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diff --git a/42173.txt b/42173.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f99ffd4..0000000 --- a/42173.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18875 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 7, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 7 - "Liquid Gases" to "Logar" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: February 23, 2013 [EBook #42173] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LIQUID GASES: "Another important use of liquid gases is as - analytic agents, and for this purpose liquid air is becoming an - almost essential laboratory reagent." 'as' amended from 'an'. - - ARTICLE LIQUOR LAWS: "The proceedings are stricter and more summary - in the case of a new licence; notice of application must be given - to the local authorities; ..." 'authorities' amended from - 'authorites'. - - ARTICLE LISBON: "... and the royal national theatre (Teatro de Dona - Maria Segunda), erected on the site which the Inquisition buildings - occupied from 1520 to 1836." 'Teatro' amended from 'Theatro'. - - ARTICLE LIVERSEDGE: "... Great Northern, and London & North Western - railways. Pop. (1901) 13,980." 'Northern' amended from 'Nothern'. - - ARTICLE LOCRI: "... and found in Syracuse a support against - Rhegium: it was thus an active adversary of Athenian aggrandisement - in the west." 'of' amended from 'or'. - - ARTICLE LOG: "The Bliss resembles the Rocket log in shape, and is - secured to the taffrail by a rope or sling." 'sling' amended from - 'slung'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVI, SLICE VII - - Liquid Gases to Logar - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - LIQUID GASES LLANWRTYD WELLS - LIQUORICE LLEWELYN - LIQUOR LAWS LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO - LIRA LLOYD, EDWARD - LIRI LLOYD, WILLIAM - LIROCONITE LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS - LISBON LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID - LISBURN LLOYD'S - LISIEUX LLWYD, EDWARD - LISKEARD LOACH - LISLE, ALICE LOAD; LODE - LISMORE (Scottish island) LOAF - LISMORE (Australian town) LOAM - LISMORE (Irish town) LOAN - LISSA (Austrian island) LOANDA - LISSA (Prussian town) LOANGO - LIST, FRIEDRICH LOBACHEVSKIY, NICOLAS IVANOVICH - LIST LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKI, ALEXIS BORISOVICH - LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO LOBAU - LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER LOBBY - LISTER, MARTIN LOBBYING - LISTON, JOHN LOBE - LISTON, ROBERT LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST - LISZT, FRANZ LOBEIRA, JOAO - LITANY LOBELIA - LITCHFIELD (Connecticut, U.S.A.) LOBENSTEIN - LITCHFIELD (Illinois, U.S.A.) LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES - LITCHI LOBO, JERONIMO - LITERATURE LOBSTER - LITERNUM LOCAL GOVERNMENT - LITHGOW, WILLIAM LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD - LITHGOW LOCARNO - LITHIUM LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH - LITHOGRAPHY LOCHABER - LITHOSPHERE LOCHES - LITHUANIANS and LETTS LOCHGELLY - LITMUS LOCHGILPHEAD - LITOPTERNA LOCHMABEN - LITOTES LOCK, MATTHIAS - LITTER LOCK - LITTLE FALLS (Minnesota, U.S.A.) LOCKE, JOHN - LITTLE FALLS (New York, U.S.A.) LOCKE, MATTHEW - LITTLEHAMPTON LOCKERBIE - LITTLE ROCK LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK - LITTLETON, EDWARD LOCKHART, GEORGE - LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS DE LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON - LITTRE, MAXIMILIEN PAUL EMILE LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM ALEXANDER - LITURGY LOCK HAVEN - LITUUS LOCKPORT (Illinois, U.S.A.) - LIUDPRAND LOCKPORT (New York, U.S.A.) - LIVE OAK LOCKROY, EDOUARD - LIVER LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK - LIVERMORE, MARY ASHTON [RICE] LOCKWOOD, WILTON - LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN - LIVERPOOL LOCLE, LE - LIVERSEDGE LOCMARIAQUER - LIVERY LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA - LIVERY COMPANIES LOCO-WEEDS - LIVIA DRUSILLA LOCRI (people of ancient Greece) - LIVINGSTON, EDWARD LOCRI (Italian city) - LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R. LOCSE - LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM LOCUS - LIVINGSTONE, DAVID LOCUST - LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS LOCUST-TREE - LIVIUS ANDRONICUS LODEVE - LIVNO LODGE, EDMUND - LIVONIA LODGE, HENRY CABOT - LIVY LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH - LIZARD LODGE, THOMAS - LIZARD POINT LODGE - LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HAKAN JORDAN LODGER AND LODGINGS - LLAMA LODI - LLANBERIS LODZ - LLANDAFF LOESS - LLANDEILO GROUP LOFFT, CAPEL - LLANDILO LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN - LLANDOVERY LOFT - LLANDOVERY GROUP LOFTUS, ADAM - LLANDRINDOD LOG - LLANDUDNO LOGAN, JOHN (American Indian chief) - LLANELLY LOGAN, JOHN (Scottish poet) - LLANES LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER - LLANGOLLEN LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM EDMOND - LLANQUIHUE LOGAN (Utah, U.S.A.) - LLANTRISANT LOGANSPORT - LLANTWIT MAJOR LOGAR - - - - -LIQUID GASES.[1] Though Lavoisier remarked that if the earth were -removed to very cold regions of space, such as those of Jupiter or -Saturn, its atmosphere, or at least a portion of its aeriform -constituents, would return to the state of liquid (_Oeuvres_, ii. 805), -the history of the liquefaction of gases may be said to begin with the -observation made by John Dalton in his essay "On the Force of Steam or -Vapour from Water and various other Liquids" (1801): "There can scarcely -be a doubt entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids -of whatever kind into liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting -it in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted on the unmixed -gases." It was not, however, till 1823 that the question was -investigated by systematic experiment. In that year Faraday, at the -suggestion of Sir Humphry Davy, exposed hydrate of chlorine to heat -under pressure in the laboratories of the Royal Institution. He placed -the substance at the end of one arm of a bent glass tube, which was then -hermetically sealed, and decomposing it by heating to 100 deg. F., he -saw a yellow liquid distil to the end of the other arm. This liquid he -surmised to be chlorine separated from the water by the heat and -"condensed into a dry fluid by the mere pressure of its own abundant -vapour," and he verified his surmise by compressing chlorine gas, freed -from water by exposure to sulphuric acid, to a pressure of about four -atmospheres, when the same yellow fluid was produced (_Phil. Trans._, -1823, 113, pp. 160-165). He proceeded to experiment with a number of -other gases subjected in sealed tubes to the pressure caused by their -own continuous production by chemical action, and in the course of a few -weeks liquefied sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, -euchlorine, nitrous acid, cyanogen, ammonia and muriatic acid, the last -of which, however, had previously been obtained by Davy. But he failed -with hydrogen, oxygen, fluoboric, fluosilicic and phosphuretted hydrogen -gases (_Phil. Trans._, ib. pp. 189-198). Early in the following year he -published an "Historical statement respecting the liquefaction of gases" -(_Quart. Journ. Sci._, 1824, 16, pp. 229-240), in which he detailed -several recorded cases in which previous experimenters had reduced -certain gases to their liquid state. - -In 1835 Thilorier, by acting on bicarbonate of soda with sulphuric acid -in a closed vessel and evacuating the gas thus obtained under pressure -into a second vessel, was able to accumulate large quantities of liquid -carbonic acid, and found that when the liquid was suddenly ejected into -the air a portion of it was solidified into a snow-like substance (_Ann. -chim. phys._, 1835, 60, pp. 427-432). Four years later J. K. Mitchell in -America, by mixing this snow with ether and exhausting it under an air -pump, attained a minimum temperature of 146 deg. below zero F., by the -aid of which he froze sulphurous acid gas to a solid. - -Stimulated by Thilorier's results and by considerations arising out of -the work of J. C. Cagniard de la Tour (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1822, 21, pp. -127 and 178, and 1823, 22, p. 410), which appeared to him to indicate -that gases would pass by some simple law into the liquid state, Faraday -returned to the subject about 1844, in the "hope of seeing nitrogen, -oxygen and hydrogen either as liquid or solid bodies, and the latter -probably as a metal" (_Phil. Trans._, 1845, 135, pp. 155-157). On the -basis of Cagniard de la Tour's observation that at a certain temperature -a liquid under sufficient pressure becomes a vapour or gas having the -same bulk as the liquid, he inferred that "at this temperature or one a -little higher, it is not likely that any increase of pressure, except -perhaps one exceedingly great, would convert the gas into a liquid." He -further surmised that the Cagniard de la Tour condition might have its -point of temperature for oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, &c., below that -belonging to the bath of solid carbonic acid and ether, and he realized -that in that case no pressure which any apparatus would be able to bear -would be able to bring those gases into the liquid or solid state, which -would require a still greater degree of cold. To fulfil this condition -he immersed the tubes containing his gases in a bath of solid carbonic -acid and ether, the temperature of which was reduced by exhaustion under -the air pump to -166 deg. F., or a little lower, and at the same time he -subjected the gases to pressures up to 50 atmospheres by the use of two -pumps working in series. In this way he added six substances, usually -gaseous, to the list of those that could be obtained in the liquid -state, and reduced seven, including ammonia, nitrous oxide and -sulphuretted hydrogen, into the solid form, at the same time effecting a -number of valuable determinations of vapour tensions. But he failed to -condense oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, the original objects of his -pursuit, though he found reason to think that "further diminution of -temperature and improved apparatus for pressure may very well be -expected to give us these bodies in the liquid or solid state." His -surmise that increased pressure alone would not suffice to bring about -change of state in these gases was confirmed by subsequent -investigators, such as M. P. E. Berthelot, who in 1850 compressed oxygen -to 780 atmospheres (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1850, 30, p. 237), and Natterer, -who a few years later subjected the permanent gases to a pressure of -2790 atmospheres, without result; and in 1869 Thomas Andrews (_Phil. -Trans._, 11) by his researches on carbonic acid finally established the -conception of the "critical temperature" as that temperature, differing -for different bodies, above which no gas can be made to assume the -liquid state, no matter what pressure it be subjected to (see -CONDENSATION OF GASES). - -About 1877 the problem of liquefying the permanent gases was taken up by -L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, working almost simultaneously though -independently. The former relied on the cold produced by the sudden -expansion of the gases at high compression. By means of a specially -designed pump he compressed about 100 cc. of oxygen in a narrow glass -tube to about 200 atmospheres, at the same time cooling it to about -29 -deg. C., and on suddenly releasing the pressure he saw momentarily in -the interior of the tube a mist (_brouillard_), from which he inferred -the presence of a vapour very near its point of liquefaction. A few days -later he repeated the experiment with hydrogen, using a pressure of -nearly 300 atmospheres, and observed in his tube an exceedingly fine and -subtle fog which vanished almost instantaneously. At the time when these -experiments were carried out it was generally accepted that the mist or -fog consisted of minute drops of the liquefied gases. Even had this been -the case, the problem would not have been completely solved, for -Cailletet was unable to collect the drops in the form of a true stable -liquid, and at the best obtained a "dynamic" not a "static" liquid, the -gas being reduced to a form that bears the same relation to a true -liquid that the partially condensed steam issuing from the funnel of a -locomotive bears to water standing in a tumbler. But subsequent -knowledge showed that even this proximate liquefaction could not have -taken place, and that the fog could not have consisted of drops of -liquid hydrogen, because the cooling produced by the adiabatic expansion -would give a temperature of only 44 deg. abs., which is certainly above -the critical temperature of hydrogen. Pictet again announced that on -opening the tap of a vessel containing hydrogen at a pressure of 650 -atmospheres and cooled by the cascade method (see CONDENSATION OF GASES) -to -140 deg. C., he saw issuing from the orifice an opaque jet which he -assumed to consist of hydrogen in the liquid form or in the liquid and -solid forms mixed. But he was no more successful than Cailletet in -collecting any of the liquid, which--whatever else it may have been, -whether ordinary air or impurities associated with the hydrogen--cannot -have been hydrogen because the means he employed were insufficient to -reduce the gas to what has subsequently been ascertained to be its -critical point, below which of course liquefaction is impossible. It -need scarcely be added that if the liquefaction of hydrogen be rejected -a fortiori Pictet's claim to have effected its solidification falls to -the ground. - -After Cailletet and Pictet, the next important names in the history of -the liquefaction of gases are those of Z. F. Wroblewski and K. S. -Olszewski, who for some years worked together at Cracow. In April 1883 -the former announced to the French Academy that he had obtained oxygen -in a completely liquid state and (a few days later) that nitrogen at a -temperature of -136 deg. C., reduced suddenly from a pressure of 150 -atmospheres to one of 50, had been seen as a liquid which showed a true -meniscus, but disappeared in a few seconds. But with hydrogen treated in -the same way he failed to obtain even the mist reported by Cailletet. At -the beginning of 1884 he performed a more satisfactory experiment. -Cooling hydrogen in a capillary glass tube to the temperature of liquid -oxygen, he expanded it quickly from 100 atmospheres to one, and -obtained the appearance of an instantaneous ebullition. Olszewski -confirmed this result by expanding from a pressure of 190 atmospheres -the gas cooled by liquid oxygen and nitrogen boiling under reduced -pressure, and even announced that he saw it running down the walls of -the tube as a colourless liquid. - -Wroblewski, however, was unable to observe this phenomenon, and -Olszewski himself, when seven years later he repeated the experiment in -the more favourable conditions afforded by a larger apparatus, was -unable to produce again the colourless drops he had previously reported: -the phenomenon of the appearance of sudden ebullition indeed lasted -longer, but he failed to perceive any meniscus such as would have been a -certain indication of the presence of a true liquid. Still, though -neither of these investigators succeeded in reaching the goal at which -they aimed, their work was of great value in elucidating the conditions -of the problem and in perfecting the details of the apparatus employed. -Wroblewski in particular devoted the closing years of his life to a most -valuable investigation of the isothermals of hydrogen at low -temperatures. From the data thus obtained he constructed a van der Waals -equation which enabled him to calculate the critical temperature, -pressure and density of hydrogen with very much greater certainty than -had previously been possible. Liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen and liquid -air--the last was first made by Wroblewski in 1885--became something -more than mere curiosities of the laboratory, and by the year 1891 were -produced in such quantities as to be available for the purposes of -scientific research. Still, nothing was added to the general principles -upon which the work of Cailletet and Pictet was based, and the "cascade" -method, together with adiabatic expansion from high compression (see -CONDENSATION OF GASES), remained the only means of procedure at the -disposal of experimenters in this branch of physics. - -In some quarters a certain amount of doubt appears to have arisen as to -the sufficiency of these methods for the liquefaction of hydrogen. -Olszewski, for example, in 1895 pointed out that the succession of less -and less condensible gases necessary for the cascade method breaks down -between nitrogen and hydrogen, and he gave as a reason for hydrogen not -having been reduced to the condition of a static liquid the -non-existence of a gas intermediate in volatility between those two. By -1894 attempts had been made in the Royal Institution laboratories to -manufacture an artificial gas of this nature by adding a small -proportion of air to the hydrogen, so as to get a mixture with a -critical point of about -200 deg. C. When such a mixture was cooled to -that temperature and expanded from a high degree of compression into a -vacuum vessel, the result was a white mass of solid air together with a -clear liquid of very low density. This was in all probability hydrogen -in the true liquid state, but it was not found possible to collect it -owing to its extreme volatility. Whether this artificial gas might -ultimately have enabled liquid hydrogen to be collected in open vessels -we cannot say, for experiments with it were abandoned in favour of other -measures, which led finally to a more assured success. - -_Vacuum Vessels._--The problem involved in the liquefaction of hydrogen -was in reality a double one. In the first place, the gas had to be -cooled to such a temperature that the change to the liquid state was -rendered possible. In the second, means had to be discovered for -protecting it, when so cooled, from the influx of external heat, and -since the rate at which heat is transferred from one body to another -increases very rapidly with the difference between their temperatures, -the question of efficient heat insulation became at once more difficult -and more urgent in proportion to the degree of cold attained. The second -part of the problem was in fact solved first. Of course packing with -non-conducting materials was an obvious expedient when it was not -necessary that the contents of the apparatus should be visible to the -eye, but in the numerous instances when this was not the case such -measures were out of the question. Attempts were made to secure the -desired end by surrounding the vessel that contained the cooled or -liquid gas with a succession of other vessels, through which was -conducted the vapour given off from the interior one. Such devices -involved awkward complications in the arrangement of the apparatus, and -besides were not as a rule very efficient, although some workers, e.g. -Dr Kamerlingh Onnes, of Leiden, reported some success with their use. In -1892 it occurred to Dewar that the principle of an arrangement he had -used nearly twenty years before for some calorimetric experiments on the -physical constants of hydrogenium, which was a natural deduction from -the work of Dulong and Petit on radiation, might be employed with -advantage as well to protect cold substances from heat as hot ones from -cold. He therefore tried the effect of surrounding his liquefied gas -with a highly exhausted space. The result was entirely successful. -Experiment showed that liquid air contained in a glass vessel with two -walls, the space between which was a high vacuum, evaporated at only one -fifth the rate it did when in an ordinary vessel surrounded with air at -atmospheric pressure, the convective transference of heat by means of -the gas particles being enormously reduced owing to the vacuum. But in -addition these vessels lent themselves to an arrangement by which -radiant heat could still further be cut off, since it was found that -when the inner wall was coated with a bright deposit of silver, the -influx of heat was diminished to one-sixth of the amount existing -without the metallic coating. The total effect, therefore, of the high -vacuum and silvering is to reduce the in-going heat to one-thirtieth -part. In making such vessels a mercurial vacuum has been found very -satisfactory. The vessel in which the vacuum is to be produced is -provided with a small subsidiary vessel joined by a narrow tube with the -main vessel, and connected with a powerful air-pump. A quantity of -mercury having been placed in it, it is heated in an oil- or air-bath to -about 200 deg. C., so as to volatilize the mercury, the vapour of which -is removed by the pump. After the process has gone on for some time, the -pipe leading to the pump is sealed off, the vessel immediately removed -from the bath, and the small subsidiary part immersed in some cooling -agent such as solid carbonic acid or liquid air, whereby the mercury -vapour is condensed in the small vessel and a vacuum of enormous tenuity -left in the large one. The final step is to seal off the tube connecting -the two. In this way a vacuum may be produced having a vapour pressure -of about the hundred-millionth of an atmosphere at 0 deg. C. If, -however, some liquid mercury be left in the space in which the vacuum is -produced, and the containing part of the vessel be filled with liquid -air, the bright mirror of mercury which is deposited on the inside wall -of the bulb is still more effective than silver in protecting the -chamber from the influx of heat, owing to the high refractive index, -which involves great reflecting power, and the bad heat-conducting -powers of mercury. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Metallic Vacuum Vessel.] - -With the discovery of the remarkable power of gas absorption possessed -by charcoal cooled to a low temperature (see below), it became possible -to make these vessels of metal. Previously this could not be done with -success, because gas occluded in the metal gradually escaped and -vitiated the vacuum; but now any stray gas may be absorbed by means of -charcoal so placed in a pocket within the vacuous space that it is -cooled by the liquid in the interior of the vessel. Metal vacuum -vessels (fig. 1), of a capacity of from 2 to 20 litres, may be formed of -brass, copper, nickel or tinned iron, with necks of some alloy that is a -bad conductor of heat, silvered glass vacuum cylinders being fitted as -stoppers. Such flasks, when properly constructed, have an efficiency -equal to that of the chemically-silvered glass vacuum vessels now -commonly used in low temperature investigations, and they are obviously -better adapted for transport. The principle of the Dewar vessel is -utilized in the Thermos flasks which are now extensively manufactured -and employed for keeping liquids warm in hospitals, &c. - - _Thermal Transparency at Low Temperatures._--The proposition, once - enunciated by Pictet, that at low temperatures all substances have - practically the same thermal transparency, and are equally ineffective - as non-conductors of heat, is based on erroneous observations. It is - true that if the space between the two walls of a double-walled vessel - is packed with substances like carbon, magnesia, or silica, liquid air - placed in the interior will boil off even more quickly than it will - when the space merely contains air at atmospheric pressure; but in - such cases it is not so much the carbon, &c., that bring about the - transference of heat, as the air contained in their interstices. If - this air be pumped out such substances are seen to exert a very - considerable influence in stopping the influx of heat, and a vacuum - vessel which has the space between its two walls filled with a - non-conducting material of this kind preserves a liquid gas even - better than one in which that space is simply exhausted of air. In - experiments on this point double-walled glass tubes, as nearly - identical in shape and size as possible, were mounted in sets of three - on a common stem which communicated with an air-pump, so that the - degree of exhaustion in each was equal. In two of each three the space - between the double walls was filled with the powdered material it was - desired to test, the third being left empty and used as the standard. - The time required for a certain quantity of liquid air to evaporate - from the interior of this empty bulb being called 1, in each of the - eight sets of triple tubes, the times required for the same quantity - to boil off from the other pairs of tubes were as follows:-- - - / Charcoal 5 / Lampblack 5 - \ Magnesia 2 \ Silica 4 - - / Graphite 1.3 / Lampblack 4 - \ Alumina 3.3 \ Lycopodium 2.5 - - / Calcium carbonate 2.5 / Barium carbonate 1.3 - \ Calcium fluoride 1.25 \ Calcium phosphate 2.7 - - / Phosphorus (amorphous) 1 / Lead oxide 2 - \ Mercuric iodide 1.5 \ Bismuth oxide 6 - - Other experiments of the same kind made--(a) with similar vacuum - vessels, but with the powders replaced by metallic and other septa; - and (b) with vacuum vessels having their walls silvered, yielded the - following results:-- - - /(a) Vacuum space empty 1 / Vacuum space empty 1 - | Three turns silver | Three turns black paper, - | paper, bright < black outside 3 - < surface inside 4 | Three turns black paper, - | Three turns silver \ black inside 3 - | paper, bright - \ surfaceoutside 4 - - / Vacuum space empty 1 / Vacuum space empty 1 - | Three turns gold paper, | Three turns, not touching, - | gold outside 4 < of sheet lead 4 - < Some pieces of goldleaf | Three turns, not touching, - | put in so as \ of sheet aluminium 4 - | to make contact - | between walls of - \ vacuum-tube 0.3 - - /(b) Vacuum space empty, / Empty silvered vacuum 1 - | silvered on inside < Charcoal in silvered - < surfaces 1 \ vacuum 1.25 - | Silica in silvered - \ vacuum space 1.1 - - It appears from these experiments that silica, charcoal, lampblack, - and oxide of bismuth all increase the heat insulations to four, five - and six times that of the empty vacuum space. As the chief - communication of heat through an exhausted space is by molecular - bombardment, the fine powders must shorten the free path of the - gaseous molecules, and the slow conduction of heat through the porous - mass must make the conveyance of heat-energy more difficult than when - the gas molecules can impinge upon the relatively hot outer glass - surface, and then directly on the cold one without interruption. (See - _Proc. Roy. Inst._ xv. 821-826.) - - _Density of Solids and Coefficients of Expansion at Low - Temperatures._--The facility with which liquid gases, like oxygen or - nitrogen, can be guarded from evaporation by the proper use of vacuum - vessels (now called Dewar vessels), naturally suggests that the - specific gravities of solid bodies can be got by direct weighing when - immersed in such fluids. If the density of the liquid gas is - accurately known, then the loss of weight by fluid displacement gives - the specific gravity compared to water. The metals and alloys, or - substances that can be got in large crystals, are the easiest to - manipulate. If the body is only to be had in small crystals, then it - must be compressed under strong hydraulic pressure into coherent - blocks weighing about 40 to 50 grammes. Such an amount of material - gives a very accurate density of the body about the boiling point of - air, and a similar density taken in a suitable liquid at the ordinary - temperature enables the mean coefficient of expansion between +15 deg. - C. and -185 deg. C. to be determined. One of the most interesting - results is that the density of ice at the boiling point of air is not - more than 0.93, the mean coefficient of expansion being therefore - 0.000081. As the value of the same coefficient between 0 deg. C. and - -27 deg. C. is 0.000155, it is clear the rate of contraction is - diminished to about one-half of what it was above the melting point of - the ice. This suggests that by no possible cooling at our command is - it likely we could ever make ice as dense as water at 0 deg. C., far - less 4 deg. C. In other words, the volume of ice at the zero of - temperature would not be the minimum volume of the water molecule, - though we have every reason to believe it would be so in the case of - the majority of known substances. Another substance of special - interest is solid carbonic acid. This body has a density of 1.53 at - -78 deg. C. and 1.633 at -185 deg. C., thus giving a mean coefficient - of expansion between these temperatures of 0.00057. This value is only - about 1/6 of the coefficient of expansion of the liquid carbonic acid - gas just above its melting point, but it is still much greater at the - low temperature than that of highly expansive solids like sulphur, - which at 40 deg. C. has a value of 0.00019. The following table gives - the densities at the temperature of boiling liquid air (-185 deg. C.) - and at ordinary temperatures (17 deg. C.), together with the mean - coefficient of expansion between those temperatures, in the case of a - number of hydrated salts and other substances: - - TABLE I. - - +---------------------------+---------+--------+------------+ - | | | | Mean | - | | | | coefficient| - | | Density | Density|of expansion| - | | at -185 | at +17 |between -185| - | | deg. C. | deg. C.| deg. C. and| - | | | | +17 deg. C.| - +---------------------------+---------+--------+------------+ - | Aluminium sulphate (18)* | 1.7194 | 1.6913 | 0.0000811 | - | Sodium biborate (10) | 1.7284 | 1.6937 | 0.0001000 | - | Calcium chloride (6) | 1.7187 | 1.6775 | 0.0001191 | - | Magnesium chloride (6) | 1.6039 | 1.5693 | 0.0001072 | - | Potash alum (24) | 1.6414 | 1.6144 | 0.0000813 | - | Chrome alum (24) | 1.7842 | 1.7669 | 0.0000478 | - | Sodium carbonate (10) | 1.4926 | 1.4460 | 0.0001563 | - | Sodium phosphate (12) | 1.5446 | 1.5200 | 0.0000787 | - | Sodium thiosulphate (5) | 1.7635 | 1.7290 | 0.0000969 | - | Potassium ferrocyanide (3)| 1.8988 | 1.8533 | 0.0001195 | - | Potassium ferricyanide | 1.8944 | 1.8109 | 0.0002244 | - | Sodium nitro-prusside (4) | 1.7196 | 1.6803 | 0.0001138 | - | Ammonium chloride | 1.5757 | 1.5188 | 0.0001820 | - | Oxalic acid (2) | 1.7024 | 1.6145 | 0.0002643 | - | Methyl oxalate | 1.5278 | 1.4260 | 0.0003482 | - | Paraffin | 0.9770 | 0.9103 | 0.0003567 | - | Naphthalene | 1.2355 | 1.1589 | 0.0003200 | - | Chloral hydrate | 1.9744 | 1.9151 | 0.0001482 | - | Urea | 1.3617 | 1.3190 | 0.0001579 | - | Iodoform | 4.4459 | 4.1955 | 0.0002930 | - | Iodine | 4.8943 | 4.6631 | 0.0002510 | - | Sulphur | 2.0989 | 2.0522 | 0.0001152 | - | Mercury |14.382 | .. | 0.0000881**| - | Sodium | 1.0056 | 0.972 | 0.0001810 | - | Graphite (Cumberland) | 2.1302 | 2.0990 | 0.0000733 | - +---------------------------+---------+--------+------------+ - - * The figures within parentheses refer to the number of molecules of - water of crystallization. - ** -189 deg. to -38.85 deg. C. - - It will be seen from this table that, with the exception of carbonate - of soda and chrome alum, the hydrated salts have a coefficient of - expansion that does not differ greatly from that of ice at low - temperatures. Iodoform is a highly expansive body like iodine, and - oxalate of methyl has nearly as great a coefficient as paraffin, which - is a very expansive solid, as are naphthalene and oxalic acid. The - coefficient of solid mercury is about half that of the liquid metal, - while that of sodium is about the value of mercury at ordinary - temperatures. Further details on the subject can be found in the - _Proc. Roy. Inst._ (1895), and _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (1902). - - _Density of Gases at Low Temperatures._--The ordinary mode of - determining the density of gases may be followed, provided that the - glass flask, with its carefully ground stop-cock sealed on, can stand - an internal pressure of about five atmospheres, and that all the - necessary corrections for change of volume are made. All that is - necessary is to immerse the exhausted flask in boiling oxygen, and - then to allow the second gas to enter from a gasometer by opening the - stop-cock until the pressure is equalized. The stop-cock being closed, - the flask is now taken out of the liquid oxygen and left in the - balance-room until its temperature is equalized. It is then weighed - against a similar flask used as a counterpoise. Following such a - method, it has been found that the weight of 1 litre of oxygen vapour - at its boiling point of 90.5 deg. absolute is 4.420 grammes, and - therefore the specific volume is 226.25 cc. According to the ordinary - gaseous laws, the litre ought to weigh 4.313 grammes, and the specific - volume should be 231.82 cc. In other words, the product of pressure - and volume at the boiling point is diminished by 2.46%. In a similar - way the weight of a litre of nitrogen vapour at the boiling point of - oxygen was found to be 3.90, and the inferred value for 78 deg. - absolute, or its own boiling point, would be 4.51, giving a specific - volume of 221.3. - -_Regenerative Cooling._--One part of the problem being thus solved and a -satisfactory device discovered for warding off heat in such vacuum -vessels, it remained to arrange some practically efficient method for -reducing hydrogen to a temperature sufficiently low for liquefaction. To -gain that end, the idea naturally occurred of using adiabatic expansion, -not intermittently, as when gas is allowed to expand suddenly from a -high compression, but in a continuous process, and an obvious way of -attempting to carry out this condition was to enclose the orifice at -which expansion takes place in a tube, so as to obtain a constant stream -of cooled gas passing over it. But further consideration of this plan -showed that although the gas jet would be cooled near the point of -expansion owing to the conversion of a portion of its sensible heat into -dynamical energy of the moving gas, yet the heat it thus lost would be -restored to it almost immediately by the destruction of this mechanical -energy through friction and its consequent reconversion into heat. Thus -the net result would be _nil_ so far as change of temperature through -the performance of external work was concerned. But the conditions in -such an arrangement resemble that in the experiments of Thomson and -Joule on the thermal changes which occur in a gas when it is forced -under pressure through a porous plug or narrow orifice, and those -experimenters found, as the former of them had predicted, that a change -of temperature does take place, owing to internal work being done by the -attraction of the gas molecules. Hence the effective result obtainable -in practice by such an attempt at continuous adiabatic expansion as that -suggested above is to be measured by the amount of the "Thomson-Joule -effect," which depends entirely on the internal, not the external, work -done by the gas. To Linde belongs the credit of having first seen the -essential importance of this effect in connexion with the liquefaction -of gases by adiabatic expansion, and he was, further, the first to -construct an industrial plant for the production of liquid air based on -the application of this principle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Laboratory Liquid Air Machine. - - A, Air or oxygen inlet. - B, Carbon dioxide inlet. - C, Carbon dioxide valve. - D, Regenerator coils. - F, Air or oxygen expansion valve. - G, Vacuum vessel with liquid air or oxygen. - H, Carbon dioxide and air outlet. - O, Air coil. - O, Carbon dioxide coil.] - -The change of temperature due to the Thomson-Joule effect varies in -amount with different gases, or rather with the temperature at which the -operation is conducted. At ordinary temperatures oxygen and carbonic -acid are cooled, while hydrogen is slightly heated. But hydrogen also is -cooled if before being passed through the nozzle or plug it is brought -into a thermal condition comparable to that of other gases at ordinary -temperatures--that is to say, when it is initially cooled to a -temperature having the same ratio to its critical point as their -temperatures have to their critical points--and similarly the more -condensible gases would be heated, and not cooled, by passing through a -nozzle or plug if they were employed at a temperature sufficiently above -their critical points. Each gas has therefore a point of inversion of -the Thomson-Joule effect, and this temperature is, according to the -theory of van der Waals, about 6.75 times the critical temperature of -the body. Olszewski has determined the inversion-point in the case of -hydrogen, and finds it to be 192.5 deg. absolute, the theoretical -critical point being thus about 28.5 deg. absolute. The cooling effect -obtained is small, being for air about 1/4 deg. C. per atmosphere -difference of pressure at ordinary temperatures. But the decrement of -temperature is proportional to the difference of pressure and inversely -as the absolute temperature, so that the Thomson-Joule effect increases -rapidly by the combined use of a lower temperature and greater -difference of gas pressure. By means of the "regenerative" method of -working, which was described by C. W. Siemens in 1857, developed and -extended by Ernest Solvay in 1885, and subsequently utilized by numerous -experimenters in the construction of low temperature apparatus, a -practicable liquid air plant was constructed by Linde. The gas which has -passed the orifice and is therefore cooled is made to flow backwards -round the tube that leads to the nozzle; hence that portion of the gas -that is just about to pass through the nozzle has some of its heat -abstracted, and in consequence on expansion is cooled to a lower -temperature than the first portion. In its turn it cools a third portion -in the same way, and so the reduction of temperature goes on -progressively until ultimately a portion of the gas is liquefied. -Apparatus based on this principle has been employed not only by Linde in -Germany, but also by Tripler in America and by Hampson and Dewar in -England. The last-named experimenter exhibited in December 1895 a -laboratory machine of this kind (fig. 2), which when supplied with -oxygen initially cooled to -79 deg. C., and at a pressure of 100-150 -atmospheres, began to yield liquid in about a quarter of an hour after -starting. The initial cooling is not necessary, but it has the advantage -of reducing the time required for the operation. The efficiency of the -Linde process is small, but it is easily conducted and only requires -plenty of cheap power. When we can work turbines or other engines at low -temperatures, so as to effect cooling through the performance of -external work, then the economy in the production of liquid air and -hydrogen will be greatly increased. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hydrogen Jet Apparatus. A, Cylinder containing -compressed hydrogen. B and C, Vacuum vessels containing carbonic acid -under exhaustion and liquid air respectively. D, Regenerating coil in -vacuum vessel. F, Valve. G, Pin-hole nozzle.] - -This treatment was next extended to hydrogen. For the reason already -explained, it would have been futile to experiment with this substance -at ordinary temperatures, and therefore as a preliminary it was cooled -to the temperature of boiling liquid air, about -190 deg. C. At this -temperature it is still 2(1/2) times above its critical temperature, and -therefore its liquefaction in these circumstances would be comparable to -that of air, taken at +60 deg. C., in an apparatus like that just -described. Dewar showed in 1896 that hydrogen cooled in this way and -expanded in a regenerative coil from a pressure of 200 atmospheres was -rapidly reduced in temperature to such an extent that after the -apparatus had been working a few minutes the issuing jet was seen to -contain liquid, which was sufficiently proved to be liquid hydrogen by -the fact that it was so cold as to freeze liquid air and oxygen into -hard white solids. Though with this apparatus, a diagrammatic -representation of which is shown in fig. 3, it was now found possible at -the time to collect the liquid in an open vessel, owing to its low -specific gravity and the rapidity of the gas-current, still the general -type of the arrangement seemed so promising that in the next two years -there was laid down in the laboratories of the Royal Institution a large -plant--it weighs 2 tons and contains 3000 ft. of pipe--which is designed -on precisely the same principles, although its construction is far more -elaborate. The one important novelty, without which it is practically -impossible to succeed, is the provision of a device to surmount the -difficulty of withdrawing the liquefied hydrogen after it has been made. -The desideratum is really a means of forming an aperture in the bottom -of a vacuum vessel by which the contained liquid may be run out. For -this purpose the lower part of the vacuum vessel (D in fig. 3) -containing the jet is modified as shown in fig. 4; the inner vessel is -prolonged in a fine tube, coiled spirally, which passes through the -outer wall of the vacuum vessel, and thus sufficient elasticity is -obtained to enable the tube to withstand without fracture the great -contraction consequent on the extreme cold to which it is subjected. -Such peculiarly shaped vacuum vessels were made by Dewar's directions in -Germany, and have subsequently been supplied to and employed by other -experimenters. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bottom of Vacuum Vessel.] - -With the liquefying plant above referred to liquid hydrogen was for the -first time collected in an open vessel on the 10th of May 1898. The gas -at a pressure of 180 atmospheres was cooled to -205 deg. C. by means of -liquid air boiling _in vacuo_, and was then passed through the nozzle of -the regenerative coil, which was enclosed in vacuum vessels in such a -way as to exclude external heat as perfectly as possible. In this way -some 20 cc. of the liquid had been collected when the experiment came to -a premature end, owing to the nozzle of the apparatus becoming blocked -by a dense solid--air-ice resulting from the congelation of the air -which was present to a minute extent as an impurity in the hydrogen. -This accident exemplifies what is a serious trouble encountered in the -production of liquid hydrogen, the extreme difficulty of obtaining the -gas in a state of sufficient purity, for the presence of 1% of foreign -matters, such as air or oxygen, which are more condensible than -hydrogen, is sufficient to cause complete stoppage, unless the nozzle -valve and jet arrangement is of special construction. In subsequent -experiments the liquid was obtained in larger quantities--on the 13th of -June 1901 five litres of it were successfully conveyed through the -streets of London from the laboratory of the Royal Institution to the -rooms of the Royal Society--and it may be said that it is now possible -to produce it in any desired amount, subject only to the limitations -entailed by expense. Finally, the reduction of hydrogen to a solid state -was successfully undertaken in 1899. A portion of the liquid carefully -isolated in vacuum-jacketed vessels was suddenly transformed into a -white mass resembling frozen foam, when evaporated under an air-pump at -a pressure of 30 or 40 mm., and subsequently hydrogen was obtained as a -clear transparent ice by immersing a tube containing the liquid in this -solid foam. - -_Liquefaction of Helium._--The subjection of hydrogen completed the -experimental proof that all gases can be reduced to the liquid and solid -states by the aid of pressure and low temperature, at least so far as -regards those in the hands of the chemist at the beginning of the last -decade of the 19th century. But a year or so before hydrogen was -obtained in the liquid form, a substance known to exist in the sun from -spectroscopic researches carried out by Sir Edward Frankland and Sir J. -Norman Lockyer was shown by Sir William Ramsay to exist on the earth in -small quantities. Helium (q.v.), as this substance was named, was found -by experiment to be a gas much less condensable than hydrogen. Dewar in -1901 expanded it from a pressure of 80-100 atmospheres at the -temperature of solid hydrogen without perceiving the least indication of -liquefaction. Olszewski repeated the experiment in 1905, using the still -higher initial compression of 180 atmospheres, but he equally failed to -find any evidence of liquefaction, and in consequence was inclined to -doubt whether the gas was liquefiable at all, whether in fact it was not -a truly "permanent" gas. Other investigators, however, took a different -and more hopeful view of the matter. Dewar, for instance (_Pres. Address -Brit. Assoc._, 1902), basing his deductions on the laws established by -van der Waals and others from the study of phenomena at much higher -temperatures, anticipated that the boiling-point of the substance would -be about 5 deg. absolute, so that the liquid would be about four times -more volatile than liquid hydrogen, just as liquid hydrogen is four -times more volatile than liquid air; and he expressed the opinion that -the gas would succumb on being subjected to the process that had -succeeded with hydrogen, except that liquid hydrogen, instead of liquid -air, evaporating under exhaustion must be employed as the primary -cooling agent, and must also be used to surround the vacuum vessel in -which the liquid was collected. - -Various circumstances combined to prevent Dewar from actually carrying -out the operation thus foreshadowed, but his anticipations were -justified and the sufficiency of the method he indicated practically -proved by Dr H. Kamerlingh Onnes, who, working with the splendid -resources of the Leiden cryogenic laboratory, succeeded in obtaining -helium in the liquid state on the 10th of July 1908. Having prepared 200 -litres of the gas (160 litres in reserve) from monazite sand,[2] he -cooled it with exhausted liquid hydrogen to a temperature of 15 or 16 -deg. abs., and expanded it through a regenerative coil under a pressure -of 50 to 100 atmospheres, making use of the most elaborate precautions -to prevent influx of heat and securing the absence of less volatile -gases that might freeze and block the tubes of the apparatus by -including in the helium circuit charcoal cooled to the temperature of -liquid air. Operations began at 5.45 in the morning with the preparation -of the necessary liquid hydrogen, of which 20 litres were ready by 1.30. -The circulation of the helium was started at 4.30 in the afternoon and -was continued until the gas had been pumped round the circuit twenty -times; but it was not till 7.30, when the last bottle of liquid hydrogen -had been brought into requisition, that the surface of the liquid was -seen, by reflection of light from below, standing out sharply like the -edge of a knife against the glass wall of the vacuum vessel. Its -boiling-point has been determined as being 4 deg. abs., its critical -temperature 5 deg., and its critical pressure not more than three -atmospheres. The density of the liquid is found to be 0.015 or about -twice that of liquid hydrogen. It could not be solidified even when -exhausted under a pressure of 2 mm., which in all probability -corresponds to a temperature of 2 deg. abs. (see _Communications from -the physical laboratory at the University of Leiden, 1908-1909_). - -The following are brief details respecting some of the more important -liquid gases that have become available for study within recent years. -(For argon, neon, krypton, &c., see ARGON.) - - _Oxygen._--Liquid oxygen is a mobile transparent-liquid, possessing a - faint blue colour. At atmospheric pressure it boils at -181.5 deg. C.; - under a reduced pressure of 1 cm. of mercury its temperature falls to - -210 deg. C. At the boiling point it has a density of 1.124 according - to Olszewski, or of 1.168 according to Wroblewski; Dewar obtained the - value 1.1375 as the mean of twenty observations by weighing a number - of solid substances in liquid oxygen, noting the apparent relative - density of the liquid, and thence calculating its real density, - Fizeau's values for the coefficients of expansion of the solids being - employed. The capillarity of liquid oxygen is about one-sixth that of - water; it is a non-conductor of electricity, and is strongly magnetic. - By its own evaporation it cannot be reduced to the solid state, but - exposed to the temperature of liquid hydrogen it is frozen into a - solid mass, having a pale bluish tint, showing by reflection all the - absorption bands of the liquid. It is remarkable that the same - absorption bands occur in the compressed gas. Dewar gives the - melting-point as 38 deg. absolute, and the density at the - boiling-point of hydrogen as 1.4526. The refractive index of the - liquid for the D sodium ray is 1.2236. - - _Ozone._--This gas is easily liquefied by the use of liquid air. The - liquid obtained is intensely blue, and on allowing the temperature to - rise, boils and explodes about -120 deg. C. About this temperature it - may be dissolved in bisulphide of carbon to a faint blue solution. The - liquid ozone seems to be more magnetic than liquid oxygen. - - _Nitrogen_ forms a transparent colourless liquid, having a density of - 0.8042 at its boiling-point, which is -195.5 deg. C. The refractive - index for the D line is 1.2053. Evaporated under diminished pressure - the liquid becomes solid at a temperature of -215 deg. C., melting - under a pressure of 90 mm. The density of the solid at the - boiling-point of hydrogen is 1.0265. - - _Air._--Seeing that the boiling-points of nitrogen and oxygen are - different, it might be expected that on the liquefaction of - atmospheric air the two elements would appear as two separate liquids. - Such, however, is not the case; they come down simultaneously as one - homogeneous liquid. Prepared on a large scale, liquid air may contain - as much as 50% of oxygen when collected in open vacuum-vessels, but - since nitrogen is the more volatile it boils off first, and as the - liquid gradually becomes richer in oxygen the temperature at which it - boils rises from about -192 deg. C. to about -182 deg. C. At the - former temperature it has a density of about 0.910. It is a - non-conductor of electricity. Properly protected from external heat, - and subjected to high exhaustion, liquid air becomes a stiff - transparent jelly-like mass, a magma of solid nitrogen containing - liquid oxygen, which may indeed be extracted from it by means of a - magnet, or by rapid rotation of the vacuum vessel in imitation of a - centrifugal machine. The temperature of this solid under a vacuum of - about 14 mm. is -216 deg. At the still lower temperatures attainable - by the aid of liquid hydrogen it becomes a white solid, having, like - solid oxygen, a faint blue tint. The refractive index of liquid air is - 1.2068. - - _Fluorine_, prepared in the free state by Moissan's method of - electrolysing a solution of potassium fluoride in anhydrous - hydrofluoric acid, was liquefied in the laboratories of the Royal - Institution, London, in 1897. Exposed to the temperature of - quietly-boiling liquid oxygen, the gas did not change its state, - though it lost much of its chemical activity, and ceased to attack - glass. But a very small vacuum formed over the oxygen was sufficient - to determine liquefaction, a result which was also obtained by cooling - the gas to the temperature of freshly-made liquid air boiling at - atmospheric pressure. Hence the boiling-point is fixed at about -187 - deg. C. The liquid is of a clear yellow colour, possessing great - mobility. Its density is 1.14, and its capillarity rather less than - that of liquid oxygen. The liquid, when examined in a thickness of 1 - cm., does not show any absorption bands, and it is not attracted by a - magnet. Cooled in liquid hydrogen it is frozen to a white solid, - melting at about 40 deg. abs. - - _Hydrogen._--Liquid hydrogen is the lightest liquid known to the - chemist, having a density slightly less than 0.07 as compared with - water, and being six times lighter than liquid marsh-gas, which is - next in order of lightness. One litre weighs only 70 grammes, and 1 - gramme occupies a volume of 14-15 cc. In spite of its extreme - lightness, however, it is easily seen, has a well-defined meniscus and - drops well. At its boiling-point the liquid is only 55 times denser - than the vapour it is giving off, whereas liquid oxygen in similar - condition is 258 times denser than its vapour, and nitrogen 177 times. - Its atomic volume is about 14.3, that of liquid oxygen being 13.7, - and that of liquid nitrogen 16.6, at their respective boiling-points. - Its latent heat of vaporization about the boiling-point is about 121 - gramme-calories, and the latent heat of fluidity cannot exceed 16 - units, but may be less. Hydrogen appears to have the same specific - heat in the liquid as in the gaseous state, about 3.4. Its surface - tension is exceedingly low, about one-fifth that of liquid air at its - boiling-point, or one-thirty-fifth that of water at ordinary - temperatures, and this is the reason that bubbles formed in the liquid - are so small as to give it an opalescent appearance during ebullition. - The liquid is without colour, and gives no absorption spectrum. - Electric sparks taken in the liquid between platinum poles give a - spectrum showing the hydrogen lines C and F bright on a background of - continuous spectrum. Its refractive index at the boiling-point has - theoretically the value 1.11. It was measured by determining the - relative difference of focus for a parallel beam of light sent through - a spherical vacuum vessel filled successively with water, liquid - oxygen and liquid hydrogen; the result obtained was 1.12. Liquid - hydrogen is a non-conductor of electricity. The precise determination - of its boiling-point is a matter of some difficulty. The first results - obtained from the use of a platinum resistance thermometer gave -238 - deg. C., while a similar thermometer made with an alloy of - rhodium-platinum indicated a value 8 degrees lower. Later, a gold - thermometer indicated about -249 deg. C., while with an iron one the - result was only -210 deg. C. It was thus evident that electrical - resistance thermometers are not to be trusted at these low - temperatures, since the laws correlating resistance and temperature - are not known for temperatures at and below the boiling-point of - hydrogen, though they are certainly not the same as those which hold - good higher up the thermometric scale. The same remarks apply to the - use of thermo-electric junctions at such exceptional temperatures. - Recourse was therefore had to a constant-volume hydrogen thermometer, - working under reduced pressure, experiments having shown that such a - thermometer, filled with either a simple or a compound gas (e.g. - oxygen or carbonic acid) at an initial pressure somewhat less than one - atmosphere, may be relied upon to determine temperatures down to the - respective boiling-points of the gases with which they are filled. The - result obtained was -252 deg. C. Subsequently various other - determinations were carried out in thermometers filled with hydrogen - derived from different sources, and also with helium, the average - value given by the experiments being -252.5 deg. C. (See "The Boiling - Point of Liquid Hydrogen determined by Hydrogen and Helium Gas - Thermometers," _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 7th February 1901.) The critical - temperature is about 30 deg. absolute (-243 deg. C.), and the critical - pressure about 15 atmospheres. Hydrogen has not only the lowest - critical temperature of all the old permanent gases, but it has the - lowest critical pressure. Given a sufficiently low temperature, - therefore, it is the easiest gas to liquefy so far as pressure is - concerned. Solid hydrogen has a temperature about 4 deg. less. By - exhaustion under reduced pressure a still lower depth of cold may be - attained, and a steady temperature reached less than 16 deg. above the - zero of absolute temperature. By the use of high exhaustion, and the - most stringent precautions to prevent the influx of heat, a - temperature of 13 deg. absolute (-260 deg. C.) may be reached. This is - the lowest steady temperature which can be maintained by the - evaporation of solid hydrogen. At this temperature the solid has a - density of about 0.077. Solid hydrogen presents no metallic - characteristics, such as were predicted for it by Faraday, Dumas, - Graham and other chemists and neither it nor the liquid is magnetic. - -_The Approach to the Absolute Zero._--The achievement of Kamerlingh Onnes -has brought about the realization of a temperature removed only 3 deg. -from the absolute zero, and the question naturally suggests itself -whether there is any probability of a still closer approach to that -point. The answer is that if, as is not impossible, there exists a gas, -as yet unisolated, which has an atomic weight one-half that of helium, -that gas, liquefied in turn by the aid of liquid helium, would render -that approach possible, though the experimental difficulties of the -operation would be enormous and perhaps prohibitive. The results of -experiments bearing on this question and of theory based on them are -shown in table II. The third column shows the critical temperature of -the gas which can be liquefied by continuous expansion through a -regenerative cooling apparatus, the operation being started from the -initial temperature shown in the second column, while the fourth column -gives the temperature of the resulting liquid. It will be seen that by -the use of liquid or solid hydrogen as a cooling agent, it should be -possible to liquefy a body having a critical temperature of about 6 deg. -to 8 deg. on the absolute scale, and a boiling point of about 4 deg. or -5 deg., while with the aid of liquid helium at an initial temperature of -5 deg. we could liquefy a body having a critical temperature of 2 deg. -and a boiling point of 1 deg. - - TABLE II. - - +------------------+-------------+-------------+---------------+ - | | Initial | Critical |Boiling Points.| - | Substance. | Temperature.|Temperature. | Abs. Degrees. | - | |Abs. Degrees.|Abs. Degrees.| | - +------------------+-------------+-------------+---------------+ - | (Low red heat) | 760 | 304 | 195 (CO2) | - | (52 deg. C.) | 325 | 130 | 86 (Air) | - | Liquid air under | | | | - | exhaustion | 75 | 30 | 20 (H) | - | Liquid hydrogen | 20 | 8 | 5 (He) | - | Solid hydrogen | 15 | 6 | 4 | - | Liquid helium | 5 | 2 | 1 | - +------------------+-------------+-------------+---------------+ - -It is to be remarked, however, that even so the physicist would not have -attained the absolute zero, and he can scarcely hope ever to do so. It -is true he would only be a very short distance from it, but it must be -remembered that in a thermodynamic sense one degree low down the scale, -say at 10 deg. absolute, is equivalent to 30 deg. at the ordinary -temperature, and as the experimenter gets to lower and lower -temperatures, the difficulties of further advance increase, not in -arithmetical but in geometrical progression. Thus the step between the -liquefaction of air and that of hydrogen is, thermodynamically and -practically, greater than that between the liquefaction of chlorine and -that of air, but the number of degrees of temperature that separates the -boiling-points of the first pair of substances is less than half what it -is in the case of the second pair. But the ratio of the absolute -boiling-points in the first pair of substances is as 1 to 4, whereas in -the second pair it is only 1 to 3, and it is this value that expresses -the difficulty of the transition. - -But though Ultima Thule may continue to mock the physicist's efforts, he -will long find ample scope for his energies in the investigation of the -properties of matter at the temperatures placed at his command by liquid -air and liquid and solid hydrogen. Indeed, great as is the sentimental -interest attached to the liquefaction of these refractory gases, the -importance of the achievement lies rather in the fact that it opens out -new fields of research and enormously widens the horizon of physical -science, enabling the natural philosopher to study the properties and -behaviour of matter under entirely novel conditions. We propose to -indicate briefly the general directions in which such inquiries have so -far been carried on, but before doing so will call attention to the -power of absorbing gases possessed by cooled charcoal, which has on that -account proved itself a most valuable agent in low temperature research. - - TABLE III.--_Gas Absorption by Charcoal._ - - +---------------------------+-------------+---------------+ - | | Volume | Volume | - | | absorbed at | absorbed at | - | | 0 deg. Cent.|-185 deg. Cent.| - +---------------------------+-------------+---------------+ - | Helium | 2 cc. | 15 cc. | - | Hydrogen | 4 | 135 | - | Electrolytic gas | 12 | 150 | - | Argon | 12 | 175 | - | Nitrogen | 15 | 155 | - | Oxygen | 18 | 230 | - | Carbonic oxide | 21 | 190 | - | Carbonic oxide and oxygen | 30 | 195 | - +---------------------------+-------------+---------------+ - -_Gas Absorption by Charcoal._--Felix Fontana was apparently the first to -discover that hot charcoal has the power of absorbing gases, and his -observations were confirmed about 1770 by Joseph Priestley, to whom he -had communicated them. A generation later Theodore de Saussure made a -number of experiments on the subject, and noted that at ordinary -temperatures the absorption is accompanied with considerable evolution -of heat. Among subsequent investigators were Thomas Graham and -Stenhouse, Faure and Silberman, and Hunter, the last-named showing that -charcoal made from coco-nut exhibits greater absorptive powers than -other varieties. In 1874 Tait and Dewar for the first time employed -charcoal for the production of high vacua, by using it, heated to a red -heat, to absorb the mercury vapour in a tube exhausted by a mercury -pump; and thirty years afterwards it occurred to the latter investigator -to try how its absorbing powers are affected by cooling it, with the -result that he found them to be greatly enhanced. Some of his earlier -observations are given in table III., but it must be pointed out that -much larger absorptions were obtained subsequently when it was found -that the quality of the charcoal was greatly influenced by the mode in -which it was prepared, the absorptive power being increased by -carbonizing the coco-nut shell slowly at a gradually increasing -temperature. The results in the table were all obtained with the same -specimen of charcoal, and the volumes of the gases absorbed, both at -ordinary and at low temperatures, were measured under standard -conditions--at 0 deg. C., and 760 mm. pressure. It appears that at the -lower temperature there is a remarkable increase of absorption for every -gas, but that the increase is in general smaller as the boiling-points -of the various gases are lower. Helium is conspicuous for the fact that -it is absorbed to a comparatively slight extent at both the higher and -the lower temperature, but in this connexion it must be remembered that, -being the most volatile gas known, it is being treated at a temperature -which is relatively much higher than the other gases. At -185 deg. (= 88 -deg. abs.), while hydrogen is at about 4(1/2) times its boiling-point -(20 deg. abs.), helium is at about 20 times its boiling-point (4.5 deg. -abs.), and it might, therefore, be expected that if it were taken at a -temperature corresponding to that of the hydrogen, i.e. at 4 or 5 times -its boiling-point, or say 20 deg. abs., it would undergo much greater -absorption. This expectation is borne out by the results shown in table -IV., and it may be inferred that charcoal cooled in liquid helium would -absorb helium as freely as charcoal cooled in liquid hydrogen absorbs -hydrogen. It is found that a given specimen of charcoal cooled in liquid -oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen absorbs about equal volumes of those three -gases (about 260 cc. per gramme); and, as the relation between volume -and temperature is nearly lineal at the lowest portions of either the -hydrogen or the helium absorption, it is a legitimate inference that at -a temperature of 5 deg. to 6 deg. abs. helium would be as freely -absorbed by charcoal as hydrogen is at its boiling-point and that the -boiling-point of helium lies at about 5 deg. abs. - - TABLE IV.--_Gas Absorption by Charcoal at Low Temperatures._ - - +------------------------------------------------+--------+----------+ - | | Helium.| Hydrogen.| - | Temperature. |Vols. of| Vols. of | - | |Carbon. | Carbon. | - +------------------------------------------------+--------+----------+ - | -185 deg. C. (boiling-point of liquid air) | 2(1/2)| 137 | - | -210 deg. C. (liquid air under exhaustion) | 5 | 180 | - | -252 deg. C. (boiling-point of liquid hydrogen)| 160 | 258 | - | -258 deg. C. (solid hydrogen) | 195 | .. | - +------------------------------------------------+--------+----------+ - -The rapidity with which air is absorbed by charcoal at -185 deg. C. and -under small pressures is illustrated by table V., which shows the -reductions of pressure effected in a tube of 2000 cc. capacity by means -of 20 grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air. - - TABLE V.--_Velocity of Absorption._ - - +-----------+--------+-----------+---------+ - | Time of |Pressure| Time of |Pressure | - |Exhaustion.| in mm. |Exhaustion.| in mm. | - +-----------+--------+-----------+---------+ - | 0 sec. | 2.190 | 60 sec. | 0.347 | - | 10 " | 1.271 | 2 min. | 0.153 | - | 20 " | 0.869 | 5 " | 0.0274 | - | 30 " | 0.632 | 10 " | 0.00205 | - | 40 " | 0.543 | 19 " | 0.00025 | - | 50 " | 0.435 | .. | .. | - +-----------+--------+-----------+---------+ - - TABLE VI. - - +----------+----------+-----------+ - | Volume | Occlusion| Occlusion | - | of Gas | Hydrogen | Nitrogen | - | absorbed.| Pressure.| Pressure. | - +----------+----------+-----------+ - | cc. | mm. | mm. | - | 0 | 0.00003 | 0.00005 | - | 5 | 0.0228 | .. | - | 10 | 0.0455 | .. | - | 15 | 0.0645 | .. | - | 20 | 0.0861 | .. | - | 25 | 0.1105 | .. | - | 30 | 0.1339 | 0.00031 | - | 35 | 0.1623 | .. | - | 40 | 0.1870 | .. | - | 130 | .. | 0.00110 | - | 500 | .. | 0.00314 | - | 1000 | .. | 0.01756 | - | 1500 | .. | 0.02920 | - | 2500 | .. | 0.06172 | - +----------+----------+-----------+ - - - _Charcoal Occlusion Pressures._--For measuring the gas concentration, - pressure and temperature, use may be made of an apparatus of the type - shown in fig. 5. A mass of charcoal, E, immersed in liquid air, is - employed for the preliminary exhaustion of the McLeod gauge G and of - the charcoal C, which is to be used in the actual experiments, and is - then sealed off at S. The bulb C is then placed in a large spherical - vacuum vessel containing liquid oxygen which can be made to boil at - any definite temperature under diminished pressure which is measured - by the manometer R. The volume of gas admitted into the charcoal is - determined by the burette D and the pipette P, and the corresponding - occlusion pressure at any concentration and any temperature below 90 - deg. abs. by the gauge G. In presence of charcoal, and for small - concentrations, great variations are shown in the relation between the - pressure and the concentration of different gases, all at the same - temperature. Table VI. gives the comparison between hydrogen and - nitrogen at the temperature of liquid air, 25 grammes of charcoal - being employed. It is seen that 15 cc. of hydrogen produce nearly the - same pressure (0.0645 mm.) as 2500 cc. of nitrogen (0.06172 mm.). This - result shows how enormously greater, at the temperature of liquid air, - is the volatility of hydrogen as compared with that of nitrogen. In - the same way the concentrations, for the same pressure, vary greatly - with temperature, as is exemplified by table VII., even though the - pressures are not quite constant. The temperatures employed were the - boiling-points of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - TABLE VII. - - +---------------+---------------+--------+-----------+ - | | Concentration |Pressure|Temperature| - | Gas. |in cc. per grm.| in mm. | Absolute. | - | | of Charcoal. | | | - +---------------+---------------+--------+-----------+ - | Helium | 97 | 2.2 | 20 deg. | - | Hydrogen | 397 | 2.2 | 20 deg. | - | Hydrogen | 15 | 2.1 | 90 deg. | - | Nitrogen | 250 | 1.6 | 90 deg. | - | Oxygen | 300 | 1.0 | 90 deg. | - | Carbon dioxide| 90 | 3.6 | 195 deg. | - +---------------+---------------+--------+-----------+ - - TABLE VIII. - - +---------------+-------------+------------+------------+ - | |Concentration| Molecular | Mean | - | Gas. | cc. per grm.|Latent Heat.|Temperature.| - | | | | Absolute. | - +---------------+-------------+------------+------------+ - | Helium | 97 | 483.0 | 18 deg. | - | Hydrogen | 390 | 524.4 | 18 deg. | - | Hydrogen | 20 | 2005.6 | 78 deg. | - | Nitrogen | 250 | 3059.0 | 82 deg. | - | Oxygen | 300 | 3146.4 | 82 deg. | - | Carbon dioxide| 90 | 6099.6 | 180 deg. | - +---------------+-------------+------------+------------+ - - _Heat of Occlusion._--In every case when gases are condensed to the - liquid state there is evolution of heat, and during the absorption of - a gas in charcoal or any other occluding body, as hydrogen in - palladium, the amount of heat evolved exceeds that of direct - liquefaction. From the relation between occlusion-pressure and - temperature at the same concentration, the reaction being reversible, - it is possible to calculate this heat evolution. Table VIII. gives the - mean molecular latent heats of occlusion resulting from Dewar's - experiments for a number of gases, having concentrations in the - charcoal as shown. The concentrations were so regulated as to start - with an initial pressure not exceeding 3 mm. at the respective - boiling-points of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. - -_Production of High Vacua._--Exceedingly high vacua can be obtained by -the aid of liquid gases, with or without charcoal. If a vessel -containing liquid hydrogen be freely exposed to the atmosphere, a rain -of snow (solid air) at once begins to fall upon the surface of the -liquid; similarly, if one end of a sealed tube containing ordinary air -be immersed in the liquid, the same thing happens, but since there is -now no new supply to take the place of the air that has been solidified -and has accumulated in the cooled portion of the tube, the pressure is -quickly reduced to something like one-millionth of an atmosphere, and a -vacuum is formed of such tenuity that the electric discharge can be made -to pass only with difficulty. Liquid air can be employed in the same -manner if the tube, before sealing, is filled with some less volatile -gas or vapour, such as sulphurous acid, benzol or water vapour. But if a -charcoal condenser be used in conjunction with the liquid air it becomes -possible to obtain a high vacuum when the tube contains air initially. -For instance, in one experiment, with a bulb having a capacity of 300 -cc. and filled with air at a pressure of about 1.7 mm. and at a -temperature of 15 deg. C., when an attached condenser with 5 grammes of -charcoal was cooled in liquid air, the pressure was reduced to 0.0545 -mm. of mercury in five minutes, to 0.01032 mm. in ten minutes, to -0.000139 mm. in thirty minutes, and to 0.000047 mm. in sixty minutes. -The condenser then being cooled in liquid hydrogen the pressure fell to -0.0000154 mm. in ten minutes, and to 0.0000058 mm. in a further ten -minutes when solid hydrogen was employed as the cooling agent, and no -doubt, had it not been for the presence of hydrogen and helium in the -air, an even greater reduction could have been effected. Another -illustration of the power of cooled charcoal to produce high vacua is -afforded by a Crookes radiometer. If the instrument be filled with -helium at atmospheric pressure and a charcoal bulb attached to it be -cooled in liquid air, the vanes remain motionless even when exposed to -the concentrated beam of an electric arc lamp; but if liquid hydrogen be -substituted for the liquid air rapid rotation at once sets in. When a -similar radiometer was filled with hydrogen and the attached charcoal -bulb was cooled in liquid air rotation took place, because sufficient of -the gas was absorbed to permit motion. But when the charcoal was cooled -in liquid hydrogen instead of in liquid air, the absorption increased -and consequently the rarefaction became so high that there was no motion -when the light from the arc was directed on the vanes. These experiments -again permit of an inference as to the boiling-point of helium. A fall -of 75% in the temperature of the charcoal bulb, from the boiling-point -of air to the boiling-point of hydrogen, reduced the vanes to rest in -the case of the radiometer filled with hydrogen; hence it might be -inferred that a fall of like amount from the boiling-point of hydrogen -would reduce the vanes of the helium radiometer to rest, and -consequently that the boiling-point of helium would be about 5 deg. abs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -The vacua obtainable by means of cooled charcoal are so high that it is -difficult to determine the pressures by the McLeod gauge, and the -radiometer experiments referred to above suggested the possibility of -another means of ascertaining such pressures, by determining the -pressures below which the radiometer would not spin. The following -experiment shows how the limit of pressure can be ascertained by -reference to the pressures of mercury vapour which have been very -accurately determined through a wide range of temperature. To a -radiometer (fig. 6) with attached charcoal bulb B was sealed a tube -ending in a small bulb A containing a globule of mercury. The radiometer -and bulb B were heated, exhausted and repeatedly washed out with pure -oxygen gas, and then the mercury was allowed to distil for some time -into the charcoal cooled in liquid air. On exposure to the electric beam -the vanes began to spin, but soon ceased when the bulb A was cooled in -liquid air. When, however, the mercury was warmed by placing the bulb in -liquid water, the vanes began to move again, and in the particular -radiometer used this was found to happen when the temperature of the -mercury had risen to -23 deg. C. corresponding to a pressure of about one -fifty-millionth of an atmosphere. - -For washing out the radiometer with oxygen the arrangement shown in fig. -7 is convenient. Here A is a bulb containing perchlorate of potash, -which when heated gives off pure oxygen; C is again the radiometer and B -the charcoal bulb. The side tube E is for the purpose of examining the -gas given off by minerals like thorianite or the gaseous products of the -transformation of radioactive bodies. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - -_Analytic Uses._--Another important use of liquid gases is as analytic -agents, and for this purpose liquid air is becoming an almost essential -laboratory reagent. It is one of the most convenient agents for drying -gases and for their purification. If a mixture of gases be subjected to -the temperature of liquid air, it is obvious that all the constituents -that are more condensable than air will be reduced to liquid, while -those that are less condensable will either remain as a gaseous residue -or be dissolved in the liquid obtained. The bodies present in the latter -may be separated by fractional distillation, while the contents of the -gaseous residue may be further differentiated by the air of still lower -temperatures, such as are obtainable by liquid hydrogen. An apparatus -such as the following can be used to separate both the less and the more -volatile gases of the atmosphere, the former being obtained from their -solution in liquid air by fractional distillation at low pressure and -separation of the condensable part of the distillate by cooling in -liquid hydrogen, while the latter are extracted from the residue of -liquid air, after the distillation of the first fraction, by allowing it -to evaporate gradually at a temperature rising only very slowly. - - In fig. 8, A represents a vacuum-jacketed vessel, containing liquid - air; this can be made to boil at reduced pressure and therefore be - lowered in temperature by means of an air-pump, which is in - communication with the vessel through the pipe _s_. The liquid boiled - away is replenished when necessary from the reservoir C, _p_ being a - valve, worked by handle _q_, by which the flow along _r_ is regulated. - The vessel B, immersed in the liquid air of A, communicates with the - atmosphere by _a_; hence when the temperature of A falls under - exhaustion below that of liquid air, the contents of B condense, and - if the stop-cock _m_ is kept open, and _n_ shut, air from the outside - is continuously sucked in until B is full of liquid, which contains in - solution the whole of the most volatile gases of the atmosphere which - have passed in through _a_. At this stage of the operation _m_ is - closed and _n_ opened, a passage thus being opened along _b_ from A to - the remainder of the apparatus seen on the left side of the figure. - Here E is a vacuum vessel containing liquid hydrogen, and _d_ a - three-way cock by which communication can be established either - between _b_ and D, between _b_ and _e_, the tube leading to the - sparking-tube _g_, or between D and _e_. If now _d_ is arranged so - that there is a free passage from _b_ to D, and the stop-cock _n_ also - opened, the gas dissolved in the liquid in B, together with some of - the most volatile part of that liquid, quickly distils over into D, - which is at a much lower temperature than B, and some of it condenses - there in the solid state. When a small fraction of the contents of B - has thus distilled over, _d_ is turned so as to close the passage - between D and _b_ and open that between D and _e_, with the result - that the gas in D is pumped out by the mercury-pump, shown - diagrammatically at _F_, along the tube _e_ (which is immersed in the - liquid hydrogen in order that any more condensable gas carried along - by the current may be frozen out) to the sparking-tube or tubes _g_, - where it can be examined spectroscopically. When the apparatus is used - to separate the least volatile part of the gases in the atmosphere, - the vessel E and its contents are omitted, and the tube _b_ made to - communicate with the pump through a number of sparking-tubes which can - be sealed off successively. The nitrogen and oxygen which make up the - bulk of the liquid in B are allowed to evaporate gradually, the - temperature being kept low so as to check the evaporation of gases - less volatile than oxygen. When most of the oxygen and nitrogen have - thus been removed, the stop-cock _n_ is closed, and the tubes - partially exhausted by the pump; spectroscopic examination is made of - the gases they contain, and repeated from time to time as more gas is - allowed to evaporate from B. The general sequence of spectra, apart - from those of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon compounds, which are never - eliminated by the process of distillation alone, is as follows: The - spectrum of argon first appears, followed by the brightest (green and - yellow) rays of krypton. Then the intensity of the argon spectrum - wanes and it gives way to that of krypton, until, as Runge observed, - when a Leyden jar is in the circuit, the capillary part of the - sparking-tube has a magnificent blue colour, while the wide ends are - bright pale yellow. Without a jar the tube is nearly white in the - middle and yellow about the poles. As distillation proceeds, the - temperature of the vessel containing the residue of liquid air being - allowed to rise slowly, the brightest (green) rays of xenon begin to - appear, and the krypton rays soon die out, being superseded by those - of xenon. At this stage the capillary part of the sparking-tube is, - with a jar in circuit, a brilliant green, and it remains green, though - less brilliant, if the jar is removed. - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Apparatus for Fractional Distillation.