._ 6_d._ 9_s._ 8_s._ 11_d._ 9_s._ 4_d._ + + 1896. 1897-8. 1899. + 9_s._ 8_d._ 10_s._ 4_d._ 10_s._ 1_d._ + + +IV.--WAGES IN DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS. + +The occupations are so involved, and the arrangements differ so much +from firm to firm, that it is impracticable to state a definite wage for +any occupation, and the wages are so diverse that it is useless to +speak of an average wage. The table on p. 135 gives a general view of +the wages of those hands who can be labelled with some exactness, and it +is seen that the facts are so complex that they cannot be summarised in +a few words. The wages included are the actual weekly averages (total +annual receipts divided by fifty-two) in 1899, except where they are +otherwise distinguished. + + +--------------+-------------------------------------------------+ + | WAGES IN | Numbers whose average weekly wages were | + | DIFFERENT | _s._ | + | OCCUPATIONS. +---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | | | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | | + | | > | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to |Above| + | | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 22 | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | BOOKBINDING | | | | | | | | | | | + | HOUSES | | | | | | | | | | | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Handfolders | 0 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Folders | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 10 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + | who were | | | | | | | | | | | + | also sewing | | | | | | | | | | | + | machinists, | | | | | | | | | | | + | gatherers, | | | | | | | | | | | + | placers, | | | | | | | | | | | + | or sewers | | | | | | | | | | | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Handsewers, | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 0 | + | or collators | | | | | | | | | | | + | and | | | | | | | | | | | + | gatherers | | | | | | | | | | | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + >6 = Under 6 + + +--------------+-----------+ + | WAGES IN | Median. | + | DIFFERENT | | + | OCCUPATIONS. | | + +--------------+-----------+ + | BOOKBINDING | _s._ _d._ | + | HOUSES | | + +--------------+-----------+ + | Handfolders | 13 4 | + +--------------+-----------+ + | Folders | 12 6 | + | who were | | + | also sewing | | + | machinists, | | + | gatherers, | | + | placers, | | + | or sewers | | + +--------------+-----------+ + | Handsewers, | 15 0 | + | or | | + | collators | | + | and | | + | gatherers | | + +--------------+-----------+ + + +--------------+-------------------------------------------+-----+ + | WAGES IN | Numbers whose average weekly wages were | | + | DIFFERENT | _s._ | | + | OCCUPATIONS. +---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | | | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | | + | | - | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to |Above| + | | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 22 | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | PRINTING | | | | | | | | | | | + | HOUSES: | | | | | | | | | | | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Folders who | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | 12 | 3 | 6 | + | were also | | | | | | | | | | | + | sewers | | | | | | | | | | | + | or stitchers | | | | | | | | | | | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Folders in | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 8 | 5 | + | typical | | | | | | | | | | | + | week, 1901 | | | | | | | | | | | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Gatherers | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Inserters | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Numberers | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 0 | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Counters in | 0 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | + | typical | | | | | | | | | | | + | week, 1901 | | | | | | | | | | | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Stitchers | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + | Compositors | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 2 | + +--------------+---+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+ + + +--------------+----------+ + | WAGES IN | Median. | + | DIFFERENT | | + | OCCUPATIONS. | | + +--------------+----------+ + | PRINTING | _s._ _d._| + | HOUSES: | | + +--------------+----------+ + | Folders | 18 6 | + | who were | | + | also sewers | Maximum | + | or stitchers | 26 10 | + +--------------+----------+ + | Folders in | 15 6 | + | typical | | + | week, 1901 | | + +--------------+----------+ + | Gatherers | 18 0 | + +--------------+----------+ + | Inserters | -- | + +--------------+----------+ + | Numberers | 17 8 | + +--------------+----------+ + | Counters in | 11 7 | + | typical | | + | week, 1901 | | + +--------------+----------+ + | Stitchers | 11 6 | + +--------------+----------+ + | Compositors | 18 6 | + +--------------+----------+ + +[Illustration: Firm D.--Wages Week by Week in 1899. 1. _Looker-over_ +(_time_, 14_s._ 6_d._). 3. _Folder and Sewer (piece)._ Firm G.--1896. +_Dispatch (piece)._] + + +V.--EARNINGS OF INDIVIDUALS. + +Out of the 130 lists we have, showing the actual earnings week by week +of individuals for periods of one to fifteen years, thirty-nine have +been selected, twenty-six of which are tabulated on the following pages +(Appendix VI.), and twelve of which are represented in the following +diagrams. These have been selected as illustrating the various classes +of workers and of work. + +The most noticeable characteristic of the diagrams is the frequency and +violence of the fluctuations, and the same is found in a study of the +original figures throughout. + +A few time hands (Appendix VI.; diagram C), are nearly regular; only one +shows perfectly regular earnings; many fluctuate as rapidly as the piece +workers (Appendix VI.; diagram D. 2), and on the sheets we have several +actual records of lost time and overtime, showing how these changes +arise; others show a steady increase with slight movements (Appendix +VI.; diagram A. 4). + +The four Bank Holiday seasons are marked on most of the diagrams and +wage lists. + +The most interesting, novel, and important feature of these lists is the +light thrown on the very obscure relation (obscure in all branches of +industry) between "nominal," "average," or "typical" wages and actual +annual earnings; there are in existence very few actual records of +individuals' earnings over a series of years for any workers in the +United Kingdom. The workers included in the list are among the more +regular ones, who succeed in keeping their place month after month. +Though the wages vary so greatly week by week, yet when we come to take +the average over any period greater than, say, two months, we find there +is but little variation. Thus, in the example from Firm B. in diagram, +the quarterly average is between 16_s._ and 17_s._ for nine years, +except for absence in two quarters, and the annual average is still +more regular. The great bulk of the regular workers (folders and the +like) make a sum between £30 and £40 every year, and between £7 and £11 +every quarter. + +In view of this result, periodic pressure becomes relatively unimportant +for the regular hands. There is no season in the industry as a whole +shown in the wage lists. The different firms and different workers have +in many cases their regular times of pressure like bank clerks and +schoolmasters; these times are sometimes monthly, sometimes quarterly. +In other cases no rule is to be discovered. + +The most important effect of this irregular pressure is in the number of +jobbers employed. + + +VI.--JOBBERS. + +Jobbers usually come in at the busy season and make good money. As they +go from house to house, it is impossible to get a full account of any +particular jobber's earnings. + +Jobbers are frequently employed in Firm B, and in many cases the highest +wage earned is by a jobber. Thus in the last week of April, 1895, out of +thirty workers, fifteen were jobbers; the eleven highest sums were +earned by them, five being over £1. + + +VII.--TIME AND PIECE RATES. + +The distinction between time rates and piece rates is not vital; the +method of payment seems to be accidental, and the custom varies from +house to house. Machine rulers seem generally to have time rates, and +these are among the lowest earners, while some of the best paid +permanent hands are also time. On looking through the lists of +individuals' earnings, it is seen that time earnings are sometimes quite +as variable as piece earnings, for hours worked fluctuate continually. +In other cases the time payment is much more regular, showing +fluctuations only at holidays. + + + + +APPENDIX I.--POINTS UPON WHICH ENQUIRIES WERE MADE. + + +1.--TRAINING. + + (_a_) Method, Indentures or not. + + (_b_) Length. + + (_c_) Age when it begins. + + (_d_) Premiums. + + (_e_) Wages during training. + +Comparison between length of training in vogue now and formerly, to be +obtained where possible. + + +2.--WAGES (_Forms appended_). + +Wages throughout the factory or workshop for two or three slack and two +or three busy weeks to be obtained where possible, and for a few +ordinary hands throughout the year. + + +3.--CONDITIONS OF WORK. + + (_a_) Describe the nature of the work, and subdivisions. + + (_b_) Is it a season trade? + + (_c_) Is it healthy? Is there a special trade disease? + + (_d_) Is much strength or intelligence needed? + + (_e_) Is dangerous machinery used? + + (_f_) Average hours per week; meal hours. + + (_g_) Is there a chance of rising? If so, to what position? + + +4.--ORGANISATION. + +What attempts have been made to organise women, and with what success? + +Attitude towards, and knowledge about, Women's Unions? + + +5.--MARRIED AND UNMARRIED WORKERS. + +How long do women remain in the trade? + +Proportion of married to unmarried. + +Are there signs of married women lowering rates of pay? + +Comparison between married and unmarried as workers. + + +6.--SEPARATE FACTORY LEGISLATION. + +(A.) Economic effects:-- + + (_a_) Instances of women being turned off owing to Factory + Legislation. + + (_b_) Do the restrictions imposed by the Factory Acts hinder the + employment of women? + + (_c_) How far do these restrictions influence wages? + + (_d_) How far has legislation diverted the industry from or to, + factory, workshop, or home? + +(B.) Contrast between conditions of work before and after Act of 1867. + + +7.--MEN AND WOMEN. + +Instances where either sex replaces the other, and the reasons for it in +each case. + +Relative wages when men and women do the same work. + +If women's wage is lower, why is it? + +Attitude of Men's Unions towards female labour. + + +8.--WOMEN AND MACHINERY. + +How far has machinery increased or diminished women's work? + +How far does the cheapness of women's work tend to retard the +introduction of machinery? + + +9.--HOME WORK. + +In which branches is this done, and to what extent? + +Plant required. + +Rates of pay compared with work done inside. + +Why, from the point of view of the home worker in each case, is home +work done? + + +10.--INFLUENCE OF WOMEN'S WAGES ON THE FAMILY INCOME. + +Occupation of husband. + +Amount contributed towards home expenses. + + + + +APPENDIX II.--DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN TYPICAL FIRMS. + + +1. A.,[94] _A well-known Printing Firm in London. Employée's +Information._ + +[Footnote 94: Index letters by which reference is made to the firm in +the body of the volume, except in the chapter on wages.] + +WORK.--Folding, sewing, numbering, etc. + +REGULARITY.--The work is not seasonal, at any rate at A. + +HEALTH.--Numbering is very bad for a weak chest and makes one's head +ache as well. Girls with weak chests cannot stand it. Folding, however, +is not unhealthy unless the hours are too long. + +HOURS.--At B. they are 48 per week; but at A. they are 53½, distributed +as follows:--Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, 9 a.m. to 6.30 p.m.; +Thursday, 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.; Friday, 9 a.m. to 8 p.m.; Saturday, 9 a.m. +to 1 p.m.; one hour for dinner and half an hour for tea being allowed +each full working day. + +GENERAL.--The sanitary arrangements are very bad at A., and lavatories +open straight out of workrooms, and are in very bad condition. One does +not use them unless she wants to get a fever. The company is very mixed. +"You can tell that it is rather a low place, because the girls wear +curlers and nothing is said. When one works at B. she has to take out +curlers before she comes. You can always tell the sort of place when the +girls wear curlers." + + +2. _A well-known Printing Firm in London. Forewoman's Information._ + +WORK.--6 or 7 girls are employed at machine ruling, and a few at vellum +sewing and folding. + +REGULARITY.--The girls are kept on all the year round. + +HOURS.--The hours are from 8 a.m. to 7.30 p.m., with one hour for dinner +and half an hour for tea. + +PROSPECTS.--Might rise to forewomen, but that not common. + +GENERAL.--Work girls have nothing to complain of now; they are always +very well looked after. + + +3. S., _Small Printing Firm in London. Employée's Evidence._ + +WORK.--16 girls and 1 man (who is an engineer) are employed, S. helping +himself. Upstairs there are 2 men "blocking," and 2 girls powdering for +them. The girls do all the printing, _e.g._, the informant can set up +the type, lock it into the frame, make ready, and then feed the platen +machine--which alone is used in this firm. Informant can also clean the +machine. She also does "bronzing," _i.e._, dusting-on bronze with a pad. +The girls powdering upstairs do nothing else. A few younger girls fold +circulars. + +REGULARITY.--Work is steady, and they are always busy. + +HEALTH.--Bronzing is most unhealthy. ----'s colour has all gone since +she was put on to it a few weeks ago. "You are supposed to have milk to +drink, but you never get more than half a cupful at the end of the day, +when it is too late. The inspector has been round and has asked about +the milk, but of course the manager said that milk was always given." +(Informant looked very ill.) She had to stay away from work all the +previous Thursday, and lost a shilling in consequence. Her father and +mother say she must leave the work or she will die. "You see, they lost +a brother of mine at twenty-three and a sister at thirteen, and they +don't want me to go off too." + +The powdering done by the girls in the blocking room is very unhealthy. +None of them can stand it long. They get ill and go off elsewhere. It +brings on consumption. + +Feeding machines is very tiring. + +One girl works the cutting machine, which is unfit for a woman and very +dangerous. A girl who worked it lost her finger and was six weeks in +hospital, but the firm paid her well not to tell. The printing machines +are dangerous, for you often get your fingers caught; it comes back +quicker than you expect. + +HOURS.--The hours are from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m., with one hour for dinner +and a quarter of an hour for tea; on Saturdays, from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m., +with half an hour for a meal. They never get away at 6 though, not till +6.30 or later, for there are the machines to be cleaned and things to be +cleared up. + +GENERAL.--Mr. S. sometimes comes round and talks as if he were the +kindest of employers. "He'll say, 'Take care of your head, there, dear.' +It makes you sick to hear him. If he'd give better wages it would be +more to the point." + + +4. Q., _Job Printing Firm in London. Visit to Works._ + +WORK.--I went through the works and saw 10 extra young girls sticking on +pockets for stamps on to an appeal sheet of ...; one girl feeding a +platen machine which was gumming instead of printing; 4 or 5 upstairs in +the regular folding room folding.... + +REGULARITY.--Q. has only 4 or 5 regular hands, and when there is a rush +of work, he takes on job hands. "You put up a bill and can easily get +100 if you want them." He dislikes the custom, but does not see how it +is to be obviated in the printing trade. "You suddenly have 75,000 +circulars to do, and you don't know when the next order will be." + +HOURS.--The hours are from 8 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with one hour for +dinner, ten minutes for lunch and ten minutes for tea. Girls prefer +this to half an hour for tea and leaving at 7. On Saturdays the hours +are from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m., no meal time being allowed. The married +women, however, rarely come till 9 a.m. + + +5. L., _Printing, etc., Firm in London. Employée's Evidence._ + +WORK.--200 girls are employed at L.'s. Informant does folding now, used +to do sewing by machine. + +REGULARITY.--The work is regular, "but you never know when the work is +coming in. They are always busy with the ... guides at the end of the +month, and two or three job hands come in." + +HEALTH.--She has always found the occupation healthy. + +PROSPECTS.--None; is slow herself. She has worked at L.'s six years, and +has never known of anyone becoming a forelady. + +DANGERS.--She has never had an accident, and was working on a machine +for five years. + +HOURS.--The hours are from 8.30 a.m. to 7 or 8 p.m., with an hour for +dinner (from 1 p.m. to 2 p.m.), and half an hour for tea (4 p.m. to 4.30 +p.m.) and from 8.30 a.m. to 1 p.m. on Saturdays. Sometimes they are let +off early if there is no work. But some girls go and lark about in the +street, and then the manager scolds the forelady and she will not let +the others go. She never takes a holiday except Bank Holidays. + +GENERAL.--Only talks to a few of the girls, but they are quite a nice +set. + + +6. T., _Weekly Newspaper Firm in London. Visit to Works._ + +WORK.--Folding, gathering, collating, sewing (all sewing by machinery), +or stabbing with wire, insetting, wrappering (glue pot), feeding folding +machines. + +REGULARITY.--It is more or less regular, but there is the regular weekly +and monthly work, so there is less fluctuation than in "binding houses." + +Tuesday to Friday are busy days, and the forewoman employs some married +women who come in as long as they are wanted. + +DANGERS.--One stitching machine is dangerous, the forewoman said; the +folded sheet has to be pushed along with the hand and there is the +_chance_ of the hand being caught. + +HOURS.--The hours are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m., occasionally till 8; one +hour being allowed for dinner and half an hour for tea. + +PROSPECTS.--The girls may rise to forewomen and a sort of +deputy-forewoman, chosen by forewoman, to overlook certain rooms. The +girls are not, as a rule, at all eager for the responsibility. + + +7. _Large Bookbinding Firm in London._ + +(A.) _Manager's Information._ + +WORK.--Folding, sewing, collating, placing plates, laying-on gold, etc. + +REGULARITY.--The work is partly seasonal. They are busy in the winter +time, and work to limits allowed by the Factory Acts; they are slack in +the summer, and may even have no work for three weeks or so at a time. + +DANGERS.--They have only had two accidents. One was with an ordinary +sewing machine; the other was with a Bremner machine, when a little girl +was setting it up. She caught her finger in it, but was not away from +work a fortnight. + +HOURS.--They work 48 hours per week, allowing one and a half hours for +meals per day, _i.e._, from 8 a.m. to 12, from 1 p.m. to 4 p.m., and +from 4.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m.; on Saturdays, from 8 a.m. to 12. This +really comes to 49 hours a week if the girls are punctual, but he +reckons 48 hours because they are not punctual. + +PROSPECTS.--Only a chance of rising to forewomen. + +(B.) _Forewoman's Evidence._ + +REGULARITY.--It is a season trade and they are just beginning to be +slack (March) in Miss X.'s shop where the new work is done. + +HEALTH.--Miss X. "had been through it all," and thought folding +dreadfully tiring. There is nothing specially unhealthy about it. + +HOURS.--The hours are supposed to be 49 a week, but if there is any work +they do not keep to that. A 48 hours' week only means that the time +workers get paid extra. Miss X. worked in a place where they were +supposed to have 51 hours a week but rarely made more than 40. + +The firm make their girls stay as little as possible when there is no +work, but this is very different to most places, as the workpeople are +studied here. + +(C.) _Employée's Evidence._ + +WORK.--In E., Bible work and new or cloth work are quite separate, and +there are separate hands for each. She did folding for the Bible work +herself. + +HEALTH.--The work is not very healthy. "Sitting all day is bad for you," +but there is no special disease. Bible work is light work, as much of it +is on India paper; new work is much heavier. + +HOURS.--The hours are from 8.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with an hour for +dinner and half an hour for tea, but when busy they work till 8 p.m. or +9 p.m. This happens about thirty times a year. They are allowed to go +home if there is not work. + +[There is a very nice set of girls at the Bible work; they are +particular there about whom they take, and it is a very good house to be +in.] + +GENERAL.--It is rather dull and tiring working because they are not +supposed to talk to each other at Bible work. + + +8. _Printing and Stationery Firm in London. General Information._ + +TRAINING. In the Book-folding and Vellum Sewing Department the girls +have an agreement to serve two years. + +_Age At Beginning._--Fourteen. + +_Premium._--None. + +_Wages._--6 months at 1_s._, 6 months at 2_s._ 6_d._, 6 months at 5_s._, +and 6 months at 7_s._ 6_d._ per week. + +IN THE NUMBERING, RELIEF STAMPING, ETC., PACKING Department there are no +indentures or regular system of apprenticeship but girls are expected to +serve about two years. + +_Age At Beginning._--Fourteen. + +_Premium._--None. + +_Wages._--Girls start at 1_s._ per week, for, say, three months, then +get three-quarter earnings. Very few are trained in this firm, they take +on workers who have learnt elsewhere. How many branches learners are +taught seems to depend on chance. Some old hands do all the processes, +some only one. + +MACHINE RULING.--In this department there is no system. Little girls +come and feed at 5_s._ and 7_s._ per week. When they have been at it a +year or two they are drafted off to other departments. + +LITHOGRAPHIC WORK.--There is no regular training in this department. It +only takes about two weeks to learn the work done by girls here. + +NOTEPAPER FOLDING requires no training. "Why! you could pick it up in a +week or two." + +WAGES.--The firm does much work for public bodies, and so has to pay +"fair" wages. The manager did not seem to know whether this applied to +women's work too, but evidently it does. + +DEPARTMENT I.--NUMBERING, ETC.--The manager gave wages as 11_s._ to +16_s._ per week, some being paid on time and some on piece work. The +foreman considered 14_s._ to be about the average. The following girls +were questioned:-- + + One packer got 12_s._ (time wages) per week. + + Another packer got 13_s._ (time wages) per week. + + One piece relief stamper got about 13_s._ (piece work) per week. + + Another piece relief stamper got about 16_s._ (piece work) per + week. + + One numberer got 15_s._ (piece work) per week. + +DEPARTMENT II.--LITHOGRAPHIC FEEDING.--Here girls start at 6_s._ and +rise up to 14_s._ (time wages). + +DEPARTMENT III.--MACHINE RULING.--In this department all wages are for +time work. Quite little girls receive 4_s._ or 5_s._ up to 7_s._ per +week. They are drafted off when they want higher wages than that. There +were, however, two older ones in the room who were folding and counting +the ruled foolscap paper at 14_s._ per week. + +DEPARTMENT IV.