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Apparatus for continuous Spectroscopic - Examination.] - - An improved form of apparatus for the fractionation is represented in - fig. 9. The gases to be separated, that is, the least volatile part of - atmospheric air, enter the bulb B from a gasholder by the tube _a_ - with stop-cock _c_. B, which is maintained at a low temperature by - being immersed in liquid hydrogen, A, boiling under reduced pressure, - in turn communicates through the tube _b_ and stop-cock _d_ with a - sparking-tube or tubes _f_, and so on through _e_ with a mercurial - pump. To use the apparatus, stop-cock _d_ is closed and _c_ opened, - and gas allowed to pass from the gasholder into B, where it is - condensed in the solid form. Stop-cock _c_ then being closed and _d_ - opened, gas passes into the exhausted tube _f_, where it is examined - with the spectroscope. The vessel D contains liquid air, in which the - tube _e_ is immersed in order to condense vapour of mercury which - would otherwise pass from the pump into the sparking-tube. The success - of the operation of separating all the gases which occur in air and - which boil at different temperatures, depends on keeping the - temperature of B as low as possible, as will be understood from the - following consideration:-- - - The pressure _p_, of a gas G, above the same material in the liquid - state, at temperature T, is given approximately by the formula - - B - log p = A - ---, - T - - where A and B are constants for the same material. For some other gas - G' the formula will be - - B1 - log p1 = A1 - ---, - T - - and - - p B1 - B - log --- = A - A1 + ------, - p1 T - - Now for argon, krypton and xenon respectively the values of A are - 6.782, 6.972 and 6.963, and those of B are 339, 496.3 and 669.2; so - that for these substances and many others A - A1 is always a small - quantity, while (B1 - B)/T is considerable and increases as T - diminishes. Hence the ratio of _p_ to _p_1 increases rapidly as T - diminishes, and by evaporating all the gases from the solid state, and - keeping the solid at as low a temperature as possible, the gas that is - taken off by the mercurial pump first consists mainly of the substance - which has the lowest boiling point, in this case nitrogen, and is - succeeded with comparative abruptness by the gas which has the next - higher boiling point. Examination of the spectrum in the sparking-tube - easily reveals the change from one gas to another, and when that is - observed the reservoirs into which the gases are pumped can be changed - and the fractions stored separately. Or several sparking-tubes may be - arranged so as to form parallel communications between _b_ and _e_, - and can be successively sealed off at the desired stages of - fractionation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.] - -Analytical operations can often be performed still more conveniently -with the help of charcoal, taking advantage of the selective character -of its absorption, the general law of which is that the more volatile -the gas the less is it absorbed at a given temperature. The following -are some examples of its employment for this purpose. If it be required -to separate the helium which is often found in the gases given off by a -thermal spring, they are subjected to the action of charcoal cooled with -liquid air. The result is the absorption of the less volatile -constituents, i.e. all except hydrogen and helium. The gaseous residue, -with the addition of oxygen, is then sparked, and the water thus formed -is removed together with the excess of oxygen, when helium alone -remains. Or the separation may be effected by a method of fractionation -as described above. To separate the most volatile constituents of the -atmosphere an apparatus such as that shown in fig. 10 may be employed. -In one experiment with this, when 200 c.c. was supplied from the -graduated gas-holder F to the vessel D, containing 15 grammes of -charcoal cooled in liquid air, the residue which passed on unabsorbed to -the sparking-tube AB, which had a small charcoal bulb C attached, showed -the C and F lines of hydrogen, the yellow and some of the orange lines -of neon and the yellow and green of helium. By using a second charcoal -vessel E, with stop-cocks at H, I, J, K and L to facilitate -manipulation, considerable quantities of the most volatile gases can be -collected. After the charcoal in E has been saturated, the stop-cock K -is closed and I and J are opened for a short time, to allow the less -condensable gas in E to be sucked into the second condenser D along with -some portion of air. The condenser E is then taken out of the liquid -air, heated quickly to 15 deg. C. to expel the occluded air and replaced. -More air is then passed in, and by repeating the operation several times -50 litres of air can be treated in a short time, supplying -sparking-tubes which will show the complete spectra of the volatile -constituents of the air. - -The less volatile constituents of the atmosphere, krypton and xenon, may -be obtained by leading a current of air, purified by passage through a -series of tubes cooled in liquid air, through a charcoal condenser also -cooled in liquid air. The condenser is then removed and placed in solid -carbon dioxide at -78 deg. C. The gas that comes off is allowed to escape, -but what remains in the charcoal is got out by heating and exhaustion, -the carbon compounds and oxygen are removed and the residue, consisting -of nitrogen with krypton and xenon, is separated into its constituents -by condensation and fractionation. Another method is to cover a few -hundred grammes of charcoal with old liquid air, which is allowed to -evaporate slowly in a silvered vacuum vessel; the gases remaining in the -charcoal are then treated in the manner described above. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.] - -Charcoal enables a mixture containing a high percentage of oxygen to be -extracted from the atmosphere. In one experiment 50 grammes of it, after -being heated and exhausted were allowed to absorb air at -185 deg. C.; -some 5 or 6 litres were taken up in ten minutes, and it then presumably -contained air of the composition of the atmosphere, i.e. 20% oxygen and -80% nitrogen, as shown in fig. 11. But when more air was passed over it, -the portion that was not absorbed was found to consist of about 98% -nitrogen, showing that excess of oxygen was being absorbed, and in the -course of a few hours the occluded gas attained a new and apparently -definite composition exhibited in fig. 12. When the charcoal containing -this mixture was transferred to a vacuum vessel and allowed to warm up -slowly, the successive litres of gas when collected and analyzed -separately showed the following composition:-- - - 1st litre 18.5% oxygen - 2nd litre 20.6% " - 3rd litre 53.0% " - 4th litre 72.0% " - 5th litre 79.0% " - 6th litre 84.0% " - - TABLE IX. - - +----------------+------------+--------------+-----------+----------------+ - | | | Liquid Volume| | Volume of Gas | - | | Boiling | of 1 gram at |Latent Heat|at 0 deg. C. and| - | Liquid Gases. | Point. | Boiling Point| in gram | 760 mm. per | - | | | in c.c. | Calories. | gram Calorie | - | | | | | in c.c. | - +----------------+------------+--------------+-----------+----------------+ - | Sulphurous acid| + 10 deg.C.| 0.7 | 97.0 | 3.6 | - | Carbonic acid | - 78.0 | 0.65 (solid)| 142.4 | 3.6 | - | Ethylene | -103.0 | 1.7 | 119.0 | 7.0 | - | Oxygen | -182.5 | 0.9 | 53.0 | 13.2 | - | Nitrogen | -195.6 | 1.3 | 50.0 | 15.9 | - | Hydrogen | -252.5 | 14.3 | 125.0 | 88.9 | - | Helium | -269.0 | 7.0 | 13.0 | 450.0 | - +----------------+------------+--------------+-----------+----------------+ - -_Calorimetry._--Certain liquid gases lend themselves conveniently to the -construction of a calorimeter, in which the heat in weighed quantities -of any substance with which it is desired to experiment may be measured -by the quantity of liquid gas they are able to evaporate. One advantage -of this method is that a great range of temperature is available when -liquid air, oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen is employed as the -calorimetric substance. Another is the relatively large quantity of gas -yielded by the evaporation, as may be seen from table IX., which shows -the special physical constants of the various gases that are of -importance in calorimetry. In consequence it is easy to detect 1/50 gram -calorie with liquid air and so little as 1/300 gram calorie with liquid -hydrogen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Calorimetric Apparatus.] - - The apparatus (fig. 13) consists of a large vacuum vessel A, of 2 or 3 - litres' capacity, containing liquid air, in which is inserted a - smaller vacuum vessel B, of 25-30 c.c. capacity, having sealed to it a - long narrow tube G that projects above the mouth of A and is held in - place by some loosely packed cotton wool. To the top of this tube the - test tube C, containing the material under investigation, is connected - by a piece of flexible rubber tubing D; this enables C to be tilted so - as to throw a piece or pieces of the contained material into the - calorimeter. An improved form of this receptacle, attached to B by a - flexible tube at D', is shown at C'. In this P is a wire movable - through a cork Q and having at its end a hook by which a piece of the - substance under examination can be pulled up and dropped into B. In - the absence of other arrangements the substance is at the temperature - of the room, but when lower initial temperatures are desired a vacuum - vessel H containing solid carbonic acid, liquid ethylene, air or other - gas, can be placed to envelop C or C', or higher temperatures may be - obtained by filling the surrounding vessel with vapour of water or - other liquids. The gas volatilized in B is conveyed by a side tube E - to be collected in a graduated receiver F over water, oil or other - liquid. If liquid hydrogen is to be used as the calorimetric substance - the instrument must be so modified as to prevent the ordinary - atmosphere from entering G, and to that end a current of hydrogen - supplied from a Kipp apparatus is arranged to flow continuously - through D and E until the moment of making the experiment, when it is - cut off by a suitable stop-cock. In this case the outer vessel must - contain liquid hydrogen instead of liquid air. - - TABLE X. - - +-----------+-------------+--------------+--------------+ - | | 18 deg. to | -78 deg. to | -188 deg. to | - | Substance.| -78 deg. C.,| -188 deg. C.,| -252 deg. C.,| - | | or, at | or, at | or, at | - | | -30 deg. C. | -133 deg. C. | -220 deg. C. | - +-----------+-------------+--------------+--------------+ - | Diamond | 0.0794 | 0.0190 | 0.0043 | - | Graphite | 0.1341 | 0.0599 | 0.0133 | - | Ice | 0.463* | 0.285 | 0.146 | - +-----------+-------------+--------------+--------------+ - - * This is from -18 deg. to -78 deg. in the ice experiment. - -Dewar used pure metallic lead for the purpose of conveying definite -amounts of heat to liquid gas calorimeters of this kind, that metal -being selected on the ground of the small variation in its specific heat -at low temperatures. He was thus able to determine the latent heats of -evaporation of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen directly at their -boiling points, and he also ascertained the specific heats of a large -number of inorganic and organic bodies, and of some gases in the solid -state, such as carbon dioxide, sulphurous acid and ammonia. Perhaps his -most interesting results were those which showed the variation in the -specific heats of diamond, graphite and ice as typical bodies (table -X.). With Professor Curie he used both the liquid oxygen and the liquid -hydrogen calorimeter for preliminary measurements of the rate at which -radium bromide gives out energy at low temperatures. The quantity of the -salt available was 0.42 gram, and the thermal evolutions were as -follows:-- - - Gas evolved Calories - per minute. per hour. - - Liquid oxygen 5.5 cc. 22.8 \ - Liquid hydrogen 51.0 " 31.6 > Crystals. - Melting ice .. 24.1 / - Liquid oxygen 2.0 " 8.3 After fusion. - Liquid oxygen 2.5 " 10.3 Emanation condensed. - -The apparent increase of heat evolution at the temperature of liquid -hydrogen was probably due to the calorimeter being too small; hydrogen -spray was thus carried away with the gas, making the volume of gas too -great and inferentially also the heat evolved. - -Liquid air and liquid hydrogen calorimeters open up an almost unlimited -field of research in the determination of specific heats and other -thermal constants, and are certain to become common laboratory -instruments for such purposes. - -_Chemical Action._--By extreme cold chemical action is enormously -reduced, though it may not in all cases be entirely abolished even at -the lowest temperatures yet attained; one reason for this diminution of -activity may doubtless be sought in the fact that in such conditions -most substances are solid, that is, in the state least favourable to -chemical combination. Thus an electric pile of sodium and carbon ceases -to yield a current when immersed in liquid oxygen. Sulphur, iron and -other substances can be made to burn under the surface of liquid oxygen -if the combustion is properly established before the sample is immersed, -and the same is true of a fragment of diamond. Nitric oxide in the -gaseous condition combines instantly with free oxygen, producing the -highly-coloured gas, nitric peroxide, but in the solid condition it may -be placed in contact with liquid oxygen without showing any signs of -chemical action. If the combination of a portion of the mixture is -started by elevation of temperature, then detonation may take place -throughout the cooled mass. The stability of endothermic bodies like -nitric oxide and ozone at low temperatures requires further -investigation. The behaviour of fluorine, which may be regarded as the -most active of the elements, is instructive in this respect. As a gas, -cooled to -180 deg. C. it loses the power of attacking glass; similarly -silicon, borax, carbon, sulphur and phosphorus at the same temperature -do not become incandescent in an atmosphere of the gas. Passed into -liquid oxygen, the gas dissolves and imparts a yellowish tint to the -liquid; if the oxygen has been exposed to the air for some hours, the -fluorine produces a white flocculent precipitate, which if separated by -filtering deflagrates with violence as the temperature rises. It appears -to be a hydrate of fluorine. As a liquid at -210 deg. fluorine attacks -turpentine also cooled to that temperature with explosive force and the -evolution of light, while the direction of a jet of hydrogen upon its -surface is immediately followed by combination and a flash of flame. -Even when the point of a tube containing solid fluorine is broken off -under liquid hydrogen, a violent explosion ensues. - -_Photographic Action._--The action of light on photographic plates, -though greatly diminished at -180 deg., is far from being in abeyance; -an Eastman film, for instance, remains fairly sensitive at -210 deg. At -the still lower temperature of liquid hydrogen the photographic activity -is reduced to about half what it is at that of liquid air; in other -words, about 10% of the original sensitivity remains. Experiments -carried out with an incandescent lamp, a Rontgen bulb and the -ultra-violet spark from magnesium and cadmium, to discover at what -distances from the source of light the plates must be placed in order to -receive an equal photographic impression, yielded the results shown in -table XI. - - TABLE XI. - - +--------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+ - | | Cooled | Uncooled | Ratio of | - | Source of Light. | Plate. | Plate. | Intensities | - | | | | at Balance. | - +--------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+ - | 16 C.P. lamp | 20 in. | 50 in. | 1 to 6 | - | Rontgen bulb | 10 in. | 24(3/4) in. | 1 to 6 | - | Ultra-violet spark | 22(1/2) in. | 90 in. | 1 to 16 | - +--------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+ - -It appears that the photographic action of both the incandescent lamp -and the Rontgen rays is reduced by the temperature of liquid air to 17% -of that exerted at ordinary temperatures, while ultra-violet radiation -retains only 6%. It is possible that the greater dissipation of the -latter by the photographic film at low temperatures than at ordinary -ones is due to its absorption and subsequent emission as a -phosphorescent glow, and that if the plate could be developed at a low -temperature it would show no effect, the photographic action taking -place subsequently through an internal phosphorescence in the film -during the time it is heating up. With regard to the transparency of -bodies to the Rontgen radiation at low temperatures, small tubes of the -same bore, filled with liquid argon and chlorine, potassium, phosphorus, -aluminium, silicon and sulphur, were exposed at the temperature of -liquid air (in order to keep the argon and chlorine solid), in front of -a photographic plate shielded with a sheet of aluminium, to an X-ray -bulb. The sequence of the elements as mentioned represents the order of -increasing opacity observed in the shadows. Sodium and liquid oxygen and -air, nitrous and nitric oxides, proved much more transparent than -chlorine. Tubes of potassium, argon and liquid chlorine showed no very -marked difference of density on the photographic plates. It appears that -argon is relatively more opaque to the Rontgen radiation than either -oxygen, nitrogen or sodium, and is on a level with potassium, chlorine, -phosphorus, aluminium and sulphur. This fact may be regarded as -supporting the view that the atomic weight of argon is twice its density -relative to hydrogen, since in general the opacity of elements in the -solid state increases with the atomic weight. - -_Phosphorescence._--Phosphorescing sulphides of calcium, which are -luminous at ordinary temperatures, and whose emission of light is -increased by heating, cease to be luminous if cooled to -80 deg. C. But -their light energy is merely rendered latent, not destroyed, by such -cold, and they still retain the capacity of taking in light energy at -the low temperature, to be evolved again when they are warmed. At the -temperature of liquid air many bodies become phosphorescent which do not -exhibit the phenomenon at all, or only to a very slight extent, at -ordinary temperatures, e.g. ivory, indiarubber, egg-shells, feathers, -cottonwool, paper, milk, gelatine, white of egg, &c. Of definite -chemical compounds, the platinocyanides among the inorganic bodies seem -to yield the most brilliant effects. Crystals of ammonium -platinocyanide, if stimulated by exposure to the ultra-violet radiation -of the electric arc--or better still of a mercury vapour lamp in -quartz--while kept moistened with liquid air, may be seen in the dark to -glow faintly so long as they are kept cold, but become exceedingly -brilliant when the liquid air evaporates and the temperature rises. -Among organic bodies the phenomenon is particularly well marked with the -ketonic compounds and others of the same type. The chloro-, bromo-, -iodo-, sulpho- and nitro-compounds show very little effect as a rule. -The activity of the alcohols, which is usually considerable, is -destroyed by the addition of a little iodine. Coloured salts, &c., are -mostly inferior in activity to white ones. When the lower temperature of -liquid hydrogen is employed there is a great increase in phosphorescence -under light stimulation as compared with that observed with liquid air. -The radio-active bodies, like radium, which exhibit self-luminosity in -the dark, maintain that luminosity unimpaired when cooled in liquid -hydrogen. - -Some crystals become for a time self-luminous when placed in liquid -hydrogen, because the high electric stimulation due to the cooling -causes actual electric discharges between the crystal molecules. This -phenomenon is very pronounced with nitrate of uranium and some -platinocyanides, and cooling such crystals even to the temperature of -liquid air is sufficient to develop marked electrical and luminous -effects, which are again observed, when the crystal is taken out of the -liquid, during its return to normal temperature. Since both liquid -hydrogen and liquid air are good electrical insulators, the fact that -electric discharges take place in them proves that the electric -potential generated by the cooling must be very high. A crystal of -nitrate of uranium indeed gets so highly charged electrically that it -refuses to sink in liquid air, although its density is 2.8 times -greater, but sticks to the side of the vacuum vessel, and requires for -its displacement a distinct pull on the silk thread to which it is -attached. Such a crystal quickly removes cloudiness from liquid air by -attracting all the suspended particles to its surface, just as a fog is -cleared out of air by electrification. It is interesting to observe that -neither fused nitrate of uranium nor its solution in absolute alcohol -shows any of the remarkable effects of the crystalline state on cooling. - -_Cohesion._--The physical force known as cohesion is greatly increased -by low temperatures. This fact is of much interest in connexion with two -conflicting theories of matter. Lord Kelvin's view was that the forces -that hold together the ultimate particles of bodies may be accounted for -without assuming any other forces than that of gravitation, or any other -law than the Newtonian. An opposite view is that the phenomena of -cohesion, chemical union, &c., or the general phenomena of the -aggregation of molecules, depend on the molecular vibrations as a -physical cause (Tolver Preston, _Physics of the Ether_, p. 64). Hence at -the zero of absolute temperature, this vibrating energy being in -complete abeyance, the phenomena of cohesion should cease to exist and -matter generally be reduced to an incoherent heap of "cosmic dust." This -second view receives no support from experiment. Atmospheric air, for -instance, frozen at the temperature of liquid hydrogen, is a hard solid, -the strength of which gives no hint that with a further cooling of some -20 degrees it would crumble into powder. On the contrary, the lower the -scale of temperature is descended, the more powerful become the forces -which hold together the particles of matter. A spiral of fusible metal, -which at ordinary temperatures cannot support the weight of an ounce -without being straightened out, will, when cooled to the temperature of -liquid oxygen, and so long as it remains in that cooled condition, -support several pounds and vibrate like a steel spring. Similarly a bell -of fusible metal at -182 deg. C. gives a distinct metallic ring when -struck. Balls of iron, lead, tin, ivory, &c., thus cooled, exhibit an -increased rebound when dropped from a height; an indiarubber ball, on -the other hand, becomes brittle, and is smashed to atoms by a very -moderate fall. Tables XII. and XIII., which give the mean results of a -large number of experiments, show the increased breaking stress gained -by metals while they are cooled to the temperature of liquid oxygen. - - TABLE XII.--_Breaking Stress in Pounds of Metallic Wires 0.098 inch in - diameter._ - - +15 deg. C. -182 deg. C. - Steel (soft) 420 700 - Iron 320 670 - Copper 200 300 - Brass 310 440 - German silver 470 600 - Gold 255 340 - Silver 330 420 - - TABLE XIII.--_Breaking Stress in Pounds of Cast Metallic Testpieces; - diameter of rod 0.2 inch._ - - +15 deg. C. -182 deg. C. - Tin 200 390 - Lead 77 170 - Zinc 35 26 - Mercury 0 31 - Bismuth 60 30 - Antimony 61 30 - Solder 300 645 - Fusible, metal (Wood) 140 450 - -In the second series of experiments the test-pieces were 2 in. long and -were all cast in the same mould. It will be noticed that in the cases of -zinc, bismuth and antimony the results appear to be abnormal, but it may -be pointed out that it is difficult to get uniform castings of -crystalline bodies, and it is probable that by cooling such stresses are -set up in some set of cleavage planes as to render rupture comparatively -easy. In the case of strong steel springs the rigidity modulus does not -appear to be greatly affected by cold, for although a number were -examined, no measurable differences could be detected in their -elongation under repeated additions of the same load. No quantitative -experiments have been made on the cohesive properties of the metals at -the temperature of boiling hydrogen (-252 deg.), owing to the serious -cost that would be involved. A lead wire cooled in liquid hydrogen did -not become brittle, as it could be bent backwards and forwards in the -liquid. - -_Electrical Resistivity._--The first experiments on the conductivity of -metals at low temperatures appear to have been made by Wroblewski -(_Comptes rendus_, ci. 160), and by Cailletet and Bouty (_Journ. de -phys._ 1885, p. 297). The former's experiments were undertaken to test -the suggestion made by Clausius that the resistivity of pure metals is -sensibly proportional to the absolute temperature; he worked with copper -having a conductibility of 98%, and carried out measurements at various -temperatures, the lowest of which was that given by liquid nitrogen -boiling under reduced pressure. His general conclusion was that the -resistivity decreases much more quickly than the absolute temperature, -so as to approach zero at a point not far below the temperature of -nitrogen evaporating _in vacuo_. Cailletet and Bouty, using ethylene as -the refrigerant, and experimenting at temperatures ranging from 0 deg. -C. to -100 deg. C. and -123 deg. C., constructed formulae intended to -give the coefficients of variation in electrical resistance for mercury, -tin, silver, magnesium, aluminium, copper, iron and platinum. Between -1892 and 1896 Dewar and Fleming carried out a large number of -experiments to ascertain the changes of conductivity that occur in -metals and alloys cooled in liquid air or oxygen to -200 deg. C. The -method employed was to obtain the material under investigation in the -form of a fine regular wire and to wind it in a small coil; this was -then plunged in the liquid and its resistance determined. The -accompanying chart (fig. 14) gives the results in a compendious form, -the temperatures being expressed not in degrees of the ordinary -air-thermometer scale, but in platinum degrees as given by one -particular platinum resistance thermometer which was used throughout the -investigation. A table showing the value of these degrees in degrees -centigrade according to Dickson will be found in the _Phil. Mag._ for -June 1898, p. 527; to give some idea of the relationship, it may be -stated here that -100 deg. of the platinum thermometer = -94 deg.2 C., --150 deg. plat. = -140 deg.78 C., and -200 deg. plat. = -185 deg.53 C. -In general, the resistance of perfectly pure metals was greatly -decreased by cold--so much so that, to judge by the course of the curves -on the chart, it appeared probable that at the zero of absolute -temperature resistance would vanish altogether and all pure metals -become perfect conductors of electricity. This conclusion, however, has -been rendered very doubtful by subsequent observations by Dewar, who -found that with the still lower temperatures attainable with liquid -hydrogen the increases of conductivity became less for each decrease of -temperature, until a point was reached where the curves bent sharply -round and any further diminution of resistance became very small; that -is, the conductivity remained finite. The reduction in resistance of -some of the metals at the boiling point of hydrogen is very remarkable. -Thus copper has only (1/105)th, gold (1/30)th, platinum (1/35)th to -(1/17)th, silver (1/24)th the resistance at melting ice, but iron is -only reduced to (1/8)th part of the same initial resistance. Table XIV. -shows the progressive decrease of resistance for certain metals and one -alloy as the temperature is lowered from that of boiling water down to -that of liquid hydrogen boiling under reduced pressure; it also gives -the "vanishing temperature," at which the conductivity would become -perfect if the resistance continued to decrease in the same ratio with -still lower temperatures, the values being derived from the -extrapolation curves of the relation between resistance and temperature, -according to Callendar and Dickson. It will be seen that many of the -substances have actually been cooled to a lower temperature than that at -which their resistance ought to vanish. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Chart of the Variation of Electrical Resistance -of Pure Metals and Alloys with Temperature. (Dewar and Fleming.)] - -In the case of alloys and impure metals, cold brings about a much -smaller decrease in resistivity, and the continuations of the curves at -no time show any sign of passing through the zero point. The influence -of the presence of impurities in minute quantities is strikingly shown -in the case of bismuth. Various specimens of the metal, prepared with -great care by purely chemical methods, gave in the hands of Dewar and -Fleming some very anomalous results, appearing to reach at -80 deg. C. a -maximum of conductivity, and thereafter to increase in resistivity with -decrease of temperature. But when the determinations were carried out on -a sample of really pure bismuth prepared electrolytically, a normal -curve was obtained corresponding to that given by other pure metals. As -to alloys, there is usually some definite mixture of two pure metals -which has a maximum resistivity, often greater than that of either of -the constituents. It appears too that high, if not the highest, -resistivity corresponds to possible chemical compounds of the two metals -employed, e.g. platinum 33 parts with silver 66 parts = PtAg4; iron 80 -with nickel 20 = Fe4Ni; platinum 80 with iridium 20 = IrPt4; and copper -70 with manganese 30 = Cu2Mn. The product obtained by adding a small -quantity of one metal to another has a higher specific resistance than -the predominant constituent, but the curve is parallel to, and therefore -the same in shape as, that of the latter (cf. the curves for various -mixtures of Al and Cu on the chart). The behaviour of carbon and of -insulators like gutta-percha, glass, ebonite, &c., is in complete -contrast to the metals, for their resistivity steadily increases with -cold. The thermo-electric properties of metals at low temperatures are -discussed in the article THERMOELECTRICITY. - - TABLE XIV. - - +-------------------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+ - | | | Platinum- | | | | | - | Metals. | Platinum. | rhodium | Gold. | Silver. | Copper. | Iron. | - | | | Alloy. | | | | | - +-------------------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+ - | Resistance at 100 deg. | 39.655 | 36.87 | 16.10 | 8.336 | 11.572 | 4.290 | - | " 0 deg. C | 28.851 | 31.93 | 11.58 | 5.990 | 8.117 | 2.765 | - | " carbonic acid | 19.620 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | - | " liquid oxygen | 7.662 | 22.17 | 3.380 | 1.669 | 1.589 | 0.633 | - | " " nitrogen | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1.149 | .. | - | " " oxygen | | | | | | | - | under exhaustion| 4.634 | 20.73 | .. | .. | .. | | - | " " hydrogen | 0.826 | 18.96 | 0.381 | 0.244 | 0.077 | 0.356 | - | " " hydrogen | | | | | | | - | under exhaustion| 0.705 | 18.90 | 0.298 | 0.226 | 0.071 | | - | Resistance coefficients | 0.003745 | 0.003607 | 0.003903 | 0.003917 | 0.004257 | 0.005515 | - | Vanishing temperatures (Centigrade)/|-244.50 deg.|-543.39 deg.|-257.90 deg.|-252.26 deg.|-225.62 deg.|-258.40 deg.C.| - | \|-244.15 deg.|-530.32 deg.|-257.8 deg. |-252.25 deg.|-226.04 deg.|-246.80 deg.D.| - +-------------------------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+ - -_Magnetic Phenomena._--Low temperatures have very marked effects upon -the magnetic properties of various substances. Oxygen, long known to be -slightly magnetic in the gaseous state, is powerfully attracted in the -liquid condition by a magnet, and the same is true, though to a less -extent, of liquid air, owing to the proportion of liquid oxygen it -contains. A magnet of ordinary carbon steel has its magnetic moment -temporarily increased by cooling, that is, after it has been brought to -a permanent magnetic condition ("aged"). The effect of the first -immersion of such a magnet in liquid air is a large diminution in its -magnetic moment, which decreases still further when it is allowed to -warm up to ordinary temperatures. A second cooling, however, increases -the magnetic moment, which is again decreased by warming, and after a -few repetitions of this cycle of cooling and heating the steel is -brought into a condition such that its magnetic moment at the -temperature of liquid air is greater by a constant percentage than it -is at the ordinary temperature of the air. The increase of magnetic -moment seems then to have reached a limit, because on further cooling to -the temperature of liquid hydrogen hardly any further increase is -observed. The percentage differs with the composition of the steel and -with its physical condition. It is greater, for example, with a specimen -tempered very soft than it is with another specimen of the same steel -tempered glass hard. Aluminium steels show the same kind of phenomena as -carbon ones, and the same may be said of chrome steels in the permanent -condition, though the effect of the first cooling with them is a slight -increase of magnetic moment. Nickel steels present some curious -phenomena. When containing small percentages of nickel (e.g. 0.84 or -3.82), they behave under changes of temperature much like carbon steel. -With a sample containing 7.65%, the phenomena after the permanent state -had been reached were similar, but the first cooling produced a slight -increase in magnetic moment. But steels containing 18.64 and 29% of -nickel behaved very differently. The result of the first cooling was a -reduction of the magnetic moment, to the extent of nearly 50% in the -case of the former. Warming again brought about an increase, and the -final condition was that at the temperature of liquid air the magnetic -moment was always less than at ordinary temperatures. This anomaly is -all the more remarkable in that the behaviour of pure nickel is normal, -as also appears to be generally the case with soft and hard iron. -Silicon, tungsten and manganese steels are also substantially normal in -their behaviour, although there are considerable differences in the -magnitudes of the variations they display (_Proc. Roy. Soc._ lx. 57 et -seq.; also "The Effect of Liquid Air Temperatures on the Mechanical and -other Properties of Iron and its Alloys," by Sir James Dewar and Sir -Robert Hadfield, _Id._ lxxiv. 326-336). - -Low temperatures also affect the permeability of iron, i.e. the degree -of magnetization it is capable of acquiring under the influence of a -certain magnetic force. With fine Swedish iron, carefully annealed, the -permeability is slightly reduced by cooling to -185 deg. C. Hard iron, -however, in the same circumstances suffers a large increase of -permeability. Unhardened steel pianoforte wire, again, behaves like soft -annealed iron. As to hysteresis, low temperatures appear to produce no -appreciable effect in soft iron; for hard iron the observations are -undecisive. - -_Biological Research._--The effect of cold upon the life of living -organisms is a matter of great intrinsic interest as well as of wide -theoretical importance. Experiment indicates that moderately high -temperatures are much more fatal, at least to the lower forms of life, -than are exceedingly low ones. Professor M'Kendrick froze for an hour at -a temperature of -182 deg. C. samples of meat, milk, &c., in sealed -tubes; when these were opened, after being kept at blood-heat for a few -days, their contents were found to be quite putrid. More recently some -more elaborate tests were carried out at the Jenner (now Lister) -Institute of Preventive Medicine on a series of typical bacteria. These -were exposed to the temperature of liquid air for twenty hours, but -their vitality was not affected, their functional activities remained -unimpaired and the cultures which they yielded were normal in every -respect. The same result was obtained when liquid hydrogen was -substituted for air. A similar persistence of life has been demonstrated -in seeds, even at the lowest temperatures; they were frozen for over 100 -hours in liquid air at the instance of Messrs Brown and Escombe, with no -other effect than to afflict their protoplasm with a certain inertness, -from which it recovered with warmth. Subsequently commercial samples of -barley, peas and vegetable-marrow and mustard seeds were literally -steeped for six hours in liquid hydrogen at the Royal Institution, yet -when they were sown by Sir W. T. Thiselton Dyer at Kew in the ordinary -way, the proportion in which germination occurred was no smaller than -with other batches of the same seeds which had suffered no abnormal -treatment. Mr Harold Swithinbank has found that exposure to liquid air -has little or no effect on the vitality of the tubercle bacillus, -although by very prolonged exposures its virulence is modified to some -extent; but alternate exposures to normal and very cold temperatures do -have a decided effect both upon its vitality and its virulence. The -suggestion once put forward by Lord Kelvin, that life may in the first -instance have been conveyed to this planet on a meteorite, has been -objected to on the ground that any living organism would have been -killed before reaching the earth by its passage through the intense cold -of interstellar space; the above experiments on the resistance to cold -offered by seeds and bacteria show that this objection at least is not -fatal to Lord Kelvin's idea. - -At the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine liquid air has been -brought into use as an agent in biological research. An inquiry into the -intracellular constituents of the typhoid bacillus, initiated under the -direction of Dr Allan Macfadyen, necessitated the separation of the -cell-plasma of the organism. The method at first adopted for the -disintegration of the bacteria was to mix them with silver-sand and -churn the whole up in a closed vessel in which a series of horizontal -vanes revolved at a high speed. But certain disadvantages attached to -this procedure, and accordingly some means was sought to do away with -the sand and triturate the bacilli _per se_. This was found in liquid -air, which, as had long before been shown at the Royal Institution, has -the power of reducing materials like grass or the leaves of plants to -such a state of brittleness that they can easily be powdered in a -mortar. By its aid a complete trituration of the typhoid bacilli has -been accomplished at the Jenner Institute, and the same process, already -applied with success also to yeast cells and animal cells, is being -extended in other directions. - -_Industrial Applications._--While liquid air and liquid hydrogen are -being used in scientific research to an extent which increases every -day, their applications to industrial purposes are not so numerous. The -temperatures they give used as simple refrigerants are much lower than -are generally required industrially, and such cooling as is needed can -be obtained quite satisfactorily, and far more cheaply, by refrigerating -machinery employing more easily condensable gases. Their use as a source -of motive power, again, is impracticable for any ordinary purposes, on -the score of inconvenience and expense. Cases may be conceived of in -which for special reasons it might prove advantageous to use liquid air, -vaporized by heat derived from the surrounding atmosphere, to drive -compressed-air engines, but any advantage so gained would certainly not -be one of cheapness. No doubt the power of a waterfall running to waste -might be temporarily conserved in the shape of liquid air, and thereby -turned to useful effect. But the reduction of air to the liquid state is -a process which involves the expenditure of a very large amount of -energy, and it is not possible even to recover all that expended energy -during the transition of the material back to the gaseous state. Hence -to suggest that by using liquid air in a motor more power can be -developed than was expended in producing the liquid air by which the -motor is worked, is to propound a fallacy worse than perpetual motion, -since such a process would have an efficiency of more than 100%. Still, -in conditions where economy is of no account, liquid air might perhaps, -with effectively isolated storage, be utilized as a motive power, e.g. -to drive the engines of submarine boats and at the same time provide a -supply of oxygen for the crew; even without being used in the engines, -liquid air or oxygen might be found a convenient form in which to store -the air necessary for respiration in such vessels. But a use to which -liquid air machines have already been put to a large extent is for -obtaining oxygen from the atmosphere. Although when air is liquefied the -oxygen and nitrogen are condensed simultaneously, yet owing to its -greater volatility the latter boils off the more quickly of the two, so -that the remaining liquid becomes gradually richer and richer in -oxygen. The fractional distillation of liquid air is the method now -universally adopted for the preparation of oxygen on a commercial scale, -while the nitrogen simultaneously obtained is used for the production of -cyanamide, by its action on carbide of calcium. An interesting though -minor application of liquid oxygen, or liquid air from which most of the -nitrogen has evaporated, depends on the fact that if it be mixed with -powdered charcoal, or finely divided organic bodies, it can be made by -the aid of a detonator to explode with a violence comparable to that of -dynamite. This explosive, which might properly be called an emergency -one, has the disadvantage that it must be prepared on the spot where it -is to be used and must be fired without delay, since the liquid -evaporates in a short time and the explosive power is lost; but, on the -other hand, if a charge fails to go off it has only to be left a few -minutes, when it can be withdrawn without any danger of accidental -explosion. - - For further information the reader may consult W. L. Hardin, _Rise and - Development of the Liquefaction of Gases_ (New York, 1899), and - Lefevre, _La Liquefaction des gaz et ses applications_; also the - article CONDENSATION OF GASES. But the literature of liquid gases is - mostly contained in scientific periodicals and the proceedings of - learned societies. Papers by Wroblewski and Olszewski on the - liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen may be found in the _Comptes - rendus_, vols, xcvi.-cii., and there are important memoirs by the - former on the relations between the gaseous and liquid states and on - the compressibility of hydrogen in _Wien. Akad. Sitzber._ vols. xciv. - and xcvii.; his pamphlet _Comme l'air a ete liquefie_ (Paris, 1885) - should also be referred to. For Dewar's work, see _Proc. Roy. Inst._ - from 1878 onwards, including "Solid Hydrogen" (1900); "Liquid Hydrogen - Calorimetry" (1904); "New Low Temperature Phenomena" (1905); "Liquid - Air and Charcoal at Low Temperatures" (1906); "Studies in High Vacua - and Helium at Low Temperatures" (1907); also "The Nadir of Temperature - and Allied Problems" (Bakerian Lecture), _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (1901), and - the Presidential Address to the British Association (1902). The - researches of Fleming and Dewar on the electrical and magnetic - properties of substances at low temperatures are described in _Proc. - Roy. Soc._ vol. lx., and _Proc. Roy. Inst._ (1896); see also - "Electrical Resistance of Pure Metals, Alloys and Non-Metals at the - Boiling-point of Oxygen," _Phil. Mag._ vol. xxxiv. (1892); "Electrical - Resistance of Metals and Alloys at Temperatures approaching the - Absolute Zero," _ibid._ vol. xxxvi. (1893); "Thermoelectric Powers of - Metals and Alloys between the Temperatures of the Boiling-point of - Water and the Boiling-point of Liquid Air," _ibid._ vol. xl. (1895); - and papers on the dielectric constants of various substances at low - temperatures in _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vols. lxi. and lxii. Optical and - spectroscopic work by Liveing and Dewar on liquid gases is described - in _Phil. Mag._ vols. xxxiv. (1892), xxxvi. (1893), xxxviii. (1894) - and xl. (1895); for papers by the same authors on the separation and - spectroscopic examination of the most volatile and least volatile - constituents of atmospheric air, see _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vols. lxiv., - lxvii. and lxviii. An account of the influence of very low - temperatures on the germinative power of seeds is given by H. T. Brown - and F. Escombe in _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. lxii., and by Sir W. - Thiselton Dyer, _ibid._ vol. lxv., and their effect on bacteria is - discussed by A. Macfadyen, _ibid._ vols. lxvi. and lxxi. (J. Dr.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Figs. 1, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13 in this article are from _Proc. - Roy. Inst._, by permission. - - [2] It may be noted that now that the commercial production of oxygen - is effected by the liquefaction of air, with separation of its - constituents in what is essentially a Coffey still, the chemist has - at his command large quantities not only of the less volatile - constituents, krypton and xenon, but also of the more volatile ones, - neon and helium. Roughly a million volumes of air contain 20 volumes - of neon and helium, about 15 of the former to 5 of the latter, - approximately 1 volume of hydrogen being associated with them, so - that in view of the enormous amounts of oxygen that are produced, - helium can be obtained in practically any quantity directly from the - atmosphere. - - - - -LIQUORICE. The hard and semi-vitreous sticks of paste, black in colour -and possessed of a sweet somewhat astringent taste, known as liquorice -paste or black sugar, are the inspissated juice of the roots of a -leguminous plant, _Glycyrrhiza glabra_, the _radix glycyrrhizae_ of the -pharmacopoeia. The plant is cultivated throughout the warmer parts of -Europe, especially on the Mediterranean shores, and to some extent in -Louisiana and California. The roots for use are obtained in lengths of 3 -or 4 ft., varying in diameter from 1/4 to 1 in.; they are soft, flexible -and fibrous, and internally of a bright yellow colour, with a -characteristic, sweet pleasant taste. To this sweet taste of its root -the plant owes its generic name _Glycyrrhiza_ ([Greek: glykyrrhiza], the -sweet-root), of which the word liquorice is a corruption. The roots -contain grape-sugar, starch, resin, asparagine, malic acid and the -glucoside glycyrrhizin, C^24H36O9, a yellow amorphous powder with an -acid reaction and a distinctive bitter-sweet taste. On hydrolysis, -glycyrrhizin yields glucose and glycyrrhetin. - - Stick liquorice is made by crushing and grinding the roots to a pulp, - which is boiled in water over an open fire, and the decoction - separated from the solid residue of the root is evaporated till a - sufficient degree of concentration is attained, after which, on - cooling, it is rolled into the form of sticks or other shapes for the - market. The preparation of the juice is a widely extended industry - along the Mediterranean coasts; but the quality best appreciated in - the United Kingdom is made in Calabria, and sold under the names of - Solazzi and Corigliano juice. Liquorice enters into the composition of - many cough lozenges and other demulcent preparations; and in the form - of aromatic syrups and elixirs it has a remarkable effect in masking - the taste of nauseous medicines. - - - - -LIQUOR LAWS. In most Western countries the sale of alcoholic liquor is -regulated by law. The original and principal object is to check the -evils arising from the immoderate use of such liquor, in the interest of -public order, morality and health; a secondary object is to raise -revenue from the traffic. The form and the stringency of the laws passed -for these purposes vary very widely in different countries according to -the habits of the people and the state of public opinion. The evils -which it is desired to check are much greater in some countries than in -others. Generally speaking they are greater in northern countries and -cold and damp climates than in southern and more sunny ones. Climate has -a marked influence on diet for physiological reasons over which we have -no control. The fact is attested by universal experience and is -perfectly natural and inevitable, though usually ignored in those -international comparisons of economic conditions and popular customs -which have become so common. It holds good both of food and drink. The -inhabitants of south Europe are much less given to alcoholic excess than -those of central Europe, who again are more temperate than those of the -north. There is even a difference between localities so near together as -the east and west of Scotland. The chairman of the Prison Commissioners -pointed out before a British royal commission in the year 1897 the -greater prevalence of drunkenness in the western half, and attributed it -in part to the dampness of the climate on the western coast. But race -also has an influence. The British carry the habit of drinking wherever -they go, and their colonial descendants retain it even in hot and dry -climates. The Slav peoples and the Magyars in central Europe are much -more intemperate than the Teutonic and Latin peoples living under -similar climatic conditions. These natural differences lead, in -accordance with the principle discerned and enunciated by Montesquieu, -to the adoption of different laws, which vary with the local conditions. -But social laws of this character also vary with the state of public -opinion, not only in different countries but in the same country at -different times. The result is that the subject is in a state of -incessant flux. There are not only many varieties of liquor laws, but -also frequent changes in them, and new experiments are constantly being -tried. The general tendency is towards increased stringency, not so much -because the evils increase, though that happens in particular places at -particular times, as because public opinion moves broadly towards -increasing condemnation of excess and increasing reliance on legislative -interference. The first is due partly to a general process of refining -manners, partly to medical influence and the growing attention paid to -health; the second to a universal tendency which seems inherent in -democracy. - -Liquor laws may be classified in several ways, but the most useful way -for the present purpose will be to take the principal methods of -conducting the traffic as they exist, under four main headings, and -after a brief explanation give some account of the laws in the principal -countries which have adopted them. The four methods are: (1) licensing -or commercial sale for private profit under a legal permit; (2) sale by -authorized bodies not for private profit, commonly known as the -Scandinavian or company system; (3) state monopoly; (4) prohibition. It -is not a scientific classification, because the company system is a form -of licensing and prohibition is no sale at all; but it follows the lines -of popular discussion and is more intelligible than one of a more -technical character would be. All forms of liquor legislation deal -mainly with retail sale, and particularly with the sale for immediate -consumption on the spot. - -1. _Licensing._--This is by far the oldest and the most widely adopted -method; it is the one which first suggests itself in the natural course -of things. Men begin by making and selling a thing without let or -hindrance to please themselves. Then objections are raised, and when -they are strong or general enough the law interferes in the public -interest, at first mildly; it says in effect--This must not go on in -this way or to this extent; there must be some control, and permission -will only be given to duly authorized persons. Such persons are licensed -or permitted to carry on the traffic under conditions, and there is -obviously room for infinite gradations of strictness in granting -permission and infinite variety in the conditions imposed. The procedure -may vary from mere notification of the intention to open an -establishment up to a rigid and minutely detailed system of annual -licensing laid down by the law. But in all cases, even when mere -notification is required, the governing authority has the right to -refuse permission or to withdraw it for reasons given, and so it retains -the power of control. At the same time holders of the permission may be -compelled to pay for the privilege and so contribute to the public -revenue. The great merit of the licensing system is its perfect -elasticity, which permits adjustment to all sorts of conditions and to -the varying demands of public opinion. It is in force in the United -Kingdom, which first adopted it, in most European countries, in the -greater part of North America, including both the United States and -Canada, in the other British dominions and elsewhere. - -2. _The Scandinavian or Company System._--The principle of this method -is the elimination of private profit on the ground that it removes an -incentive to the encouragement of excessive drinking. A monopoly of the -sale of liquor is entrusted to a body of citizens who have, or are -supposed to have, no personal interest in it, and the profits are -applied to public purposes. The system, which is also called -"disinterested management," is adopted in Sweden and Norway; and the -principle has been applied in a modified form in England and Finland by -the operation of philanthropic societies which, however, have no -monopoly but are on the same legal footing as ordinary traders. - -3. _State Monopoly._--As the name implies, this system consists in -retaining the liquor trade in the hands of the state, which thus secures -all the profit and is at the same time able to exercise complete -control. It is adopted in Russia, in certain parts of the United States -and, in regard to the wholesale trade, in Switzerland. - -4. _Prohibition._--This may be general or local; in the latter case it -is called "local option" or "local veto." The sale of liquor is made -illegal in the hope of preventing drinking altogether or of diminishing -it by making it more difficult. General prohibition has been tried in -some American states, and is still in force in a few; it is also applied -to native races, under civilized rule, both in Africa and North America. -Local prohibition is widely in force in the United States, Canada and -Australasia, Sweden and Norway. In certain areas in other countries, -including the United Kingdom, the sale of liquor is in a sense -prohibited, not by the law, but by the owners of the property who refuse -to allow any public-houses. Such cases have nothing to do with the law, -but they are mentioned here because reference is often made to them by -advocates of legal prohibition. - - -THE UNITED KINGDOM - -England has had a very much longer experience of liquor legislation than -any other country, and the story forms an introduction necessary to the -intelligent comprehension of liquor legislation in general. England -adopted a licensing system in 1551, and has retained it, with -innumerable modifications, ever since. The English were notorious for -hard drinking for centuries before licensing was adopted, and from time -to time sundry efforts had been made to check it, but what eventually -compelled the interference of the law was the growth of crime and -disorder associated with the public-houses towards the end of the 15th -century. Numbers of men who had previously been engaged in the civil -wars or on the establishment of feudal houses were thrown on the world -and betook themselves to the towns, particularly London, where they -frequented the ale-houses, "dicing and drinking," and lived largely on -violence and crime. An act was passed in 1495 against vagabonds and -unlawful games, whereby justices of the peace were empowered to "put -away common ale-selling in towns and places where they should think -convenient and to take sureties of keepers of ale-houses in their good -behaviour." That was the beginning of statutory control of the trade. -The act clearly recognized a connexion between public disorder and -public-houses. The latter were ale-houses, for at that time ale was the -drink of the people; spirits had not yet come into common use, and wine, -the consumption of which on the premises was prohibited in 1552, was -only drunk by the wealthier classes. - -_Early History of Licensing._--The act of 1551-1552, which introduced -licensing, was on the same lines but went further. It confirmed the -power of suppressing common ale-selling, and enacted that no one should -be allowed to keep a common ale-house or "tippling" house without -obtaining the permission of the justices in open session or of two of -their number. It further "directed that the justices should take from -the persons whom they licensed such bond and surety by recognisance as -they should think convenient, and empowered them in quarter session to -inquire into and try breaches by licensed persons of the conditions of -their recognisances and cases of persons keeping ale-houses without -licences and to punish the offenders" (Bonham Carter, Royal Commission -on Liquor Licensing Laws, vol. iii.). This act embodied the whole -principle of licensing, and the object was clearly stated in the -preamble: "For as much as intolerable hurts and troubles to the -commonwealth of this realm doth daily grow and increase through such -abuses and disorders as are had and used in common ale-houses and other -places called tippling houses." The evil was not due merely to the use -of alcoholic liquor but to the fact that these houses, being -public-houses, were the resort of idle and disorderly characters. The -distinction should be borne in mind. - -The act seems to have been of some effect, for no further legislation -was attempted for half a century, though there is abundant evidence of -the intemperate habits of all classes. Mr Bonham Carter (loc. cit.) -observes:-- - - "The recognisances referred to in the act were valuable instruments - for controlling the conduct of ale-house keepers. The justices, in - exercise of their discretion, required the recognisances to contain - such conditions for the management and good order of the business as - they thought suitable. In this way a set of regulations came into - existence, many of which were subsequently embodied in acts of - Parliament. In some counties general rules were drawn up, which every - ale-house keeper was bound to observe." - -It is interesting to note that among the conditions laid down about this -time were the following: Closing at 9 P.M. and during divine service on -Sunday; in some cases complete closing on Sunday except to travellers; -the licence-holder to notify to the constable all strangers staying for -more than a night and not to permit persons to continue drinking or -tippling; prohibition of unlawful games, receiving stolen goods and -harbouring bad characters; the use of standard measures and prices fixed -by law. There was, however, no uniformity of practice in these respects -until the 17th century, when an attempt was made to establish stricter -and more uniform control by a whole series of acts passed between 1603 -and 1627. The evils which it was sought to remedy by these measures were -the existence of unlicensed houses, the use of ale-houses for mere -drinking and the prevalence of disorder. It was declared that the -ancient and proper use of inns and ale-houses was the refreshment and -lodging of travellers, and that they were not meant for "entertainment -and harbouring of lewd and idle people to spend and consume their money -and their time in lewd and drunken manner." Regulations were -strengthened for the suppression of unlicensed houses, licences were -made annual, and the justices were directed to hold a special licensing -meeting once a year (1618). Penalties were imposed on innkeepers for -permitting tippling, and also on tipplers and drunkards (1625). In 1634 -licensing was first applied to Ireland. Later in the century heavy -penalties were imposed for adulteration. - -The next chapter in the history of licensing has to do with spirits, and -is very instructive. Spirits were not a native product like beer; brandy -was introduced from France, gin from the Netherlands and whisky from -Ireland; but down to the year 1690 the consumption was small. The home -manufacture was strictly limited, and high duties on imported spirits -rendered them too dear for the general public unless smuggled. -Consequently the people had not acquired the taste for them. But in 1690 -distilling was thrown open to any one on the payment of very trifling -duties, spirits became extremely cheap and the consumption increased -with great rapidity. Regulation of the retail traffic was soon found to -be necessary, and by an act passed in 1700-1701, the licensing -requirements already existing for ale-house keepers were extended to -persons selling distilled liquors for consumption on the premises. A new -class of public-houses in the shape of spirit bars grew up. In the year -1732 a complete and detailed survey of all the streets and houses in -London was carried out by William Maitland, F.R.S. Out of a total of -95,968 houses he found the following: brew-houses 171, inns 207, taverns -447, ale-houses 5975, brandy-shops 8659; total number of licensed houses -for the retail sale of liquor 15,288, of which considerably more than -one-half were spirit bars. The population was about three-quarters of a -million. About one house in every six was licensed at this time, and -that in spite of attempts made to check the traffic by restrictive acts -passed in 1728-1729. The physical and moral evils caused by the -excessive consumption of spirits were fully recognized; an additional -duty of 5s. a gallon was placed on the distiller, and retailers were -compelled to take out an excise licence of L20 per annum. The object was -to make spirits dearer and therefore less accessible. At the same time, -with a view to lessening the number of houses, the licensing procedure -of the justices was amended by the provision that licences should only -be granted at a general meeting of the justices acting in the division -where the applicant resided, thus abolishing the power conferred by the -original licensing act, of any two justices to grant a licence. This -change, effected in 1729, was a permanent improvement, though it did not -prevent the existence of the prodigious numbers of houses recorded by -Maitland in 1732. The attempt to make spirits dearer by high excise -duties, on the other hand, was adjudged a failure because it led to -illicit trade, and the act of 1728 was repealed in 1732. But the evil -was so glaring that another and more drastic attempt in the same -direction was made in 1736, when the famous Gin Act was passed in -response to a petition presented to parliament by the Middlesex -magistrates, declaring "that the drinking of geneva and other distilled -waters had for some years past greatly increased; that the constant and -excessive use thereof had destroyed thousands of His Majesty's subjects; -that great numbers of others were by its use rendered unfit for useful -labour, debauched in morals and drawn into all manner of vice and -wickedness...." The retailing of spirits in quantities of less than 2 -gallons was made subject to a licence costing L50 and the retailer had -also to pay a duty of 20s. on every gallon sold. This experiment in -"high licensing" was a disastrous failure, though energetic attempts -were made to enforce it by wholesale prosecutions and by strengthening -the regulations against evasion. Public opinion was inflamed against it, -and the only results were corruptions of the executive and an enormous -increase of consumption through illicit channels. The consumption of -spirits in England and Wales nearly doubled between 1733 and 1742, and -the state of things was so intolerable that after much controversy the -high duties were repealed in 1742 with the object of bringing the trade -back into authorized channels; the cost of a licence was reduced from -L50 to L1 and the retail duty from 20s. to 1d. a gallon. - -This period witnessed the high-water mark of intemperance in England. -From various contemporary descriptions it is abundantly clear that the -state of things was incomparably worse than anything in modern times, and -that women, whose participation in the practice of drinking and -frequenting public-houses is recorded by writers in the previous century, -were affected as well as men. The experience is particularly instructive -because it includes examples of excess and deficiency of opportunities -and the ill effects of both on a people naturally inclined to indulgence -in drink. It was followed by more judicious action, which showed the -adaptability of the licensing system and the advantages of a mean between -laxity and severity. Between 1743 and 1753 acts were passed which -increased control in a moderate way and proved much more successful than -the previous measures. The retail licence duty was moderately raised and -the regulations were amended and made stricter. The class of houses -eligible for licensing was for the first time taken into account, and the -retailing of spirits was only permitted on premises assessed for rates -and, in London, of the annual value of L10; justices having an interest -in the trade were excluded from licensing functions. Another measure -which had an excellent effect made "tippling" debts--that is, small -public-houses debts incurred for spirits--irrecoverable at law. The -result of these measures was that consumption diminished and the class of -houses improved. At the same time (1753) the general licensing provisions -were strengthened and extended. The distinction between new licences and -the renewal of old ones was for the first time recognized; applicants for -new licences in country districts were required to produce a certificate -of character from the clergy, overseers and church-wardens or from three -or four householders. The annual licensing sessions were made statutory, -and the consent of a justice was required for the transfer of a licence -from one person to another during the term for which it was granted. -Penalties for infringing the law were increased, and the licensing system -was extended to Scotland (1755-1756). With regard to wine, it has already -been stated that consumption on the premises was forbidden in 1552, and -at the same time the retail sale was restricted to towns of some -importance and the number of retailers, who had to obtain an appointment -from the corporation or the justices, was strictly limited. In 1660 -consumption on the premises was permitted under a Crown (excise) licence, -good for a variable term of years; in 1756 this was changed to an annual -excise licence of fixed amount, and in 1792 wine was brought under the -same jurisdiction of the justices as other liquors. - -It is clear from the foregoing that a great deal of legislation occurred -during the 18th century, and that by successive enactments, particularly -about the middle of the century, the licensing system gradually became -adjusted to the requirements of the time and took a settled shape. The -acts then passed still form the basis of the law. In the early part of -the 19th century another period of legislative activity set in. A -parliamentary inquiry into illicit trade in spirits took place in 1821, -and in 1828 important acts were passed amending and consolidating the -laws for England and for Scotland; in 1833 a general Licensing Act was -passed for Ireland. These are still the principal acts, though they have -undergone innumerable amendments and additions. The English act of 1828 -introduced certain important changes. A licence from the justices was no -longer required for the sale of liquor for consumption off the premises, -and the power of the justices to suppress public-houses at their -discretion (apart from the annual licensing), which they had possessed -since 1495, was taken away. The removal of this power, which had long -been obsolete, was the natural corollary of the development of the -licensing system, its greater stringency and efficiency and the increase -of duties imposed on the trade. Men on whom these obligations were laid, -and who were freshly authorized to carry on the business every year, -could not remain liable to summary deprivation of the privileges thus -granted and paid for. The justices had absolute discretion to withhold -licences from an applicant whether new or old; but an appeal was allowed -to quarter sessions against refusal and also against conviction for -offences under the act. The main points in the law at this time were the -following. The sale of alcoholic liquors for consumption on the premises -was forbidden under penalties except to persons authorized according to -law by the justices. Licences were granted for one year and had to be -renewed annually. The justices held a general meeting each year at a -specified time for the purpose of granting licences; those peculiarly -interested in the liquor trade were disqualified. The licence contained -various provisions for regulating the conduct of the house and -maintaining order, but closing was only required during the hours of -divine service on Sunday. Applicants for new licences and for the -transfer of old ones (granted at a special sessions of the justices) -were required to give notice to the local authorities and to post up -notices at the parish church and on the house concerned. - -_Excise Licences._--It will be convenient at this point to explain the -relation between that part of the licensing system which is concerned -with the conduct of the traffic and lies in the jurisdiction of the -justices and that part which has to do with taxation or revenue. The -former is the earlier and more important branch of legislative -interference; we have traced its history from 1495 down to 1828. Its -object from the beginning was the maintenance of public order and good -conduct, which were impaired by the misuse of public-houses; and all the -successive enactments were directed to that end. They were attempts to -suppress or moderate the evils arising from the traffic by regulating -it. The excise licensing system has nothing to do with public order or -the conduct of the traffic; its object is simply to obtain revenue, and -for a long time the two systems were quite independent. But time and -change gradually brought them into contact and eventually they came to -form two aspects of one unified system. Licensing for revenue was first -introduced in 1660 at the same time as duties on the manufacture of beer -and spirits: but it was of an irregular character and was only applied -to wine, which was not then under the jurisdiction of the justices at -all (see above). In 1710 a small annual tax was imposed on the retailers -of beer and ale and collected by means of a stamp on the justices' -licence. In 1728 an annual excise licence of L20 was imposed on -retailers of spirits, and in 1736 this was raised to L50 (see above). -The object of these particular imposts, however, was rather to check the -sale, as previously explained, than to secure revenue. In 1756 the -previous tax on the retail sale of wine for consumption on the premises -was changed to an annual excise licence, which was in the next year -extended to "made wines" and "sweets" (British wines). Similar licences, -in place of the previous stamps, were temporarily required for beer and -ale between 1725 and 1742 and permanently imposed in 1808. Thus the -system of annual excise licences became gradually applied to all kinds -of liquor. In 1825 the laws relating to them were consolidated and -brought into direct relation with the other licensing laws. It was -enacted that excise licences for the retail of liquor should only be -granted to persons holding a justices' licence or--to use the more -correct term--certificate. The actual permission to sell was obtained on -payment of the proper dues from the excise authorities, but they had no -power to withhold it from persons authorized by the justices. And that -was still the system in 1910. - -_Licensing since 1828._--There was no change in the form of the British -licensing system between the consolidation of the law in 1825-1828 and -the time (1910) at which we write; but there were a great many changes -in administrative detail and some changes in principle. Only the most -important can be mentioned. In 1830 a bold experiment was tried in -exempting the sale of beer from the requirement of a justice's licence. -Any householder rated to the parish was entitled, under a bond with -sureties, to take out an excise licence for the sale of beer for -consumption on or off the premises. This measure, which applied to -England and was commonly known as the Duke of Wellington's Act, had two -objects; one was to encourage the consumption of beer in the hope of -weaning the people from spirits; the other was to counteract the -practice of "tieing" public-houses to breweries by creating free ones. -With regard to the first, it was believed that spirit-drinking was -increasing again at the time and was doing a great deal of harm. The -reason appears to have been a great rise in the returns of consumption, -which followed a lowering of the duty on spirits from 11s. 8(1/4)d. to -7s. a gallon in 1825. The latter step was taken because of the -prevalence of illicit distillation. In 1823 the duty had been lowered -for the same reason in Scotland from 6s. 2d. and in Ireland from 5s. 7d. -to a uniform rate of 2s. 4(3/4)d. a gallon, with so much success in -turning the trade from illegal to legal channels that a similar change -was thought advisable in England, as stated. The legal or apparent -consumption rose at once from 7 to nearly 13 million gallons; but it is -doubtful if there was much or any real increase. According to an -official statement, more than half the spirits consumed in 1820 were -illicit. The facts are of much interest in showing what had already been -shown in the 18th century, that the liquor trade will not bear unlimited -taxation; the traffic is driven underground. It is highly probable that -this accounts for part of the great fall in consumption which followed -the raising of the spirit duty from 11s. to 14s. 9d. under Mr Lloyd -George's Budget in 1909. With regard to "tied" houses, this is the -original form of public-house. When beer was first brewed for sale a -"tap" for retail purposes was attached to the brewery, and public-houses -may still be found bearing the name "The Brewery Tap." At the beginning -of the 19th century complaints were made of the increasing number of -houses owned or controlled by breweries and of the dependence of the -licence-holders, and in 1817 a Select Committee inquired into the -subject. The Beerhouse Act does not appear to have checked the practice -or to have diminished the consumption of spirits; but it led to a great -increase in the number of beer-houses. It was modified in 1834 and 1840, -but not repealed until 1869, when beer-houses were again brought under -the justices. - -Most of the other very numerous changes in the law were concerned with -conditions imposed on licence-holders. The hours of closing are the most -important of these. Apart from the ancient regulations of closing during -divine service on Sunday, there were no restrictions in 1828; but after -that at least a dozen successive acts dealt with the point. The first -important measure was applied in London under a Police Act in 1839; it -ordered licensed houses to be closed from midnight on Saturday to -mid-day on Sunday, and produced a wonderful effect on public order. In -1853 a very important act (Forbes Mackenzie) was passed for Scotland, by -which sale on Sunday was wholly forbidden, except to travellers and -lodgers, and was restricted on week days to the hours between 8 A.M. and -11 P.M. This act also introduced a distinction between hotels, -public-houses and grocers licensed to sell liquor, and forbade the sale -to children under 14 years, except as messengers, and to intoxicated -persons. In England, after a series of enactments in the direction of -progressive restriction, uniform regulations as to the hours of opening -and closing for licensed premises were applied in 1874, and are still in -force (see below). In 1878 complete Sunday closing, as in Scotland, was -applied in Ireland, with the exemption of the five largest towns, -Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Limerick and Waterford; and in 1881 the same -provision was extended to Wales. - -Other changes worthy of note are the following. In 1860 the free sale of -wine for consumption off the premises was introduced by the Wine and -Refreshment Houses Act, which authorized any shopkeeper to take out an -excise licence for this purpose; the licences so created were -subsequently known as grocers' licences. By the same act refreshment -houses were placed under certain restrictions, but were permitted to -sell wine for consumption on the premises under an excise licence. In -1861 spirit dealers were similarly authorized to sell spirits by the -bottle. The effect of these measures was to exempt a good deal of the -wine and spirit trade from the control of the justices, and the idea was -to wean people from public-house drinking by encouraging them to take -what they wanted at home and in eating-houses. - -In 1869 this policy of directing the habits of the people into channels -thought to be preferable, which had been inaugurated in 1830, was -abandoned for one of greater stringency all round, which has since been -maintained. All the beer and wine retail licences were brought under the -discretion of the justices, but they might only refuse "off" licences -and the renewal of previously existing beer-house "on" licences upon -specified grounds, namely (1) unsatisfactory character, (2) disorder, -(3) previous misconduct, (4) insufficient qualification of applicant or -premises. In 1872 an important act further extended the policy of -restriction; new licences had to be confirmed, and the right of appeal -in case of refusal was taken away; penalties for offences were increased -and extended, particularly for public drunkenness, and for permitting -drunkenness; the sale of spirits to persons under 16 was prohibited. In -1876 many of these provisions were extended to Scotland. In 1886 the -sale of liquor for consumption on the premises was forbidden to persons -under 13 years. In 1901 the sale for "off" consumption was prohibited to -persons under 14, except in sealed vessels; this is known as the Child -Messenger Act. These measures for the protection of children were -extended in 1908 by an act which came into operation in April 1909, -excluding children under 14 from the public-house bars altogether. The -progressive protection of children by the law well illustrates the -influence of changing public opinion. The successive measures enumerated -were not due to increasing contamination of children caused by their -frequenting the public-house, but to recognition of the harm they -sustain thereby. The practice of taking and sending children to the -public-house, and of serving them with drink, is an old one in England. -A great deal of evidence on the subject was given before a Select -Committee of the House of Commons in 1834; but it is only in recent -years, when the general concern for children has undergone a remarkable -development in all directions, that attempts have been made to stop it. -In 1902 clubs, which had been increasing, and habitual drunkards, were -brought under the law. - -In 1904 a new principle was introduced into the licensing system in -England, and this, too, was due to change in public opinion. Between -1830 and 1869, under the influence of the legislation described above, a -continuous increase in the number of public-houses took place in -England; but after 1869 they began to diminish through stricter control, -and this process has gone on continuously ever since. Reduction of -numbers became a prime object with many licensing benches; they were -reluctant to grant new licences, and made a point of extinguishing old -ones year by year. At first this was easily effected under the new and -stringent provisions of the legislation of 1869-1872, but it gradually -became more difficult as the worst houses disappeared and the remaining -ones were better conducted, and gave less and less excuse for -interference. But the desire for reduction still gained ground, and a -new principle was adopted. Houses against which no ill-conduct was -alleged were said to be "superfluous," and on that ground licences were -taken away. But this, again, offended the general sense of justice; it -was felt that to take away a man's living or a valuable property for no -fault of his own was to inflict a great hardship. To meet the difficulty -the principle of compensation was introduced by the act of 1904. It -provides that compensation shall be paid to a licence-holder (also to -the owner of the premises) whose licence is withdrawn on grounds other -than misconduct of the house or unsuitability of premises or of -character. The compensation is paid out of a fund raised by an annual -charge on the remaining licensed houses. This act has been followed by a -large reduction of licences. - -_State of the Law in 1910._--In consequence of the long history and -evolution of legislation in the United Kingdom and of the innumerable -minor changes introduced, only a few of which have been mentioned above, -the law has become excessively complicated. The differences between the -English, Scottish and Irish codes, the distinction between the several -kinds of liquor, between consumption on and off the premises, between -new licences and the renewal of old ones, between premises licensed -before 1869 and those licensed since, between excise and justices' -licences--all these and many other points make the subject exceedingly -intricate; and it is further complicated by the uncertainty of the -courts and a vast body of case-made law. Only a summary of the chief -provisions can be given here. - -1. The open sale of intoxicating liquor (spirits, wine, sweets, beer, -cider) by retail is confined to persons holding an excise licence, with -a few unimportant exceptions, including medicine. - -2. A condition precedent to obtaining such a licence is permission -granted by the justices who are the licensing authority and called a -justices' licence or certificate. Theatres, passenger boats and -canteens are exempted from this condition; also certain dealers in -spirits and wine. - -3. Justices' licences are granted at special annual meetings of the -local justices, called Brewster Sessions. Justices having a pecuniary -interest in the liquor trade of the district, except as railway -shareholders, are disqualified from acting; "bias" due to other -interests may also be a disqualification. - -4. Justices' licences are only granted for one year and must be renewed -annually, with the exception of a particular class, created by the act -of 1904 and valid for a term of years. Distinctions are made between -granting a new licence and renewing an old one. The proceedings are -stricter and more summary in the case of a new licence; notice of -application must be given to the local authorities; the premises must be -of a certain annual value; a plan of the premises must be deposited -beforehand in the case of an "on" licence; the justices may impose -conditions and have full discretion to refuse without any right of -appeal; the licence, if granted, must be confirmed by a higher -authority. In the case of old licences on the other hand, no notice is -required; they are renewed to the former holders on application, as a -matter of right; unless there is opposition or objection, which may come -from the police or from outside parties or from the justices themselves. -If there is objection the renewal may be refused, but only on specified -grounds--namely misconduct, unfitness of premises or character, -disqualification; otherwise compensation is payable on the plan -explained above. There is a right of appeal to a higher court against -refusal. In all cases, whether the justices have full discretion or not, -they must exercise their discretion in a judicial manner and not -arbitrarily. - -5. Licences may be transferred from one person to another in case of -death, sickness, bankruptcy, change of tenancy, wilful omission to apply -for renewal, forfeiture or disqualification. Licences may also be -transferred from one house to another in certain circumstances. - -6. A licence may be forfeited through the conviction of the holder of -certain specified serious offences. - -7. Persons may similarly be disqualified from holding a licence. - -8. Liquor may only be sold on the premises specified in the licence and -during the following hours:--week-days; London, 5 A.M. to 12.30 P.M. -(Saturday, midnight); large towns 6 A.M. to 11 P.M.; other places 6 A.M. -to 10 P.M.--Sundays; London, 1 P.M. to 3 P.M., 6 P.M. to 11 P.M.; other -places 12.30 P.M. (or 1 P.M.) to 2.30 P.M. (or 3 P.M.), 6 P.M. to 10 -P.M.; Christmas Day and Good Friday are counted as Sunday. In Scotland, -Wales and Ireland (except the five chief towns) no sale is permitted on -Sunday. Licence holders may sell during prohibited hours to lodgers -staying in the house and to _bona-fide_ travellers, who must be not less -than 3 m. from the place they slept in on the previous night. Extension -of hours of sale may be granted for special occasions and for special -localities (e.g. early markets). - -9. The following proceedings are prohibited in licensed premises: -permitting children under 14 to be in a bar, selling any liquor to -children under 14 for consumption on the premises, selling liquor to -children under 14 as messengers except in corked and sealed vessels, -selling spirits for consumption on the premises to persons under 16; -selling to drunken persons and to habitual drunkards; permitting -drunkenness, permitting disorder, harbouring prostitutes, harbouring -constables, supplying liquor to constables on duty, bribing constables, -permitting betting (persistent) or gaming, permitting premises to be -used as a brothel, harbouring thieves, permitting seditious meetings; -permitting the payment of wagers on premises; permitting premises to be -used for election committee rooms. In and within 20 m. of London music -and dancing are prohibited on licensed premises except under special -licences. - -10. The police have the right of entry to licensed premises at any time -for the purpose of preventing or detecting offences. - -11. The injurious adulteration of any liquor is prohibited; also the -dilution of beer; but dilution of spirits is not unlawful if the -customer's attention is drawn to the fact. - -12. All clubs in which intoxicating liquor is sold must be registered. -If the liquor is the collective property of the members no licence is -required for retail sale, but no liquor can be sold for consumption off -the premises. Clubs run for profit, known as proprietory clubs, are on -the same legal footing as public-houses. - -13. Penalties incurred by licence-holders for offences under the -foregoing provisions. For selling any other kind of liquor than that -authorized--first offence, fine not exceeding L50 or one month's -imprisonment; second offence, fine not exceeding L100 or 3 months' -imprisonment with forfeiture of licence and, if ordered, confiscation of -liquor and disqualification for five years; third offence, fine not -exceeding L100 or six months' imprisonment with forfeiture of licence -and, if ordered, confiscation of liquor and unlimited disqualification. -Under the Excise Acts the penalty for selling without a licence is--for -spirits, a fine of L100, confiscation of liquor, forfeiture of licence -and perpetual disqualification; for wine, a fine of L20; for beer or -cider "on" consumption L20, "off" consumption L10. For sale to children; -first offence, fine up to L2, second offence, fine up to L5. Permitting -premises to be used as a brothel, fine of L20, forfeiture of licence and -perpetual disqualification. Other offences, fine up to L10 for first -conviction, up to L20 for second. - -14. The following are offences on the part of the public. Being found -drunk on any highway or other public place or on licensed premises; -penalty, fine up to 10s. for first conviction, up to 20s. for second, -and up to 40s. for third. Riotous or disorderly conduct while drunk; -fine up to 40s. Falsely pretending to be a traveller or lodger; fine up -to L5. Causing children to be in a bar or sending them for liquor -contrary to the law; fine up to L2 for first and up to L5 for second -offence. Attempt to obtain liquor by a person notified to the police as -an habitual drunkard; fine up to 20s. for first offence, up to 40s. for -subsequent ones. Giving drunken persons liquor or helping them to get it -on licensed premises; fine up to 40s. or imprisonment for a month. -Causing children under 11 to sing or otherwise perform on licensed -premises, and causing boys under 14 or girls under 16 to do so between 9 -P.M. and 6 A.M.; fine up to L25 or three months' imprisonment. - -The foregoing statement of the law does not in all respects apply to -Scotland and Ireland, where the administration differs somewhat from -that of England. In Scotland the provost and bailies are the licensing -authority in royal and parliamentary burghs, and elsewhere the justices. -They hold two sessions annually for granting licences and have -considerably more power in some respects than in England. The hours of -opening are from 8 A.M. to 11 P.M. (week days only), but there is a -discretionary power to close at 10 P.M. In Ireland the licensing -authority is divided between quarter sessions and petty sessions. -Public-house licences are granted and transferred at quarter sessions; -renewals and other licences are dealt with at petty sessions. In Dublin, -Belfast, Cork, Londonderry and Galway the licensing jurisdiction of -quarter sessions is exercised by the recorder, elsewhere by the justices -assembled and presided over by the county court judge. The licensing -jurisdiction of petty sessions is exercised by two or more justices, but -in Dublin by one divisional justice. - - +-------------------------------+--------------------+------------------------------+ - | Licence. | Old Duty. | New Duty 1909-1910. | - +-------------------------------+--------------------+------------------------------+ - |_Manufacturers' Licences_-- | | | - | Distiller (spirits) | L10, 10s. | L10 for first 50,000 | - | | | gallons, L10 for every | - | | | additional 25,000 gallons. | - | Rectifier (spirits) | L10, 10s. | L15, 15s. | - | Brewer | L1 | L1 for first 100 barrels, | - | | | 12s. for every additional | - | | | 50 barrels. | - | Sweets (British wines) | L1 | L5, 5s. | - | | | | - |_Wholesale Dealers' Licences_--| | | - | Spirits | L10, 10s. | L15, 15s. | - | Beer | L3, 6s. 1d. | L10, 10s. | - | Wine | L10, 10s. | No change. | - | Sweets | L5, 5s. | No change. | - | | | | - |_Retail Licences On_-- | | | - | Full or Publican's | L4, 10s. to L60 | Half the annual value of | - | (spirits, beer, wine and | according to | premises, with a fixed | - | cider) | annual value | minimum ranging from L5 in | - | | of premises. | places with less than | - | | | 2000 inhabitants to L35 in | - | | | towns having over 100,000 | - | | | inhabitants. | - | Beer-house | L3, 10s. | One-third of annual value | - | | | of premises, with a | - | | | minimum as above ranging | - | | | from L3, 10s. to L23, 10s. | - | Wine (confectioners') | L3, 10s. | From L4, 10s. to L12 | - | | | according to annual value. | - | Cider | L1, 5s. | From L2, 5s. to L6. | - | Sweets | L1, 5s. | From L2, 5s. to L6. | - | | | | - |_Retail Licences Off_-- | | | - | Spirits | L3, 3s. /| | - | Spirits (grocers', Scotland) | L4, 4s. to | | From L10 to L50 according to | - | | L13, 13s. 6d. < | annual value. | - | Spirits (grocers', Ireland) | L9, 18s. 5d. to | | | - | | L14, 6s. 7d. \| | - | Beer (England) | L1, 5s. | L1, 10s. to L10. | - | Beer (grocers', Scotland) |L2, 10s. and L4, 4s.| L1, 10s. to L10. | - | Wine (grocers') | L2, 10s. 0d. | L2, 10s. to L10. | - +-------------------------------+--------------------+------------------------------+ - -_Excise Licences and Taxation._--The excise licences may be divided into -four classes, (1) manufacturers', (2) wholesale dealers', (3) retail -dealers' for "on" consumption, (4) retail dealers' for "off" -consumption. Only the two last classes come under the jurisdiction of -the justices, as explained above. The total number of different excise -licences is between 30 and 40, but several of them are subvarieties and -unimportant or are peculiar to Scotland or Ireland. The duties charged -on them were greatly changed and increased by the Finance Act of -1909-1910, and it seems desirable to state the changes thus introduced. -The table on the previous page gives the principal kinds of licence with -the old and the new duties. - -There are in addition "occasional" licences valid for one or more days, -which come under the jurisdiction of the justices; the duty is 2s. 6d. a -day for the full licence (raised to 10s.) and 1s. for beer or wine only -(raised to 5s.). - -The total amount raised by the excise licences in the United Kingdom for -the financial year ending 31st March 1909 was L2,209,928. Of this amount -L1,712,160, or nearly four-fifths, was derived from the full or -publicans' licence, L126,053 from the wholesale spirit licence and -L88,167 from the beer-house licence; the rest are comparatively -unimportant. But the licences only represent a small part of the revenue -derived from liquor. The great bulk of it is collected by means of -duties on manufacture and importation. The total amount for the year -ending March 1909 was L37,428,189, or nearly 30% of the total taxation -revenue of the country. The excise duties on the manufacture of spirits -yielded L17,456,366 and those on beer L12,691,332; customs duties on -importation yielded L5,046,949. The excise duty on spirits was at the -rate of 11s. a gallon, raised at the end of April 1909 to 14s. 9d.; the -corresponding duty on beer is 7s. 9d. a barrel (36 gallons). The -relative taxation of the liquor trade in the United States, which has -become important as a political argument, is discussed below. - -_Effects of Legislation._--The only effects which can be stated with -precision and ascribed with certainty to legislation are the increase or -diminution of the number of licences or licensed premises; secondary -effects, such as increase or diminution of consumption and of -drunkenness, are affected by so many causes that only by a very careful, -well-informed and dispassionate examination of the facts can positive -conclusions be drawn with regard to the influence of legislation (see -TEMPERANCE). There is no more prolific ground for fallacious statements -and arguments, whether unconscious or deliberate. The course of -legislation traced above, however, does permit the broad conclusion that -great laxity and the multiplication of facilities tend to increase -drinking and disorder in a country like the United Kingdom, and that -extreme severity produces the same or worse effects by driving the trade -into illicit channels, which escape control, and thus really increasing -facilities while apparently diminishing them. The most successful course -has always been a mean between these extremes in the form of restraint -judiciously applied and adjusted to circumstances. The most salient -feature of the situation as influenced by the law in recent years is the -progressive reduction in the number of licensed houses since 1869. -Previously they had been increasing in England. - -The number of public-houses, including beer-houses for "on" consumption, -in 1831 was 82,466; in 1869 it had risen to 118,602; in 1909 it had -fallen again to 94,794. But if the proportion of public-houses to -population be taken there has been a continuous fall since 1831, as the -following table shows:-- - - _England and Wales._ - - +--------+----------------+---------------+ - | | No. of | Proportion | - | Year. | "on" Licences. | per 10,000 of | - | | | Population. | - +--------+----------------+---------------+ - | 1831 | 82,466 | 59 | - | 1871 | 112,886 | 49 | - | 1901 | 101,940 | 31 | - | 1909 | 94,794 | 26 | - +--------+----------------+---------------+ - -The change may be put in another way. In 1831 there was one public-house -to 168 persons; in 1909 the proportion was 1 to 375. The proportional -reduction goes back to the 18th century. In 1732 there was in London one -public-house to every 50 persons (see above). - -In Scotland the number of public-houses has been diminishing since 1829, -when there were 17,713; in 1909 there were only 7065, while the -population had more than doubled. The number in proportion to population -has therefore fallen far more rapidly than in England, thus--1831, 1 to -134 persons; 1909, 1 to 690 persons. In Ireland the story is different. -There has been a fall in the number of public-houses since 1829, when -there were 20,548; but it has not been large or continuous and the -population has been steadily diminishing during the time, so that the -proportion to population has actually increased, thus--1831, 1 to 395 -persons; 1909, 1 to 249 persons. As a whole, however, the United Kingdom -shows a large and progressive diminution of public-houses to population; -nor is this counterbalanced by an increase of "off" licences. If we take -the whole number of licences we get the following movement in recent -years:-- - - _No. of Retail Licences ("on" and "off") per 10,000 of Population._ - - +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+ - | | 1893. | 1903. | 1909. | - +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+ - | England and Wales | 46 | 42 | 37 | - | Scotland | 37 | 33 | 30 | - | Ireland | 41 | 46 | 45 | - | United Kingdom | 45 | 42 | 37 | - +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+ - -The diminution in the number of public-houses in England was markedly -accelerated by the act of 1904, which introduced the principle of -compensation. The average annual rate of reduction in the ten years -1894-1904 before the act was 359; in the four years 1905-1908; after the -act it rose to 1388. The average annual number of licences suppressed -with compensation was 1137, and the average annual amount of -compensation paid was L1,096,946, contributed by the trade as explained -above. - -The reduction of public-houses has been accompanied in recent years by a -constant increase in the number of clubs. By the act of 1902, which -imposed registration, they were brought under some control and the -number of legal clubs was accurately ascertained. Previously the number -was only estimated from certain _data_ with approximate accuracy. The -following table gives the official figures:-- - - _Clubs: England and Wales._ - - +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ - | | 1887.| 1896.| 1904.| 1905.| 1906.| 1907.| 1908.| 1909.| - +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ - | Number | 1982 | 3655 | 6371 | 6589 | 6721 | 6907 | 7133 | 7353 | - | Proportion | | | | | | | | | - | per 10,000 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.89 | 1.93 | 1.95 | 1.98 | 2.02 | 2.08 | - +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ - -Clubs represent alternative channels to the licensed trade and they are -under much less stringent control; they have no prohibited hours and the -police have not the same right of entry. In so far, therefore, as clubs -replace public-houses the reduction of the latter does not mean -diminished facilities for drinking, but the contrary. In the years -1903-1908 the average number of clubs proceeded against for offences was -74 and the average number struck off the register was 52. The increase -of clubs and the large proportion struck off the register suggest the -need of caution in dealing with the licensed trade; over-stringent -measures defeat their own end. - -Persistent attempts have for many years been made to effect radical -changes in the British system of licensing by the introduction of some -of the methods adopted in other countries, and particularly those in the -United States. But it is difficult to engraft new and alien methods, -involving violent change, upon an ancient system consolidated by -successive statutory enactments and confirmed by time and usage. The -course of the law and administration since 1869 has made it particularly -difficult. The stringent conditions imposed on licence-holders have -given those who fulfil them a claim to consideration, and the reduction -of licences, by limiting the market, has enhanced their value. An -expectation of renewal, in the absence of misconduct, has grown up by -usage and been confirmed by the law, which recognizes the distinction -between granting a new licence and renewing an old one, by the treasury -which levies death duties on the assumption that a licence is an -enduring property, by local authorities which assess upon the same -assumption, and by the High Courts of Justice, whose decisions have -repeatedly turned on this point. The consequence of all this is that -very large sums have been invested in licensed property, which has -become part of the settled order of society; and to destroy it by some -sudden innovation would cause a great shock. The position is entirely -different in other countries where no such control has ever been -exercised. It is possible to impose a new system where previously there -was none, but not to replace suddenly an old and settled one for -something entirely different. Only the most convincing proof of the need -and the advantages of the change would justify it; and such proof has -not been forthcoming. The British system has the great merit of -combining adaptability to different circumstances and to changing -customs with continuity and steadiness of administration. The advantages -of abandoning it for some other are more than doubtful, the difficulties -are real and serious. Over a very long period it has been repeatedly -readjusted in conformity with the movement of public opinion and of -national habits; while under it the executive have gradually got the -traffic well in hand, and a great and progressive improvement in order -and conduct has taken place. The process is gradual but sure, and the -record will compare favourably with that of any other comparable -country. Further readjustment will follow and is desirable. The great -defect of the law is its extreme complexity; it needs recasting and -simplification. There are too many kinds of licence, and the -classification does not correspond with the actual conditions of the -traffic. Some licences are obsolete and superfluous; others make no -distinction between branches of the trade which fulfil entirely -different functions and require different treatment. The full or -publican's licence, which is incomparably the most important, places on -the same legal footing hotels, restaurants, village inns and mere -drinking bars, and the lack of distinction is a great stumbling-block. -In the attempt made in 1908 to introduce new legislation it was found -necessary to incorporate distinctions between different classes of -establishment, although that was not contemplated in the original bill. -It will always be found necessary whenever the subject is seriously -approached, because the law has to deal with things as they actually -are. It does not fall within the scope of this article to discuss the -numerous controversial questions which arise in connexion with various -legislative proposals for dealing with the liquor traffic; but an -account of the methods which it has been proposed to adopt from other -countries will be found below. - - -THE UNITED STATES - -The liquor legislation of the United States presents a great contrast to -that of the United Kingdom, but it is not less interesting in an -entirely different way. In place of a single homogeneous system -gradually evolved in the course of centuries it embraces a whole series -of different ones based on the most diverse principles and subject to -sudden changes and frequent experiments. It is not sufficiently -understood in Europe that the legislatures of the several states are -sovereign in regard to internal affairs and make what laws they please -subject to the proviso that they cannot over-ride the Federal law. There -is therefore no uniformity in regard to such matters as liquor -legislation, and it is a mistake to speak of any particular system as -representing the whole country. The United States government only -interferes with the traffic to tax it for revenue, and to regulate the -sale of liquor to Indians, to soldiers, etc. The liquor traffic is -subject--whether in the form of manufacture, wholesale or retail -trade--to a uniform tax of 25 dollars (L5) per annum imposed on every -one engaged in it. Congress, under the constitution, controls interstate -commerce, and the Supreme Court has decided that without its consent no -state can prevent a railway or other carrying agency from bringing -liquor to any point within its borders from outside. Thus no state can -keep out liquor or prevent its consumption, but any state legislature -may make what internal regulations it pleases and may prohibit the -manufacture and sale altogether within its own borders. It may go -further. In 1887 a judgment was delivered by the Supreme Court of the -United States that it is within the discretionary power of a state to -protect public health, safety and morals even by the destruction of -property without compensation, and that the constitution of the United -States is not thereby violated. Use has been made of this power in -Kansas, and it appears therefore that persons who engage in the liquor -trade do so at their own risk. There is in fact no stability at all -except in a few states which have incorporated some principle in their -constitutions, and even that does not ensure continuity of practice, as -means are easily found for evading the law or substituting some other -system which amounts to the same thing. As a whole the control of the -liquor traffic oscillates violently between attempted suppression and -great freedom combined with heavy taxation of licensed houses. - -In the great majority of the states some form of licensing exists; it is -the prevailing system and was adopted, no doubt from England, at an -early period. It is exercised in various ways. The licensing authority -may be the municipality or a specially constituted body or the police or -a judicial body. The last, which is the method in Pennsylvania, seems to -be exceptional. According to Mr Fanshawe there is a general tendency, -due to the prevailing corruption, to withdraw from municipal authorities -power over the licensing, and to place this function in the hands of -commissioners, who may be elected or nominated. In New York state the -licensing commissioners used to be nominated in cities by the mayors and -elected elsewhere; but by the Raines law of 1896 the whole -administration was placed under a state commissioner appointed by the -governor with the consent of the Senate. A similar plan is in force in -some important cities in other states. In Boston the licensing is in the -hands of a police board appointed by the governor; in Baltimore and St -Louis the authority is vested in commissioners similarly appointed; and -in Washington the licensing commissioners are appointed by the -president. In Pennsylvania, where the court of quarter sessions is the -authority, the vesting of licensing in a judicial body dates back to -1676 and bears the stamp of English influence. It is noteworthy that in -Philadelphia and Pittsburg (Allegheny county) the judicial court was for -a time given up in favour of commissioners, but the change was a great -failure and abandoned in 1888. The powers of the licensing authority -vary widely; in some cases the only grounds of refusal are conduct and -character, and licences are virtually granted to every applicant; in -others the discretion to refuse is absolute. In Massachusetts the number -of licences allowed bears a fixed ratio to the population, namely 1 to -1000, except in Boston, where it is 1 to 500, but as a rule where -licences are given they are given freely. They are valid for a year and -granted on conditions. The first and most general condition is the -payment of a fee or tax, which varies in amount in different states. -Under the "high licence" system (see below) it generally varies -according to the size of the locality and the class of licence where -different classes are recognized. In Massachusetts there are six -licences; three for consumption on the premises--namely (1) full licence -for all liquors, (2) beer, cider, and light wine, (3) beer and cider; -two for consumption off the premises--namely (1) spirits, (2) other -liquors; the sixth is for druggists. In New York state also there are -six classes of licence, though they are not quite the same; but in many -states there appears to be only one licence, and no distinction between -on and off sale, wholesale or retail. Another condition generally -imposed in addition to the tax is a heavy bond with sureties; it varies -in amount but is usually not less than 2000 dollars (L400) and may be as -high as 6000 dollars (L1200). A condition precedent to the granting of a -licence imposed in some states is the deposit of a petition or -application some time beforehand, which may have to be backed by a -certain number of local residents or tax-payers. In Pennsylvania the -required number is 12, and this is the common practice elsewhere; in -Missouri a majority of tax-payers is required, and the licence may even -then be refused, but if the petition is signed by two-thirds of the -tax-payers the licensing authority is bound to grant it. This seems to -be a sort of genuine local option. Provision is also generally made for -hearing objectors. Another condition sometimes required (Massachusetts -and Iowa) is the consent of owners of adjoining property. In some states -no licences are permitted within a stated distance of certain -institutions; e.g. public parks (Missouri) and schools (Massachusetts). -Regulations imposed on the licensed trade nearly always include -prohibition of sale to minors under 18 and to drunkards, on Sundays, -public holidays and election days, and prohibition of the employment of -barmaids. Sunday closing, which is universal, dates at least from 1816 -(Indiana) and is probably much older. The hours of closing on week days -vary considerably but are usually 10 P.M. or 11 P.M. Other things are -often prohibited including indecent pictures, games and music. - -_State Prohibition._--In a few states no licences are allowed. State -prohibition was first introduced in 1846 under the influence of a strong -agitation in Maine, and within a few years the example was followed by -the other New England states; by Vermont in 1852, Connecticut in 1854, -New Hampshire in 1855 and later by Massachusetts and Rhode Island. They -have all now after a more or less prolonged trial given it up except -Maine. Other states which have tried and abandoned it are Illinois -(1851-1853), Indiana (1855-1858), Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, South -Dakota. The great Middle states have either never tried it, as in the -case of New York (where it was enacted in 1855 but declared -unconstitutional), Pennsylvania and New Jersey, or only gave it a -nominal trial, as with Illinois and Indiana. A curious position came -about in Ohio,[1] one of the great industrial states. It did not adopt -prohibition, which forbids the manufacture and sale of liquor; but in -1851 it abandoned licensing, which had been in force since 1792, and -incorporated a provision in the constitution declaring that no licence -should thereafter be granted in the state. The position then was that -retail sale without a licence was illegal and that no licence could be -granted. This singular state of things was changed in 1886 by the "Dow -law," which authorized a tax on the trade and rendered it legal without -expressly sanctioning or licensing it. There were therefore no licences -and no licensing machinery, but the traffic was taxed and conditions -imposed. In effect the Dow law amounted to repeal of prohibition and its -replacement by the freest possible form of licensing. In Iowa, which -early adopted a prohibitory law, still nominally in force, a law, known -as the "mulct law," was passed in 1894 for taxing the trade and -practically legalizing it under conditions. The story of the forty -years' struggle in this state between the prohibition agitation and the -natural appetites of mankind is exceedingly instructive; it is an -extraordinary revelation of political intrigue and tortuous proceedings, -and an impressive warning against the folly of trying to coerce the -personal habits of a large section of the population against their will. -It ended in a sort of compromise, in which the coercive principle is -preserved in one law and personal liberty vindicated by another -contradictory one. The result may be satisfactory, but it might be -attained in a less expensive manner. What suffers is the principle of -law itself, which is brought into disrepute. - -State prohibition, abandoned by the populous New England and central -states, has in recent years found a home in more remote regions. In 1907 -it was in force in five states--Maine, Kansas, North Dakota, Georgia and -Oklahoma; in January, 1909, it came into operation in Alabama, -Mississippi, and North Carolina; and in July 1909 in Tennessee. - -_Local Prohibition._--The limited form of prohibition known as local -veto is much more extensively applied. It is an older plan than state -prohibition, having been adopted by the legislature of Indiana in 1832. -Georgia followed in the next year, and then other states took it up for -several years until the rise of state prohibition in the middle of the -century caused it to fall into neglect for a time. But the states which -adopted and then abandoned general prohibition fell back on the local -form, and a great many others have also adopted it. In 1907 it was in -force in over 30 states, including all the most populous and important, -with one or two exceptions. But the extent to which it is applied varies -very widely and is constantly changing, as different places take it up -and drop it again. Some alternate in an almost regular manner every two -or three years, or even every year; and periodical oscillations of a -general character occur in favour of the plan or against it as the -result of organized agitation followed by reaction. The wide -discrepancies between the practice of different states are shown by some -statistics collected in 1907, when the movement was running favourably -to the adoption of no licence. In Tennessee the whole state was under -prohibition with the exception of 5 municipalities; Arkansas, 56 out of -75 counties; Florida, 35 out of 46 counties; Mississippi, 56 out of 77 -counties; North Carolina, 70 out of 97 counties; Vermont, 3 out of 6 -cities and 208 out of 241 towns. These appear to be the most prohibitive -states, and they are all of a rural character. At the other end of the -scale were Pennsylvania with 1 county and a few towns ("town" in -America is generally equivalent to "village" in England); Michigan, 1 -county and a few towns; California, parts of 8 or 10 counties. New York -had 308 out of 933 towns, Ohio, 480 out of 768 towns, Massachusetts, 19 -out of 33 cities and 249 out of 321 towns. At the end of 1909 a strong -reaction against the prohibition policy set in, notably in -Massachusetts. - -There is no more uniformity in the mode of procedure than in the extent -of application. At least five methods are distinguished. In the most -complete and regular form a vote is taken every year in all localities -whether there shall be licences or not in the ensuing year and is -decided by a bare majority. A second method of applying the general vote -is to take it at any time, but not oftener than once in four years, on -the demand of one-tenth of the electorate. A third plan is to apply this -principle locally and put the question to the vote, when demanded, in -any locality. A fourth and entirely different system is to invest the -local authority with powers to decide whether there shall be licences or -not; and a fifth is to give residents power to prevent licences by means -of protest or petition. The first two methods are those most widely in -force; but the third plan of taking a local vote by itself is adopted in -some important states, including New York, Ohio and Illinois. Opinions -differ widely with regard to the success of local veto, but all -independent observers agree that it is more successful than state -prohibition, and the preference accorded to it by so many states after -prolonged experience proves that public opinion broadly endorses that -view. Its advantage lies in its adaptability to local circumstances and -local opinion. It prevails mainly in rural districts and small towns; in -the larger towns it is best tolerated where they are in close proximity -to "safety valves" or licensed areas in which liquor can be obtained; -the large cities do not adopt it. On the other hand, it has some serious -disadvantages. The perpetually renewed struggle between the advocates -and opponents of prohibition is a constant cause of social and political -strife; and the alternate shutting up and opening of public houses in -many places makes continuity of administration impossible, prevents the -executive from getting the traffic properly in hand, upsets the habits -of the people, demoralizes the trade and stands in the way of steady -improvement. - -_Public Dispensaries._--This entirely different system of controlling -the traffic has been in general operation in one state only, South -Carolina; but it was also applied to certain areas in the neighbouring -states of North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. The coloured element is -very strong in these states, especially in South Carolina, where the -coloured far exceeds the white population. The dispensary system was -inaugurated there in 1893. It had been preceded by a licensing system -with local veto (adopted in 1882), but a strong agitation for state -prohibition brought matters to a crisis in 1891. The usual violent -political struggle, which is the only constant feature of liquor -legislation in the United States, took place, partly on temperance and -partly on economic grounds; and a way out was found by adopting an idea -from the town of Athens in Georgia, where the liquor trade was run by -the municipality through a public dispensary. A law was passed in 1892 -embodying this principle but applying it to the whole state. The measure -was fiercely contested in the courts and the legislature for years and -it underwent numerous amendments, but it survived. Under it the state -became the sole purveyor of liquor, buying wholesale from the -manufacturers and selling retail through dispensaries under public -management and only for consumption off the premises. Many changes were -introduced from time to time without abandoning the principle, but in -1907 the system of state control was replaced by one of county -administration. Local veto is also in force, and thus the localities -have the choice of a dispensary or no sale at all. The regulations are -very strict. The dispensaries are few and only open on week-days and -during the day-time; they close at sunset. Liquor is only sold in -bottles and in not less quantities than half a pint of spirits and a -pint of beer, and it must be taken away; bars are abolished. There is a -general consensus of testimony to the effect of the system in improving -public order especially among the coloured population, who are very -susceptible to drink. The law seems to be well carried out in general, -but Charleston and Columbia, the only two considerable towns, are -honeycombed with illicit drink-shops, as the writer has proved by -personal experience. Columbia is the capital and the seat of cotton -manufactures, as are all the larger towns, with the exception of -Charleston, which is the port and business centre. The population of the -state is predominantly rural, and local prohibition obtains in 18 out of -41 counties. - - The following statistical comparison, extracted from the United States - Census of 1900 and the Inland Revenue Returns by Mr W. O. Tatum (_New - Encyclopedia of Social Reform_) and here presented in tabular form, is - highly instructive. It shows the population and number of liquor - dealers paying the United States tax in two prohibition states, one - state under what is considered the best licensing system, and South - Carolina. - - +-------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+ - | | | Wholesale| Retail | - | State. |Population.| Liquor | Liquor | - | | | Dealers. |Dealers.| - +-------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+ - | Maine (Prohibition) | 694,466 | 51 | 1366 | - | Kansas (Prohibition) | 1,470,495 | 129 | 3125 | - | Massachusetts (Licence) | 2,805,346 | 617 | 5092 | - | S. Carolina (Dispensary)| 1,340,316 | 13 | 534 | - +-------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+ - - This table may be said to epitomize the results of the United States - restrictive liquor laws. It presents examples of three different - systems; the proportion of retail liquor sellers to population - is--under complete prohibition, 1 to 508 and 1 to 475; under licence - and local prohibition, 1 to 530; under dispensary and local - prohibition, 1 to 2509. But the remarkable thing is the enormous - amount of illicit traffic existing under all three systems. It is - incomparably greatest under complete prohibition because the whole of - the traffic in these states is illicit. In South Carolina one of the - wholesale dealers and 388 of the 534 retailers were illicit. In - Massachusetts the number cannot be stated, but it is very large. If - the whole state were under licence the total legal number of licences, - which is limited in proportion to population (see above), would be - 3400; and in that case there would be some 1700 illicit retailers. But - a large part of the state, probably more than half, is under local - prohibition, so that the majority of the 5000 retail dealers must be - illicit. These facts, which are typical and not exceptional, reveal - the failure of the laws to control the traffic; only partial or - spasmodic attempts are made to enforce them and to a great extent they - are ignored by common consent. The illegal trade is carried on so - openly that the United States revenue officers have no difficulty in - collecting the federal tax. It is not a satisfactory state of things, - or one which countries where law is respected would care to imitate. - The example is a good lesson in what to avoid. - - _Taxation._--Mention has been made above of the federal and state - taxation imposed on the liquor trade. The former is uniform; the - latter varies greatly, even in those states which have adopted the - "high licence." This system is intended to fulfil two purposes; to act - as an automatic check on the number of licences and to produce - revenue. It was introduced in Nebraska in 1881, when a tax of 1000 - dollars (L200) was placed on saloons (public houses) in large towns, - and half that amount in smaller ones. The practice gradually spread - and has now been adopted by a large number of states, noticeably the - populous and industrial north-eastern and central states. In - Massachusetts, where the high licence was adopted in 1874 when the - state returned to licensing after a trial of prohibition, the fees are - exceptionally high, the minimum for a fully licensed on and off house - being 1300 dollars (L260); in Boston the average tax is L310. In New - York state it ranges from 150 dollars (L30) in sparsely populated - districts to 1200 dollars (L240), and in Pennsylvania it is much the - same. In New Jersey, on the other hand, it ranges from L20 to L60; in - Connecticut from L50 to L90; in Rhode Island from L40 to L80. In - Missouri, which has a special system of its own and a sort of sliding - scale, great variations occur and in some cases the tax exceeds L500. - In Michigan it is uniform at L100. The mean for the large cities is - L133. The revenue derived from this source is distributed in many - ways, but is generally divided in varying proportions between the - state, the county and the municipality; sometimes a proportion goes to - the relief of the poor, to road-making or some other public purpose. - The amount levied in the great cities is very large. It will be seen - from the foregoing that the taxation of licences is much heavier in - the United States than in the United Kingdom. The total yield was - ascertained by a special inquiry in 1896 and found to be rather less - than 12 millions sterling; in the same year the yield from the same - source in the United Kingdom was just under 2 millions. Allowing for - difference of population the American rate of taxation was 3(1/4) - times as great as the British. It has been inferred that the liquor - trade is much more highly taxed in the United States and that it would - bear largely increased taxation in the United Kingdom; that argument - was brought forward in support of Mr Lloyd George's budget of 1909. - But it only takes account of the tax on licences and leaves out of - account the tax on liquor which is the great source of revenue in the - United Kingdom, as has been shown above. The scales are much lower in - the United States, especially on spirits, which are only taxed at the - average rate of 5s. 8d. a gallon against 11s. (raised to 14s. 9d. in - 1909) in the United Kingdom. Mr Frederic Thompson has calculated out - the effect of the two sets of rates and shown that if British rates - were applied to the United States the average yield in the three years - ending 1908 would be raised from 44 millions to 76 millions; and - conversely if American rates were applied to the United Kingdom the - average yield would be lowered from 36 millions to 23 millions. Taking - licences and liquor taxation together he finds that the application of - the British standards for both would still raise the total yield in - the United States by 39%; and that even the exceptionally high rates - prevailing in Massachusetts would, if applied to the United Kingdom, - produce some 4 millions less revenue than the existing taxation. Other - calculations based on the consumption and taxation per head lead to - the same conclusion that the trade is actually taxed at a considerably - higher rate in the United Kingdom. In the three years ending 1908 the - average amount paid per head in taxation was 13s. 8(3/4)d. in the - United States and 17s. 6(3/4)d. in the United Kingdom. It may be added - that the method of taxing licences heavily has certain disadvantages; - it stimulates that illicit trade which is the most outstanding feature - of the traffic in the United States, and combined with the extreme - insecurity of tenure involved in local option it gives licence-holders - additional inducements to make as much money as possible by any means - available, while they have the opportunity, for no compensation is - ever paid for sudden dispossession. The notion that the trade will - stand an indefinite amount of taxation is a dangerous and oft-proved - fallacy. - - -_European Countries._ - -With the exception of Sweden, Norway and Russia, which have special -systems of their own, the continental countries of Europe have as yet -paid comparatively little legislative attention to the subject of the -liquor traffic, which is recognized by the law but for the most part -freely permitted with a minimum of interference. Differences exist, but, -generally speaking, establishments may be opened under a very simple -procedure, which amounts to an elementary form of licensing, and the -permission is only withdrawn for some definite and serious offence. -Regulations and conditions are for the most part left to the discretion -of the local authority and the police and are not burdensome. The reason -for such freedom as compared with the elaborate and stringent codes of -the United Kingdom and the United States is not less concern for public -welfare but the simple fact that the traffic gives less trouble and -causes less harm through the abuse of drink; the habits of the people -are different in regard to the character of the drinks consumed, the -mode of consumption and the type of establishment. Cafes, restaurants -and beer-gardens are much more common, and mere pot-houses less so than -in the English-speaking countries. Where trouble arises and engages the -attention of the authorities and the legislature, it is almost -invariably found to be associated with the consumption of spirits. In -several of the wine-producing countries, which are generally marked by -the temperate habits of the people, the widespread havoc among the vines -caused some years ago by the phylloxera led to an increased consumption -of spirits which had a bad effect and aroused considerable anxiety. This -was notably the case in France, where an anti-alcohol congress, held in -1903, marked the rise of public and scientific opinion on the subject. -Temperance societies have become active, and in some countries there is -a movement towards stricter regulations or at least a demand for it; but -in others the present law is a relaxation of earlier ones. - - _France._--The present law governing the licensing of establishments - where liquor is sold for consumption on the premises was passed in - 1880; it abrogated the previous decree of 1851, by which full - discretion was vested in the local authorities, and freed the traffic - from arbitrary restrictions. It provides that any person desiring to - open a cafe, cabaret or other place for retailing liquor must give - notice to the authorities, with details concerning himself, the - establishment and the proprietor, at least 15 days beforehand; the - authority in Paris is the prefecture of police and elsewhere the - mairie. Transfers of proprietorship or management must be notified - within 15 days, and intended transference of location 8 days - beforehand. The penalty for infraction is a fine of 16 francs to 100 - francs. Legal minors and persons convicted of certain crimes and - offences--theft, receiving stolen goods, various forms of swindling, - offences against morality, the sale of adulterated articles--are - prohibited; in the case of crimes, forever; in the case of offences, - for five years. Otherwise permission cannot be refused, subject to - conditions which the local authority has power to lay down regulating - the distance of such establishments from churches, cemeteries, - hospitals, schools and colleges. But persons engaged in the trade, who - are convicted of the offences mentioned above and of infraction of the - law for the suppression of public drunkenness, are disabled, as above. - The law practically amounts to free trade and the number of houses has - increased under it; in 1900 there was one to every 81 persons. This - proportion is only exceeded by Belgium. Under the Local Government Act - of 1884 municipal authorities are empowered, for the maintenance of - public order, to fix hours of closing, regulate dancing, forbid the - employment of girls and the harbouring of prostitutes and make other - regulations. The hours of closing differ considerably but usually they - are 11 P.M., midnight or 1 A.M. The trade is lightly taxed; retailers - pay from 15 to 50 francs a year; wholesale dealers, 125 francs; - breweries the same in most departments, distilleries 25 francs. The - excise revenue from liquor amounted to L20,000,000 in 1900. - - _Germany._--The German law and practice are broadly similar to the - French, but the several states vary somewhat in detail. Under the - imperial law of 1879 inns or hotels and retail trade in spirits for on - or off consumption may not be carried on without a permit or licence - from the local authority which, however, can only be refused on the - ground of character or of unsuitability of premises. This is the - general law of the empire; but the state governments are empowered to - make the granting of a licence for retailing spirits dependent on - proof that it is locally required, and also to impose the same - condition on inn-keeping and the retailing of other drinks in places - with less than 15,000 inhabitants and in larger ones which obtain a - local statute to that effect. Before a licence is granted the opinion - of the police and other executive officers is to be taken. The - licensing authority is the mayor in towns and the chairman of the - district council in rural areas. The provisions with regard to the - dependence of a licence on local requirements have been adopted by - Prussia and other states, but apparently little or no use is made of - them. Permits are very freely granted, and the number of licensed - houses, though not so great as in France, is very high in proportion - to population. Three classes of establishment are recognized--(1) - _Gast-wirthschaft_, (2) _Schank-wirthschaft_, (3) _Klein-handel_. - _Gast-wirthschaft_ is inn-keeping, or the lodging of strangers in an - open house for profit, and includes "pensions" of a public character; - the imperial law provides that a licence may be limited to this - function and need not include the retailing of liquor. - _Schank-wirthschaft_ is the retailing for profit of all sorts of - drinks, including coffee and mineral waters; it corresponds to cafe in - France and refreshment house in England; but the mere serving of food - does not come under the law with which we are here concerned. - _Klein-handel_ is retail sale either for on or off consumption, and - the liquor for which a licence is required in this connexion is - described as _branntwein_ or _spiritus_, and is defined as distilled - alcoholic liquor, whether by itself or in combination. A licence for - _Schank-wirthschaft_ includes _Klein-handel_, but not vice-versa; none - is required for the retail sale of wine which is the seller's own - produce. Licences may be withdrawn for offences against the law. - Licensed houses are under the supervision of the police, who fix the - hours of closing; it is usually 10 P.M., but is commonly extended to - 11 P.M. or midnight in the larger towns and still later in the case of - particular establishments. Some cafes in Berlin do not close till 3 - A.M. and some never close at all. Persons remaining on the premises in - forbidden hours after being ordered to leave by the landlord are - liable to punishment. Serving drunkards and persons of school age is - forbidden. Drunkards, in addition to fines or imprisonment for - disorderly conduct, are liable to be deprived of control of their - affairs and placed under guardianship. For music and dancing special - permits are required. With regard to taxation, in Prussia all business - establishments beyond a certain value pay an annual tax and licensed - houses are on the same footing as the rest. Businesses producing less - than L75 a year or of less than L150 capital value are free; the rest - are arranged in four classes on a rising scale. In the three lower - classes the tax ranges from a minimum of 4s. to a maximum of L24; in - the highest class, which represents businesses producing L2500 and - upwards (or a capital value of L50,000 and upwards) the tax is 1% of - the profits. There is also a stamp duty on the licence ranging from - 1s. 6d. to L5. The latter goes to the local revenue, the business tax - to the government. Beer and spirits are also subject to an excise tax, - from which the imperial revenue derived L7,700,000 in 1901; but the - total taxation of the liquor trade could only be calculated from the - returns of all the federated states. - - The laws of France and Germany are fairly representative of the - European states, with some minor variations. In _Holland_ the number - of licensed spirit retailers is limited in proportion to population (1 - to 500), and the taxation, which is both national and local, ranges - from 10 to 25% of the annual value. - - In _Austria-Hungary_ and _Rumania_ the licence duty is graduated - according to the population of the place, as used to be the case in - Prussia. In 1877 a severe police law was applied to Galicia in order - to check the excesses of spirit-drinking. The Poles, it may be - observed, are spirit-drinkers, and the exceptional treatment of this - part of the Austrian empire is one more illustration of the trouble - arising from that habit, which forces special attempts to restrain it. - The law, just mentioned, in Holland is another instance; and the - particular cases of Russia and Scandinavia, described below, enforce - the same lesson. Where the drink of the people is confined to wine and - beer there is comparatively little trouble. In _Switzerland_ the - manufacture and wholesale sale of spirits has been a federal monopoly - since 1887, but the retailing is a licensed trade, as elsewhere, and - is less restricted than formerly. Before federation in 1874 the - cantons used to direct local authorities to restrict the number of - licences in proportion to population; but under the new constitution - the general principle of free trade was laid down, and the Federal - Council intimated to the cantonal authorities that it was no longer - lawful to refuse a licence on the ground that it was not needed. - - _Russia._--In 1895 Russia entered upon an experiment in regard to the - spirit traffic and began to convert the previously existing licence - system into a state monopoly. The experiment was held to be successful - and was gradually extended to the whole country. Under this system, - which to some extent resembles that of South Carolina but is much less - rigid, the distilleries remain in private hands but their output is - under government control. The retail sale is confined to government - shops, which sell only in sealed bottles for consumption off the - premises, and to commercial establishments which sell on commission - for the government. Spirit bars are abolished and only in a few high - class restaurants are spirits sold by the glass; in ordinary - eating-houses and at railway refreshment rooms they are sold in sealed - government bottles but may be consumed on the premises. The primary - object was to check the excesses of spirit-drinking which were very - great in Russia among the mass of the people. The effect has been a - very large reduction in the number of liquor shops, which has extended - also to the licensed beer-houses though they are not directly affected - as such. Presumably when they could no longer sell spirits it did not - pay them to take out a licence for beer. - - _Sweden and Norway._--In these countries the celebrated "Gothenburg" - or company system is in force together with licensing and local veto. - Like the Russian state monopoly the company system applies only to - spirits, and for the same reason; spirits are or were the common drink - of the people and excessive facilities in the early part of the 19th - century produced the usual result. The story is very similar to that - of England in the 18th century, given above. From 1774 to 1788 - distilling in Sweden was a crown monopoly, but popular opposition and - illicit trade compelled the abandonment of this plan in favour of - general permission granted to farmers, innkeepers and landowners. At - the beginning of the 19th century the right to distil belonged to - every owner and cultivator of land on payment of a trifling licence - duty, and it was further extended to occupiers. In 1829 the number of - stills paying licence duty was 173,124 or 1 to every 16 persons; the - practice was in fact universal and the whole population was debauched - with spirits. The physical and moral results were the same as those - recorded in England a hundred years before. The supply was somewhat - restricted by royal ordinance in 1835, but the traffic was not - effectively dealt with until 1855 when a law was passed which - practically abolished domestic distilling by fixing a minimum daily - output of 200 gallons, with a tax of about 10d. a gallon. This turned - the business into a manufacture and speedily reduced the number of - stills. At the same time the retail sale was subjected to drastic - regulations. A licensing system was introduced which gave the local - authority power to fix the number of licences and put them up to - auction or to hand over the retail traffic altogether to a company - formed for the purpose of carrying it on. The latter idea, which is - the Gothenburg system, was taken from the example of Falun and - Jonkoping which had a few years ago voluntarily adopted the plan. The - law of 1855 further gave rural districts the power of local veto. - Four-fifths of the population live in rural districts, and the great - majority of them immediately took advantage of the provision. The - company system, on the other hand, was not applied by the towns until - 1865, when Gothenburg adopted it. - - In Norway the course of events was very similar. There, too, - distilling and spirit-drinking were practically universal in the early - part of the century under the laws of 1816, but were checked by - legislation a few years sooner than in Sweden. In 1845 a special - licensing system was introduced, giving the local authority power to - fix the number of licences, and in 1848 the small and domestic stills - were stopped. The Gothenburg system was not adopted in Norway until - 1871 and then with some modification. The essence of this method of - conducting the retail traffic is that the element of private gain is - eliminated. A monopoly is granted to a company consisting of a number - of disinterested citizens of standing with a capital, and they manage - the sale both for "on" and "off" consumption in the public interest. - The profits, after payment of 5% on the capital, originally went in - Sweden mainly to the municipality in relief of rates, in Norway to - objects of public utility. The latter was considered preferable - because it offers less temptation to make the profits as high as - possible. Fault has, however, been found with both methods, and - payment of profits to the state is now preferred. In 1894 a law was - passed in Norway providing for the following distribution: 65% to the - state, 20% to the company, and 15% to the municipality. In 1907 Sweden - adopted a law in the same direction. The intention is to eliminate - more completely the motive of gain from the traffic. In 1898 the net - profits of the companies exceeded half a million sterling in Sweden - and reached L117,500 in Norway. - - The company system had in 1910 had more than half a century's trial; - it had gone through some vicissitudes and been subjected to much - criticism, which was balanced by at least as much eulogy. It had held - its own in Sweden, where 101 towns had adopted it in 1906. In Norway - at the same date it was in force in 32 towns while 29 had adopted - local veto, which was extended from the country districts, where it - had previously been optional, to the towns by the law of 1894. - - As we have already said, it only applies to spirits. In both countries - the sale of beer and wine for "on" consumption is carried on in the - ordinary way under a licensing system; the sale of beer in bottles for - consumption off the premises is practically free. The beer traffic is - regarded by some as a "safety valve" and by others as a defect in the - system. The consumption has greatly increased in Sweden; in Norway it - increased up to 1900 and has since declined. But other more - deleterious substitutes for spirits have come into use in the shape of - concocted "wines" and methylated spirits. The company management has - had the following effects: it has greatly reduced the number of spirit - bars, improved their character and conduct, added eating-rooms, where - good and cheap meals are served, stopped drinking on credit and by - persons under 18 years of age, shortened the hours of sale, raised the - price and lowered the strength of spirits. But the restrictions placed - on the sale for consumption on the premises has stimulated the retail - bottle trade and home drinking. - - - _British Dominions._ - - _Canada._--Liquor legislation in Canada has been much influenced by - the proximity and example of the United States. Licensing, modified by - local veto, prevails throughout the Dominion except in the Indian - settlements; but the several provinces have their own laws, which vary - in stringency. As a whole the licensing system rather resembles the - American than the British type. The licensing authority is either a - board of commissioners or the municipality, and there has been the - same tendency as in the United States to substitute the former for the - latter. In British Columbia no new hotel licence is granted in cities - except on the request of two-thirds of the owners and occupiers of the - adjoining property, but their consent is not necessary for renewal. In - other provinces the municipal authority has power to limit as well as - regulate the licensed trade. Sunday closing is the rule; on week-days - the usual closing hour in the large towns is 11 P.M. The power of - locally prohibiting licensed houses by vote was introduced by the - Canada Temperance Act, a federal law passed in 1875 and commonly known - as the Scott Act. Extensive use has been made of it, especially in the - maritime provinces, where the temperance sentiment is very strong, but - in recent years it has rather lost ground. In 1908 it was in force in - 22 counties or cities, of which ten were in Nova Scotia, ten in New - Brunswick and two in Manitoba; it was nowhere in force in the - remaining provinces. Three elections were held under the act in - 1907-1908, two in Nova Scotia and one in New Brunswick, and in the - first two prohibition was defeated. In 1910 Nova Scotia, apparently - dissatisfied with the progress of local prohibition under the Scott - Act, passed a prohibitory law for the whole province, exempting - Halifax, the capital and only considerable town, but making provision - for its subsequent inclusion by a referendum to the ratepayers. There - is in Canada the same oscillation of public opinion as in the United - States, and the same toleration of evasion of the law. The writer has - stayed in hotels in several prohibition towns, where there was not - only a regular bar but a printed wine list from which anything could - be ordered at meals without any concealment at all. The chief - difference between the conduct of hotels under prohibition and under - licensing is that under licensing the bar is closed at the legal hour, - which is usually 11 o'clock, and under prohibition it remains open as - long as there are any customers to serve. The law is nominally - respected by imposing a periodical fine. In small towns and rural - districts local prohibition is much more effective. In short the - experience of Canada confirms that of the United States. In addition - to the federal law, the local authorities have power, in Quebec, to - prohibit as well as to regulate the trade. The high licence system has - not been adopted in Canada. The total revenue derived by the Dominion - government in 1908 from taxation of the liquor trade, including duties - and licence fees, was L1,800,000. - - _Australia._--The licensing laws of Australia are less repressive and - the practice more resembles the British model. Queensland has adopted - local prohibition, but it is not applied. New South Wales has a - limited form of veto applying only to new licences; South Australia - has the same together with a provision for the optional reduction of - licences; Victoria, on the other hand, allows an option both ways, for - reducing or increasing the licences; West Australia and Tasmania - merely give the local ratepayers the right of protest; in West - Australia it holds good against new licences only and if a majority - object the licence is refused; in Tasmania protest may be made against - renewals and transfers also, but the decision lies with the licensing - authority. There is practically no prohibition in the Commonwealth. - - _New Zealand._--This state has a licensing system with local option - provisions of its own. The licensing authority is a local committee, - and there are seven kinds of licence, of which two are for consumption - on the premises. The fees range from L1 for a wine licence to L40 for - a full publican's licence in towns, or L45 for one permitting an - additional hour's sale at night; the fees go to the revenue of the - local authority. In 1907 the total number of licences granted was 2179 - and the fees paid amounted to L45,865. Of the whole number, 1367, or 1 - to every 666 persons, were houses licensed for on consumption. The - closing hour is 10 P.M. except for houses specially licensed to be - open till 11 P.M. In 1893 local option was introduced by the Alcoholic - Liquors Sale Control Act, which provided for the taking of a poll on - the question of licences. The electoral districts for the purpose are - the same as for the House of Representatives, except that the cities - of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin each form a single - district for the licensing poll. It is taken at the same time as the - election of members of the House of Representatives, and three - questions are propounded--(1) continuance of existing licences, (2) - reduction, (3) no licences. A voter may vote for two proposals but not - more. An absolute majority of all the votes recorded carries (1); an - absolute majority of all the votes recorded carries (2), whereupon the - licensing committee reduces the licences by any number from 5 to 25% - of the total. But if three-fifths of all the votes cast are in favour - of no licence then that supersedes (1) and (2). The poll taken in - December 1905 gave the following results: of the 68 districts 40 - carried no proposal (which is equivalent to continuance of existing - licences), 18 carried continuance, 4 reduction, 6 no licence, - including 3 which had previously adopted no licence. Women, it must be - remembered, vote as well as men. The aggregate vote in favour of no - licence shows a large proportional increase since the first poll in - the present system in 1896. - - AUTHORITIES.--Royal Commission on Liquor Licensing Laws 1896-1899, - Reports and Appendices; Licensing Statistics of England and Wales, - annual. Canada Year-book; New Zealand Year-book; _Code de Commerce_, - France; _Gewerbeordnung_, German Empire; Hand-book of Canada (British - Association); _New Encyclopedia of Social Reform; Brewers' Almanack_; - Committee of Fifty (New York), _The Liquor Problem in its Legislative - Aspects_ (F. H. Wines and J. Koren); E. L. Fanshawe, _Liquor - Legislation in the United States and Canada_; E.R.L. Gould, _The - Gothenburg System_ (Special Report of the United States Commissioner - of Labor); E. A. Pratt, _Licensing and Temperance in Sweden, Norway - and Denmark_; J. Rowntree and A. Sherwell, _The Temperance Problem and - Social Reform_; _The Taxation of the Liquor Trade_; A. Shadwell, - _Drink, Temperance and Legislation_; Strauss und Torney, - _Schanks-Konzessionswesen_; F. W. Thompson, _High Licence_. See also - TEMPERANCE. (A. Sl.