--BOOK-FOLDING, ETC.--Out of the 45 girls employed in this +department, 10 were on time work, and were being paid from 13_s._ to +16_s._ per week. The piece workers, according to the forewoman, were +making from 13_s._ to 16_s._ per week, taking all the year round. Some +were making over 20_s._ per week. + +DEPARTMENT V.--VELLUM WORK.--All 15 girls employed here were on time +work. They got 11_s._ per week when first out of their time; 12_s._ +after two years. None were receiving over 12_s._, except one who "makes +up" at 13_s._ a week. These wages were given by the forewoman. The +manager seemed surprised that they were not higher, and remarked that +they were lower than in the book-folding department. The forewoman said +that in most places the vellum workers got more than book workers, but +this firm had arranged otherwise. + +DEPARTMENT VI.--The girls FOLDING NOTEPAPER in the warehouse were +getting 13_s._ or 14_s._ (time wages) per week. + +WORK.--Department I.--NUMBERING, RELIEF STAMPING, PERFORATING, PACKING, +AND GUMMING going on. + +The numbering and the stamping are different trades, done by different +girls, but most of them can do packing as well, though in some cases +they learn packing only. They can mostly do perforating and gumming, +odds and ends too. Some were folding postal forms. Special envelope +orders are done here. About 35 girls were employed. + +There was one man doing the illuminating required and working at a +rather heavy press. There was also a good number of youths doing +numbering. I tried vainly to find out what they were paid. The manager +and the foreman said that they were not doing the same work; it was the +same except that a name was stamped on as well as a number (it was on +money orders). Two girls were also doing this, but I was assured that +that was only "by accident." Two or three boys were perforating and +stamping. + +DEPARTMENT II.--LITHO PRINTING. Girls were feeding machines and washing +rollers. About 12 girls were employed. + +DEPARTMENT III.--MACHINE RULING. Little girls were feeding the ruling +machines, and a few older ones were counting and folding the foolscap +paper; 18 girls were employed. + +DEPARTMENT IV.--BOOKBINDING AND SEWING. All sorts of folding, sewing and +stitching (by machine mostly), eyeletting, etc., etc., were being +carried on, and about 45 girls were employed. + +DEPARTMENT V.--VELLUM WORK. Sewing, folding, etc., for account books and +ledgers was being done; 15 girls were employed, also one girl +"laying-on" for cloth work, and two or three running errands. + +DEPARTMENT VI.--In the WAREHOUSE were three girls folding notepaper. + +REGULARITY.--Work here is constant all the year round. The forewoman in +the book-folding department said they only had in job hands about twice +a year. + +HOURS.--The firm works about 54 hours per week, _i.e._, from 8 a.m. to 7 +p.m., with one hour for dinner, half an hour for tea, and ten minutes +for lunch. On Saturdays they work from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. + +OVERTIME.--It was very difficult to get anything definite about overtime +pay. The manager first said that they all got 6_d._ an hour overtime. +Then he said that piece workers were simply paid at piece rates. The +forewoman in the book-folding department said that time hands got 4_d._ +an hour overtime. In the vellum work they never had any overtime. These +extra payments seem to be irregularly made. + +PROSPECTS.--The girls can rise to forewoman's position, here or +elsewhere. Vellum work forewoman mentioned that two of her young ladies +had become forewomen elsewhere. + +ORGANISATION.--The manager knew that a Women's Union existed, but +thought it was more of a Benefit Society than anything else. He assured +me that the problem of the organisation of women's labour was the +problem in trade, and seemed vaguely to regret that women were so +helpless and ready to be cut down. + +MARRIED AND UNMARRIED.--The manager estimated twelve years as the +average period that a woman remained in the trade. He fancied that there +were a good many married women here; but when we went round and asked +the different heads of departments we found that the only married ones +were 2 in the litho department, _i.e._, 2 out of 12 in that department, +_i.e._, 2 out of about 128 employed altogether. In the other departments +the forewomen or foremen did not care to have them because they were so +irregular. "You can never count on them." Two widows were employed in +the book-folding department. The head of the litho department had only +lately found out that two of his employees were married--one had run +away from her husband, the other's husband was a stone polisher and she +had to come out to keep the house going. The manager was very decided +that undoubtedly married women's work tended to lower wages. They only +want a little to supplement their husbands' earnings. He explained +afterwards that his remarks applied more to the provinces than to +London. He thought that the thing to aim at in improving the industrial +position of women was the abolition of the married woman worker. How +this could be done he could not say. The forewoman of the book-folding +and sewing department, who had had some experience of married jobbers, +said that they would not do ordinary work at ordinary rates, as they did +not consider it worth their while. They had not _got_ to earn any money, +as they had husbands to fall back upon. The manager said that in the +litho department the single girls thought it _infra dig._ to wash the +rollers, but the married women "made no bones about it." + +LEGISLATION.--In no case had women been turned away because of +restrictive legislation. A certain amount of folding and stitching has +to be done by men at night, and he would say that about 2 or 3 men were +employed at this for about one hour five nights in the week. Sometimes +the folding was not ready till 11 p.m., and the men had to hang about +before. The manager thought that the chief grievance of the Factory Acts +was that if only one woman in a department was employed overtime, one of +the thirty legal nights was thereby used up. The manager thought that it +was forty-eight nights you might work overtime, and seemed surprised on +looking up the notices to find that it was thirty only. He approved of +Factory Legislation on the whole, and thought that women had benefited +by it. Personally, he would like to see all overtime abolished by law +for men and women. Men worked worse next day when they had had to sit up +at night. Public bodies were the worst offenders in the matter, "They +have no consciences." The forewoman of the folding and sewing, where +overtime was worked, said that her girls disliked overtime very much; +and she did not think it worth while working them, as they could do less +work next day in consequence. She had much rather that the men did it at +night. She and the manager agreed that in places where women did not +make a decent wage by working ordinary hours they might want to work at +night. As to the effect Factory Legislation had upon the diverting of +work from the home to the workshop, or _vice versâ_, the manager thought +that the tendency had been for work to come in to the factory. There +used to be much more home work. + +MEN AND WOMEN.--According to the manager, there is a hard and fast line +drawn by the various Societies in London as to what a woman may or may +not do. + +In _Bookbinding_ of all descriptions she is practically confined to +folding and sewing. She may not touch a glue brush or do any putting of +paper books or magazines into paper covers. + +In the provinces, on the other hand, the rules of the Consolidated +Societies are different. A woman may do flush binding (_i.e._, books +whose covers are cut on a level with the leaves and which have no +"turnings in") up and foolscap size, two quires. Hence women do diaries, +etc. In certain works at Tonbridge women are set to do this. + +_Litter-press Printing._--This firm had never tried female compositors. +They had 100 men. If they tried to introduce women, all the men would go +out and "you'd have a hornet's nest." The idea of paying women at the +same rate as men struck them as ridiculous. "They would never be worth +as much because they stay such a little time." They might some day try +women compositors in their country establishment. + +_Feeding Printing Machines._--They might not employ women on platen +machines because of the Union, but were going to try them on smallish +letter-press machines. The Union had no objection to that. + +_Machine Ruling._--The firm only had little girls for feeding. The +foreman remarked that at R.'s, "over the water," they had women to do +most of their ruling, but did not seem to think that it would be worth +while to train a woman for it. At first he said that the Men's Union +would object, then said that he thought they would not; only he would +have to give the woman the same pay as a man, "and fancy giving a woman +32_s._ a week!" This was uttered in a tone of supreme contempt. The +manager remarked that he supposed it would not matter paying the woman +the same if she did as much work, but the foreman smiled superior to the +idea. + +WOMEN AND MACHINERY.--The manager thought that the output of printed +matter had increased so enormously since the introduction of machinery +that more hands than ever were employed. + +The forewoman of the folding and sewing department said that it seemed +as if there must be fewer employed, and yet she had never turned any +off. + +HOME WORK.--No home work is given out by the firm. Since so much was +done by machinery it was not worth while to send work out. + +INFLUENCE ON FAMILY INCOME.--The manager and forewoman and foreman said +that none of the girls were working for pocket-money. Most lived at home +and helped their parents; some who had no parents lived with relatives. + +GENERAL.--The premises were rather nice and the people looked superior +and friendly. There was a great gulf fixed between the litho girls and +the others. The latter look down tremendously on these former and would +not think of speaking to them. They are a much lower set to look at and +their language is reported not to be choice. Many of them were arrayed +in curlers, whilst none of the girls in other departments wore these +decorations. + +The vellum sewers were said by their forewoman to be "a nice family +party." + + +9. _Lithographic Firm. General Information._ + +GENERAL.--I saw the manager; he was "very much on the spot," friendly +and communicative, and took me all over the works and was quite +interested in showing different processes. He said he had to look sharp +after his workers, and so they often thought him a bully. + +WORK.--Chief work done is lithography, but there is also a certain +amount of letter-press work. Engraving and stationery orders are given +out in sub-contract. + +TRAINING.--In the binding room, _i.e._, where folding is done, there are +no learners now, but they need to have one or two. These apprentices +were taken on from fourteen years of age without premiums, and were kept +two or three years according to ability. They were paid a few shillings +to begin with, and, if good at their work, they rose gradually. If slow +and stupid, they got nothing. The forewoman said she did not care to +take learners now; "they are more trouble than they are worth." + +In the litho room the firm never had apprentices. The new hands come in +and begin "taking-off" for about 8_s._ By-and-by, according to their +nimbleness, they are elevated to "layers-on." + +In card mounting there is no training. It is picked up in a few months, +and new hands start at about 8_s._ per week, time wages. + +WAGES.--_Binding Room._--The staff (12 girls) are all on time work, the +extra hands are paid piece work. Time wages range from 12_s._ to 14_s._ +I was shown last week's wages, and they ranged from 7_s._ to 15_s._, the +forewoman having £1 2_s._ 6_d._; 7_s._ to 8_s._ was the predominant +figure. Job hands on piece "make as much as 15_s._ in a full week," I +was informed, but the wage book that week showed they had only made +about 7_s._ or 8_s._ + +For overtime, time and a quarter is paid to all time workers, ordinary +rates to piece workers. + +_Litho Work._--All wages in this department are time wages, and vary +from 8_s._ to 12_s._ or 14_s._ In the wages book the predominant figure +was 7_s._; there were two 5_s._ and some 8_s._, and up to 12_s._ When +bronzing the workers appeared to get 1_s._ extra. + +_Card Mounting._--All time wages paid here, and they were said to range +from 8_s._ to 12_s._ In the wages book, however, 6_s._ and 7_s._ were +the predominant figures. Some were as low as 5_s._, and there were a few +girls who had drawn 8_s._ + +NO. EMPLOYED.--There were about 200 employees, of whom one-third were +women. The number fluctuated, I was told. + +_Litho Artists' Work._--8 or 9 men were employed on this, but no women +on the premises. The firm often accepted sketches from lady artists +living outside, some of whom could even work on stone. + +_Litho Machine Work._--Girls are employed feeding litho machines, and +they have about 30 when busy. When I was there only about 12 were +engaged. When bronzing by hand is wanted these girls are set to it (13 +were doing it last week). In the same room is + +_Card Mounting._--There were only 3 girls at that, but sometimes there +are as many as 12 or 13. This consists of pasting the advertisement, +almanac, etc., on to a piece of cardboard, varnishing it, eyeletting it, +tying the bits of cord through (the 3 girls were doing that), and +sometimes putting gelatine over the surface--a minor trade, at which +they get better paid. + +The same girls do occasional work in the _cutting_ room; not at the big +guillotines, but (_a_) at feeding a machine which cuts the strips down +or blocks into bent shapes like a small almanac of ----'s mustard which +I saw; (_b_) at putting shapes on to huge piles of sheets of +advertisements and labels, which are then pressed into the sheets by a +heavy top weight being brought down by steam. They were doing some big +"flies," on to which a string was to be put, so that they could be +whirled round and buzz. + +_Binding Room._--There were only about 12 girls employed, but there was +room for 100, and they have them in at a press of work. They do folding +by hand in this firm for certain newspapers and all sorts of +advertisements. Wire stitching is also done. They were folding various +things, packing up labels, and so on, when I was there. + +REGULARITY.--The firm's trade fluctuates, but by no regular fixed +seasons; they are always busy before Christmas. + +HEALTH.--I was told that it was quite a mistake to think bronzing +unhealthy. The manager stated he had known men at it for months at a +time without any evil effects. They sometimes imagined themselves ill, +but he had never known of a single case of real illness. They grumble at +doing it, and pretend that they are afraid of it because then they get +extra money (1_s._ extra a week). They really object to it because it is +bad for clothes--as you get covered with dust--and uncomfortable to be +all powdered with gold. + +He had a machine below on which most work was done, except when there +was a great press. Messrs. ---- gave him out so many thousand to do; he +could not do them fast enough with only one machine, and it was not +worth while having more than one as he had not work enough ordinarily. +No dust escaped from the machine. As a proof of the healthiness of +bronzing he said that he stood for three or four hours in the middle of +it all, "keeping them to their work" (which they want), and got all +covered over with the dust himself. "You wouldn't get a manager doing +that himself if it were unhealthy." He always gave his bronzers one pint +of milk a day to drink, he stated with pride. + +The other work, folding, card mounting, etc., was all quite healthy. +Indeed, work was unhealthy more on account of bad ventilation than of +any circumstance belonging to itself; he always had the window open and +a board put across the bottom, 6 ins. high, on the most approved plan. +The workpeople grumbled very much and tried to paste up every crevice +with brown paper, but they could not shut it. They objected to the +incandescent burners which he put in, for they liked the heat of the gas +and missed it. + +DANGERS.--Occasionally girls catch their skirts in wheels and so on, but +there are never any "bad accidents." "With people of that class it is +'funk' more than pain that they suffer; they will turn as white as +anything from just a little flesh wound with a cog-wheel." The Factory +Inspectors were very fussy about fencing machinery, he thought. He told +me long stories about men's carelessness and how the boys would sit on +the edge of the lift. He fined them 2_s._ 6_d._ for it. + +HOURS.--The hours are about 54 a week, from 8 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with +one hour for dinner. The women are allowed by the forewomen to have +lunch in the middle of the morning and tea in the afternoon, and when +the men are industrious the manager has no objection to their taking +"snacks." If it is an idler, he objects. + +When busy, the work continues till 8 p.m. He had not used special +exemption once the last year. + +PROSPECTS.--There are no prospects except for the girls in the binding +room. The present forewoman ("a jewel") had been with the firm for +thirty years; one or two others whom she had trained could take her +place. + +ORGANISATION.--He had no knowledge of any Women's Unions covering the +women employed here. This is a Society house in every branch for the +men, but the manager said, "Trades Unionism is all humbug," and he would +like to do away with it altogether, if possible; but it is so strong in +London that if you want to get good men you must be a Society house. + +MARRIED AND UNMARRIED.--He employed 2 or 3 married women amongst litho +feeders. The firm ask no questions, but he said he knew most of the +workers. + +A lot of the job hands were married, but none of the regular hands in +binding room. + +LEGISLATION.--In manager's opinion legislation had not in any way +injured the position of women workers. It did not affect him at all. He +never employed men to fold at night, because it would not pay. +Occasionally, when the litho machines had to be kept working late, he +had to draft in men from other departments to feed them, and he could +understand that a small printer, without different departments, would +find it awkward. + +He would not himself have the place open at night with girls working in +it. He would not take the responsibility of that; they would "lark +about, etc." He thought it all to the women's advantage that they must +not work at night. + +The intentions of the Factory Acts are good, and he approved of them in +principle, but there was a lot of humbug about them and the L.C.C. +regulations,[95] _e.g._, making him have six basins for lavatory for his +workers. They never used more than two, preferring to follow each other, +and they broke the others, and then round came the inspector and said +you must have six. + +[Footnote 95: This is allowed to stand as an indication of the frequent +misunderstandings our investigators met with regarding the L.C.C. This +body appeared to be charged with everything that caused irritation.] + +The L.C.C. put a premium on burglary by making it compulsory to have a +way out on to the roof. The Factory Inspector was not a practical man, +and ordered a great deal of unnecessary fencing of machinery. He told me +how one night he kept the girls late without giving notice (the work +came in unexpectedly), and sat by the telephone so as to send up notice +to the forewoman if the inspector came. It was not the Factory Acts +which kept women from being compositors. + +MEN AND WOMEN.--Women did litho artists' work at home, and there was no +reason why they should not be quite as good at it as men. It was paid by +the merits of the sketch. + +_Feeding Litho Machines._--He used to have boys, and a few years ago +introduced girls. They were much better at it, cleaner, quieter, and +more careful to place the paper exactly than boys. + +He still had boys for _feeding letter-press machines_--why, he did not +quite know, except that it was the custom; then, having thought about +it, he said further, that it was because less care was needed. Girls +were no cheaper than the boys were, and were introduced solely on +account of being better workers. + +He had no women compositors, and employed only 12 men, and he did not +see how he could work the two together, though he did not see why women +should not do all the setting-up and the display work, though they could +not lift the formes. He did not think the Union objected. It never had +been the custom though. + +He never had women to work _cutting machines_. The men would object. + +Women never rose to mind the _printing litho machines_; he did not think +they could do it. + +He had only one _platen machine_, worked and fed by a boy; but in some +places, where cheap things were done by this machine, _e.g._, paper +bags, girls attended to it. + +Men used to do _folding_ in his youth, and they still did _stationers' +folding_, notepaper, etc., in some houses. + +HOME WORK.--The firm gave out a certain amount of folding when there +was a press of work. The forewoman knew of old hands and others who +could do it at home. He considered that to be quite a convenient +arrangement. + +INFLUENCE ON FAMILY INCOME.--Many of the job hands were married women, +who liked to come out occasionally for a few extra shillings. Others +were single girls, who preferred to be paid by the piece, and go about +from house to house, making as much as time workers for shorter hours. + + +10. _Paper Colouring and Enamelling Firm in London, also engaged in +Showcard Mounting and Varnishing and Book-edge Gilding. Employer's and +Manager's Information._ + +Both were very communicative. The former, after repeated questions from +me as to how things were done, took me over the whole place, intending +only to show me the varnishing, and finally letting me see everything. +He is a working-class master who has risen. His father had a small +business, and he has made it a big one. It is one of the biggest firms +in the trade. + +TRAINING.--_Card Mounting._--The firm indentures apprentices, who agree +to stay three or four years. They are taken on at fourteen years of age, +and are paid 4_s._ a week for the first year, and then receive a portion +of their piece work earnings, varying according to efficiency, from +one-fourth, one-half, three-fourths, two-thirds, and so on, according to +skill. They come for a month first to see if they suit. + +_Paper Colouring and Enamelling._--In this department apprentices are +also indentured for two years. They are taken on at fourteen, and are +paid 4_s._ a week first year, then a portion of their piece earnings as +above. + +_Varnishing and Sizing._--No training is given for this. Girls must be +tall, or they are no use. Any girl will be "good at it" after three +weeks. + +The employer remarked that parents could not afford to pay a premium. It +was very provoking when girls went off after four years, when a lot of +trouble had been spent in teaching them. I was shown some cards which a +girl, who was supposed to be competent, had spoilt by pasting the sheet +on so that there was a blister; 385 out of 500 were similarly spoilt, +and they cost 6_d._ each, he said. + +WAGES.