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] In 1908 local option was adopted in Ohio. - - - - -LIRA, the Italian name (Lat. _libra_, pound) for a silver coin, the -Italian unit of value in the Latin Monetary Union, corresponding to the -French, Swiss and Belgian franc (q.v.), and the drachma of Greece, &c. -The name is sometimes used of the Turkish pound, _medjidie_. - - - - -LIRI, or GARIGLIANO (anc. _Liris_), a river of central Italy, which -rises at Cappadocia, 7 m. W. of Avezzano, and traverses a beautiful -valley between lofty mountains, running S.S.E. as far as Arce. This -valley is followed by the railway from Avezzano to Roccasecca. At Isola -del Liri are two fine waterfalls. Below Ceprano, the ancient Fregellae, -after it has issued from the mountains, the Liri is joined by the Sacco -(anc. _Trerus_) formed by the union of several torrents between -Palestrina and Segni, and the Melfa from the mountains N.E. of Atina, -and runs E. through a broader valley. It then turns S. again through the -mountains S.W. of the Via Latina (the line of which is followed by the -modern railway to Naples), keeping W. of Rocca Monfina, and falls into -the sea just below Minturnae, after a course of 104 m. It is not -navigable at any point. - - - - -LIROCONITE, a rare mineral consisting of hydrous basic copper and -aluminium arsenate, with the probable formula Cu9Al4(OH)15(AsO4)5.20H2O. -It crystallizes in the monoclinic system, forming flattened octahedra -almost lenticular in shape (hence the German name _Linsenkupfer_). -Characteristic is the bright sky-blue colour, though sometimes, possibly -owing to differences in chemical composition, it is verdigris-green. The -colour of the streak or powder is rather paler; hence the name -liroconite, from the Gr. [Greek: leiros], pale, and [Greek: konia], -powder. The hardness is 2(1/2), and the specific gravity 2.95. The -mineral was found at the beginning of the 19th century in the copper -mines near Gwennap in Cornwall, where it was associated with other -copper arsenates in the upper, oxidized portions of the lodes. - (L. J. S.) - - - - -LISBON (_Lisboa_), the capital of the kingdom of Portugal and of the -department of Lisbon; on the right bank of the river Tagus, near its -entrance into the Atlantic Ocean, in 38 deg. 42' 24" N. and 9 deg. 11' -10" W. Pop. (1900) 356,009. Lisbon, the westernmost of European -capitals, is built in a succession of terraces up the sides of a range -of low hills, backed by the granite mountains of Cintra. It fronts the -Tagus, and the view from the river of its white houses, and its numerous -parks and gardens, is comparable in beauty with the approach to Naples -or Constantinople by sea. The lower reaches of the estuary form a -channel (Entrada do Tejo) about 2 m. wide and 8 m. long, which is -partially closed at its mouth by a bar of silt. Owing to the reclamation -of the foreshore on the right, and the consequent narrowing of the -waterway, the current flows very swiftly down this channel, which is the -sole outlet for the immense volume of water accumulated in the Rada de -Lisboa--a tidal lake formed by the broadening of the estuary in its -upper part to fill a basin 11 m. long with an average breadth of nearly -7 m. The southern or left shore of the channel rises sharply from the -water's edge in a line of almost unbroken though not lofty cliffs; the -margin of the lake is flat, marshy and irregular. Lisbon extends for -more than 5 m. along the shores of both channel and lake, and for more -than 3 m. inland. Its suburbs, which generally terminate in a belt of -vineyards, parks or gardens, interspersed with villas and farms, stretch -in some cases beyond the Estrada Militar, or Estrada da Nova -Circumvallacao, an inner line of defence 25 m. long, supplementary to -the forts and other military works at the mouth of the Tagus, on the -heights of Cintra and Alverca, and at Caxias, Sacavem, Monsanto and -Ameixoeira. The climate of Lisbon is mild and equable, though somewhat -oppressive in summer. Extreme cold is so rare that in the twenty years -1856-1876 snow fell only thrice; and in the 18th and early 19th -centuries Lisbon was justly esteemed as a winter health-resort. The mean -annual temperature is 60.1 deg. F., the mean for winter 50.9 deg., the -average rainfall 29.45 in. As in 1906, when no rain fell between April -and September, long periods of drought are not uncommon, although the -proximity of the Atlantic and the frequency of sea-fogs keep the -atmosphere humid; the mean atmospheric moisture is nearly 71 (100 = -saturation). There is a good water supply, conveyed to the city by two -vast aqueducts. The older of these is the Aqueducto das Aguas Livres, -which was built in the first half of the 18th century and starts from a -point near Bellas, 15 m. W.N.W. Its conduits, which are partly -underground, are conveyed across the Alcantara valley through a -magnificent viaduct of thirty-five arches, exceeding 200 ft. in height. -At the Lisbon end of the aqueduct is the Mae d'Agua (i.e. "Mother of -Water"), containing a huge stone hall in the midst of which is the -reservoir. The Alviella aqueduct, opened in 1880, brings water from -Alviella near Pernes, 70 m. N.N.E. Numerous fountains are among the -means of distribution. Sewage is discharged into the Tagus, and the -sanitation of the city is good, except in the older quarters. - -_Divisions of the City._--The four municipal districts (_bairros_) into -which Lisbon is divided are the _Alfama_, or old town, in the east; the -_Cidade Baixa_, or lower town, which extends inland from the naval -arsenal and custom house; the _Bairro Alto_, comprising all the high -ground west of the Cidade Baixa; and the _Alcantara_, or westernmost -district, named after the small river Alcantara, which flows down into -the Tagus. Other names commonly used, though unofficial, are "Lisboa -Oriental" as an alternative for Alfama; "Lisboa Occidental" for the -slopes which lead from the Cidade Baixa to the Bairro Alto; "Buenos -Ayres" (originally so named from the number of its South American -residents) for the Bairro Alto S.W. of the Estrella Gardens and E. of -the Necessidades Park; "Campo de Ourique" and "Rato" for the suburbs -respectively N.W. and N.E. of Buenos Ayres. - -_The Alfama._--The Alfama, which represents Roman and Moorish Lisbon, is -less rich in archaeological interest than its great antiquity might -suggest, although parts of a Roman temple, baths, &c., have been -disinterred. But as the earthquake of 1755 did comparatively little -damage to this quarter, many of its narrow, steep and winding alleys -retain the medieval aspect which all other parts of the city have lost; -and almost rival the slums of Oporto in picturesque squalor. The most -conspicuous feature of the Alfama is the rocky hill surmounted by the -Castello de Sao Jorge, a Moorish citadel which has been converted into a -fort and barracks. The Se Patriarchal, a cathedral founded in 1150 by -Alphonso I., is said by tradition to have been a Moorish mosque. It was -wrecked by an earthquake in 1344 and rebuilt in 1380, but the earthquake -of 1755 shattered the dome, the roof and belfry were subsequently -burned, and after the work of restoration was completed the choir and -facade were the only parts of the 14th-century Gothic church unspoiled. -In one of the side chapels is the tomb of St Vincent (d. 304), patron -saint of Lisbon; a pair of ravens kept within the cathedral precincts -are popularly believed to be the same birds which, according to the -legend, miraculously guided the saint's vessel to the city. The armorial -bearings of Lisbon, representing a ship and two ravens, commemorate the -legend. Other noteworthy buildings in the Alfama are the 12th-century -church of Sao Vicente de Fora, originally, as its name implies, -"outside" the city; the 13th-century chapel of Nossa Senhora do Monte; -the 16th-century church of Nossa Senhora da Graca, which contains a -reputed wonder-working statue of Christ and the tomb of Alphonso -d'Albuquerque (1453-1515); and a secularized Augustinian monastery, used -as the archbishop's palace. - -_Modern Lisbon._--West of the Alfama the city dates chiefly from the -period after the great earthquake. Its lofty houses, arranged in long -straight streets, its gardens and open spaces, a few of its public -buildings, and almost all its numerous statues and fountains, will bear -comparison with those of any European capital. The centre of social and -commercial activity is the district which comprises the Praca do -Commercio, Rua Augusta, Rocio, and Avenida da Liberdade, streets and -squares occupying the valley of a vanished tributary of the Tagus. The -Praca do Commercio is a spacious square, one side of which faces the -river, while the other three sides are occupied by the arcaded buildings -of the custom house, post office and other government property. In the -midst is a bronze equestrian statue of Joseph I., by J. M. de Castro, -which was erected in 1775 and gives point to the name of "Black Horse -Square" commonly applied to the Praca by the British. A triumphal arch -on the north side leads to Rua Augusta, originally intended to be the -cloth-merchants' street; for the plan upon which Lisbon was rebuilt -after 1755 involved the restriction of each industry to a specified -area. This plan succeeded in the neighbouring Rua Aurea and Rua da -Prata, still, as their names indicate, famous for goldsmiths' and -silversmiths' shops. Rua Augusta terminates on the north in the Rocio or -Praca de Dom Pedro Quarto, a square paved with mosaic of a curious -undulatory pattern and containing two bronze fountains, a lofty pillar -surmounted by a statue of Pedro IV., and the royal national theatre -(Teatro de Dona Maria Segunda), erected on the site which the -Inquisition buildings occupied from 1520 to 1836. The narrow Rua do -Principe, leading past the central railway station, a handsome Mauresque -building, connects the Rocio with the Avenida da Liberdade, one of the -finest avenues in Europe. The central part of the Avenida, a favourite -open-air resort of Lisbon society, is used for riding and driving; on -each side of it are paved double avenues of trees, with flower-beds, -statues, ponds, fountains, &c., and between these and the broad -pavements are two roadways for trams and heavy traffic. Thus the Avenida -has the appearance of three parallel streets, separated by avenues of -trees instead of houses. Its width exceeds 300 ft. It owes its name to -an obelisk 98 ft. high, erected in 1882 at its southern end, to -commemorate the liberation of Portugal from Spanish rule (December, -1640). North and north-east of the Avenida are the Avenida Park, the -Edward VII. Park (so named in memory of a visit paid to Lisbon by the -king of England in 1903), Campo Grande, with its finely wooded walks, -and Campo Pequeno, with the bull-ring. Other noteworthy public gardens -are the Passeio da Estrella, commanding magnificent views of the city -and river, the Largo do Principe Real, planted with bananas and other -tropical trees, the Tapada das Necessidades, originally the park of one -of the royal residences, and the Botanical Gardens of the polytechnic -school, with a fine avenue of palms and collections of tropical and -subtropical flora hardly surpassed in Europe. There are large Portuguese -cemeteries east and west of Lisbon, a German cemetery, and an English -cemetery, known also as _Os Cyprestes_ from the number of its cypresses. -This was laid out in 1717 at the cost of the British and Dutch residents -and contains the graves of Henry Fielding (1707-1754), the novelist, and -Dr Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), the Nonconformist divine. - -Lisbon is the seat of an archbishop who since 1716 has borne _ex -officio_ the honorary title of patriarch; he presides over the House of -Peers and is usually appointed a cardinal. The churches of modern Lisbon -are generally built in the Italian style of the 18th century; the -interiors are overlaid with heavy ornament. Perhaps the finest is the -Estrella church, with its white marble dome and twin towers visible for -many miles above the city. The late Renaissance church of Sao Roque -contains two beautiful chapels dating from the 18th century, one of -which is inlaid with painted tiles, while the other was constructed in -Rome of coloured marbles, and consecrated by the pope before being -shipped to Lisbon. Its mosaics and lapis lazuli pillars are -exceptionally fine. The 14th-century Gothic Igreja do Carmo was -shattered by the great earthquake. Only the apse, pillared aisles and -outer walls remain standing, and the interior has been converted into an -archaeological museum. The church of Nossa Senhora da Conceicao has a -magnificent Manoeline facade. - -The Palacio das Cortes, in which both Houses of Parliament sit, is a -16th-century Benedictine convent, used for its present purpose since -1834. It contains the national archives, better known as the Torre do -Tombo collection, because in 1375 the archives were first stored in a -tower of that name. The royal palace, or Paco das Necessidades, west of -Buenos Ayres, is a vast 18th-century mansion occupying the site of a -chapel dedicated to Nossa Senhora das Necessidades (i.e. "Our Lady who -helps at need"). - - _The Suburbs of Ajuda and Belem._--In the extreme west of Lisbon, - beyond the Alcantara valley, are Belem (i.e. "Bethlehem"), beside the - Tagus, and Ajuda, on the heights above. The Paco de Belem, built in - 1700 for the counts of Aveiro, became the chief royal palace under - John V. (1706-1750). The Torre de Belem, on the foreshore, is a small - tower of beautiful design, built in 1520 for the protection of - shipping. The finest ecclesiastical building in Portugal except the - monasteries of Alcobaca and Batalha also fronts the river. It is the - Convento dos Jeronymos, a Hieronymite convent and church, founded in - 1499 to commemorate the discovery of the sea-route to India by Vasco - da Gama. It was built of white limestone by Joao de Castilho (d. - 1581), perhaps the greatest of Manoeline architects. Its cloisters - form a square with blunted corners, surrounded by a two-storeyed - arcade, every available portion of which is covered with exquisite - sculptures. Parts of the building have been restored, but the - cloisters and the beautiful central gateway remain unspoiled. The - interior contains many royal tombs, including that of Catherine of - Braganza (d. 1705), the wife of Charles II. of England. The supposed - remains of Camoens and Vasco da Gama were interred here in 1880. In - 1834, when the convent was secularized, its buildings were assigned to - the Casa Pia, an orphanage founded by Maria I. Since 1903 they have - contained the archaeological collections of the Portuguese - Ethnological Museum. The royal Ajuda palace, begun (1816-1826) by John - VI. but left unfinished, derives its name from the chapel of N. S. de - Ajuda ("Our Lady of Aid"). It contains some fine pictures and - historical trophies. In the coach-house there is an unsurpassed - collection of state coaches, the cars upon which figures of saints are - borne in procession, sedan chairs, old cabriolets and other curious - vehicles. - - _The Environs of Lisbon._--The administrative district of Lisbon has - an area of 3065 sq. m., with a population of 709,509 in 1900. It - comprises the lower parts of the Tagus and Sado; the sea-coast from 5 - m. S. of Cape Carvoeiro to within 3 m. of the bluff called the Escarpa - do Rojo; and a strip of territory extending inland for a mean distance - of 30 m. This region corresponds with the southern part of Estremadura - (q.v.). Its more important towns, Setubal, Cintra, Torres Vedras and - Mafra, are described in separate articles. Sines, a small seaport on - Cape Sines, was the birthplace of Vasco da Gama. On the left bank of - the Tagus, opposite Lisbon, are the small towns of Almada, Barreiro, - Aldeia Gallega and Seixal, and the hamlet of Trafaria, inhabited by - fishermen. The beautiful strip of coast west of Oeiras and south of - Cape Roca is often called the "Portuguese Riviera." Its fine climate, - mineral springs and sea-bathing attract visitors at all seasons to the - picturesque fortified bay of Cascaes, or to Estoril, Mont' Estoril and - Sao Joao do Estoril, modern towns consisting chiefly of villas, hotels - and gardens. The Boca do Inferno ("Mouth of Hell") is a cavity in the - rocks at Cascaes resembling the Bufador at Peniscola (q.v.). The - villages of Carcavellos, Bucellas, Lumiar and Collares produce - excellent wines; at Carcavellos is the receiving station for cables, - with a large British staff, and a club and grounds where social and - athletic meetings are held by the British colony. Alhandra, on the - right bank of the Tagus, above Lisbon, was the birthplace of - Albuquerque; fighting bulls for the Lisbon arena are bred in the - adjacent pastures. - -_Railways, Shipping and Commerce._--Lisbon has five railway -stations--the central (Lisboa-Rocio), for the lines to Cintra, northern -and central Portugal, and Madrid via Valencia de Alcantara; the Santa -Apolonia or Caes dos Soldados, at the eastern extremity of the quays, -for the same lines (excluding Cintra) and for southern Portugal and -Andalusia; the Caes do Sodre and Santos, farther west along the quays, -for Cascaes; and the Barreiro, on the left bank of the Tagus, for -southern Portugal. In 1902 the railways north and south of the Tagus -were connected near Lisbon by a bridge. In the previous year an -extensive system of electric tramways replaced the old-fashioned cable -cars and mule trams. Electric and hydraulic lifts are used where the -streets are too steep for trams. Lisbon is lighted by both electricity -and gas; it has an admirable telephone service, and is connected by the -Carcavellos cable-station with Cornwall (England), Vigo in Galicia, -Gibraltar, the Azores and Madeira. - -Ships of the largest size can enter the Tagus, and the Barreiro inlet is -navigable at low water by vessels drawing 16 ft. There are extensive -quays along the right bank, with hydraulic cranes, two graving docks, a -slipway, warehouses and lines of railway. The government and private -docks are on the left bank. Loading and discharging are principally -effected by means of lighters. The exports are wines, oil, fruit, tinned -fish, salt, colonial produce, cork, pitwood, leather and wool. The -imports include cotton and woollen goods, linen, ale and porter, butter, -tea, hardware, tin plates, coal, iron, machinery, chemical manure, &c., -from Great Britain; grain and petroleum from the United States; dried -codfish from Norway and Newfoundland; silks, perfumery and fancy goods -from France; hemp, flax, grain, petroleum and cloth from Russia; linen, -machinery, hardware, sugar, &c., from Germany and Holland, iron, steel, -timber, pitch and salt fish from the Baltic; cocoa, coffee, wax and -rubber from the Portuguese colonies. Towards the close of the 19th -century the tourist traffic from Great Britain and Germany attained -considerable importance, and Lisbon has long been one of the principal -ports of debarcation for passengers from Brazil and of embarcation for -emigrants to South America. Shipbuilding, including the construction of -vessels for the national navy, is a growing industry. The fisheries have -always been important, and in no European fishmarket is the produce more -varied. Sardines and tunny are cured and tinned for export. In addition -to a fleet of about 600 sailing boats, the Tagus is the headquarters of -a small fleet of steam trawlers. The industries of Lisbon include -dyeing, distillation of spirits and manufactures of woollen, cotton, -silk and linen fabrics, of pottery, soap, paper, chemicals, cement, -corks, tobacco, preserved foods and biscuits. - -_Education and Charity._--Although the seat of the only university in -Portugal was fixed at Coimbra in 1527, Lisbon is the educational centre -of the Portuguese world, including Brazil. Its chief learned societies -are the Society of Medical Sciences, the Geographical Society, the Royal -Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Royal Conservatory of -Music and the Propaganda de Portugal. The museum of the Academy of Fine -Arts contains the largest collection of pictures and statues by native -and foreign artists in Portugal. The Geographical Society has gained an -international reputation; it possesses a valuable library and museum. -The National Library, founded in 1796, contains over 400,000 printed -books, and upwards of 9000 MSS. There are also colonial, naval, -artillery, natural history and commercial museums, meteorological and -astronomical observatories, zoological gardens and an aquarium. Purely -educational institutions include the medical, polytechnic, military and -naval schools, commercial, agricultural and industrial institutes, a -school of art, a central lyceum, a school for teachers, &c. The English -college for British Roman Catholics dates from 1628. The Irish -Dominicans have a seminary, and Portuguese ecclesiastical schools are -numerous. There are hospitals for women, and for contagious diseases, -almshouses, orphanages, a foundling hospital and a very large quarantine -station on the south bank of the Tagus, founded in 1857 after an -outbreak of yellow fever had devastated the city. Foremost among the -theatres, circuses and other places of amusement is the royal -opera-house of Sao Carlos, built in 1792-1793 on the model of the Scala -at Milan. - -_Population._--The population of Lisbon, 187,404[1] in 1878, rose to -301,206 in 1890 and 356,009 in 1900. It includes a large foreign colony, -composed chiefly of Spaniards, British, Germans, French, Brazilians and -immigrants from the Portuguese colonies, among whom are many -half-castes. The majority of the Spaniards are domestic servants and -labourers from Galicia, whose industry and easily gained knowledge of -the kindred Portuguese language enables them to earn a better livelihood -here than in their own homes. The British, German and French communities -control a large share of the foreign trade. The Brazilians and colonial -immigrants are often merchants and landowners who come to the -mother-country to spend their fortunes in a congenial social -environment. - - The street life of the city is full of interest. The bare-footed, - ungainly fishwives, dressed in black and bearing flat trays of fish on - their heads; the Galician water-carriers, with their casks; the - bakers, bending beneath a hundredweight of bread slung in a huge - basket from their shoulders; the countrymen, with their sombreros, - sashes and hardwood quarter-staves, give colour and animation to their - surroundings; while the bag-pipes played by peasants from the north, - the whistles of the knife-grinders, and the distinctive calls of the - vendors of fruit, lottery tickets, or oil and vinegar, contribute a - babel of sound. For church festivals and holidays the country-folk - come to town, the women riding on pillions behind the men, adorned in - shawls, aprons and handkerchiefs of scarlet or other vivid hues, and - wearing the strings of coins and ornaments of exquisite gold and - silver filigree which represent their savings or dowries. The costumes - and manners of all classes may be seen at their best in the great - bull-ring of Campo Pequeno, a Mauresque building which holds many - thousands of spectators. A Lisbon bullfight is a really brilliant - exhibition of athletic skill and horsemanship, in which amateurs often - take part, and neither horses nor bulls are killed. There is a - Tauromachic Club solely for amateurs. - -_History._--The name Lisbon is a modification of the ancient name -_Olisipo_, also written _Ulyssippo_ under the influence of a mythical -story of a city founded by Odysseus (Ulysses) in Iberia, which, however, -according to Strabo, was placed by ancient tradition rather in the -mountains of Turdetania (the extreme south of Spain). Under the Romans -Olisipo became a _municipium_ with the epithet of _Felicitas Julia_, but -was inferior in importance to the less ancient _Emerita Augusta_ -(Merida). From 407 to 585 it was occupied by Alaric, and thenceforward -by the Visigoths until 711, when it was taken by the Moors. Under the -Moors the town bore in Arabic the name of _Al Oshbuna_ or _Lashbuna_. It -was the first point of Moslem Spain attacked by the Normans in 844. When -Alphonso I. of Portugal took advantage of the decline and fall of the -Almoravid dynasty to incorporate the provinces of Estremadura and -Alemtejo in his new kingdom, Lisbon was the last city of Portugal to -fall into his hands, and yielded only after a siege of several months -(21st October 1147), in which he was aided by English and Flemish -crusaders on their way to Syria. In 1184 the city was again attacked by -the Moslems under the powerful caliph Abu Yakub, but the enterprise -failed. In the reign of Ferdinand I., the greater part of the town was -burned by the Castilian army under Henry II. (1373), and in 1384 the -Castilians again besieged Lisbon, but without success. Lisbon became the -seat of an archbishop in 1390, the seat of government in 1422. During -the 16th century it gained much in wealth and splendour from the -establishment of a Portuguese empire in India and Africa. From 1580 to -1640 Lisbon was a provincial town under Spanish rule, and it was from -this port that the Spanish Armada sailed in 1588. In 1640 the town was -captured by the duke of Braganza, and the independence of the kingdom -restored. - -For many centuries the city had suffered from earthquakes, and on the -1st of November 1755 the greater part of it was reduced almost in an -instant to a heap of ruins. A tidal wave at the same time broke over the -quays and wrecked the shipping in the Tagus; fire broke out to complete -the work of destruction; between 30,000 and 40,000 persons lost their -lives; and the value of the property destroyed was about L20,000,000. -The shock was felt from Scotland to Asia Minor. Careful investigation by -Daniel Sharpe, an English geologist, has delimited the area in and near -Lisbon to which its full force was confined. Lisbon is built in a -geological basin of Tertiary formation, the upper portion of which is -loose sand and gravel destitute of organic remains, while below these -are the so-called Almada beds of yellow sand, calcareous sandstone and -blue clay rich in organic remains. The Tertiary deposits, which -altogether cover an area of more than 2000 sq. m., are separated near -Lisbon from rocks of the Secondary epoch by a great sheet of basalt. The -uppermost of these Secondary rocks is the hippurite limestone. It was -found that no building on the blue clay escaped destruction, none on any -of the Tertiary deposits escaped serious injury, and all on the -hippurite limestone and basalt were undamaged. The line at which the -earthquake ceased to be destructive thus corresponded exactly with the -boundary of the Tertiary deposits. - -At the beginning of the 19th century the French invasion, followed by -the removal of the court to Rio de Janeiro, the Peninsular War, the loss -of Brazil and a period of revolution and dynastic trouble, resulted in -the utter decadence of Lisbon, from which the city only recovered after -1850 (see PORTUGAL: _History_). - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Every book which deals with the topography, trade or - history of Portugal as a whole necessarily devotes a portion of its - space to the capital; see PORTUGAL: _Bibliography_. The following - treat more exclusively of Lisbon: A. Dayot, _Lisbonne_ (No. ix. of the - "_Capitales du monde_" series) (Paris, 1892); Freire de Oliveira, - _Elementos para a historia do municipio de Lisboa_ (9 vols., Lisbon, - 1885-1898); J. de Castilho, _Lisboa antiga_ (7 vols., Lisbon, 1890), - and (by the same author) _A Ribeira de Lisboa_ (Lisbon, 1893). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] This figure represents the population of a smaller area than that - of modern Lisbon, for the civic boundaries were extended by a decree - dated the 23rd of December 1886. - - - - -LISBURN, a market town, and cathedral city of Co. Antrim, Ireland, -situated in a beautiful and fertile district on the Lagan, and on the -Great Northern railway, 8 m. S.S.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 11,461. -Christ Church (1622) which possesses a fine octagonal spire, is the -cathedral church of the united Protestant dioceses of Down, Connor and -Dromore, and contains a monument to Jeremy Taylor, who was bishop of the -see. The public park was presented to the town by Sir Richard Wallace -(d. 1890), and after his death the castle gardens were also given to the -town. The staple manufacture is linen, especially damasks and muslins, -originally introduced by Huguenots. There are also bleaching and dyeing -works, and a considerable agricultural trade. The town is governed by an -urban district council. The ruins of Castle Robin, 2 m. N. of the town, -stand on a summit of the White Mountains, and the building dates from -the time of Queen Elizabeth. At Drumbo, 3(1/2) m. E. of Lisburn, is one -of the finest examples of early fortification in Ireland, known as the -Giant's Ring, with a cromlech in the centre. Here are also a round tower -and the remains of a church ascribed to St Patrick. - -In the reign of James I., Lisburn, which was then known as Lisnegarvy -(Gambler's Fort), was an inconsiderable village, but in 1627 it was -granted by Charles I. to Viscount Conway, who erected the castle for his -residence, and laid the foundation of the prosperity of the town by the -introduction of English and Welsh settlers. In November 1641 the town -was taken by the insurgents, who on the approach of superior numbers set -fire to it. The troops of Cromwell gained a victory near the town in -1648, and the castle surrendered to them in 1650. The church was -constituted a cathedral in 1662 by Charles II., from whom the town -received the privilege of returning two members to parliament, but after -the Union it returned only one and in 1885 ceased to be a parliamentary -borough. Lisburn gives the titles of earl and viscount to the family of -Vaughan. - - - - -LISIEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in -the department of Calvados, 30 m. E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) -15,194. Lisieux is prettily situated in the valley of the Touques at its -confluence with the Orbiquet. Towers of the 16th century, relics of the -old fortifications, remain, and some of the streets, bordered throughout -by houses of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, retain their medieval -aspect. The church of St Peter, formerly a cathedral, is reputed to be -the first Gothic church built in Normandy. Begun in the latter half of -the 12th century it was completed in the 13th and 16th centuries. There -is a lantern-tower over the crossing and two towers surmount the west -facade, one only of which has a spire, added towards the end of the 16th -century. In the interior there is a Lady-Chapel, restored in the 15th -century by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, one of the judges of Joan of Arc. The -church of St Jacques (late 15th century) contains beautiful glass of the -Renaissance, some remarkable stalls and old frescoes, and a curious -picture on wood, restored in 1681. The church of St Desir (18th century) -once belonged to a Benedictine abbey. The old episcopal palace near the -cathedral is now used as a court-house, museum, library and prison, and -contains a beautiful hall called the salle doree. Lisieux is the seat of -a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a -chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of trade arbitrators and a -communal college. Its manufactures of woollens are important, and -bleaching, wool and flax-spinning, tanning, brewing, timber-sawing, -metal-founding, and the manufacture of machinery, hosiery and boots and -shoes are carried on; there is trade in grain, cattle and cheese. - -In the time of Caesar, Lisieux, under the name of _Noviomagus_, was the -capital of the Lexovii. Though destroyed by the barbarians, by the 6th -century it had become one of the most important towns of Neustria. Its -bishopric, suppressed in 1802, dates from that period. In 877 it was -pillaged by the Normans; and in 911 was included in the duchy of -Normandy by the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte. Civil authority was -exercised by the bishop as count of the town. In 1136 Geoffrey -Plantagenet laid siege to Lisieux, which had taken the side of Stephen -of Blois. The town was not reduced till 1141, by which time both it and -the neighbourhood had been brought to the direst extremities of famine. -In 1152 the marriage of Henry II. of England to Eleanor of Guienne, -which added so largely to his dominions, was celebrated in the -cathedral. Thomas a Becket took refuge here, and some vestments used by -him are shown in the hospital chapel. Taken by Philip Augustus and -reunited to France in 1203, the town was a frequent subject of dispute -between the contending parties during the Hundred Years' War, the -religious wars, and those of the League. - - - - -LISKEARD, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin -parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 15 m. W.N.W. of Plymouth, -on the Great Western and the Liskeard and Looe railways. Pop. (1901) -4010. It lies high, above two small valleys opening to that of the Looe -river, in a hilly, picturesque district. The Perpendicular church of St -Martin, with a tower of earlier date, having a Norman arch, is one of -the largest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. The site of a castle -built by Richard, brother of Henry III. and earl of Cornwall, is -occupied by public gardens. At the grammar school, which formerly -occupied a building in those gardens, Dr John Wolcot, otherwise known as -Peter Pindar, was educated. Liskeard was formerly an important mining -centre. Its manufactures include leather and woollen goods, and there -are iron foundries. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 -councillors. Area, 2704 acres. - -Liskeard (Liscarret) was at the time of the Domesday Survey an important -manor with a mill rendering 12d. yearly and a market rendering 4s. By -the Conqueror it had been given to the count of Mortain by whom it was -held in demesne. Ever since that time it has passed with the earldom or -duchy of Cornwall. The fertility of its soil and the river Looe probably -led to early settlement at Liskeard. Richard, king of the Romans, -recognized its natural advantages and built the manor house or castle -and resided there occasionally. In 1240 he constituted Liskeard a free -borough and its burgesses freemen with all the liberties enjoyed by the -burgesses of Launceston and Helston. In 1266 he granted fairs at the -Feasts of the Assumption and St Matthew. His son Edmund earl of Cornwall -in 1275 granted to the burgesses for a yearly rent of L18 (sold by -William III. to Lord Somers) the borough in fee farm with its mills, -tolls, fines and pleas, pleas of the crown excepted. Liskeard was made a -coinage town for tin in 1304. Edward the Black Prince secured to the -burgesses in 1355 immunity from pleas outside their franchise for -trespass done within the borough. Queen Elizabeth granted a charter of -incorporation in 1580 under which there were to be a mayor, recorder and -eight councillors. This charter was surrendered to Charles II. in 1680 -and a new one granted by his brother under which the corporation became -a self-elected body. From 1295 to 1832 Liskeard sent two members to the -House of Commons. The parliamentary franchise, at first exercised by the -burgesses, was vested by James' charter in the corporation and freemen. -By determining to admit no new freemen the voters became reduced to -between 30 and 60. Sir Edward Coke was returned for this borough in -1620, and Edward Gibbon the historian in 1774. In 1832 Liskeard was -deprived of one of its members and in 1885 it became merged in the -county. - - Besides the fairs already mentioned a third was added by Elizabeth's - charter to be held on Ascension Day. These are still among the most - considerable cattle fairs in the county. The same charter ratified a - market on Mondays and provided for another on Saturdays. The latter is - now held weekly, the former twice a month. The flour mill at Lamellion - mentioned in the charter of 1275, and probably identical with the mill - of the Domesday Survey, is still driven by water. - - - - -LISLE, ALICE (c. 1614-1685), commonly known as Lady Alice Lisle, was -born about 1614. Her father, Sir White Beckenshaw, was descended from an -old Hampshire family; her husband, John Lisle (d. 1664), had been one of -the judges at the trial of Charles I., and was subsequently a member of -Cromwell's House of Lords--hence his wife's courtesy title. Lady Lisle -seems to have leaned to Royalism, but with this attitude she combined a -decided sympathy with religious dissent. On the 20th of July 1685, a -fortnight after the battle of Sedgemoor, the old lady consented to -shelter John Hickes, a well-known Nonconformist minister, at her -residence, Moyles Court, near Ringwood. Hickes, who was a fugitive from -Monmouth's army, brought with him Richard Nelthorpe, also a partizan of -Monmouth, and under sentence of outlawry. The two men passed the night -at Moyles Court, and on the following morning were arrested, and their -hostess, who had denied their presence in the house, was charged with -harbouring traitors. Her case was tried by Judge Jeffreys at the opening -of the "Bloody Assizes" at Winchester. She pleaded that she had no -knowledge that Hickes's offence was anything more serious than illegal -preaching, that she had known nothing previously of Nelthorpe (whose -name was not included in the indictment, but was, nevertheless, -mentioned to strengthen the case for the Crown), and that she had no -sympathy with the rebellion. The jury reluctantly found her guilty, and, -the law recognizing no distinction between principals and accessories in -treason, she was sentenced to be burned. Jeffreys ordered that the -sentence should be carried out that same afternoon, but a few days' -respite was subsequently granted, and James II. allowed beheading to be -substituted for burning. Lady Lisle was executed in Winchester -market-place on the 2nd of September 1685. By many writers her death has -been termed a judicial murder, and one of the first acts of parliament -of William and Mary reversed the attainder on the ground that the -prosecution was irregular and the verdict injuriously extorted by "the -menaces and violences and other illegal practices" of Jeffreys. It is, -however, extremely doubtful whether Jeffreys, for all his gross -brutality, exceeded the strict letter of the existing law. - - See Howell, _State Trials_; H. B. Irving, _Life of Judge Jeffreys_; - Stephen, _History of the Criminal Law of England_. - - - - -LISMORE, an island in the entrance to Loch Linnhe, Argyllshire, -Scotland, 5 m. N.W. of Oban. Pop. (1901) 500. It lies S.W. and N.E., is -9(1/2) m. long and 1(3/4) m. broad, and has an area of 9600 acres. It -divides the lower end of the loch into two channels, the Lynn of Morvern -on the W. and the Lynn of Lome on the E. The name is derived from the -Gaelic _lios mor_, "great garden." Several ruined castles stand on the -coast, and the highest point of the island is 500 ft. above the sea. -The inhabitants raise potatoes, oats, cattle and horses, and these, with -dairy produce, form the bulk of the trade. Steamers call at -Auchnacrosan. A Columban monastery was founded in Lismore by St Moluag -about 592. About 1200 the see of Argyll was separated from Dunkeld by -Bishop John, "the Englishman," and Lismore soon afterwards became the -seat of the bishop of Argyll, sometimes called "Episcopus Lismoriensis," -quite distinct from the bishop of the Isles (Sudreys and Isle of Man), -called "Episcopus Sodoriensis" or "Insularum," whose see was divided in -the 14th century into the English bishopric of Sodor and Man and the -Scottish bishopric of the Isles. The Rev. John Macaulay (d. 1789), -grandfather of Lord Macaulay, the historian, and the Rev. Donald M'Nicol -(1735-1802), who took up the defence of the Highlands against Dr -Johnson, were ministers of Lismore. - - For the _Book of the Dean of Lismore_ see CELT: _Scottish Gaelic - Literature_. - - - - -LISMORE, a town of Rous county, New South Wales, Australia, 320 m. -direct N. by E. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 4378. It is the principal town of -the north coast district, and the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. The -surrounding country is partly pastoral, and partly agricultural, the -soil being very fertile. The town has a cathedral, school of art, and -other public buildings, while its industrial establishments include -saw-mills, sugar-mills, butter factories and an iron foundry. Standing -at the head of navigation of the Richmond river, Lismore has a large -export trade in dairy produce, poultry, pigs, and pine and cedar timber. - - - - -LISMORE, a market town and seat of a diocese in Co. Waterford, Ireland, -43 m. W.S.W. of Waterford by the Waterford and Mallow branch of the -Great Southern & Western Railway. Pop. (1901) 1583. It is beautifully -situated on a steep eminence rising abruptly from the Blackwater. At the -verge of the rock on the western side is the old baronial castle, -erected by King John in 1185, which was the residence of the bishops -till the 14th century. It was besieged in 1641 and 1643, and in 1645 it -was partly destroyed by fire. The present fabric is largely modern; -while the portico was designed by Inigo Jones. To the east, on the -summit of the height, is the cathedral of St Carthagh, of various dates. -There are portions probably of the 12th and 13th centuries, but the bulk -of the building is of the 17th century, and considerable additions, -including the tower and spire, were made in the 19th. There are a -grammar school, a free school and a number of charities. Some trade is -carried on by means of the river, and the town is the centre of a salmon -fishery district. - -The original name of Lismore was Maghsciath. A monastery founded here by -St Carthagh in 633 became so celebrated as a seat of learning that it is -said no fewer than twenty churches were erected in its vicinity. The -bishopric, which is said to have originated with this foundation, was -united to that of Waterford in 1363. In the 9th and beginning of the -10th centuries the town was repeatedly plundered by the Danes, and in -978 the town and abbey were burned by the men of Ossory. Henry II., -after landing at Waterford, received in Lismore castle the allegiance of -the archbishops and bishops of Ireland. In 1518 the manor was granted to -Sir Walter Raleigh, from whom it passed to Sir Richard Boyle, afterwards -earl of Cork. From the earls of Cork it descended by marriage to the -dukes of Devonshire. It was incorporated as a municipal borough in the -time of Charles I., when it also received the privilege of returning -members to parliament, but at the Union in 1800 it was disfranchised and -also ceased to exercise its municipal functions. - - - - -LISSA (Serbo-Croation _Vis_; Lat. _Issa_), an island in the Adriatic -sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lissa lies 31 m. S. by W. of -Spalato, and is the outermost island of the Dalmatian Archipelago. Its -greatest length is 10(1/2) m.; its greatest breadth 4(1/2) m. In shape -it is a long, roughly drawn parallelogram, surrounded by a wall of rock, -which incloses the fertile central plain, and is broken, on the north, -west and east by natural harbours. Its culminating point is Mount Hum -(1942 ft.), on the south-west. The island, which belongs to the -administrative district of Lesina, is divided between two communes, -named after the chief towns, Lissa (_Vis_), on the north, and Comisa -(_Komia_), on the west. Lissa, the capital, has a strongly fortified -harbour. It contains the palace of the old Venetian counts Gariboldi, -the former residence of the English governor, the monastery of the -Minorites and at a little distance to the west the ruins of the ancient -city of Issa. The islanders gain their livelihood by viticulture, for -which Issa was once famous, by sardine fishing and by the distillation -of rosemary oil. Pop. (1900) 9918, of whom 5261 belonged to the town and -commune of Lissa, and 4657 to Comisa. - -Issa is said to have been settled by people from Lesbos, the Issa of the -Aegean. The Parians, assisted by Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse, -introduced a colony in the 4th century B.C. During the First Punic War -(265-241 B.C.) the Issaeans with their beaked ships helped the Roman -Duilius; and the great republic, having defended their island against -the attacks of Agron of Illyria and his queen Teuta, again found them -serviceable allies in the war with Philip of Macedon (c. 215-211). As -early as 996 the Venetians ruled the island, and, though they retired -for a time before the Ragusans, their power was effectually established -in 1278. Velo Selo, then the chief settlement, was destroyed by -Ferdinand of Naples in 1483 and by the Turks in 1571. The present city -arose shortly afterwards. During the Napoleonic wars, the French held -Lissa until 1811, and during this period the island prospered greatly, -its population increasing from 4000 to 12,000 between 1808 and 1811. In -the latter year the French squadron was defeated by the British (see -below); though in the same year a French fleet, flying British colours, -entered Lissa, and only retired after burning 64 merchantmen. -Thenceforward the island gained a valuable trade in British goods, -which, being excluded from every port under French control, were -smuggled into Dalmatia. In 1812 the British established an -administrative system, under native officials, in Lissa and the -adjoining islands of Curzola and Lagosta. All three were ceded to -Austria in 1815. - -_Battles of Lissa._--Two naval actions have been fought in modern times -near this island. The first took place on the 13th of March 1811, and -was fought between a Franco-Venetian squadron, under the command of an -officer named Dubourdieu (of whom little or nothing else is known), and -Captain (afterwards Sir) William Hoste with a small British force. The -Franco-Venetian squadron (Venice was then part of the dominions of the -emperor Napoleon) consisted of six frigates, of which four were of forty -guns, and of five corvettes or small craft. The British squadron was -composed of three frigates, the "Amphion," 32 (Captain William Hoste), -the "Cerberus" (Captain Henry Whitby) and the "Active," 38 (Captain -James A. Gordon). With them was the "Volage," 22 (Captain Phipps -Hornby). The action has a peculiar interest because the French captain -imitated the method of attack employed by Nelson at Trafalgar. He came -down from windward in two lines parallel to one another, and at an angle -to the British squadron. Captain Hoste was not compelled to lie still as -the allies did at Trafalgar. He stood on, and as the two French lines -had to overtake him as he slipped away at an angle to their course, one -of them got in the way of the other. Captain Hoste materially forwarded -the success of his manoeuvre by leading the foremost French ship, the -"Favorite," 40, on to a reef, which was known to himself, but not to the -enemy. Both squadrons then turned, and the Franco-Venetians falling into -great confusion were defeated in spite of the gallant fighting of the -individual ships. Two prizes were taken and Dubourdieu was killed. - -The second naval battle of Lissa was fought between the Austrian and -Italian navies on the 20th of July 1866. The island, then in possession -of the Austrians, was attacked by an Italian squadron from Ancona of 12 -ironclads and 22 wooden vessels. One of the ironclads was damaged in a -bombardment of the forts, and two were detached on other service, when -an Austrian squadron of 7 ironclads, one unarmoured warship the "Kaiser" -and a number of small craft which had left Fasano under the command of -Admiral Tegethoff came to interrupt their operations. The Italian -admiral Persano arranged his ships in a single long line ahead, which -allowing for the necessary space between them meant that the Italian -formation stretched for more than 2 m. Just before the action began -Admiral Persano shifted his flag from the "Re d'Italia," the fourth ship -in order from the van, to the ram "Affondatore," the fifth. This made it -necessary for the "Affondatore" and the ships astern to shorten speed, -and, as the leading vessels stood on, a gap was created in the Italian -line. Admiral Tegethoff, who was on the port bow of the Italians, -attacked with his squadron in three divisions formed in obtuse angles. -The Italians opened a very rapid and ill-directed fire at a distance of -1000 yds. The Austrians did not reply till they were at a distance of -300 yds. Under Tegethoff's vigorous leadership, and aided by the -disorder in the Italian line, the Austrians brought on a brief, but to -the Italians destructive, melee. They broke through an interval between -the third and fourth Italian ships. The unarmed Austrian ships headed to -attack the unarmed Italians in the rear. At this point an incident -occurred to which an exaggerated importance was given. The Italian -ironclad "Re di Portogallo" of 5600 tons, in the rear of the line, stood -out to cover the unarmoured squadron by ramming the Austrians. She was -herself rammed by the wooden "Kaiser" (5000 tons), but received little -injury, while the Austrian was much injured. The "Kaiser" and the wooden -vessels then made for the protection of fort San Giorgio on Lissa -unpursued. In the centre, where the action was hottest, the Austrian -flagship "Ferdinand Max" of 5200 tons rammed and sank the "Re d'Italia." -The Italian "Palestro" of 2000 tons was fired by a shell and blew up. By -midday the Italians were in retreat, and Tegethoff anchored at San -Giorgio. His squadron had suffered very little from the wild fire of the -Italians. The battle of the 20th July was the first fought at sea by -modern ironclad steam fleets, and therefore attracted a great deal of -attention. The sinking of the "Re d'Italia" and the ramming of the -"Portogallo" by the "Kaiser" gave an immense impulse to the then popular -theory that the ram would be a leading, if not the principal, weapon in -modern sea warfare. This calculation has not been borne out by more -recent experience, and indeed was not justified by the battle itself, in -which the attempts to ram were many and the successes very few. The "Re -d'Italia" was struck only because she was suddenly and most -injudiciously backed, so that she had no way on when charged by the -"Ferdinand Max." - - For the first battle of Lissa see James's _Naval History_, vol. v. - (1837). A clear account of the second battle will be found in Sir S. - Eardley-Wilmot's _Development of Navies_ (London, 1892); see also H. - W. Wilson's _Ironclads in Action_ (London, 1896). (D. H.) - - - - -LISSA (Polish _Lezno_), a town in the Prussian province of Posen, 25 m. -N.E. from Glogau by rail and at the junction of lines to Breslau, Posen -and Landsberg. Pop. (1905) 16,021. The chief buildings are the handsome -palace, the medieval town-hall, the four churches and the synagogue. Its -manufactures consist chiefly of shoes, machinery, liqueurs and tobacco; -it also possesses a large steam flour-mill, and carries on a brisk trade -in grain and cattle. - -Lissa owes its rise to a number of Moravian Brothers who were banished -from Bohemia by the emperor Ferdinand I. in the 16th century and found a -refuge in a village on the estate of the Polish family of Leszczynski. -Their settlement received municipal rights in 1561. During the Thirty -Years' War the population was reinforced by other refugees, and Lissa -became an important commercial town and the chief seat of the Moravian -Brothers in Poland. Johann Amos Comenius was long rector of the -celebrated Moravian school here. In 1656 and 1707 Lissa was burned down. - - See Voigt, _Aus Lissas erster Blutezeit_ (Lissa, 1905), and Sanden, - _Geschichte der Lissaer Schule_ (Lissa, 1905). - - - - -LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846), German economist, was born at Reutlingen, -Wurttemberg, on the 6th of August 1789. Unwilling to follow the -occupation of his father, who was a prosperous tanner, he became a clerk -in the public service, and by 1816 had risen to the post of ministerial -under-secretary. In 1817 he was appointed professor of administration -and politics at the university of Tubingen, but the fall of the ministry -in 1819 compelled him to resign. As a deputy to the Wurttemberg chamber, -he was active in advocating administrative reforms. He was eventually -expelled from the chamber and in April 1822 sentenced to ten months' -imprisonment with hard labour in the fortress of Asperg. He escaped to -Alsace, and after visiting France and England returned in 1824 to finish -his sentence, and was released on undertaking to emigrate to America. -There he resided from 1825 to 1832, first engaging in farming and -afterwards in journalism. It was in America that he gathered from a -study of Alexander Hamilton's work the inspiration which made him an -economist of his pronounced "National" views. The discovery of coal on -some land which he had acquired made him financially independent, and he -became United States consul at Leipzig in 1832. He strongly advocated -the extension of the railway system in Germany, and the establishment of -the _Zollverein_ was due largely to his enthusiasm and ardour. His -latter days were darkened by many misfortunes; he lost much of his -American property in a financial crisis, ill-health also overtook him, -and he brought his life to an end by his own hand on the 30th of -November 1846. - -List holds historically one of the highest places in economic thought as -applied to practical objects. His principal work is entitled _Das -Nationale System der Politischen Okonomie_ (1841). Though his practical -conclusions were different from those of Adam Muller (1779-1829), he was -largely influenced not only by Hamilton but also by the general mode of -thinking of that writer, and by his strictures on the doctrine of Adam -Smith. It was particularly against the cosmopolitan principle in the -modern economical system that he protested, and against the absolute -doctrine of free trade, which was in harmony with that principle. He -gave prominence to the national idea, and insisted on the special -requirements of each nation according to its circumstances and -especially to the degree of its development. - - He refused to Smith's system the title of the industrial, which he - thought more appropriate to the mercantile system, and designated the - former as "the exchange-value system." He denied the parallelism - asserted by Smith between the economic conduct proper to an individual - and to a nation, and held that the immediate private interest of the - separate members of the community would not lead to the highest good - of the whole. That the nation was an existence, standing between the - individual and humanity, and formed into a unity by its language, - manners, historical development, culture and constitution. That this - unity must be the first condition of the security, wellbeing, progress - and civilization of the individual; and private economic interests, - like all others, must be subordinated to the maintenance, completion - and strengthening of the nationality. The nation having a continuous - life, its true wealth must consist--and this is List's fundamental - doctrine--not in the quantity of exchange-values which it possesses, - but in the full and many-sided development of its productive powers. - Its economic education should be more important than the immediate - production of values, and it might be right that one generation should - sacrifice its gain and enjoyment to secure the strength and skill of - the future. In the sound and normal condition of a nation which has - attained economic maturity, the three productive powers of - agriculture, manufactures and commerce should be alike developed. But - the two latter factors are superior in importance, as exercising a - more effective and fruitful influence on the whole culture of the - nation, as well as on its independence. Navigation, railways, all - higher technical arts, connect themselves specially with these - factors; whilst in a purely agricultural state there is a tendency to - stagnation. But for the growth of the higher forms of industry all - countries are not adapted--only those of the temperate zones, whilst - the torrid regions have a natural monopoly in the production of - certain raw materials; and thus between these two groups of countries - a division of labour and confederation of powers spontaneously takes - place. - - List then goes on to explain his theory of the stages of economic - development through which the nations of the temperate zone, which are - furnished with all the necessary conditions, naturally pass, in - advancing to their normal economic state. These are (1) pastoral life, - (2) agriculture, (3) agriculture united with manufactures; whilst in - the final stage agriculture, manufactures and commerce are combined. - The economic task of the state is to bring into existence through - legislative and administrative action the conditions required for the - progress of the nation through these stages. Out of this view arises - List's scheme of industrial politics. Every nation, according to him, - should begin with free trade, stimulating and improving its - agriculture by intercourse with richer and more cultivated nations, - importing foreign manufactures and exporting raw products. When it is - economically so far advanced that it can manufacture for itself, then - a system of protection should be employed to allow the home industries - to develop themselves fully, and save them from being overpowered in - their earlier efforts by the competition of more matured foreign - industries in the home market. When the national industries have grown - strong enough no longer to dread this competition, then the highest - stage of progress has been reached; free trade should again become the - rule, and the nation be thus thoroughly incorporated with the - universal industrial union. What a nation loses for a time in exchange - values during the protective period she much more than gains in the - long run in productive power--the temporary expenditure being strictly - analogous, when we place ourselves at the point of view of the life of - the nation, to the cost of the industrial education of the - individual. The practical conclusion which List drew for Germany was - that she needed for her economic progress an extended and conveniently - bounded territory reaching to the sea-coast both on north and south, - and a vigorous expansion of manufactures and commerce, and that the - way to the latter lay through judicious protective legislation with a - customs union comprising all German lands, and a German marine with a - Navigation Act. The national German spirit, striving after - independence and power through union, and the national industry, - awaking from its lethargy and eager to recover lost ground, were - favourable to the success of List's book, and it produced a great - sensation. He ably represented the tendencies and demands of his time - in his own country; his work had the effect of fixing the attention, - not merely of the speculative and official classes, but of practical - men generally, on questions of political economy; and his ideas were - undoubtedly the economic foundation of modern Germany, as applied by - the practical genius of Bismarck. - - See biographies of List by Goldschmidt (Berlin, 1878) and Jentsch - (Berlin, 1901), also _Fr. List, ein Vorlaufer und ein Opfer fur das - Vaterland_ (Anon., 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1877); M. E. Hirst's _Life of - Friedrich List_ (London, 1909) contains a bibliography and a reprint - of List's _Outlines of American Political Economy_ (1827). - - - - -LIST (O.E. _liste_, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. _lijst_, Ger. _Leiste_, -adapted in Ital. _lista_ and Fr. _liste_), properly a border or edging. -The word was thus formerly used of a geographical boundary or frontier -and of the lobe of the ear. In current usage "list" is the term applied -to the "selvage" of a piece of cloth, the edging, i.e. of a web left in -an unfinished state or of different material from the rest of the -fabric, to be torn or cut off when it is made up, or used for forming a -seam. A similar edging prevents unravelling. The material, cut off and -collected, is known as "list," and is used as a soft cheap material for -making slippers, padding cushions, &c. Until the employment of rubber, -list was used to stuff the cushions of billiard tables. The same word -probably appears, in a plural form "lists," applied to the barriers or -palisades enclosing a space of ground set apart for tilting (see -TOURNAMENT). It is thus used of any place of contest, and the phrase "to -enter the lists" is frequently used in the sense of "to challenge." The -word in this application was taken directly from the O. Fr. _lisse_, -modern _lice_, in Med. Lat. _liciae_. This word is usually taken to be a -Romanic adaptation of the Teutonic word. In medieval fortifications the -_lices_ were the palisades forming an outwork in front of the main walls -of a castle or other fortified place, and the word was also used of the -space enclosed between the palisades and the enceinte; this was used for -exercising troops, &c. From a transference of "list," meaning edge or -border, to a "strip" of paper, parchment, &c., containing a "list" of -names, numbers, &c., comes the use of the word for an enumeration of a -series of names of persons or things arranged in order for some specific -purpose. It is the most general word for such an enumeration, other -words, such as "register," "schedule," "inventory," "catalogue," having -usually some particular connotation. The chief early use of list in this -meaning was of the roll containing the names of soldiers; hence to "list -a soldier" meant to enter a recruit's name for service, in modern usage -"to enlist" him. There are numerous particular applications of "list," -as in "civil list" (q.v.), "active or retired list" in the navy or army. -The term "free list" is used of an enumeration of such commodities as -may at a particular time be exempt from the revenue laws imposing an -import duty. - - The verb "to list," most commonly found in the imperative, meaning - "hark!" is another form of "listen," and is to be referred, as to its - ultimate origin, to an Indo-European root _klu_-, seen in Gr. [Greek: - klyein], to hear, [Greek: kleos], glory, renown, and in the English - "loud." The same root is seen in Welsh _clust_ and Irish _cluas_, ear. - Another word "list," meaning pleasure, delight, or, as a verb, meaning - "to please, choose," is chiefly found in such phrases as "the wind - bloweth where it listeth." This is from the O.E. _lystan_, cf. Dut. - _lusten_, Ger. _lusten_, to take pleasure in, and is also found in the - English doublet "lust," now always used in the sense of an evil or - more particularly sexual desire. It is probably an application of this - word, in the sense of "inclination," that has given rise to the - nautical term "list," for the turning over of a ship on to its side. - - - - -LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO (1775-1848), Spanish poet and educationalist, -was born at Seville on the 15th of October 1775. He began teaching at -the age of fifteen, and when little over twenty was made professor of -elocution and poetry at Seville university. In 1813 he was exiled, on -political grounds, but pardoned in 1817. He then returned to Spain and, -after teaching for three years at Bilbao, started a critical review at -Madrid. Shortly afterwards he founded the celebrated college of San -Mateo in that city. The liberal character of the San Mateo educational -system was not favoured by the government, and in 1823 the college was -closed. Lista after some time spent in Bayonne, Paris and London was -recalled to Spain in 1833 to edit the official _Madrid Gazette_. He was -one of the founders of the Ateneo, the free university of Madrid, and up -till 1840 was director of a college at Cadiz. All the leading spirits of -the young generation of Spaniards, statesmen, writers, soldiers and -diplomatists came under his influence. He died at Seville on the 5th of -October 1848. - - - - -LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER, 1st BARON (1827- ), English surgeon, was born at -Upton, in Essex, on the 5th of April 1827. His father, Joseph Jackson -Lister, F.R.S., was eminent in science, especially in optical science, -his chief claim to remembrance being that by certain improvements in -lenses he raised the compound microscope from the position of a -scientific toy, "distorting as much as it magnified," to its present -place as a powerful engine of research. Other members of Lord Lister's -family were eminent in natural science. In his boyhood Joseph Lister was -educated at Quaker schools; first at Hitchin in Hertfordshire, and -afterwards at Tottenham, near London. In 1844 he entered University -College, London, as a student in arts, and took his B.A. degree at the -University of London in 1847. He continued at University College as a -medical student, and became M.B. and F.R.C.S. in 1852. The keen young -student was not long in bringing his faculties to bear upon pathology -and the practice of medicine. While house-surgeon at University College -Hospital, he had charge of certain cases during an outbreak of hospital -gangrene, and carefully observed the phenomena of the disease and the -effects of treatment upon it. He was thus early led to suspect the -parasitic nature of the disorder, and searched with the microscope the -material of the spreading sore, in the hope of discovering in it some -invading fungus; he soon convinced himself of the cardinal truth that -its causes were purely local. He also minutely investigated cases of -pyaemia, another terrible scourge of hospitals at that time, and made -_camera lucida_ sketches of the appearances revealed by the microscope. - -To realize Lister's work it is necessary to remember the condition of -surgical practice at that date. About the middle of the 19th century the -introduction of anaesthetics had relieved the patient of much of the -horror of the knife, and the surgeon of the duty of speed in his work. -The agony of the sufferer had naturally and rightly compelled the public -to demand rapid if not slap-dash surgery, and the surgeon to pride -himself on it. Within decent limits of precision, the quickest craftsman -was the best. With anaesthetics this state of things at any rate was -changed. The pain of the operation itself no longer counted, and the -surgeon was enabled not only to be as cautious and sedulous as -dexterous, but also to venture upon long, profound and intricate -operations which before had been out of the question. Yet unhappily this -new enfranchisement seemed to be but an ironical liberty of Nature, who -with the other hand took away what she had given. Direct healing of -surgical wounds ("by first intention"), far from being the rule, was a -piece of luck too rare to enter into the calculations of the operator; -while of the graver surgical undertakings, however successful -mechanically, the mortality by sepsis was ghastly. Suppuration, -phagedaena and septic poisonings of the system carried away even the -most promising patients and followed even trifling operations. Often, -too, these diseases rose to the height of epidemic pestilences, so that -patients, however extreme their need, dreaded the very name of hospital, -and the most skilful surgeons distrusted their own craft. New hospitals -or new wards were built, yet after a very short time the new became as -pestiferous as the old; and even scrupulous care in ventilation and -housemaids' cleanliness failed to prevent the devastation. Surgery had -enlarged its freedom, but only to find the weight of its new -responsibilities more than it could bear. - -When Lister was appointed to the chair of surgery in Glasgow the -infirmary of that city was a hotbed of septic disease; so much so that -his hospital visits evidently distressed him greatly. Windows were -widely opened, piles of clean towels were supplied, but still the -pestilence stalked through the wards. The building stands to-day as it -stood then, with no substantial alteration; but by the genius of Lister -its surgical wards are now as free from septic accidents as the most -modern hospital in the land. James Simpson, early in the 'sixties, -pathetically denounced the awful mortality of operations in hospitals, -and indeed uttered desperate protests against the hospital system -itself; yet, not long afterwards, Lister came to prove that it was not -in the hospital that the causes of that mortality lay hidden, but in the -operator himself, his tools and his assistants. Happily this beneficent -discovery was made in time to preserve the inestimable boon of the -hospital system from the counsels of despair. When Lister took up the -task speculation was on the wrong tack; the oxygen of the air was then -supposed to be the chief cause of the dissolution of the tissues, and to -prevent access of air was impossible. For instance, a simple fracture, -as of a bone of the leg, would do perfectly well, while in the very next -bed a compound fracture--one, that is, where the skin is lacerated, and -access to the seat of injury opened out--would go disastrously wrong. If -the limb were amputated, a large proportion of such cases of amputation -succumbed to septic poisoning. - -On graduation as bachelor of medicine, Lister went to Edinburgh, where -he soon afterwards became house-surgeon to Mr Syme; and he was much -impressed by the skill and judgment of this great surgeon, and also by -the superiority of his method of dressing recent wounds with dry lint, -as compared with the "water dressing" in use at University College. Yet -under these more favourable conditions the amelioration was only one of -degree; in most wounds indeed "union by first intention" was rendered -impossible by the presence of the silk ligatures employed for arresting -bleeding, for these could come away only by a process of suppuration. On -the expiry of his house-surgeoncy in Edinburgh, Lister started in that -city an extra-academical course of lectures on surgery; and in -preparation for these he entered on a series of investigations into -inflammation and allied subjects. These researches, which were detailed -fully in three papers in _Phil. Trans._ (1859), and in his Croonian -lecture to the Royal Society in 1863, testified to an earnestness of -purpose, a persevering accuracy of observation and experiment and an -insight of scientific conception which show that if Lister had never -developed the aseptic method of surgery, he would have taken a very high -place in pathology. In his speech in Paris at the Thirteenth -International Congress of Medicine in 1900, Lord Lister said that he had -done no more than seize upon Pasteur's discoveries and apply them to -surgery. But though Lister saw the vast importance of the discoveries of -Pasteur, he saw it because he was watching on the heights; and he was -watching there alone. From Pasteur Lister derived no doubt two fruitful -ideas: first, that decomposition in organic substances is due to living -"germs"; and, secondly, that these lowly and minute forms of vegetable -life spring always, like higher organisms, from parents like themselves, -and cannot arise _de novo_ in the animal body. After his appointment to -the Glasgow chair in 1860, Lister had continued his researches on -inflammation; and he had long been led to suspect that decomposition of -the blood in the wound was the main cause of suppuration. The two great -theories established by Pasteur seemed to Lister to open out the -possibility of what had before appeared hopeless--namely, the prevention -of putrefaction in the wound, and consequently the forestalling of -suppuration. To exclude the oxygen of the air from wounds was -impossible, but it might be practicable to protect them from microbes. - -The first attempt to realize this idea was made upon compound fractures; -and the means first employed was carbolic acid, the remarkable efficacy -of which in deodorizing sewage made Lister regard it as a very powerful -germicide. It was applied to the wound undiluted, so as to form with the -blood a dense crust, the surface of which was painted daily with the -acid till all danger had passed. The results, after a first failure, -were in the highest degree satisfactory, so that, as Lister said in his -presidential address to the British Association in Liverpool, he "had -the joy of seeing these formidable injuries follow the same safe and -tranquil course as simple fractures." The caustic property of undiluted -carbolic acid, though insignificant in comparison with the far greater -evils to be avoided in compound fracture, made it unsuited for general -surgery. To make it applicable to the treatment of abscesses and incised -wounds, it was necessary to mitigate its action by blending it with some -inert body; and the endeavour to find the best medium for this purpose, -such as to combine perfect antiseptic efficiency with the least possible -irritation of the tissues, formed the subject of experiments continued -for many years in the laboratory and in the ward. At one stage in these -inquiries an attempt was made to provide an atmosphere free from living -organisms by means of a fine spray of a watery solution of carbolic -acid; for it was then supposed by Lister to be necessary not only to -purify the surgeon's hands and instruments and the skin of the patient -about the seat of operation, but also to wage war with the microbes -which, as Pasteur had shown, people every cubic inch of the air of an -inhabited room. Under the use of the spray better results were obtained -than ever before, and this success encouraged its use. But researches -carried on for several years into the relations of the blood to -micro-organisms led Lister to doubt the harmfulness of the atmospheric -dust. At the London Congress in 1881 he narrated experiments which -proved that the serum of the blood is a very unfavourable soil for the -development of the bacteria diffused through the air, and others which -showed that the cells of an organizing blood-clot have a very remarkable -power of disposing of microbes and of limiting their advance. Hence he -considered it probable that in surgical operations the atmosphere might -be disregarded altogether.[1] As long, however, as this was only a -matter of probability, he did not dare to discard the spray. But at -length, at the Berlin Congress in 1890, he was able to announce that the -certainty he had so long desired had been arrived at. A careful -consideration of the physical constitution of the spray had shown him -that the microbes of the dust involved in its vortex could not possibly -have their vitality destroyed or even impaired by it. Such being the -case, the uniform success obtained when he had trusted the spray -implicitly as an aseptic atmosphere, abandoning completely certain other -precautions which he had before deemed essential, proved conclusively to -his mind that the air might safely be left entirely out of consideration -in operating.[2] Thus he learnt that not the spray only, but all -antiseptic irrigations or washings of the wound also, with their -attendant irritation of the cut surfaces, might be dispensed with--a -great simplification, indirectly due to experiments with the spray. The -spray had also served a very useful purpose by maintaining a pure -condition of the entourage of the operation; not indeed in the way for -which it was devised, but as a very mild form of irrigation. And Lister -took care to emphasize the necessity for redoubled vigilance on the part -of the surgeon and his assistants when this "unconscious caretaker," as -he called it, had been discarded. - -The announcement that he had given up the spray was absurdly interpreted -in some quarters to mean that he had virtually abandoned his theory and -his antiseptic methods. The truth is that the spray was only one of many -devices tried for a while in the course of the long-continued endeavour -to apply the antiseptic principle to the best advantage, and abandoned -in favour of something better. Two main objects were always kept -steadily in view by him--during the operation to guard the wound against -septic microbes by such means as existing knowledge indicated, and -afterwards to protect it against their introduction, avoiding at the -same time all needless irritation of the tissues by the antiseptic. Upon -the technical methods of attaining these ends this is not the place to -enlarge; suffice it to say that the endowments and the industry of the -discoverer, as seen in the rapidity and flexibility of mind with which -he seized upon and selected the best means, were little less remarkable -than the activity of the same faculties in his original ideas. - -To illustrate this opinion, his work on the ligature may be taken. It -had long been the universal practice of surgeons to employ threads of -silk or flax for tying arteries, long ends being left to provide escape -of the pus (invariably formed during the tedious process of the -separation of the ligature) together with the portion of the arterial -coats included in the knot. Lister hoped that if, by antiseptic means, -the thread were deprived of living microbes, it would no longer cause -suppuration, but might be left with short cut ends to become embedded -permanently among the tissues of the wound, which thus would be allowed -to heal by primary union throughout. A trial of this method upon the -carotid artery of a horse having proved perfectly successful, he applied -it in a case of aneurysm in the human subject; and here again the -immediate results were all that could be desired. But a year later, the -patient having died from other causes, the necropsy showed remnants of -the silk thread incompletely absorbed, with appearances around them -which seemed to indicate that they had been acting as causes of -disturbance. Thus was suggested to him the idea of employing for the -ligature some material susceptible of more speedy absorption; and the -antiseptic treatment of contused wounds having shown that dead tissue, -if protected from putrefaction, is removed by the surrounding structures -without the intervention of suppuration, he resolved to try a thread of -some such nature. Catgut, which is prepared from one of the constituents -of the small intestine of the sheep, after steeping in a solution of -carbolic acid, was used in a preliminary trial upon the carotid artery -of a calf. The animal was killed a month later, when, on dissection, a -very beautiful result was disclosed. The catgut, though removed, had not -been simply absorbed; pari passu with its gradual removal, fibrous -tissue of new formation had been laid down, so that in place of the dead -catgut was seen a living ligature embracing the artery and incorporated -with it. The wound meanwhile had healed without a trace of suppuration. -This success appeared to justify the use of the catgut ligature in the -human subject, and for a while the results were entirely satisfactory. -But though this was the case with the old samples of catgut first -employed, which, as Lister was afterwards led to believe, had been -"seasoned" by long keeping, it was found that when catgut was used fresh -as it comes from the makers, it was unsuited in various ways for -surgical purposes. The attempt by special preparation to obtain an -article in all respects trustworthy engaged his attention from time to -time for years afterwards. To quote the words of Sir Hector Cameron, who -was for several years assistant to Lord Lister, it required "labour and -toilsome investigation and experiment of which few can have any adequate -idea." - -In 1869 Lister succeeded his father-in-law, Syme, in the chair of -clinical surgery of Edinburgh. In 1877 he accepted an invitation to the -chair of surgery at King's College, London, in the anticipation that -here he would be more centrally placed for communication with the -surgical world at home and abroad, and might thus exercise his -beneficent mission to more immediate advantage. In 1896 Lister retired -from practice, but not from scientific study. From 1895 to 1900 he was -President of the Royal Society. In 1883 he was created a baronet, and in -1897 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lister of Lyme Regis. Among -the Coronation honours in 1902, he was nominated an original member of -the new Order of Merit. - -In England Lister's teaching was slow in making its way. The leading -surgeons of Germany were among the first to seize upon the new idea with -avidity and practical success; so early as 1875, in the course of a tour -he made on the Continent, great festivals were held in his honour in -Munich and Leipzig. The countrymen of Pasteur did not lag far behind; -and it is no exaggeration to speak of Lister's appearances in foreign -countries at this time as triumphal. - -The relation of Semmelweiss to Lister is of historical importance. -Lister's work on the antiseptic system began in 1864; his first -publication on the subject was in March 1867. At this date, and for long -afterwards, Semmelweiss was unknown, or ignored, not only by French and -Germans, but also by his own Hungarian people; and this neglect broke -his heart. The French Academy pronounced against his opinions, and so -did the highest pathological authority in Germany. In England, till long -after his death, probably his name was not so much as mentioned. In the -early 'seventies Lister's method was in full operation in Hungary as -elsewhere, yet none of the surgeons of Budapest ever mentioned -Semmelweiss; not even when, in 1883, they gave a great banquet to -Lister. It was after this occasion that Dr Duka, a Hungarian physician -practising in London, wrote a biography of Semmelweiss, which he sent to -Lister, and thus brought Semmelweiss before him for the first time. -Thenceforth Lister generously regarded Semmelweiss as in some measure -his forerunner; though Semmelweiss was not aware of the microbic origin -of septic poisons, nor were his methods, magnificent as was their -success in lying-in hospitals, suitable for surgical work. - -In public Lord Lister's speeches were simple, clear and graceful, -avoiding rhetorical display, earnest for the truth, jealous for his -science and art, forgetful of himself. His writings, in like manner -plain, lucid and forcible, scarcely betray the labour and thought of -their production. With the courtesy and serenity of his carriage he -combined a passionate humanity, so often characteristic of those who -come of the Society of Friends, and a simple love of truth which showed -itself in his generous encouragement of younger workers. (T. C. A.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See _Trans. of the International Medical Congress_ (1881), vol. - ii. p. 373. - - [2] See _Verhandlungen des X internationalen Congresses_, Bd. i. p. - 33. - - - - -LISTER, MARTIN (c. 1638-1712), English naturalist and physician, was -born at Radclive, near Buckingham. He was nephew of Sir Matthew Lister, -physician to Anne, queen of James I., and to Charles I. He was educated -at St John's College, Cambridge, 1655, graduated in 1658/9, and was -elected a fellow in 1660. He became F.R.S. in 1671. He practised -medicine at York until 1683, when he removed to London. In 1684 he -received the degree of M.D. at Oxford, and in 1687 became F.R.C.P. He -contributed numerous articles on natural history, medicine and -antiquities to the _Philosophical Transactions_. His principal works -were _Historiae animalium Angliae tres tractatus_ (1678); _Historiae -Conchyliorum_ (1685-1692), and _Conchyliorum Bivalvium_ (1696). As a -conchologist he was held in high esteem, but while he recognized the -similarity of fossil mollusca to living forms, he regarded them as -inorganic imitations produced in the rocks. In 1683 he communicated to -the Royal Society (_Phil. Trans._, 1684), _An ingenious proposal for a -new sort of maps of countries; together with tables of sands and clays, -such as are chiefly found in the north parts of England_. In this essay -he suggested the preparation of a soil or mineral map of the country, -and thereby is justly credited with being the first to realize the -importance of a geological survey. He died at Epsom on the 2nd of -February 1712. - - - - -LISTON, JOHN (c. 1776-1846), English comedian, was born in London. He -made his public _debut_ on the stage at Weymouth as Lord Duberley in -_The Heir-at-law_. After several dismal failures in tragic parts, some -of them in support of Mrs Siddons, he discovered accidentally that his -_forte_ was comedy, especially in the personation of old men and country -boys, in which he displayed a fund of drollery and broad humour. An -introduction to Charles Kemble led to his appearance at the Haymarket on -the 10th of June 1805 as Sheepface in the _Village Lawyer_, and his -association with this theatre continued with few interruptions until -1830. _Paul Pry_, the most famous of all his impersonations, was first -presented on the 13th of September 1825, and soon became, thanks to his -creative genius, a real personage. Liston remained on the stage till -1837; during his last years his mind failed, and he died on the 22nd of -March 1846. He had married in 1807 Miss Tyrer (d. 1854), a singer and -actress. - - Several pictures of Liston in character are in the Garrick Club, - London, and one as Paul Pry in the South Kensington Museum. - - - - -LISTON, ROBERT (1794-1847), Scottish surgeon, was born on the 28th of -October 1794 at Ecclesmachan, Linlithgow, where his father was parish -minister. He began the study of anatomy under Dr John Barclay -(1758-1826) at Edinburgh in 1810, and soon became a skilful anatomist. -After eight years' study, he became a lecturer on anatomy and surgery in -the Edinburgh School or Medicine; and in 1827 he was elected one of the -surgeons to the Royal Infirmary. In 1835 he was chosen professor of -clinical surgery in University College, London, and this appointment he -held until his death, which occurred in London on the 7th of December -1847. Liston was a teacher more by what he did than by what he said. He -taught simplicity in all operative procedures; fertile in expedients, of -great nerve and of powerful frame, he is remembered as an -extraordinarily bold, skilful and rapid operator. He was the author of -_The Elements of Surgery_ (1831-1832) and _Practical Surgery_ (1837), -and made several improvements in methods of amputation, and in the -dressing of wounds. - - - - -LISZT, FRANZ (1811-1886), Hungarian pianist and composer, was born on -the 22nd of October 1811, at Raiding, in Hungary. His appeal to -musicians was made in a threefold capacity, and we have, therefore, to -deal with Liszt the unrivalled pianoforte virtuoso (1830-1848); Liszt -the conductor of the "music of the future" at Weimar, the teacher of -Tausig, Bulow and a host of lesser pianists, the eloquent writer on -music and musicians, the champion of Berlioz and Wagner (1848-1861); and -Liszt the prolific composer, who for some five-and-thirty years -continued to put forth pianoforte pieces, songs, symphonic orchestral -pieces, cantatas, masses, psalms and oratorios (1847-1882). As virtuoso -he held his own for the entire period during which he chose to appear in -public; but the militant conductor and prophet of Wagner had a hard -time of it, and the composer's place is still in dispute. Liszt's -father, a clerk to the agent of the Esterhazy estates and an amateur -musician of some attainment, was Hungarian by birth and ancestry, his -mother an Austrian-German. The boy's gifts attracted the attention of -certain Hungarian magnates, who furnished 600 gulden annually for some -years to enable him to study music at Vienna and Paris. At Vienna he had -lessons in pianoforte playing from Carl Czerny of "Velocity" fame, and -from Salieri in harmony and analysis of scores. In his eleventh year he -began to play in public there, and Beethoven came to his second concert -in April 1823. During the three years following he played in Paris, the -French provinces and Switzerland, and paid three visits to England. In -Paris he had composition lessons from Paer, and a six months' course of -lessons in counterpoint from Reicha. In the autumn of 1825 the handsome -and fascinating _enfant gate_ of the salons and ateliers--"La Neuvieme -Merveille du monde"--had the luck to get an operetta (_Don Sancho_) -performed three times at the Academie Royale. The score was accidentally -destroyed by fire, but a set of studies a la Czerny and Cramer, -belonging to 1826 and published at Marseilles as 12 Etudes, op. i., is -extant, and shows remarkable precocity. After the death of his father in -1828 young Liszt led the life of a teacher of the pianoforte in Paris, -got through a good deal of miscellaneous reading, and felt the influence -of the religious, literary and political aspirations of the time. He -attended the meetings of the Saint-Simonists, lent an ear to the -romantic mysticism of Pere Enfantin and later to the teaching of Abbe -Lamennais. He also played Beethoven and Weber in public--a very -courageous thing in those days. The appearance of the violinist Paganini -in Paris, 1831, marks the starting-point of the supreme eminence Liszt -ultimately attained as a virtuoso. Paganini's marvellous technique -inspired him to practise as no pianist had ever practised before. He -tried to find equivalents for Paganini's effects, transcribed his violin -caprices for the piano, and perfected his own technique to an -extraordinary degree. After Paganini he received a fresh impulse from -the playing and the compositions of Chopin, who arrived in 1831, and yet -another impulse of equal force from a performance of Berlioz's -"Symphonie Fantastique, episode de la vie d'un artiste," in 1832. Liszt -transcribed this work, and its influence ultimately led him to the -composition of his "Poemes symphoniques" and other examples of -orchestral programme-music. - -From 1833 to 1848--when he gave up playing in public--he was greeted with -frantic applause as the prince of pianists. Five years (1835-1840) were -spent in Switzerland and Italy, in semi-retirement in the company of -Madame la comtesse d'Agoult (George Sand's friend and would-be rival, -known in literary circles as "Daniel Stern," by whom Liszt had three -children, one of them afterwards Frau Cosima Wagner): these years were -devoted to further study in playing and composition, and were interrupted -only by occasional appearances at Geneva, Milan, Florence and Rome, and -by annual visits to Paris, when a famous contest with Thalberg took place -in 1837. The enthusiasm aroused by Liszt's playing and his -personality--the two are inseparable--reached a climax at Vienna and -Budapest in 1839-1840, when he received a patent of nobility from the -emperor of Austria, and a sword of honour from the magnates of Hungary in -the name of the nation. During the eight years following he was heard at -all the principalcentres--including London, Leipzig, Berlin, Copenhagen, -St Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Constantinople, Lisbon and Madrid. He -gained much money, and gave large sums in charity. His munificence with -regard to the Beethoven statue at Bonn made a great stir. The -subscriptions having come in but sparsely, Liszt took the matter in -hand, and the monument was completed at his expense, and unveiled at a -musical festival conducted by Spohr and himself in 1845. In 1848 he -settled at Weimar with Princess Sayn-Wittgenstein (d. 1887), and remained -there till 1861. During this period he acted as conductor at court -concerts and on special occasions at the theatre, gave lessons to a -number of pianists, wrote articles of permanent value on certain works of -Berlioz and the early operas of Wagner, and produced those orchestral and -choral pieces upon which his reputation as a composer mainly depends. His -ambition to found a school of composers as well as a school of pianists -met with complete success on the one hand and partial failure on the -other. His efforts on behalf of Wagner, who was then an exile in -Switzerland, culminated in the first performance of _Lohengrin_ on the -28th of August 1850, before a special audience assembled from far and -near. Among the works produced for the first time or rehearsed with a -view to the furtherance of musical art were Wagner's _Tannhauser_, _Der -fliegende Hollander_, _Das Liebesmahl der Apostel_, and _Eine Faust -Overture_, Berlioz's _Benvenuto Cellini_, the _Symphonie Fantastique_, -_Harold en Italie_, _Romeo et Juliette_, _La Damnation de Faust_, and -_L'Enfance du Christ_--the last two conducted by the composer--Schumann's -_Genoveva_, _Paradise and the Peri_, the music to _Manfred_ and to -_Faust_, Weber's _Euryanthe_, Schubert's _Alfonso und Estrella_, Raff's -_Konig Alfred_, Cornelius's _Der Barbier von Baghdad_ and many more. It -was Liszt's habit to recommend novelties to the public by explanatory -articles or essays, which were written in French (some for the _Journal -des debats_ and the _Gazette musicale_ of Paris) and translated for the -journals of Weimar and Leipzig--thus his two masterpieces of sympathetic -criticism, the essays _Lohengrin et Tannhauser a Weimar_ and _Harold en -Italie_, found many readers and proved very effective. They are now -included, together with articles on Schumann and Schubert, and the -elaborate and rather high-flown essays on Chopin and _Des Bohemiens et de -leur musique en Hongrie_ (the latter certainly, and the former probably, -written in collaboration with Madame de Wittgenstein), in his _Gesammelte -Schriften_ (6 vols., Leipzig). The compositions belonging to the period -of his residence at Weimar comprise two pianoforte concertos, in E flat -and in A, the "Todtentanz," the "Concerto pathetique" for two pianos, the -solo sonata "An Robert Schumann," sundry "Etudes," fifteen "Rhapsodies -Hongroises," twelve orchestral "Poemes symphoniques," "Eine Faust -Symphonie," and "Eine Symphonie zu Dante's 'Divina Commedia,'" the "13th -Psalm" for tenor solo, chorus and orchestra, the choruses to Herder's -dramatic scenes "Prometheus," and the "Missa solennis" known as the -"Graner Fest Messe." Liszt retired to Rome in 1861, and joined the -Franciscan order in 1865.[1] From 1869 onwards Abbe Liszt divided his -time between Rome and Weimar, where during the summer months he received -pupils--gratis as formerly--and, from 1876 up to his death at Bayreuth on -the 31st of July 1886, he also taught for several months every year at -the Hungarian Conservatoire of Budapest. - -About Liszt's pianoforte technique in general it may be said that it -derives its efficiency from the teaching of Czerny, who brought up his -pupil on Mozart, a little Bach and Beethoven, a good deal of Clementi -and Hummel, and a good deal of his (Czerny's) own work. Classicism in -the shape of solid, respectable Hummel on the one hand, and Carl Czerny, -a trifle flippant, perhaps, and inclined to appeal to the gallery, on -the other, these gave the musical parentage of young Liszt. Then appears -the Parisian Incroyable and grand seigneur--"Monsieur Lits," as the -Parisians called him. Later, we find him imitating Paganini and Chopin, -and at the same time making a really passionate and deep study of -Beethoven, Weber, Schubert, Berlioz. Thus gradually was formed the -master of style--whose command of the instrument was supreme, and who -played like an inspired poet. Liszt's strange musical nature was long in -maturing its fruits. At the pianoforte his achievements culminate in the -two books of studies, twice rewritten, and finally published in 1852 as -_Etudes d'execution transcendante_, the _Etudes de concert_ and the -_Paganini Studies_; the two concertos and the _Todtentanz_, the _Sonata -in B minor_, the _Hungarian Rhapsodies_ and the fine transcriptions of -Beethoven's symphonies (the 9th for two pianofortes as well as solo), -and of Berlioz's _Symphonie fantastique_, and the symphony, _Harold en -Italie_. In his orchestral pieces of Liszt appears--next to Berlioz--as -the most conspicuous and most thorough-going representative of programme -music, i.e. instrumental music expressly contrived to illustrate in -detail some poem or some succession of ideas or pictures. It was Liszt's -aim to bring about a direct alliance or amalgamation of instrumental -music with poetry. To effect this he made use of the means of musical -expression for purposes of illustration, and relied on points of support -outside the pale of music proper. There is always danger of failure -when an attempt is thus made to connect instrumental music with -conceptions not in themselves musical, for the order of the ideas that -serve as a programme is apt to interfere with the order which the -musical exposition naturally assumes--and the result in most cases is -but an amalgam of irreconcilable materials. In pieces such as Liszt's -"Poemes symphoniques," _Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne_ (1848-1856), -after a poem by Victor Hugo, and _Die Ideale_ (1853-1857), after a poem -by Schiller, the hearer is bewildered by a series of startling -orchestral effects which succeed one another apparently without rhyme or -reason. The music does not conform to any sufficiently definite musical -plan--it is hardly intelligible as music without reference to the -programme. Liszt's masterpiece in orchestral music is the _Dante -Symphony_ (1847-1855), the subject of which was particularly well suited -to his temperament, and offered good chances for the display of his -peculiar powers as a master of instrumental effect. By the side of it -ranks the _Faust Symphony_ (1854-1857), in which the moods of Goethe's -characters--Faust, Gretchen and Mephistopheles--are depicted in three -instrumental movements, with a chorus of male voices, supplying a kind -of comment, by way of close. The method of presentation in both -symphonies is by means of representative themes (_Leitmotif_), and their -combination and interaction. Incidents of the poem or the play are -illustrated or alluded to as may be convenient, and the exigencies of -musical form are not unfrequently disregarded for the sake of special -effects. Of the twelve Poemes symphoniques, _Orphee_ is the most -consistent from a musical point of view, and is exquisitely scored. -Melodious, effective, readily intelligible, with a dash of the -commonplace, _Les Preludes_, _Tasso_, _Mazeppa_ and _Fest-Klange_ bid -for popularity. In these pieces, as in almost every production of his, -in lieu of melody Liszt offers fragments of melody--touching and -beautiful, it may be, or passionate, or tinged with triviality; in lieu -of a rational distribution of centres of harmony in accordance with some -definite plan, he presents clever combinations of chords and ingenious -modulations from point to point; in lieu of musical logic and -consistency of design, he is content with rhapsodical improvisation. The -power of persistence seems wanting. The musical growth is spoilt, the -development of the themes is stopped, or prevented, by some reference to -extraneous ideas. Everywhere the programme stands in the way. In much of -Liszt's vocal music, particularly in the songs and choral pieces written -to German words, an annoying discrepancy is felt to exist between the -true sound of the words and the musical accents. The music is generally -emotional, the expression direct and passionate; there is no lack of -melodic charm and originality, yet the total effect is frequently -disappointing. In the choral numbers of the five masses, and in the -oratorios _Die Heilige Elisabeth_ and _Christus_, the rarity of fugal -polyphony acts as a drawback. Its almost complete absence in some of -these works makes for monotony and produces a sense of dullness, which -may not be inherent in all the details of the music, but is none the -less distinctly present. - - Omitting trifles and all publications that have been cancelled, the - following list of compositions may be taken as fairly comprehensive:-- - - _Pianoforte Pieces._--Etudes d'execution transcendante; Etudes de - concert; Zwei Etuden, Waldesrauschen, Gnomentanz; Ab Irato; Paganini - Studies; Annees de Pelerinage, 3 sets; Harmonies poetiques et - religieuses, 1-10; Consolations, 1-6; Ave Maria in E; Sonata in B - minor; Konzert-Solo in E minor; Scherzo und Marsch; Ballades, I. II.; - Polonaises, I. II.; Apparitions, 1-3; Berceuse; Valse impromptu; - Mazurka brillant; 3 Caprices Valses; Galop chromatique; - Mephisto-Walzer, I., II., III. and Polka; Zwei Legenden, "Die - Vogelpredigt," "Der heilige Franciscus auf den Wogen schreitend"; "Der - Weihnachtsbaum," 1-12; Sarabande und Chaconne ("Almira"); Elegies, I., - II. and III.; La lugubre Gondola; Dem Andenken Petofi's; Mosonyi's - Grabgeleit; Romance oubliee; Valses oubliees, 1-3; Liebestraume, 1-3 - (originally songs); Hexameron; Rhapsodies Hongroises, 1-18. - - _Pieces for Two Pianos._--Concerto pathetique (identical with the - Konzert-Solo in E minor); Dante symphony; Faust symphony; Poemes - symphoniques, 1-12; Beethoven's 9th symphony. - - _Pianoforte with Orchestra._--Concertos I. in E flat, II. in A; - Todtentanz; Fantasie ueber Motif aus Beethoven's "Ruinen von Athen"; - Fantasie ueber Ungarische National Melodien; Schubert's Fantasia in C; - Weber's Polacca in E. - - _Fantaisies de Concert for Piano Solo._--Don Juan; Norma; Sonnambula; - I Puritani; Lucia, I., II.; Lucrezia, I., II.; La Juive; Robert le - Diable; Les Huguenots; Le Prophete, 1-4. _Paraphrases_, Auber, - Tarantella di bravura (Masaniello); Verdi, Rigoletto, Ernani, Il - Trovatore; Mendelssohn, "Hochzeitsmarsch und Elfenreigen"; Gounod, - Valse de Faust, Les Adieux de Romeo et Juliette; Tschaikowsky, - Polonaise; Dargomiyski, Tarantelle; Cui, Tarantella; Saint-Saens, - Danse macabre; Schubert, Soirees de Vienne, Valses caprices, 1-9. - - _Transcriptions._--Beethoven's Nine Symphonies; Berlioz's "Symphonie - fantastique," "Harold en Italie"; Benediction et Serment (Benvenuto - Cellini); Danse des Sylphes (Damnation de Faust); Weber's overtures, - Der Freischutz, Euryanthe, Oberon, Jubilee; Beethoven's and Hummel's - Septets; Schubert's Divertissement a la Hongroise; Beethoven's - Concertos in C minor, G and E flat (orchestra for a second piano); - Wagner's Tannhauser overture, march, romance, chorus of pilgrims; - Lohengrin, Festzug und Brautlied, Elsa's Brautgang, Elsa's Traum, - Lohengrin's Verweiss an Elsa; Fliegender Hollander, Spinnlied; Rienzi, - Gebet; Rheingold, Walhall; Meistersinger, "Am stillen Herd"; Tristan, - Isolde's Liebestod; Chopin's six Chants Polonais; Meyerbeer's - Schillermarsch; Bach's six organ Preludes and Fugues; Prelude and - Fugue in G minor; Beethoven, Adelaide; 6 miscellaneous and 6 - Geistliche Lieder; Liederkreis; Rossini's Les Soirees musicales; - Schubert, 59 songs; Schumann, 13 songs; Mendelssohn, 8 songs; Robert - Franz, 13 songs. - - _Organ Pieces._--Missa pro organo; Fantasia and Fugue, "Ad nos, ad - salutarem undam"; B-A-C-H Fugue; Variations on Bach's Basso continuo, - "Weinen, Klagen"; Bach's Introduction and Fugue, "Ich hatte viel - Bekummerniss"; Bach's Choral Fugue, "Lob und Ehre"; Nicolai's - Kirchliche Festouverture, "Ein feste Burg"; Allegri's Miserere; - Mozart's Ave Verum; Arcadelt's Ave Maria; Lasso's Regina Coeli. - - _Orchestral Pieces._--Eine Symphonie zu Dante's "Divina Commedia"; - Eine Faust Symphonie; Poemes symphoniques: 1. "Ce qu'on entend sur la - montagne"; 2. Tasso; 3. Les Preludes; 4. Orphee; 5. Promethee; 6. - Mazeppa; 7. Fest-Klange; 8. Heroide funebre; 9. Hungaria; 10. Hamlet; - 11. Hunnenschlacht; 12. Die Ideale; Zwei Episoden aus Lenau's Faust: - I. Der nachtliche Zug, II. Der Tanz in der Dorfschenke; Marches, - Rakoczy, Goethe, Huldigung, "Vom Fels zum Meer" (for a military band); - Ungarischer, Heroischer and Sturmmarsch; Le Triomphe funebre du Tasse; - "Von der Wiege bis zum Grab"; six Hungarian rhapsodies; four marches; - four songs, and Die Allmacht, by Schubert. - - _Vocal Music._--Oratorios: "Die Legende von der Heiligen Elisabeth," - "Christus," "Stanislaus" (unfinished). Masses: Missa solennis for the - inauguration of the cathedral at Gran; Ungarische Kronungs-messe; - Missa choralis (with organ); Missa and Requiem for male voices (with - organ); Psalms, 13, 137, 23 and 18; 12 Kirchen-Chor-Gesange (with - organ). Cantatas: Prometheus-chore; "Beethoven Cantata"; "An die - Kunstler"; Die Glocken des Strassburger Munsters; 12 Chore fur - Mannergesang; Songs, 8 books; Scena, Jeanne d'Arc au bucher. - - _Melodramatic Pieces for Declamation, with Pianoforte - Accompaniment._--Leonore (Burger); Der traurige Monch (Lenau); Des - todten Dichter's Liebe (Jokai); Der blinde Sanger (Tolstoy). - - _Editions, Text and Variants._--Beethoven's Sonatas; Weber's - Concertstuck and Sonatas; Schubert Fantasia, 4 Sonatas, Impromptus, - Valses and Moments musicaux. - - See also L. Ramaun, _Fr. Liszt als Kunstler und Mensch_ (1880-1894); - E. Dannreuther, _Oxford Hist. of Music_, vol. vi.(1905). (E. Da.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] It is understood that, in point of fact, the Princess - Wittgenstein was determined to marry Liszt; and as neither he nor her - family wished their connexion to take this form, Cardinal Hohenlohe - quietly had him ordained.--[ED. _E.B._]. - - - - -LITANY. This word ([Greek: litaneia]), like [Greek: lite] (both from -[Greek: litomai]), is used by Eusebius and Chrysostom, commonly in the -plural, in a general sense, to denote a prayer or prayers of any sort, -whether public or private; it is similarly employed in the law of -Arcadius (_Cod. Theod._ xvi. tit. 5, leg. 30), which forbids heretics to -hold assemblies in the city "ad litaniam faciendam." But some trace of a -more technical meaning is found in the epistle (_Ep._ 63) of Basil to -the church of Neocaesarea, in which he argues, against those who were -objecting to certain innovations, that neither were "litanies" used in -the time of Gregory Thaumaturgus. The nature of the recently introduced -litanies, which must be assumed to have been practised at Neocaesarea in -Basil's day, can only be conjectured; probably they had many points in -common with the "rogationes," which, according to Sidonius Apollinaris, -had been coming into occasional use in France about the beginning of the -5th century, especially when rain or fine weather was desired, and, so -far as the three fast days before Ascension were concerned, were first -fixed, for one particular district at least, by Mamertus or Mamercus of -Vienne (A.D. c. 450). We gather that they were penitential and -intercessory prayers offered by the community while going about in -procession, fasting and clothed in sackcloth. In the following century -the manner of making litanies was to some extent regulated for the -entire Eastern empire by one of the _Novels_ of Justinian, which forbade -their celebration without the presence of the bishops and clergy, and -ordered that the crosses which were carried in procession should not be -deposited elsewhere than in churches, nor be carried by any but duly -appointed persons. The first synod of Orleans (A.D. 511) enjoins for all -Gaul that the "litanies" before Ascension be celebrated for three days; -on these days all menials are to be exempt from work, so that every one -may be free to attend divine service. The diet is to be the same as in -Quadragesima; clerks not observing these rogations are to be punished by -the bishop. In A.D. 517 the synod of Gerunda provided for two sets of -"litanies"; the first were to be observed for three days (from Thursday -to Saturday) in the week after Pentecost with fasting, the second for -three days from November 1. The second council of Vaison (529), -consisting of twelve bishops, ordered the _Kyrie eleison_--now first -introduced from the Eastern Church--to be sung at matins, mass and -vespers. - -A synod of Paris (573) ordered litanies to be held for three days at the -beginning of Lent, and the fifth synod of Toledo (636) appointed -litanies to be observed throughout the kingdom for three days from -December 14. The first mention of the word litany in connexion with the -Roman Church goes back to the pontificate of Pelagius I. (555), but -implies that the thing was at that time already old. In 590 Gregory I., -moved by the pestilence which had followed an inundation, ordered a -"litania septiformis," sometimes called _litania major_, that is to say, -a sevenfold procession of clergy, laity, monks, virgins, matrons, -widows, poor and children. It must not be confused with the _litania -septena_ used in church on Easter Even. He is said also to have -appointed the processions or litanies of April 25 (St Mark's day), which -seem to have come in the place of the ceremonies of the old Robigalia. -In 747 the synod of Cloveshoe ordered the litanies or rogations to be -gone about on April 25 "after the manner of the Roman Church," and on -the three days before Ascension "after the manner of our ancestors." The -latter are still known in the English Church as Rogation Days. Games, -horse racing, junkettings were forbidden; and in the litanies the name -of Augustine was to be inserted after that of Gregory. The reforming -synod of Mainz in 813 ordered the major litany to be observed by all for -three days in sackcloth and ashes, and barefoot. The sick only were -exempted. - -As regards the form of words prescribed for use in these "litanies" or -"supplications," documentary evidence is defective. Sometimes it would -appear that the "procession" or "litany" did nothing else but chant -_Kyrie eleison_ without variation. There is no reason to doubt that from -an early period the special written litanies of the various churches all -showed the common features which are now regarded as essential to a -litany, in as far as they consisted of (1) invocations, (2) -deprecations, (3) intercessions, (4) supplications. But in details they -must have varied immensely. The offices of the Roman Catholic Church at -present recognize two litanies, the "Litaniae majores" and the "Litaniae -breves," which differ from one another chiefly in respect of the fulness -with which details are entered upon under the heads mentioned above. It -is said that in the time of Charlemagne the angels Orihel, Raguhel, -Tobihel were invoked, but the names were removed by Pope Zacharias as -really belonging to demons. In some medieval litanies there were special -invocations of S. Fides, S. Spes, S. Charitas. The litanies, as given in -the Breviary, are at present appointed to be recited on bended knee, -along with the penitential psalms, in all the six week-days of Lent when -ordinary service is held. Without the psalms they are said on the feast -of Saint Mark and on the three rogation days. A litany is chanted in -procession before mass on Holy Saturday. The "litany" or "general -supplication" of the Church of England, which is appointed "to be sung -or said after morning prayer upon Sundays, Wednesdays and Fridays, and -at other times when it shall be commanded by the ordinary," closely -follows the "Litaniae majores" of the Breviary, the invocations of -saints being of course omitted. A similar German litany will be found in -the works of Luther. In the Roman Church there are a number of special -litanies peculiar to particular localities or orders, such as the -"Litanies of Mary" or the "Litanies of the Sacred Name of Jesus." - -There was originally a close connexion between the litany and the -liturgy (q.v.). The ninefold _Kyrie eleison_ at the beginning of the -Roman Mass is a relic of a longer litany of which a specimen may still -be seen in the Stowe missal. In the Ambrosian liturgy, the threefold -_Kyrie eleison_ or Lesser Litany occurs thrice, after the _Gloria in -excelsis_, after the gospel and at the end of Mass; and on the first -five Sundays in Lent a missal litany is placed before the _Oratio super -populum_, and on the same five Sundays in the Mozarabic rite before the -epistle. In Eastern liturgies litanies are a prominent feature, as in -the case of the deacon's litany at the beginning of the _Missa fidelium_ -in the Clementine liturgy, immediately before the _Anaphora_ in the -Greek liturgy of St James, &c. (F. E. W.) - - - - -LITCHFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Litchfield county, -Connecticut, U.S.A., about 28 m. W. of Hartford, and including the -borough of the same name. Pop. of the township (1890) 3304; (1900) 3214; -(1910) 3005; of the borough (1890) 1058; (1900) 1120; (1910) 903. Area -of the township, 48.6 sq. m. The borough is served by the New York, New -Haven & Hartford railroad. It is situated on elevated land, and is one -of the most attractive of southern New England summer resorts. The -principal elevation in the township is Mt. Prospect, at the base of -which there is a vein of pyrrhotite, with small quantities of nickel and -copper. On the southern border of the borough is Lake Bantam (about 900 -acres, the largest lake in the state) whose falls, at its outlet, -provide water power for factories of carriages and electrical -appliances. Dairying is the most important industry, and in 1899 the -county ranked first among the counties of the state in the value of its -dairy products--$1,373,957, from 3465 farms, the value of the product -for the entire state being $7,090,188. - -The lands included in the township of Litchfield (originally called -Bantam) were bought from the Indians in 1715-1716 for L15. the Indians -reserving a certain part for hunting. The township was incorporated in -1719, was named Litchfield, after Lichfield in England, and was settled -by immigrants from Hartford, Windsor, Wethersfield, Farmington and -Lebanon (all within the state) in 1720-1721. In 1751 it became the -county-seat of Litchfield county, and at the same time the borough of -Litchfield (incorporated in 1879) was laid out. From 1776 to 1780 two -depots for military stores and a workshop for the Continental army were -maintained, and the leaden statue of George III., erected in Bowling -Green, New York City, in 1770, and torn down by citizens on the 9th of -July 1776, was cut up and taken to Litchfield, where, in the house -(still standing) of Oliver Wolcott it was melted into bullets for the -American army by Wolcott's daughter and sister. Aaron Burr, whose only -sister married Tapping Reeve (1744-1823), lived in Litchfield with Reeve -in 1774-1775. In 1784 Reeve established here the Litchfield Law School, -the first institution of its kind in America. In 1798 he associated with -himself James Gould (1770-1838), who, after Reeve's retirement in 1820, -continued the work, with the assistance of Jabez W. Huntington -(1788-1847), until 1833. The school was never incorporated, it had no -buildings, and the lectures were delivered in the law offices of its -instructors, but among its 1000 or more students were many who -afterwards became famous, including John C. Calhoun; Levi Woodbury -(1789-1851), United States senator from New Hampshire in 1825-1831 and -in 1841-1845, secretary of the navy in 1831-1834 and of the treasury in -1834-1841, and a justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1845; -John Y. Mason; John M. Clayton; and Henry Baldwin (1780-1844), a justice -of the United States Supreme Court from 1830. In 1792 Mrs Sarah Pierce -made one of the first efforts toward the higher education of women in -the United States by opening in Litchfield her Female Seminary, which -had an influential career of about forty years, and numbered among its -alumnae Harriet Beecher Stowe, Mrs Marshall O. Roberts, Mrs Cyrus W. -Field and Mrs Hugh McCulloch. Litchfield was the birthplace of Ethan -Allen; of Henry Ward Beecher; of Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose novel, -_Poganuc People_, presents a picture of social conditions in Litchfield -during her girlhood; of Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1760-1833); of John -Pierpont (1785-1866), the poet, preacher and lecturer; and of Charles -Loring Brace, the philanthropist. It was also the home, during his last -years, of Oliver Wolcott (1726-1797); of Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge -(1774-1835), an officer on the American side in the War of Independence -and later (from 1801 to 1817) a Federalist member of Congress; and of -Lyman Beecher, who was pastor of the First Congregational church of -Litchfield from 1810 to 1826. - - See Payne K. Kilbourne, _Sketches and Chronicles of the Town of - Litchfield, Connecticut_ (Hartford, Conn., 1859); George C. Boswell, - _The Litchfield Book of Days_ (Litchfield, 1900); and for an account - of the Litchfield Female Seminary, Emily N. Vanderpoel, _Chronicles of - a Pioneer School_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1903). - - - - -LITCHFIELD, a city of Montgomery county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 50 m. -N. E. of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1900) 5918; (1910) 5971. Its -principal importance is as a railway and manufacturing centre; it is -served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, the -Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Illinois Central, the -Wabash, and the Litchfield & Madison railways, and by electric lines -connecting with St Louis and the neighbouring towns. In the vicinity are -deposits of bituminous coal, fire-clay and moulding sand. There are -various manufactures in the city. Litchfield was incorporated as a town -in 1856, and was first chartered as a city in 1859. - - - - -LITCHI, or LEE-CHEE, the fruit of _Nephelium Litchi_, a small tree, -native of southern China and one of the most important indigenous -fruits. It is also cultivated in India. The tree bears large compound -leaves with two to four pairs of leathery lanceolate pointed leaflets -about 3 in. long, and panicles of small flowers without petals. The -fruits are commonly roundish, about 1(1/2) in. in diameter, with a thin, -brittle, red shell which bears rough protuberances. In the fresh state -they are filled with a sweet white pulp which envelops a large brown -seed, but in the dried condition the pulp forms a blackish fleshy -substance. The pulp is of the nature of an aril, that is, an additional -seed-coat. - - _Nephelium Longana_, the longan tree, also a native of southern China, - is cultivated in that country, in the Malay Peninsula, India and - Ceylon for its fruit, which is smaller than that of the litchi, being - half an inch to an inch in diameter with a nearly smooth - yellowish-brown brittle skin, and containing a pulpy aril resembling - that of the litchi in flavour. Another species, _N. lappaceum_, a tall - tree native of the Malay Peninsula, where it is known under the names - Rambutan or Rambosteen, is also cultivated for its pleasantly acid - pulpy aril. The fruit is oval, bright red in colour, about 2 in. long - and covered with long fleshy hairs. - - _Nephelium_ belongs to the natural order Sapindaceae, and contains - about twenty-two species. - - - - -LITERATURE, a general term which, in default of precise definition, may -stand for the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing. -Its various forms are the result of race peculiarities, or of diverse -individual temperaments, or of political circumstances securing the -predominance of one social class which is thus enabled to propagate its -ideas and sentiments. In early stages of society, the classes which -first attain a distinct literary utterance are priests who compile the -chronicles of tribal religious development, or rhapsodes who celebrate -the prowess of tribal chiefs. As man feels before he reasons, so poetry -generally precedes prose. It embodies more poignantly the sentiment of -unsophisticated man. Hence sacred books and war-songs are everywhere the -earliest literary monuments, and both are essentially poetic -compositions which have received a religious or quasi-religious -sanction. The recitation of the Homeric poems at the Panathenaea -corresponds to the recitation elsewhere of the sacred texts in the -temple; the statement of Phemios (_Odyssey_, xxii. 347) that a god -inspired his soul with all the varied ways of song expresses the -ordinary belief of early historical times. Versicles of the sacred -chronicles, or fragments of epic poems, were learned by heart and -supplied a standard of popular literary taste. The public declamation of -long chosen passages by priests, and still more by contending rhapsodes, -served to evoke the latent sense of literary criticism; and, at a later -stage, the critical spirit was still further stimulated by the -performance of dramatic pieces written by competing poets. The epical -record of the past was supplemented by the lyrical record of -contemporary events, and as the Homeric poets had immortalized the siege -of Troy, so Pindar commemorated Salamis. Prose of any permanent value -would first show itself in the form of oratory, and the insertion of -speeches by early historians indicates a connexion with rhetoric. The -development of abstract reasoning would tend to deprive prose of its -superfluous ornament and to provide a simpler and more accurate -instrument. - -No new _genre_ has been invented since the days of Plato. The evolution -of literature is completed in Greece, and there its subdivisions may -best be studied. Epic poetry is represented by the Homeric cycle, -lyrical poetry by Tyrtaeus, dramatic poetry by Aeschylus, history by -Herodotus, oratory by Pericles, philosophy by Plato, and criticism by -Zoilus, the earliest of slashing reviewers; and in each department there -is a long succession of illustrious names. Roughly speaking, all -subsequent literature is imitative. Ennius transplanted Greek methods to -Rome; his contemporary L. Fabius Pictor, the earliest Roman historian, -wrote in Greek; and the later Roman poets from Lucretius to Horace -abound in imitations of Greek originals. The official adoption of -Christianity as the state religion changed the spirit of literature, -which became more and more provincial after the downfall of the empire. -Literature did not perish during the "dark ages" which extend from the -sixth century to the beginning of the 11th, but it was subordinate to -scholarship. The dissolution of Latin was not complete till about the -middle of the 9th century, and the new varieties of Romance did not -become ripe for literary purposes till a hundred years later. Meanwhile, -not a single literary masterpiece was produced in western Europe for -five centuries; by comparison only do Boethius and Venantius Fortunatus -seem to be luminous points in the prolonged night; the promise of a -literary renaissance at the court of Charlemagne was unfulfilled, and -the task of creating a new literature devolved upon the descendants of -the barbarians who had destroyed the old. The Celtic and Teutonic races -elaborated literary methods of their own; but the fact that the most -popular form of Irish verse is adopted from Latin prosody is conclusive -evidence that the influence of Roman--and therefore of Greek--models -persisted in the literature of the outlying provinces which had attained -political independence. The real service rendered to literature by the -provincials lay in the introduction and diffusion of legends freighted -with a burden of mystery which had disappeared with Pan, and these new -valuable materials went to form the substance of the new poetry. - -The home of modern European literature must be sought in France, which -assimilated the best elements in Celtic and Teutonic literature. From -the 11th to the 14th century, France was the centre of intellectual life -in Europe, as Greece and Rome had been before, and as Italy was to be -afterwards. The _chansons de geste_, inspired by the sense of patriotism -and the yearning for religious unity, inculcate feudal and Catholic -doctrine, and as society in the western world was universally committed -to feudalism and Catholicism, these literary expressions of both -theories were widely accepted and copied. The Germanic origin of the -French epic is lost sight of, and imitators are attracted by the French -execution, and by the creative power of the _chansons de geste_. Again, -France takes the stories of the Arthurian court from Welsh texts or from -the lips of Welsh settlers, rehandles the romantic element, and, through -Marie de France and Chretien de Troyes, imparts to the whole a touch of -personal artistry which is absent from the _chansons de geste_. The -_matiere de Bretagne_ goes forth to Italy, Germany and England--later to -Portugal and Spain--bearing the imprint of the French genius. Thus -France internationalizes local subjects, and first assumes a literary -function which, with few interruptions, she has since discharged. She -further gives to Europe models of allegory in the _Roman de la rose_, -founds the school of modern history through Villehardouin, inaugurates -the religious drama and the secular theatre. She never again dominated -the literatures of Europe so absolutely. - -The literary sceptre passed from France to Italy during the 14th -century. Brunetto Latini, who wrote in French as well as in Italian, is -the connecting link between the literatures of the two countries; but -Italy owes its eminence not so much to a general diffusion of literary -accomplishment as to the emergence of three great personalities. Dante, -Boccacio and Petrarch created a new art of poetry and of prose. England -yielded to the fascination in the person of Chaucer, Spain in the person -of her chancellor Lopez de Ayala, and France in the person of Charles -d'Orleans, the son of an Italian mother. Petrarch, once ambassador in -France, alleged that there were no poets out of Italy, and indeed there -were no living poets to compare with him elsewhere. But in all countries -he raised up rivals--Chaucer, Marot, Garcilaso de la Vega--as Sannazaro -did a century and a half later. Sannazaro's _Arcadia_ captured the -Portuguese Montemor, whose pastoral novel the _Diana_, written in -Spanish, inspired d'Urfe no less than Sidney, and, as d'Urfe's _Astree_ -is considered the starting-point of the modern French novel, the -historical importance of the Italian original cannot be exaggerated. -Spain never obtained any intellectual predominance corresponding to that -exercised by France and Italy, or to her political authority during the -16th and 17th centuries. This may be attributed partly to her -geographical position which lies off the main roads of Europe, and -partly to the fact that her literature is essentially local. Cervantes, -indeed, may be said to have influenced all subsequent writers of -fiction, and the influence of Spanish literature is visible in the body -of European picaresque tales; but, apart from Corneille and a few other -dramatists who preceded Moliere in France, and apart from the -Restoration drama in England, the influence of the Spanish drama was -relatively small. In some respects it was too original to be imitated -with success. Much the same may be said of England as of Spain. Like -Spain, she lies outside the sphere of continental influence; like Spain, -she has innumerable great names in every province of literature, and, in -both cases, to Europe at large these long remained names and nothing -more; like Spain, she is prone to reproduce borrowed materials in shapes -so transformed and rigid as to be unrecognizable and unadaptable. -Moreover, the Reformation isolated England from literary commerce with -the Latin races, and till the 18th century Germany was little more than -a geographical expression. Even when Germany recovered her literary -independence, Lessing first heard of Shakespeare through Voltaire. -Neither Shakespeare nor Milton was read in France before the 18th -century--the first translated by Ducis, the second by Dupre de -Saint-Maur--and they were read with curiosity rather than with rapture. -On the other hand, Boileau, Rapin and Le Bossu were regarded as oracles -in England, and through them French literature produced the -"correctness" of Queen Anne's reign. Horace Walpole is half a Frenchman, -Hume imitates Montesquieu's cold lucidity, Gibbon adapts Bossuet's -majestic periods to other purposes. On the other hand Voltaire takes -ideas from Locke, but his form is always intensely personal and -inimitably French. After the 16th century English literature, as a -whole, is refractory to external influence. Waves of enthusiasm pass -over England--for Rousseau, for Goethe--but leave no abiding trace on -English literature. During the latter half of the 18th century France -resumed something of her old literary supremacy; the literatures of -Italy and Spain at this period are purely derivative, and French -influence was extended still further on the continent as the result of -the Romantic movement. Since that impulse was exhausted, literature -everywhere has been in a state of flux: it is less national, and yet -fails to be cosmopolitan. All writers of importance, and many of no -importance, are translated into other European languages; the quick -succession of diverse and violent impressions has confused the scheme of -literature. Literature suffers likewise from the competition of the -newspaper press, and as the press has multiplied it has grown less -literary. The diversities of modern interests, the want of leisure for -concentrated thought, suggest that literature may become once more the -pleasure of a small caste. But the desire for the one just form which -always inspires the literary artist visits most men sometimes, and it -cannot be doubted that literature will continue to accommodate itself to -new conditions. (J. F.-K.) - - - - -LITERNUM, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, on the low sandy coast -between Cumae and the mouth of the Volturnus. It was probably once -dependent on Cumae. In 194 B.C. it became a Roman colony. It is mainly -famous as the residence of the elder Scipio, who withdrew from Rome and -died here. His tomb and villa are described by Seneca. Augustus is said -to have conducted here a colony of veterans,[1] but the place never had -any great importance, and the lagoons behind it made it unhealthy, -though the construction of the Via Domitiana through it must have made -it a posting station. It ceased to exist in the 8th century. No remains -are visible. - - See J. Beloch, _Campanien_, ed. ii. (Breslau, 1890), 377. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Mommsen in C.I.L. x. 343 does not accept this statement, but an - inscription found in 1885 confirms it. - - - - -LITHGOW, WILLIAM (1582-? 1650), Scottish traveller and writer, was born -and educated in Lanark. He was caught in a love-adventure, mutilated of -his ears by the brothers of the lady (hence the sobriquet "Cut-lugged -Willie"), and forced to leave Scotland. For nineteen years he travelled, -mostly on foot, through Europe, the Levant, Egypt and northern Africa, -covering, according to his estimate, over 36,000 m. The story of his -adventures may be drawn from _The Totall Discourse of the Rare -Adventures and painfull Peregrinations of long nineteene Yeares_ -(London, 1614; fuller edition, 1632, &c.); _A True and Experimentall -Discourse upon the last siege of Breda_ (London, 1637); and a similar -book giving an account of the siege of Newcastle and the battle of -Marston Moor (Edinburgh, 1645). He is the author of a _Present Surveigh -of London_ (London, 1643). He left six poems, written between 1618 and -1640 (reprinted by Maidment, Edinburgh, 1863). Of these "Scotland's -Welcome to King Charles, 1633" has considerable antiquarian interest. -His writing has no literary merit; but its excessively aureate style -deserves notice. - - The best account of Lithgow and his works is by F. Hindes Groome in - the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ The piece entitled _Scotland's Paraenesis to - King Charles II._ (1660), ascribed to him in the catalogue of the - Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, cannot, from internal evidence, be his. - - - - -LITHGOW, a town of Cook county, New South Wales, Australia, 96 m. W.N.W. -of Sydney by rail. Pop. (1901) 5268. The town is situated at an altitude -of 3000 ft., in a valley of the Blue Mountains. It has pottery and -terra-cotta works, breweries, a tweed factory, iron-works, saw-mills, -soap-works and brickfields. Coal, kerosene shale, iron ore and building -stone are found in the district. - - - - -LITHIUM [symbol Li, atomic weight 7.00 (O = 16)], an alkali metal, -discovered in 1817 by J. A. Arfvedson (_Ann. chim. phys._ 10, p. 82). It -is only found in combination, and is a constituent of the minerals -petalite, triphyline, spodumene and lepidolite or lithia mica. It occurs -in small quantities in sea, river and spring water, and is also widely -but very sparingly distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom. It may -be obtained (in the form of its chloride) by fusing lepidolite with a -mixture of barium carbonate and sulphate, and potassium sulphate (L. -Troost, _Comptes rendus_, 1856, 43, p. 921). The fused mass separates -into two layers, the upper of which contains a mixture of potassium and -lithium sulphates; this is lixiviated with water and converted into the -mixed chlorides by adding barium chloride, the solution evaporated and -the lithium chloride extracted by a mixture of dry alcohol and ether. -The metal may be obtained by heating dry lithium hydroxide with -magnesium (H. N. Warren, _Chem. News_, 1896, 74, p. 6). L. Kahlenberg -(_Jour. phys. Chem_., 3, p. 601) obtained it by electrolysing the -chloride in pyridine solution, a carbon anode and an iron or platinum -cathode being used. O. Ruff and O. Johannsen (_Zeit. elektrochem._, -1906, 55, p. 537) electrolyse a mixture of bromide and chloride which -melts at 520 deg. It is a soft, silvery-white metal, which readily -tarnishes on exposure. Its specific gravity is 0.59, and it melts at -180 deg. C. It burns on ignition in air, and when strongly heated in an -atmosphere of nitrogen it forms lithium nitride, Li3N. It decomposes -water at ordinary temperature, liberating hydrogen and forming lithium -hydroxide. - - _Lithium hydride_, LiH, obtained by heating the metal in a current of - hydrogen at a red heat, or by heating the metal with ethylene to 700 - deg. C. (M. Guntz, _Comptes rendus_, 1896, 122, p. 244; 123, p. 1273), - is a white solid which inflames when heated in chlorine. With alcohol - it forms lithium ethylate, LiOC2H5, with liberation of hydrogen. - _Lithium oxide_, Li2O, is obtained by burning the metal in oxygen, or - by ignition of the nitrate. It is a white powder which readily - dissolves in water to form the _hydroxide_, LiOH, which is also - obtained by boiling the carbonate with milk of lime. It forms a white - caustic mass, resembling sodium hydroxide in appearance. It absorbs - carbon dioxide, but is not deliquescent. _Lithium chloride_ LiCl, - prepared by heating the metal in chlorine, or by dissolving the oxide - or carbonate in hydrochloric acid, is exceedingly deliquescent, melts - below a red heat, and is very soluble in alcohol. _Lithium carbonate_, - Li2CO3, obtained as a white amorphous precipitate by adding sodium - carbonate to a solution of lithium chloride, is sparingly soluble in - water. _Lithium phosphate_, Li3PO4, obtained by the addition of sodium - phosphate to a soluble lithium salt in the presence of sodium - hydroxide, is almost insoluble in water. _Lithium ammonium_, LiNH3, is - obtained by passing ammonia gas over lithium, the product being heated - to 70 deg. C. in order to expel any excess of ammonia. It turns - brown-red on exposure to air, and is inflammable. It is decomposed by - water evolving hydrogen, and when heated _in vacuo_ at 50 deg.-60 deg. - C. it gives lithium and ammonia. With ammonia solution it gives - hydrogen and _lithiamide_, LiNH2 (H. Moissan, _ibid._, 1898, 127, p. - 685). _Lithium carbide_, Li2C2, obtained by heating lithium carbonate - and carbon in the electric furnace, forms a transparent crystalline - mass of specific gravity 1.65, and is readily decomposed by cold water - giving acetylene (H. Moissan, _ibid._, 1896, 122, p. 362). - - Lithium is detected by the faint yellow line of wave-length 6104, and - the bright red line of wave-length 6708, shown in its flame spectrum. - It may be distinguished from sodium and potassium by the sparing - solubility of its carbonate and phosphate. The atomic weight of - lithium was determined by J. S. Stas from the analysis of the - chloride, and also by conversion of the chloride into the nitrate, the - value obtained being 7.03 (O = 16). - - The preparations of lithium used in medicine are: _Lithii Carbonis_, - dose 2 to 5 grs.; _Lithii Citras_, dose 5 to 10 grs.; and _Lithii - Citras effervescens_, a mixture of citric acid, lithium citrate, - tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate, dose 60 to 120 grs. Lithium - salts render the urine alkaline and are in virtue of their action - diuretic. They are much prescribed for acute or chronic gout, and as a - solvent to uric acid calculi or gravel, but their action as a solvent - of uric acid has been certainly overrated, as it has been shown that - the addition of medicinal doses of lithium to the blood serum does not - increase the solubility of uric acid in it. In concentrated or large - doses lithium salts cause vomiting and diarrhoea, due to a - gastro-enteritis set up by their action. In medicinal use they should - therefore be always freely diluted. - - - - -LITHOGRAPHY (Gr. [Greek: lithos], a stone, and [Greek: graphein], to -write), the process of drawing or laying down a design or transfer, on a -specially prepared stone or other suitable surface, in such a way that -impressions may be taken therefrom. The principle on which lithography -is based is the antagonism of grease and water. A chemically pure -surface having been secured on some substance that has an equal affinity -for both grease and water, in a method hereafter to be described, the -parts intended to print are covered with an unctuous composition and the -rest of the surface is moistened, so that when a greasy roller is -applied, the portion that is wet resists the grease and that in which an -affinity for grease has been set up readily accepts it; and from the -surface thus treated it will be seen that it is an easy thing to secure -an impression on paper or other material by applying suitable pressure. - -The inventor of lithography was Alois Senefelder (1771-1834); and it is -remarkable what a grip he at once seemed to get of his invention, for -whereas the invention of printing seems almost a matter of evolution, -lithography seems to come upon the scene fully equipped for the battle -of life, so that it would be a bold craftsman at the present day who -would affirm that he knew more of the principles underlying his trade -than Senefelder (q.v.) did within thirty years of its invention. Of -course practice has led to dexterity, and the great volume of trade has -induced many mechanical improvements and facilities, but the principles -have not been taken any further, while some valuable methods have been -allowed to fall into desuetude and would well repay some experimentally -disposed person to revive. - -Lithography may be divided into two main branches--that which is drawn -with a greasy crayon (rather illogically called "chalk") on a grained -stone, and that which is drawn in "ink" on a polished stone. Whatever -may be thought in regard to the original work of the artists of various -countries who have used lithography as a means of expression, there can -be little doubt that in the former method the English professed -lithographer has always held the pre-eminence, while French, German and -American artists have surpassed them in the latter. - -Chalk lithography subdivides itself into work in which the black -predominates, although it may be supported by 5 or 6 shades of modified -colour--this branch is known as "black and tint" work--and that in which -the black is only used locally like any other colour. Frequently this -latter class of work will require a dozen or more colours, while some of -the finest examples have had some twenty to thirty stones employed in -them. Work of this description is known as chromo-lithography. Each -colour requires a separate stone, and work of the highest quality may -want two or three blues with yellows, reds, greys and browns in -proportion, if it is desired to secure a result that is an approximate -rendering of the original painting or drawing. The question may perhaps -be asked: "If the well-known three-colour process" (see PROCESS) "can -give the full result of the artist's palette, why should it take so many -more colours in lithography to secure the same result?" The answer is -that the stone practically gives but three gradations--the solid, the -half tint and the quarter tint, so that the combination of three very -carefully prepared stones will give a very limited number of -combinations, while a moderate estimate of the shades on a toned block -would be six; so that a very simple mathematical problem will show the -far greater number of combinations that the three blocks will give. -Beyond this, the chromo-lithographer has to exercise very great powers -of colour analysis; but the human mind is quite unable to settle offhand -the exact proportion of red, blue and yellow necessary to produce some -particular class say of grey, and this the camera with the aid of colour -filters does with almost perfect precision. - -Notwithstanding these disadvantages, lithography has these strong -points: (1) its utility for small editions on account of its, at -present, smaller prime cost; (2) its suitability for subjects of large -size; (3) its superiority for subjects with outlines, for in such cases -the outline can be done in one colour, whereas to secure this effect by -the admixture of the three colours requires marvellously good -registration, the absence of which would produce a very large proportion -of "waste" or faulty copies; (4) capacity for printing on almost any -paper, whereas, at the time of writing, the tri-colour process is almost -entirely limited to printing on coated papers that are very heavy and -not very enduring. - -With regard to the two branches of chalk lithography, the firms that -maintained the English supremacy for black and tint work in the early -days were Hulemandel, Day and Haghe and Maclure, while the best -chromo-lithographic work in the same period was done by Vincent Brooks, -the brothers Hanhart, Thomas Kell and F. Kell. In reference to the -personal work of professed lithographers during the same period, the -names of Louis Haghe, J. D. Harding, J. Needham, C. Baugniet, L. Ghemar, -William Simpson, R. J. Lane, J. H. Lynch, A. Maclure and Rimanozcy stand -for black and tint work; while in chromo-lithography J. M. Carrick, C. -Risdon, William Bunney, W. Long, Samuel Hodson, Edwin Buckman and J. -Lewis have been conspicuous among those who have maintained the standard -of their craft. In the foregoing list will be recognized the names of -several who have had admirable works on the walls of the Royal Academy -and other exhibitions; Mr Lane, who exhibited lithographs from 1824 to -1872, was for many years the doyen of lithographers, and the only one of -their number to attain academic rank, but Lynch and John Cardwell Bacon -were his pupils, and Bacon's son, the painter John H. F. Bacon, was -elected to the Royal Academy in 1903. In the first decade of the 20th -century the number of firms doing high-class work, and the artists who -aided them in doing it, were more numerous than ever, and scarcely less -able, but it would be outside the present purpose to differentiate -between them. - -The _raison d'etre_ of "stipple" work is its capacity for retransferring -without serious loss of quality, for it can scarcely be contended that -it is as artistic as the methods just described. Retransferring is the -process of pulling impressions from the original stones with a view to -making up a large sheet of one or more small subjects, or where it is -desired to print a very large number without deterioration of the -original or matrix stone. The higher class work in this direction has -been done in France, Germany and the United States, where for many years -superiority has been shown in regard to the excellence and rapidity of -retransferring. To this cause may be attributed the fact that the box -tops and Christmas cards on the English market were so largely done -abroad until quite recent times. The work of producing even a small face -in the finest hand stipple is a lengthy and tedious affair, and the -English craftsman has seldom shown the patience necessary for this work; -but since the American invention known as Ben Day's shading medium was -introduced into England the trade has largely taken it up, and thereby -much of the tedium has been avoided, so that it has been found possible -by its means to introduce a freedom into stipple work that had not -before been found possible, and a very much better class of work has -since been produced in this department. - -About the year 1868 grained paper was invented by Maclure, Macdonald & -Co. This method consists in impressing on ordinary Scotch transfer or -other suitable paper a grain closely allied to that of the lithographic -stone. It appears to have been rather an improvement than a new -invention, for drawing paper and even canvas had been coated previously -with a material that adhered to a stone and left on the stone the greasy -drawing that had been placed thereon; but still from this to the -beautifully prepared paper that was placed on the market by the firm of -which the late Andrew Maclure was the head was a great advance, and -although the first use was by the ordinary craftsman it was not long -before artists of eminence saw that a new and convenient mode of -expression was opened up to them. - -On the first introduction of lithography the artists of every nation -hastened to avail themselves of it, but soon the cumbrous character of -the stone, and the fact that their subjects had to be drawn backwards in -order that they might appear correctly on the paper, wore down their -newly-born zeal, and it was only when the grained paper system was -perfected, by which they could make their drawings in the comfort of -their studios without reversing, that any serious revival took place. -Although excellent work on grained paper had been done by Andrew -Maclure, Rimanozcy, John Cardwell Bacon, Rudofsky and other craftsmen, -the credit for its furtherance among artists must be given to Thomas Way -and his son T. R. Way, who did much valuable pioneer work in this -direction. The adhesion of such artists of eminence as Whistler, Legros, -Frank Short, Charles Shannon, Fantin Latour, William Strang, Will -Rothenstein, Herbert Railton and Joseph Pennell, did not a little to aid -lithography in resisting the encroachments of other methods into what -may still be considered its sphere. As a means of reproducing effects -which an artist would otherwise get by pencil or crayon, it remains -entirely unequalled, and it is of obvious advantage to art that -twenty-five or fifty copies of an original work should exist, which, -without the aid of lithography, might have only been represented by a -single sketch, perhaps stowed away among the possessions of one private -collector. - -In regard to grained paper work, undue stress has often been placed upon -the rapid deterioration of the stone, some contending that only a few -dozen first-class proofs can be taken; this has led to the feeling that -it is unsuited to book illustration, and damage has been done to the -trade of lithography thereby. It may be mentioned that quite recently -about 100 auto-lithographs in black and three colours, the combined work -of Mr and Mrs Herbert Railton, have been treated by the Eberle system of -etching described below, and although an infinitesimal loss of quality -may have arisen, such as occurs when a copper etching is steel faced, -some 2000 to 3000 copies were printed without further deterioration, and -an edition of vignetted sketches was secured, far in advance of anything -that could have been attained from the usual screen or half-toned -blocks. - -Grained paper is much used in the ordinary lithographic studio for work -such as the hill shading of maps that can be done without much working -up, but the velvety effects that in the hands of Louis Haghe and his -contemporaries were so conspicuous, cannot be secured by this method. -The effects referred to were obtained by much patient work of a -"tinter," who practically laid a ground on which the more experienced -and artistic craftsman did his work either by scraping or accentuation. -Where fine rich blacks are needed, artists will do well to read the -notes on the "aquatint" and "wash" methods described by Senefelder in -his well-known treatise, and afterwards practised with great skill by -Hulemandel. - -Lithography is of great service in educational matters, as its use for -diagrams, wall pictures and maps is very general; nor does the influence -end with schooldays, for in the form of pictures at a moderate price it -brings art into homes and lives that need brightening, and even in the -form of posters on the much-abused hoardings does something for those -who have to spend much of their time in the streets of great cities. - -According to the census of 1901, 14,686 people in the United Kingdom -found their occupation within the trade, while according to a Home -Office return (1906), 20,367 persons other than lithographic printers -were employed by the firms carrying on the business. As it may be -assumed that an equal number are employed in France, Germany, the United -States of America and the world at large, it is clear that a vast -industrial army is employed in a trade that, like letterpress printing, -has a very beneficial influence upon those engaged in it. - -_Technical Details._--The following description of the various methods -of lithography is such as may be considered of interest to the general -reader, but the serious student who will require formulas and more -precise directions will do well to consult one of the numerous -text-books on the subject. - - _Stone and Stone Substitutes._--The quality of stone first used by - Alois Senefelder, and discovered by him at the village of Solenhofen - in Bavaria, still remains unsurpassed. This deposit, which covers a - very large area and underlies the villages of Solenhofen, Moernsheim - and Langenaltheim, has often been described, sometimes for interested - motives, as nearly exhausted; but a visit in 1906 revealed that the - output--considerable as it had been during a period little short of a - century--was very unimportant when compared to the great mass of - carbonaceous limestone existing in the neighbourhood. The strong point - in favour of this source of supply, in addition to its unrivalled - quality, is the evenness of its stratification, and the fact that - after the removal of the surface deposits, which are very thin, the - stones come out of large size, in thickness of 3 to 5 in., and thus - just suited for lithographic purposes and needing only to be wrought - in the vertical direction. Other deposits of suitable stone have been - found in France, Spain, Italy and Greece, but transit and the absence - of suitable stratification have restricted them to little more than - local use. Beyond this, few of the deposits other than in the - neighbourhood of Solenhofen have been of the exact degree of density - necessary, and the heavier varieties do not receive the grease with - sufficient readiness. The desire to find other sources of supply has - been stimulated by the social conditions existing in southern Bavaria, - for the quarries are largely owned by peasant proprietors, who have - very well-defined business habits of their own which make transactions - difficult. Among other things, they will seldom supply the highest - grades and the largest sizes to those who will not take their - proportion of lower quality and smaller sizes; and this, in view of - the very expensive transit down the Rhine to Rotterdam, with a railway - journey at one end and a sea journey at the other, is a source of - difficulty to the importer in other countries. - - The earliest substitute for lithographic stone was zinc, which has - been used from early days and is now more in demand than ever; it - requires very careful printing as the grease only penetrates the - material to a very slight extent, and the same must be said in regard - to the water. From this cause, when not in experienced hands, trouble - is likely to arise; and when this has occurred, remedial methods are - much more difficult than with stones. When put away for storage, a dry - place is very essential, as corrosion is easily set up. At first the - plates were quite thick, and almost invariably grained by a zinc - "muller" and acid; now a bath of acid is more generally used, and the - operation is known as "passing," while the plates are quite thin, - which renders them suitable for bending round the cylinders of rotary - machines. - - So far we have been dealing with plain zinc, but variations are - caused, either by the oxidization of the surface or by coating the - plate with a composition closely allied to lithographic stone and - applied in a form of semi-solution. This class of plate was first - invented by Messrs C. & E. Layton, and a modification was invented by - Messrs Wezel and Naumann of Leipzig, who brought its use to a high - pitch of perfection for transferred work such as Christmas cards. A - treatment of iron plates by exposing them to a high temperature has - recently been patented, and has had some measure of success, while the - Parker printing plate, which is practically a sheet of zinc so treated - as to secure greater porosity and freedom from oxidization, is rapidly - securing a good position as a stone substitute. - - _Preparation of the Stones._--In this department the cleanliness so - necessary right through the lithographic process must be carefully - observed, and a leading point is to secure a level surface and to - ensure that the front and back of the stone are strictly parallel, - i.e. that the stones stand the test of both the straight edge and the - callipers. A good plan to ensure evenness on the surface is to mark - the front with two diagonal lines of some non-greasy substance till - the top stone (which should not be too small, and should be constantly - revolved on the larger one) has entirely removed them. The application - of the straight edge from time to time will end in securing the - desired flatness, on which so much of the future printing quality - depends. The usual method is to rub out with sand, and then rub with - pumice and polish with water of Ayr or snake stone. For chalk work, - the further work of graining has to be done by revolving a small stone - muller on the surface with exceedingly fine sand or powdered glass. - Many appliances (some very expensive) have been devised for doing the - principal part of this work by machine--none more effective than those - methods by which a disk of about 12 in. is kept revolving on a rod - attached to the ceiling, guided by hand over all parts of the stone; - but for large surfaces the ceiling needs to be rather high so as to - allow of a long expanding rod reaching the surface at a moderate - angle. When this machine is fitted with friction disk driving, very - wide variations of speed are possible, and the machine can be driven - so slowly and evenly as to secure a very fair (but not first class) - grain, in addition to speedy rubbing out, which is the chief aim of - the apparatus. - - _Preparing a Subject in Chalk or Chalk and Tints._--This branch of - work is much less in demand than formerly. A grey stone having been - selected and finely grained with sand or powdered glass passed through - a sieve of 80 to 120 meshes to the lineal inch, and the artist having - made his tracing, this tracing is reversed upon the stone with the - interposition of a piece of paper coated with red chalk, and the chalk - side towards the surface; the lines on the tracing are then gone over - with a tracing point, so that a reproduction in red chalk is left upon - the stone. It will then be desirable to secure a stock of pointed - Lemercier chalks of at least two grades, hard and soft: the pointing - is a matter that requires experience, and is done by the worker - drawing a sharp pen-knife towards him in a slicing manner as though - trying to put a point upon a piece of cheese. Care should be taken - that the falling pieces are gathered into a box, or they may do - irreparable mischief to the work. The work of outlining is done with - No. 1 or hard chalk, and until experience is gained it will be well to - depend chiefly on this grade, securing rich dark effects by tinting or - going over the stone in various directions and then finishing with - lithographic ink where absolute blacks are required. This ink - (Vanhymbeck's or Lemercier's are two good makes) needs careful - preparation, the method being to warm a saucer and rub the ink dry - upon it, then add a little distilled water and incorporate with the - finger. It is of great importance not to use any ink left over for the - next day, but always to have a fresh daily supply. - - When the drawing is thus completed, it will require what is termed - etching, by which the parts intended to receive the printing ink, and - already protected by an acid-resisting grease, will be left above the - unprotected surface. The acid and gum mixture varies in accordance - with the quality of the work and the character of the stone. A - patiently executed specimen will, for instance, stand more etching - than a hastily drawn one; while a grey stone will require more of the - nitric acid than a yellow one. This is one of the most important tasks - that a lithographer has to perform. A proportion of 1.5 parts of acid - to 100 parts of a strong solution of gum arabic will be found to be - approximately what is required, but the exact proportion must be - settled by experience, a safe course being to watch the action that - occurs when a small quantity is placed on the unused margin of the - stone. Many put the etching mixture on with a flat camel-hair brush, - which should be of good width to avoid streaks. The present writer's - own preference is to pour the mixture on to the stone when it is in a - slanting position; or it is perhaps better to have an etching trough, - a strong box lined with pitch, with bearers at the bottom to prevent - the stone coming in contact with it, and a hole through which the - diluted acid may pass away for subsequent use. The etching is then - done with acid and water poured over the stone while in a sloping - position, and the subsequent pouring of a solution of gum arabic - completes the preparation. The late Mr William Simpson, whose Crimean - lithographs are well known, once stated at the Society of Arts that in - his opinion Mr Louis Haghe's reproduction of David Robert's great - picture of "The Taking of Jerusalem" was the most important piece of - chalk lithography ever executed, and that he well remembered that it - took two years to execute it, and that all the combined talent of - Messrs Day & Haghe's establishment was utilized in its etching. He - stated that, notwithstanding every precaution, it was under-etched, - and that after half a dozen impressions the great beauty and - brilliancy of the work had departed. This incident indicates - sufficiently the serious nature of this part of the lithographer's - work. - - If the chalk drawing has to have tints, it will be necessary to make - as many dusted offsetts as there are colours to be used; in this class - of work there are generally only two,--one warm or sandy shade and the - other a quiet blue--and these, with the black and the neutral colour - secured by the superposition of the two shades, give an excellent - result, of which Haghe's sketches in Belgium may be taken as a leading - example. - - In making such subjects suitable for present-day printing in the - machine, the paper will require to be of a good "rag" quality, free - from size and damped before printing. To secure accuracy of register - the paper must be kept in a damp cloth to prevent the edges drying, - and other machines should be kept available for each of the tints so - that all work printed in black in the morning may be completed the - same night. In this way large editions might be printed of either - original or retransferred work at prices rendering the prints suitable - for high-class magazines. - - _Preparing a Chromo Lithograph._--For this purpose the proceedings - will be much the same as those suggested for the black and tint work, - but the preliminary tracing will be done in lithographic ink on - tracing transfer paper or scratched on gelatine, the lines being - subsequently filled in with transfer ink, and will be used as a "key," - a guide stone that will not be printed; and the number of stones - necessary will probably be much more numerous. The initial point will - be to consider if the work is to have the edition printed from it, or - whether it has to be transferred after proving and before printing; - generally speaking, large subjects such as diagrams or posters will be - worked direct, while Christmas cards, postcards, handbills or labels, - will be repeated many times on larger stones. For the former class a - much wider range of methods is possible, but many of these are - difficult to transfer, and the deterioration that arises makes it - desirable to limit their use when transferring is contemplated. - Therefore, chalk-rubbed tints, varnish tints, stumping, wash, air - brush, are the methods for original work, while work that has to be - transferred is limited to ink work in line or stipple on a polished - stone with the aid of "mediums" as before described, and ink - "spluttered" on to the stone from a tooth brush. It should be - mentioned that work done on grained paper is more suitable for - retransfer than ordinary chalk work, and so is often very useful when - a chalk effect is desired from a polished stone. In proving, opaque - colours will be got on first, and it will often be found a good plan - to put the black on early, for it gives a good idea of how the work is - proceeding, and the strength of the touches (for the black should - generally be used sparingly) is often pleasantly softened by the - semi-opaque colours which should come on next. It is desirable to pull - impressions of each colour on thoroughly white paper, and beyond this - in important work there should be a progressive colour pattern that - will show how the work looked when two, three or more colours were on, - for this may at the finish be invaluable to show where error has crept - in, and is in any event an immense aid to the machine minder. - - In regard to paper, a description made of rag or rag and esparto is - most desirable for all work on grained stones, but for work in ink and - consequently from polished stone a good coated paper with sufficient - "size" in it is frequently desirable; this paper is generally called - "chromo" paper. - - There is at the present time very little encouragement for the high - class of chromo-lithography that was so much in evidence from 1855 to - 1875, but there is little doubt that the work could be done equally - well by the present-day craftsmen if the demand revived. Belonging to - the period mentioned, distinguished examples of chromo-lithography are - "Blue Lights," after Turner, by Carrick; "Spanish Peasants" and the - Lumley portrait of Shakespeare, by Risdon; "Queen Victoria receiving - the Guards," by W. Bunney, after John Gilbert; and the series of - chromos after John Leech, produced under the general direction of - Vincent Brooks. A small proportion only of the Arundel Society's - prints were executed in England, but many reproductions of - water-colours after Birket Foster, Richardson, Wainwright and others - were executed by Samuel Hodson, James Lewis and others. Perhaps the - most consistently good work of modern times has been the reproduction - of Pellegrini's and Leslie Ward's drawings for _Vanity Fair_, which - from 1870 to 1906 were with very few exceptions executed by the firm - of Vincent Brooks, Day & Son. - - _Transfers._--A very large proportion of work is got on to the stone - by transfer, and there is no more important part of the business - perhaps at the present time. When there is so much original - lithography done on grained paper by artists of eminence, the - transferring of grained paper drawings is the most important. The - stone most desirable for this purpose will be neither a grey nor a - light yellow, but one that stands mid-way between the two; it should - be very carefully polished so as to be quite free from scratches, and - brought to blood-heat by being gradually heated in an iron cupboard - prepared with the necessary apparatus. The methods that sometimes - prevail of pouring boiling water over the stone, heating with the - flame of an ordinary plumber's lamp, or even heating the surface in - front of a fire, are ineffective substitutes, for the surface may thus - become unduly hot and spread the work, and there is no increased - tendency for the chalk to enter into the stone and thus give the work - a long life. If there are no colours or registration troubles to be - considered, it is well to place the transfer in a damping book till - the composition adheres firmly to the finger, before placing it on the - stone; it should then be pulled through twice, after which it should - be damped on the back and pulled through several times; after this has - again been well damped the paper will be found to peel easily off the - stone, leaving the work and nearly all the composition attached; the - latter should then be very gently washed away. - - In cases where the work for some reason must not stretch, such as the - hills on a map, it will be necessary to keep the transfer dry and put - it on a wet stone, but a piece of the margin of the paper should be - tested to see that it is of a class that will adhere to the stone the - first time it is pulled through. Unless the adhesion is very complete - it may not be safe to pull it through more than once. For a small - number of copies a very moderate "etch" is desirable, but for a long - run, where the object is to secure a good edition rather than a few - good proofs, the Eberle system may be adopted. This method consists in - protecting the work with finely powdered resin and then applying the - flame of an ordinary plumber's lamp; this will melt the protecting - medium round the base of each grain of work and allow of a very - vigorous "etch" being applied. As before stated it is not unusual to - secure 2000 to 3000 good copies in the machine after this treatment; - but the rollers, the ink and the superintendence must be of the best. - - When the artist who is not a professed lithographer desires to make - tints to his work, a reversed offset on grained paper should be made - for each colour; this is done by pulling an impression in the usual - way on a hard piece of paper, and while it is yet wet this should be - faced with a piece of grained paper and pulled through again, when the - grained paper will be found to have received the greater portion of - the ink; this should be immediately dusted with offset powder of a red - shade to prevent the grease passing into the paper, and the drawing of - the tints should then be proceeded with in the usual way. Another - method of transfer work is to pull impressions from copper or steel - plates in transfer ink; it is in such way that simple etchings like - those of Cruikshank, Phiz and others are produced, and nearly all - commercial work such as maps, bill heads, &c., are prepared in the - same manner. - - Beyond this, much work is done in lithographic ink on what is called - writing transfer paper, such as circulars, law writing for abstracts, - specifications and plans. - - _Machinery._--The chief items are the hand presses and the machines, - whether flat bed or rotary, the principal places of manufacture being - Leeds, Otley and Edinburgh. Stimulated by American competition, the - standard of excellence in the United Kingdom has been very - considerably raised of late years. The rotary machines have only been - possible since the more frequent use of aluminium and zinc, but these - materials are more suitable to receive transfer than for the general - use of an office, the chief reason being that corrections on stone are - more easily accomplished and more lasting when done. Preliminary work - is therefore frequently done on the stone and transferred to plates - for the machine. - - The question is very frequently asked as to how the necessary - registration