--_Card Mounting and Paper Colouring._--Piece work rates are paid +here, with overtime at the same rate. It is difficult to give an +average. One girl would make 25_s._, while another girl would only make +7_s._ at the same work in the same time. After consideration, the head +gave it as his opinion that 12_s._ 6_d._ a week would be what the +ordinary girl would earn, taking the whole year round, slack with busy +times. They were kept on all the year at this firm. Sometimes a girl +would make as much as 28_s._ + +It was further stated that a girl might make 6_d._ in less than an hour +at night, when the colours were mixed and she was finishing a job, +whereas it might take her a whole morning to earn the 6_d._ next day. + +A quick girl could do 1,000 eyelets in an hour, eyeletting being paid at +10_d._ per 1,000. + +_Varnishing and Sizing._--Piece work wages are paid here, with overtime +at same rates. Wages are reckoned by the lump sum for the gross work +done, and divided equally amongst all the hands. The division is made by +the firm, not the workers. We asked one girl what she took last week, +and she said 14_s._; but my guide said that the average would not be so +high for the year, say 12_s._ + +WORK.--There are four separate departments or businesses here, in three +of which the work is done by women. + +_Varnishing and Sizing_, where 16 girls are employed. The calendars, +advertisements, and so on, to be varnished are placed in a pile on a +table underneath the long webbing band, and a girl sits there and feeds. +They are caught up and passed round rollers, and are sized or varnished +as the case may be. Another girl stands facing the machine, seeing that +they pass round all right. They are then carried over the top of the top +roller along the webbing band, which stretches the full length of the +room, till they come to the drum at the end, round which the band passes +on its return journey. There girls take them off and place them in +racks, the bottom one of which is on a small trolley. When a big pile of +racks (about 5½ ft. high) is filled the girls wheel it off, lift up a +door, and push it into a big cupboard which takes up all the middle of +the room, and above which is a fan. There they are left to dry, and when +dry the girls wheel them out again and take out the sheets. + +There were two rooms in which this was being done, with about 8 girls in +each. There was also a third room at the side, where they make up odds +and ends, _e.g._, make up packets of "Happy Families," fold odd papers, +eyelet a few things, and so on. There was only 1 girl in this; sometimes +there are several. When a girl comes in first she does this work. + +_Card Mounting._--About 30 or 40 girls were employed at this. This +consists in putting the advertisements, calendars, and so on, on to the +big sheets of cardboard and finishing them off. There are various +different processes. The board has to be cut, and this is done either by +a man or a girl who feeds the rotary cutting machine. The sheet of card +is "lined," _i.e._, the back pasted on, and edges pasted over if +required. Then the picture (or calendar) that is to go on it is pasted +down, the girls covering the backs of about four pictures (or +calendars), and then pressing them down one after another. For some work +eyelets are then punched, and in the best work the edges are bevelled by +a little machine consisting of a wheel in a trough, along which the edge +is pushed. In the case of a good deal of School Board work there is a +narrow band of tin or brass at the top which finishes it off, and out of +which comes a brass loop by which to hang it up. The men cut the brass +into slips, and the girls work about five hand machines, the principle +of which is that you put in your map (_e.g._), put the tin or brass slip +of metal in the right position, pull down a handle, lift it up, and the +work comes out with the metal band pressed down on each side and the +loop fixed in the middle. For other work, such as big maps, charts, +diagrams, and so on, wooden rods are used as rollers, etc., and the work +of fastening is done by girls. + +_Paper Colouring and Enamelling by Hand._--Only 12 women were engaged +upon this work--a considerable decrease. The sheet of paper to be +coloured is placed in front of the girl, who then wets it over with the +colour (black when I saw it) by means of a brush like a whitewash brush +(the manager said that they were whitewash brushes with the handles +taken off), which she dips into a bowl. She then takes another round +brush, about 10 ins. in diameter, and brushes over the whole surface, so +that the colour lies quite evenly. The sheet of paper is then hung, as +it were, on to a clothes line to dry. These lines stretch over the room. + +Enamelling is done in identically the same way, only it is enamel, not +colour, which is put on. + +Enamelled paper is the very shiny coloured paper used for end pages of +books, for covering confectionery and similar boxes, etc. + +Marbling is never done by this firm. All the coloured paper is in plain +colours, marbling being a quite different process. + +_Book-edge Gilding._--Only men are employed in this. + +REGULARITY.--The _card mounting_ department is specially busy before +Christmas with calendars, almanacs, etc., but advertisement cards are +turned out all the year. + +_Paper colouring_ comes in rushes, but is not a seasonal trade. + +_Varnishing_ is sometimes busier at one time than at another, but it is +not seasonal. The work of this firm is such that no job hands are +employed. + +HEALTH.--_Paper Colouring and Enamelling._--Mr. ---- called down one +woman who had worked there fourteen years, and her mother before her. +She looked very strong and healthy. The other girls were not so robust +looking as she, but did not look _ill_. One was sitting in one of the +colouring rooms during the dinner hour, her hands all coated over with +paint, eating bread and butter. Mr. ---- rebuked her and told her that +she ought to wash her hands, and that he was always telling her to do +so, but she did not obey, and went on eating stolidly. + +The colouring girls were all splashed over, and so were the walls. The +rooms were close and dirty. Work was done standing. + +_Card Mounting._--The rooms were close and dirty, and the work seemed +tiring. + +_Varnishing and Sizing._--The smell and heat were enough to knock one +down when one first went in, though one ceased to notice it after a bit. +There are hot pipes connected with the machine to dry the papers. The +place looked very dirty, and my guide showed me how the dust all stuck +to any varnish about, so that the racks, if left out for a day, got +covered with flue. The girls did not look strikingly unhealthy. They +have to drag heavy loads about. One or two looked a bit pale. + +QUALIFICATIONS.--I should judge that strength was required for all three +departments, as girls are standing all day. Only tall girls are taken in +the varnishing room; short ones would be no good for moving about the +racks. The head said that no great intelligence was wanted for any +department, but a good deal of "perseverance" for card mounting and +paper colouring. If girls are careless at card mounting they spoil the +whole thing. + +DANGERS.--The only machinery was the varnishing machine, and the firm +had never had any accident with it, and there seemed no reason why there +should be any. If girls are careless they are dismissed. The employer +considered the Compensation Act to be very unfair: "If a girl slips on +your iron staircase because her shoelace was undone, you have to pay +her." + +HOURS.--The hours worked are from 9 a.m. to 7.30 p.m., with one hour for +dinner and half an hour for tea; on Saturdays from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. On a +board a notice was put up stating that work begins as follows: 9 a.m. +for women, 8 a.m. for boys, 7 a.m. for men. + +PROSPECTS.--There is 1 girl in the _varnishing_ department who gets "a +trifle more than the others," owing to her skill. In _card mounting_ +there are no prospects. A foreman manages the _paper colouring_ +department, so that there is no chance of the women becoming forewomen. +The firm once tried a forewoman, but she was not a success. She could +not match the colours properly, etc. Mr. ---- and the robust worker +seemed to think such a thing beyond a woman's power (especially the +latter, who scorned the idea of a forewoman). + +ORGANISATION.--The head did not know if there was a Union or not. "They +do not give us any trouble." + +MARRIED AND UNMARRIED.--Only 1 or 2 married women were employed by the +firm, and they were confined to the colouring department. One married +woman had been there fourteen years. + +LEGISLATION.--My informant did not consider that legislation had injured +the woman worker at all, but had benefited her by lessening her hours of +labour. Legislation was very hard on him, however, especially in the +paper colouring and varnishing work. "A customer comes in with some work +at 1 o'clock on a Saturday. You say you cannot do it till Monday. +'Well,' he says, 'I shall get it done elsewhere.' People working at home +are found to do it, and as they have not got the machinery or appliances +it means that they work at it all Sunday, and make their little children +of nine or ten work too, whereas the grown women may not work an hour +longer in factories." Mr. ---- evidently feels bitterly about this. It +would not pay to keep men on this kind of work. He would like more than +thirty days a year exemption for overtime. Besides, the girls would +often like to make a few shillings extra overtime. This was corroborated +by the paper-staining girl. + +MEN AND WOMEN.--In the head's youth men used to do all the card +mounting; women were introduced for it about twenty-eight years ago. +They were brought in because the men drank so and kept away from work. +Men used to do paper colouring and varnishing, too, and were replaced +by women for the same reason. The Unions gave no trouble about this. + +No women were employed in book-edge gilding by this firm. Mr. ---- and +an old man employee said that some people got their wives to help lay-on +the gold and so on, but it did not come to much. + +MACHINERY.--_Paper colouring and enamelling_ machinery has diminished +women's work _considerably_. The head used to have 45 women at it--two +whole floors--and now only has 11. It is done by machinery elsewhere. A +certain amount is still done by hand, and must always be, as it is not +worth while putting anything under five reams on a machine. + +_Varnishing._--The head invented the present machines because the women +kept away so. There used to be many more women in the trade. + +_Card Mounting._--No machines are employed for this. Girls can feed the +rotary cutting machine, but it is generally done by a man. + +HOME WORK.--No work is sent out from here. A good deal of paper +colouring and of varnishing is done by people in their own homes (see +under "Legislation"). + +FAMILY INCOME.--Very little information on this subject could be had +here. One girl in the varnishing room was pointed out to me, dressed in +black, whose father had recently died. She was the eldest of eleven, and +was "keen on picking up an extra shilling or two." + +GENERAL.--The whole place was dirty, and there was hardly a vacant inch +to squeeze past in. Mr. ----, however, did not seem a bad sort of man; +the girls did not seem in the least in awe of him. All the girls looked +of the regular factory girl type, sloppy and dirty, and with their hair +in curlers or curl papers. + +Mrs. ----, the paper stainer, who came down to talk to me, seemed a +friendly, rough-and-ready, low-class woman. Her mother worked in the +trade, and when she herself was a baby her cradle was rocked on the +colouring board, and "many is the night" that she sat up all night as a +child helping her mother at home. She seemed to have thriven on it, and +to be immensely proud of her industrial career. + + +11. _Bookbinding Firm, West End. London. Employée's Evidence._ + +WORK.--Trade in the West End is quite different to that in City firms. +This employée picked to pieces and sewed. + +REGULARITY.--Hers was not a seasonal trade. She was busy all the year +round, but in January and July there was a special press, owing to the +number of magazine volumes then being bound. + +HOURS.--She worked 48 per week, the length of the ordinary day being +from 8.30 a.m. to 6 p.m. + +PROSPECTS.--She had never known anyone who rose to be a forewoman, but +supposed some did rise. Girls from West End shops could not be City +forewomen because they knew nothing about machines, and in all +advertisements for forewomen knowledge of sewing machines was put as a +necessary qualification. + +GENERAL.--I asked why their hours were so much shorter than dressmakers, +and have come to the conclusion that it was because the men had got an +eight-hours' day. She said this class of workers in City shops is lower +than in these West End places, and yet in the City workplaces the best +industrial training is given. + + +12. _Bookbinding Firm in London. Employée's Evidence._ + +WORK.--Works at a large place about five minutes' walk away (not the +same place where she learned). There are four rooms of women. N. M. +works in a room on the third floor, where there are 80 women under two +forewomen, sisters. In this room folding, stitching, gathering and +sewing (hand) is done. + +In the fourth room there are 12 girls doing machine sewing. + +The two lower floor rooms each have about 10 or 12 girls. In one of them +laying-on of gold is done. + +She herself does stitching, folding and gathering, hardly ever sewing. + +REGULARITY.--Orders are very slack sometimes, especially just now +(August). There had been a great deal of sitting idle, and they had only +been making 6_s._ or 7_s._ per week. They did not like to go "out to +grass" for fear of losing work if it should chance to come in. It was +difficult to get off for a holiday. Sometimes they were told at 1 p.m. +that they could go home. + +HEALTH.--_Gold laying-on_ was unhealthy. The dust got on the chest. +_Folding_ and _Sewing_ were very tiring, because "you are sitting in one +position all day." _Gathering_ is the most pleasant, because you walk +about and get a little exercise that way. + +PROSPECTS.--There is not much chance of rising. The forewoman and +under-forewoman are sisters, and stay on and on. If one of them were to +give up, her successor would be taken from the time workers. The piece +workers might rise to be time workers, if they cared. + + +13. _Bookbinding Firm in London. Employée's Evidence._ + +WORK.--This informant was engaged at gold laying-on exclusively, but was +originally a folder and sewer. + +REGULARITY.--In this firm it is a seasonal trade, and slack sometimes as +well. She left M. because of slackness. + +HEALTH.--It is not very healthy. Layers-on cannot have the windows open +because of the draught blowing the gold about, also the gas used for +"blocking" overheats the rooms. Girls sometimes faint three or four +times a day, and get anæmic. After working overtime at ----'s would +often stagger in the streets. "You have to drink a lot of tea to keep +you up." + +HOURS.--48 a week is about the normal working time, from 9 a.m. to 7 +p.m., with one hour for dinner and half an hour for tea, as at M., and 9 +a.m. to 1 p.m. on Saturdays; or else from 8.30 a.m. to 6 p.m., as at N., +with one hour for dinner, and 8.30 a.m. to 12 noon on Saturdays. She +preferred 9 a.m. to 7 p.m., because then she got a tea half-hour. "One +got so faint going on till 6.30 p.m. from 2 p.m." + +At O. there was a great deal of overtime; not at M. + +PROSPECTS.--She could have been a sort of forewoman at sixteen over 6 +other girls at P., but an older hand persuaded her not to; and being +ignorant of the ways of the world she agreed not to, and then the older +hand became forewoman herself! That was her only chance of promotion. + + +14. J., _Bookbinding Firm in London. Employée's Evidence and Visit to +Works_. + +WORK.--Folding, numbering, perforating, sewing. The regular staff do +all, but the firm take in job hands for folding only, when busy. + +REGULARITY.--The regular hands are kept on all the year round. + +HOURS.--The hours worked average 54 a week, from 8.30 a.m. to 7.30 p.m. +My informant said they were "obliged by the Factory Act[96] to have half +an hour for lunch from 11 a.m. to 11.30 a.m., but they did not take more +than a quarter of an hour, or else they ate whilst working;" dinner from +1 p.m. to 2 p.m., and tea from 5 p.m. to 5.30 p.m. On Saturdays the +hours are 8.30 a.m. to 2 p.m., with 11 a.m. to 11.30 a.m. for lunch. + +[Footnote 96: This, of course, is incorrect.] + +PROSPECTS.--The girls may rise to forewomen. One who had just risen +quickly to that position was going off to be married. + +GENERAL.--They can cook food on the premises at this firm. + + +15. B., _Stationery Firm in London. Visit to Works_. + +WORK.--About 150 to 200 women are employed. + + (1) Hand folding and cementing of envelopes (includes putting band + round packet). + + (2) Machine folding and cementing of envelopes (includes putting + band round packet). + + (3) Black bordering. + + (4) Stamping, plain and relief. + + (5) Printing of addresses for circulars, etc. (small machines). + + (6) Packing twelve packets in long packets and sample packing. + + (7) Vellum sewing (folding, sewing, and looking over). + + (8) Perforating (in same room). + + (9) Machine ruling. + +The number of women at each process in the part of factory seen were as +follows:-- + + (1) About 27, (2) 30, (3) 1, (4) 4 stamping, (5) about 8, (6) 3 + and 1 sample packer (probably many more), (7) 4 sewing, 1 looking + over, 2 hanging about, (8) 1, (9) 4. + + There are 42 other workers who are all older hands. + + The girls employed in (1) are a superior grade to those in (2) + and will not mix at all. Wages about the same. (3), (4), (5), (6), + (7) and (8) are more or less same grade as (1); (9) are lower than + (2). + +REGULARITY.--The work here is steady all the year round. + +HEALTH.--All the girls are healthy, and the work is quite healthy. + +HOURS.--They work 51 hours per week. + +PROSPECTS.--Envelope hand folders can rise to be cementers or forewomen +(envelope hand folders being themselves a superior class to machine +folders or machine rulers); packers can rise to be sample packers. + + +16. R., _Stationery Firm (Christmas Cards, etc.) in London. Visit to +Works_. + +WORK.--There are three departments:-- + +(1) _Relief Stamping_, with 20 regular hands. These girls work the +presses, which are of the newest kind, and some of which are very heavy. +They do monograms and all sorts of designs on menus, wedding cards, +Christmas cards, ball cards, etc., and stamp in gold, silver, or +colours. + +(2) _Hand Painting_, with 21 regular hands. This means filling in +stamped-out or printed designs of various kinds of cards with colour, +_e.g._, figures of soldiers, flowers, and so on. + +(3) _Packing Department_, with about 12 regular hands. They do up the +cards in packets, fold and gum special wedding envelopes, paste pictures +on to cards, tie the little ribbon bows on cards, and do all the many +little processes required for finishing this kind of work. + +REGULARITY.--The work of this firm is very seasonal. The busy time is +for about three months before Christmas, but they are specially rushed +for the six weeks before Christmas. The regular hands are kept on all +the year round, but about 25 or 30 extra are employed for the packing +room for six weeks before Christmas. In the other departments they get a +few married hands just to come in and help. They are now (July) +preparing books of Christmas cards, but the orders for private Christmas +cards do not come in till November and December. + +The girls who work in the packing room pack scents, etc., at other times +of the year. + +HEALTH.--The work is quite healthy and the girls all appeared to be +healthy. The premises were light and airy. Two of the relief stamping +presses _looked_ very heavy indeed, and the forewoman said that they +were really men's work. The girls working them always had the same +machines, and did not look ill, though they said that it was very +tiring. + +MACHINERY.--Machinery has not displaced women in this firm. + +HOURS.--For _stamping and packing_ the hours are from 9 a.m. to 6.30 +p.m. with three-quarters of an hour for dinner and a quarter of an hour +for tea; on Saturdays, from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m., with half an hour for +lunch. For _painting_ they are from 9 a.m. to 5.45 p.m., with the same +meal hour; on Saturdays, from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. + +The hours of painters had been shortened about a year ago, and it was +found that they did just as much work. For the six weeks before +Christmas they regularly work from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., with as much +overtime as is allowed, _i.e._, three nights a week. + +PROSPECTS.--They may rise to forewomen; _e.g._, the forewoman over the +stampers came as an ordinary hand. + +GENERAL.--There is a dining room, and every girl can pay 3_s._ a week +and get dinner of meat and pudding and tea every day. This covers all +expenses, wages of cook, gas for stove, all utensils, etc. Last year +there was money over, so they had free meals for a week. + + +17. G., _Large Stationery Firm in London. Visit to Works_. + +WORK.--About 60 girls are employed. _Stationery and Printing_ with +following divisions:--(1) Plain cameo and relief stamping (about 25 +girls), (2) illuminating, _i.e._, putting on the colour by hand (2 +girls), (3) envelope folding and cementing (9 girls), (4) packing, +including cleaning (girls in each department), (5) folding notepaper +(saw 3 little girls doing this), (6) feeding printing machines, big and +small, and lithographic machines (about 6 girls), (7) various odd jobs, +_e.g._, cutting visiting cards to proper size, (8) feeding ruling +machine (1 girl). + +REGULARITY.--This firm's trade is regular. They are busy all the year +round, though perhaps they are busiest at Christmas. The bulk of their +orders come from the country though. + +HEALTH.--The little printing and lithographic girls looked anything but +healthy. + +MACHINERY.--Machines have not displaced women. There was nothing +dangerous about the machinery used, though the small printing machine +which 1 girl was feeding _might_ be dangerous. + +HOURS.--The hours worked are from 8.30 a.m. to 7 p.m., with one hour for +dinner and half an hour for tea; on Saturdays, from 8.30 a.m. to 1 p.m. +They work overtime at Christmas. + +PROSPECTS.--Girls in (4) may rise to (1), and those in (1) to (2). + + +18. K., _Stationery Firm in London. Visit to Works_. + +WORK.--_Numbering and Perforating_; girls also dust and clean up after +blocking. + +REGULARITY.--The work in this firm is regular, "as they work for the +trade." + +SKILL.--Intelligence is required for numbering, or else valuable +material is spoilt, _e.g._, the other day a girl, who was six months out +of her time, never changed when she came to the 1,000 and so spoilt the +work, as one figure came out darker. Three numbers are harder to do than +two or four. The firm had tried to take two girls from the blocking work +and teach them numbering, but it was no good, they were not intelligent +enough. + +HOURS.--The hours worked are from 9 a.m. to 7.30 p.m., with one hour for +dinner, ten minutes for lunch, and ten minutes for tea; on Saturdays, +from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. + +PROSPECTS.--The girls can rise to be forewomen. + + +19. I., _Stationery and Stamping Firm in London. Employee's Evidence_. + +WORK.--Stamping, plain and relief, including tradesmen's cards, +notepaper, Christmas cards, etc. + +REGULARITY.--The work here is regular, because they work for the trade. + +SKILL.--The girls need arm strength. Artistic taste is also required. +Some never make good stampers on account of deficiency in taste. + +MACHINERY.--Machinery has not displaced women. + +HOURS.--The hours worked are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m., with one hour for +dinner, and half an hour for tea; on Saturdays, from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. + +PROSPECTS.--Girls may rise to forewomen. "There is a little girl of +fifteen now, who has only been here a year, and the other day Mr. I. +(who does not say things when he does not mean them) told her that she +would rise to be forewoman one day. She is very good at her work and +knows how things should look." + +GENERAL.--The girls are very comfortable here. They have a room to +themselves upstairs, and a dining room and a stove to cook on. + + +20. F., _Stationery Firm in London. Employee's Evidence_. + +WORK.--(1) Envelope folding, which includes creasing, gumming, and +shuffling. + +(2) Envelope cementing. + +(3) Plain stamping. + +(4) Relief stamping. + +(5) Looking over and packing. + +REGULARITY.--Slack times vary in different houses. "You never can tell," +but summer, as a rule, is slack. Last summer there was very little work +all July and August at C. and D. and F. She made only 8_d._ or 9_d._ a +day sometimes. + +HOURS.--At C. and D. the hours worked are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m., with +one and a-half hours for meals; at E., from 8 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with +one and a-half hours for meals on Monday and Tuesday; from 8 a.m. to 7 +p.m., with one and a-half hours for meals on Wednesday, Thursday, and +Friday; and from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. on Saturdays. + +MACHINERY.--Machinery has not taken work from women. + +GENERAL.--She remarked that G. was "a dreadful place." The girls cried +because there was no work. + + +21. X., _Stamping Firm in London. Employee's Evidence_. + +WORK.--There are about 100 girls in the _stamping_ room, about 30 of +whom pack up the work in boxes, etc. In some places the stampers have to +pack their own work. There is also _envelope work_, etc., done on the +firm, but my informant knew nothing of this. Some girls did the hand +illuminating, _i.e._, colouring part of a design that has been stamped. + +REGULARITY.--The trade is seasonal, and is slack in the summer and busy +in winter. + +SKILL.--"You have to be strong to stand the stamping," she said. She +herself had to give it up after she had been a learner for two years, +and take to packing. Her health gave way; she got very anæmic, and could +not stand the strain. Most of the packers were girls who could not stand +stamping. They had one very heavy press with big dies, and tried a girl +on it, but she got injured internally, so a man was put on it. At R. she +heard they had heavy presses. She said she knew of two girls who went +there, and both injured themselves. She thinks they had to go to the +hospital. The best paying work was done on the big presses. However, +many girls stood the stamping all right. Strength is absolutely +necessary. + +HOURS.--The hours worked are from 8 a.m. to 7 p.m., with one and a-half +hours off for meals; on Saturdays, from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. When busy they +work regularly from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m., and three nights a week to 9.30 +p.m. + + +22 and 23. U. and V., _Two Stamping Firms in London. Employee's +Evidence_. + +WORK.--My informant did plain stamping, but never learnt relief work. +She once tried it, but did not get on with it. At U. there were only 5 +stampers, at V. quite 30. + +REGULARITY.--At U. work came in rushes, and they were always either very +busy or else very slack; at V. work was steady all the year. + +HEALTH.--My informant herself had grown rather crooked, and had to leave +off work. She did not know of any other girls similarly affected though, +nor did she consider it unhealthy. A good many were anæmic. She thought +that now she has had a rest she might be able to stand it better. The +big dies were the bad ones, and were tiring. + +HOURS.--At U. the hours were from 9.15 a.m. to 7 p.m., with one hour for +dinner and half an hour for tea; at V. from 9.15 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., but +at V. one could work till 7 or 7.30 p.m., if one cared. At U. they were +then working till 8 p.m. (December). She had never worked later than 9, +and that very rarely. + +PROSPECTS.--She thought that the chance of rising to forewoman was +exceedingly remote. + +GENERAL.--Both U. and V. were very nice and respectable shops, and +particular about whom they took on. At U. there was a dining room, and +things more comfortable than at V. + + +24. Y., _Machine Ruling Firm in London. Visit to Works_. + +WORK.--There are _two departments_. (1) Top floor: _Machine ruling_. (2) +Ground floor: _Perforating_, _numbering_, _and paging._ + +(1) The following is the general principle of the ruling machine: + +There is a band about 1 yd. wide which goes round and round in a large +ellipse (one flat side of the ellipse is about 3½ yds. long). Upon this +band the sheets of paper are placed by the girls, and by it they are +drawn under a row of pens set at the required intervals for the lines. +They are then carried up and round by the revolutions of the band--being +held in their places by string which revolves with the band--and fall +out of the machine with the ink dry. + +A good many machines are fitted with a second row of pens which rules +the underneath side of the paper as well as the upper. + +The pens are fed by a piece of flannel which is kept soaked by a regular +flow of ink from a vessel fitted with a small tap. + +These machines are worked by power. They used to be worked by hand. + +(2) _Perforating_ is done by a machine worked by a treadle. A good many +foreign and colonial postage stamps are done here. + +_Numbering_ of loose pages, cheques, receipts, etc., is done by a +machine with a handle which has to be pulled down by hand. + +_Paging_, which is for made-up books, is done by a machine worked by a +treadle. + +REGULARITY.--The summer is a slack season in this trade as a rule. The +firm are especially slack just now (August) as there are no orders from +South Africa. + +HEALTH.--The upper floor was exceedingly, almost insupportably, stuffy. +The ground floor was fairly airy. The under-forewoman said that working +the treadle for paging was very hard work. "It always upset her inside," +so she had to give it up. + +SKILL.--Strength is required for paging. + +DANGER.--They had just had an accident with the perforating machine. The +bands upstairs were dangerous to long hair. One girl had her hair caught +and was carried right up to the ceiling. The band was loose and slipped +off the wheel, so she was let down again with no great injury. + +PROSPECTS.--The girls may rise to forewoman; the machine rulers may rise +to wet the flannels. + + +25. _Paper Bag Making in London. Employee's Evidence._ + +WORK.--(1) Cake bags, (2) tea bags, (3) sugar bags. These are different +classes of work and some hands can do only one class. + +The girls do their own cutting except for the very heavy work, which men +do. As a rule, the piece-rate girls make the bag right through from the +sheet, _i.e._, cut the paper, lay it out and paste. Tea bags are made on +a tin. There were 150 girls working in the room. + +REGULARITY.--The work is irregular, but if a girl can do all kinds it is +better for her. "There is always some work, but sometimes you may sit +idle doing needlework most of the day." + +HEALTH.--"It is very bad for you standing all day long," said my +informant. "Girls come in looking lively and healthy, but they soon get +run down." The standing and the used-up air are bad, the latter +especially in the winter-time when the gas is alight. She herself has +lost her health. + +MACHINERY.--Machinery had not displaced women. + +HOURS.--The hours are from 8 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with one hour for +dinner, ten minutes for lunch, and twenty minutes for tea; on Saturdays, +from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. The girls have to be in by 8.15 or they are locked +out for the morning. + +When at overtime they work from 8 a.m. to 9.30 p.m. + +PROSPECTS.--The forewoman was at the bench once. + +GENERAL.--"On the floor below," said my informant, "are litho girls--not +the sort whom you _could_ speak to. That is a very bad trade." + + +26. _Printer's and Bookbinder's Firm in Leeds. Employer's Information._ + +I was shown over the factory. The rooms are all very large and lofty. +Electric instead of steam power is used, and so the factory is far less +noisy and cooler than most printing works. + +_One hundred and twenty girls_ of a very superior class are employed. + +The conditions under which work is carried on here are evidently very +good. + +They print large advertisement posters, time-tables, magazines, novels, +and make account books, cheque books, etc. + +TRAINING.--Girls begin by feeding ruling machines, packing, etc., and +the length of their "apprenticeship" depends entirely upon the girls +themselves. They are put on piece work as soon as they are fit for it; +they are taken on about fourteen without premium, and their wages begin +at 4_s._ 6_d._ or, sometimes, 5_s._, and rise by degrees till they are +paid piece work rates. + +WAGES.--_Folding and Sewing_ (piece work).--The pay ranges about 10_s._, +12_s._, 16_s._, up to 25_s._ per week. + +_Laying-on of Gold-leaf and Blockers_ (piece work) yields 18_s._ to +20_s._ per week. + +Girls who put _paper covers_ on to cheap novels, etc., earn about 20_s._ + +_Layers-on_ (_Letter-press and Litho_) are paid time wages and receive +8_s._, 10_s._, and 12_s._ per week. + +The employer says he has known three sisters take home £4 a week for +several months in succession. He thinks it pays well to give high wages. + +HOURS.--The hours are 52½ per week: from 7.30 a.m. to 6 p.m., with +dinner from 12.30 p.m. to 1.30 p.m.; on Saturdays, 7.30 a.m. till 12.30 +p.m.; but overtime is worked thirty days in the year. Piece workers +receive no extra pay; time workers get time and a quarter. + +WORK.--_Folding_ is done chiefly by hand. There is one machine, but that +is self-feeding and a man minds it. + +_Sewing_ is done by hand and by machinery. + +_Perforating_ is done by a machine worked by power, which has simply to +be fed. + +Several girls were employed putting the wrappers on to 6_d._ novels, +while others were pasting cloth on to cardboard for school exercise +books. Little girls were feeding the ruling machine, punching labels, +eyeletting and packing. + +Girls were also engaged in gold laying-on and blocking, but none were +employed at this when I was there. + +In the litho and letter-press printing rooms a large number of very +respectable girls, about eighteen years of age, were employed as +layers-on. They were feeding large as well as small machines. + +REGULARITY.--The girls are employed all the year round, but they are +busier in the autumn and winter (from September to May). They are also +very busy the last week in each month. _Occasionally_, in June and July, +they only work half-time, but this does not happen often. + +HEALTH.--The work is very healthy. Before they had electric power the +employer had seen girls fall down and faint when "laying-on" at night +when the gas was lit and the room hot. Now that they have electric power +and electric light such a thing never happens. + +DANGER.--The use of electric power does away with the need of belting +shafts, etc. There is simply a small motor on the ground. + +ORGANISATION.--There is no organisation amongst the women, though the +men are all Unionists. + +MARRIED AND UNMARRIED.--Girls all leave when they get married. +Occasionally, when they are busy, an old hand who has got married comes +back, but 99 per cent. are unmarried. The employer did not know whether +they had any married women there then. + +FACTORY LEGISLATION.--Factory legislation has in no way limited the +usefulness of women. Girls do not mind working overtime when they can +make a little extra by it, but the employer said "overtime does not pay +anybody." _E.g._, when layers-on worked overtime they were paid time and +a quarter, and it did not pay to give that extra money. The restriction +of overtime to thirty days a year worked out very inconveniently for the +masters, but this employer thought the factory legislation was a very +good thing on the whole. + +One direct result of factory legislation here has been the introduction +of a self-feeding folding machine worked by electric power, which they +use when they are busy instead of getting in extra hands or working +overtime. When not busy this machine stands idle, and the folding is +done by hand. Another result of factory legislation is that they have to +employ more hands than they otherwise would, and so girls sometimes have +to work short time. + +MEN AND WOMEN.--The employer said there was a clearly drawn line between +men's work and women's work. The Union made a great point of keeping +women out of what they consider to be men's work, and there would be a +"row" amongst them if women were put on, but I found out later on that +girls do the laying-on and _gold blocking_ for the backs of books, etc. +The employer said he put them on to that about three years ago. At first +the men made a fuss about it, but it passed over. His reason for putting +girls on was that it was light work quite suitable for a girl. Only +skilled girls did it. They would get perhaps 12_s._ 6_d._, time wage, +while they were learning, and then go on to piece work and earn 18_s._ +or 20_s._ a week. A man's wage for the same work would be a minimum of +32_s._ a week (time), as that is the Trade Union minimum, and the Trade +Unionists generally get something above the minimum. + +This firm was the first in Leeds to introduce girls as layers-on for +letter-press and litho machines. That was about twenty years ago. The +reason was that it was impossible to apprentice the number of boys +required. The Trade Union regulation about the proportion of apprentices +to journeymen is very strictly enforced, and it was not fair to employ +boys and simply turn them off when they got older; so girls were +employed, and now the majority of layers-on are girls. They do the work, +on the whole, better than boys, and they are steadier. + +MACHINERY.--Machinery is continually being introduced and more women are +being employed in spite of the fact that the machines do work so much +more quickly. Production is made cheaper and so the demand is greater. + +HOME WORK.--No home work is given out. + + +_Relief Stamping Firms. General Summary._ + +We have information about twenty-one houses where women are employed at +stamping (covering over 300 women). + +TRAINING.--Out of these nine have a regular system of training, four do +not take apprentices, having found them more trouble than they were +worth; three have no settled system, while three refused to furnish +information on the subject. In four cases indentures were signed, and +there were two cases of premiums, in one of which £2 was paid, to be +returned with 5 per cent. interest after three years; in the other, +£10--with variations. "It varies with the girl," we were told. +"Sometimes girls with very respectable parents like to pay a premium, in +other cases it is waived." In eight out of the nine houses where there +is a regular system of training, the girls serve an apprenticeship +varying from two to three years. They begin by a few shillings +pocket-money and go on to receive a part of what they make at piece work +rates. In one house they gave from two weeks to two months for nothing, +during which time their earnings went to the forewoman who taught them. + +The following are some of the systems of payment during training:-- + + (1) 1st year (employed in warehouse), 3_s._; 2nd year, half + earnings, piece, with 4_s._ per month pocket-money; 3rd year, + three-quarter earnings, with 4_s._ per month pocket-money. + + (2) 1st year, 5_s._; 2nd year, 6_s._ 6_d._; 3rd year, 8_s._ + + (3) 2_s._ 6_d._ for first 6 months; rising 1_s._ every 3 months, + till 8_s._ 6_d._ is reached. + + (4) Start at 2_s._ 6_d._; rise to 10_s._ during training. + + (5) 1st year, half earnings; 2nd year, three-quarter earnings. + + (6) 3_s._ or 4_s._ first 6 months; 5_s._ second 6 months; then + 6_s._ for 2nd year. + + (7) Pay £2 premium. Put on piece work almost at once and receive + what they make. Premiums returned with 5 per cent. interest after + 3 years. + + (8) 3 months, nothing; 3 months, 2_s._ per week; next 3 months, + 3_s._; next, 4_s._; so on till 8_s._ + +One forewoman considered that three years' training was much too long, +and stated that there was a tendency in certain houses to do work cheap +by means of apprentices. She said that the girls in such houses get +disheartened and sick of work, and when they were out of their time it +was no use staying on, for all the work got given to the learners. Some +learners are quite quick by the end of three weeks. We often found that +when a girl came in to learn stamping she was set to run about the +warehouse or to do gumming for the first year. This, it was urged by one +employer, was done purely from humane motives. Since the girls were +often delicate when they came in, it was far better for them to do odd +jobs for a year than to be stuck down at once at some sedentary +occupation. + +Learners are taken at thirteen or fourteen years of age. Sometimes they +are left to "pick things up." Sometimes they are taught by a forewoman +or experienced hand. The relief stamper belongs to the upper class of +factory girl. + +REGULARITY.--Trade is tolerably steady. A few weeks in summer are +generally slack, and where there is Christmas card work the six weeks +before Christmas are extremely busy. + +HEALTH.--We were told almost unanimously that stamping was healthy work, +and undoubtedly, where the presses are light, it is so. Some of the +presses, however, are very heavy, and the girls who work them +acknowledged that the work was extremely tiring. Most houses have men to +work their heaviest presses. We heard of three cases in two different +houses of internal strain to girls working at these presses, and we +heard of one house where the girls in the packing room were recruited +from those who could not stand the stamping. + +SKILL.--Skill is required for illuminating. + +PROSPECTS.--In some cases it is possible to rise to forewoman, or from +plain to relief and cameo stamping and occasionally illuminating. + +WAGES.--Wages vary from 13_s._ to 25_s._ or 30_s._, mostly piece work. +Some of the piece work rates were 9_d._ per 1,000 impressions, 2_d._ per +1,000 plain (2,000 can be done per hour); 10_d._ per ream one die (takes +two hours to do one ream), 1_s._ 8_d._ per 1,000 impressions. + +MARRIED AND UNMARRIED.--Very few relief stampers are married. In some +houses married women are not allowed, in some they "come back to oblige" +at busy times. In one house only we heard "that many stampers marry, +though they might as well not, as they come back to work." + +DISPLACEMENT.--Men used to do relief stamping, but women, owing to the +cheapness of their labour, have superseded them in all but the heaviest +work. For the heavy presses men are still employed, "but it is a poor +trade for them." + +In some houses they do illuminating, as for this the women are found +not to possess sufficient skill and patience. One large house employs 4 +men for a superior sort of relief stamping--gold and silver on a +coloured surface. The crest or monogram has to be stamped in plain +first, then coloured, then stamped with the gold or silver by the men. +This last process requires great skill and accuracy and care, for if it +is crooked by a hair's breadth the thing is spoilt. Girls are stated not +to be accurate and careful enough for this work, although they are +employed for the simpler sort of gold stamping. + +Where heavy hand machines have come in they have ousted women. One +employer considered that if stamping machines worked by steam came in +women would be employed on them. In one house, however, where there was +machine stamping, it was done by men. We were told by a large employer +that there is now a new machine in the market which may supersede female +labour. It colours the surface first and then embosses it out. Another +new machine requires a feeder only, as the die is coloured, rubbed and +stamped down by machinery. + + +_Job Hands. Interview with Agent._ + +Miss R., like Mrs. B. before her, apparently acts as a sort of +bureau-keeper for job hands; sometimes she has work in to do herself and +keeps a certain staff, at other times she gets a notice to say that W. +has got a big job and wants so many hands; she collects them, sends +postcards all round, and goes and works herself too. Very few of her job +hands would touch magazine work; they usually work at prospectuses. Mrs. +B. used to do all the work for the ---- Societies. There were hundreds +of job hands, how many she cannot tell at all. + +REGULARITY.--The work is quite uncertain. "You never know when there +will be work; but July and August are usually the slack months, but this +year (1900-01) it has been slack all the year. Job hands, however, do +what they like when there is not work, whereas constant hands have to +come in and wait whether there is work or not." + +HEALTH.--It is hard work, but there is nothing unhealthy about it. + +GENERAL.--She spoke with pitying contempt of the "constant" hands and +their low prices and the long hours they worked. + + + + +APPENDIX III.