of the colours is secured; it may be stated for the - benefit of the amateur that in hand printing this is generally done by - pricking with a pair of needles through printed marks present on each - stone; but in the machine this has been done in different ways, - although in quite early days "pointing" or "needling" was done even on - the machine. On modern machines this registration depends on the - accurate cutting of the edge of the paper, of which at least one - corner must be an absolute right angle. The paper is then laid on a - sloping board in such a way that the longest of the two true edges - gravitates into the gripper of the machine, the stops of which move - slightly forward as the gripper closes; simultaneously what is called - the "side lay" moves forward automatically to a given extent, and in - this way at the critical moment the sheet is always in the same - position in regard to the stone, which has already been firmly secured - in the bed of the machine. - - Quite recently a new method has come into use that is probably - destined to be a great aid to the craft in its competition with other - methods. This is known as offset printing; it is more a matter of - evolution than invention, and proceeds from the method adopted in - tin-plate decoration so much used for box-making and lasting forms of - advertisement. It consists in bringing a sheet of rubber into contact - with the charged stone and then setting-off the impression so obtained - upon card, paper, pegamoid, cloth or other material, the elasticity of - the rubber making it possible to print upon rough surfaces that have - been previously unsuited to lithographic printing. Both flat bed and - rotary machines are available for this system, the latter being - restricted to zinc or aluminium plates, but giving a high speed, while - the former can use both stones and metal plates and may be more - effective for the highest grade of colour work; by both classes of - machines the finest engraved note headings can be printed on rough - paper, and colour work that has for so long been confined to coated or - burnished papers will be available on surfaces such as the artists - themselves use. - - The following treatises may be referred to with advantage by those in - search of more detailed information: _A Complete Course of - Lithography_, by Alois Senefelder (R. Ackermann, London, 1819); _The - Grammar of Lithography_, by W. D. Richmond (13th edition, E. Menken, - London); _Handbook of Lithography_, by David Cumming (London, A. & C. - Black). The first of these will only be found in libraries of - importance; the others are present-day text-books. (F. V. B.) - - - - -LITHOSPHERE (Gr. [Greek: lithos], a stone, and [Greek: sphaira], a -sphere), the crust of the earth surrounding the earth's nucleus. The -superficial soil, a layer of loose earthy material from a few feet to a -few hundreds of feet in thickness, lies upon a zone of hard rock many -thousands of feet in thickness but varying in character, and composed -mainly of sandstones, shales, clays, limestones and metamorphic rocks. -These two layers form the lithosphere. All the tectonic movements of the -solid nucleus produce changes in the mobile lithosphere. Volcanic and -seismic activity is manifested, mountains are folded, levels change, -fresh surfaces are exposed to denudation, erosion and deposition. The -crust is thus subject to constant change while retaining its more or -less permanent character. - - - - -LITHUANIANS and LETTS, two kindred peoples of Indo-European origin, -which inhabit several western provinces of Russia and the north-eastern -parts of Poland and Prussia, on the shores of the Baltic Sea, and in the -basins of the Niemen and of the Duna. Large colonies of Lithuanian and -Lettic emigrants have been established in the United States. The two -races number about 3,500,000, of whom 1,300,000 are Letts. Little is -known about their origin, and nothing about the time of their appearance -in the country they now inhabit. Ptolemy mentions (iii. 5) two clans, -the Galindae and Sudeni, who probably belonged to the western -subdivision of this racial group, the Borussians. In the 10th century -the Lithuanians were already known under the name of Litva, and, -together with two other branches of the same stem--the Borussians and -the Letts--they occupied the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea from -the Vistula to the Duna, extending north-east towards the Lakes -Vierzi-jarvi and Peipus, south-east to the watershed between the -affluents of the Baltic and those of the Black Sea, and south to the -middle course of the Vistula (Brest Litovsk)--a tract bounded by Finnish -tribes in the north, and by Slavs elsewhere. - -Inhabiting a forested, marshy country the Lithuanians have been able to -maintain their national character, notwithstanding the vicissitudes of -their history. Their chief priest, _Krive-Kriveyto_ (the judge of the -judges), under whom were seventeen classes of priests and elders, -worshipped in the forests; the Waidelots brought their offerings to the -divinities at the foot of oaks; even now, the veneration of great oaks -is a widely spread custom in the villages of the Lithuanians, and even -of the Letts. - -Even in the 10th century the Lithuanian stem was divided into three main -branches:--the _Borussians_ or _Prussians_; the _Letts_ (who call -themselves _Latvis_, whilst the name under which they are known in -Russian chronicles, _Letygola_, is an abbreviation of _Latvin-galas_, -"the confines of Lithuania"); and the _Lithuanians_, or rather -_Lituanians_, _Litva_ or _Letuvininkai_,--these last being subdivided -into Lithuanians proper, and _Zhmud'_ (_Zmudz_, _Samogitians_ or -_Zemailey_), the "Lowlanders." To these main branches must be added the -_Yatvyags_, or _Yadzvings_, a warlike, black-haired people who inhabited -the forests at the upper tributaries of the Niemen and Bug, and the -survivors of whom are easily distinguishable as a mixture with -White-Russians and Mazurs in some parts of Grodno, Plotsk, Lomza and -Warsaw. Nestor's chronicle distinguishes also the _Zhemgala_, who later -became known under the name of _Semigallia_, and in the 10th century -inhabited the left bank of the Duna. Several authors consider also as -Lithuanians the _Kors_ of Russian chronicles, or _Courons_ of Western -authors, who inhabited the peninsula of Courland, and the _Golad_, a -clan settled on the banks of the Porotva, tributary of the Moskva river, -which seems to have been thrown far from the main stem during its -migration to the north. The _Krivichi_, who inhabited what is now the -government of Smolensk, seem to belong to the same stem. Their name -recalls the Krive-Kriveyto, and their ethnological features recall the -Lithuanians; but they are now as much Slavonic as Lithuanian. - -All these peoples are only ethnographical subdivisions, and each of them -was subdivided into numerous independent clans and villages, separated -from one another by forests and marshes; they had no towns or fortified -places. The Lithuanian territory thus lay open to foreign invasions, and -the Russians as well as the German crusaders availed themselves of the -opportunity. The Borussians soon fell under the dominion of Germans, and -ceased to constitute a separate nationality, leaving only their name to -the state which later became Prussia. The Letts were driven farther to -the north, mixing there with Livs and Ehsts, and fell under the dominion -of the Livonian order. Only the Lithuanians proper, together with -Samogitians, succeeded in forming an independent state. The early -history of this state is imperfectly known. During the continuous petty -war carried on against Slavonic invasions, the military chief of one of -the clans, Ryngold, acquired, in the first half of the 13th century, a -certain preponderance over other clans of Lithuania and Black Russia -(Yatvyags), as well as over the republics of Red Russia. At this time, -the invasions of the Livonian order becoming more frequent, and always -extending southward, there was a general feeling of the necessity of -some organization to resist them, and Ryngold's son, Mendowg, availed -himself of this opportunity to pursue the policy of his father. He made -different concessions to the order, ceded to it several parts of -Lithuania, and even agreed to be baptized, in 1250, at Novograd Litovsk, -receiving in exchange a crown from Innocent IV., with which he was -crowned king of Lithuanians. He also ceded the whole of Lithuania to the -order in case he should die without leaving offspring. But he had -accepted Christianity only to increase his influence among other clans; -and, as soon as he had consolidated a union between Lithuanians, -Samogitians and Cours, he relapsed, proclaiming, in 1260, a general -uprising of the Lithuanian people against the Livonian order. The yoke -was shaken off, but internal wars followed, and three years later -Mendowg was killed. About the end of the 13th century a new dynasty of -rulers of Lithuania was founded by Lutuwer, whose second son, Gedymin -(1316-1341), with the aid of fresh forces he organized through his -relations with Red Russia, established something like regular -government; he at the same time extended his dominions over Russian -countries--over Black Russia (Novogrodok, Zditov, Grodno, Slonim and -Volkovysk) and the principalities of Polotsk, Tourovsk, Pinsk, Vitebsk -and Volhynia. He named himself _Rex Lethowinorum et multorum -Ruthenorum_. In 1325 he concluded a treaty with Poland against the -Livonian order, which treaty was the first step towards the union of -both countries realized two centuries later. The seven sons of Gedymin -considered themselves as quite independent; but two of them, Olgierd and -Keistut, soon became the more powerful. They represented two different -tendencies which existed at that time in Lithuania. Olgierd, whose -family relations attracted him towards the south, was the advocate of -union with Russia; rather politician than warrior, he increased his -influence by diplomacy and by organization. His wife and sons being -Christians, he also soon agreed to be baptized in the Greek Church. -Keistut represented the revival of the Lithuanian nationality. -Continually engaged in wars with Livonia, and remaining true to the -national religion, he became the national legendary hero. In 1345 both -brothers agreed to re-establish the great principality of Lithuania, -and, after having taken Vilna, the old sanctuary of the country, all the -brothers recognized the supremacy of Olgierd. His son, Jagiello, who -married the queen of Poland, Yadviga, after having been baptized in the -Latin Church, was crowned, on the 14th of February 1386, king of Poland. -At the beginning of the 15th century Lithuania extended her dominions as -far east as Vyazma on the banks of the Moskva river, the present -government of Kaluga, and Poutivl, and south-east as far as Poltava, the -shores of the Sea of Azov, and Haji-bey (Odessa), thus including Kiev -and Lutsk. The union with Poland remained, however, but nominal until -1569, when Sigismund Augustus was king of Poland. In the 16th century -Lithuania did not extend its power so far east and south-east as two -centuries before, but it constituted a compact state, including Polotsk, -Moghilev, Minsk, Grodno, Kovno, Vilna, Brest, and reaching as far -south-east as Chernigov. From the union with Poland, the history of -Lithuania becomes a part of Poland's history, Lithuanians and -White-Russians partaking of the fate of the Polish kingdom (see POLAND: -_History_). After its three partitions, they fell under the dominion of -the Russian empire. In 1792 Russia took the provinces of Moghilev and -Polotsk, and in 1793 those of Vilna, Troki, Novgorod-Syeversk, Brest and -Vitebsk. In 1797 all these provinces were united together, constituting -the "Lithuanian government" (Litovskaya Gubernia). But the name of -Lithuanian provinces was usually given only to the governments of Vilna -and Kovno, and, though Nicholas I. prohibited the use of this name, it -is still used, even in official documents. In Russia, all the -White-Russian population of the former Polish Lithuania are usually -considered as Lithuanians, the name of Zhmud being restricted to -Lithuanians proper. - -The ethnographical limits of the Lithuanians are undefined, and their -number is variously estimated. The Letts occupy a part of the Courland -peninsula of Livonia and of Vitebsk, a few other settlements being -spread also in the governments of Kovno, St Petersburg and Moghilev. The -Lithuanians proper inhabit the governments of Kovno, Vilna, Suvalki and -Grodno; while the Samogitians or Zhmud inhabit the governments of Kovno -and Suvalki. To these must be added about 200,000 Borussians, the whole -number of Lithuanians and Letts in Russia being, according to the census -of 1897, 3,094,469. They are slowly extending towards the south, -especially the Letts; numerous emigrants have penetrated into Slavonic -lands as far as the government of Voronezh. - - The Lithuanians are well built; the face is mostly elongated, the - features fine; the very fair hair, blue eyes and delicate skin - distinguish them from Poles and Russians. Their dress is usually plain - in comparison with that of Poles, and the predominance in it of - greyish colours has been frequently noticed. Their chief occupation is - agriculture. The trades in towns are generally carried on by men of - other races--mostly by Germans, Jews or Poles. The only exception is - afforded to some extent by the Letts. The Samogitians are good - hunters, and all Lithuanians are given to apiculture and cattle - breeding. But the Lithuanians, as well in the Baltic provinces as in - the central ones, were not until the most recent time proprietors of - the soil they tilled. They have given a few families to the Russian - nobility, but the great mass of the people became serfs of foreign - landowners, German and Polish, who reduced them to the greatest - misery. Since the Polish insurrection of 1863, the Russian government - has given to the Lithuanians the land of the Polish proprietors on - much easier terms than in central Russia; but the allotments of soil - and the redemption taxes are very unequally distributed; and a not - insignificant number of peasants (the _chinsheviki_) were even - deprived of the land they had for centuries considered their own. The - Letts remain in the same state as before, and are restrained from - emigrating _en masse_ only by coercive measures. - - The Letts of Courland, with the exception of about 50,000 who belong - to the Greek Church, are Lutherans. Nearly all can read. Those of the - government of Vitebsk, who were under Polish dominion, are Roman - Catholics, as well as the Lithuanians proper, a part of whom, however, - have returned to the Greek Church, in which they were before the union - with Poland. The Samogitians are Roman Catholics; they more than other - Lithuanians have conserved their national features. But all - Lithuanians have maintained much of their heathen practices and creed; - the names of pagan divinities, very numerous in the former mythology, - are continually mentioned in songs, and also in common speech. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Schiemann, _Russland, Polen und Livland bis ins 17te - Jahrhundert_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1886-1887); S. Daukantas, _Lietuvos - Istorija_ (Plymouth, Pa., 1893); J. de Brye, _Etude historique sur la - Lithuanie_ (Paris, 1894); P. D. Bryantsev, _Istorija Litovskago - Gosudarstva_ (Vilna, 1899). (P. A. K.) - -_Language and Literature._--The Lithuanian, Lettic or Lettish and -Borussian or Old Prussian languages together constitute a distinct -linguistic subdivision, commonly called the Baltic subdivision, within -the Indo-European family. They have many affinities to the Slavonic -languages, and are sometimes included with them in a single linguistic -group, the Balto-Slavic. In their phonology, however, though not in -their structure the Baltic languages appear to be more primitive than -the Slavonic. Lithuanian, for example, retains the archaic diphthongs -which disappear in Slavonic--Lith. _veidas_, "face," Gr. [Greek: eidos], -O.S. _vidu_. Among other noteworthy phonological characteristics of -Lithuanian are the conversion of _k_ into a sibilant, the loss of _h_ -and change of all aspirates into tenues and the retention of primitive -consonantal noun-terminations, e.g. the final _s_ in Sans. _Vrkas_, -Lith. _vilkas_, O.S. _vulku_. Lettic is phonologically less archaic than -Lithuanian, although in a few cases it has preserved Indo-European forms -which have been changed in Lithuanian, e.g. the _s_ and _z_ which have -become Lith. _sz_ (_sh_) and _z_ (_zh_). The accent in Lithuanian is -free; in Lettic, and apparently in Old Prussian, it ultimately became -fixed on the first syllable. - - In its morphology Lettic represents a later stage of development than - Lithuanian, their mutual relationship being analogous to that between - Old High German and Gothic. Both languages have preserved seven out of - the eight Indo-European cases; Lithuanian has three numbers, but - Lettic has lost the dual (except in _diwi_, "two" and _abbi_, "both"); - the neuter gender, which still appears in Lithuanian pronouns, has - also been entirely lost in Lettic; in Lithuanian there are four simple - tenses (present, future, imperfect, preterite), but in Lettic the - imperfect is wanting. In both languages the number of periphrastic - verb-forms and of diminutives is large; in both there are traces of a - suffix article; and both have enriched their vocabularies with many - words of foreign, especially German, Russian and Polish origin. The - numerous Lithuanian dialects are commonly divided into High or - Southern, which changes _ty_ and _dy_ into _cz_, _dz_, and Low or - Northern, which retains _ty_, _dy_. Lettic is divided into High (the - eastern dialects), Low (spoken in N.W. Courland) and Middle (the - literary language). Old Prussian ceased to be a spoken language in the - 17th century; its literary remains, consisting chiefly of three - catechisms and two brief vocabularies, date almost entirely from the - period 1517-1561 and are insufficient to permit of any thorough - reconstruction of the grammar. - -The literary history of the Lithuanians and Letts dates from the -Reformation and comprises three clearly defined periods. (1) Up to 1700 -the chief printed books were of a liturgical character. (2) During the -18th century a vigorous educational movement began; dictionaries, -grammars and other instructive works were compiled, and written poems -began to take the place of songs preserved by oral tradition. (3) The -revival of national sentiment at the beginning of the 19th century -resulted in the establishment of newspapers and the collection and -publication of the national folk-poetry. In both literatures, works of a -religious character predominate, and both are rich in popular ballads, -folk-tales and fables. - -The first book printed in Lithuanian was a translation of Luther's -shorter Catechism (Konigsberg, 1547); other translations of devotional -or liturgical works followed, and by 1701 59 Lithuanian books had -appeared, the most noteworthy being those of the preacher J. Bretkun -(1535-1602). The spread of Calvinism led to the publication, in 1701, of -a Lithuanian New Testament. The first dictionary was printed in 1749. -But perhaps the most remarkable work of the second period was _The Four -Seasons_, a pastoral poem in hexameters by Christian Donalitius -(1714-1780), which was edited by Nesselmann (Konigsberg, 1869) with a -German translation and notes. In the 19th century various collections of -fables and folk-tales were published, and an epic, the _Onikshta Grove_, -was written by Bishop Baranoski. But it was in journalism that the chief -original work of the third period was done. F. Kelch (1801-1877) founded -the first Lithuanian newspaper, and between 1834 and 1895 no fewer than -34 Lithuanian periodicals were published in the United States alone. - -Luther's Catechism (Konigsberg, 1586) was the first book printed in -Lettic, as in the sister speech. In the 17th century various -translations of psalms, hymns and other religious works were published, -the majority being Calvinistic in tone. The educational movement of the -18th century was inaugurated by G. F. Stender (1714-1796), author of a -Lettic dictionary and grammar, of poems, tales and of a _Book of Wisdom_ -which treats of elementary science and history. Much educational work -was subsequently done by the Lettic Literary Society, which publishes a -magazine (_Magazin_, Mitau, from 1827), and by the "Young Letts," who -published various periodicals and translations of foreign classics, and -endeavoured to free their language and thought from German influences. -Somewhat similar tasks were undertaken by the "Young Lithuanians," whose -first magazine the _Auszra_ ("Dawn") was founded in 1883. From 1890 to -1910 the literature of both peoples was marked by an ever-increasing -nationalism; among the names most prominent during this period may be -mentioned those of the dramatist Steperman and the poet Martin Lap, both -of whom wrote in Lettic. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lithuanian dictionaries: Nesselmann, _Worterbuch der - litauischen Sprache_ (Konigsberg, 1851); Kurschat, _Worterbuch der - litauischen Sprache_ (Halle, 1870-1883); A. Juszkiewicz, _Litovskiy - Slovar_ (St Petersburg, 1897, &c.); P. Saurusaitis, _An Abridged - Dictionary of the English-Lithuanian Languages_, 2 pts. (Waterbury, - Conn., 1899-1900); A. Lalis, _Dictionary of the Lithuanian and English - Languages_ (Chicago, 1903, &c.). Grammar and Linguistic: Schleicher, - _Handbuch der litauischen Sprache_ (Prague, 1856-1857); O. Wiedemann, - _Handbuch der litauischen Sprache_ (Strassburg, 1897); A. - Bezzenberger, _Beitrage zur Geschichte der litauischen Sprache_ - (Gottingen, 1877); J. Schiekopp, _Gramatyka litewska poczatkowa_ - (Cracow, 1902). Literature: Nesselmann, _Litauische Volkslieder_ - (Berlin, 1853); A. Juszkiewicz, _Lietuwiskos Dajnos Uzrasytos_, &c. - (Kazan, 1881); A. Leskien and C. Brugman, _Litauische Volkslieder_ - (Strassburg, 1882); C. Bartsch, _Melodieen litauischer Volkslieder_ - (Heidelberg, 1886); A. Juszkiewicz, _Melodje ludowe litewskie_ - (Cracow, 1900, &c.); E. A. Voi'ter, _Litovskaya Khrestomatiya_ (St - Petersburg, 1901, &c.). - - Lettic dictionaries and grammars: Bielenstein, _Die Lettische Sprache_ - (Berlin, 1863-1864); id., _Lettische Grammatik_ (Mitau, 1863); Ulmann - and Brasche, _Lettisches Worterbuch_ (Riga, 1872-1880); A. - Bezzenberger, _Uber die Sprache der preussischen Letten and lettische - Dialekt-Studien_ (Gottingen, 1885); Bielenstein, _Grenzen des - lettischen Volksstammes und der lettischen Sprache_ (St Petersburg, - 1892); Literature: Bielenstein _Tausend lettische Rathsel_ (Mitau, - 1881); T. Treuland, _Latyshskiya Narodnyya Skazki_ (Moscow, 1887, - &c.); K. Baron and H. Wissendorff, _Latwju dainas_ (Mitau, 1894, &c.); - V. Andreyanov, _Lettische Volkslieder und Mythen_ (Halle, 1896). - - Old Prussian: Nesselmann, _Die Sprache der alten Preussen_ (Berlin, - 1845); id., _Thesaurus linguae prussicae_ (Berlin, 1873); Berneker, - _Die preussische Sprache_ (Strassburg, 1896); M. Schultze, _Grammatik - der altpreussischen Sprache_ (Leipzig, 1897). - - - - -LITMUS (apparently a corruption of _lacmus_, Dutch _lacmoes_, _lac_, -lac, and _moes_, pulp, due to association with "lit," an obsolete word -for dye, colour; the Ger. equivalent is _Lackmus_, Fr. _tournesol_), a -colouring matter which occurs in commerce in the form of small blue -tablets, which, however, consist mostly, not of the pigment proper, but -of calcium carbonate and sulphate and other matter devoid of tinctorial -value. Litmus is extensively employed by chemists as an indicator for -the detection of free acids and free alkalis. An aqueous infusion of -litmus, when exactly neutralized by an acid, exhibits a violet colour, -which by the least trace of free acid is changed to red, while free -alkali turns it to blue. The reagent is generally used in the form of -test paper--bibulous paper dyed red, purple or blue by the respective -kind of infusion. Litmus is manufactured in Holland from the same kinds -of lichens (species of _Roccella_ and _Lecanora_) as are used for the -preparation of archil (q.v.). - - - - - -LITOPTERNA, a suborder of South American Tertiary ungulate mammals -typified by _Macrauchenia_, and taking their name ("smooth-heel") from -the presence of a flat facet on the heel-bone, or calcaneum for the -articulation of the fibula. The more typical members of the group were -digitigrade animals, recalling in general build the llamas and horses; -they have small brains, and a facet on the calcaneum for the fibula. The -cheek-dentition approximates more or less to the perissodactyle type. -Both the terminal faces of the cervical vertebrae are flat, the femur -carries a third trochanter, the bones of both the carpus and tarsus are -arranged in linear series, and the number of toes, although commonly -three, varies between one and five, the third or middle digit being -invariably the largest. - -Of the two families, the first is the _Proterotheriidae_, which -exhibits, in respect of the reduction of the digits, a curious -parallelism to the equine line among the Perissodactyla; in this -feature, as well as in the reduction of the teeth, it is more -specialized than the second family. - - The molar teeth approximate to the _Palaeotherium_ type, but have a - more or less strongly developed median longitudinal cleft. The - three-toed type is represented by _Diadiaphorus_, in which the dental - formula is i.(1/2), c.(0/1), p.(4/5), m.(3/8), and the feet are very - like those of _Hipparion_. The cervical vertebrae are of normal form, - the orbit (as in the second family) is encircled by bone, the last - molar has a third lobe, the single pair of upper incisors are somewhat - elongated, and have a gap between and behind them, while the outer - lower incisors are larger than the inner pair, the canines being - small. The skull has a short muzzle, with elongated nasals. Remains of - this and the other representatives of the group are found in the - Patagonian Miocene. In _Proterotherium_, which includes smaller forms - having the same, or nearly the same, dental formula, the molar teeth - differ from those of _Diadiaphorus_ by the deeper median longitudinal - cleft, which completely divides the crown into an inner and an outer - moiety, the two cones of the inner half being united. According to the - description given by Argentine palaeontologists, this genus is also - three-toed, the single-toed representative of the family being - _Thoatherium_, in which the lateral metapodials, or splint-bones, are - even more reduced than in the _Equidae_. - -In the second family--_Macraucheniidae_--the dentition is complete -(forty-four) and without a gap, the crowns of nearly all the teeth being -of nearly uniform height, while the upper molars are distinguished from -those of the _Proterotheriidae_ by a peculiar arrangement of their two -inner cones, and the elevation of the antero-posterior portion of the -cingulum so as to form an extra pit on the crown. To describe this -arrangement in detail is impossible here, but it may be stated that the -two inner cones are closely approximated, and separated by a narrow -V-shaped notch on the inner side of the crown. The elongated cervical -vertebrae are peculiar in that the arch is perforated by the artery in -the same manner as in the llamas. - -In the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia the family is represented by the -generalized genus _Oxyodontotherium_ (in which _Theosodon_ may -apparently be included). It comprises animals ranging up to the size of -a tapir, in which the nostrils were more or less in the normal anterior -position, and the cheek-teeth short-crowned, with the inner cones of the -upper molars well developed and separated by a notch, and the pits of -moderate depth. The last upper premolar is simpler than the molars, and -the canine, which may be double-rooted, is like the earlier premolars. -The radius and ulna, like the tibia and fibula, are distinct, and the -metapodials rudimentary. On the other hand, in _Macrauchenia_, which was -a much larger llama-like animal, the skull is elongated and narrow, with -rudimentary nasals, and the aperture of the nose placed nearly on the -line of the eyes and directed upwards, the muzzle not improbably -terminating in a short trunk. Deep pits on the forehead probably served -for the attachment of special muscles connected with the latter. Very -curious is the structure of the cheek-teeth, which are high-crowned, -with the two inner cones reduced to mere points, and the pits on the -crown-surface large and funnel-shaped. In fact, the perissodactyle type -is almost lost. The cervical vertebrae and limb-bones are very long, the -radius and ulna being completely, and the tibia and fibula partially, -united. The typical _M. patagonica_ is a Pleistocene form as large as a -camel, ranging from Patagonia to Brazil, but remains of smaller species -have been found in the Pliocene (?) of Bolivia and Argentina. - -The imperfectly known _Scalabrinia_ of the Argentine Pliocene appears to -occupy a position intermediate between _Oxyodontotherium_ and -_Macrauchenia_, having the nasal aperture situated in the middle of the -length of the skull, and the crowns of the cheek-teeth nearly as tall as -in the latter, but the lower molars furnished with a projecting process -in the hinder valley, similar to one occurring in those of the former. - -In this place may be mentioned another strange ungulate from the Santa -Cruz beds of Patagonia, namely, _Astrapotherium_, sometimes regarded as -typifying a suborder by itself. This huge ungulate had cheek-teeth -singularly like those of a rhinoceros, and an enormous pair of tusk-like -upper incisors, recalling the upper canines of _Machaerodus_ on an -enlarged scale. In the lower jaw are two large tusk-like canines between -which are three pairs of curiously-formed spatulate incisors, and in -both jaws there is a long diastema. The dental formula appears to be -i.(1/3), c.(0/1), p.(2/1), m.(3/3). - - Next _Astrapotherium_ may be provisionally placed the genus - _Homalodontotherium_, of which the teeth have much lower crowns, and - are of a less decidedly rhinocerotic type than in _Astrapotherium_, - and the whole dentition forms an even and unbroken series. The bodies - of the cervical vertebrae are short, with flattened articular - surfaces, the humerus has an enormous deltoid crest, suggestive of - fossorial powers, and the femur is flattened, with a third trochanter. - According to the Argentine palaeontologists, the carpus is of the - alternating type, and the terminal phalanges of the pentedactyle feet - are bifid, and very like those of Edentata. Indeed, this type of foot - shows many edentate resemblances. The astragalus is square and - flattened, articulating directly with the navicular, although not with - the cuboid, and having a slightly convex facet for the tibia. From the - structure of the above-mentioned type of foot, which is stated to have - been found in association with the skull, it has been suggested that - _Homalodontotherium_ should be placed in the _Ancylopoda_ (q.v.), but, - to say nothing of the different form of the cheek-teeth, all the other - South American Santa Cruz ungulates are so distinct from those of - other countries that this seems unlikely. It may be suggested that we - have rather to deal with an instance of parallelism--a view supported - by the parallelism to the _Equidae_ presented by certain members of - the _Proterotheriidae_. (R. L.*) - - - - -LITOTES (Gr. [Greek: litotes], plainness, [Greek: litos], plain, simple, -smooth), a rhetorical figure in which emphasis is secured for a -statement by turning it into a denial of the contrary, e.g. "a citizen -of no mean city," i.e. a citizen of a famous city, "A. is not a man to -be neglected." Litotes is sometimes used for what should be more -strictly called "meiosis" (Gr. [Greek: meiosis], lessening, diminution, -[Greek: meion], lesser), where the expressions used apparently are weak -or understated, but the effect is to intensify. - - - - -LITTER (through O. Fr. _litere_ or _litiere_, mod. _litiere_ from Med. -Lat. _lectaria_, classical _lectica_, _lectus_, bed, couch), a word used -of a portable couch, shut in by curtains and borne on poles by bearers, -and of a bed of straw or other suitable substance for animals; hence -applied to the number of young produced by an animal at one birth, and -also to any disordered heap of waste material, rubbish, &c. In ancient -Greece, prior to the influence of Asiatic luxury after the Macedonian -conquest, the litter ([Greek: phoreion]) was only used by invalids or by -women. The Romans, when the _lectica_ was introduced, probably about the -latter half of the 2nd century B.C. (Gellius x. 3), used it only for -travelling purposes. Like the Greek or Asiatic litter, it had a roof of -skin (_pellis_) and side curtains (_vela_, _plagae_). Juvenal (iv. 20) -speaks of transparent sides (_latis specularibus_). The slaves who bore -the litter on their shoulders (_succollare_) were termed _lecticarii_, -and it was a sign of luxury and wealth to employ six or even eight -bearers. Under the Empire the litter began to be used in the streets of -Rome, and its use was restricted and granted as a privilege (Suet. -_Claudius_). The travelling _lectica_ must be distinguished from the -much earlier _lectica funebris_ or _feretrum_, the funeral bier on which -the dead were carried to their burial-place. - - - - -LITTLE FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Morrison county, Minnesota, -U.S.A., on both banks of the Mississippi river, about 88 m. N.W. of -Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 2354; (1900) 5774, of whom 1559 were -foreign-born, chiefly Germans and Swedes; (1905) 5856; (1910) 6078. It -is served by the Northern Pacific railway. The city is situated in a -prosperous farming region, and has excellent water-power and various -manufactures. Little Falls was settled about 1850, was chartered as a -city in 1889 and adopted a new charter in 1902. Here was buried the -Chippewa chief, Hole-in-the-Day (_c._ 1827-1868), or Bagwunagijik, who -succeeded his father, also named Hole-in-the-Day, as head chief of the -Chippewas in 1846. Like his father, the younger Hole-in-the-Day led his -tribe against the Sioux, and he is said to have prevented the Chippewas -from joining the Sioux rising in 1862. His body was subsequently removed -by his relatives. - - - - -LITTLE FALLS, a city of Herkimer county, New York, U.S.A., on the Mohawk -river, 21 m. E.S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1890) 8783; (1900) 10,381, of whom -1915 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,273. It is served by the New -York Central & Hudson River, the West Shore, the Utica & Mohawk Valley -(electric), and the Little Falls & Dolgeville railways (the last named -being 13 m. long and running only to Salisbury Center and by the Erie -canal). The Mohawk river falls here by a series of rapids 45 ft. in less -than a mile, furnishing water power. Among the manufactures are cotton -yarn, hosiery and knit goods, leather, &c. In 1905 the city's factory -products were valued at $4,471,080. The city has one of the largest -cheese-markets in the United States. The manufacture of flour and -grist-mill products was formerly an important industry; a mill burned in -1782 by Tories and Indians had supplied almost the entire Mohawk Valley, -and particularly Forts Herkimer and Dayton. Near the city is the grave -of General Nicholas Herkimer, to whom a monument was erected in 1896. -Little Falls was settled by Germans in 1782, and was almost immediately -destroyed by Indians and Tories. It was resettled in 1790, and was -incorporated as a village in 1811 and as a city in 1895. - - See George A. Hardin, _History of Herkimer County_ (Syracuse, 1893). - - - - -LITTLEHAMPTON, a seaport and watering-place in the Chichester -parliamentary division of Sussex, England, at the mouth of the Arun, 62 -m. S. by W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. -Pop. of urban district (1901) 7363. There is a beach of firm sand. The -harbour is easily accessible in all weathers, and has a small general -trade. - - - - -LITTLE ROCK, the capital of Arkansas, U.S.A., and the county-seat of -Pulaski county, situated near the centre of the state and on the S. bank -of the Arkansas river, at the E. edge of the Ozark foothills. Pop. -(1890) 25,874; (1900) 38,307, of whom 14,694 were of negro blood, and -2099 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 45,941. Little Rock is served by -the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the St Louis South Western, and the -St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways and by river boats. It -occupies a comparatively level site of 11 sq. m. at an altitude of 250 -to 400 ft. above sea-level and 50 ft. or more above the river, which is -crossed here by three railway bridges and by a county bridge. The city -derived its name (originally "le Petit Roche" and "The Little Rock") -from a rocky peninsula in the Arkansas, distinguished from the "Big -Rock" (the site of the army post, Fort Logan H. Roots), 1 m. W. of the -city, across the river. The Big Rock is said to have been first -discovered and named "Le Rocher Francais" in 1722 by Sieur Bernard de la -Harpe, who was in search of an emerald mountain; the Little Rock is now -used as an abutment for a railway bridge. The state capitol, the state -insane asylum, the state deaf mute institute, the state school for the -blind, a state reform school, the penitentiary, the state library and -the medical and law departments of the state university are at Little -Rock; and the city is also the seat of the United States court for the -eastern district of Arkansas, of a United States land office, of Little -Rock College, of the St Mary's Academy, of a Roman Catholic orphanage -and a Roman Catholic convent, and of two schools for negroes--the -Philander Smith College (Methodist Episcopal, 1877), co-educational, and -the Arkansas Baptist College. The city is the seat of Protestant -Episcopal and Roman Catholic bishops. Little Rock has a Carnegie library -(1908), an old ladies' home, a Florence Crittenton rescue home, a -children's home, St Vincent's infirmary, a city hospital, a Catholic -hospital, a physicians' and surgeons' hospital and the Arkansas hospital -for nervous diseases. A municipal park system includes City, Forest, -Wonderland and West End parks. Immigration from the northern states has -been encouraged, and northern men control much of the business of the -city. In 1905 the value of factory products was $4,689,787, being 38.8% -greater than the value in 1900. Cotton and lumber industries are the -leading interests; the value of cotton-seed oil and cake manufactured in -1905 was $967,043, of planing mill products $835,049, and of lumber and -timber products $342,134. Printing and publishing and the manufacture of -foundry and machine shop products and of furniture are other important -industries. Valuable deposits of bauxite are found in Pulaski county, -and the mines are the most important in the United States. - -Originally the site of the city was occupied by the Quapaw Indians. The -earliest permanent settlement by the whites was about 1813-1814; the -county was organized in 1818 while still a part of Missouri Territory; -Little Rock was surveyed in 1821, was incorporated as a town and became -the capital of Arkansas in 1821, and was chartered as a city in 1836. In -1850 its population was only 2167, and in 1860 3727; but in 1870 it was -12,380. Little Rock was enthusiastically anti-Union at the outbreak of -the Civil War. In February 1861, the United States Arsenal was seized by -the state authorities. In September 1863 the Federal generals William -Steele (1819-1885) and John W. Davidson (1824-1881), operating against -General Sterling Price, captured the city, and it remained throughout -the rest of the war under Federal control. Constitutional conventions -met at Little Rock in 1836, 1864, 1868 and 1874, and also the Secession -Convention of 1861. The _Arkansas Gazette_, established at Arkansas Post -in 1819 and soon afterwards removed to the new capital, was the first -newspaper published in Arkansas and one of the first published west of -the Mississippi. - - - - -LITTLETON (or LYTTELTON), EDWARD, BARON (1589-1645), son of Sir Edward -Littleton (d. 1621) chief-justice of North Wales, was born at Munslow -in Shropshire; he was educated at Oxford and became a lawyer, succeeding -his father as chief-justice of North Wales. In 1625 he became a member -of parliament and acted in 1628 as chairman of the committee of -grievances upon whose report the Petition of Right was based. As a -member of the party opposed to the arbitrary measures of Charles I. -Littleton had shown more moderation than some of his colleagues, and in -1634, three years after he had been chosen recorder of London, the king -attached him to his own side by appointing him solicitor-general. In the -famous case about ship-money Sir Edward argued against Hampden. In 1640 -he was made chief-justice of the common pleas and in 1641 lord keeper of -the great seal, being created a peer as Baron Lyttelton. About this -time, the lord keeper began to display a certain amount of indifference -to the royal cause. In January 1642 he refused to put the great seal to -the proclamation for the arrest of the five members and he also incurred -the displeasure of Charles by voting for the militia ordinance. However, -he assured his friend Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, that he -had only taken this step to allay the suspicions of the parliamentary -party who contemplated depriving him of the seal, and he undertook to -send this to the king. He fulfilled his promise, and in May 1642 he -himself joined Charles at York, but it was some time before he regained -the favour of the king and the custody of the seal. Littleton died at -Oxford on the 27th of August 1645; he left no sons and his barony became -extinct. His only daughter, Anne, married her cousin Sir Thomas -Littleton, Bart. (d. 1681), and their son Sir Thomas Littleton (_c._ -1647-1710), was speaker of the House of Commons from 1698 to 1700, and -treasurer of the navy from 1700 to 1710. Macaulay thus sums up the -character of Speaker Littleton and his relations to the Whigs: "He was -one of their ablest, most zealous and most steadfast friends; and had -been, both in the House of Commons and at the board of treasury, an -invaluable second to Montague" (the earl of Halifax). - - - - -LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS DE (_c._ 1407-1481), English judge and legal -author, was born, it is supposed, at Frankley Manor House, -Worcestershire, about 1407. Littleton's surname was that of his mother, -who was the sole daughter and heiress of Thomas de Littleton, lord of -Frankley. She married one Thomas Westcote. Thomas was the eldest of four -sons of the marriage, and took the name of Littleton, or, as it seems to -have been more commonly spelt, Luttelton. The date of his birth is -uncertain; a MS. pedigree gives 1422, but it was probably earlier than -this. If, as is generally accepted, he was born at Frankley Manor, it -could not have been before 1407, in which year Littleton's grandfather -recovered the manor from a distant branch of the family. He is said by -Sir E. Coke to have "attended one of the universities," but there is no -corroboration of this statement. He was probably a member of the Inner -Temple, and lectured there on the statute of Westminster II., _De Donis -Conditionalibus_. His name occurs in the Paston Letters (ed. J. -Gairdner, i. 60) about 1445 as that of a well-known counsel and in -1481/2 he received a grant of the manor of Sheriff Hales, Shropshire, -from a Sir William Trussel as a reward for his services as counsel. He -appears to have been recorder of Coventry in 1450; he was made escheator -of Worcestershire, and in 1447/8 was under-sheriff of the same county; -he became serjeant-at-law in 1453 and was afterwards a justice of assize -on the northern circuit. In 1466 he was made a judge of the common -pleas, and in 1475 a knight of the Bath. He died, according to the -inscription on his tomb in Worcester cathedral, on the 23rd of August -1481. He married, about 1444, Joan, widow of Sir Philip Chetwind of -Ingestrie in Staffordshire, and by her had three sons, through whom he -became ancestor of the families holding the peerages of Cobham (formerly -Lyttelton, q.v.) and Hatherton. - -His _Treatise on Tenures_ was probably written after he had been -appointed to the bench. It is addressed to his second son Richard, who -went to the bar, and whose name occurs in the year books of the reign of -Henry VII. The book, both historically and from its intrinsic merit, may -be characterized as the first text-book upon the English law of -property. The law of property in Littleton's time was mainly concerned -with rights over land, and it was the law relating to this class of -rights which Littleton set himself to digest and classify. The time was -ripe for the task. Ever since the Conquest regular courts of justice had -been at work administering a law which had grown out of an admixture of -Teutonic custom and of Norman feudalism. Under Henry II. the courts had -been organized, and the practice of keeping regular records of the -proceedings had been carefully observed. The centralizing influence of -the royal courts and of the justices of assize, working steadily through -three centuries, had made the rules governing the law of property -uniform throughout the land; local customs were confined within certain -prescribed limits, and were only recognized as giving rise to certain -well-defined classes of rights, such, for instance, as the security of -tenure acquired by villeins by virtue of the custom of the manor, and -the rights of freeholders, in some towns, to dispose of their land by -will. Thus, by the time of Littleton (Henry VI. and Edward IV.), an -immense mass of material had been acquired and preserved in the rolls of -the various courts. Reports of important cases were published in the -"year books." A glance at Statham's _Abridgment_, the earliest digest of -decided cases, published nearly at the same time as Littleton's -_Tenures_, is sufficient to show the enormous bulk which reported cases -had already attained as materials for the knowledge of English law. - -Littleton's treatise was written in that peculiar dialect compounded of -Norman-French and English phrases called law French. Although it had -been provided by a statute of 36 Edward III. that _viva voce_ -proceedings in court should no longer be conducted in the French tongue, -"which was much unknown in the realm," the practice of reporting -proceedings in that language, and of using it in legal treatises, -lingered till a much later period, and was at length prohibited by a -statute passed in the time of the Commonwealth in 1650. Unlike the -preceding writers on English law, Glanville, Bracton and the authors of -the treatises known by the names of Britton and Fleta, Littleton borrows -nothing from the sources of Roman law or the commentators. He deals -exclusively with English law. - -The book is written on a definite system, and is the first attempt at a -scientific classification of rights over land. Littleton's method is to -begin with a definition, usually clearly and briefly expressed, of the -class of rights with which he is dealing. He then proceeds to illustrate -the various characteristics and incidents of the class by stating -particular instances, some of which refer to decisions which had -actually occurred, but more commonly they are hypothetical cases put by -way of illustration of his principles. He occasionally refers to -reported cases. His book is thus much more than a mere digest of -judicial decisions; to some extent he pursues the method which gave to -Roman law its breadth and consistency of principle. In Roman law this -result was attained through the practice of putting to jurisconsults -hypothetical cases to be solved by them. Littleton, in like manner, is -constantly stating and solving by reference to principles of law cases -which may or may not have occurred in actual practice. - - In dealing with freehold estates Littleton adopts a classification - which has been followed by all writers who have attempted to - systematize the English law of land, especially Sir M. Hale and Sir - William Blackstone. It is indeed the only possible approach to a - scientific arrangement of the intricate "estates in land" known to - English law. He classifies estates in land by reference to their - duration, or in other words by reference to the differences between - the persons who are entitled to succeed upon the death of the person - in possession or "tenant." First of all, he describes the - characteristics of tenancy in fee simple. This is still as it was in - Littleton's time the largest interest in land known to the law. Next - in order comes tenancy in fee tail, the various classes of which are - sketched by Littleton with brevity and accuracy, but he is silent as - to the important practice, which first received judicial recognition - shortly before his death, of "suffering a recovery," whereby through a - series of judicial fictions a tenant in tail was enabled to convert - his estate tail into a fee simple, thus acquiring full power of - alienation. After discussing in their logical order other freehold - interests in land, he passes to interests in land called by later - writers interests less than freehold, namely, tenancies for terms of - years and tenancies at will. With the exception of tenancy from year - to year, now so familiar to us, but which was a judicial creation of a - date later than the time of Littleton, the first book is a complete - statement of the principles of the common law, as they for the most - part still exist, governing and regulating interests in lands. The - first book concludes with a very interesting chapter on copyhold - tenures, which marks the exact point at which the tenant by copy of - court roll, the successor of the villein, who in his turn represented - the freeman reduced to villenage by the growth of the manorial system, - acquired security of tenure. - - The second book relates to the reciprocal rights and duties of lord - and tenant, and is mainly of historical interest to the modern lawyer. - It contains a complete statement of the law as it stood in Littleton's - time relating to homage, fealty and escuage, the money compensation to - be paid to the lord in lieu of military service to be rendered to the - king, a peculiar characteristic of English as distinguished from - Continental feudalism. - - Littleton then proceeds to notice the important features of tenure by - knight's service with its distinguishing incidents of the right of - wardship of the lands and person of the infant heir or heiress, and - the right of disposing of the ward in marriage. The non-military - freehold tenures are next dealt with; we have an account of "socage - tenure," into which all military tenures were subsequently commuted by - a now unrecognized act of the Long Parliament in 1650, afterwards - re-enacted by the well-known statute of Charles II. (1660), and of - "frankalmoign," or the spiritual tenure by which churchmen held. In - the description of burgage tenure and tenure in villenage, the life of - which consists in the validity of ancient customs recognized by law, - we recognize survivals of a time before the iron rule of feudalism had - moulded the law of land in the interests of the king and the great - lords. Finally he deals with the law of rents, discussing the various - kinds of rents which may be reserved to the grantor upon a grant of - lands and the remedies for recovery of rent, especially the remedy by - distress.[1] - - The third and concluding book of Littleton's treatise deals mainly - with the various ways in which rights over land can be acquired and - terminated in the case of a single possessor or several possessors. - This leads him to discuss the various modes in which several persons - may simultaneously have rights over the same land, as - parceners:--daughters who are co-heiresses, or sons in gavelkind; - joint tenants and tenants in common. Next follows an elaborate - discussion upon what are called estates upon condition--a class of - interests which occupied a large space in the early common law, giving - rise on one side to estates tail, on another to mortgages. In - Littleton's time a mortgage, which he carefully describes, was merely - a conveyance of land by the tenant to the mortgagee, with a condition - that, if the tenant paid to the mortgagee a certain sum on a certain - day, he might re-enter and have the land again. If the condition was - not fulfilled, the interest of the mortgagee became absolute, and - Littleton gives no indication of any modification of this strict rule, - such as was introduced by courts of equity, permitting the debtor to - redeem his land by payment of all that was due to the mortgagee - although the day of payment had passed, and his interest had become at - law indefeasible. The remainder of the work is occupied with an - exposition of a miscellaneous class of modes of acquiring rights of - property, the analysis of which would occupy too large a space. - - The work is thus a complete summary of the common law as it stood at - the time. It is nearly silent as to the remarkable class of rights - which had already assumed vast practical importance--equitable - interests in lands. These are only noticed incidentally in the chapter - on "Releases." But it was already clear in Littleton's time that this - class of rights would become the most important of all. Littleton's - own will, which has been preserved, may be adduced in proof of this - assertion. Although nothing was more opposed to the spirit of Norman - feudalism than that a tenant of lands should dispose of them by will, - we find Littleton directing by his will the feoffees of certain - manors to make estates to the persons named in his will. In other - words, in order to acquire over lands powers unknown to the common - law, the lands had been conveyed to "feoffees" who had full right over - them according to the common law, but who were under a conscientious - obligation to exercise those rights at the direction and for the - exclusive benefit of the person to whose "use" the lands were held. - This conscientious obligation was recognized and enforced by the - chancellor, and thus arose the class of equitable interests in lands. - Littleton is the first writer on English law after these rights had - risen into a prominent position, and it is curious to find to what - extent they are ignored by him. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The work of Littleton occupies a place in the history - of typography as well as of law. The earliest printed edition seems to - be that by John Lettou and William de Machlinia, two printers who - probably came from the Continent, and carried on their business in - partnership, as their note to the edition of Littleton states, "in - civitate Londoniarum, juxta ecclesiam omnium sanctorum." The date of - this edition is uncertain, but the most probable conjecture, based on - typographical grounds, places it about the latter part of 1481. The - next edition is one by Machlinia alone, probably about two or three - years later than the former. Machlinia was then in business alone - "juxta pontem quae vulgo dicitur Fleta brigge." Next came the Rohan or - Rouen edition, erroneously stated by Sir E. Coke to be the earliest, - and to have been printed about 1533. It was, however, of a much - earlier date. Tomlins, the latest editor of Littleton, gives reasons - for thinking that it cannot have been later than 1490. It is stated in - a note to have been printed at Rouen by William le Tailleur "ad - instantiam Richardi Pynson." Copies of all these editions are in the - British Museum. In all these editions the work is styled _Tenores - Novelli_, probably to distinguish it from the "Old Tenures." - - There are three early MSS. of Littleton in the University Library at - Cambridge. One of these formerly contained a note on its first page to - the effect that it was bought in St Paul's Churchyard on July 20, - 1480. It was therefore in circulation in Littleton's lifetime. The - other two MSS. are of a somewhat later date; but one of them contains - what seems to be the earliest English translation of the _Tenures_, - and is probably not later than 1500. - - In the 16th century editions of Littleton followed in rapid succession - from the presses of Pynson, Redmayne, Berthelet, Tottyl and others. - The practice of annotating the text caused several additions to be - introduced, which, however, are easily detected by comparison of the - earlier copies. In 1581 West divided the text into 746 sections, which - have ever since been preserved. Many of these editions were printed - with large margins for purposes of annotation, specimens of which may - be seen in Lincoln's Inn Library. - - The practice of annotating Littleton was very general, and was adopted - by many eminent lawyers besides Sir E. Coke, amongst others by Sir M. - Hale. One commentary of this kind, by an unknown hand of earlier date - than Sir E. Coke's, was edited by Cary in 1829. Following the general - practice of dealing with Littleton as the great authority on the law - of England, "the most perfect and absolute work that ever was written - in any human science," Sir E. Coke made it in 1628 the text of that - portion of his work which he calls the first part of the institutes of - the law of England, in other words, the law of property. - - The first printed English translation of Littleton was by Rastell, who - seems to have combined the professions of author, printer and - serjeant-at-law, between 1514 and 1533. Many English editions by - various editors followed, the best of which is Tottyl's in 1556. Sir - E. Coke adopted some translation earlier than this, which has since - gone by the name of Sir E. Coke's translation. He, however, throughout - comments not on the translation but on the French text; and the - reputation of the commentary has to some extent obscured the intrinsic - merit of the original. - - See E. Wambaugh, _Littleton's Tenures in English_ (Washington, D.C., - 1903). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] These two books are stated, in a note to the table at the - conclusion of the work, to have been made for the better - understanding of certain chapters of the _Antient Book of Tenures_. - This refers to a tract called _The Old Tenures_, said to have been - written in the reign of Edward III. By way of distinguishing it from - this work, Littleton's book is called in all the early editions - "Tenores Novelli." - - - - -LITTRE, MAXIMILIEN PAUL EMILE (1801-1881), French lexicographer and -philosopher, was born in Paris on the 1st of February 1801. His father -had been a gunner, and afterwards sergeant-major of marine artillery, in -the French navy, and was deeply imbued with the revolutionary ideas of -the day. Settling down as a collector of taxes, he married Sophie -Johannot, a free-thinker like himself, and devoted himself to the -education of his son Emile. The boy was sent to the Lycee -Louis-le-Grand, where he had for friends Hachette and Eugene Burnouf. -After he had completed his course at school, he hesitated for a time as -to what profession he should adopt, and meanwhile made himself master, -not only of the English and German languages, but of the classical and -Sanskrit literature and philology. At last he determined to study -medicine, and in 1822 entered his name as a student of medicine. He -passed all his examinations in due course, and had only his thesis to -prepare in order to obtain his degree as doctor when in 1827 his father -died, leaving his mother absolutely without resources. He at once -renounced his degree, and, while attending the lectures of P. F. O. -Rayer and taking a keen interest in medicine, began teaching Latin and -Greek for a livelihood. He carried a musket on the popular side in the -revolution of February 1830, and was one of the national guards who -followed Charles X. to Rambouillet. In 1831 he obtained an introduction -to Armand Carrel, the editor of the _National_, who gave him the task of -reading the English and German papers for excerpts. Carrel by chance, in -1835, discovered the ability of his reader, who from that time became a -constant contributor, and eventually director of the paper. In 1836 -Littre began to contribute articles on all sorts of subjects to the -_Revue des deux mondes_; in 1837 he married; and in 1839 appeared the -first volume of his edition of the works of Hippocrates. The value of -this work was recognized by his election the same year into the Academie -des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. At this epoch he came across the -works of Auguste Comte, the reading of which formed, as he himself said, -"the cardinal point of his life," and from this time onward appears the -influence of positivism on his own life, and, what is of more -importance, his influence on positivism, for he gave as much to -positivism as he received from it. He soon became a friend of Comte, and -popularized his ideas in numerous works on the positivist philosophy. At -the same time he continued his edition of Hippocrates, which was not -completed till 1862, published a similar edition of Pliny's _Natural -History_, and after 1844 took Fauriel's place on the committee engaged -on the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, where his knowledge of the -early French language and literature was invaluable. - -It was about 1844 that he started working on his great _Dictionnaire de -la langue francaise_, which was, however, not to be completed till -thirty years after. In the revolution of July 1848 he took part in the -repression of the extreme republican party in June 1849. His essays, -contributed during this period to the _National_, were collected -together and published under the title of _Conservation, revolution et -positivisme_ in 1852, and show a thorough acceptance of all the -doctrines propounded by Comte. However, during the later years of his -master's life, he began to perceive that he could not wholly accept all -the dogmas or the more mystic ideas of his friend and master, but he -concealed his differences of opinion, and Comte failed to perceive that -his pupil had outgrown him, as he himself had outgrown his master -Saint-Simon. Comte's death in 1858 freed Littre from any fear of -embittering his master's later years, and he published his own ideas in -his _Paroles de la philosophie positive_ in 1850, and at still greater -length in his work in _Auguste Comte et la philosophie positive_ in -1863. In this book he traces the origin of Comte's ideas through Turgot, -Kant and Saint-Simon, then eulogizes Comte's own life, his method of -philosophy, his great services to the cause and the effect of his works, -and finally proceeds to show where he himself differs from him. He -approved wholly of Comte's philosophy, his great laws of society and his -philosophical method, which indeed he defended warmly against J. S. -Mill, but declared that, while he believed in a positivist philosophy, -he did not believe in a religion of humanity. About 1863, after -completing his Hippocrates and his Pliny, he set to work in earnest on -his French dictionary. In the same year he was proposed for the Academie -Francaise, but rejected, owing to the opposition of Mgr. Dupanloup, -bishop of Orleans, who denounced him in his _Avertissement aux peres de -famille_ as the chief of the French materialists. He also at this time -started with G. Wyrouboff the _Philosophie Positive_, a review which was -to embody the views of modern positivists. His life was thus absorbed in -literary work till the overthrow of the empire called on him to take a -part in politics. He felt himself too old to undergo the privations of -the siege of Paris, and retired with his family to Britanny, whence he -was summoned by M. Gambetta to Bordeaux, to lecture on history, and -thence to Versailles to take his seat in the senate to which he had been -chosen by the department of the Seine. In December 1871 he was elected a -member of the Academie Francaise in spite of the renewed opposition of -Mgr. Dupanloup, who resigned his seat rather than receive him. Littre's -_Dictionary_ was completed in 1873. An authoritative interpretation is -given of the use of each word, based on the various meanings it had held -in the past. In 1875 Littre was elected a life senator. The most notable -of his productions in these years were his political papers attacking -and unveiling the confederacy of the Orleanists and legitimists, and in -favour of the republic, his republication of many of his old articles -and books, among others the _Conservation, revolution et positivisme_ of -1852 (which he reprinted word for word, appending a formal, categorical -renunciation of many of the Comtist doctrines therein contained), and a -little tract _Pour la derniere fois_, in which he maintained his -unalterable belief in materialism. When it became obvious that the old -man could not live much longer, his wife and daughter, who had always -been fervent Catholics, strove to convert him to their religion. He had -long interviews with Pere Milleriot, a celebrated controversialist, and -was much grieved at his death; but it is hardly probable he would have -ever been really converted. Nevertheless, when on the point of death, -his wife had him baptized, and his funeral was conducted with the rites -of the Catholic Church. He died on the 2nd of June 1881. - - The following are his most important works: his editions of - Hippocrates (1839-1861), and of Pliny's _Natural History_ (1848-1850); - his translation of Strauss's _Vie de Jesus_ (1839-1840), and Muller's - _Manuel de physiologie_ (1851); his edition of the works of Armand - Carrel, with notes (1854-1858); the _Histoire de la langue francaise_, - a collection of magazine articles (1862); and his _Dictionnaire de la - langue francaise_ (1863-1872). In the domain of science must be noted - his edition, with Charles Robin, of Nysten's _Dictionnaire de - medicine, de chirurgie_, &c. (1855); in that of philosophy, his - _Analyse raisonnee du cours de philosophie positive de M. A. Comte_ - (1845); _Application de la philosophie positive au gouvernement_ - (1849); _Conservation, revolution et positivisme_ (1852, 2nd ed., with - supplement, 1879); _Paroles de la philosophie positive_ (1859); - _Auguste Comte et la philosophie positive_ (1863); _La Science au - point de vue philosophique_ (1873); _Fragments de philosophie et de - sociologie contemporaine_ (1876); and his most interesting - miscellaneous works, his _Etudes et glanures_ (1880); _La Verite sur - la mort d'Alexandre le grand_ (1865); _Etudes sur les barbares et le - moyen age_ (1867); _Medecine et medecins_ (1871); _Litterature et - histoire_ (1875); and _Discours de reception a l'Academie francaise_ - (1873). - - For his life consult C. A. Sainte-Beuve, _Notice sur M. Littre, sa vie - et ses travaux_ (1863); and _Nouveaux Lundis_, vol. v.; also the - notice by M. Durand-Greville in the _Nouvelle Revue_ of August 1881; - E. Caro, _Littre et le positivisme_ (1883); Pasteur, _Discours de - reception_ at the Academy, where he succeeded Littre, and a reply by - E. Renan. (H. M. S.) - - - - - -LITURGY (Low Lat. _liturgia_; Gr. [Greek: leitos], public, and [Greek: -ergon], work; [Greek: leitourgos], a public servant), in the technical -language of the Christian Church, the order for the celebration and -administration of the Eucharist. In Eastern Christendom the Greek word -[Greek: leitourgia] is used in this sense exclusively. But in -English-speaking countries the word "liturgy" has come to be used in a -more popular sense to denote any or all of the various services of the -Church, whether contained in separate volumes or bound up together in -the form of a Book of Common Prayer. In this article the liturgy is -treated in the former and stricter sense. (For the ancient Athenian -[Greek: leitourgiai], as forms of taxation, see FINANCE.) - -In order to understand terms and references it will be convenient to -give the tabular form the chief component parts of a liturgy, selecting -the Liturgy of Rome as characteristic of Western, and that of -Constantinople as characteristic of Eastern, Christendom; at the same -time appending an explanation of some of the technical words which must -be employed in enumerating those parts. - - - ORDER OF THE ROMAN LITURGY - - _Ordinary of the Mass_. - - 1. Introit, or as it is always called in the Sarum rite, "Office," a - Psalm or part of a Psalm sung at the entry of the priest, or clergy - and choir. - - 2. Kyrie eleison, ninefold, and sometimes lengthily farsed - representing an older, now obsolete, litany. - - 3. Collect, _i.e_. the collect for the day. - - 4. Prophetic lection, now obsolete, except on the Wednesday and - Saturday Ember Days, Good Friday and Easter Even, and Wednesday after - fourth and sixth Sundays in Lent. - - 5. Epistle. - - 6. Gradual. A few verses from the Psalms, the shrunken remainder of a - whole Psalm. - - 7. Sequence. A hymn now obsolete except on Feast of the Seven Dolours, - Easter, Pentecost, Corpus Christi and at Masses for the dead. - - 8. Gospel. - - 9. Creed. - - 10. Collect, now obsolete, though the unanswered invitation, "Let us - pray," still survives. - - 11. Offertory. A verse or verses from the Psalms sung at the offering - of the elements. - - 12. Secret. A prayer or prayers said at the conclusion of the - Offertory. - - 13. Sursum Corda. "Lift up your hearts," with following versicles. - - 14. Preface. There are now ten proper or special prefaces and one - common preface. In older missals they were extremely numerous, almost - every Sunday and Holy-day having one assigned to it. Many of them were - very beautiful. In older missals, Nos. 13, 14 and 15 were sometimes - arranged not as the concluding part of the Ordinary, but as the - opening part of the Canon of the mass. - - 15. Sanctus, or Tersanctus, or Triumphal Hymn, "Holy, Holy, Holy," - &c., ending with the Benedictus, "Blessed is he that cometh," &c. - - - _Canon of the Mass._ - - 1. Introductory prayer for acceptance. Te igitur, &c. - - 2. Intercession for the living. Memento, Domine famulorum, &c. - - 3. Commemoration of apostles and martyrs. Communicantes et memoriam, - &c. - - 4. Prayer for acceptance and consecration of offering. Hanc igitur - oblationem, &c. - - 5. Recital of words of institution. Qui pridie quam pateretur, &c. - - 6. Oblation. Unde et memores, &c. - - 7. Invocation. A passage difficult of interpretation, but apparently - meant to be equivalent to the Eastern Epiklesis or invocation of the - Holy Ghost. Supplices te rogamus, &c. - - 8. Intercession for the dead. Memento etiam, Domine, famulorum, &c. - - 9. Lord's Prayer, with a short introduction and the expansion of the - last petition into a prayer known as the "Embolismus." - - 10. Fraction, i.e. breaking of the host into three parts, to symbolize - the death and passion of Christ. - - 11. Commixture, i.e. placing a small portion of the consecrated bread - into the chalice symbolizing the reunion of Christ's body and soul at - the resurrection. - - 12. Agnus Dei, i.e. a three-fold petition to the Lamb of God. - - 13. Pax, i.e. the kiss of peace. The ancient ritual of the Pax has - become almost obsolete. - - 14. Three prayers, accompanying the Pax and preliminary to communion. - - 15. Communion of priest and people (if any), a short anthem called - "Communio" being sung meanwhile. - - 16. Ablution of paten and chalice. - - 17. Post-communion, i.e. a concluding prayer. - - 18. Dismissal. - - The Canon of the Mass strictly ends with No. 9; Nos. 10-18 being an - appendix to it. - - - LITURGY OF CONSTANTINOPLE - - _Mass of the Catechumens. After preparation and vesting._ - - 1. The Deacon's Litany. - - 2. Three Anthems with accompanying prayers. - - 3. Little Entrance, i.e. ceremonial bringing in of the Book of the - Gospels. - - 4. The Trisagion, i.e. an anthem with an accompanying prayer different - from the Latin Sanctus or Tersanctus. - - 5. Epistle. - - 6. Gospel with a prayer preceding it. - - 7. Bidding prayer. - - 8. Prayer for catechumens. - - 9. Dismissal of catechumens. - - 10. Spreading of the corporal. - - - _Mass of the Faithful._ - - 11. Prayers of the faithful. - - 12. Cherubic Hymn, "Let us who mystically represent the Cherubim, &c." - not represented in the Latin liturgy. - - 13. Great Entrance, i.e. of the unconsecrated elements with incense - and singing and intercessions. - - 14. Kiss of Peace. - - 15. Creed. - - 16. The Benediction, i.e. 2 Cor. xiii. 14. - - 17. Sursum corda. - - 18. Preface. - - 19. Sanctus, or Tersanctus, or "Triumphal Hymn." - - 20. Recital of Words of Institution, prefaced by recital of the - Redemption. - - 21. The oblation. - - 22. The invocation or Epiklesis. - - 23. Intercession for the dead. - - 24. Intercession for the living. - - 25. The Lord's Prayer. - - 26. Prayer of humble access (a) for people (b) for priest. - - 27. Elevation with the invitation "Holy things to holy people." - - 28. Fraction. - - 29. Commixture. - - 30. Thanksgiving. - - 31. Benediction. - - In both these lists many interesting features of ceremonial, the use - of incense, the infusion of warm water (Byzantine only), &c., have not - been referred to. The lists must be regarded as skeletons only. - -There are six main families or groups of liturgies, four of them being -of Eastern and two of them of Western origin and use. They are known -either by the names of the apostles with whom they are traditionally -connected, or by the names of the countries or cities in which they have -been or are still in use. - -Group I. _The Syrian Rite_ (St James).--The principal liturgies to be -enumerated under this group are the Clementine liturgy, so called from -being found in the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions, which -claim in their title, though erroneously, to have been compiled by St -Clement, the 1st-century bishop of Rome; the Greek liturgy of St James; -the Syriac liturgy of St James. Sixty-four more liturgies of this group -have existed, the majority being still in existence. Their titles are -given in F. E. Brightman's _Liturgies, Eastern and Western_ (1896), pp. -lviii.-lxi. - -Group II. _The Egyptian Rite_ (St Mark).--This group includes the Greek -liturgies of St Mark, St Basil and St Gregory, and the Coptic liturgies -of St Basil, St Gregory, St Cyril or St Mark; together with certain less -known liturgies the titles of which are enumerated by Brightman (_op. -cit._ pp. lxxiii. lxxiv.). The liturgy of the Ethiopian church -ordinances and the liturgy of the Abyssinian Jacobites, known as that of -the Apostles, fall under this group. - -Group III. _The Persian Rite_ (SS. Adaeus and Maris).--This Nestorian -rite is represented by the liturgy which bears the names of SS. Adaeus -and Maris together with two others named after Theodore of Mopsuestia -and Nestorius. This group has sometimes been called "East-Syrian." The -titles of three more of its now lost liturgies have been preserved, -namely those of Narses, Barsumas and Diodorus of Tarsus. The liturgy of -the Christians of St Thomas, on the Malabar coast of India, formerly -belonged to this group, but it was almost completely assimilated to the -Roman liturgy by Portuguese Jesuits at the synod of Diamper in 1599. - -Group IV. _The Byzantine Rite._--The Greek liturgies of St Chrysostom, -St Basil and St Gregory Dialogus, or The Presanctified, also extant in -other languages, are the living representatives of this rite. The Greek -liturgy of St Peter is classified under this group, but it is merely the -Roman canon of the Mass &c., inserted in a Byzantine framework, and -seems to have been used at one time by some Greek communities in Italy. -To this group also belongs the Armenian liturgy, of which ten different -forms have existed in addition to the liturgy now in general use named -after St Athanasius. - -We now come to the two western groups of liturgies, which more nearly -concern the Latin-speaking nations of Europe, and which, therefore, must -be treated of more fully. - -Group V. _The Hispano-Gallican Rite_ (St John).--This group of Latin -liturgies, which once prevailed very widely in Western Europe, has been -almost universally superseded by the liturgy of the Church of Rome. -Where it survives, it has been more or less assimilated to the Roman -pattern. It prevailed once throughout Spain, France, northern Italy, -Great Britain and Ireland. The term "Ephesine" has been applied to this -group or family of liturgies, chiefly by English liturgiologists, and -the names of St John and of Ephesus, his place of residence, have been -pressed into service in support of a theory of Ephesine origin, which, -however, lacks proof and may now be regarded as a discarded hypothesis. -Other theories represent the Gallican to be a survival of the original -Roman liturgy, or as an importation into Western Europe from the east -through a Milanese channel. The latter is Duchesne's theory (_Christian -Worship_, London, 1904, 2nd ed., p. 94). - - We must be content with mentioning these theories without attempting - to discuss them. - - The chief traces of oriental influence and affinity lie in the - following points:--(1) various proclamations made by the deacon, - including that of "Silentium facite" before the epistle (Migne, _Pat. - Lat._ tom. lxxxv. col. 534); (2) the presence of a third lesson - preceding the epistle, taken from the Old Testament; (3) the - occasional presence of "preces" a series of short intercessions - resembling the Greek "Ektene" or deacon's litany; (4) the position of - the kiss of peace at an early point in the service, before the canon, - instead of the Roman position after consecration; (5) the exclamation - "Sancta sanctis" occurring in the Mozarabic rite, being the - counterpart of the Eastern "[Greek: Ta hagia tois hagiois]," that is - "holy things to holy people"; (6) traces of the presence of the - "Epiklesis," that is to say, the invocation of the Holy Spirit, in its - Eastern position after the words of institution, as in the prayer - styled the Post-pridie in the Mozarabic service for the second Sunday - after the octave of the Epiphany: "We beseech thee that thou wouldest - sanctify this oblation with the permixture of thy Spirit, and conform - it with full transformation into the body and blood of our Lord Jesus - Christ." (Migne, _Pat. Lat._ tom. lxxxv. col. 250). On the other hand - the great variableness of its parts, and the immense number of its - proper prefaces, ally it to the Western family of liturgies. - -We proceed now to give a more detailed account of the chief liturgies of -this group. - -1. _The Mozarabic Liturgy.--_This was the national liturgy of the -Spanish church till the close of the 11th century, when the Roman -liturgy was forced upon it. Its use, however, lingered on, till in the -16th century Cardinal Jimenes, anxious to prevent its becoming quite -obsolete, had its books restored and printed, and founded a college of -priests at Toledo to perpetuate its use. It survives now only in several -churches in Toledo and in a chapel at Salamanca, and even there not -without certain Roman modifications of its original text and ritual. - - Its date and origin, like the date and origin of all existing - liturgies, are uncertain, and enveloped in the mists of antiquity. It - is not derived from the present Roman liturgy. Its whole structure, as - well as separate details disprove such a parentage, and therefore it - is strange to find St Isidore of Seville (_Lib. de Eccles. Offic_. i. - 15) attributing it to St Peter. No proof is adduced, and the only - value which can be placed upon such an unsupported assertion is that - it shows that a very high and even apostolic antiquity was claimed for - it. A theory, originating with Pinius, that it may have been brought - by the Goths from Constantinople when they invaded Spain, is as - improbable as it is unproven. It may have been derived from Gaul. The - Gallican sister stood to it in the relation of twin-sister, if it - could not claim that of mother. The resemblance was so great that when - Charles the Bald (843-877) wished to get some idea of the character of - the already obsolete Gallican rite, he sent to Toledo for some Spanish - priests to perform Mass according to the Mozarabic rite in his - presence. But there is no record of the conversion of Spain by - Gallican missionaries. Christianity existed in Spain from the earliest - times. Probably St Paul travelled there (Rom. xv. 24). It may be at - least conjectured that its liturgy was Pauline rather than Petrine or - Johannine. - -2. _Gallican Liturgy._--This was the ancient and national liturgy of the -church in France till the commencement of the 9th century, when it was -suppressed by order of Charlemagne, who directed the Roman missal to be -everywhere substituted in its place. All traces of it seemed for some -time to have been lost until three Gallican sacramentaries were -discovered and published by Thomasius in 1680 under the titles of -_Missale Gothicum_, _Missale Gallicum_ and _Missale Francorum_, and a -fourth was discovered and published by Mabillon in 1687 under the title -of _Missale Gallicanum_. Fragmentary discoveries have been made since. -Mone discovered fragments of eleven Gallican masses and published them -at Carlsruhe in 1850. Other fragments from the library at St Gall have -been published by Bunsen (_Analecta Ante-Nicaena_, iii. 263-266), and -from the Ambrosian library at Milan by Cardinal Mai (_Scriptt. Vet. Vat. -Coll._ iii. 2. 247). A single page was discovered in Gonville and Caius -College, Cambridge, published in _Zeitschrift fur Kath. Theologie_, vi. -370. - - These documents, illustrated by early Gallican canons, and by - allusions in the writings of Sulpicius Severus, Caesarius of Arles, - Gregory of Tours, Germanus of Paris and other authors, enable us to - reconstruct the greater part of this liturgy. The previously - enumerated signs of Eastern origin and influence are found here as - well as in the Mozarabic liturgy, together with certain other more or - less minute peculiarities, which would be of interest to professed - liturgiologists, but which we must not pause to specify here. They are - the origin of the Ephesine theory that the Gallican liturgy was - introduced into use by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c. 130-200) who had - learned it in the East from St Polycarp, the disciple of the apostle - St John. - -3. _Ambrosian Liturgy._--Considerable variety of opinion has existed -among liturgical writers as to the proper classification of the -"Ambrosian" or "Milanese" liturgy. If we are to accept it in its present -form and to make the present position of the great intercession for -quick and dead the test of its _genus_, then we must classify it as -"Petrine" and consider it as a branch of the Roman family. If, on the -other hand, we consider the important variations from the Roman liturgy -which yet exist, and the traces of still more marked variation which -confront us in the older printed and MS. copies of the Ambrosian rite, -we shall detect in it an original member of the Hispano-Gallican group -of liturgies, which for centuries underwent a gradual but -ever-increasing assimilation to Rome. We know this as a matter of -history, as well as a matter of inference from changes in the text -itself. Charlemagne adopted the same policy towards the Milanese as -towards the Gallican church. He carried off all the Ambrosian church -books which he could obtain, with the view of substituting Roman books -in their place, but the completion of his intentions failed, partly -through the attachment of the Lombards to their own rites, partly -through the intercession of a Gallican bishop named Eugenius (Mabillon, -_Mus. Ital._ tom. i. Pars. ii. p. 106). It has been asserted by Joseph -Vicecomes that this is an originally independent liturgy drawn up by St -Barnabas, who first preached the Gospel at Milan (_De Missae_ Rit. 1 -capp. xi. xii.), and this tradition is preserved in the title and proper -preface for St Barnabas Day in the Ambrosian missal (Pamelius, -_Liturgicon_, i. 385, 386), but it has never been proved. - - We can trace the following points in which the Ambrosian differs from - the Roman liturgy, many of them exhibiting traces of Eastern - influence. Some of them are no longer found in recent Ambrosian - missals and only survive in earlier MSS. such as those published by - Pamelius (_Liturgicon_, tom. i. p. 293), Muratori (_Lit. Rom. Vet._ i. - 132) and Ceriani (in his edition, 1881, of an ancient MS. at Milan). - (a) The prayer entitled "oratio super sindonem" corresponding to the - prayer after the spreading of the corporal; (b) the proclamation of - silence by the deacon before the epistle; (c) the litanies said after - the Ingressa (Introit) on Sundays in Lent, closely resembling the - Greek Ektene; (d) varying forms of introduction to the Lord's Prayer, - in Coena Domini (Ceriani p. 116) in Pascha (Ib. p. 129); (e) the - presence of passages in the prayer of consecration which are not part - of the Roman canon and one of which at least corresponds in import and - position though not in words to the Greek Invocation: _Tuum vero, est, - omnipotens Pater, mittere_, &c. (Ib. p. 116); (f) the survival of a - distinctly Gallican formula of consecration in the Post-sanctus "in - Sabbato Sancto." _Vere sanctus, vere benedictus Dominus noster,_ &c. - (Ib. p. 125); (g) the varying nomenclature of the Sundays after - Pentecost; (h) the position of the fraction or ritual breaking of - bread before the Lord's Prayer; (i) the omission of the second - oblation after the words of institution (Muratori, _Lit. Rom. Vet._ i. - 133); (k) a third lection or _Prophetia_ from the Old Testament - preceding the epistle and gospel; (l) the lay offering of the - oblations and the formulae accompanying their reception (Pamelius, - _Liturgicon_, i. 297); (m) the position of the ablution of the hands - in the middle of the canon just before the words of institution; (n) - the position of the "oratio super populum," which corresponds in - matter but not in name to the collect for the day, before the Gloria - in Excelsis. - -4. _Celtic Liturgy._--We postpone the consideration of this liturgy till -after we have treated of the next main group. - -VI. _The Roman Rite_ (St Peter).--There is only one liturgy to be -enumerated under this group, viz. the present liturgy of the Church of -Rome, which, though originally local in character and circumscribed in -use, has come to be nearly co-extensive with the Roman Catholic Church, -sometimes superseding earlier national liturgies, as in Gaul and Spain, -sometimes incorporating more or less of the ancient ritual of a country -into itself and producing from such incorporation a sub-class of -distinct Uses, as in England, France and elsewhere. Even these -subordinate Uses have for the most part become, or are rapidly becoming, -obsolete. - -The date, origin and early history of the Roman liturgy are obscure. The -first Christians at Rome were a Greek-speaking community, and their -liturgy must have been Greek, and is possibly represented in the -so-called Clementine liturgy. But the date when such a state of things -ceased, when and by whom the present Latin liturgy was composed, whether -it is an original composition, or, as its structure seems to imply, a -survival of some intermediate form of liturgy--all these are questions -which are waiting for solution. - - One MS. exists which has been claimed to represent the Roman liturgy - as it existed in the time of Leo I., 440-461. It was discovered at - Verona by Bianchini in 1735 and assigned by him to the 8th century and - published under the title of _Sacramentarium Leonianum_; but this - title was from the first conjectural, and is in the teeth of the - internal evidence which the MS. itself affords. The question is - discussed at some length by Muratori (_Lit. Rom. Vet._ tom. i. cap. i. - col. 16). Assemani published it under the title of _Sacramentarium - Veronense_ in tom. vi. of his _Codex Liturg. Eccles. Univ_. - - A MS. of the 7th or 8th century was found at Rome by Thomasius and - published by him in 1680 under the title of _Sacramentarium - Gelasianum_. But it was written in France and is certainly not a pure - Gelasian codex; and although there is historical evidence of Pope - Gelasius I. (492-496) having made some changes in the Roman liturgy, - and although MSS. have been published by Gerbertus and others, - claiming the title of Gelasian, we neither have nor are likely to have - genuine and contemporary MS. evidence of the real state of the liturgy - in that pope's time. The most modern and the best edition of the - Gelasian Sacramentary is that by H. A. Wilson (Oxford, 1894). - - The larger number of MSS. of this group are copies of the Gregorian - Sacramentary, that is to say, MSS. representing or purporting to - represent, the state of Roman liturgy in the days of Pope Gregory the - Great. But they cannot be accepted as certain evidence for the - following reasons: not one of them was written earlier than the 9th - century, not one of them was written in Italy, but every one north of - the Alps; every one contains internal evidence of a post-Gregorian - date in the shape of masses for the repose or for the intercession of - St Gregory and in various other ways. - -The Roman liturgy seems to have been introduced into England in the 7th, -into France in the 9th and into Spain in the 11th century, though no -doubt it was known in both France and Spain to some extent before these -dates. In France certain features of the service and certain points in -the ritual of the ancient national liturgy became interwoven with its -text and formed those many varying medieval Gallican Uses which are -associated with the names of different French sees. - -The chief distinguishing characteristics of the Roman rite are these: -(a) the position of the great intercession for quick and dead within the -canon, the commemoration of the living being placed just before and the -commemoration of the departed just after the words of institution; (b) -the absence of an "Epiklesis" or invocation of the Holy Ghost upon the -elements; (c) the position of the "Pax" or "Kiss of Peace after the -consecration" and before the communion, whereas in other liturgies it -occurs at a much earlier point in the service. - - -_Liturgies of the British Islands._ - -Period I. _The Celtic Church._--Until recently almost nothing was known -of the character of the liturgical service of the Celtic church which -existed in these islands before the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, and continued -to exist in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Cornwall for considerable -though varying periods of time after that event. But in recent times a -good deal of light has been thrown on the subject, partly by the -publication or republication of the few genuine works of Patrick, -Columba, Columbanus, Adamnan and other Celtic saints; partly by the -discovery of liturgical remains in the Scottish _Book of Deer_ and in -the Irish _Books of Dimma and Mulling_ and the _Stowe Missal_, &c.; -partly by the publication of medieval Irish compilations, such as the -_Lebar Brecc_, _Liber Hymnorum_, _Martyrology of Oengus_, &c., which -contain ecclesiastical kalendars, legends, treatises, &c., of -considerable but very varying antiquity. The evidence collected from -these sources is sufficient to prove that the liturgy of the Celtic -church was of the Gallican type. In central England the churches, with -everything belonging to them, were destroyed by the heathen invaders at -the close of the 5th century; but the Celtic church in the remoter parts -of England, as well as in the neighbouring kingdoms of Scotland and -Ireland, retained its independence for centuries afterwards. - -An examination of its few extant service-books and fragments of -service-books yields the following evidence of the Gallican origin and -character of the Celtic liturgy: (a) the presence of collects and -anthems which occur in the Gallican or Mozarabic but not in the Roman -liturgy; (b) various formulae of thanksgiving after communion; (c) -frequent biddings or addresses to the people in the form of Gallican -_Praefationes_; (d) the Gallican form of consecration, being a prayer -called "Post-Sanctus" leading up to the words of institution; (e) the -complicated rite of "fraction" or "the breaking of bread," as described -in the Irish treatise at the end of the _Stowe Missal_, finds its only -counterpart in the elaborate ceremonial of the Mozarabic church; (f) the -presence of the Gallican ceremonial of _Pedilavium_ or "Washing of feet" -in the earliest Irish baptismal office. - - For a further description of these and other features which are - characteristic of or peculiar to the Celtic liturgy the reader is - referred to F. E. Warren's _Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church_ - (Oxford, 1881). - -Period II. _The Anglo-Saxon Church._--We find ourselves here on firmer -ground, and can speak with certainty as to the nature of the liturgy of -the English church after the beginning of the 7th century. Information -is drawn from liturgical allusions in the extant canons of numerous -councils, from the voluminous writings of Bede, Alcuin and many other -ecclesiastical authors of the Anglo-Saxon period, and above all from a -considerable number of service-books written in England before the -Norman Conquest. Three of these books are missals of more or less -completeness: (1) the _Leofric Missal_, a composite 10th- to -11th-century MS. presented to the cathedral of Exeter by Leofric, the -first bishop of that see (1046-1072), now in the Bodleian library at -Oxford; edited by F. E. Warren (Oxford, 1883); (2) the missal of Robert -of Jumieges, archbishop of Canterbury (1051-1052), written probably at -Winchester and presented by Archbishop Robert to his old monastery of -Jumieges in the neighbourhood of Rouen, in the public library of which -it now lies; edited by H. A. Wilson (London, 1896); (3) the _Red Book of -Derby_, a MS. missal of the second half of the 11th century, now in the -library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. - -A perusal of these volumes proves what we should have expected a priori, -that the Roman liturgy was in use in the Anglo-Saxon church. This was -the case from the very first. That church owed its foundation to a Roman -pontiff, and to Roman missionaries, who brought, as we are told by Bede, -their native liturgical codices with them (_Hist. Eccles_. lib. ii. cap. -28). Accordingly, when we speak of an Anglo-Saxon missal, we mean a -Roman missal only exhibiting one or more of the following features, -which would differentiate it from an Italian missal of the same century. -(a) Rubrics and other entries of a miscellaneous character written in -the vernacular language of the country. (b) The commemoration of -national or local saints in the kalendar, in the canon of the mass and -in the litanies which occur for use on Easter Even and in the baptismal -offices. (c) The presence of a few special masses in honour of those -local saints, together with a certain number of collects of a -necessarily local character, for the rulers of the country, for its -natural produce, &c. (d) The addition of certain peculiarities of -liturgical structure and arrangement interpolated into the otherwise -purely Roman service from an extraneous source. There are two noteworthy -examples of this in Anglo-Saxon service-books. Every Sunday and festival -and almost every votive mass has its proper preface, although the number -of such prefaces in the Gregorian sacramentary of the same period had -been reduced to eight. There was a large but not quite equal number of -triple episcopal benedictions to be pronounced by the bishop after the -Lord's Prayer and before the communion. This custom must either have -been perpetuated from the old Celtic liturgy or directly derived from a -Gallican source. - -Period III. _Anglo-Norman Church._--The influx of numerous foreigners, -especially from Normandy and Lorraine, which preceded, accompanied and -followed the Conquest, and the occupation by them of the highest posts -in church as well as state had a distinct effect on the liturgy of the -English church. These foreign ecclesiastics brought over with them a -preference for and a habit of using certain features of the Gallican -liturgy and ritual, which they succeeded in incorporating into the -service-books of the church of England. One of the Norman prelates, -Osmund, count of Seez, earl of Dorset, chancellor of England, and bishop -of Salisbury (1078-1099), is credited with having undertaken the -revision of the English service-books; and the missal which we know as -the _Sarum Missal_, or the _Missal according to the Use of Sarum_, -practically became the liturgy of the English church. It was not only -received into use in the province of Canterbury, but was largely adopted -beyond those limits--in Ireland in the 12th and in various Scottish -dioceses in the 12th and 13th centuries. - -It would be beyond our scope here to give a complete list of the -numerous and frequently minute differences between a medieval Sarum and -the earlier Anglo-Saxon or contemporaneous Roman liturgy. They lie -mainly in differences of collects and lections, variations of ritual on -Candlemass, Ash Wednesday and throughout Holy Week; the introduction -into the canon of the mass of certain clauses and usages of Gallican -character or origin; the wording of rubrics in the subjunctive or -imperative tense; the peculiar "Preces in prostratione"; the procession -of Corpus Christi on Palm Sunday; the forms of ejection and -reconciliation of penitents, &c. The varying episcopal benedictions as -used in the Anglo-Saxon church were retained, but the numerous proper -prefaces were discarded, the number being reduced to ten. - -Besides the famous and far-spreading Use of Sarum, other Uses, more -local and less known, grew up in various English dioceses. In virtue of -a recognized diocesan independence, bishops were able to regulate or -alter their ritual, and to add special masses or commemorations for use -within the limits of their jurisdiction. The better known and the more -distinctive of these Uses were those of York and Hereford, but we also -find traces of or allusions to the Uses of Bangor, Lichfield, Lincoln, -Ripon, St Asaph, St Paul's, Wells and Winchester. - - _Service-books._--The Eucharistie service was contained in the volume - called the Missal (_q.v_.), as the ordinary choir offices were - contained in the volume known as the Breviary (_q.v_.). But besides - these two volumes there were a large number of other service-books. Mr - W. Maskell has enumerated and described ninety-one such volumes - employed by the Western Church only. It must be understood, however, - that many of these ninety-one names are synonyms (_Mon. Rit. Eccles. - Anglic_. 1882, vol. i. p. ccxxx.). The list might be increased, but it - will be possible here only to name and briefly describe a few of the - more important of them. (1) The _Agenda_ is the same as the Manual, - for which see below. (2) The _Antiphonary_ contained the antiphons or - anthems, sung at the canonical hours, and certain other minor parts of - the service. (3) The _Benedictional_ contained those triple episcopal - benedictions previously described as used on Sundays and on the chief - festivals throughout the year. (4) The _Collectarium_ contained the - collects for the season, together with a few other parts of the day - offices. It was an inchoate breviary. (5) The _Epistolarium_ contained - the epistles, and the _Evangelistarium_ the gospels for the year. (7) - The _Gradual_ contained the introit, gradual, sequences, and the other - portions of the communion service which were sung by the choir at nigh - mass. (8) The _Legenda_ contained the lections which were read at - matins and at other times, and may be taken as a generic term to - include the _Homiliarium, Passional_ and other volumes. (9) The - _Manual_ was the name usually employed in England to denote the - _Ritual_, which contained the baptismal, matrimonial and other offices - which might be performed by the parish priest. (10) The _Pontifical_ - contained the orders of consecration, ordination, and such other rites - as could, ordinarily, only be performed by a bishop. To these we must - add a book which was not strictly a church office book, but a handy - book for the use of the laity, and which was in very popular use and - often very highly embellished from the 14th to the 16th century, the - _Book of Hours_, or _Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis_, also known as the - _Prymer_ or _Primer_. It contained portions of the canonical hours, - litanies, the penitential Psalms, and other devotions of a - miscellaneous and private character. Detailed information about all - these and other books is to be found in C. Wordsworth and H. - Littlehales', _The Old Service Books of the English Church_. - - The Eastern Church too possessed and still possesses numerous and - voluminous service-books, of which the chief are the following: (1) - The _Euchologian_, containing the liturgy itself with the remaining - sacramental offices bound up in the same volume. (2) The _Horologion_, - containing the unvarying portion of the Breviary. (3) The _Menaea_, - being equivalent to a complete Breviary. (4) The _Menologion_ or - Martyrology. (5) The _Octoechus_ and (6) The _Paracletice_, containing - Troparia and answering to the Western antiphonary. (7) The - _Pentecostarion_, containing the services from Easter Day to All - Saints' Sunday. (8) The _Triodion_, containing those from Septuagesima - Sunday to Easter Even. (9) The _Typicum_ is a general book of rubrics - corresponding to the Ordinale or the Pie of Western Christendom. - -Period IV. _The Reformed Church._--The Anglican liturgy of Reformation -and post-Reformation times is described under the heading of PRAYER, -BOOK OF COMMON, but a brief description may be added here of the -liturgies of other reformed churches. - -_The Liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church._--This liturgy in nearly -its present form was compiled by Scottish bishops in 1636 and -imposed--or, to speak more accurately, attempted to be imposed--upon the -Scottish people by the royal authority of Charles I. in 1637. The -prelates chiefly concerned in it were Spottiswood, bishop of Glasgow; -Maxwell, bishop of Ross; Wedderburn, bishop of Dunblane; and Forbes, -bishop of Edinburgh. Their work was approved and revised by certain -members of the English episcopate, especially Laud, archbishop of -Canterbury; Juxon, bishop of London; and Wren, bishop of Ely. This -liturgy has met with varied fortune and has passed through several -editions. The present Scottish office dates from 1764. It is now used as -an alternative form with the English communion office in the Scottish -Episcopal Church. - -The general arrangements of its parts approximates more closely to that -of the first book of Edward VI. than to the present Anglican Book of -Common Prayer. Among its noteworthy features are (a) the retention in -its integrity and in its primitive position after the words of -institution of the invocation of the Holy Spirit. That invocation runs -thus: "And we most humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us -and of thy almighty goodness vouchsafe to bless and sanctify with thy -word and Holy Spirit these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine -that they may become the body and blood of thy most dearly beloved Son" -(edit. 1764). This kind of petition thus placed is found in the Eastern -but not in the Roman or Anglican liturgies. (b) The reservation of the -sacrament is permitted, by traditional usage, for the purpose of -communicating the absent or the sick. (c) The minimum number of -communicants is fixed at one or two instead of three or four. - - For fuller information see Bishop J. Dowden, _The Annotated Scottish - Communion Service_ (Edinburgh, 1884). - -_American Liturgy._--The Prayer Book of "the Protestant Episcopal -Church" in America was adopted by the general convention of the American -church in 1789. It is substantially the same as the English Book of -Common Prayer, but among important variations we may name the following: -(a) The arrangement and wording of the order for Holy Communion rather -resembles that of the Scottish than that of the English liturgy, -especially in the position of the oblation and invocation immediately -after the words of institution. (b) The Magnificat, Nunc dimittis and -greater part of Benedictus were disused; but these were reinstated among -the changes made in the Prayer Book in 1892. (c) Ten selections of -Psalms are appointed for use as alternatives for the Psalms of the day. -(d) _Gloria in excelsis_ is allowed as a substitute for _Gloria Patri_ -at the end of the Psalms at morning and evening prayer. In addition to -these there are many more both important and unimportant variations from -the English Book of Common Prayer. - -_The Irish Prayer Book._--The Prayer Book in use in the Irish portion -of the United Church of England and Ireland was the Anglican Book of -Common Prayer, but after the disestablishment of the Irish church -several changes were introduced into it by a synod held at Dublin in -1870. These changes included such important points as: (a) the excision -of all lessons from the Apocrypha, (b) of the rubric ordering the -recitation of the Athanasian Creed, (c) of the rubric ordering the -vestments of the second year of Edward VI., (d) of the form of -absolution in the office for the visitation of the sick, (e) the -addition to the Catechism of a question and answer bringing out more -clearly the spiritual character of the real presence. - -_The Presbyterian Church._--The Presbyterian churches of Scotland at -present possess no liturgy properly so called. Certain general rules for -the conduct of divine service are contained in the "Directory for the -Public Worship of God" agreed upon by the assembly of divines at -Westminster, with the assistance of commissioners from the Church of -Scotland, approved and established by an act of the general assembly, -and by an act of parliament, both in 1645. In 1554 John Knox had drawn -up an order of liturgy closely modelled on the Genevan pattern for the -use of the English congregation to which he was then ministering at -Frankfort. On his return to Scotland this form of liturgy was adopted by -an act of the general assembly in 1560 and became the established form -of worship in the Presbyterian church until the year 1645, when the -Directory of Public Worship took its place. Herein regulations are laid -down for the conduct of public worship, for the reading of Scripture and -for extempore prayer before and after the sermon, and in the -administration of the sacrament of baptism and the Lord's Supper, for -the solemnization of marriage, visitation of the sick and burial of the -dead, for the observance of days of public fasting and public -thanksgiving, together with a form of ordination and a directory for -family worship. In all these cases, though the general terms of the -prayer are frequently indicated, the wording of it is left to the -discretion of the minister, with these exceptions: At the act of baptism -this formula must be used--"I baptize thee in the name of the Father, -and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost"; and for the Lord's Supper these -forms are suggested, but with liberty to the minister to use "other the -like, used by Christ or his apostles upon this occasion"--"According to -the holy institution, command, and example of our blessed Saviour, Jesus -Christ, I take this bread, and having given thanks, break it, and give -it unto you. Take ye, eat ye; this is the body of Christ which is broken -for you; do this in remembrance of him." And again "According to the -institution, command and example of our Lord Jesus Christ, I take this -cup and give it unto you; this cup is the New Testament in the blood of -Christ, which is shed for the remission of the sins of many; drink ye -all of it." - -There is also an unvarying form of words directed to be used before the -minister by the man to the woman, and by the woman to the man in the -case of the solemnization of matrimony. The form of words on all other -occasions, including ordination, is left to the discretion of the -officiating minister or of the presbytery. - - _European Protestant Churches. The Calvinistic Churches._--Rather more - of the liturgical element in the shape of a set form of words enters - into the service of the French and German Calvinistic Protestants. The - Sunday morning service as drawn up by Calvin was to open with a - portion of Holy Scripture and the recitation of the ten commandments. - Afterwards the minister, inviting the people to accompany him, - proceeded to a confession of sins and supplication for grace. Then one - of the Psalms of David was sung. Then came the sermon, prefaced by an - extempore prayer and concluding with the Lord's Prayer, creed and - benediction. The communion service began with an exhortation leading - up to the apostles' creed; then followed a long exhortation, after - which the bread and wine were distributed to the people, who advanced - in reverence and order, while a Psalm was being sung, or a suitable - passage of Scripture was being read. After all had communicated a set - form of thanksgiving was said by the minister. Then the Song of Simeon - was sung by the congregation, who were then dismissed with the - blessing. This form of service has been modified in various ways from - time to time, but it remains substantially the type of service in use - among the reformed Calvinistic churches of Germany, Switzerland and - France. - - _The Lutheran Church._--Luther was far more conservative than the rest - of the Protestant reformers and his conservatism appeared nowhere more - than in the service-books which he drew up for the use of the church - which bears his name. In 1523 he published a treatise _Of the Order of - the Service in the Congregation_ and in 1526 he published the _German - Mass_. Except that the vernacular was substituted for the Latin - language, the old framework and order of the Roman missal were closely - followed, beginning with the Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie eleison, still - always sung in Greek, Gloria in excelsis, &c. The text of this and - other Lutheran services is given in _Agende fur christliche Gemeinden - des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses_ (Nordlingen, 1853). At the same time - Luther was tolerant and expressed a hope that different portions of - the Lutheran church would from time to time make such changes or - adaptations in the order of service as might be found convenient. The - Lutheran churches of northern Europe have not been slow to avail - themselves of this advice and permission. Most of them have drawn up - liturgies for themselves, sometimes following very closely, sometimes - differing considerably from the original service composed by Luther - himself. In 1822, on the union of the Lutheran and Reformed - (Calvinistic) churches of Prussia, a new liturgy was published at - Berlin. It is used in its entirety in the chapel royal, but great - liberty as to its use was allowed to the parochical clergy, and - considerable variations of text appear in the more recent editions of - this service-book. - - The Church of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians) and the Catholic - Apostolic Church (Irvingites) and other Protestant bodies have drawn - up liturgies for themselves, but they are hardly of sufficient - historical importance to be described at length here. - - The Old Catholics, lastly, published a _Rituale_ in 1875 containing - the occasional offices for baptism, matrimony, burial, &c., and a form - for reception of Holy Communion, in the German language. This latter - is for use in the otherwise unaltered service of the mass, - corresponding in purpose to the order of Communion in English - published the 8th of March 1548 and in use till Whitsunday 1549. - (F. E. W.) - - - - -LITUUS, the cavalry trumpet of the Romans, said by Macrobius (_Saturn_. -lib. vi.) to have resembled the crooked staff borne by the Augurs. The -lituus consisted of a cylindrical tube 4 or 5 ft. long, having a narrow -bore, and terminating in a conical bell joint turned up in such a manner -as to give the instrument the outline of the letter "J." Unlike the -buccina, cornu and tuba, the other military service instruments of the -Romans, the lituus has not been traced during the middle ages, the -medieval instrument most nearly resembling it being the cromorne or -tournebout, which, however, had lateral holes and was played by means of -a reed mouthpiece. A lituus found in a Roman warrior's tomb at Cervetri -(Etruria) in 1827 is preserved in the Vatican. Victor Mahillon gives its -length as 1 m. 60, and its scale as in unison with that of the trumpet -in G (_Catalogue descriptif_, 1896, pp. 29-30). (K. S.) - - - - -LIUDPRAND (LIUTPRAND, LUITPRAND) (c. 922-972), Italian historian and -author, bishop of Cremona, was born towards the beginning of the 10th -century, of a good Lombard family. In 931 he entered the service of King -Hugo of Italy as page; he afterwards rose to a high position at the -court of Hugo's successor Berengar, having become chancellor, and having -been sent (949) on an embassy to the Byzantine court. Falling into -disgrace with Berengar on his return, he attached himself to the emperor -Otto I., whom in 961 he accompanied into Italy, and by whom in 962 he -was made bishop of Cremona. He was frequently employed in missions to -the pope, and in 968 to Constantinople to demand for the younger Otto -(afterwards Otto II.) the hand of Theophano, daughter of the emperor -Nicephorus Phocas. His account of this embassy in the _Relatio de -Legatione Constantinopolitana_ is perhaps the most graphic and lively -piece of writing which has come down to us from the 10th century. The -detailed description of Constantinople and the Byzantine court is a -document of rare value--though highly coloured by his ill reception and -offended dignity. Whether he returned in 971 with the embassy to bring -Theophano or not is uncertain. Liudprand died in 972. - - He wrote (1) _Antapodoseos, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, Libri VI_, - an historical narrative, relating to the events from 887 to 949, - compiled with the object of avenging himself upon Berengar and Willa - his queen; (2) _Historia Ottonis_, a work of greater impartiality and - merit, unfortunately covering only the years from 960 to 964; and (3) - the _Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana_ (968-969). All are to - be found in the _Monum. Germ. Hist_. of Pertz, and in the _Rer. Ital. - Script_. of Muratori; there is an edition by E. Dummler (1877), and a - partial translation into German, with an introduction by W. - Wattenbach, is given in the second volume of the _Geschichtsschreiber - der deutschen Vorzeit_ (1853). Compare Wattenbach, _Deutschlands - Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter_. Three other works, entitled - _Adversaria, Chronicon, 606-960_, and _Opusculum de vitis Romanorum - pontificum_, are usually, but wrongly, assigned to Liudprand. An - English translation of the embassy to Constantinople is in Ernest - Henderson's _Select Documents of the Middle Ages_ (Bohn series, 1896). - A complete bibliography is in A. Potthast's _Bibl. Hist. Medii Aevi_ - (Berlin, 1896). - - - - - -LIVE OAK, a city and the county-seat of Suwannee county, Florida, -U.S.A., 81 m. by rail W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 687; (1900) 1659; -(1905) 7200; (1910) 3450. Live Oak is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, -the Seaboard Air Line, the Live Oak, Perry & Gulf and the Florida -railways. There are extensive areas of pine lands in the vicinity, and -large quantities of sea-island cotton are produced in the county. Lumber -and naval stores are also important products. The first settlement on -the site of the city was made in 1865 by John Parshley, of -Massachusetts, who erected a large saw-mill here. Live Oak was first -incorporated as a town in 1874, and in 1903 was chartered as a city. - - - - -LIVER (O. Eng. _lifer_; cf. cognate forms, Dutch _lever_, Ger. _Leber_, -Swed. _lefver_, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are _libara, lipora_, &c.; the -Teut. word has been connected with Gr. [Greek: hepar] and Lat. _jecur_), -in anatomy, a large reddish-brown digestive gland situated in the upper -and right part of the abdominal cavity. When hardened _in situ_ its -shape is that of a right-angled, triangular prism showing five -surfaces--superior, anterior, inferior, posterior and right lateral -which represents the base of the prism. It weighs about three pounds or -one-fortieth of the body Weight. - -Although the liver is a fairly solid organ, it is plastic, and moulds -itself to even hollow neighbouring viscera rather than they to it. The -superior surface is in contact with the diaphragm, but has peritoneum -between (see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES). At its posterior margin the -peritoneum of the great sac is reflected on to the diaphragm to form the -anterior layer of the _coronary ligament_. Near the mid line of the -body, and at right angles to the last, another reflection, the -_falciform ligament_, runs forward, and the line of attachment of this -indicates the junction of the _right_ and _left lobes_ of the liver. The -anterior surface is in contact with the diaphragm and the anterior -abdominal wall. The attachment of the falciform ligament is continued -down it. The posterior surface is more complicated (see fig. 1); -starting from the right and working toward the left, a large triangular -area, uncovered by peritoneum and in direct contact with the diaphragm, -is seen. This is bounded on the left by the inferior vena cava, which is -sunk into a deep groove in the liver, and into the upper part of this -the _hepatic veins_ open. Just to the right of this and at the lower -part of the bare area is a triangular depression for the right -suprarenal body. To the left of the vena cava is the _Spigelian lobe_, -which lies in front of the bodies of the tenth and eleventh thoracic -vertebrae, the lesser sac of peritoneum, diaphragm and thoracic aorta -intervening. To the left of this is the fissure for the _ductus -venosus_, and to the left of this again, the left lobe, in which a broad -shallow groove for the oesophagus may usually be seen. Sometimes the -left lobe stretches as far as the left abdominal wall, but more often it -ends below the apex of the heart, which is 3(1/2) in. to the left of the -mid line of the body. The relations of the lower surface can only be -understood if it is realized that it looks backward and to the left as -well as downward (see fig. 1). Again starting from the right side, two -impressions are seen; the anterior one is for the hepatic flexure of the -colon, and the posterior for the upper part of the right kidney. To the -left of the colic impression is a smaller one for the second part of the -duodenum. Next comes the _gall bladder_, a pear-shaped bag, the fundus -of which is in front and below, the neck behind and above. From the neck -passes the _cystic duct_, which is often twisted into the form of an S. -To the left of the gall bladder is the _quadrate lobe_, which is in -contact with the pylorus of the stomach. To the left of this is the -_left lobe_ of the liver, separated from the quadrate lobe by the -umbilical fissure in which lies the _round ligament_ of the liver, the -remains of the umbilical vein of the foetus. Sometimes this fissure is -partly turned into a tunnel by a bridge of liver substance known as the -_pons hepatis_. The under surface of the left lobe is concave for the -interior surface of the stomach (see ALIMENTARY CANAL: _Stomach -Chamber_), while a convexity, known as the _tuber omentale_, fits into -the lesser curvature of that organ. The posterior boundary of the -quadrate lobe is the _transverse fissure_, which is little more than an -inch long and more than half an inch wide. This fissure represents the -hilum of the liver, and contains the right and left hepatic ducts and -the right and left branches of the hepatic artery and portal vein, -together with nerves and lymphatics, the whole being enclosed in some -condensed subperitoneal tissue known as _Glisson's capsule_. Behind the -transverse fissure the lower end of the Spigelian lobe is seen as a knob -called the _tuber papillare_, and from the right of this a narrow bridge -runs forward and to the right to join the Spigelian lobe to the right -lobe and to shut off the transverse fissure from that for the vena cava. -This is the _caudate lobe_. The right surface of the liver is covered -with peritoneum and is in contact with the diaphragm, outside which are -the pleura and lower ribs. From its lower margin the _right lateral -ligament_ is reflected on to the diaphragm. A similar fold passes from -the tip of the left lobe as the _left lateral ligament_, and both these -are the lateral margins of the coronary ligament. Sometimes, especially -in women, a tongue-shaped projection downward of the right lobe is -found, known as _Riedel's lobe_; it is of clinical interest as it may be -mistaken for a tumour or floating kidney (see C. H. Leaf, _Proc. Anat. -Soc_., February 1899; _Journ. Anat. and Phys_. vol. 33, p. ix.). The -right and left _hepatic ducts_, while still in the transverse fissure, -unite into a single duct which joins the cystic duct from the gall -bladder at an acute angle. When these have united the duct is known as -the _common bile duct_, and runs down to the second part of the duodenum -(see ALIMENTARY CANAL). - -[Illustration: From A. Birmingham Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_. - -FIG. 1.--The Liver from below and behind, showing the whole of the -visceral surface and the posterior area of the parietal surface. The -portal fissure has been slightly opened up to show the vessels passing -through it; the other fissures are represented in their natural -condition--closed. In this liver, which was hardened _in situ_, the -impressions of the sacculations of the colon are distinctly visible at -the colic impression. The round ligament and the remains of the ductus -venosus are hidden in the depths of their fissures.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Transverse section through the hepatic lobules. - - i, i, i, Interlobular veins ending in the intralobular capillaries. - c, c, Central veins joined by the intralobular capillaries. At a, a - the capillaries of one lobule communicate with those adjacent to it.] - - _Minute Structure of the Liver._--The liver is made up of an enormous - number of _lobules_ of a conical form (see fig. 3). If the portal vein - is followed from the transverse fissure, it will be seen to branch and - rebranch until minute twigs called _interlobular veins_ (fig. 2, i) - ramify around the lobules. From these _intralobular capillaries_ run - toward the centre of the lobule, forming a network among the polygonal - hepatic cells. On reaching the core of the conical lobule they are - collected into a central or _intralobular vein_ (fig. 2, c) which - unites with other similar ones to form a _sublobular vein_ (fig. 3, - s). These eventually reach the hepatic radicles, and so the blood is - conducted into the vena cava. In man the lobules are not distinctly - separated one from the other, but in some animals, e.g. the pig, - each one has a fibrous sheath derived from Glisson's capsule (fig. 3, - ct.). - - _Embryology._--The liver first appears as an entodermal hollow - longitudinal outgrowth from the duodenum into the ventral mesentery. - The upper part of this forms the future liver, and grows up into the - _septum transversum_ from which the central part of the diaphragm is - formed (see DIAPHRAGM). From the cephalic part of this primary - diverticulum solid rods of cells called the _hepatic cylinders_ grow - out, and these branch again and again until a cellular network is - formed surrounding and breaking up the umbilical and vitelline veins. - The liver cells, therefore, are entodermal, but the supporting - connective tissue mesodermal from the septum transversum. The lower - (caudal) part of the furrow-like outgrowth remains hollow and forms - the gall bladder. At first the liver is embedded in the septum - transversum, but later the diaphragm and it are constricted off one - from the other, and soon the liver becomes very large and fills the - greater part of the abdomen. At birth it is proportionately much - larger than in the adult, and forms one-eighteenth instead of - one-fortieth of the body weight, the right and left lobes being nearly - equal in size. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Vertical section through two hepatic lobules - of a pig. - - c, c, Central veins receiving the intralobular capillaries. - s, Sublobular vein. - ct, Interlobular connective tissue forming the capsules of the - lobules. - i, i, Interlobular veins.] - - _Comparative Anatomy._--In the Acrania (Amphioxus) the liver is - probably represented by a single ventral diverticulum from the - anterior end of the intestine, which has a hepatic portal circulation - and secretes digestive fluid. In all the Craniata a solid liver is - developed. In the adult lamprey among the Cyclostomata the liver - undergoes retrogression, and the bile ducts and gall bladder - disappear, though they are present in the larval form (Ammocoetes). In - fishes and amphibians the organ consists of right and left lobes, and - a gall-bladder is present. The same description applies to the - reptiles, but a curious network of cystic ducts is found in snakes and - to a less extent in crocodiles. In the Varanidae (Monitors) the - hepatic duct is also retiform (see F. E. Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc_., - 1888, p. 105). In birds two lobes are also present, but in some of - them, _e.g_. the pigeon, there is no gall-bladder. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagrammatic Plan of the Inferior Surface of a - Multi-lobed Liver of a Mammal. The posterior or attached border is - uppermost. - - u, Umbilical vein of the foetus, represented by the round ligament - in the adult, lying in the umbilical fissure. - dv, The ductus venosus. - vc, The inferior vena cava. - p, The vena portae entering the transverse fissure. - llf, The left lateral fissure. - rlf, The right lateral fissure. - cf, The cystic fissure. - ll, The left lateral lobe. - lc, The left central lobe. - rc, The right central lobe. - rl, The right lateral lobe. - s, The Spigelian lobe. - c, The caudate lobe. - g, The gall bladder.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Human Liver showing a reversion to the - generalised mammalian type.] - - In mammals Sir William Flower pointed out that a generalized type of - liver exists, from which that of any mammal may be derived by - suppression or fusion of lobes. The accompanying diagram of Flower - (fig. 4) represents an ideal mammalian liver. It will be seen that the - umbilical fissure (u) divides the organ into right and left halves, as - in the lower vertebrates, but that the ventral part of each half is - divided into a central and lateral lobe. Passing from right to left - there are therefore: right lateral (rl), right central (rc), left - central (lc), and left lateral (ll) lobes. The gall-bladder (g), when - it is present, is always situated on the caudal surface or in the - substance of the right central lobe. The Spigelian (s) and caudate - lobes (c) belong to the right half of the liver, the latter being - usually a leaf-shaped lobe attached by its stalk to the Spigelian, and - having its blade flattened between the right lateral lobe and the - right kidney. The vena cava (vc) is always found to the right of the - Spigelian lobe and dorsal to the stalk of the caudate. In tracing the - lobulation of man's liver back to this generalized type, it is evident - at once that his quadrate lobe does not correspond to any one - generalized lobe, but is merely that part of the right central which - lies between the gall bladder and the umbilical fissure. From a - careful study of human variations (see A. Thomson, _Journ. Anat. and - Phys_. vol. 33, p. 546) compared with an Anthropoid liver, such as - that of the gorilla, depicted by W. H. L. Duckworth (_Morphology and - Anthropology_, Cambridge, 1904, p. 98), it is fairly clear that the - human liver is formed, not by a suppression of any of the lobes of the - generalized type, but by a fusion of those lobes and obliteration of - certain fissures. This fusion is, probably correctly, attributed by - Keith to the effect of pressure following the assumption of the erect - position (Keith, _Proc. Anat. Soc. of Gt. Britain, Journ. Anat. and - Phys_. vol. 33, p. xii.). The accompanying diagram (fig. 5) shows an - abnormal human liver in the Anatomical Department of St Thomas's - Hospital which reproduces the generalized type. In its lobulation it - is singularly like, in many details, that of the baboon (_Papio - maimon_) figured by G. Ruge (_Morph. Jahrb_., Bd. 35, p. 197); see F. - G. Parsons, _Proc. Anat. Soc_., Feb. 1904, _Journ. Anat. and Phys_. - vol. 33, p. xxiii. Georg Ruge "Die ausseren Formverhaltnisse der Leber - bei den Primaten," (_Morph. Jahrb_., Bd. 29 and 35) gives a critical - study of the primate liver, and among other things suggests the - recognition of the Spigelian and caudate lobes as parts of a single - lobe, for which he proposes the name of lobus venae cavae. This - doubtless would be an advantage morphologically, though for human - descriptive a natomy the present nomenclature is not likely to be - altered. - - The gall-bladder is usually present in mammals, but is wanting in the - odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla) and Procavia (Hyrax). In the - giraffe it may be absent or present. The cetacea and a few rodents are - also without it. In the otter the same curious network of bile ducts - already recorded in the reptiles is seen (see P. H. Burne, _Proc. - Anat. Soc., Journ. Anat. and Phys_. vol. 33, p. xi.). (F. G. P.) - -SURGERY OF LIVER AND GALL-BLADDER.--Exposed as it is in the upper part -of the abdomen, and being somewhat friable, the human liver is often -torn or ruptured by blows or kicks, and, the large blood-vessels being -thus laid open, fatal haemorrhage into the belly-cavity may take place. -The individual becomes faint, and the faintness keeps on increasing; and -there are pain and tenderness in the liver-region. The right thing to do -is to open the belly in the middle line, search for a wound in the liver -and treat it by deep sutures, or by plugging it with gauze. - -_Cirrhosis of the Liver._--As the result of chronic irritation of the -liver increased supplies of blood pass to it, and if the irritation is -unduly prolonged inflammation is the result. The commonest causes of -this chronic hepatitis are alcoholism and syphilis. The new fibrous -tissue which is developed throughout the liver, as the result of the -chronic inflammation, causes general enlargement of the liver with, -perhaps, nausea, vomiting and jaundice. Later the new fibrous tissue -undergoes contraction and the liver becomes smaller than natural. Blood -then finds difficulty in passing through it, and, as a result, dropsy -occurs in the belly (ascites). This may be relieved by tapping the -cavity with a small hollow needle (Southey's trocar), or by passing into -it a large sharp-pointed tube. This relieves the dropsy, but it does not -cure the condition on which the dropsy depends. A surgical operation is -sometimes undertaken with success for enabling the engorged veins to -empty themselves into the blood-stream in a manner so as to avoid the -liver-route. - -_Inflammation of the Liver_ (hepatitis) may also be caused by an attack -of micro-organisms which have reached it through the veins coming from -the large intestine, or through the main arteries. There are, of course, -as the result, pain and tenderness, and there is often jaundice. The -case should be treated by rest in bed, fomentations, calomel and saline -aperients. But when the hepatitis is of septic origin, suppuration is -likely to occur, the result being an hepatic abscess. - -_Hepatic Abscess_ is especially common in persons from the East who have -recently undergone an attack of dysentery. In addition to the local -pain and tenderness, there is a high temperature accompanied with -shiverings or occasional rigors, the patient becoming daily more thin -and miserable. Sometimes the abscess declares itself by a bulging at the -surface, but if not an incision should be made through the belly-wall -over the most tender spot, and a direct examination of the surface of -the liver made. A bulging having been found, that part of the liver -which apparently overlies the abscess should be stitched up to the sides -of the opening made in belly-wall, and should then be explored by a -hollow needle. Pus being found, the abscess should be freely opened and -drained. It is inadvisable to explore for a suspected abscess with a -hollow needle without first opening the abdomen, as septic fluid might -thus be enabled to leak out, and infect the general peritoneal cavity. -If an hepatic abscess is injudiciously left to itself it may eventually -discharge into the chest, lungs or belly, or it may establish a -communication with a piece of intestine. The only safe way for an -abscess to evacuate itself is on to the surface of the body. - -_Hydatic Cysts_ are often met with in the liver. They are due to a -peculiar development of the eggs of the tape-worm of the dog, which have -been received into the alimentary canal with infected water or uncooked -vegetables, such as watercress. The embryo of the taenia echinococcus -finds its way from the stomach or intestine into a vein passing to the -liver, and, settling itself in the liver, causes so much disturbance -there that a capsule of inflammatory material forms around it. Inside -this wall is the special covering of the embryo which shortly becomes -distended with clear hydatid fluid. The cyst should be treated like a -liver-abscess, by incision through the abdominal or thoracic wall, by -circumferential suturing and by exploration and drainage. - -_Tumours of the Liver_ may be innocent or malignant. The most important -of the former is the _gumma_ of tertiary syphilis; this may steadily and -completely disappear under the influence of iodide of potassium. The -commonest form of malignant tumour is the result of the growth of -cancerous elements which have been brought to the liver by the veins -coming up from a primary focus of the large intestine. Active surgical -treatment of such a tumour is out of the question. Fortunately it is, as -a rule, painless. - -_The Gall-bladder_ may be ruptured by external violence, and if bile -escapes from the rent in considerable quantities peritonitis will be set -up, whether the bile contains septic germs or not. If, on opening the -abdomen to find out what serious effects some severe injury has caused, -the gall-bladder be found torn, the rent may be sewn up, or, if thought -better, the gall-bladder may be removed. The peritoneal surfaces in the -region of the liver should then be wiped clean, and the abdominal wound -closed, except for the passage through it of a gauze drain. - -Biliary concretions, known as _gall stones_, are apt to form in the -gall-bladder. They are composed of crystals of bile-fat, cholesterine. -Sometimes in the course of a _post-mortem_ examination a gall-bladder is -found packed full of gall-stones which during life had caused no -inconvenience and had given rise to no suspicion of their presence. In -other cases gall-stones set up irritation in the gall-bladder which runs -on to inflammation, and the gall-bladder being infected by septic germs -from the intestine (_bacilli coli_) an abscess forms. - -_Abscess of the Gall-bladder_ gives rise to a painful, tender swelling -near the cartilage of the ninth rib of the right side. If the abscess is -allowed to take its course, adhesions may form around it and it may -burst into the intestine or on to the surface of the abdomen, a _biliary -fistula_ remaining. Abscess in the gall-bladder being suspected, an -incision should be made down to it, and, its covering having been -stitched to the abdominal wall, the gall-bladder should be opened and -drained. The presence of concretions in the gall-bladder may not only -lead to the formation of abscess but also to invasion of the -gall-bladder by cancer. - -Stones in the gall-bladder should be removed by operation, as, if left, -there is a great risk of their trying to escape with the bile into the -intestine and thus causing a blockage of the common bile-duct, and -perhaps a fatal leakage of bile into the peritoneum through a -perforating ulcer of the duct. If before opening the gall-bladder the -surface is stitched to the deepest part of the abdominal wound, the -biliary fistula left as the result of the opening of the abscess will -close in due course. - -"Biliary colic" is the name given to the distressing symptoms associated -with the passage of a stone through the narrow bile-duct. The individual -is doubled up with acute pains which, starting from the hepatic region, -spread through the abdomen and radiate to the right shoulder blade. -Inasmuch as the stone is blocking the duct, the bile is unable to flow -into the intestine; so, being absorbed by the blood-vessels, it gives -rise to jaundice. The distress is due to spasmodic muscular contraction, -and it comes on at intervals, each attack increasing the patient's -misery. He breaks out into profuse sweats and may vomit. If the stone -happily finds its way into the intestine the distress suddenly ceases. -In the meanwhile relief may be afforded by fomentations, and by morphia -or chloroform, but if no prospect of the stone escaping into the -intestine appears likely, the surgeon will be called upon to remove it -by an incision through the gall-bladder, or the bile-duct, or through -the intestine at the spot where it is trying to make its escape. -Sometimes a gall-stone which has found its way into the intestine is -large enough to block the bowel and give rise to intestinal obstruction -which demands abdominal section. - - A person who is of what used to be called a "biliary nature" should - live sparingly and take plenty of exercise. He should avoid fat and - rich food, butter, pastry and sauces, and should drink no beer or - wine--unless it be some very light French wine or Moselle. He should - keep his bowels regular, or even loose, taking every morning a dose of - sulphate of soda in a glass of hot water. A course at Carlsbad, Vichy - or Contrexeville, may be helpful. It is doubtful if drugs have any - direct influence upon gall-stones, such as sulphate of soda, olive oil - or oleate of soda. No reliance can be placed upon massage in producing - the onward passage of a gall-stone from the gall-bladder towards the - intestine. Indeed this treatment might be not only distressing but - harmful. (E. O.*) - - - - -LIVERMORE, MARY ASHTON [RICE] (1821-1905), American reformer, was born -in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 19th of December 1821. She studied at -the female seminary at Charlestown, Mass.; taught French and Latin -there, taught in a plantation school in southern Virginia; and for -three years conducted a school of her own in Duxbury, Mass. Upon -returning from Virginia she had joined the abolitionists, and she took -an active part in the Washingtonian temperance movement.[1] In 1845 she -married Daniel Parker Livermore (1819-1899), a Universalist clergyman. -In 1857 they removed to Chicago, Illinois, where she assisted her -husband in editing the religious weekly, _The New Covenant_ (1857-1869). -During the Civil War, as an associate member of the United States -Sanitary Commission, and as an agent of its North-western branch, she -organized many aid societies, contributed to the success of the -North-western Sanitary Fair in Chicago in 1863, and visited army posts -and hospitals. After the war she devoted herself to the promotion of -woman's suffrage and to temperance reform, founding in Chicago in 1869 -_The Agitator_, which in 1870 was merged into the _Woman's Journal_ -(Boston), of which she was an associate editor until 1872. She died in -Melrose, Mass. on the 23rd of May 1905. She had been president of the -Illinois, the Massachusetts and the American woman's suffrage -associations, the Massachusetts Woman's Christian Temperance Union and -the Woman's Congress, and a member of many other societies. She lectured -in the United States, England and Scotland, contributed to magazines and -wrote: _The Children's Army_ (1844), temperance stories; _Thirty Years -Too Late_ (1848), a temperance story; _A Mental Transformation_ (1848); -_Pen Pictures_ (1863), short stories; _What Shall We Do With Our -Daughters? and Other Lectures_ (1883); _My Story of the War_ (1888); and -_The Story of My Life_ (1897). With Frances E. Willard, she edited _A -Woman of the Century: Biographical Sketches of Leading American Women_ -(1893). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] This movement was started in 1840 by habitues of a Baltimore - (Md.) tavern, who then founded the Washington Temperance Society - (named in honour of George Washington). The movement spread rapidly - in 1841-1843, but by the close of 1843 it had nearly spent its force. - The members of the Society made a pledge not to drink spirituous or - malt liquors, wine or cider. Women organized Martha Washington - Societies as auxiliary organizations. - - - - -LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF. CHARLES JENKINSON, 1st earl of Liverpool -(1729-1808), English statesman, eldest son of Colonel Charles Jenkinson -(d. 1750) and grandson of Sir Robert Jenkinson, Bart., of Walcot, -Oxfordshire, was born at Winchester on the 16th of May 1729. The family -was descended from Anthony Jenkinson (d. 1611), sea-captain, merchant -and traveller, the first Englishman to penetrate into Central Asia. -Charles was educated at Charterhouse school and University College, -Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1752. In 1761 he entered parliament -as member for Cockermouth and was made under-secretary of state by Lord -Bute; he won the favour of George III., and when Bute retired Jenkinson -became the leader of the "king's friends" in the House of Commons. In -1763 George Grenville appointed him joint secretary to the treasury; in -1766, after a short retirement, he became a lord of the admiralty and -then a lord of the treasury in the Grafton administration; and from 1778 -until the close of Lord North's ministry in 1782 he was -secretary-at-war. From 1786 to 1801 he was president of the board of -trade and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and he was popularly -regarded as enjoying the confidence of the king to a special degree. In -1772 Jenkinson became a privy councillor and vice-treasurer of Ireland, -and in 1775 he purchased the lucrative sinecure of clerk of the pells in -Ireland and became master of the mint. In 1786 he was created Baron -Hawkesbury, and ten years later earl of Liverpool. He died in London on -the 17th of December 1808. Liverpool was twice married: firstly to -Amelia (d. 1770), daughter of William Watts, governor of Fort William, -Bengal, and secondly to Catherine, daughter of Sir Cecil Bisshoff, -Bart., and widow of Sir Charles Cope, Bart.; he had a son by each -marriage. He wrote several political works, but except his _Treatise on -the Coins of the Realm_ (1805) these are without striking merits. They -are, _Dissertation on the establishment of a national and constitutional -force in England independent of a standing army_ (1756); _Discourse on -the conduct of the government of Great Britain respecting neutral -nations_ (1758, new ed., 1837); and _Collection of Treaties between -Great Britain and other Powers 1648-1783_ (1785). His _Coins of the -Realm_ was reprinted by the Bank of England in 1880. - -His son, ROBERT BANKS JENKINSON, 2nd earl (1770-1828), was educated at -Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he had George Canning, -afterwards his close political associate, for a contemporary. In 1790 he -entered parliament as member for Appleby; he became master of the mint -in 1799 and foreign secretary in Addington's administration in 1801, -when he conducted the negotiations for the abortive treaty of Amiens. On -the accession of Pitt to power in 1804, he obtained the home office, -having in the previous year been elevated as Baron Hawkesbury to the -House of Lords, where he acted as leader of the government. He declined -the premiership on the death of Pitt in 1806, and remained out of office -until Portland became prime minister in 1807, when he again became -secretary of state for home affairs. In 1808 he succeeded his father as -earl of Liverpool. In the ministry of Spencer Perceval (1809-1812) he -was secretary for war and the colonies. After the assassination of -Perceval in May 1812 he became prime minister, and retained office till -compelled in February 1827 to resign by the illness (paralysis) which -terminated his life on the 4th of December 1828. - -The political career of the 2nd Lord Liverpool was of a negative -character so far as legislation was concerned; but he held office in -years of great danger and depression, during which he "kept order among -his colleagues, composed their quarrels, and oiled the wheels to make it -possible for the machinery of government to work" (Spencer Walpole). The -energy of Castlereagh and Canning secured the success of the foreign -policy of his cabinet, but in his home policy he was always retrograde. -The introduction of the bill of pains and penalties against Queen -Caroline greatly increased his unpopularity, originated by the severe -measures of repression employed to quell the general distress, which had -been created by the excessive taxation which followed the Napoleonic -wars. Lord Liverpool was destitute of wide sympathies and of true -political insight, and his resignation of office was followed almost -immediately by the complete and permanent reversal of his domestic -policy. He was twice married but had no children, and he was succeeded -by his half-brother CHARLES CECIL COPE JENKINSON, 3rd earl (1784-1851), -who left three daughters. The baronetcy then passed to a cousin, and the -peerage became extinct. But in 1905 the earldom was revived in the -person of the 3rd earl's grandson, CECIL GEORGE SAVILE FOLJAMBE -(1846-1907), who had been a Liberal member of parliament from 1880 to -1892, and in 1893 was created Baron Hawkesbury. He was succeeded in 1907 -by his son, Arthur (b. 1870). - - For the life of the 2nd earl see the anonymous _Memoirs of the Public - Life and Administration of Liverpool_ (1827); C. D. Yonge, _Life and - Administration of the 2nd Earl of Liverpool_ (1868); T. E. Kebbel, - _History of Toryism_ (1886); and Sir S. Walpole, _History of England_, - vol. ii. (1890). - - - - -LIVERPOOL, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and -seaport of Lancashire, England, 201 m. N.W. of London by rail, situated -on the right bank of the estuary of the Mersey, the centre of the city -being about 3 m. from the open sea. The form of the city is that of an -irregular semicircle, having the base line formed by the docks and quays -extending about 9 m. along the east bank of the estuary, which here runs -nearly north and south, and varies in breadth from 1 to 2 m. On the -north the city is partly bounded by the borough of Bootle, along the -shore of which the line of docks is continued. The area of the city is -16,619 acres exclusive of water area. The population at the census of -1901 was 684,958; the estimated population in 1908 was 753,203; the -birth-rate for 1907 was 31.7 and the death-rate 18.3; in 1908 the -rateable value was L4,679,520. - -[Illustration: Liverpool Map.] - -The city lies on a continuous slope varying in gradient, but in some -districts very steep. Exposed to the western sea breezes, with a dry -subsoil and excellent natural drainage, the site is naturally healthy. -The old borough, lying between the pool, now completely obliterated, and -the river, was a conglomeration of narrow alleys without any regard to -sanitary provisions; and during the 16th and 17th centuries it was -several times visited by plague. When the town expanded beyond its -original limits, and spread up the slopes beyond the pool, a better -state of things began to exist. The older parts of the town have at -successive periods been entirely taken down and renovated. The -commercial part of the city is remarkable for the number of palatial -piles of offices, built chiefly of stone, among which the banks and -insurance offices stand pre-eminent. The demand for cottages about the -beginning of the 19th century led to the construction of what are called -"courts," being narrow _culs de sac_, close packed, with no through -ventilation. This resulted in a high rate of mortality, to contend with -which enormous sums have been expended in sanitary reforms of various -kinds. The more modern cottages and blocks of artisan dwellings have -tended to reduce the rate of mortality. - -_Parks._--The earliest public park, the Prince's Park, was laid out in -1843 by private enterprise, and is owned by trustees, but the reversion -has been acquired by the corporation. Sefton Park, the most extensive, -containing 269 acres, was opened in 1872. A large portion of the land -round the margin has been leased for the erection of villas. Wavertree, -Newsham, Sheil and Stanley Parks have also been constructed at the -public expense. Connected with Wavertree Park are the botanic gardens. A -palm house in Sefton Park was opened in 1896 and a conservatory in -Stanley Park in 1900. Since 1882 several of the city churchyards and -burial grounds and many open spaces have been laid out as gardens and -recreation grounds. A playground containing 108 acres in Wavertree was -presented to the city in 1895 by an anonymous donor, and in 1902 the -grounds of a private residence outside the city boundaries containing 94 -acres were acquired and are now known as Calderstones Park. In 1906 -about 100 acres of land in Roby, also outside the boundaries, was -presented to the city. The total area of the parks and gardens of the -city, not including the two last named, is 881(1/2) acres. A boulevard -about 1 m. in length, planted with trees in the centre, leads to the -entrance of Prince's Park. - -_Public Buildings._--Scarcely any of the public buildings date from an -earlier period than the 19th century. One of the earliest, and in many -respects the most interesting, is the town-hall in Castle Street. This -was erected from the designs of John Wood of Bath, and was opened in -1754. The building has since undergone considerable alterations and -extensions, but the main features remain. It is a rectangular stone -building in the Corinthian style, with an advanced portico added to the -original building in 1811, and crowned with a lofty dome surmounted by a -seated statue of Britannia, added in 1802. The interior was destroyed by -fire in 1795, and was entirely remodelled in the restoration. In 1900 -considerable alterations in the internal structure were made, and the -council chamber extended so as to afford accommodation for the enlarged -council. It contains a splendid suite of apartments, including a -ball-room approached by a noble staircase. The building is occupied by -the mayor as the municipal mansion house. A range of municipal offices -was erected in Dale Street in 1860. The building is in the Palladian -style, with a dominating tower and square pyramidal spire. - -The crowning architectural feature of Liverpool is St George's Hall, -completed in 1854. The original intention was to erect a hall suited for -the triennial music festivals which had been held in the town. About the -same time the corporation proposed to erect law-courts for the assizes, -which had been transferred to Liverpool and Manchester. In the -competitive designs, the first prize was gained in both cases by Harvey -Lonsdale Elmes. He was employed to combine the two objects in a new -design, of which the present building is the outcome. It is fortunate in -its situation, occupying the most central position in the town, and -surrounded by an area sufficiently extensive to exhibit its proportions, -an advantage which was accentuated in 1898 by the removal of St John's -church, which previously prevented an uninterrupted view of the west -side. The plan is simple. The centre is occupied by the great hall, 169 -ft. in length, and, with the galleries, 87 ft. wide and 74 ft. high, -covered with a solid vault in masonry. Attached to each end, and opening -therefrom, are the law-courts. A corridor runs round the hall and the -courts, communicating with the various accessory rooms. Externally the -east front is faced with a fine portico of sixteen Corinthian columns -about 60 ft. in height. An advanced portico of similar columns fronts -the south end crowned with a pediment filled with sculpture. The style -is Roman, but the refinement of the details is suggestive of the best -period of Grecian art. The great hall is finished with polished granite -columns, marble balustrades and pavements, polished brass doors with -foliated tracery. The fine organ was built by Messrs Willis of London, -from the specification of Dr Samuel Wesley. Elmes having died in 1847 -during the progress of the work, the building was completed by C. R. -Cockerell, R.A. - -Next to the public buildings belonging to the city, the most important -is the exchange, forming three sides of a quadrangle on the north side -of the town-hall. The town-hall was originally built to combine a -mercantile exchange with municipal offices, but the merchants preferred -to meet in the open street adjoining. This, with other circumstances, -led to the erection of a new exchange, a building of considerable merit, -which was begun in 1803 and opened in 1808. It had scarcely been in use -for more than fifty years when it was found that the wants of commerce -had outstripped the accommodation, and the structure was taken down to -make room for the present building. - -The revenue buildings, begun in 1828 on the site of the original -Liverpool dock, formerly combined the customs, inland revenue, -post-office and dock board departments but are now only used by the two -first named. It is a heavy structure, with three advanced porticoes in -the Ilyssus Ionic style. Near by stands the sailors' home, a large -building in the Elizabethan style. The Philharmonic Hall in Hope Street, -with not much pretension externally, is one of the finest music rooms in -the kingdom; it accommodates an audience of about 2500. - -The group of buildings forming the county sessions house, the free -public library, museum, central technical school and gallery of art are -finely situated on the slope to the north of St George's Hall. The -library and gallery of art are separate buildings, connected by the -circular reading-room in the middle. The latter possesses some features -in construction worthy of note, having a circular floor 100 ft. in -diameter without columns or any intermediate support, and a lecture-room -underneath, amphitheatrical in form, with grades or benches hewn out of -the solid rock. In 1884 the county sessions house just mentioned, -adjoining the art gallery was opened for public business. In 1899 new -post-office buildings in Victoria Street were completed. In 1907 two -important additions were made to the buildings of Liverpool, the new -offices of the dock board, built on the site of a portion of the Old -George's dock, and the new cotton exchange in Oldhall street. The fine -mass of buildings which constitute the university and the Royal -Infirmary, lying between Brownlow Hill and Pembroke Place, both groups -designed by Alfred Waterhouse, was begun in 1885. - -Liverpool cathedral, intended when completed to be the largest in the -country, from designs by G. F. Bodley and G. Gilbert Scott, was begun in -1904, when the foundation stone was laid by King Edward VII. The -foundations were completed in 1906 and the superstructure begun. The -foundation of the chapter-house was laid in that year by the duke of -Connaught, and work was then begun on the Lady chapel, the vestries and -the choir. - - _Railways._--There are three terminal passenger stations in Liverpool, - the London & North Western at Lime Street, the Lancashire & Yorkshire - at Exchange and the combined station of the Midland, Great Northern & - Great Central at Central. By the Mersey tunnel (opened in 1886) - connexion is made with the Wirral railway, the Great Central, the - Great Western and the London & North Western, on the Cheshire side of - the river. The Liverpool electric overhead railway running along the - line of docks from Seaforth to Dingle was opened in 1893, and in 1905 - a junction was made with the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway by which - through passenger traffic between Southport and the Dingle has been - established. In 1895 the Riverside station at the Prince's dock was - completed, giving direct access from the landing stage to the London - and North Western system. - - _Water Supply._--The original supply of water was from wells in the - sandstone rock, but in 1847 an act was passed, under which extensive - works were constructed at Rivington, about 25 m. distant, and a much - larger supply was obtained. The vast increase of population led to - further requirements, and in 1880 another act gave power to impound - the waters of the Vyrnwy, one of the affluents of the Severn. These - works were completed in 1892, a temporary supply having been obtained - a year earlier. The corporation had also, however, obtained power to - impound the waters of the Conwy and Marchnant rivers, and to bring - them into Lake Vyrnwy, the main reservoir, by means of tunnels. This - work was completed and opened by the prince of Wales (George V.) in - March 1910. - - _Tramways._--The corporation in 1896 purchased the property, rights, - powers and privileges of the Liverpool Electric Supply Company, and in - the following year the undertaking of the Liverpool Tramway Company, - which they formally took over in the autumn of the same year. Since - that date a large and extended system of electric tramways has been - laid down, which has led to a very remarkable increase in the receipts - and the number of passengers carried. - - _Administration of Justice._--The city has quarter-sessions for - criminal cases, presided over by the recorder, and held eight times in - the year. At least two police courts sit daily, and more if required. - One is presided over by the stipendiary magistrate and the others by - the lay magistrates and the coroner. The court of passage is a very - ancient institution, possibly dating from the foundation of the - borough by King John, and intended for cases arising out of the - imports and exports passing through the town. Its jurisdiction has - been confirmed and settled by parliament and it is competent to try - civil cases arising within the city to any amount. The mayor is - _ex-officio_ the judge, but the presiding judge is an assessor - appointed by the crown and paid by the corporation. The court sits - about five times a year. There is a Liverpool district registry of the - chancery of the County Palatine of Lancaster which has concurrent - jurisdiction with the high court (chancery division) within the - hundred of West Derby. The vice-chancellor holds sittings in - Liverpool. There is a Liverpool district registry of the high court of - justice with common law, chancery, probate and admiralty jurisdiction, - under two district registrars. The Liverpool county court has the - usual limited jurisdiction over a wide local area, together with - bankruptcy jurisdiction over the