--GENERAL GLASGOW REPORT. + + +(A.) _Letterpress Printing. Machine Feeding and Flying._ + +Girls are employed to "feed" the machines and to "take off" the +impressed sheet. A girl will learn "taking off," or "flying," in a +couple of days; but except in the old-fashioned and smaller +jobbing-shops flying is now done entirely by machinery. Machine feeding +is not so easy and simple a process as it seems. The girls stand and +perform the same movement repeatedly, each time giving to the sheet the +precise swing required to send it accurately into the grips. The work +requires little intelligence, and the extent to which it can be +characterised as exhausting depends partly on the speed of the machine, +but chiefly on the length of the "run." Three methods of treating the +girls may be distinguished. In some shops where there are very long +runs, perhaps extending to a couple of weeks, as in the case of the +printing of low-priced Bibles, the work is tiring. At the close of a +long run the machines have to be prepared afresh, and the girls enjoy a +spell for a day or two. This leisure they are sometimes inclined to +abuse by interrupting the work of others with conversation, and +consequently attempts are being made to employ them on other machines +during the interval. This innovation the girls are resisting. In other +shops the fatiguing nature of a long run is mitigated by removing the +girl to another machine with a different movement, but the "right" of a +girl to be so moved about and rested is not recognised; it is simply a +matter for the consideration of the foreman. To allow the claim to +frequent shifting might prove inconvenient in times of pressure. Lastly, +in establishments where the bulk of the work involves short runs, as, +for example, in printing the official matter of a municipality or a +college, the necessity for frequently preparing the machines affords +considerable leisure to the feeders. These intervals explain the groups +of girls often to be seen chatting and knitting in odd corners of the +machine-room. Some of these shops recognise the right of a girl to feed +and keep clean "her own machine" and no other. Where this is the case a +girl may be employed feeding for no longer than a quarter of the normal +working week of fifty-two and a half hours owing to the shortness of the +runs and the length of time spent in re-adjustment. The work is dirty +but not dangerous, as all machinery is well-fenced, and accidents are +of very rare occurrence. The day's work usually starts at 6.15 a.m. and +ends at 6 p.m., with meal hours at 9 and at 2 o'clock and half an hour +for tea when engaged on overtime. Saturday's shift is from 6.15 a.m. +until 10 a.m. Girls are paid 5_s._, in a few shops 6_s._, a week as +beginners. They get their first rise in three months, and are gradually +advanced to an average wage of 10_s._, while an expert feeder may earn +11_s._, or at the outside 12_s._, a week. When girls find that they can +feed well after a comparatively short time in a shop and that they are +getting only 7_s._ or 8_s._ a week they commonly seek and obtain the +average wage elsewhere. Managers fancy "it would not do" to advance a +girl abruptly from 6_s._ to 10_s._ a week in the same shop, but do not +blame the girls for leaving. "It is human nature." Girls are taken on at +any age after fourteen, and stay on till they are married or until they +are called away to domestic duties. Some remain on after marriage, but +not more than 1 or 2 per cent. A few come back as widows. Married and +unmarried as workers are "six of one and half a dozen of the other," +remarked an employer of both, while another thought married women "less +regular" in attendance. There are no signs of married women lowering +rates of pay. "Time and a half" is the overtime rate. Women workers who +do not get paid overtime when they work beyond the normal day get paid +over the holidays, but not otherwise. There are no fines. There is no +trade organisation among the machine feeders, and as the various unions +of the men are not directly affected they do not interfere. In some +firms feeding has been done by girls for a quarter of a century; in +others they have been introduced only within the last five or six years. +Boys were rough, irregular, scarce, and wanted higher pay. The girls, +although they also are drawn from a rough class, are steadier, cleaner, +and more economical in the use of material than boys. Besides, there are +more of them. There was no inducement for boys to continue at such work, +so they have been drafted into certain forms of unskilled, but fairly +well paid, labour, such as is offered by the Post Office or bread +factories. In some districts they go to the shipyards to assist +riveters, and are able to earn straight away twice the wages they would +obtain in a printing shop. As overtime by girls is restricted by +legislation, young men (over 18) are kept for feeding in one large +jobbing-shop where there are often seasons of great pressure (_e.g._, in +the printing of penny monthly diaries and time-tables) and where +"rushes" and overtime are inevitable. These young men would not be thus +employed but for the restrictions of the Factory Acts, as the manager, +for reasons stated above, much prefers girls for feeding. While all +modern machines are fitted with self-fliers, not one of the many +attempts to provide automatic feeders has proved quite satisfactory. For +long runs such feeders as have been designed may serve fairly well, but +in shops with much jobbing and many short runs too much time would be +spent in adjusting the feeder to the particular job. The sole advantages +of a mechanical feeder are that it neither "takes ill" nor "goes on +strike." Meanwhile it is imperfect and expensive, and the supply of +cheap female labour abundant. + + +(B.) _Lithographic Printing. Machine Feeding._ + +What has been said of feeders under letterpress printing is generally +true of feeders in the lithographic branch. The only difference seems to +be one of social position. Girls employed in feeding lithographic +machines are "higher,"[97] "less filthy in talk," etc. They form the +intermediate class, of which the girls in the bookbinding and warehouse +departments are at the top. In one shop where all three classes are +employed, the manager remarked that these caste distinctions were "clean +cut," and obvious to the most casual observer. + +[Footnote 97: They are supposed to be lower in London, Manchester, +etc.--[Ed.]] + + +(C.) _Letterpress Printing. Type-setting._ + +The employment of women as compositors is a "vexed question." In two +shops only are they so employed in Glasgow, and both are on the black +list of the local trade union. Inasmuch as the conditions which obtain +in these shops differ in important respects, they are here described +separately. + +Firm No. 1 introduced women as compositors some nine or ten years ago, +when a dispute with the union ensued. It now employs about a dozen women +at the cases. Girls are taken on at any age after fourteen. In three +months' time they are able to set up type in "solid dig," _i.e._, +newspaper or book matter, consisting of solid uniform paragraphs. Three +girls who have spent about eight years with this firm are declared to be +"good at displaying," and "more competent than the ordinary journeyman." +Beginners get 6_s._ a week during the first year, and in the third year +are put on piecework rates. There are no indentures. Capable women +compositors may earn 24_s._ a week, while their average earnings may be +put at 22_s._ a week, and they never sink below a pound. Young workers +make an average of 18_s._ a week or thereabouts. The normal week is one +of fifty-one hours, made up as follows:-- + + 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. and 2 p.m. to 6 p.m. on four days. + 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. and 2 p.m. to 7 p.m. on Wednesdays. + 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. on Saturdays. + +A compositor sometimes acts as "clicker," _i.e._, checks the amount of +piecework, but this is usually done by a clerk. No married women are +employed. Overtime is paid time and a half, and women are fined a penny +for being late. + +Firm No. 2 employed at one time about two dozen girls in the +composing-rooms. They were engaged solely on solid newspaper work, and +never in the higher branches of the trade, such as "displaying." Seats +were provided for them. They worked a forty-eight hour week for a "stab" +wage of 15_s._ or 16_s._, and had three weeks' holiday, off and on, for +which they were paid. Further, they were never turned away in slack +time. But the experiment was not altogether a success, and by to-day the +two dozen have dwindled down to two, who set for newspapers and get +16_s._ a week. The reasons assigned for the gradual reversion to the +employment of men are as follows:-- + + (_a_) Irregularity of the women's attendance at work. + + (_b_) Their shorter hours. + + (_c_) Marriage. + + (_d_) The introduction of the Linotype machine, of which there are + three in this establishment. This was urged as the most important + cause of the change back to men. + +Of the work in general, it may be said that some intelligence is needed, +that no dangerous machinery is used, and that the health of the workers +depends largely on the character of the workroom. The special trade +disease is that to which men are similarly subject, viz., "consumption" +in some of its many forms. + +In Glasgow the Typographical Association has strenuously, and, with the +above exceptions, successfully, resisted the introduction of women into +the composing-room. The attitude taken up by the men may be summarised +as follows: No objection would be offered to the employment of women at +the case provided that they served the usual seven years' apprenticeship +at the same rates as male apprentices, and then on its completion were +paid the full standard wage. "Underpaid female labour is equally unjust +to the legitimate employer and employee." To allow women unrestricted +access to the composing-rooms would probably lead in time, not only to +the reduction of the men's wages, but to the undermining of the trade +itself. The various branches of the trade which now demand many years of +apprenticeship before they are completely mastered by one man would be +split up and distributed among a number of highly-specialized workers. +Women would be employed for separate departments, and by being +continuously kept at one job or branch would become expert therein, but +would have no knowledge of the trade as a whole. + +The employers, on the other hand, are aggrieved that, while the union +prevents women from acting as compositors in Glasgow, the same trade +society allows them to work in Edinburgh. The result of the present +arrangement is to divert a certain class of trade, viz., "solid dig," or +book work, from other centres to Edinburgh. The cause of this is to be +found in the non-employment of women compositors in Glasgow, and is not, +as sometimes suggested, due to the superiority of Edinburgh printing. + +In answer to the claim of the union to equal pay for equal work for +women and men, it is urged by the masters:-- + + (1) Women when employed as compositors at piecework rates get the + best, _i.e._, the simplest jobs. They are put to do what boys + would be at when half through their apprenticeship. They are kept + always at pretty much the same kind of work, and thus become very + skilful at it. Boys, on the other hand, would claim to be shifted + on to the higher branches of the trade. + + (2) The man who now does the solid type-setting, which the + employer wishes to see a woman do, is paid higher than a woman + would or should be, because he is liable to be called on at any + moment to undertake the more complex operations of his craft, + while a woman is not. In other words, the man is paid for + potential ability. + + (3) If women were taken on freely to do solid setting, it is not + at all likely that they would seriously aspire to the higher + stages of the compositor's craft. + + (_a_) Partly for physical reasons. Women are not fitted to handle + the heavy formes. + + (_b_) Partly because they could not be relied upon to go through a + full course of training. They would be continually leaving in the + middle or at the end of it, and employers, therefore, would not + take the trouble to train them. "The pick of the girls get + married. The qualities which make a girl smart and successful at + her work would similarly make for her success in the marriage + market." + + (4) The cheaper type-setting of women is needed in order to + compete successfully with the Linotype machine. There is no doubt + that to a certain extent the comparatively low price of women's + labour tends to retard the introduction of machinery. + + +(D.) _Bookbinding._ + +In the bookbinding trade girls fold, put in plates and illustrations, +collate, sew by hand and by machine. Sewing used all to be done by hand, +but machines were introduced some fifteen years ago. In the case of +primers and stitched books girls do all except print the covers. They +make cloth cases as distinct from leather cases. Girls also lay the gold +leaf on covers, which are subsequently stamped by machines operated by +men. For at least half a century women have worked in these branches, +but while in earlier days they learnt a variety of operations the +tendency now is to keep them to a special process or machine. Hence a +smart girl can pick up her task in a week. The old custom of a four +years' apprenticeship still survives. Girls start at fourteen, or at +thirteen if they have passed the fifth standard. The initial wage is +still in some shops 3_s._ a week, but there is a decided upward +tendency, which in one case was found to reach 4_s._ 6_d._ for +beginners. On the termination of the apprenticeship an average wage of +10_s._ a week is paid, but in the exceptional case referred to above the +average was given as 12_s._ 6_d._, while 15_s._ is earned by expert +pagers, coverers, and perforators who have been in the employment of the +firm for some time. A chargewoman gets about 15_s._ a week, while the +principal forewoman in a firm employing nearly 300 girls in its +bookbinding branch is paid a guinea per week. Folders and hand-sewers +are paid piecework rates in the large shops, but not in the smaller +ones. To the casual visitor these pieceworkers exhibit a remarkable +swiftness and accuracy, and the work must involve no small physical +strain. Although the girls engaged in folding and the allied processes +are as a rule of higher intelligence than mill girls and machine feeders +and drawn from different social strata, there are many who come, frail +and under-fed, from very poor homes. To these especially the early hour +at which the day's work begins is a hardship. On a Glasgow winter's +morning to start work at 6.15 on a hurried bite of bread and margarine, +with the distant prospect of more bread and margarine three hours later, +leads logically to "broken time." There has been some slight tendency +towards beginning at 8 o'clock and stopping on Saturdays at 1, but two +of the largest firms still adhere to 6.15 a.m. and finish on Saturdays +at 10 a.m. The manager of one of these characterised the system as a +"relic of barbarism," and said he had tried to alter the hour to 8 +o'clock, but the men vigorously opposed the change and the scheme had to +be dropped. As matters now stand, and owing to the great irregularity of +the attendance during the week, work has often to go on from 11 till 2 +on Saturdays. Otherwise in this establishment overtime is systematically +avoided, the manager maintaining that the normal week of 52½ hours is +quite exhausting enough for the girls. When, as at seasons of unusual +pressure, overtime is reluctantly resorted to, it is paid +time-and-a-quarter, as in the case of men. The busy season lasts from +August to March, but the girls are hardly affected, and have plenty of +work round the year. In another large firm, where much railway printing +is done, the conditions differ somewhat. The hours are as follows:-- + + 6.30 a.m. to 9 a.m. + 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. + 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. + Saturdays till 1 p.m. + +There are small fines for spoilt work, but the money goes to the +Workers' Benevolent Fund. These fines do not amount to more than +sixpence per head per annum. Overtime is worked to the full limit. It is +paid at a higher rate, but not at the same proportionally higher rate as +men. Girls are never suspended in slack seasons, but are put on time +wages of 13_s._ or 14_s._ a week for the best workers. + +The employment of married women is regarded as exceptional, but all +large firms have a small number of such--3 or 4 per cent., perhaps. The +usual practice is for girls to come from school and remain on until they +get married or leave for some domestic purposes. Some come back as +widows or when living apart from their husbands. Some firms boast a +considerable number of workers who have been employed for very long +periods, ranging from 15 to 30 years and upwards. There are no signs of +married women lowering the rates of pay. It is customary for those who +return after a long absence to do so at the old wages. Efforts have been +made from time to time to organise the women into unions, but they have +invariably proved disappointing. Indirectly the women have gained by the +successful efforts of the men to shorten the hours of toil. Generally +speaking the attitude of the men's unions is not so much one of +hostility as of indifference to women's work, except where it threatens +to encroach on the men's preserves. There is no positive agreement as to +the line of demarcation; it is determined tacitly by use and wont. The +men profess to see a tendency among employers to extend the field of +female labour. This extension of woman's sphere they deprecate as likely +to lead to the lowering of men's wages. Just as men are never employed +in folding in the bookbinding department of a publishing firm, so +certain processes are invariably never done by women. As a rule men do +the heavier and more complicated work, while women do that which is +preparatory or supplementary. In jobbing-shops where odd volumes come in +to be bound in various styles women are unsuitable, and men do the work +right through; but in large publishing houses where orders run into +thousands women specialise on particular processes. Women's work is apt +to be extended where there are large quantities involved and where the +work can be sub-divided. While women perform many of these sub-divisions +quite as skilfully as men, they do not exhibit a like concentration of +effort, and are more inclined to scamp. + +Opinions differ as to the amount of homework done nowadays. The plant +required is just a folder--a piece of bone. There is no doubt that to +some extent folding is still done at home by the older girls who have +_during the day been employed in the factory_. One employer admitted +that on "not more than three or at most four nights in the year" do +girls take work home from his shop. The cause is set down to the +impatience of the public. Everybody wants his order executed +immediately. Rates paid for homework are, if anything, a shade less than +those paid for work done in the factory. While such work increases the +total earnings this is not the main motive for undertaking it. A good +deal of it is forced, and due to the urgency of the public demand. +During very busy months some firms have a great deal of folding done as +_outwork_ by widows and married women _not_ now employed in the factory +during the day. But this practice is declining. Twopence per 1,000 extra +is paid by one firm, _i.e._, 10_d._ as against 8_d._, for this outwork +to compensate for lack of facilities in the home. + +Despite the great number of sewing and folding machines introduced in +recent years there are probably more women employed at the trade than +ever. There is more work. The small shops tend to retain women's labour. +Their jobs are so small in amount and varied in character that it would +not pay them to introduce machinery. Further, in the large shops, +folding machines have not always proved satisfactory. Doubtless, had men +been engaged in folding during the last fifty years, employers would ere +this have perfected a folding machine, but the cheapness of women's +labour takes away some of the incentive to invention. Sometimes the +introduction of a machine reduces women's work in one department and +increases it in another. Take as an example the wire-stitching machine +used in the production of tens of thousands of penny pocket time-tables +and diaries. If the diary is not out during the first three days of the +month it may as well not appear at all. There is a short selling time +during which sales are keen. Without the device of the stitching machine +the only way in which large quantities of such ephemeral publications +could be placed quickly on the market would be by the employment of a +very large staff of women. But the big and rapid output possible by +means of the machine, although it reduces the work of women stitchers, +brings increased work to the women folders. + + +(E.) _Machine Ruling._ + +Girls who start as feeders are sometimes promoted to the supervision of +simple ruling machines. Men look upon this with disfavour, as it used to +be considered their work. One firm is said to have only two men now +employed where there were once forty, and the two that remain are +tenters, who supervise the girls and the machines. Machine ruling is +paid at time rates. Wages rank as high as 17_s._ a week, where men +formerly got 28_s._ For more complex machines girls would need to be +specially trained, but managers think they could easily be prepared, as +intelligence rather than strength is necessary. The girls themselves +believe they would succeed if given a chance. + + +(F.) _Type and Stereotype Founding._ + +No type founding is done in Glasgow, and no women are employed here in +stereotype founding. Such work is considered unsuitable for women, and +there seems no likelihood of their taking it up. + + +(G.) _Paper Staining._ + +This work has always been done by women. There is no formal +apprenticeship, but it takes a couple of years before the girls are +thoroughly initiated. They are taken on at thirteen or fourteen at a +wage of 4_s._ a week, paid 5_s._ at the end of the first year and 6_s._ +at the end of the second. Afterwards their wages range from 12_s._ to +14_s._, with an average of about 12_s._ 6_d._ per week. There is no +piecework and no fines are exacted. The working hours are 56 per week, +distributed as follows:-- + + 6 a.m. to 9 a.m. + 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. + 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. + Saturdays, 6 a.m. to 9 a.m. + 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. + +Work is plentiful all the year round. No dangerous machinery is used, +and there is no special trade disease. The girls remain on till they get +married. They are drawn from the "better sort" of working-class +families, and some were reported as coming to the factory on cycles. +They have no trade organisation, and there do not seem to have been any +attempts on the part of the girls to supplant men in the allied +processes. No machinery has yet been devised capable of doing the work +of the girls. + + +(H.) _Paper-box Making._ + +Girls come from school and begin by dabbling about the shop and running +messages. Presently they become "spreaders," and in two or three years' +time "coverers," the highest position open to them. The cutting of the +paper and cardboard is done by machines, which men operate. The material +thus prepared to the required sizes is passed on to the girls to be +glued up into boxes. The girls use no machinery, and stand to their work +at benches. At the height of summer, and despite the gluey atmosphere of +the workrooms, the girls have the usual reluctance to open windows. +Wages start at 3_s._ or 3_s._ 6_d._ Spreaders are paid from 5_s._ 6_d._, +to 7_s._ 6_d._; coverers, 10_s._ and 11_s._ Hours vary from shop to +shop. Some begin at 8 and finish at 6.30 (Saturdays, 12.30), with a meal +hour at 1 o'clock. Others allow an hour and a quarter for dinner, so as +to enable girls to get home. The week is then arranged as follows: + + 7 a.m. to 9.15 a.m. + 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. + 3.15 p.m. to 6.30 p.m. + Saturdays, 7 a.m. to 9 a.m. + 10 a.m. to 2 p.m. + + +(I.) _Pattern-book Making._ + +This trade consists in making pattern-books for travellers, and is +usually found in close alliance with box-making. Girls get 4_s._ to +start, and rise to 13_s._ a week. The hours in one factory visited were +found to be as follows:-- + + 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. + 2 p.m. to 6.30 p.m. + Saturdays, 8 a.m. to 2 p.m. without a break. + + + + +APPENDIX IV.--WOMEN IN THE PRINTING TRADES IN BIRMINGHAM. + + +FIFTEEN firms were visited. + +No women compositors were found in the chief printing businesses visited +in Birmingham. The wife of the manager of one factory said that ten +years ago in non-society places there had been a very few women +compositors in Birmingham. They took 15_s._, as compared to 33_s._ taken +by the men compositors for the same work. It is now fifteen years since +the informant left the trade, and she believes that at present none +exist in Birmingham. She imagines that it is the strength of the +Compositors' Union which has driven them out. + +Only one owner of a printing business considered that factory +legislation was detrimental to the interests of women in the printing +trade. He says that he keeps a number of youths where he would otherwise +employ women, as in stress of trade overwork has to be done, including +Sunday work, _e.g._, at the time of the great cycle boom. He tried to +get permission for the women to work on Sunday, but could not. + +Another manager considered that the Compositors' Union spoilt the chance +of women workers in the printing trade. He himself, if it were not for +the Union, would like to train girl compositors. No other printer +expressed this opinion. All said that, on the whole, men were better in +the compositors' room, as they could be set on any job, and the pressure +of women would necessitate much rearrangement. + + +MACHINE RULING. + +_Training and Wages._--_Machine Ruling_ is the only process for which +training can be said to exist. In some houses women are still articled +or apprenticed to this branch, but in many they simply learn their trade +as they can, from the foreman or forewoman. They generally begin as +machine feeders of the ruling machine. The secretary of the Union of +Bookbinders and Machine Rulers gave the information that women had been +first employed as machine rulers about twenty years ago. He himself had +learnt his trade under a woman who was head of the whole department. The +final wage of a woman machine ruler is 17_s._ to 20_s._ In one case a +female ruler was taking 22_s._, but I was told that was because she was +a relative of the employer. The minimum wage of a man belonging to the +Union is 32_s._ I was informed, however, that the man always worked a +heavier machine, generally made the pens, was responsible for the good +condition of all the machines, and that his output was always in advance +of that of a woman. + +_Men and Women._--In six businesses (the largest in Birmingham visited) +the proportion of women machine rulers is about three to one man. An +attempt was made about eight years ago to organise the women machine +rulers in Birmingham, but met with no response. The secretary of the +men's union informs me, "The reason why the attempt failed is probably +that they have little to complain of. The wages vary from 4_s._ to 5_s._ +per week for beginners, to £1 per week of fifty-two hours." + + +TABLE PROCESSES. + +All _table processes_, such as folding, knocking-up, gumming, numbering, +paging, interlaying, etc., are done by women. The average wage varies +from 8_s._ to about 12_s._ 6_d._ Numbering seems to be about the best. +Three numberers had taken 15_s._, but the average maximum was between +11_s._ and 12_s._ 6_d._ + + +ENVELOPE MAKING. + +_Training._--A beginner is given a teacher, that is, a more experienced +worker, for six weeks. The teacher gets the profits of the beginner's +work, and the beginner is paid about 4_s._ per week. + +All the work in the establishment was piecework, with the exception of +the new Scotch folding machine, which turns out 25,000 envelopes per +day, as against 2,000 done by hand. The day wage is 12_s._ per week. + +_Sub-divisions._--Envelope folders take 7_s._ to 15_s._ The smallest +envelopes are 6_d._ per 1,000, the largest 1_s._ 10_d._ + +_Average wage_ for folding is 10_s._ to 12_s._ _Stamping_, 7_s._ to +10_s._ _Stitching_, 8_s._ to 10_s._ _Gumming_, 10_s._ to 14_s._ + +_General Remarks._--Envelope making is not a seasonal trade. + +_Hours._--Maximum, 49½ per week. + +8.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., winter. + +8 a.m. to 6 p.m., summer. + +One week's holiday in August. + +One week's holiday at Christmas. + + +COLOUR PRINTING. + +Colour Printing takes about six months to learn well. + +_Wages._--10_s._ to 12_s._ for a woman. A man employed on a heavier +machine took 20_s._ + +The forewoman takes 14_s._ + + +BOOKBINDING. + +By the rules of the Machine Rulers' and Bookbinders' Consolidated Union +women may only bind paper pamphlets. They are not allowed to bind +regular books. They may book-stitch with thread or wire, glue, fold, +bronze, and gild. + + +PAPER-BAG MAKING. + +_Business No. 1._ + +_Conditions._--Cap bag-making is all piecework, except for beginners, +who start at 4_s._ In fifteen months, manager says they should be able +to earn 10_s._ per week by piecework. + +_Average Wage._--13_s._ to 15_s._ Manager considered that in heavy cap +bag-making 19_s._ was top wage ever taken by an extra good hand in extra +busy time. + +Eighteen girls were employed in cap bag-making. + +A rougher class of girls were employed in the sugar bag department, +which is heavier work. The wages were higher for this heavier work. The +average wage approached 15_s._ + +The bag-stringing machine was the only machinery employed in this +business. It was worked by a foreman and forewoman. No married women +were employed. The clerks were all women, taking 20_s._ per week. The +manager preferred them to men because they were content with that wage +as a maximum. + +_Outwork_ given to old workers under known conditions, as since the bags +are for the grocery trade it is important to know home conditions. Same +price as for inworkers, but outworkers found their own paste and +brushes, etc. + +_Hours._--8 a.m. to 7 p.m., 1 hour dinner, 20 minutes tea. Saturday, 8 +a.m. to 1 p.m. + +_Remarks._--The contrast between this business and the business next +door (see following case) was very striking as regards relation between +manager and employees. + +_Business No. 2._ + +Girls are employed here in bag-making and table processes. The employer +considered that the girls could average 9_s._ to 10_s._ He gave the +highest wage for machine laying-on, which begins at 7_s._ and goes up to +12_s._ and 13_s._ This wage was given because of the danger of the +process (I think the machine was the "Arab," which in union houses women +may not work "because of the danger"). Manager believed a good many of +his hands were married women. He did not care whether they were married +or not. The forewoman and the girl in the warehouse were each taking +11_s._ + +_Homework._--Given out in busy times to whoever applied, without further +precautions. Manager thought no outworker took more than 4_s._ to 5_s._ +per week. + +_Hours._--8 a.m. to 6.30 p.m. + +Fifty-two and a half hours per week regular time. Just now (December) +they were working ten hours per day. + +August slackest month. Manager generally turned off hands then. Manager +spoke of difficulty of getting workers--he could not get boys to feed +the machines, for example, because it led to nothing. + +Manager said he "conducted his business on purely business principles" +and got his work done as cheaply as he could. + + +MACHINE FEEDING. + +This is the lowest work in letterpress printing. Girls are employed +largely as feeders, and are replacing boys. The managers said that the +work was not liked by boys, as leading to nothing, and it was difficult +to get them. The wages for a machine feeder are 4_s._ 6_d._ to 5_s._ +6_d._ initial wage, which rises to 8_s._ 6_d._ or 9_s._ In the best +workshops we were told that the firm tried to find better work for +machine feeders when they had been some time with them and had proved +themselves capable and steady. Other firms did not know what became of +machine feeders when they grew dissatisfied with the small wage paid to +them. + +_Employment of Married Women._ + +It is curious to notice how few married women there are in the printing +trade in Birmingham compared to the pen trade, for example. A better +class of girl seems to go into the printing trade, coming from better +homes than women employed in the hardware trades. It is very exceptional +for a girl who marries a skilled artisan in Birmingham to continue her +work, and in these trades girls appear to belong more to the skilled +artisan class. Several employers refuse married women; one employer told +me that he never had had an application for work from a married woman. +Only one employer was indifferent as to whether he employed married +women, and did not know whether his hands were married or not. + +_Women and Machinery._ + +It was very difficult to ascertain whether the machinery introduced +meant dismissal of hands. In one business, for example, the thread +sewing machine introduced 12 months ago did the work of 12 girls. The +machinist was taking 12_s._ per week in place of 12 girls at 10_s._ to +12_s._ 6_d._ The manager said that they had not dismissed any thread +sewers when this machine was introduced, but had absorbed them in other +processes. They would, however, engage no more girls as thread sewers. + +The new Scotch folding machine for envelopes, which turns out 25,000 per +day against 2,000 done by hand, also was _said_ not to have been +productive of dismissals.[98] + +[Footnote 98: The only actual cases of dismissal of workers owing to +introduction of machinery which I can ascertain is that of the new +grinding machines for pens. The employer, who has invented the machine, +told me he meant to dismiss about half his grinders and supply their +places with girls fresh from school, as very little skill will be needed +to work the machine. I hear that the largest pen business has ordered +sixty of these machines, but I have not yet ascertained what effect it +will have on that business. The employer in the first business mentioned +spoke of the grinders as the most indocile of his workers, and as many +of them belonged to the Penworkers' Union, he hoped that the machine +would help in annihilating the union. In two businesses I was told that +the cheapness of women labour retarded the introduction of thread sewing +machines, etc.] + +_Continuity of Employment in Printing Trade._ + +The printing trade in Birmingham is slackest in August and September. +The busiest times are November, December, and towards Easter time. In +the best businesses the hands are asked to take half-holiday in turns in +slack times, or short hours are worked, but the managers appeared to +make every effort to keep the workers employed as far as possible, and +in no cases actually to dismiss hands. In the worst businesses dismissal +in slack times is common. + +_Overtime and the Factory Laws._ + +Only one employer considered that the factory laws against overtime +militated against women's employment. All spoke of their endeavour to +reduce overtime, owing to the fact that their union men asked one and a +half and twice usual rate. No employer acknowledged that women were ever +kept overtime, although, from the account of one worker, apparently this +does sometimes occur. + +All concurred that the cheapness of women's work compared to men's +outweighed any inconvenience arising from special legislation for women +and young persons. In no case was the cheapness of women's work +attributed to legislation, but to absence of unionism and different +standards of life for men and women, and inferiority of physical +strength and mental ingenuity, and also to custom. + + + + +APPENDIX V. + + +The following tables of wages paid to the workwomen as described, form, +we believe, a unique record in wages statistics. The occupations and the +nature of the wages, _e.g._, time or piece, are as follows:-- + + 1. Hand Folder in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 2. Hand Folder in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 3. Hand Folder in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 4. Hand Folder in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 5. Hand Folder in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 6. Hand Folder in Bookbinding House (Time). + + 7. Learner. Folder in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 8. Folder and Gatherer in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 9. Hand Sewer in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 10. Hand Sewer in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 11. Machine Sewer in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 12. Learner. Sewing and Collating in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 13. Folding, Sewing and Collating in Bookbinding House (Time). + + 14. Collating and Sewing in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 15. Plate hand in Bookbinding House (Time). + + 16. Plate hand in Bookbinding House (Time). + + 17. Layer on of Gold in Bookbinding House (Piece). + + 18. Printers' Binding (Piece). + + 19. Printers' Binding (Time). + + 20. Printers' Binding (Time). + + 21. Printers' Binding (Piece). + + 22. Printers' Binding (Piece). + + 23. Printers' Binding (Piece). + + 24. Hand Folder in Printers' Warehouse (Piece). + + 25. Envelope Packer (Time). + + 26. Machine Ruler (Time). + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1. HAND FOLDER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1898 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 41 | 14 10 | 3 | 16 1½ | 20 | 11 8½ | 37 | 11 10 | + | 42 | 15 2½ | 4 | 14 5 | 21 | 7 8½ | 38 | 12 9 | + | 43 | 15 7½ | 5 | 14 11½ | 22 | 11 11½ | 39 | 12 9½ | + | 44 | 15 7½ | 6 | 15 7½ | 23 | 9 1 | 40 | 14 2 | + | 45 | 15 0 | 7 | 15 0½ | 24 | 8 10 | 41 | 14 2½ | + | 46 | 15 7 | 8 | 15 1½ | 25 | 11 10½ | 42 | 13 7 | + | 47 | 15 5 | 9 | 15 6 | 26 | 6 4½ | 43 | 14 0½ | + | 48 | 15 0 | 10 | 14 10 | 27 | 6 2½ | 44 | 14 1 | + | 49 | 14 7½ | 11 | 13 2½ | 28 | 9 9 | 45 | 14 0 | + | 50 | 16 1½ | 12 | 12 0 | 29 | 8 7½ | 46 | 13 6 | + | 51 | 16 4½ | 13 | 10 10½ | 30 | 11 3½ | 47 | 9 3½ | + | 52 | 7 11½ | 14 | 5 4 | 31 | -- | 48 | 7 1½ | + | | | 15 | 11 2 | 32 | 4 0½ | 49 | 13 1 | + | 1899 | | 16 | 9 2½ | 33 | 10 9½ | 50 | 11 2 | + | Week | | 17 | 9 8½ | 34 | 12 7 | 51 | 8 10 | + | 1 | 10 10½ | 18 | 8 2 | 35 | 12 1 | 52 | 6 2 | + | 2 | 14 4 | 19 | 10 3½ | 36 | 12 5 | | | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 2. HAND FOLDER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates--Quick Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week.| s. d. | + | 1 | 7 9½ | 14 | 16 2 | 27 | 7 1 | 40 | 13 3 | + | 2 | 9 1 | 15 | 12 10 | 28 | 9 8½ | 41 | 12 8 | + | 3 | 16 9½ | 16 | 20 10 | 29 | 13 0 | 42 | 15 2½ | + | 4 | 19 6 | 17 | 17 5 | 30 | 12 9 | 43 | 14 0 | + | 5 | 14 0 | 18 | 10 8 | 31 | 12 0 | 44 | 11 6½ | + | 6 | 12 3 | 19 | 9 7 | 32 | 5 11 | 45 | 16 2½ | + | 7 | 13 9 | 20 | 26 2 | 33 | 14 7 | 46 | 17 5 | + | 8 | 18 5 | 21 | 17 4 | 34 | 21 3 | 47 | 18 9 | + | 9 | 11 4 | 22 | 15 0½ | 35 | 16 9 | 48 | 15 0 | + | 10 | 7 7 | 23 | 10 3 | 36 | 15 8 | 49 | -- | + | 11 | 14 4½ | 24 | 11 7½ | 37(a)| -- | 50 | -- | + | 12 | 15 6 | 25 | 13 9½ | 38 | 13 8 | 51 | -- | + | 13 | 15 5 | 26 | 9 1½ | 39 | 15 4 | 52 | -- | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | (a) Missing from wage sheets. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 3. HAND FOLDER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates_--_Quick Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | 25 0 | 14 | 6 1½ | 27 | 25 11 | 40 | 21 0 | + | 2 | 22 3 | 15 | 25 6 | 28 | 25 8½ | 41 | 23 0½ | + | 3 | 20 3 | 16 | 19 0½ | 29 | 16 11 | 42 | 22 10½ | + | 4 | 23 7 | 17 | 23 10 | 30 | 16 8 | 43 | 22 1 | + | 5 | 19 11 | 18 | 24 2 | 31 | 8 4 | 44 | 20 6 | + | 6 | 26 10 | 19 | 28 1 | 32 | 6 2 | 45 | 17 0½ | + | 7 | 21 6 | 20 | 22 4 | 33 | 21 6½ | 46 | 26 6 | + | 8 | 14 6 | 21 | 14 2 | 34 | 22 1 | 47 | 20 8½ | + | 9 | 23 5½ | 22 | 22 3 | 35 | 19 11 | 48 | 21 3 | + | 10 | 25 11 | 23 | 23 4½ | 36 | 19 9 | 49 | 28 9 | + | 11 | 25 3 | 24 | 25 10½ | 37 | 20 2 | 50 | 24 10½ | + | 12 | 23 0 | 25 | 22 11 | 38 | 20 0 | 51 | 23 4 | + | 13 | 17 9 | 26 | 25 0 | 39 | 20 8 | 52 | -- | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 4. HAND FOLDER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates--Typical Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1 | 16 9 | 14 | 6 8 | 27 | 16 1½ | 40 | 12 7 | + | 2 | 14 9½ | 15 | 13 6 | 28 | 17 3 | 41 | 15 10½ | + | 3 | 14 5 | 16 | 11 6 | 29 | 16 0 | 42 | 18 0 | + | 4 | 15 1 | 17 | 19 5 | 30 | 14 8 | 43 | 22 10½ | + | 5 | 15 0 | 18 | 20 3 | 31 | 15 10 | 44 | 19 3 | + | 6 | 14 9 | 19 | 13 8 | 32 | 3 9 | 45 | 15 6 | + | 7 | 15 8 | 20 | 13 10 | 33 | 10 10 | 46 | 16 5½ | + | 8 | 11 11½ | 21 | 11 2½ | 34 | 16 10 | 47 | 16 3 | + | 9 | 16 9½ | 22 | 19 1 | 35 | 17 10 | 48 | 17 4 | + | 10 | 16 1 | 23 | 17 7½ | 36 | 14 11 | 49 | 19 2½ | + | 11 | 15 2 | 24 | 15 6 | 37 | 11 11 | 50 | 15 6 | + | 12 | 15 6 | 25 | 18 3 | 38 | 11 8 | 51 | 15 4½ | + | 13 | 9 3 | 26 | 18 0½ | 39 | 15 0½ | 52 | 4 4 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 5. HAND FOLDER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates--Slow Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1 | 3 4½ | 14 | 3 0 | 27 | 8 8 | 40 | 7 10 | + | 2 | 5 10 | 15 | 7 2½ | 28 | 9 7 | 41 | 8 5 | + | 3 | 7 1 | 16 | 7 5½ | 29 | 8 3 | 42 | 10 0 | + | 4 | 7 6 | 17 | 9 7 | 30 | 7 3 | 43 | 10 0 | + | 5 | 7 4 | 18 | 11 8 | 31 | 8 10 | 44 | 10 7½ | + | 6 | 7 8 | 19 | 7 7 | 32 | 6 3½ | 45 | 7 7 | + | 7 | 7 9 | 20 | 8 1 | 33 | 11 0½ | 46 | 8 1 | + | 8 | 6 5½ | 21 | 5 6½ | 34 | 8 10 | 47 | 9 0 | + | 9 | 8 7 | 22 | 10 0 | 35 | 9 7 | 48 | 9 0 | + | 10 | 7 8 | 23 | 8 1 | 36 | 2 5½ | 49 | 11 1 | + | 11 | 7 8 | 24 | 8 10 | 37 | -- | 50 | 8 10 | + | 12 | 6 11½ | 25 | 8 9 | 38 | 3 9 | 51 | 10 9 | + | 13 | 5 9½ | 26 | 8 11½ | 39 | 5 7 | 52 | 2 3 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 6. HAND FOLDER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Time Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | This worker was paid 18_s._ per week steadily throughout | + | the year 1899. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 7. LEARNER. FOLDER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Up to week 8 receives Fixed Sum, afterwards | + | Half Earnings at Piece Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1 | 2 0 | 14 | 3 1½ | 27 | 7 8 | 40 | 6 0½ | + | 2 | 2 0 | 15 | 6 1 | 28 | 5 2½ | 41 | 7 3½ | + | 3 | 2 0 | 16 | 5 8½ | 29 | 5 4½ | 42 | 6 0½ | + | 4 | 2 0 | 17 | 6 9½ | 30 | 4 11 | 43 | 6 9½ | + | 5 | 2 0 | 18 | 7 7 | 31 | 4 10 | 44 | 8 0½ | + | 6 | 2 0 | 19 | 7 2 | 32 | 3 10 | 45 | 6 4 | + | 7 | 2 0 | 20 | 6 4½ | 33 | 6 10½ | 46 | 6 4½ | + | 8 | 2 0 | 21 | 3 9½ | 34 | 2 2 | 47 | 6 2 | + | 9 | 6 6 | 22 | 6 9½ | 35 | -- | 48 | 6 0½ | + | 10 | 7 7 | 23 | 6 11½ | 36 | 4 2 | 49 | 7 4 | + | 11 | 5 9½ | 24 | 6 5½ | 37 | 6 2½ | 50 | 6 3½ | + | 12 | 6 1½ | 25 | 5 9½ | 38 | 6 1½ | 51 | 7 1 | + | 13 | 4 9 | 26 | 6 2 | 39 | 5 8 | 52 | 1 10 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | 8. FOLDER AND GATHERER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1 | 7 5½ | 14 | 5 9 | 27 | 4 3 | 40 | 14 0 | + | 2 | 16 4 | 15 | 11 3½ | 28 | 9 1½ | 41 | 13 1 | + | 3 | 10 1 | 16 | 21 2 | 29 | 13 5 | 42 | 16 7 | + | 4 | 18 7 | 17 | 20 0 | 30 | 17 7 | 43 | 14 3 | + | 5 | 14 9 | 18 | 12 8½ | 31 | 7 0 | 44 | 13 5 | + | 6 | 11 8½ | 19 | 12 5 | 32 | 9 1 | 45 | 14 1 | + | 7 | 13 9 | 20 | 27 11 | 33 | 15 4 | 46 | 19 10 | + | 8 | 19 11½ | 21 | 15 7½ | 34 | 18 8 | 47 | 21 11 | + | 9 | 13 3 | 22 | 15 11 | 35 | 17 9 | 48 | 18 2½ | + | 10 | 4 3 | 23 | 9 5 | 36 | 6 11 | 49 | 11 1½ | + | 11 | 14 6 | 24 | 14 5 | 37(a) | -- | 50 | 14 7½ | + | 12 | 17 7 | 25 | 12 1 | 38 | 8 0 | 51 | 8 9½ | + | 13 | 19 7½ | 26 | 14 3½ | 39 | 19 3½ | 52 | 8 6 | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | (a) Week missing from wage sheets. | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+ + | 9. HAND SEWER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+ + | _Piece Rates--Slow Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+ + | 1 | 3 3½ | 8 | 12 2½ | 15 | 8 10 | 22 | 10 5½ | + | 2 | 5 10 | 9 | 10 8½ | 16 | -- | 23 | 7 5 | + | 3 | 9 10 | 10 | 7 6 | 17 | 11 5 | 24 | 8 6½ | + | 4 | 10 1 | 11 | 9 3 | 18 | 5 5 | 25 | -- | + | 5 | 11 9 | 12 | 8 5 | 19 | 6 0½ | 26 | 5 5 | + | 6 | 8 4 | 13 | 10 3 | 20 | 13 1½ | 27 | 1 7(a) | + | 7 | 8 10½ | 14 | 6 11 | 21 | 9 9½ | | | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+ + | (a) She left after this. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | 10. HAND SEWER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates--Quick Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1 | 5 10½ | 14 | 12 0 | 27 | -- | 40 | 10 8 | + | 2 | -- | 15 | 13 4 | 28 | -- | 41 | 12 3½ | + | 3 | 15 8½ | 16 | 20 6 | 29 | 14 3 | 42 | 10 3 | + | 4 | 14 3 | 17 | 20 3 | 30 | 13 11 | 43 | 12 5 | + | 5 | 16 11 | 18 | 4 11 | 31 | 10 6 | 44 | 14 3 | + | 6 | 14 8½ | 19 | 6 5 | 32 | 6 8 | 45 | 13 11 | + | 7 | 13 4 | 20 | 19 6 | 33 | 14 7 | 46 | 16 1 | + | 8 | 18 6 | 21 | 14 6 | 34 | 18 10 | 47 | 16 10½ | + | 9 | 16 4 | 22 | 14 3 | 35 | 19 4 | 48 | 13 8 | + | 10 | 10 7 | 23 | 10 1½ | 36 | 17 4 | 49 | 15 7 | + | 11 | 14 (a) | 24 | 12 3½ | 37(b) | -- | 50 | 13 6 | + | 12 | 10 7½ | 25 | 16 1½ | 38 | 16 11 | 51 | 12 5 | + | 13 | 16 3½ | 26 | 1 5½ | 39 | 14 7 | 52 | 4 10 | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | (a) 5-12 | + | (b) Missing from wage sheets. | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 11. MACHINE SEWER IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | 17 3½ | 14 | 8 10 | 27 | 18 1 | 40 | 20 2½ | + | 2 | 15 0 | 15 | 16 6 | 28 | 20 1 | 41 | 18 8 | + | 3 | 15 7½ | 16 | 16 6 | 29 | 14 0 | 42 | 20 7½ | + | 4 | 15 4 | 17 | 17 10 | 30 | -- | 43 | 17 11½ | + | 5 | 15 7½ | 18 | 19 3 | 31 | 12 2 | 44 | 19 5½ | + | 6 | 16 7 | 19 | 16 8 | 32 | 11 2½ | 45 | 17 10 | + | 7 | 16 3 | 20 | 16 10 | 33 | 18 11 | 46 | 21 9 | + | 8 | 16 9½ | 21 | 10 8 | 34 | 18 9 | 47 | 20 5 | + | 9 | 18 5½ | 22 | 18 2½ | 35 | 15 2 | 48 | 23 3 | + | 10 | 17 5½ | 23 | 16 9 | 36 | 14 0½ | 49 | 23 5 | + | 11 | 19 9 | 24 | 13 6 | 37 | 22 2 | 50 | 18 4½ | + | 12 | 16 3 | 25 | 10 4 | 38 | 18 7 | 51 | 20 1½ | + | 13 | 13 0 | 26 | 17 8 | 39 | 18 1 | 52 | 6 5½ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 12. LEARNER. SEWING AND COLLATING IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Receives Half Earnings at Piece Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | -- | 14 | 8 10½ | 27 | 2 6 | 40 | 3 3½ | + | 2 | 4 2½ | 15 | 5 1 | 28 | 3 7 | 41 | 5 5½ | + | 3 | 5 0½ | 16 | 5 5 | 29 | 4 8½ | 42 | 7 4 | + | 4 | 5 1½ | 17 | 6 4 | 30 | 4 6½ | 43 | 7 2 | + | 5 | 8 10 | 18 | 6 7½ | 31 | 7 2 | 44 | 8 5 | + | 6 | 2 10 | 19 | 4 6 | 32 | 7 5 | 45 | 4 5 | + | 7 | 4 6 | 20 | 4 10½ | 33 | 8 8 | 46 | 4 10½ | + | 8 | 4 9½ | 21 | 5 4 | 34 | 7 7½ | 47 | 7 0½ | + | 9 | 6 0½ | 22 | 5 8½ | 35 | 7 1½ | 48 | 6 8 | + | 10 | 5 0½ | 23 | 4 0 | 36 | 7 1 | 49 | 10 9½ | + | 11 | 5 7½ | 24 | 9 2½ | 37 | 7 6 | 50 | 6 4½ | + | 12 | 5 0½ | 25 | 7 9 | 38 | 9 10½ | 51 | 5 2½ | + | 13 | 6 6½ | 26 | 3 4 | 39 | 8 1 | 52 | 1 9½ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 13. FOLDING, SEWING, COLLATING IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Time Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1898 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 41 | 19 8 | 7 | 19 8 | 28 | 15 6 | 49 | 18 3 | + | 42 | 19 4½ | 8 | 19 4 | 29 | 17 4 | 50 | 18 7½ | + | 43 | 19 6 | 9 | 19 10 | 30 | 15 6 | 51 | 19 6 | + | 44 | 19 8 | 10 | 19 4 | 31 | 15 6 | 52 | 11 2 | + | 45 | 20 0 | 11 | 17 6 | 32 | 10 2 | | | + | 46 | 19 10 | 12 | 18 10 | 33 | -- | 1900 | | + | 47 | 19 6 | 13 | 14 0 | 34 | 14 2 | Week | | + | 48 | 20 4 | 14 | 9 2 | 35 | 17 2 | 1 | 20 2 | + | 49 | 19 10 | 15 | 16 6 | 36 | 17 4 | 2 | 18 5 | + | 50 | 19 8 | 16 | 16 0 | 37 | 17 2 | 3 | 17 0 | + | 51 | 19 8 | 17 | 16 4 | 38 | 17 6 | 4 | 16 8 | + | 52 | 11 8 | 18 | 16 2 | 39 | 18 8 | 5 | 17 11 | + | | | 19 | 16 4 | 40 | 18 8 | 6 | 17 6½ | + | 1899 | | 20 | 16 4 | 41 | 19 2 | 7 | 18 1 | + | Week | | 21 | 10 4 | 42 | 19 8 | 8 | 12 10½ | + | 1 | 19 10 | 22 | 16 4 | 43 | 20 11 | 9 | 11 6 | + | 2 | 19 10 | 23 | 15 6 | 44 | 20 11 | 10 | 13 4½ | + | 3 | 19 8 | 24 | 15 4 | 45 | 20 9 | 11 | 15 9½ | + | 4 | 19 8 | 25 | 16 4 | 46 | 19 4 | 12 | 15 9 | + | 5 | 19 6 | 26 | 15 4 | 47 | 19 8 | 13 | 11 6 | + | 6 | 19 10 | 27 | 12 6 | 48 | 19 6 | | | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 14. COLLATOR AND SEWER. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates--Quick Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | 20 3 | 14 | 10 5 | 27 | 18 7 | 40 | 18 2 | + | 2 | 18 9 | 15 | 15 3½ | 28 | 18 3½ | 41 | 18 3½ | + | 3 | 18 9 | 16 | 18 2 | 29 | 15 4½ | 42 | 18 11 | + | 4 | 18 4½ | 17 | 20 8½ | 30 | 16 4 | 43 | 21 3 | + | 5 | 18 10 | 18 | 22 1 | 31 | 15 11 | 44 | 21 7½ | + | 6 | 20 1 | 19 | 19 10½ | 32 | 9 10 | 45 | 18 10 | + | 7 | 18 11 | 20 | 18 11 | 33 | 19 6 | 46 | 18 9 | + | 8 | 19 1½ | 21 | 12 9 | 34 | 17 7½ | 47 | 18 0½ | + | 9 | 21 6 | 22 | 20 0 | 35 | 16 0½ | 48 | 19 9½ | + | 10 | 20 4 | 23 | 18 9 | 36 | 17 6½ | 49 | 22 4 | + | 11 | 19 10½ | 24 | 17 5 | 37 | 18 0 | 50 | 19 5 | + | 12 | 19 1½ | 25 | 17 11 | 38 | 17 10 | 51 | 19 6 | + | 13 | 14 4 | 26 | 19 1½ | 39 | 17 4 | 52 | 6 3½ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+ + | 15. PLATE HAND IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+ + | _Time Rates, 13_s._ for 54 hours till October, then 14_s._ | + | Overtime, 3_d._ an hour._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | 12 8 | 14 | 7 11 | 27 | 11 4 | 40 | 13 7½ | + | 2 | 12 5 | 15 | 13 9 | 28 | 12 8 | 41 | 12 8 | + | 3 | 12 8 | 16 | 14 4½ | 29 | 13 7½ | 42 | 14 10½ | + | 4 | 12 8 | 17 | 13 6 | 30 | 13 0 | 43 | 13 9 | + | 5 | 12 10½ | 18 | 13 0 | 31 | 13 0 | 44 | 13 10½ | + | 6 | 12 6½ | 19 | 13 0 | 32 | 8 2 | 45 | 13 7½ | + | 7 | 12 9 | 20 | 14 4½ | 33 | 12 9½ | 46 | 14 7½ | + | 8 | 12 10½ | 21 | 9 1½ | 34 | 13 0 | 47 | 18 6 | + | 9 | 12 10½ | 22 | 14 6 | 35 | 13 6 | 48 | 15 3 | + | 10 | 13 0 | 23 | 10 9 | 36 | -- | 49 | 13 6 | + | 11 | 13 0 | 24 | 12 10½ | 37(a) | -- | 50 | 13 6 | + | 12 | 12 9 | 25 | 13 4½ | 38 | 13 0 | 51 | 13 10½ | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | (a) Missing from wage sheets. + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | 16. PLATE HAND IN BOOKBINDING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Time Rates_, 16_s._ _for 54 hours. Overtime_, 3½_d._ _per | + | hour for first 3 hours_, 4_d._ _per hour afterwards._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | 14 8 | 14 | 9 10 | 27 | 13 9½ | 40 | 15 8 | + | 2 | 14 7 | 15 | 16 5½ | 28 | 15 5 | 41 | 15 8½ | + | 3 | 14 8 | 16 | 18 0½ | 29 | 15 8½ | 42 | 15 7 | + | 4 | 15 1½ | 17 | 17 0½ | 30 | 15 5 | 43 | 15 10½ | + | 5 | 15 5 | 18 | 15 7 | 31 | 15 7 | 44 | 16 2 | + | 6 | 14 10 | 19 | 15 0 | 32 | 10 3½ | 45 | 15 3 | + | 7 | 14 8 | 20 | 19 2½ | 33 | 15 7 | 46 | 17 2½ | + | 8 | 13 4½ | 21 | 10 11 | 34 | 16 0 | 47 | 18 10½ | + | 9 | 15 1½ | 22 | 17 4½ | 35 | 16 10½ | 48 | 16 10½ | + | 10 | 14 3½ | 23 | 15 7 | 36 | 18 10½ | 49 | 15 10½ | + | 11 | 14 8½ | 24 | 15 5 | 37(a) | -- | 50 | 15 7 | + | 12 | 14 8½ | 25 | 16 10½ | 38 | 16 3½ | 51 | 15 5 | + | 13 | 15 7 | 26 | 15 10½ | 39 | 16 3½ | 52 | 9 11 | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + | (a) Missing from wage sheets. | + +------+--------+------+--------+-------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 17. LAYER-ON OF GOLD. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | 22 0 | 14 | 8 4 | 27 | 9 7½ | 40 | 20 11½ | + | 2 | 19 3 | 15 | 18 1 | 28 | 19 11 | 41 | 20 5 | + | 3 | 17 8 | 16 | 15 8 | 29 | 7 6½ | 42 | 16 11½ | + | 4 | 17 6 | 17 | 10 0 | 30 | 9 9 | 43 | 17 10½ | + | 5 | 19 11 | 18 | 1 4 | 31 | 19 5 | 44 | 15 1½ | + | 6 | 17 10½ | 19 | -- | 32 | 16 9½ | 45 | 13 9 | + | 7 | 15 10 | 20 | -- | 33 | 18 8 | 46 | 15 1½ | + | 8 | 11 8 | 21 | -- | 34 | 24 6½ | 47 | 11 7½ | + | 9 | 22 0 | 22 | 11 3½ | 35 | 18 7 | 48 | 18 8 | + | 10 | 18 8 | 23 | 20 11 | 36 | 5 3½ | 49 | 14 10 | + | 11 | 22 1 | 24 | 16 6 | 37 | 18 2 | 50 | 9 7½ | + | 12 | 19 3 | 25 | 16 9½ | 38 | 26 3 | 51 | 11 8 | + | 13 | 15 10 | 26 | 12 4½ | 39 | 15 1 | 52 | 4 1½ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 18. BINDING DEPARTMENT IN PRINTING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates--Quick Worker._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1898 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | 18 1 | 14 | 16 8 | 27 | 21 1 | 40 | 19 5 | + | 2 | 17 5 | 15 | 15 7 | 28 | 21 11 | 41 | 14 7 | + | 3 | 17 3 | 16 | 21 0 | 29 | 25 1 | 42 | 13 5 | + | 4 | 12 3 | 17 | 18 11 | 30 | 24 5 | 43 | 19 5 | + | 5 | 14 4 | 18 | 16 9 | 31 | -- | 44 | 17 1 | + | 6 | 19 8 | 19 | 21 1 | 32 | -- | 45 | 13 4 | + | 7 | 17 11 | 20 | 21 3 | 33 | 23 7 | 46 | 17 8 | + | 8 | 18 9 | 21 | 21 5 | 34 | 24 1 | 47 | 18 0 | + | 9 | 20 1 | 22 | 17 8 | 35 | 25 1 | 48 | 18 5 | + | 10 | 18 11 | 23 | 23 3 | 36 | 24 2 | 49 | 20 10 | + | 11 | 20 7 | 24 | 27 2 | 37 | 21 5 | 50 | 19 8 | + | 12 | 20 10 | 25 | 26 8 | 38 | 21 9 | 51 | 18 1 | + | 13 | 20 2 | 26 | 23 11 | 39 | 19 11 | 52 | 12 5 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 19. BINDING DEPARTMENT IN PRINTING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Time Worker at_ 16_s._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 1 | 14 5 | 14 | 12 5 | 27 | 16 0 | 40 | 15 7 | + | 2 | 17 4 | 15 | 13 11 | 28 | 13 4 | 41 | 14 7 | + | 3 | 15 10 | 16 | 16 11 | 29 | 14 0 | 42 | 15 7 | + | 4 | 15 3 | 17 | 15 7 | 30 | 18 3 | 43 | 15 5 | + | 5 | 16 0 | 18 | 16 3 | 31 | 16 3 | 44 | 15 7 | + | 6 | 2 5 | 19 | 15 7 | 32 | -- | 45 | 15 9 | + | 7 | -- | 20 | 15 5 | 33 | 15 5 | 46 | 15 9 | + | 8 | 14 11 | 21 | 10 1 | 34 | 15 5 | 47 | 16 8 | + | 9 | 15 2 | 22 | 16 0 | 35 | 14 3 | 48 | 17 11 | + | 10 | 15 1 | 23 | 16 0 | 36 | 16 6 | 49 | 16 8 | + | 11 | 14 10 | 24 | 16 8 | 37 | 15 1 | 50 | 17 11 | + | 12 | 15 4 | 25 | 17 1 | 38 | -- | 51 | 16 3 | + | 13 | 11 0 | 26 | 15 7 | 39 | 10 1 | 52 | 10 2 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+-------+------+--------+------+----------+------+-------+ + | 20. QUARTERLY AVERAGES OF A TIME WORKER--PRINTERS' FOLDING | + | AND SEWING, &c. | + +------+-------+------+---------+------+---------+------+-------+ + | | s. d. | | s. d. | | s. d. | | s. d. | + | 1886 | 14 1 | 1890 | 14 4 | 1893 | 13 10 | 1896 | 15 10 | + | | | " | 14 8 | " | 16 0 | | | + | 1887 | 15 3 | " | 11 0 | | | 1897 | 17 4 | + | " | 14 4 | " | 4 5(a) | 1894 | 16 0 | " | 16 0 | + | " | 14 1 | | | " | 15 8 | " | 16 7 | + | " | 14 3 | 1891 | 14 4 | " | 17 3 | " | 16 4 | + | | | " | 15 3 | " | 16 11 | | | + | 1888 | 15 6 | " | 14 11 | | | 1898 | 16 6 | + | " | 14 8 | " | 16 11 | 1895 | 16 10 | " | 15 11 | + | " | 13 11 | | | " | 15 6 | " | 15 9 | + | " | 14 3 | 1892 | 15 0 | " | 10 0(b) | " | 19 3 | + | | | " | 15 2 | " | 16 0 | | | + | 1889 | 15 11 | " | 15 7 | | | 1899 | 19 10 | + | " | 14 0 | " | 16 6 | 1896 | 18 6 | " | 18 9 | + | " | 14 2 | | | " | 15 0 | " | 18 8 | + | " | 15 9 | 1893 | 15 4 | " | 17 8 | " | 18 10 | + | | | " | 15 8 | | | | | + +------+-------+------+---------+------+---------+------+-------+ + | (a) Absent 9 weeks. | + | (b) Absent 4 weeks. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+---------+------+-------+ + + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 21. PIECE HAND IN BINDING DEPARTMENT OF PRINTERS AND | + | STATIONERS. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1895 | | 1896 | | 1897 | | 1897 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 44 | 15 2 | 21 | 16 1 | 1 | 13 10 | 33 | -- | + | 45 | 18 0½ | 22 | 9 10½ | 2 | 14 1½ | 34 | -- | + | 46 | 14 6½ | 23 | 13 0 | 3 | 17 3½ | 35 | 14 4 | + | 47 | 18 5½ | 24 | 16 1 | 4 | 17 1½ | 36 | 14 1½ | + | 48 | 17 4 | 25 | 11 8½ | 5 | 15 4 | 37 | 17 8½ | + | 49 | 16 4½ | 26 | 15 9½ | 6 | 11 9 | 38 | 18 0½ | + | 50 | 13 9 | 27 | 13 7 | 7 | 16 2½ | 39 | 14 7 | + | 51 | 15 5½ | 28 | 16 1½ | 8 | 18 7½ | 40 | 14 8 | + | 52 | 7 9 | 29 | 6 5½ | 9 | 15 4½ | 41 | 16 0 | + | | | 30 | 17 6 | 10 | 20 1½ | 42 | 16 7½ | + | 1896 | | 31 | 19 4 | 11 | 15 2½ | 43 | 16 6½ | + | Week | s. d. | 32 | 13 3½ | 12 | 16 0½ | 44 | 18 2 | + | 1 | 7 2½ | 33 | -- | 13 | 15 5 | 45 | 20 5½ | + | 2 | 14 2 | 34 | -- | 14 | 16 4½ | 46 | 19 11 | + | 3 | 12 9½ | 35 | 15 4 | 15 | 15 0½ | 47 | 19 0½ | + | 4 | 13 0½ | 36 | 18 2½ | 16 | 15 5 | 48 | 17 2½ | + | 5 | 19 0½ | 37 | 16 9 | 17 | 12 8½ | 49 | 17 9½ | + | 6 | 18 1 | 38 | 17 0 | 18 | 17 6 | 50 | 20 1 | + | 7 | 14 5 | 39 | 17 0 | 19 | 18 8 | 51 | 20 6½ | + | 8 | 14 2½ | 40 | 15 10 | 20 | 19 1 | 52 | 20 2 | + | 9 | 14 10 | 41 | 16 10 | 21 | 18 1 | | | + | 10 | 17 5 | 42 | 19 2 | 22 | 18 4½ | 1898 | | + | 11 | 17 5 | 43 | 15 4½ | 23 | 14 2 | Week | s. d. | + | 12 | 13 7½ | 44 | 16 1½ | 24 | 9 0½ | 1 | -- | + | 13 | 17 1½ | 45 | 16 4 | 25 | 7 2 | 2 | -- | + | 14 | 14 0½ | 46 | 18 2 | 26 | 13 9 | 3 | -- | + | 15 | 11 2½ | 47 | 17 4½ | 27 | 15 6 | 4 | -- | + | 16 | 15 2 | 48 | 14 0½ | 28 | 11 11 | 5 | -- | + | 17 | 17 3 | 49 | 14 2 | 29 | 15 1½ | 6 | -- | + | 18 | 17 1 | 50 | 15 2½ | 30 | 18 8½ | 7 | -- | + | 19 | 19 4½ | 51 | 15 4 | 31 | 14 2 | 8 | -- | + | 20 | 11 9½ | 52 | 13 0 | 32 | 10 5 | 9 | -- | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1899 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + | 10 | -- | 39 | 14 3 | 12 | 17 2 | 41 | 15 4 | + | 11 | -- | 40 | 13 9½ | 13 | 15 5 | 42 | 14 7½ | + | 12 | -- | 41 | 14 5½ | 14 | 11 2½ | 43 | 19 10½ | + | 13 | -- | 42 | 14 9 | 15 | 15 8½ | 44 | 18 9 | + | 14 | 17 2½ | 43 | 16 9 | 16 | 17 9 | 45 | 19 1 | + | 15 | 16 0½ | 44 | 14 11 | 17 | 18 3 | 46 | 19 6 | + | 16 | 12 3½ | 45 | 19 1 | 18 | 18 6 | 47 | 21 2 | + | 17 | 13 1½ | 46 | 18 2 | 19 | 18 6 | 48 | 18 6 | + | 18 | 14 0½ | 47 | 20 3½ | 20 | 16 1 | 49 | 16 9½ | + | 19 | 18 8½ | 48 | 20 3 | 21 | 12 7 | 50 | 18 0½ | + | 20 | 20 3½ | 49 | 20 6 | 22 | 16 5 | 51 | 19 9 | + | 21 | 20 3½ | 50 | 18 2 | 23 | 18 2 | 52 | 11 10½ | + | 22 | 20 3½ | 51 | 16 1½ | 24 | 11 10½ | | | + | 23 | 16 6 | 52 | 18 1 | 25 | 15 6 | 1900 | | + | 24 | 17 9 | 53 | 10 2 | 26 | 20 2 | Week | s. d. | + | 25 | 19 1 | | | 27 | 15 8½ | 1 | 17 9½ | + | 26 | 20 3½ | 1899 | | 28 | 15 11 | 2 | 19 2½ | + | 27 | 20 4½ | Week | s. d. | 29 | 11 1½ | 3 | 18 3 | + | 28 | 15 8 | 1 | 20 1½ | 30 | 14 9 | 4 | 18 5 | + | 29 | 14 1 | 2 | 18 1 | 31 | 17 1½ | 5 | 16 9½ | + | 30 | 16 5½ | 3 | 18 7½ | 32 | 16 5 | 6 | 20 5 | + | 31 | 20 3 | 4 | 19 5 | 33 | -- | 7 | 20 1 | + | 32 | 14 8½ | 5 | 20 2 | 34 | -- | 8 | 19 0 | + | 33 | -- | 6 | 16 7 | 35 | 17 9½ | 9 | 19 1½ | + | 34 | -- | 7 | 18 4 | 36 | 16 4 | 10 | 19 5½ | + | 35 | 15 10½ | 8 | 18 5½ | 37 | 17 10 | 11 | 20 5 | + | 36 | 19 0½ | 9 | 17 6 | 38 | 18 0 | 12 | 19 2 | + | 37 | 14 6 | 10 | 14 6 | 39 | 20 0 | 13 | 16 5½ | + | 38 | 15 3 | 11 | 16 2½ | 40 | 17 2 | 14 | 20 2 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 22. HAND FOLDER AND SEWER IN PRINTING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | | Half- | | Half- | | Full- | | Full- | + | | pay | | pay | | pay | | pay | + | 1895 | Earner | 1895 | Earner | 1895 | Earner | 1896 | Earner | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 7 | 2 5½ | 25 | 3 9½ | 42 | 16 3 | 5 | 12 1 | + | 8 | 3 5½ | 26 | 5 0½ | 43 | 14 3 | 6 | 17 8 | + | 9 | 3 9 | 27 | 7 4 | 44 | 12 3½ | 7 | 10 0 | + | 10 | 4 10 | 28 | 2 9½ | 45 | 14 4 | 8 | 10 2 | + | 11 | 3 9 | 29 | 3 5½ | 46 | 15 4 | 9 | 14 5 | + | 12 | 5 4½ | 30 | 5 8½ | 47 | 14 4 | 10 | 14 3 | + | 13 | 6 8 | 31 | 6 5 | 48 | 16 5 | 11 | 8 3 | + | 14 | 5 8 | 32 | 3 3½ | 49 | 15 4 | 12 | 11 8½ | + | 15 | 2 4 | 33 | 2 0 | 50 | 12 6½ | 13 | 10 1 | + | 16 | 2 7 | 34 | 3 9½ | 51 | 13 9 | 14 | 12 7 | + | 17 | 5 11 | 35 | 5 1 | 52 | 8 1 | 15 | 5 6 | + | 18 | 6 11½ | 36 | 7 6 | | | 16 | 9 0 | + | 19 | 6 7½ | 37 | 3 3 | 1896 | | 17 | 14 7 | + | 20 | 3 4 | 38 | 3 3½ | Week | s. d. | 18 | 14 8 | + | 21 | 2 8½ | 39 | 5 10 | 1 | 12 4 | 19 | 17 10 | + | 22 | 5 6 | 40 | 6 0 | 2 | 9 8 | 20 | 18 6 | + | 23 | 4 11½ | 41 | 5 3 | 3 | 12 7 | 21 | 7 3 | + | 24 | 6 6½ | | | 4 | 9 8 | 22 | 9 11 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | | Full- | | Full- | | Full- | | Full- | + | | pay | | pay | | pay | | pay | + | 1896 | Earner | 1897 | Earner | 1898 | Earner | 1899 | Earner | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 23 | 15 1½ | 21 | 14 6½ | 18 | 16 10½ | 15 | 17 9 | + | 24 | 10 4 | 22 | 16 3 | 19 | 17 9½ | 16 | 18 3 | + | 25 | 13 8 | 23 | 19 11 | 20 | 15 10 | 17 | 14 5 | + | 26 | 10 0½ | 24 | 15 10 | 21 | 11 6½ | 18 | 18 3 | + | 27 | 9 4 | 25 | 14 2½ | 22 | 15 6 | 19 | 19 5 | + | 28 | 12 5 | 26 | 13 2 | 23 | 10 2 | 20 | 15 2 | + | 29 | 5 8 | 27 | 16 1½ | 24 | 8 11 | 21 | 5 5½ | + | 30 | 7 0 | 28 | 12 10 | 25 | 12 5½ | 22 | 12 9 | + | 31 | 11 2 | 29 | 9 2 | 26 | 18 0 | 23 | 19 11 | + | 32 | 13 9 | 30 | 9 9½ | 27 | 17 4½ | 24 | 22 2½ | + | 33 | 18 9½ | 31 | 6 4 | 28 | 8 6 | 25 | 18 4 | + | 34 | 9 0 | 32 | 12 9 | 29 | 15 8½ | 26 | 20 7 | + | 35 | 9 8 | 33 | -- | 30 | 9 7 | 27 | 18 1½ | + | 36 | 13 3 | 34 | -- | 31 | 15 11 | 28 | 19 9½ | + | 37 | 11 2½ | 35 | -- | 32 | 17 10½ | 29 | 17 1 | + | 38 | 11 8 | 36 | 13 5½ | 33 | -- | 30 | 20 0 | + | 39 | -- | 37 | 8 0 | 34 | -- | 31 | 16 6 | + | 40 | 4 5 | 38 | 6 8 | 35 | 15 5½ | 32 | 13 10 | + | 41 | 18 3½ | 39 | 7 0 | 36 | 19 3 | 33 | 22 8 | + | 42 | 10 11½ | 40 | 11 2½ | 37 | 18 4 | 34 | 9 5½ | + | 43 | 10 1 | 41 | 15 2 | 38 | 18 7 | 35 | -- | + | 44 | 16 6½ | 42 | 9 9 | 39 | 19 3 | 36 | 14 0½ | + | 45 | 14 0 | 43 | 10 4 | 40 | 23 5 | 37 | 20 3½ | + | 46 | 14 8 | 44 | 10 2½ | 41 | 18 8½ | 38 | 19 2 | + | 47 | 3 6½ | 45 | 16 4½ | 42 | 18 5 | 39 | 15 9 | + | 48 | 12 4 | 46 | 16 10½ | 43 | 12 0 | 40 | 18 6 | + | 49 | 12 3½ | 47 | 15 10 | 44 | 16 9 | 41 | 20 0½ | + | 50 | 13 5 | 48 | 17 6 | 45 | 20 3 | 42 | 18 11 | + | 51 | 13 10 | 49 | 9 1½ | 46 | 18 5 | 43 | 17 2 | + | 52 | 7 7 | 50 | 15 8 | 47 | 15 11½ | 44 | 20 5 | + | | | 51 | 11 6 | 48 | 17 9½ | 45 | 18 4 | + | 1897 | | 52 | 8 8½ | 49 | 19 0 | 46 | 19 7½ | + | Week | s. d. | 53 | 7 8 | 50 | 18 9½ | 47 | 18 5 | + | 1 | 10 3 | | | 51 | 14 5 | 48 | 19 9 | + | 2 | 14 1 | 1898 | | 52 | 12 3 | 49 | 20 0 | + | 3 | 7 4½ | Week | s. d. | | | 50 | 19 3½ | + | 4 | 6 4½ | 1 | 17 11 | 1899 | | 51 | 16 6 | + | 5 | 10 6 | 2 | 5 0 | Week | s. d. | 52 | 9 6½ | + | 6 | 15 4 | 3 | 7 6 | 1 | 19 1½ | | | + | 7 | 16 9 | 4 | 10 5½ | 2 | 19 10 | 1900 | | + | 8 | 15 2 | 5 | 16 7 | 3 | 17 11½ | Week | s. d. | + | 9 | 14 7 | 6 | 12 8 | 4 | 8 8 | 1 | 14 10 | + | 10 | 14 7 | 7 | 11 7 | 5 | 15 2 | 2 | 19 0½ | + | 11 | 15 3 | 8 | 12 11 | 6 | 19 8½ | 3 | 20 9½ | + | 12 | 18 0 | 9 | 16 0 | 7 | 16 9 | 4 | 19 6½ | + | 13 | 12 0 | 10 | 17 5 | 8 | 8 9 | 5 | 18 6 | + | 14 | 12 9½ | 11 | 18 0 | 9 | 11 7½ | 6 | 22 4 | + | 15 | 15 1 | 12 | 16 2 | 10 | 17 7 | 7 | 21 7 | + | 16 | 8 5 | 13 | 13 3½ | 11 | 17 5 | 8 | 22 0 | + | 17 | 9 7 | 14 | 16 8 | 12 | 15 0½ | 9 | 18 9 | + | 18 | 11 4 | 15 | 9 10 | 13 | 12 9 | 10 | 17 5½ | + | 19 | 18 11½ | 16 | -- | 14 | 14 0 | 11 | 15 3 | + | 20 | 10 3 | 17 | 13 3½ | | | | | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 23. FOLDER AND SEWER IN BINDING DEPARTMENT OF PRINTING HOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates--Slow Hand._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 19 | 6 8 | 33 | 6 2 | 47 | 3 3 | 6 | 6 2 | + | 20 | 7 11 | 34 | 9 1 | 48 | 8 9 | 7 | 5 9 | + | 21 | 7 11 | 35 | 8 3 | 49 | 8 3 | 8 | 7 11 | + | 22 | 7 6 | 36 | 8 0 | 50 | 10 9 | 9 | 8 3 | + | 23 | 8 7 | 37 | 8 10 | 51 | 11 8 | 10 | 7 10 | + | 24 | 8 10 | 38 | 8 3 | 52 | 4 10 | 11 | 11 8 | + | 25 | 6 0 | 39 | 8 11 | | | 12 | 10 11 | + | 26 | 7 1 | 40 | 7 11 | 1899 | | 13 | 7 0 | + | 27 | 8 1 | 41 | 5 1 | Week | s. d. | 14 | 4 2 | + | 28 | 6 6 | 42 | 4 6 | 1 | 7 9 | 15 | 7 10 | + | 29 | 8 2 | 43 | 2 10 | 2 | 8 4 | 16 | 7 6 | + | 30 | 7 5 | 44 | 6 2 | 3 | 5 11 | 17 | 9 11 | + | 31 | 5 9 | 45 | 6 0 | 4 | 8 6 | 18 | 4 5 | + | 32 | 9 5 | 46 | 1 10 | 5 | 8 1 | | | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 24. HAND FOLDER IN PRINTERS' WAREHOUSE. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Piece Rates._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d .| Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1 | 19 1 | 14 | 15 10 | 27 | 29 0 | 40 | 14 7 | + | 2 | 22 2 | 15 | 16 4 | 28 | 26 4 | 41 | 20 1 | + | 3 | 20 2 | 16 | 20 7 | 29 | 19 8 | 42 | 18 11 | + | 4 | 17 10 | 17 | 22 1 | 30 | 29 2 | 43 | 21 7 | + | 5 | 22 6 | 18 | 23 4 | 31 | 18 10 | 44 | 22 1 | + | 6 | 19 0 | 19 | 29 9 | 32 | 19 7 | 45 | 20 2 | + | 7 | 22 4 | 20 | 27 2 | 33 | 22 3 | 46 | 18 7 | + | 8 | 21 9 | 21 | 27 4 | 34 | 19 6 | 47 | 18 5 | + | 9 | 19 6 | 22 | 20 11 | 35 | 19 11 | 48 | 21 3 | + | 10 | 20 10 | 23 | 27 6 | 36 | 19 4 | 49 | 24 9 | + | 11 | 19 5 | 24 | 20 1 | 37 | 19 10 | 50 | 27 0 | + | 12 | 19 6 | 25 | 21 7 | 38 | 20 5 | 51 | 21 7 | + | 13 | 23 10 | 26 | 24 1 | 39 | -- | 52 | 15 5 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 25. ENVELOPE PACKER. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | _Time Work_, 14_s._ | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1898 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | Week | s. d. | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + | 1 | 13 8 | 14 | 9 10 | 27 | 13 5 | 40 | 13 0 | + | 2 | 13 8 | 15 | 11 4 | 28 | 13 8 | 41 | 14 0 | + | 3 | 13 8 | 16 | 13 8 | 29 | 12 5 | 42 | 14 0 | + | 4 | 13 2 | 17 | 13 9 | 30 | 14 6 | 43 | 14 0 | + | 5 | 13 9 | 18 | 13 9 | 31 | 11 6 | 44 | 13 10 | + | 6 | 13 8 | 19 | 13 10 | 32 | 13 10 | 45 | 13 10 | + | 7 | 13 8 | 20 | 13 10 | 33 | 13 9 | 46 | 14 0 | + | 8 | 13 8 | 21 | 11 2 | 34 | 13 3 | 47 | 14 0 | + | 9 | 13 9 | 22 | 11 4 | 35 | 13 10 | 48 | 13 10 | + | 10 | 13 9 | 23 | 13 11 | 36 | 14 0 | 49 | 13 9 | + | 11 | 13 8 | 24 | 13 9 | 37 | 14 0 | 50 | 13 9 | + | 12 | 13 9 | 25 | 12 5 | 38 | 14 0 | 51 | 13 9 | + | 13 | 13 11 | 26 | 13 9 | 39 | 9 1 | 52 | 8 9 | + +------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+------+--------+ + + +------+-------------+------+-------------+------+-------------+ + | 26. MACHINE RULER. | + +------+-------------+------+-------------+------+-------------+ + | The figures in brackets to the left of the wage give | + | the nominal time wage. | + +------+-------------+------+-------------+------+-------------+ + | 1897 | | 1898 | | 1899 | | + | Week | s. d. s. d. | Week | s. d. s. d. | Week | s. d. s. d. | + | 1 | (4 6) 3 4 | 1 | (6 6) 5 10 | 1 | (7 6) 1 2 | + | 2 | " 4 9 | 2 | " 6 5 | 2 | " 6 8 | + | 3 | " 4 6 | 3 | " 6 4 | 3 | " 6 0 | + | 4 | " 4 6 | 4 | (7 0) 6 10 | 4 | " 7 3 | + | 5 | " 4 6 | 5 | " 6 11 | 5 | " 7 5 | + | 6 | (5 0) 5 0 | 6 | " 7 0 | 6 | " 7 6 | + | 7 | " 4 11 | 7 | " 6 9 | 7 | " 6 2 | + | 8 | " 5 0 | 8 | " 7 0 | 8 | " 7 8 | + | 9 | " 3 4 | 9 | " 6 10 | 9 | " 7 6 | + | 10 | (5 6) 5 6 | 10 | " 5 1 | 10 | " 6 11 | + | 11 | " 5 6 | 11 | " 6 11 | 11 | " 7 5 | + | 12 | " 5 6 | 12 | " 6 10 | 12 | " 7 6 | + | 13 | " 5 6 | 13 | " 6 11 | 13 | " 5 5 | + | 14 | " 5 6 | 14 | " 5 1 | 14 | " 6 1 | + | 15 | " 5 6 | 15 | " 4 2 | 15 | " 7 9 | + | 16 | " 4 0 | 16 | " 6 11 | 16 | " 7 10 | + | 17 | " 4 7 | 17 | " 6 10 | 17 | " 7 9 | + | 18 | " 5 0 | 18 | " 6 10 | 18 | " 7 7 | + | 19 | " 5 5 | 19 | (7 6) 7 5 | 19 | " 7 10 | + | 20 | " 5 6 | 20 | " 7 4 | 20 | " 7 9 | + | 21 | " 5 5 | 21 | " 7 5 | 21 | " 6 0 | + | 22 | " 5 4 | 22 | " 5 11 | 22 | " 7 4 | + | 23 | " 5 5 | 23 | " 7 11 | 23 | " 7 5 | + | 24 | " 4 8 | 24 | " 8 0 | 24 | " 7 5 | + | 25 | " 5 5 | 25 | " 7 4 | 25 | " 7 3 | + | 26 | " 4 6 | 26 | " 7 6 | 26 | " 5 7 | + | 27 | (6 0) 5 11 | 27 | " 7 3 | 27 | " 6 6 | + | 28 | " 6 0 | 28 | " 5 10 | 28 | (8 0) 6 5 | + | 29 | " 5 11 | 29 | " 7 5 | 29 | " 7 10 | + | 30 | " 5 11 | 30 | " 7 9 | 30 | " 7 11 | + | 31 | " 5 10 | 31 | " 5 1 | 31 | " - -- | + | 32 | " 3 11 | 32 | " 6 6 | 32 | " 6 0 | + | 33 | " 4 10 | 33 | " 7 2 | 33 | " 7 10 | + | 34 | " 5 5 | 34 | " 7 6 | 34 | " 7 11 | + | 35 | " 5 2 | 35 | " 7 6 | 35 | " 8 3 | + | 36 | " 5 10 | 36 | " 7 6 | 36 | " 7 9 | + | 37 | " 5 11 | 37 | " 7 5 | 37 | " 7 10 | + | 38 | " 5 10 | 38 | " 6 8 | 38 | " 7 10 | + | 39 | " 6 0 | 39 | " 5 8 | 39 | " 7 8 | + | 40 | " 5 10 | 40 | " 7 5 | 40 | " 7 9 | + | 41 | " 5 11 | 41 | " 7 4 | 41 | " 7 9 | + | 42 | " 6 0 | 42 | " 7 5 | 42 | " 8 2 | + | 43 | " 5 10 | 43 | " 7 6 | 43 | " 8 0 | + | 44 | " 5 11 | 44 | " 6 10 | 44 | " 8 1 | + | 45 | (6 6) 6 4 | 45 | " 7 3 | 45 | " 7 11 | + | 46 | " 6 2 | 46 | " 6 9 | 46 | " 8 0 | + | 47 | " 6 5 | 47 | " 7 5 | 47 | " 8 2 | + | 48 | " 6 5 | 48 | " 6 8 | 48 | " 8 5 | + | 49 | " 6 4 | 49 | " 7 4 | 49 | " 8 3 | + | 50 | " 6 4 | 50 | " 7 4 | 50 | " 8 1 | + | 51 | " 6 3 | 51 | " 7 6 | 51 | " 8 2 | + | 52 | " 4 0 | 52 | " 4 6 | 52 | " 5 0 | + +------+-------------+------+-------------+------+-------------+ + + + + +APPENDIX VI. + + +In view of the importance of the preservation of authentic wages figures +we reprint the Appendix published in 1849 by Mr. Dunning to his "Reply +to a Letter from the Committee of the Southwark Auxiliary Bible Society, +&c.," as under:-- + +No. I. + + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | EARNINGS ON THE PREMISES. | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | _Piece Workers._ | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | 1845. | Sept. 6th. | Sept 13th. | Oct. 11th. | + | | £ _s._ _d._ | £ _s._ _d._ | £ _s._ _d._ | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Ashford | 0 6 8 | 0 6 8½ | 0 6 4 | + | Aggersbury | -- | -- | 0 7 10 | + | Blichenden | 0 7 5¾ | 0 7 1½ | 0 7 7 | + | Burkitt, | 0 5 2¾ | 0 4 3¾ | 0 4 10½ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Brown, | 0 6 9 | 0 7 1 | 0 6 5¼ | + | M. A. | | | | + | Berridge | -- | -- | 0 5 7¼ | + | Bozankae | 0 1 8½ | 0 4 8 | 0 4 0½ | + | Betherston | 0 0 9½ | -- | -- | + | Carpenter, | 0 4 5¾ | -- | 0 4 3½ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Carpenter, | 0 7 0 | 0 7 9¾ | 0 6 6¾ | + | M. P. | | | | + | Cooper, | 0 5 4½ | 0 5 0½ | 0 4 8 | + | Ann | | | | + | Diggles | 0 7 4¾ | 0 7 9½ | 0 7 3 | + | Day, Mary | 0 7 2 | 0 6 11½ | 0 7 3¾ | + | Elliott, | 0 4 9 | -- | -- | + | E. | | | | + | Facey | 0 1 7½ | 0 4 3¼ | 0 6 4½ | + | Hart, E. | -- | 0 6 2 | 0 5 0½ | + | Joyce, | 0 7 7 | 0 7 8¼ | -- | + | M. A. | | | | + | Leggatt, | -- | -- | 0 3 5½ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Pepper | 0 7 10¼ | 0 8 5½ | 0 8 11¼ | + | Rogers, E. | 0 6 6½ | 0 6 4½ | 0 6 7¼ | + | Richardson | 0 8 1¼ | 0 7 8¼ | 0 8 4 | + | Spencer | -- | -- | 0 4 10 | + | Satchell, | 0 6 0½ | 0 5 11¼ | 0 5 9¼ | + | A. E. | | | | + | Such, E. | -- | -- | 0 6 10 | + | Smith, | 0 3 1½ | 0 7 8½ | -- | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Speak, | 0 6 2½ | 0 7 10¾ | 0 8 5¼ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Touse, | 0 4 10 | 0 5 0¾ | 0 4 9½ | + | M. A. | | | | + | Wilkins, | 0 12 2 | 0 11 0¼ | 0 12 3¼ | + | A. | | | | + | Wilkins, | 0 7 0½ | 0 7 9¾ | 0 8 11¼ | + | E. | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | | £6 15 11 | £7 3 7 | £8 3 5 | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | _Time Workers._ | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | 1845. | Sept. 6th. | Sept. 13th. | Oct. 11th. | + | | £ _s._ _d._ | £ _s._ _d._ | £ _s._ _d._ | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Osborne, | 0 11 6 | 0 10 6 | 0 10 0 | + | C. (10_s._ | | | | + | per week) | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Burrows, | 0 12 0 | 0 12 11½ | 0 12 0 | + | E. (12_s._ | | | | + | per week) | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Aurnett | 0 14 2 | 0 12 7 | 0 11 10 | + | (12_s._ | | | | + | per week) | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Holloway | 0 4 4 | 0 4 0 | 0 3 10 | + | (learner) | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Dew (7_s._ | 0 8 1½ | 0 7 9½ | 0 7 7 | + | 6_d._ | | | | + | per week) | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Bocking | 0 3 0 | 0 3 0 | 0 3 0 | + | (learner) | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Routledge | 0 9 4 | -- | -- | + | (4 days' | | | | + | work) | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Emery, A. | -- | 0 1 0 | 0 1 0 | + | (learner) | | | | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Mills. M. | -- | -- | 0 10 0 | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | | £3 2 5½ | £2 11 10 | £2 19 3 | + +------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | WOMEN WHO WORKED AT THEIR OWN HOMES. | + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | 1845. | Sept 6th. | Sept. 13th. | Oct. 11th. | + | | £ _s._ _d._ | £ _s._ _d._ | £ _s._ _d._ | + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Atchiller, | 0 8 1 | -- | -- | + | S. | | | | + | Anstead, | -- | 0 8 1 | 0 7 8 | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Aldred | -- | -- | 0 7 1 | + | Bruce, C. | 0 4 11¼ | -- | 0 4 3½ | + | Bullmore | 0 5 9 | 0 3 7¼ | 0 3 8½ | + | Birch, | 0 8 6½ | 0 8 9 | 0 16 7¾ | + | Mrs.(a) | | | | + | Bell, Mrs. | -- | -- | 0 2 2 | + | Burton, S. | -- | -- | 0 6 4¼ | + | Clarke, M. | -- | -- | 0 4 8½ | + | Cauline, | 0 10 3¾ | 0 7 10 | 0 11 0½ | + | E. | | | | + | Cox, Mrs. | 0 6 5½ | 0 5 1 | -- | + | Collier, | -- | 0 3 8½ | -- | + | A. | | | | + | Fothergill | -- | 0 2 11 | -- | + | Fisher | -- | -- | 0 7 0 | + | Foster, | -- | -- | 0 2 1 | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Green, | 0 7 8½ | 0 4 0 | 0 5 6¾ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Gulliers | 0 11 3¼ | 0 7 7¾ | 0 4 5½ | + | Glover, | -- | 0 9 3¾ | 0 3 5 | + | M. A. | | | | + | Haydram, | -- | -- | 0 2 6 | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Hayes, | 0 9 1¾ | 0 8 9½ | 0 9 4½ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Hartopp | 0 4 1 | 0 3 5¼ | -- | + | Hearn, | -- | 0 3 8 | 0 2 8¾ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Humphreys, | -- | 0 6 9¾ | 0 6 4¼ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Hobdell | -- | 0 6 7½ | 0 3 7¾ | + | Hatfield | -- | -- | 0 5 2¾ | + | Hall, Mrs. | -- | -- | 0 6 10½ | + | Joyce, | -- | -- | 0 8 9½ | + | M. A. | | | | + | Knight, | 0 9 1 | 0 9 1¼ | 0 7 8 | + | H.(a) | | | | + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Carried | £4 5 4½ | £4 19 4½ | £6 19 4¼ | + | forward | | | + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | 1845. | Sept 6th. | Sept. 13th. | Oct. 11th. | + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | Brought | £4 5 4½ |£4 19 4½ | £6 19 4¼ | + | forward | | | | + | Knight, E. | 0 6 1¼ | 0 6 6½ | 0 3 11 | + | Kelly, | -- | -- | 0 7 1¾ | + | or Skelly, | | | | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Lawrance, | 0 4 10 | 0 4 4¼ | 0 6 10½ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Latham | 0 5 3 | 0 3 10¼ | 0 1 8 | + | McDaniell | -- | -- | 0 5 1½ | + | Matthews | 0 7 3½ | 0 5 0¼ | 0 7 3½ | + | Mills, Mrs. | 0 8 9¾ | 0 7 7½ | 0 4 2½ | + | Mozer, E. | 0 6 8¼ | 0 5 0½ | 0 6 2½ | + | Margetts | -- | 0 7 2½ | 0 5 5¼ | + | Mayes | -- | 0 1 6½ | 0 5 5 | + | Moseley | -- | 0 0 9½ | -- | + | Neascomp | 0 6 8 | -- | -- | + | Norris, | -- | -- | 0 7 8 | + | M. A. | | | | + | Nichols, | -- | -- | 0 1 7½ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Pottiee | -- | -- | 0 4 6½ | + | Parker, | 0 3 0½ | 0 3 11¾ | 0 4 10½ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Pool | 0 2 4½ | -- | -- | + | Potter, E. | 0 5 7½ | 0 5 7¾ | 0 7 0¼ | + | Pontifex, | -- | 0 6 6¾ | 0 7 7½ | + | A. | | | | + | Pearce, C. | -- | 0 5 1½ | -- | + | Rumball, | 0 12 1¼ | 0 11 2 | 0 7 9½ | + | Mrs.(a) | | | | + | Rudge | -- | 0 6 8½ | 0 4 8½ | + | Ross, Mrs. | -- | -- | 0 1 7½ | + | Scott, Mrs. | -- | -- | 0 4 0 | + | Sleap | -- | -- | 0 2 2¾ | + | Slater | 0 10 5¼ | 0 11 3¼ | 0 6 4½ | + | Sharp, C. | -- | -- | 0 3 1½ | + | Such, E. | 0 9 4 | 0 4 7½ | -- | + | Smout, M. | -- | 0 4 3¾ | 0 5 1 | + | Sumner, | 0 10 1½ | 0 8 2 | 0 7 2¾ | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Tucker, | 0 4 10 | 0 3 4½ | -- | + | Mrs. | | | | + | Truscoat, | 0 5 6½ | 0 3 10½ | -- | + | A. | | | | + | Tattersall | -- | -- | 0 8 4¾ | + | Todd | -- | -- | 0 7 5¾ | + | Wichelam | -- | -- | 0 3 0½ | + | West, Mrs. | 0 4 2½ | 0 4 1½ | 0 2 11¾ | + | Weedon | -- | 0 3 5 | 0 5 3¼ | + | Williams, | -- | -- | 0 3 7¼ | + | Eliz. | | | | + | Williams, | -- | -- | 0 4 8½ | + | Eleanor | | | | + | Woods, Mrs. | -- | -- | 0 5 11¾ | + | Wacey | -- | -- | 0 1 5¼ | + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | | £9 18 7¾ | £11 3 8½ | £15 11 0¾ | + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + | (a) Bills marked thus were for work done by more than one | + | person. | + +-------------+---------------+----------------+----------------+ + + +No. II. + +The following names are a transcript, as far as it extends, of the +Wages' Book of July 28th, 1849:-- + + FOLDERS. + _s._ _d._ + Stone 6 10¼ + Carroll 6 10 + Donald 7 6½ + Fenning 10 1¾ + Nalty 6 0 + Zugg 9 8 + Read 5 6¼ + Thomson 5 3¾ + Frazier 4 7 + Parker 7 2 + Philpots, Mrs. (2 weeks) 9 1 + Salter 7 1 + Routledge 10 2¾ + Giles 7 11½ + Name not known 8 7½ + Hodnett 7 10½ + Measor 6 6 + Moss 7 1½ + Smith 3 2¼ + York 6 6¼ + Ainsworth 6 5 + Smith 5 10 + Surridge 5 0¾ + Read 5 11¼ + Hone 6 11¾ + Stroud (2 weeks) 14 11¼ + Pritlove 6 1½ + Jolly 7 10¾ + Thomas 6 10½ + Olpin 8 7¾ + Brown 7 0½ + Desaper 7 0¾ + Harlow 3 11¼ + Glynn 7 0¾ + Haywood 7 5¾ + Cooper 6 1 + Charles 7 11¾ + Gauntry 5 5½ + Leat 4 4½ + Beattie 7 2½ + Lockwood 8 7½ + Burton 5 9¾ + Cook 6 11¼ + Spall 5 0¼ + Name not known 6 2½ + Shay 6 10 + Hockley 8 4¼ + Hodson 4 2 + Coghan 3 9½ + Charles 4 9¼ + Donovan 6 6¼ + Newham 3 9½ + Brown, O. 7 9¾ + Cleaver 6 9¾ + Mallison 6 8 + Chelsom 3 8¼ + Griffiths 6 4½ + Timlett 7 0 + Guyon 5 4¾ + Johnson 5 4 + Smith 5 7 + Daniells 3 4 + Paris 5 10½ + Rawlings 7 11½ + Long 3 11¼ + Macintosh 5 7 + Cracknell 5 4 + Old 7 2 + + SEWERS. + _s._ _d._ + Clarke 5 9½ + Trimnell 8 3¾ + Abbott 7 0¾ + Hawkins 5 7½ + Hubbard 5 3¾ + Deacles 6 6 + Norcutt 6 3¼ + + _Time Workers._ + _s._ _d._ + Mrs. Brinton (Lewis) 15 9 + Mary Shea 7 6 + Mary Carpenter 9 0 + Anne Cooper 8 10½ + E. Manvill 10 11 + Hardy 10 11 + Norris 9 1 + Aldred 8 11 + Collis 8 11 + Hayes 10 0 + Kinder 10 11 + Wilkins 10 0 + Joyce 7 3 + Dew 7 3 + M. Joyce 7 4½ + + +No. III. + + +----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | FOLDERS' WAGES FOR THE FOUR WEEKS BEFORE THE DISPUTE. | + +----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Aug. | Aug. | Aug. | Aug. | + | | 4th. | 11th. | 18th. | 23rd. | + | | £ _s. d._ | £ _s. d._ | £ _s. d._ | £ _s. d._ | + +----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | M. E. Zugg | 0 10 6¼ | 0 8 3¼ | 0 9 8 | 0 7 1¾ | + | A. Harlow | -- | -- | -- | 0 3 11½ | + | M. A. Long | 0 8 4 | 0 8 6 | 0 7 11 | 0 5 0 | + | S. Olpin | 0 8 3¾ | 0 7 6½ | 0 8 9 | 0 5 11 | + | M. Fowler | 0 6 0 | 0 5 11 | 0 6 1 | 0 2 7½ | + | M. Morris | -- | -- | -- | 0 5 1 | + | M. Beatie | 0 7 4 | 0 7 0 | 0 7 0½ | 0 3 2 | + | M. Parker | 0 8 0¼ | 0 8 4 | 0 7 9 | 0 5 9 | + | M. A. Jolly | 0 9 3½ | 0 8 9 | 0 7 5 | 0 5 3 | + | M. Thomas | 0 8 3 | 0 7 1 | 0 6 10½ | 0 4 5½ | + | E. Carroll | 0 6 7 | 0 6 4½ | 0 6 7 | 0 4 6 | + | M. Sheay | 0 6 9 | 0 6 1¾ | 0 6 5 | 0 2 11½ | + | H. Donovan | 0 6 4 | 0 6 1¾ | 0 7 0¼ | 0 4 0 | + | E. Hone | 0 8 4 | 0 7 3¼ | 0 6 11¾ | 0 4 11½ | + | S. Moss | 0 6 6 | 0 7 0 | 0 6 10 | 0 7 1½ | + | E. Hainsworth | 0 7 0 | 0 7 7 | 0 8 3 | 0 4 3 | + | E. Timlett | 0 7 0 | 0 6 11½ | 0 7 2 | 0 6 11½ | + | M. Cracknell | 0 6 0 | 0 5 9 | 0 5 6 | 0 6 0 | + | C. Guyon | 0 6 4 | 0 7 0 | 0 7 2 | 0 1 11 | + | Mrs. Philpot | 0 4 2 | 0 4 0 | 0 4 6 | 0 2 8 | + | P. Measor | 0 7 8 | 0 6 11 | 0 6 5 | 0 5 10½ | + | M. Cooke | 0 6 1 | 0 4 6 | 0 6 4 | 0 1 4 | + | M. Stone | 0 6 4 | 0 6 6 | 0 6 10 | 0 3 6¾ | + | M. Cleaver | 0 6 4¾ | 0 6 7 | 0 6 6 | 0 4 0 | + | M. E. Reide | 0 6 3½ | 0 6 8½ | 0 6 4 | 0 4 0 | + | M. Foweraker | 0 9 11 | 0 12 0 | 0 8 7¾ | 0 5 11 | + | A. Hodnett | 0 8 6 | 0 9 6 | 0 7 4 | 0 5 0½ | + | M. Smith | 0 6 7½ | 0 6 4 | 0 6 6 | 0 2 10½ | + | A. Smith | 0 7 2 | 0 5 4 | 0 6 2½ | 0 1 9¾ | + | M. Frazier | 0 6 5 | 0 4 3 | 0 4 6½ | 0 4 3½ | + | M. Roach | 0 6 3 | 0 4 2 | 0 5 9 | 0 3 3 | + | C. Mallison | 0 5 6 | 0 5 0 | 0 5 9 | 0 3 2½ | + | S. Macintosh | 0 4 4 | 0 5 0 | 0 4 11 | 0 2 0½ | + | B. J. Salter | 0 9 6 | 0 9 0¼ | 0 8 1½ | 0 6 1¾ | + | M. J. Smith | 0 7 0¼ | 0 6 11½ | 0 5 6 | 0 3 0 | + | E. Daniels | 0 5 3½ | 0 4 6¼ | 0 3 6¾ | 0 1 11½ | + | M. Brown | 0 7 0¼ | 0 6 0¾ | 0 5 6 | 0 3 2¼ | + | E. Rallians | 0 7 3½ | 0 7 6¼ | 0 7 0 | 0 5 0 | + | W. Reide | 0 8 4 | 0 8 1¼ | 0 7 7¾ | 0 5 0 | + | M. A. Lockwood | 0 5 0¾ | 0 8 1½ | 0 7 1½ | 0 6 8 | + | E. Spall | 0 7 5¾ | 0 6 1 | 0 5 6 | 0 4 0 | + | J. Griffith | -- | 0 4 8½ | 0 4 3 | 0 2 8½ | + | M. Thomson | 0 6 9 | 0 6 3½ | 0 6 4 | 0 4 1½ | + | L. Farris | 0 4 6½ | 0 5 1 | 0 3 4 | 0 1 9½ | + | M. Glyn | 0 7 0 | 0 6 7½ | 0 6 9 | 0 3 10½ | + | L. Yorke | 0 6 4 | 0 6 0¼ | 0 6 3 | 0 4 1 | + | C. Brown | 0 8 3½ | 0 8 0 | 0 7 0½ | 0 4 10½ | + | M. Fenning | 0 8 7 | 0 8 3½ | 0 8 0 | 0 6 4½ | + | E. Burton | 0 7 0 | 0 6 3½ | 0 6 0 | 0 5 2½ | + +----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | | £16 4 6¾ | £15 18 2½ | £15 7 10½ | £10 7 3½ | + +----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + + +---------------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + | SEWERS' WAGES FOR THE FOUR WEEKS BEFORE THE DISPUTE. | + +---------------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + | -- | Aug. | Aug. | Aug. | Aug. | + | | 4th. | 11th. | 18th. |23rd. | + | | £ _s. d._ | £ _s. d._ | £ _s. d._ | £ _s. d._ | + +---------------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + | M. Richardson | 0 6 4 | 0 6 10 | 0 7 1½ | 0 4 9 | + | M. Touse | 0 5 10 | 0 6 0 | 0 5 11 | 0 4 6 | + | E. Hawkins | -- | -- | -- | 0 4 8¼ | + | A. Hanson | 0 6 0¼ | 0 5 10 | 0 5 11 | 0 5 1 | + | M. Clements | 0 6 0 | 0 6 3 | 0 6 1 | 0 4 7½ | + | L. Thomson | 0 6 4½ | 0 6 10 | 0 7 4½ | 0 5 2 | + | E. Webb | 0 7 7 | 0 7 3 | 0 8 3 | 0 8 0 | + | E. Wigmore | 0 6 10½ | 0 7 0 | 0 7 2½ | 0 4 8½ | + | H. Gammon | 0 7 0 | 0 6 6 | 0 6 0 | 0 2 6 | + | A. Butcher | 0 10 0 | 0 10 4 | 0 10 10 | 0 9 7½ | + | E. Taylor | 0 7 0 | 0 7 6 | 0 7 1½ | 0 2 0 | + | M. Wheatley | 0 7 2 | 0 6 5 | 0 7 0 | 0 5 11 | + | E. Harris | -- | 0 5 0 | 0 5 4½ | 0 3 1¾ | + | J. Williams | 0 7 3 | 0 7 0 | 0 7 1 | 0 2 6 | + | H. Hutchinson | 0 6 9 | 0 6 9¼ | 0 6 2½ | 0 5 2½ | + | E. Ashford | 0 7 0 | 0 7 6 | 0 7 10 | 0 8 1 | + | R. Howell | 0 8 8 | 0 6 8 | 0 6 4 | 0 4 2½ | + | M. Hubbard | 0 7 0 | 0 6 10 | 0 6 6 | 0 5 0½ | + | M. Abbott | 0 8 0 | 0 8 4 | 0 8 1 | 0 6 8 | + | M. Akerman | 0 8 0 | 0 8 6 | 0 8 6 | 0 7 2 | + | A. Hall | 0 7 4 | 0 7 2 | 0 7 0 | 0 5 6 | + | E. Ellis | 0 3 11 | 0 4 5 | 0 5 6 | 0 1 6 | + | M. Gildbody | 0 7 1 | 0 7 4 | 0 7 6 | 0 3 6 | + | M. Mack | 0 10 7 | 0 10 1 | 0 10 4 | 0 9 10 | + | E. Potter | 0 7 6 | 0 7 0 | 0 7 4 | 0 6 6 | + | C. Collier | 0 9 0 | 0 8 6 | 0 7 9 | 0 7 0 | + | M. Smiley | 0 5 2 | 0 4 10 | 0 5 0 | 0 4 3 | + | A. Clarke | 0 7 0 | 0 5 3 | 0 6 1 | 0 4 5 | + | B. Mealoney | 0 6 8½ | 0 7 0 | 0 6 0 | 0 4 6 | + | M. A. | 0 7 0 | 0 7 5 | 0 8 3 | 0 6 6 | + | Sullivan | | | | | + | M. Diggles | 0 6 6½ | 0 6 5½ | 0 6 3 | 0 6 1 | + | J. Purvey | 0 6 0 | 0 6 1¾ | 0 6 3 | 0 5 6½ | + | M. Reding | 0 9 9½ | 0 9 2 | 0 9 4 | 0 8 2½ | + | L. Tattersall | 0 6 10 | 0 7 0 | 0 6 6 | 0 7 0 | + | E. Treacher | 0 5 3½ | 0 5 6 | 0 5 2½ | 0 3 8½ | + | M. Davis | 0 9 1½ | 0 9 0 | 0 9 7 | 0 7 0¼ | + | E. Griffiths | 0 7 5 | 0 7 3½ | 0 7 0 | 0 7 0½ | + | M. Clarke | 0 8 10½ | 0 9 3½ | 0 9 0 | 0 7 1½ | + | M. Perkins | 0 7 3½ | 0 6 10 | 0 7 7½ | 0 5 0½ | + | E. Marshall | 0 7 0 | 0 6 1½ | 0 6 6 | 0 4 8½ | + | G. Trimnell | 0 6 2½ | 0 5 5¾ | 0 4 2½ | 0 2 11 | + | H. Night | 0 6 1½ | 0 5 10½ | 0 6 0 | 0 4 3 | + | M. Norcott | 0 5 10 | 0 6 0¼ | 0 6 0 | 0 6 5½ | + | M. Goldwin | 0 6 3½ | 0 6 6¾ | 0 6 5 | 0 5 4½ | + | E. Ainyouns | 0 6 5½ | 0 6 0 | 0 5 3 | 0 4 1 | + | M. Newnham | 0 6 0 | 0 6 1½ | 0 6 0 | 0 5 8 | + | M. Rodgers | 0 7 0 | 0 6 10½ | 0 7 0 | 0 6 0½ | + | C. Greentree | 0 7 0½ | 0 7 0 | 0 7 5 | 0 4 11 | + | J. Greenaway | 0 7 5¾ | 0 8 6 | 0 7 0 | 0 3 11 | + | E. Carrington | 0 7 1½ | 0 7 7¼ | 0 7 6 | 0 5 11½ | + | S. Greenaway | 0 6 2½ | 0 6 1½ | 0 6 6 | 0 4 3 | + | M. Key | 0 7 6 | 0 7 0 | 0 5 2 | 0 5 9¼ | + | S. Williams | 0 8 4 | 0 5 1½ | 0 7 1 | 0 6 0¼ | + +---------------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + | | £18 1 10¾ | £17 18 9½ | £17 19 11¼ | £14 4 2¼ | + +---------------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+ + +These tables are also valuable on account of the light they throw upon +the organisation of the bookbinding trade in the middle of last century. +It will be seen for instance that the week indicated by "October 11" in +Table I was a specially busy week, and that in consequence the payments +made to the home workers were much above those made for September 6th or +13th. Under September 6th, twenty-eight home workers were engaged, and +next week thirty-nine, but under October 11th the number had risen to +fifty-seven. It is also worthy of note that E. Such was an indoor worker +under October 11th, but a home worker during the other two weeks, whilst +M. A. Joyce worked at home in the third week, but in the workshop during +the other two. This condition of disorganisation has now fortunately +almost disappeared from the trade. + +It should also be noted that slight errors of a few farthings in the +additions have crept into the totals of some of the columns, but as they +do not affect the accuracy of the wage figures the Appendix has been +copied exactly as it was published. + + + + +APPENDIX VII.--TABLE FROM CENSUS, 1901 + + +Table from census, 1901, stating the number of males and females +employed in the trades enumerated at various ages in England and Wales, +and showing that the number of females employed between 15 and 20 is +nearly twice as great as at any other age. + + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + | PAPER MANUFACTURE. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 163 | -- | 163 | 335 | + | 14 - | 378 | -- | 378 | 616 | + | 15 - | 2,995 | 15 | 3,010 | 3,079 | + | 20 - | 1,814 | 224 | 2,038 | 2,328 | + | 25 - | 856 | 504 | 1,360 | 3,583 | + | 35 - | 301 | 564 | 865 | 2,504 | + | 45 - | 124 | 446 | 570 | 1,690 | + | 55 - | 56 | 289 | 345 | 897 | + | 65 - | 15 | 95 | 110 | 277 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 3 | 9 | 12 | 50 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 6,705 | 2,146 | 8,851 | 15,359 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | PAPER STAINERS. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 19 | -- | 19 | 57 | + | 14 - | 21 | -- | 21 | 90 | + | 15 - | 97 | 1 | 98 | 396 | + | 20 - | 41 | 5 | 46 | 290 | + | 25 - | 22 | 18 | 40 | 520 | + | 35 - | 7 | 21 | 28 | 365 | + | 45 - | 4 | 19 | 23 | 202 | + | 55 - | 1 | 7 | 8 | 81 | + | 65 - | 0 | 3 | 3 | 28 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 212 | 75 | 287 | 2,032 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | STATIONERY MANUFACTURE. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 84 | -- | 84 | 36 | + | 14 - | 297 | -- | 297 | 107 | + | 15 - | 1,921 | 1 | 1,922 | 811 | + | 20 - | 1,237 | 41 | 1,278 | 709 | + | 25 - | 603 | 107 | 710 | 1,209 | + | 35 - | 185 | 56 | 241 | 732 | + | 45 - | 55 | 54 | 109 | 483 | + | 55 - | 15 | 28 | 43 | 217 | + | 65 - | 2 | 10 | 12 | 65 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 0 | 2 | 2 | 12 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 4,399 | 299 | 4,698 | 4,381 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | ENVELOPE MAKERS. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 103 | -- | 103 | 5 | + | 14 - | 254 | -- | 254 | 13 | + | 15 - | 1,276 | -- | 1,276 | 72 | + | 20 - | 654 | 26 | 680 | 62 | + | 25 - | 339 | 98 | 437 | 84 | + | 35 - | 99 | 98 | 197 | 76 | + | 45 - | 41 | 74 | 115 | 33 | + | 55 - | 22 | 36 | 58 | 18 | + | 65 - | 7 | 16 | 23 | 7 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 2,795 | 348 | 3,143 | 370 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | PAPER BOX AND BAG MAKERS. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 780 | -- | 780 | 144 | + | 14 - | 1,727 | -- | 1,727 | 192 | + | 15 - | 10,062 | 51 | 10,113 | 784 | + | 20 - | 5,342 | 628 | 5,970 | 476 | + | 25 - | 2,304 | 1,339 | 3,643 | 714 | + | 35 - | 547 | 1,094 | 1,641 | 481 | + | 45 - | 171 | 724 | 895 | 304 | + | 55 - | 58 | 271 | 329 | 144 | + | 65 - | 9 | 91 | 100 | 65 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 0 | 11 | 11 | 6 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 21,000 | 4,209 | 25,209 | 3,310 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | OTHER WORKERS IN PAPER, &c. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 88 | -- | 88 | 107 | + | 14 - | 168 | -- | 168 | 138 | + | 15 - | 1,139 | 4 | 1,143 | 676 | + | 20 - | 687 | 36 | 723 | 516 | + | 25 - | 330 | 87 | 417 | 1,097 | + | 35 - | 73 | 63 | 136 | 796 | + | 45 - | 24 | 53 | 77 | 617 | + | 55 - | 8 | 25 | 33 | 381 | + | 65 - | 0 | 11 | 11 | 169 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 2 | 1 | 3 | 31 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 2,519 | 280 | 2,799 | 4,528 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | PRINTERS. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 394 | -- | 394 | 1,309 | + | 14 - | 988 | -- | 988 | 3,362 | + | 15 - | 4,898 | 7 | 4,905 | 18,692 | + | 20 - | 1,999 | 76 | 2,075 | 15,360 | + | 25 - | 730 | 120 | 850 | 26,051 | + | 35 - | 146 | 112 | 258 | 16,155 | + | 45 - | 42 | 65 | 107 | 9,514 | + | 55 - | 21 | 56 | 77 | 4,584 | + | 65 - | 4 | 23 | 27 | 1,256 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 1 | 11 | 12 | 205 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 9,223 | 470 | 9,693 | 96,488 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | LITHOGRAPHERS, COPPER AND STEEL PLATE PRINTERS. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 35 | -- | 35 | 97 | + | 14 - | 97 | -- | 97 | 243 | + | 15 - | 518 | 4 | 522 | 1,721 | + | 20 - | 198 | 21 | 219 | 1,616 | + | 25 - | 91 | 20 | 111 | 2,966 | + | 35 - | 19 | 12 | 31 | 2,022 | + | 45 - | 5 | 12 | 17 | 1,170 | + | 55 - | 3 | 7 | 10 | 616 | + | 65 - | 0 | 1 | 1 | 214 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 0 | 0 | 0 | 17 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 966 | 77 | 1,043 | 10,682 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | BOOKBINDERS. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 364 | -- | 364 | 108 | + | 14 - | 1,204 | -- | 1,204 | 311 | + | 15 - | 7,623 | 20 | 7,643 | 2,107 | + | 20 - | 4,310 | 222 | 4,532 | 1,933 | + | 25 - | 2,190 | 653 | 2,843 | 3,146 | + | 35 - | 647 | 692 | 1,339 | 2,340 | + | 45 - | 291 | 525 | 816 | 1,575 | + | 55 - | 101 | 250 | 351 | 811 | + | 65 - | 30 | 83 | 113 | 281 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 7 | 11 | 18 | 52 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 16,767 | 2,456 | 19,223 | 12,664 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | TYPE CUTTERS AND FOUNDERS. | + +-----------+-------------------------------------+----------+ + | | Females. | | + | Age. +------------+-----------+------------+ Males. | + | | | Married | | | + | | Unmarried. | or | Total. | | + | | | Widow'd | | | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | 10 - | 8 | -- | 8 | 17 | + | 14 - | 31 | -- | 31 | 32 | + | 15 - | 97 | -- | 97 | 237 | + | 20 - | 30 | -- | 30 | 187 | + | 25 - | 11 | 2 | 13 | 345 | + | 35 - | 1 | 1 | 2 | 216 | + | 45 - | 1 | 0 | 1 | 141 | + | 55 - | 1 | 0 | 1 | 75 | + | 65 - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 35 | + | 75 and | | | | | + | upwards | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + | Total | 180 | 3 | 183 | 1,287 | + +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+----------+ + + + + +INDEX. + + + Ages of Workers, 203 + Apprenticeship, 55-62 + + Bible Society Controversies, 32-36 + Birmingham, Trades in, 179-183 + Blackbordering Described, 12 + Bond, Mrs., 38 + Bookbinders' Agreement, 7-9 + Bookbinders and Tea Half-hour, 31 + Bookbinding Described, 3 + Bookfolders' Union, 38 + Bookfolding, 3 + + Census Figures, 17-21, 203 + Character in Relation to Work, 11, 67, 85 + (footnote), 111 + Children's Employment Commission, 1862-66 ... 69-71 + Compositors, Women: + Apprenticeship, 62 + Birmingham, 179 + Edinburgh, 29, 45, 47 + (footnote), 48 + (footnote), 49 + (footnote), 74 + Glasgow, 172 + Historical, 24-25 + Legislation, 74, 75 + London, 27-28 + Miscellaneous Places, 46 + Perth, 29, 45-46, 47 + Work done by, 46, 47 + Conditions of Employment, 1866 ... 69-71 + + Dining Arrangements at Works, 161 + + Employers and Women's Unions, 37, 42 + Envelope-making Described, 11 + + Factory Law. _See_ Legislation. + Family Health and Women's Work, 112 + _See also_ Health + Family Life and Women Workers, 67, 102-106 + "Folding-houses," 76-78 + + Gentility, 67 + Girls _v._ Women, 53, 96 + Glasgow, Trades in, 170-178 + + Health, 10, 11, 16, 66, 88-89, 112 + _See also Sections under_ Typical Firms, 141-169 + Home-work, 99-101, 152, 157, 176, 181 + Nos. Employed, 21, 99 + and Legislation, 75-76 + and Machinery, 99, 148 + and Organisation, 202 + Hours in Glasgow, 171, 172, 175, 177, 178 + Hours in Birmingham, 180, 181, 183 + _See also Sections under_ Typical Firms, 141-169 + + Illuminating Described, 13 + + Job Hands, 3, 79, 137, 169 + Wages, 137 + + Legislation: + Conditions before Legislation, 69-71, 84-86 + Economic and Industrial Effects, 73-93, 147, 151, 166, 171, 179, + 183 + Employers' Opinions, 81-84, 91-93 + Employees' Opinions, 84-86, 87 + Forewomen's Opinions, 86 + Home-work, 75-76, 101 + Limitation of Employment, 75, 89 + Machinery, 73-74 + Married Women, 84 + Nightwork, 71, 78, 80, 81, 82, 89, 152 + Provisions of the Law, 71-73 + Wages, 79, 90, 91 + Want of Elasticity, 91-93 + Women Compositors, 74 + _See also_ Overtime. + Letterpress Printing Described, 2 + Lithography Described, 10 + Health, 10 + London Society of Compositors and Women, 26, 27-28 + London Trades Council and Women, 36 + + Machine-ruling Described, 9 + Machinery: + Effect of Women's Labour upon, 46 (footnote), 97, 98 + Effect on Women's Employment, 1, 48, 94-98, 148, 157, 160, 161, + 162, 165, 167, 169, 173, 182 + Folding, 48, 94, 95, 182 + Home Work, 99 + Machine-ruling, 97 + Paper colouring, 96 + Re-introduction of Men's Labour, 95, 173 + Sewing, 95 + Stamping, 48 (footnote) + Typography, 96, 173 + Manchester and Salford Society of Women Employed in Bookbinding, + 40 + Marriage as an Industrial Influence, 64, 67 + Married Women as Workers, 84, 102, 106-112, 147, 151, 166, 168, + 171, 175, 182 + Family Health, 112 + In Birmingham, 182 + In Bristol, 110 + In Leeds and Bradford, 111 + In London, 108-109 + Moral Influence, 111 + Nos. Employed, 203 + Wages, 106-108, 171, 175 + Men and Women, 11, 44-52 + As Competitors, 12, 14, 45, 49-52, 156, 168, 173 + Bookbinders, 36, 38, 44 (footnote), 51, 175 + Compositors, 25, 26, 45, 173-174 + Division of Work between, 7-9, 11, 148, 152, 166, 175, 180 + Effect of Machinery, 95, 96 (footnote) + Machine Rulers, 177 + Men's View, 47, 173-174 + Methods of Work, 81 (footnote) + Nightwork, 79, 88, 89 + Paper Colouring, 97 + Relative Skill, 46-47, 50, 52, 58 + + National Bookfolders' Union, 39 + Nightwork, 14, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84-86, 88, 89 + _See also_ Overtime. + Numbering Described, 10 + + Organisation of Women: + Bookbinders, 30-41 + Compositors, 29, 41 + Miscellaneous Trades, 41-42, 180 + Women's Views upon, 42 + Overtime, 78-79, 81, 82, 84-89, 146, 183 + And Wages, 78, 87, 88 + _See also_ Nightwork. + + Paging Described, 10 + Paper-bag Making, 101 + Paper Making Described, 1 + Paterson, Mrs. Emma, 36 + Perforating Described, 10 + Perth Dispute, 45 + Piece Rates of Wages, 137 + Premiums, 55, 56, 59-60, 62 + Printers' Folding Described, 3 + Prospects, _See Sections under_ Typical Firms, 141-169 + + Regularity of Employment, 183 + _See also Sections under_ Typical Firms, 141-169 + + Scottish Typographical Association, 29, 45, 173 + Show Card Mounting Described, 13 + Society of Women Employed in Bookbinding, 36-38 + Stamping, Plain, etc., Described, 12 + + Technical Classes, 63, 66 + Training for Women, 52, 53 + Time and Piece Wages, 137 + Trade Union Congress, Women at, 36, 37 + Trade Unionism and Women: + Attitude of Bookbinders, 30-32 + Conflicts with Compositors, 25-30, 179 + _See also_ Organisation of Women + Training for Women, 55-68, 144, 149, 153, 165, 167, 170, 179, 180 + Lack of and Marriage Prospects, 64 + Typefounding Described, 14 + Typical Firms, Conditions in, 141-169 + Typographical Association, 25, 26, 47 + Scottish, 29, 45, 173 + + "Use and Wont" in Women's Work, 52 + + Wages, 113-137 + Birmingham, 179, 180, 181, 182 + Bookbinders' (1834-50), 33-35, 196-202 + Earnings of Individuals, 136-137, 184-195 + Effect of Legislation upon, 79, 90 + 1840-1890 ... 91 (footnote) + 1866 ... 90 + 1885-1900 ... 134 + Glasgow, 171, 172, 174-175, 176, 177, 178 + How far Supplementary, 103-106 + Kept up Without Unions, 41 + Learners, 55-62 + Married Women's Influence upon, 106-108, 171, 175 + Men's and Women's, 47 (footnote) + Time and Piece Rates, 137 + Why Low, 46, 50-51, 105 + Women _v._ Boys, 15, 47, 50 + Women's Competitors, 11 + _See also_ Men and Women; Women _v._ Boys; Girls _v._ Women. + Women Compositors. + _See_ Compositors, Women. + Women Workers, Number, 17-23, 203 + Ages of, 203 + Ambition, 11, 64, 65, 66 + Domestic Sphere Predominant, 67 + Gentility, 67 + Irregularity, 50, 66 + Women's Work, Characteristics of, 51, 63-64 + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Women in the Printing Trades., by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42275 *** |