county court districts of St Helens, - Widnes, Ormskirk and Southport, and admiralty jurisdiction over the - same districts with the addition of Birkenhead, Chester, Runcorn and - Warrington. There are two judges attached to the court. - - _Ecclesiastical._--The see of Liverpool was created in 1880 under the - act of 1879, by the authority of the ecclesiastical commissioners, an - endowment fund of about L100,000 having been subscribed for the - purpose. The parish, which was separated from Walton-on-the-Hill in - 1699, contained two churches, St Nicholas, the ancient chapel, and St - Peter's, then built. There were two rectors, the living being held in - medieties. Of recent years changes have been sanctioned by parliament. - The living is now held by a single incumbent, and a large number of - the churches which have since been built have been formed into - parishes by the ecclesiastical commissioners. St Peter's has been - constituted the pro-cathedral, pending the erection of the cathedral. - Besides the two original parish churches, there are 103 others - belonging to the establishment. The Roman Catholics form a very - numerous and powerful body in the city, and it is estimated that from - a third to a fourth of the entire population are Roman Catholics. A - large part of these are Irish settlers or their descendants, but this - district of Lancashire has always been a stronghold of Roman - Catholicism, many of the landed gentry belonging to old Roman Catholic - families. - - _Charities._--The earliest charitable foundation is the Blue Coat - hospital, established in 1708, for orphans and fatherless children - born within the borough. The original building, opened in 1718, is a - quaint and characteristic specimen of the architecture of the period. - It now maintains two hundred and fifty boys and one hundred girls. In - 1906 the school was removed to new buildings at Wavertree. There is an - orphan asylum, established in 1840, for boys, girls and infants, and a - seamen's orphan asylum, begun in 1869, for boys and girls. The Roman - Catholics have similar establishments. The Liverpool dispensaries - founded in 1778 were among the pioneers of medical charity. The Royal - Infirmary (opened in 1749) had a school of medicine attached, which - has been very successful, and is now merged in the university. The - sailors' home, opened in 1852, designed to provide board, lodging and - medical attendance at a moderate charge for the seamen frequenting the - port, is one of Liverpool's best-known charities. The David Lewis - Workmen's Hostel is an effort to solve the difficulty of providing - accommodation for unmarried men of the artizan class. - - _Literature, Art and Science._--The free library, museum and gallery - of arts, established and managed by the city council, was originated - in 1850. The first library building was erected by Sir William Brown. - The Derby museum, containing the collections of Edward, the 13th earl, - was presented by his son. The Mayer museum of historical antiquities - and art was contributed by Mr Joseph Mayer, F.S.A. Sir Andrew Walker - (d. 1893) erected in 1877 the art gallery which bears his name. Large - additions were made in 1884, the cost being again defrayed by Sir - Andrew Walker. An annual exhibition of painting is held in the autumn - and a permanent collection has been formed, which was augmented in - 1894 when the examples of early Italian art numbering altogether about - 180 pictures, collected at the beginning of the 19th century by - William Roscoe, were deposited in the gallery. The Picton circular - reading-room, and the rotunda lecture-room were built by the - corporation and opened in 1879. Alterations in the museum were - completed in 1902 by which its size was practically doubled. The - literary and philosophical society was established in 1812. The Royal - Institution, established mainly through the efforts of Roscoe in 1817, - possessed a fine gallery of early art in the Walker Art Gallery, and - is the centre of the literary institutions of the town. - - _Education._--Sunday schools were founded for poor children in 1784, - as the result of a town's meeting. These were soon followed by - day-schools supplied by the various denominations. The first were the - Old Church schools in Moorfields (1789), the Unitarian schools in - Mount Pleasant (1790) and Manesty Lane (1792) and the Wesleyan - Brunswick school (1790). In 1826 the corporation founded two - elementary schools, one of which, the North Corporation school, was - erected in part substitution for the grammar school founded by John - Crosse, rector of St Nicholas Fleshshambles, London, a native of - Liverpool, in 1515, and carried on by the Corporation until 1815. From - this date onward the number rapidly increased until the beginning of - the School Board in 1870, and afterwards. Mention should be made of - the training ship "Indefatigable" moored in the Mersey for the sons - and orphans of sailors, and the reformatory institution at Heswall, - Co. Chester, which has recently replaced the training ship "Akbar" - formerly moored in the Mersey. Semi-private schools were founded by - public subscription--the Royal Institution school (1819), the - Liverpool Institute (1825) and the Liverpool College (1840). The first - has ceased to exist. The Institute was a development of the Mechanics' - Institute and was managed by a council of subscribers. It was divided - into a high school and a commercial school. Under a scheme of the - Board of Education under the Charitable Trusts Act this school, - together with the Blackburne House high school for girls, became a - public secondary school and was handed over to the corporation in - 1905. Liverpool College was formerly divided into three schools, - upper, middle and lower, for different classes of the community. The - middle and lower schools passed into the control of the corporation in - 1907. The Sefton Park elementary school and the Pupil Teachers' - College in Clarence Street were transformed into municipal secondary - schools for boys and girls in 1907; the corporation has also a - secondary school for girls at Aigburth. There are several schools - maintained by the Roman Catholics, two schools of the Girls' Public - Day School Company and a large number of private schools. A cadet - ship, the "Conway," for the training of boys intending to become - officers in the mercantile marine, is moored in the Mersey. There are - two training colleges for women, one undenominational, and the other - conducted by the sisters of Notre Dame for Roman Catholic women. The - central municipal technical school is in the Museum Buildings, and - there are three branch technical schools. There are also a nautical - college, a school of cookery and a school of art controlled by the - Education Committee. - - Liverpool University, as University College, received its charter of - incorporation in 1881, and in 1884 was admitted as a college of the - Victoria University. In the same year the medical school of the Royal - Infirmary became part of the University College. In 1900 a - supplemental charter extended the powers of self-government and - brought the college into closer relations with the authorities of the - city and with local institutions by providing for their fuller - representation on the court of governors. In 1903 the charter of - incorporation of the university of Liverpool was received, thus - constituting it an independent university. The university is governed - by the king as visitor, by a chancellor, two pro-chancellors, a - vice-chancellor and a treasurer, by a court of over 300 members - representing donors and public bodies, a council, senate, faculties - and convocation. The fine group of buildings is situated on Brownlow - Hill. - - _Trade and Commerce._--In 1800 the tonnage of ships entering the port - was 490,060; in 1908 it reached 17,111,814 tons. In 1800 4746 vessels - entered, averaging 94 tons; in 1908 there were 25,739, averaging 665 - tons. The commerce of Liverpool extends to every part of the world, - but probably the intercourse with North America stands pre-eminent, - there being lines of steamers to New York, Philadelphia, Boston, - Baltimore, Galveston, New Orleans and the Canadian ports. Cotton is - the great staple import. Grain comes next, American (North and South) - and Australian wheat and oats occupying a large proportion of the - market. An enormous trade in American provisions, including live - cattle, is carried on. Tobacco has always been a leading article of - import into Liverpool, along with the sugar and rum from the West - Indies. Timber forms an important part of the imports, the stacking - yards extending for miles along the northern docks. In regard to - exports, Liverpool possesses decided advantages; lying so near the - great manufacturing districts of Lancashire and the West Riding of - Yorkshire, this port is the natural channel of transmission for their - goods, although the Manchester ship canal diverts a certain proportion - of the traffic, while coal and salt are also largely exported. - - _Manufactures._--The manufactures of Liverpool are not extensive. - Attempts have been repeatedly made to establish cotton mills in and - near the city, but have resulted in failure. Engineering works, - especially connected with marine navigation, have grown up on a large - scale. Shipbuilding, in the early part of the 19th century, was active - and prosperous, but has practically ceased. During the latter half of - the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, pottery and china - manufacture flourished in Liverpool. John Sadler, a Liverpool - manufacturer, was the inventor of printing on pottery, and during the - early period of Josiah Wedgwood's career all his goods which required - printing had to be sent to Liverpool. A large establishment, called - the Herculaneum Pottery, was founded in a suburb on the bank of the - Mersey, but the trade has long disappeared. Litherland, the inventor - of the lever watch, was a Liverpool manufacturer, and Liverpool-made - watches have always been held in high estimation. There are several - extensive sugar refineries and corn mills. The confectionery trade has - developed during recent years, several large works having been built, - induced by the prospect of obtaining cheap sugar directly from the - Liverpool quays. The cutting, blending and preparing of crude tobacco - have led to the erection of factories employing some thousands of - hands. There are also large mills for oil-pressing and making - cattle-cake. - -_Docks._--The docks of the port of Liverpool on both sides of the Mersey -are owned and managed by the same public trust, the Mersey Docks and -Harbour Board. On the Liverpool side they extend along the margin of the -estuary 6(1/2) m., of which 1(1/4) m. is in the borough of Bootle. The -Birkenhead docks have not such a frontage, but they extend a long way -backward. The water area of the Liverpool docks and basins is 418 acres, -with a lineal quayage of 27 m. The Birkenhead docks, including the great -float of 120 acres, contain a water area of 165 acres, with a lineal -quayage of 9(1/2) m. The system of enclosed docks was begun by the -corporation in 1709. They constituted from the first a public trust, the -corporation never having derived any direct revenue from them, though -the common council of the borough were the trustees, and in the first -instance formed the committee of management. Gradually the payers of -dock rates on ships and goods acquired influence, and were introduced -into the governing body, and ultimately, by an act of 1857, the -corporation was superseded. The management is vested in the Mersey Docks -and Harbour Board, consisting of twenty-eight members, four of whom are -nominated by the Mersey Conservancy commissioners, who consist of the -first lord of the Admiralty, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster -and the president of the Board of Trade, and the rest elected by the -payers of rates on ships and goods, of whom a register is kept and -annually revised. The revenue is derived from tonnage rates on ships, -dock rates on goods, town dues on goods, with various minor sources of -income. - -Down to 1843 the docks were confined to the Liverpool side of the -Mersey. Several attempts made to establish docks in Cheshire had been -frustrated by the Liverpool corporation, who bought up the land and kept -it in their own hands. In 1843, however, a scheme for docks in -Birkenhead was carried through which ultimately proved unsuccessful, and -the enterprise was acquired in 1855 by Liverpool. The Birkenhead docks -were for many years only partially used, but are now an important -centre for corn-milling, the importation of foreign cattle and export -trade to the East. In addition to the wet docks, there are in Liverpool -fourteen graving docks and three in Birkenhead, besides a gridiron on -the Liverpool side. - -The first portion of the great landing stage, known as the Georges' -stage, was constructed in 1847, from the plans of Mr (afterwards Sir) -William Cubitt, F.R.S. This was 500 ft. long. In 1857 the Prince's -stage, 1000 ft. long, was built to the north of the Georges' stage and -distant from it 500 ft. In 1874 the intervening space was filled up and -the Georges' stage reconstructed. The fabric had just been completed, -and was waiting to be inaugurated, when on the 28th of July 1874 it was -destroyed by fire. It was again constructed with improvements. In 1896 -it was farther extended to the north, and its length is now 2478 ft. and -its breadth 80 ft. It is supported on floating pontoons about 200 in -number, connected with the river wall by eight bridges, besides a -floating bridge for heavy traffic 550 ft. in length and 35 ft. in width. -The southern half is devoted to the traffic of the Mersey ferries, of -which there are seven--New Brighton, Egremont, Seacombe, Birkenhead, -Rock Ferry, New Ferry and Eastham. The northern half is used by -ocean-going steamers and their tenders. The warehouses for storing -produce form a prominent feature in the commercial part of the city. -Down to 1841 these were entirely in private hands, distributed as chance -might direct, but in that year a determined effort was made to construct -docks with warehouses on the margin of the quays. This met with -considerable opposition from those interested, and led to a municipal -revolution, but the project was ultimately carried out in the -construction of the Albert dock and warehouses, which were opened by -Prince Albert in 1845. For general produce these warehouses are falling -somewhat into disuse, but grain warehouses have been constructed by the -dock board at Liverpool and Birkenhead, with machinery for discharging, -elevating, distributing, drying and delivering. Warehouses for the -storage of tobacco and wool have also been built by the board. The -Stanley tobacco warehouse is the largest of its kind in the world, the -area of its fourteen floors being some 36 acres. - - Dredging operations at the bar of the Queen's channel, in the channel - itself and at the landing stage enables the largest ocean liners to - enter the river and approach the stage at practically all states of - the tide. The dredging at the bar was begun as an experiment in - September 1890 by two of the board's ordinary hopper barges of 500 - tons capacity each fitted with centrifugal pumps. The result was - favourable, and larger vessels have been introduced. Before dredging - was begun the depth of water at dead low water of spring tides on the - bar was only 11 ft.; now there is about 28 ft. under the same - conditions. The space over which dredging has been carried on at the - bar measures about 7000 ft. by 1250 ft., the latter being the average - width of the buoyed cut or channel through the bar. Dredging has also - taken place on shoals and projections of sand-banks in the main sea - channels. - -_Municipality._--Under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835, the boundaries -of the original borough were extended by the annexation of portions of -the surrounding district, while further additions were made in 1895, -1902 and 1905. The city is divided into thirty-five wards with 103 -councillors and 34 aldermen. In 1893 the title of mayor was raised to -that of lord mayor. In 1885 the number of members of parliament was -increased to nine by the creation of six new wards. The corporation of -Liverpool has possessed from a very early period considerable landed -property, the first grant having been made by Thomas, earl of Lancaster, -in 1309. This land was originally of value only as a source of supply of -turf for firing, but in modern times its capacity as building land has -been a fruitful source of profit to the town. A large proportion of the -southern district is held in freehold by the corporation and leased to -tenants for terms of seventy-five years, renewable from time to time on -a fixed scale of fines. There was formerly another source of income now -cut off. The fee farm rents and town dues originally belonging to the -crown were purchased from the Molyneux family in 1672 on a long lease, -and subsequently in 1777 converted into a perpetuity. With the growth of -the commerce of the port these dues enormously increased, and became a -cause of great complaint by the shipping interest. In 1856 a bill was -introduced into parliament, and passed, by which the town dues were -transferred to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board on payment of -L1,500,000, which was applied in part to the liquidation of the bonded -debt of the corporation, amounting to L1,150,000. - -_History._--During the Norse irruption of the 8th century colonies of -Norsemen settled on both sides of the Mersey, as is indicated by some of -the place-names. After the Conquest, the site of Liverpool formed part -of the fief (inter Ripam et Mersham) granted by the Conqueror to Roger -de Poictou, one of the great family of Montgomery. Although Liverpool is -not named in Domesday it is believed to have been one of the six -berewicks dependent on the manor of West Derby therein mentioned. After -various forfeitures and regrants from the crown, it was handed over by -Henry II. to his falconer Warine. In a deed executed by King John, then -earl of Mortain, about 1191, confirming the grant of this with other -manors to Henry Fitzwarine, son of the former grantee, the name of -Liverpool first occurs. Probably its most plausible derivation is from -the Norse _Hlithar-pollr_, "the pool of the slopes," the pool or inlet -at the mouth of which the village grew up being surrounded by gently -rising slopes. Another possible derivation is from the Prov. E. _lever_, -the yellow flag or rush, A.S. _laefer_. - -After the partial conquest of Ireland by Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, -under Henry II., the principal ports of communication were Bristol for -the south and Chester for the north. The gradual silting up of the river -Dee soon so obstructed the navigation as to render Chester unsuitable. A -quay was then constructed at Shotwick, about 8 m. below Chester, with a -castle to protect it from the incursions of the neighbouring Welsh; but -a better site was sought and soon found. Into the tidal waters of the -Mersey a small stream, fed by a peat moss on the elevated land to the -eastward, ran from north-east to south-west, forming at its mouth an -open pool or sea lake, of which many existed on both sides of the river. -The triangular piece of land thus separated formed a promontory of red -sandstone rock, rising in the centre about 50 ft. above the sea-level, -sloping on three sides to the water. The pool was admirably adapted as a -harbour for the vessels of that period, being well protected, and the -tide rising from 15 to 21 ft. King John repurchased the manor from Henry -Fitzwarine, giving him other lands in exchange. Here he founded a -borough, and by letters patent dated at Winchester, 28th of August 1207, -invited his subjects to take up burgages. - -From the patent rolls and the sheriff's accounts it appears that -considerable use was made of Liverpool in the 13th century for shipping -stores and reinforcements to Ireland and Wales. - -In 1229 a charter was granted by Henry III., authorizing the formation -of a merchants' gild, with hanse and other liberties and free customs, -with freedom from toll throughout the kingdom. Charters were -subsequently granted by successive monarchs down to the reign of William -and Mary, which last was the governing charter to the date of the -Municipal Reform Act (1835). In 1880 when the diocese of Liverpool was -created, the borough was transformed into a city by royal charter. - -The crown revenues from the burgage rents and the royal customs were -leased in fee-farm from time to time, sometimes to the corporation, at -other times to private persons. The first lease was from Henry III., in -1229, at L10 per annum. In the same year the borough, with all its -appurtenances, was bestowed with other lands on Ranulf, earl of Chester, -from whom it passed to his brother-in-law William de Ferrers, earl of -Derby, who seems to have built Liverpool castle between 1232 and 1237. -His grandson, Robert de Ferrers, was implicated in the rising of Simon -de Montfort and his lands were confiscated in 1266 when Liverpool passed -into the hands of Edmund, earl of Lancaster. Ultimately Liverpool again -became the property of the crown, when Henry IV. inherited it from his -father John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. In 1628 Charles I., in great -straits for means which were refused by parliament, offered for sale -about a thousand manors, among which Liverpool was included. The portion -containing Liverpool was purchased by certain merchants of London, who, -in 1635, reconveyed the crown rights, including the fee-farm rent of -L14, 6s. 8d., to Sir Richard Molyneux, then recently created Viscount -Molyneux of Maryborough, for the sum of L450. In 1672 all these rights -and interests were acquired by the corporation. - -Apart from the national objects for which Liverpool was founded, its -trade developed slowly. From L10 per annum, in the beginning of the 13th -century, the crown revenues had increased towards the end of the 14th -century, to L38; but then they underwent a decline. The black death -passed over Liverpool about 1360, and carried off a large part of the -population. The Wars of the Roses in the 15th century unsettled the -north-western districts and retarded progress for at least a century. -The crown revenues diminished from L38 to less than half that sum, and -were finally leased at L14, 6s. 8d., at which they continued until the -sale by Charles I. It is, however, not safe to conclude that the reduced -fee-farm rent represents an equivalent decline in prosperity; the -privileges conferred by the various leases differed widely and may -account for much of the apparent discrepancy. - -Liverpool sent no representatives to Simon de Montfort's parliament in -1264, but to the first royal parliament, summoned in 1295, the borough -sent two members, and again in 1307. The writs of summons were then -suspended for two centuries and a half. In 1547 Liverpool resumed the -privilege of returning members. In 1588 the borough was represented by -Francis Bacon, the philosopher and statesman. During the Civil War the -town was fortified and garrisoned by the parliament. It sustained three -sieges, and in 1644 was escaladed and taken by Prince Rupert with -considerable slaughter. - -The true rise of the commerce of Liverpool dates from the Restoration. -Down to that period its population had been either stationary or -retrogressive, probably never exceeding about 1000. Its trade was -chiefly with Ireland, France and Spain, exporting fish and wool to the -continent, and importing wines, iron and other commodities. The rise of -the manufacturing industry of south Lancashire, and the opening of the -American and West Indian trade, gave the first impulse to the progress -which has since continued. By the end of the century the population had -increased to 5000. In 1699 the borough was constituted a parish distinct -from Walton, to which it had previously appertained. In 1709, the small -existing harbour being found insufficient to accommodate the shipping, -several schemes were propounded for its enlargement, which resulted in -the construction of a wet dock closed with flood-gates impounding the -water, so as to keep the vessels floating during the recess of the tide. -This dock was the first of its kind. The name of the engineer was Thomas -Steers. - -About this date the merchants of Liverpool entered upon the slave trade, -into which they were led by their connexion with the West Indies. In -1709 a single vessel of 30 tons burden made a venture from Liverpool and -carried fifteen slaves across the Atlantic. In 1730, encouraged by -parliament, Liverpool went heartily into the new trade. In 1751, -fifty-three ships sailed from Liverpool for Africa, of 5334 tons in the -aggregate. The ships sailed first to the west coast of Africa, where -they shipped the slaves, and thence to the West India Islands, where the -slaves were sold and the proceeds brought home in cargoes of sugar and -rum. In 1765 the number of Liverpool slavers had increased to -eighty-six, carrying 24,200 slaves. By the end of the century -five-sixths of the African trade centred in Liverpool. Just before its -abolition in 1807 the number of Liverpool ships engaged in the traffic -was 185, carrying 49,213 slaves in the year. - -Another branch of maritime enterprise which attracted the attention of -the merchants of Liverpool was privateering, which, during the latter -half of the 18th century, was a favourite investment. After the outbreak -of the Seven Years' War with France and Spain, in 1756, the commerce of -Liverpool suffered severely, the French having overrun the narrow seas -with privateers, and the premiums for insurance against sea risks rose -to an amount almost prohibitive. The Liverpool merchants took a lesson -from the enemy, and armed and sent out their ships as privateers. Some -of the early expeditions proving very successful, almost the whole -community rushed into privateering, with results of a very chequered -character. When the War of Independence broke out in 1775 American -privateers swarmed about the West India Islands, and crossing the -Atlantic intercepted British commerce in the narrow seas. The Liverpool -merchants again turned their attention to retaliation. Between August -1778 and April 1779, 120 privateers were fitted out in Liverpool, -carrying 1986 guns and 8745 men. - - See W. Enfield, _Hist. of Leverpool_ (1773); J. Aikin, _Forty Miles - round Manchester_ (1795); T. Troughton, _Hist. of Liverpool_ (1810); - M. Gregson, _Portfolio of Fragments relating to Hist. of Lancashire_ - (1817); H. Smithers, _Liverpool, its Commerce_, &c. (1825); R. Syers, - _Hist. of Everton_ (1830); E. Baines, _Hist. of County Palatine of - Lancaster_, vol. iv. (1836); T. Baines, _Hist. of Commerce and Town of - Liverpool_ (1852); R. Brooke, _Liverpool during the last quarter of - 18th Century_ (1853); J. A. Picton, _Memorials of Liverpool_ (2 vols., - 1873); Ramsay Muir and Edith M. Platt, _A History of Municipal - Government in Liverpool_ (1906); Ramsay Muir, _A History of Liverpool_ - (1907). (W. F. I.) - - - - -LIVERSEDGE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary division -of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 7 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on -the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern, and London & North Western -railways. Pop. (1901) 13,980. The industries are chiefly the manufacture -of woollen goods, the making of machinery, chemical manufactures and -coal mining. - - - - -LIVERY, originally the provision of food, clothing, &c., to household -servants. The word is an adaptation of the Anglo-French _livree_, from -_livrer_, to deliver (Late Lat. _liberare_, to set free, to serve, to -give freely), in the special sense of distributing. In the sense of a -fixed allowance of provender for horses, it survives now only in -"livery-stable," _i.e_. an establishment where horses and carriages are -kept or let out for hire. From the meaning of provision of food and -clothing the word is applied to a uniform worn by the retainers and -servants of a household. In the 15th century in England a badge, collar -or other insignia, the "livery," was worn by all those who pledged -themselves to support one of the great barons in return for his promise -of "maintenance," i.e. of protection against enemies; thus arose the -custom of "livery and maintenance," suppressed by Henry VII. The members -of the London city companies wore a distinctive costume or "livery," -whence the term "livery companies." In law, the term "livery" means -"delivery," the legal handing of property into the possession of -another; for "livery of seisin" see FEOFFMENT. - - - - -LIVERY COMPANIES, the name given to particular companies or societies in -the city of London. They belong to a class of institutions which at one -time were universal in Europe. In most other countries they have -disappeared; in England, while their functions have wholly changed, the -organization remains. The origin of the city companies is to be found in -the craftgilds of the middle ages. The absence of a strong central -authority accounts for the tendency of confederation in the beginning of -modern societies. Artificial groups, formed in imitation of the family, -discharged the duties which the family was no longer able, and the state -was not yet able, to undertake. The inhabitants of towns were forced -into the societies known as gild-merchants, which in course of time -monopolized the municipal government, became exclusive, and so caused -the growth of similar societies among excluded citizens. The craftgilds -were such societies, composed of handicraftsmen, which entered upon a -struggle with the earlier gilds and finally defeated them. The -circumstances and results of the struggle were of much the same -character in England and on the continent. In London the victory of the -crafts is decisively marked by the ordinance of the time of Edward II., -which required every citizen to be a member of some trade or mystery, -and by another ordinance in 1375 which transferred the right of election -of corporate officers (including members of parliament) from the -ward-representatives to the trading companies. Henceforward, and for -many years, the companies engrossed political and municipal power in the -city of London. - -The trading fraternities assumed generally the character of corporations -in the reign of Edward III. Many of them had been chartered before, but -their privileges, hitherto exercised only on sufferance and by payment -of their terms, were now confirmed by letters patent. Edward III. -himself became a member of the fraternity of Linen Armourers, or -Merchant Taylors, and other distinguished persons followed his example. -From this time they are called livery companies, "from now generally -assuming a distinctive dress or livery." The origin of the Grocers' -Company is thus described: "Twenty-two persons, carrying on the business -of pepperers in Soper's Lane, Cheapside, agree to meet together, to a -dinner, at the Abbot of Bury's, St Mary Axe, and commit the particulars -of their formation into a trading society to writing. They elect after -dinner two persons of the company so assembled--Roger Osekyn and -Lawrence de Haliwell--as their first governors or wardens, appointing, -at the same time, in conformity with the pious custom of the age, a -priest or chaplain to celebrate divine offices for their souls" (Heath's -"Account of the Grocers' Company," quoted in Herbert's _Twelve Great -Livery Companies_, 1836, i. 43). The religious observances and the -common feasts were characteristic features of those institutions. They -were therefore not merely trade unions in the current meaning of that -phrase, but may rather be described as forms of industrial -self-government, the basis of union being the membership of a common -trade, and the authority of the society extending to the general -welfare, spiritual and temporal, of its members. It must be remembered -that they flourished at a time when the separate interests of master and -servant had not yet been created; and, indeed, when that fundamental -division of interests arose, the companies gradually lost their -functions in the regulation of industry. The fact that the craftsmen -were a homogeneous order will account for the wide authority claimed by -their societies, and the important public powers which were conceded to -them. In the regulation of trade they possessed extensive powers. They -required every one carrying on the trade to join the company. In 1363, -in answer to a remonstrance against the mischief caused by "the -merchants called grocers who engrossed all manner of merchandize -vendable, and who suddenly raised the prices of such merchandize within -the realm," it was enacted "that all artificers and people of mysteries -shall each choose his own mystery[1] before next Candlemas, and that, -having so chosen it, he shall henceforth use no other." L. Brentano (_On -Gilds_) holds that it is wrong to represent such regulations as -monopolistic, inasmuch as there was no question whatever of a monopoly -in that time nor until the degeneration of the craftgilds into limited -corporations of capitalists. In the regulation of trade the right of -search was an important instrument. The wardens of the grocers are to -"assayen weights, powders, confeccions, platers, oyntments and all other -things belonging to the same crafte." The goldsmiths had the assay of -metals, the fishmongers the oversight of fish, the vintners of the -tasting of wine, &c. The companies enforced their regulations on their -members by force. Many of their ordinances looked to the domestic -affairs and private conduct of the members. The grocers ordain "that no -man of the fraternite take his neyghbor's house y^t is of the same -fraternite, or enhaunce the rent against the will of the foresaid -neyghbor." Perjury is to be punished by the wardens and society with -such correction as that other men of the fellowship may be warned -thereby. Members reduced to poverty by adventures on the sea, increased -price of goods, borrowing and pledging, or any other misfortune, are to -be assisted "out of the common money, according to his situation, if he -could not do without." - -Following what appears to be the natural law of their being, the -companies gradually lost their industrial character. The course of decay -would seem to have been the following. The capitalists gradually assumed -the lead in the various societies, the richer members engrossed the -power and the companies tended to become hereditary and exclusive. -Persons might be members who had nothing to do with the craft, and the -rise of great capitalists and the development of competition in trade -made the regulation of industry by means of companies no longer -possible. For an account of the "degeneration of craftgilds" a general -reference may be made to Brentano, _On Gilds_ (1870), and C. Gross, _The -Gild Merchant_ (2 vols., 1890). The usurpation of power on the part of -the richer members was not always effected without opposition. Brentano -refers to a pamphlet on the Clothworkers' Company, published in 1649, -which asserts that "the commonalty" in the old charters meant, not the -whole gild, but only the masters, wardens and assistants. Herbert -records a dispute in the Goldsmiths' Company in 1529. The mode of -electing officers, and the system of management generally, was -challenged by three members who called themselves "artificers, poor men -of the craft of goldsmiths." The company, or rather, the wardens, the -assistants and livery presented a petition to the lord mayor, which was -answered by the discontented craftsmen. The dispute was carried into the -court of chancery and the star chamber. The artificers accused the -company of subverting their grants, misappropriating the funds and -changing the constitution of the society, and they complain of this -being done by the usurpation of persons who "were but merchant -goldsmiths, and had but little knowledge in the science." In 1531 the -three complainants were expelled from the company, and then the dispute -seems to have ended. In the last stage of the companies the members have -ceased to have any connexion with the trades, and in most cases their -regulative functions have disappeared. The one characteristic which has -clung to them throughout is that of owners of property and managers of -charitable trusts. The connexion between the companies and the -municipality is shortly as follows. The ordinance of Edward II. required -freemen of the city to be members of one or other of the companies. By -the ordinance of 49 Edw. III. (1375), the trading companies were to -nominate the members of common council, and the persons so nominated -alone were to attend both at common councils and at elections. An -ordinance in 7 Richard II. (1383) restored the elections of common -councilmen to the wards, but corporate officers and representatives in -parliament were elected by a convention summoned by the lord mayor from -the nominees of the companies. An act of common council in 7 Edw. IV. -(1467) appointed the election of mayor, sheriffs, &c., to be in the -common council, together with the masters and wardens of the companies. -By 15 Edw. IV. masters and wardens were ordered to associate with -themselves the honest men of their mysteries, and come in their best -liveries to the elections; that is to say, the franchise was restricted -to the "liverymen" of the companies. At this time the corporation -exercised supreme control over the companies, and the companies were -still genuine associations of the traders and householders of the city. -The delegation of the franchise to the liverymen was thus, in point of -fact, the selection of a superior class of householders to represent the -rest. When the corporation lost its control over the companies, and the -members of the companies ceased to be traders and householders, the -liverymen were no longer a representative class, and some change in the -system became necessary. The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867 reformed the -representation in several particulars. The liverymen of the companies, -being freemen of the city, have still, however, the exclusive power of -electing the lord mayor, sheriffs, chamberlain and other corporate -officers. - -The contributions made by the companies to the public purposes of the -state and the city are interesting points in their early history. Their -wealth and their representative character made them a most appropriate -instrument for the enforcement of irregular taxation. The loan of -L21,263, 6s. 8d. to Henry VIII. for his wars in Scotland, in 1544, is -believed by Herbert to be the first instance of a pecuniary grant to the -crown, but the practice rapidly gained ground. The confiscation of -ecclesiastical property at the time of the Reformation affected many of -the trusts of the companies; and they were compelled to make returns of -their property devoted to religious uses, and to pay over the rents to -the crown. In course of time the taxation of the companies became "a -regular source of supply to government." The historians of the city have -for the most part described these as unjust and tyrannical exactions, -but, looking at the representative and municipal character of the -companies, and the purposes to which their contributions were applied, -we may regard them as a rough but not unfair mode of taxation. The -government, when money was wanted for public works, informed the lord -mayor, who apportioned the sums required among the various societies, -and issued precepts for its payment. Contributions towards setting the -poor to work, erecting the Royal Exchange, cleansing the city ditch, -discovering new countries, furnishing military and naval armaments, for -men, arms and ammunition for the defence of the city, are among what -Herbert calls the sponging expedients of the government. The crown -occasionally interfered in a more unjustifiable manner with the -companies in the exercise of their patronage. The Stuarts made strenuous -efforts to get the control of the companies. Terrified by the -proceedings in the _quo warranto_ case, most of the companies -surrendered their charters to the crown, but such surrenders were -annulled by the act of 2 William and Mary (1690) reserving the judgment -in _quo warranto_ against the city. The livery companies now in -existence are the following: - - Apothecaries. | Fellowship Porters. | Needlemakers. - Armourers and | Feltmakers. | Painters. - Brasiers. | Fishmongers. | Pattern Makers. - Bakers. | Fletchers. | Pewterers. - Barbers. | Founders. | Plaisterers. - Basket Makers. | Framework Knitters. | Playing Card - Blacksmiths. | Fruiterers. | Makers. - Bowyers. | Girdlers. | Plumbers. - Brewers. | Glass Sellers. | Poulters. - Broderers. | Glaziers. | Saddlers. - Butchers. | Glovers. | Salters. - Carmen. | Gold and Silver | Scriveners. - Carpenters | Wyre-drawers. | Shipwrights. - Clockmakers. | Goldsmiths. | Silkthrowsters. - Clothworkers. | Grocers. | Skinners. - Coach and | Gunmakers. | Spectacle makers. - Coach-Harness | Haberdashers | Stationers. - Makers. | Horners. | Tallow Chandlers. - Cooks. | Innholders. | Tin Plate Workers. - Coopers. | Ironmongers. | Turners. - Cordwainers. | Joiners. | Tylers and - Curriers. | Leathersellers. | Bricklayers. - Cutlers. | Loriners. | Upholders. - Distillers. | Masons. | Wax Chandlers. - Drapers. | Mercers. | Weavers. - Dyers. | Merchant Taylors. | Wheelwrights. - Fanmakers. | Musicians. | Woolmen. - Farriers. | | - -The following are the twelve great companies in order of civic -precedence: Mercers, Grocers, Drapers, Fishmongers, Goldsmiths, -Skinners, Merchant Taylors, Haberdashers, Salters, Ironmongers, -Vintners, Cloth-workers. The "Irish Society" was incorporated in the 11 -James I. as "the governor and assistants of the new plantation in -Ulster, within the realm of Ireland." The twelve companies contributed -in equal portions the sum of L60,000 for the new scheme, by which it was -intended to settle a Protestant colony in the lands forfeited by the -Irish rebels. The companies divided the settlement into twelve nearly -equal parts, assigning one to each, but the separate estates are still -held to be under the paramount jurisdiction of the Irish Society. The -charter of the society was revoked by the court of star chamber in the -reign of Charles I., but a new one was granted by Charles II., under -which the society still acts. - - Most of the companies administer charities of large value. Many of - them are governors of important schools, _e.g_. the Skinners have the - Tonbridge Grammar School; the Mercers, St Paul's School; the Merchant - Taylors, the school bearing their name, &c. The constitution of the - livery companies usually embraces (a) the court, which includes the - master and wardens, and is the executive and administrative body; (2) - the livery or middle class, being the body from which the court is - recruited; and (3) the general body of freemen, from which the livery - is recruited. Some companies admit women as freemen. The freedom is - obtained either by patrimony (by any person over twenty-one years of - age born in lawful wedlock after the admission of his father to the - freedom), by servitude (by being bound as an apprentice to a freeman - of the company) or by redemption. Admission to many of the companies - is subject to the payment of considerable fees. For example, in the - Merchant Taylors the fees are--upon taking up the freedom, by - patrimony or servitude, L1, 3s. 4d.; by redemption, L84; on admission - to the livery, L80, 8s.; on election to the court of assistants, L115, - 10s. At one time the position of the livery companies was a subject of - much political discussion. Two parties threatened to attack them--on - one side those who were anxious for extensive reforms in the municipal - organization of London; on the other, those who wished to carry - forward the process of inspection and revision of endowments, which - had already overtaken the universities, schools and other charities. A - Royal Commission was appointed in 1880 to inquire into all the livery - companies, into the circumstances and dates of their foundation, the - objects for which they were founded, and how far those objects were - being carried into effect. A very valuable _Report and Appendix_ (4 - vols., 1884) was published, containing, _inter alia_, information on - the constitution and powers of the governing bodies, the mode of - admission of members of the companies, the mode of appointment, duties - and salaries and other emoluments of the servants of the companies, - the property of, or held in trust for, the companies, its value, - situation and description. The companies very freely made returns to - the commission, the only ones not doing so being the Broderers, - Bowyers, Distillers, Glovers, Tin-Plate Workers and Weavers. The - Commission estimated the annual income of the companies to be from - L750,000 to L800,000, about L200,000 of that amount being trust - income, the balance corporate income. - - AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the _Report_ referred to above the - following works may be consulted: H. T. Riley, _Memorials of London - and London Life_ (1868); _Chronicle of London from 1089 to 1483_ (ed. - by Sir N. H. Nicolas and E. Tyrrel, 1827); _Munimenta Gildhallae - Londiniensis_, in Rolls Series, ed. by H. T. Riley (4 vols., - 1859-1862); J. Toulmin Smith, _English Gilds_ (published by Early - English Text Society), with essay by L. Brentano (1870); W. Herbert, - _History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies_ (1837); C. Gross, _The - Gild Merchant_ (2 vols., 1890); W. C. Hazlitt, _The Livery Companies - of the City of London_ (1892), contains a precis of the Royal - Commission; P. H. Ditchfield, _The City Companies of London_ (1904); - G. Unwin, _The Gilds and Companies of London_ (1908). (T. A. I.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Properly the word should be spelled, as it was originally, - "mistery;" it comes through the O. Fr. _mestier_, modern _metier_, - from Lat. _ministerium_, service, employment, and meant a trade or - craft, and hence the plays acted by craftsmen and members of gilds - were called "mystery plays" (see DRAMA). For the word meaning a - hidden or secret rite, with which this has so often been confused, - see MYSTERY. - - - - -LIVIA DRUSILLA (c. 55 B.C.-A.D. 29), Roman empress, was originally the -wife of Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom she had two sons, Drusus and -Tiberius (afterwards emperor). But she attracted the attention of the -future emperor Augustus, who in 38 compelled her husband to divorce her -and married her himself, having first got rid of his own wife Scribonia. -Her two sons, at their dying father's request, were entrusted to the -guardianship of Augustus, to whom she bore no children. Livia was -suspected of committing various crimes to secure the throne for -Tiberius, whereas Augustus naturally favoured the claims of his -blood-relatives. The premature deaths of his nephew Marcellus (whom he -had at first fixed upon as his successor) and of his grandsons Gaius and -Lucius Caesar, the banishment of his grandson Agrippa Postumus, and -even his own death, were attributed to her. But in any case Augustus's -affection for his wife appears to have suffered no diminution up to the -last; by his will he declared her and Tiberius (whom he had adopted in -A.D. 4) his heirs; Livia inherited a third of his property; she was -adopted into the Julian gens, and henceforth assumed the name of Julia -Augusta. The senate also elected her chief priestess of the college -founded in honour of the deified Augustus. She had now reached the -summit of her ambition, and at first acted as joint-ruler with Tiberius. -Tiberius, however, soon became tired of the maternal yoke; his -retirement to Capreae is said to have been caused by his desire to -escape from her. Livia continued to live quietly at Rome, in the full -enjoyment of authority, until her death at an advanced age. Tiberius -appears to have received the news with indifference, if not with -satisfaction; he absented himself from the funeral, and refused to allow -her apotheosis; her will was suppressed for a long time and only carried -out, and the legacies paid, by Caligula. - - See Tacitus, _Annals_, i. v.; Dio Cassius liii. 33, lv. 14-22, lviii. - 2, lix. 2; Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 50, 51; J. Aschbach, _Livia, - Gemahlin des Kaisers Augustus_ (1864); V. Gardthausen, _Augustus und - seine Zeit_, i. 1018 foll., ii. 631 foll. - - - - -LIVINGSTON, EDWARD (1764-1836), American jurist and statesman, was born -in Clermont, Columbia county, New York, on the 26th of May 1764. He was -a great-grandson of Robert Livingston, the first of the family to settle -in America (see LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM, below). He graduated at Princeton -in 1781, was admitted to the bar in 1785, and began to practise law in -New York City, rapidly rising to distinction. In 1795-1801 he was a -Republican representative in Congress, where he was one of the leaders -of the opposition to Jay's treaty, introduced the resolution calling -upon President Washington for all papers relating to the treaty, and at -the close of Washington's administration voted with Andrew Jackson and -other radicals against the address to the president. He opposed the -Alien and Sedition Laws, introduced legislation on behalf of American -seamen, and in 1800 attacked the president for permitting the -extradition by the British government of Jonathan Robbins, who had -committed murder on an English frigate, and had then escaped to South -Carolina and falsely claimed to be an American citizen. In the debate on -this question Livingston was opposed by John Marshall. In 1801 -Livingston was appointed U.S. district-attorney for the state of New -York, and while retaining that position was in the same year appointed -mayor of New York City. When, in the summer of 1803, the city was -visited with yellow fever, Livingston displayed courage and energy in -his endeavours to prevent the spread of the disease and relieve -distress. He suffered a violent attack of the fever, during which the -people gave many proofs of their attachment to him. On his recovery he -found his private affairs in some confusion, and he was at the same time -deeply indebted to the government for public funds which had been lost -through the mismanagement or dishonesty of a confidential clerk, and for -which he was responsible as district-attorney. He at once surrendered -all his property, resigned his two offices in 1803, and removed early in -1804 to Louisiana. He soon acquired a large law practice in New Orleans, -and in 1826 repaid the government in full, including the interest, which -at that time amounted to more than the original principal. - -Almost immediately upon his arrival in Louisiana, where the legal system -had previously been based on Roman, French and Spanish law, and where -trial by jury and other peculiarities of English common law were now -first introduced, he was appointed by the legislature to prepare a -provisional code of judicial procedure, which (in the form of an act -passed in April 1805) was continued in force from 1805 to 1825. In 1807, -after conducting a successful suit on behalf of a client's title to a -part of the batture or alluvial land near New Orleans, Livingston -attempted to improve part of this land (which he had received as his -fee) in the Batture, Ste Marie. Great popular excitement was aroused -against him; his workmen were mobbed; and Governor Claiborne, when -appealed to for protection, referred the question to the Federal -government. Livingston's case was damaged by President Jefferson, who -believed that Livingston had favoured Burr in the presidential election -of 1800, and that he had afterwards been a party to Burr's schemes. -Jefferson made it impossible for Livingston to secure his title, and in -1812 published a pamphlet "for the use of counsel" in the case against -Livingston, to which Livingston published a crushing reply. Livingston's -final victory in the courts brought him little financial profit because -of the heavy expenses of the litigation. During the war with England -from 1812 to 1815 Livingston was active in rousing the mixed population -of New Orleans to resistance. He used his influence to secure amnesty -for Lafitte and his followers upon their offer to fight for the city, -and in 1814-1815 acted as adviser and volunteer aide-de-camp to General -Jackson, who was his personal friend. In 1821, by appointment of the -legislature, of which he had become a member in the preceding year, -Livingston began the preparation of a new code of criminal law and -procedure, afterwards known in Europe and America as the "Livingston -Code." It was prepared in both French and English, as was required by -the necessities of practice in Louisiana, and actually consisted of four -codes--crimes and punishments, procedure, evidence in criminal cases, -reform and prison discipline. Though substantially completed in 1824, -when it was accidentally burned, and again in 1826, it was not printed -entire until 1833. It was never adopted by the state. It was at once -reprinted in England, France and Germany, attracting wide praise by its -remarkable simplicity and vigour, and especially by reason of its -philanthropic provisions in the code of reform and prison discipline, -which noticeably influenced the penal legislation of various countries. -In referring to this code, Sir Henry Maine spoke of Livingston as "the -first legal genius of modern times" (_Cambridge Essays, 1856_, p. 17). -The spirit of Livingston's code was remedial rather than vindictive; it -provided for the abolition of capital punishment and the making of -penitentiary labour not a punishment forced on the prisoner, but a -matter of his choice and a reward for good behaviour, bringing with it -better accommodations. His Code of Reform and Prison Discipline was -adopted by Guatemala. Livingston was the leading member of a commission -appointed to prepare a new civil code,[1] which for the most part the -legislature adopted in 1825, and the most important chapters of which, -including all those on contract, were prepared by Livingston alone. - -Livingston was again a representative in Congress during 1823-1829, a -senator in 1829-1831, and for two years (1831-1833) secretary of state -under President Jackson. In this last position he was one of the most -trusted advisers of the president, for whom he prepared a number of -state papers, the most important being the famous anti-nullification -proclamation of the 10th of December 1832. From 1833 to 1835 Livingston -was minister plenipotentiary to France, charged with procuring the -fulfilment by the French government of the treaty negotiated by W. C. -Rives in 1831, by which France had bound herself to pay an indemnity of -twenty-five millions of francs for French spoliations of American -shipping chiefly under the Berlin and Milan decrees, and the United -States in turn agreed to pay to France 1,500,000 francs in satisfaction -of French claims. Livingston's negotiations were conducted with -excellent judgment, but the French Chamber of Deputies refused to make -an appropriation to pay the first instalment due under the treaty in -1833, relations between the two governments became strained, and -Livingston was finally instructed to close the legation and return to -America. He died on the 23rd of May 1836 at Montgomery Place, Dutchess -county, New York, an estate left him by his sister, to which he had -removed in 1831. Livingston was twice married. His first wife, Mary -McEvers, whom he married on the 10th of April 1788, died on the 13th of -March 1801. In June 1805 he married Madame Louise Moreau de Lassy (d. -1860), a widow nineteen years of age, whose maiden name was Davezac de -Castera, and who was a refugee in New Orleans from the revolution in -Santo Domingo. She was a woman of extraordinary beauty and intellect, -and is said to have greatly influenced her husband's public career. - - See C. H. Hunt, _Life of Edward Livingston_ (New York, 1864); - Livingston's _Works_ (2 vols., New York, 1873); and Louise Livingston - Hunt, _Memoir of Mrs Edward Livingston_ (New York, 1886). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Preliminary work in the preparation of a new civil code had been - done by James Brown and Moreau Lislet, who in 1808 reported a "Digest - of the Civil Laws now in force in the Territory of Orleans with - Alterations and Amendments adapted to the present Form of - Government." - - - - -LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R. (1746-1813), American statesman, son of Robert R. -Livingston (1718-1775; a justice of the New York supreme court after -1763) and brother of Edward Livingston (see above), was born in New York -City, on the 27th of November 1746. He graduated at King's College, New -York (now Columbia University), in 1765, was admitted to the bar in -1773, and for a short time was a law partner of John Jay. In 1773 he -became recorder of New York City, but soon identified himself with the -Whig or Patriot element there, and was forced to give up this position -in 1775. He was a member of the second, third and fourth Provincial -Congresses of New York (1775-1777), was a delegate from New York to the -Continental Congress in 1775-1777 and again in 1779-1780, and was a -member of the committee which drafted the Declaration of Independence. -He was prevented from signing that document by his absence at the time -to attend a meeting of the fourth New York Provincial Congress, which on -the 10th of July became the Convention of the Representatives of the -state of New York, and by which at Kingston in 1777 the first state -constitution was adopted, Livingston having been a member of the -committee that drafted this instrument. He was the first chancellor of -the state, from 1777 to February 1801, and is best known as "Chancellor" -Livingston. In this capacity he administered the oath of office to -Washington at his first inauguration to the presidency, in New York, on -the 30th of April 1789. Previously, from October 1781 to June 1783, he -had been the first secretary of foreign affairs under the Confederation, -and his European correspondence, especially with Franklin, was of the -utmost value in accomplishing peace with Great Britain. In 1788 he had -been a member of the New York Convention, which ratified for that state -the Federal Constitution. He became an anti-Federalist and in 1798 -unsuccessfully opposed John Jay in the New York gubernatorial campaign. -In 1801, having refused an appointment as secretary of the navy, he -became minister to France on President Jefferson's appointment. He had -refused this post when Washington offered it to him in 1794. He arrived -in France in November 1801, and in 1803, in association with James -Monroe, effected on behalf of his government the purchase from France of -what was then known as "Louisiana," the credit for this purchase being -largely his (see LOUISIANA PURCHASE). In 1804 Livingston withdrew from -public life, and after a year of travel in Europe returned to New York, -where he promoted various improvements in agriculture. He did much to -introduce the use of gypsum as a fertilizer, and published an _Essay on -Sheep_ (1809). He was long interested in the problem of steam -navigation; before he went to France he received from the state of New -York a monopoly of steam navigation on the waters of the state and -assisted in the experiments of his brother-in-law, John Stevens; in -Paris he met Robert Fulton, and with him in 1802 made successful trials -on the Seine of a paddle wheel steamboat; in 1803 Livingston (jointly -with Robert Fulton) received a renewal of his monopoly in New York, and -the first successful steam-vessel, which operated on the Hudson in 1807, -was named after Livingston's home, Clermont (N.Y.). He died at Clermont -on the 26th of February 1813. - -Livingston and George Clinton were chosen to represent New York state in -Statuary Hall, in the Capitol, at Washington, D.C.; the statue of -Livingston is by E. D. Palmer. - - See Frederick de Peyster, _Biographical Sketch of Robert R. - Livingston_ (New York, 1876); Robert K. Morton, "Robert R. Livingston: - Beginnings of American Diplomacy," in _The John P. Branch Historical - Papers of Randolph-Macon College_, i. 299-324, and ii. 34-46; and J. - B. Moore, "Robert R. Livingston and the Louisiana Purchase," in - _Columbia University Quarterly_, v. 6 (1904), pp. 221-229. - - - - -LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM (1723-1790), American political leader, was born at -Albany, New York, probably on the 30th of November 1723. He was the son -of Philip Livingston (1686-1749), and grandson of Robert Livingston -(1654-1725), who was born at Ancrum, Scotland, emigrated to America -about 1673, and received grants (beginning in 1686) to "Livingston -Manor" (a tract of land on the Hudson, comprising the greater part of -what are now Dutchess and Columbia counties). This Robert Livingston, -founder of the American family, became in 1675 secretary of the -important Board of Indian Commissioners; he was a member of the New York -Assembly in 1711-1715 and 1716-1727 and its speaker in 1718-1725, and in -1701 made the proposal that all the English colonies in America should -be grouped for administrative purposes "into three distinct -governments." - -William Livingston graduated at Yale College in 1741, studied law in the -city of New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1748. He served in the -New York legislature (1759-1760), but his political influence was long -exerted chiefly through pamphlets and newspaper articles. The Livingston -family then led the Dissenters, who later became Whigs, and the De -Lancey family represented the Anglican Tory interests. Through the -columns of the _Independent Reflector_, which he established in 1752, -Livingston fought the attempt of the Anglican party to bring the -projected King's College (now Columbia University) under the control of -the Church of England. After the suspension of the _Reflector_ in 1753, -he edited in the _New York Mercury_ the "Watch Tower" section -(1754-1755), which became the recognized organ of the Presbyterian -faction. In opposition to the efforts of the Anglicans to procure the -establishment of an American episcopate, he wrote an open _Letter to the -Right Reverend Father in God, John Lord, Bishop of Llandaff_ (1768), and -edited and in large measure wrote the "American Whig" columns in the -_New York Gazette_ (1768-1769). In 1772 he removed to Elizabeth, New -Jersey, where after 1773 he lived on his estate known as "Liberty Hall." -He represented New Jersey in the first and second Continental Congresses -(1774,1775-1776), but left Philadelphia in June 1776, probably to avoid -voting on the question of adopting the Declaration of Independence, -which he regarded as inexpedient. He was chosen first governor of the -state of New Jersey in 1776, and was regularly re-elected until his -death in 1790. Loyal to American interests and devoted to General -Washington, he was one of the most useful of the state executives during -the War of Independence. While governor he was a frequent contributor to -the _New Jersey Gazette_, and in this way he greatly aided the American -cause during the war by his denunciation of the enemy and appeals to the -patriotism of his countrymen. He was a delegate to the Federal -Constitutional Convention of 1787, and supported the New Jersey -small-state plan. In 1754 he joined with his brother, Philip Livingston, -his brother-in-law, William Alexander ("Lord Stirling") and others in -founding what is now known as the Society Library of New York. With the -help of William Smith (1728-1793), the New York historian, William -Livingston prepared a digest of the laws of New York for the period -1691-1756, which was published in two volumes (1752 and 1762). He died -at Elizabeth, New Jersey, on the 25th of July 1790. - - See Theodore Sedgwick, Jr., _Life of William Livingston_ (New York, - 1833); and E. B. Livingston, _The Livingstons of Livingston Manor_ - (1910). - -His brother, PETER VAN BRUGH LIVINGSTON (1710-1792), was a prominent -merchant and a Whig political leader in New York. He was one of the -founders of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), was a -member of the New York Council for some years before the War of -Independence, a member and president of the First Provincial Congress of -New York (1775), and a member of the Second Provincial Congress -(1775-1776). - -Another brother, PHILIP LIVINGSTON (1716-1778), was also prominent as a -leader of the New York Whigs or Patriots. He was a member of the New -York Assembly in 1759-1769, a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress of -1765, a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 until his death and -as such a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and in 1777-1778 -was a member of the first state senate. - -William's son, (HENRY) BROCKHOLST LIVINGSTON (1757-1823), was an officer -in the American War of Independence, and was an able lawyer and judge. -From 1807 until his death he was an associate justice of the United -States Supreme Court, and he wrote political pamphlets under the -pen-name "Decius." - - - - -LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (1813-1873), Scottish missionary and explorer in -Africa, was born on the 19th of March 1813, at the village of Blantyre -Works, in Lanarkshire, Scotland. David was the second child of his -parents, Neil Livingston (for so he spelled his name, as did his son for -many years) and Agnes Hunter. His parents were typical examples of all -that is best among the humbler families of Scotland. At the age of ten -years David left the village school for the neighbouring cotton-mill, -and by strenuous efforts qualified himself at the age of twenty-three to -undertake a college curriculum. He attended for two sessions the medical -and the Greek classes in Anderson's College, Glasgow, and also a -theological class. In September 1838 he went up to London, and was -accepted by the London Missionary Society as a candidate. He took his -medical degree in the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons in Glasgow in -November 1840. Livingstone had set his heart on China, and it was a -great disappointment to him that the society finally decided to send him -to Africa. To an exterior in these early years somewhat heavy and -uncouth, he united a manner which, by universal testimony, was -irresistibly winning, with a fund of genuine but simple humour and fun -that would break out on the most unlikely occasions, and in after years -enabled him to overcome difficulties and mellow refractory chiefs when -all other methods failed. - -Livingstone sailed from England on the 8th of December 1840. From Algoa -Bay he made direct for Kuruman, Bechuanaland, the mission station, 700 -m. north, established by Robert Moffat twenty years before, and there he -arrived on the 31st of July 1841. The next two years Livingstone spent -in travelling about the country to the northwards, in search of a -suitable outpost for settlement. During these two years he became -convinced that the success of the white missionary in a field like -Africa was not to be reckoned by the tale of doubtful conversions he -could send home each year--that the proper work for such men was that of -pioneering, opening up and starting new ground, leaving native agents to -work it out in detail. The whole of his subsequent career was a -development of this idea. He selected the valley of Mabotsa, on one of -the sources of the Limpopo river, 200 m. north-east of Kuruman, as his -first station. Shortly after his settlement here he was attacked by a -lion which crushed his left arm. The arm was imperfectly set, and it was -a source of trouble to him at times throughout his life, and was the -means of identifying his body after his death. To a house, mainly built -by himself at Mabotsa, Livingstone in 1844 brought home his wife, Mary -Moffat, the daughter of Moffat of Kuruman. Here he laboured till 1846, -when he removed to Chonuane, 40 m. farther north, the chief place of the -Bakwain or Bakwena tribe under Sechele. In 1847 he again removed to -Kolobeng, about 40 m. westwards, the whole tribe following their -missionary. With the aid and in the company of two English sportsmen, -William C. Oswell and Mungo Murray, he was able to undertake a journey -to Lake Ngami, which had never yet been seen by a white man. Crossing -the Kalahari Desert, of which Livingstone gave the first detailed -account, they reached the lake on the 1st of August 1849. In April next -year he made an attempt to reach Sebituane, who lived 200 m. beyond the -lake, this time in company with his wife and children, but again got no -farther than the lake, as the children were seized with fever. A year -later, April 1851, Livingstone, again accompanied by his family and -Oswell, set out, this time with the intention of settling among the -Makololo for a period. At last he succeeded, and reached the Chobe -(Kwando), a southern tributary of the Zambezi, and in the end of June -reached the Zambezi itself at the town of Sesheke. Leaving the Chobe on -the 13th of August the party reached Cape Town in April 1852. -Livingstone may now be said to have completed the first period of his -career in Africa, the period in which the work of the missionary had the -greatest prominence. Henceforth he appears more in the character of an -explorer, but it must be remembered that he regarded himself to the last -as a pioneer missionary, whose work was to open up the country to -others. - -Having seen his family off to England, Livingstone left Cape Town on the -8th of June 1852, and turning north again reached Linyante, the capital -of the Makololo, on the Chobe, on the 23rd of May 1853, being cordially -received by Sekeletu and his people. His first object was to seek for -some healthy high land in which to plant a station. Ascending the -Zambezi, he, however, found no place free from the tsetse fly, and -therefore resolved to discover a route to the interior from either the -west or east coast. To accompany Livingstone twenty-seven men were -selected from the various tribes under Sekeletu, partly with a view to -open up a trade route between their own country and the coast. The start -was made from Linyante on the 11th of November 1853, and, by ascending -the Liba, Lake Dilolo was reached on the 20th of February 1854. On the -4th of April the Kwango was crossed, and on the 31st of May the town of -Loanda was entered, Livingstone, however, being all but dead from fever, -semi-starvation and dysentery. From Loanda Livingstone sent his -astronomical observations to Sir Thomas Maclear at the Cape, and an -account of his journey to the Royal Geographical Society, which in May -1855 awarded him its patron's medal. Loanda was left on the 20th of -September 1854, but Livingstone lingered long about the Portuguese -settlements. Making a slight detour to the north to Kabango, the party -reached Lake Dilolo on the 13th of June 1855. Here Livingstone made a -careful study of the hydrography of the country. He "now for the first -time apprehended the true form of the river systems and the continent," -and the conclusions he came to have been essentially confirmed by -subsequent observations. The return journey from Lake Dilolo was by the -same route as that by which the party came, Linyante being reached in -the beginning of September. - -For Livingstone's purposes the route to the west was unavailable, and he -decided to follow the Zambezi to its mouth. With a numerous following, -he left Linyante on the 8th of November 1855. A fortnight afterwards he -discovered the famous "Victoria" falls of the Zambezi. He had already -formed a true idea of the configuration of the continent as a great -hollow or basin-shaped plateau, surrounded by a ring of mountains. -Livingstone reached the Portuguese settlement of Tete on the 2nd of -March 1856, in a very emaciated condition. Here he left his men and -proceeded to Quilimane, where he arrived on the 20th of May, thus having -completed in two years and six months one of the most remarkable and -fruitful journeys on record. The results in geography and in natural -science in all its departments were abundant and accurate; his -observations necessitated a reconstruction of the map of Central Africa. -When Livingstone began his work in Africa the map was virtually a blank -from Kuruman to Timbuktu, and nothing but envy or ignorance can throw -any doubt on the originality of his discoveries. - -On the 12th of December he arrived in England, after an absence of -sixteen years, and met everywhere the welcome of a hero. He told his -story in his _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (1857) -with straightforward simplicity, and with no effort after literary -style, and no apparent consciousness that he had done anything -extraordinary. Its publication brought what he would have considered a -competency had he felt himself at liberty to settle down for life. In -1857 he severed his connexion with the London Missionary Society, with -whom, however, he always remained on the best of terms, and in February -1858 he accepted the appointment of "Her Majesty's consul at Quilimane -for the eastern coast and the independent districts in the interior, and -commander of an expedition for exploring eastern and central Africa." -The Zambezi expedition, of which Livingstone thus became commander, -sailed from Liverpool in H.M.S. "Pearl" on the 10th of March 1858, and -reached the mouth of the Zambezi on the 14th of May. The party, which -included Dr (afterwards Sir) John Kirk and Livingstone's brother -Charles, ascended the river from the Kongone mouth in a steam launch, -the "Ma-Robert"; reaching Tete on the 8th of September. The remainder of -the year was devoted to an examination of the river above Tete, and -especially the Kebrabasa rapids. Most of the year 1859 was spent in the -exploration of the river Shire and Lake Nyasa, which was discovered in -September; and during a great part of the year 1860 Livingstone was -engaged in fulfilling his promise to take such of the Makololo home as -cared to go. In January of next year arrived Bishop C. F. Mackenzie and -a party of missionaries sent out by the Universities Mission to -establish a station on the upper Shire. - -After exploring the river Rovuma for 30 m. in his new vessel the -"Pioneer," Livingstone and the missionaries proceeded up the Shire to -Chibisa's; there they found the slave trade rampant. On the 15th of July -Livingstone, accompanied by several native carriers, started to show the -bishop the country. Several bands of slaves whom they met were -liberated, and after seeing the missionary party settled in the -highlands to the south of Lake Chilwa (Shirwa) Livingstone spent from -August to November in exploring Lake Nyasa. While the boat sailed up -the west side of the lake to near the north end, the explorer marched -along the shore. He returned more resolved than ever to do his utmost to -rouse the civilized world to put down the desolating slave-trade. On the -30th of January 1862, at the Zambezi mouth, Livingstone welcomed his -wife and the ladies of the mission, with whom were the sections of the -"Lady Nyassa," a river steamer which Livingstone had had built at his -own expense. When the mission ladies reached the mouth of the Ruo -tributary of the Shire, they were stunned to hear of the death of the -bishop and one of his companions. This was a sad blow to Livingstone, -seeming to have rendered all his efforts to establish a mission futile. -A still greater loss to him was that of his wife at Shupanga, on the -27th of April 1862. - -The "Lady Nyassa" was taken to the Rovuma. Up this river Livingstone -managed to steam 156 m., but farther progress was arrested by rocks. -Returning to the Zambezi in the beginning of 1863, he found that the -desolation caused by the slave trade was more horrible and widespread -than ever. It was clear that the Portuguese officials were themselves at -the bottom of the traffic. Kirk and Charles Livingstone being compelled -to return to England on account of their health, the doctor resolved -once more to visit the lake, and proceeded some distance up the west -side and then north-west as far as the watershed that separates the -Loangwa from the rivers that run into the lake. Meanwhile a letter was -received from Earl Russell recalling the expedition by the end of the -year. In the end of April 1864 Livingstone reached Zanzibar in the "Lady -Nyassa," and on the 23rd of July Livingstone arrived in England. He was -naturally disappointed with the comparative failure of this expedition. -Still the geographical results, though not in extent to be compared to -those of his first and his final expeditions, were of high importance, -as were those in various departments of science, and he had unknowingly -laid the foundations of the British protectorate of Nyasaland. Details -will be found in his _Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its -Tributaries_, published in 1865. - -By Sir Roderick Murchison and his other staunch friends Livingstone was -as warmly welcomed as ever. When Murchison proposed to him that he -should go out again, although he seems to have had a desire to spend the -remainder of his days at home, the prospect was too tempting to be -rejected. He was appointed British consul to Central Africa without a -salary, and government contributed only L500 to the expedition. The -chief help came from private friends. During the latter part of the -expedition government granted him L1000, but that, when he learned of -it, was devoted to his great undertaking. The Geographical Society -contributed L500. The two main objects of the expedition were the -suppression of slavery by means of civilizing influences, and the -ascertainment of the watershed in the region between Nyasa and -Tanganyika. At first Livingstone thought the Nile problem had been all -but solved by Speke, Baker and Burton, but the idea grew upon him that -the Nile sources must be sought farther south, and his last journey -became in the end a forlorn hope in search of the "fountains" of -Herodotus. Leaving England in the middle of August 1865, via Bombay, -Livingstone arrived at Zanzibar on the 28th of January 1866. He was -landed at the mouth of the Rovuma on the 22nd of March, and started for -the interior on the 4th of April. His company consisted of thirteen -sepoys, ten Johanna men, nine African boys from Nasik school, Bombay, -and four boys from the Shire region, besides camels, buffaloes, mules -and donkeys. This imposing outfit soon melted away to four or five boys. -Rounding the south end of Lake Nyasa, Livingstone struck in a -north-north-west direction for the south end of Lake Tanganyika, over -country much of which had not previously been explored. The Loangwa was -crossed on the 15th of December 1866. On Christmas day Livingstone lost -his four goats, a loss which he felt very keenly, and the medicine chest -was stolen in January 1867. Fever came upon him, and for a time was his -almost constant companion; this, with other serious ailments which -subsequently attacked him, and which he had no medicine to counteract, -told on even his iron frame. The Chambezi was crossed on the 28th of -January, and the south end of Tanganyika reached on the 31st of March. -Here, much to his vexation, he got into the company of Arab slave -dealers (among them being Tippoo-Tib) by whom his movements were -hampered; but he succeeded in reaching Lake Mweru (Nov. 1867). After -visiting Lake Mofwa and the Lualaba, which he believed was the upper -part of the Nile, he, on the 18th of July 1868, discovered Lake -Bangweulu. Proceeding up the west coast of Tanganyika, he reached Ujiji -on the 14th of March 1869, "a ruckle of bones." Livingstone recrossed -Tanganyika in July, and passed through the country of the Manyema, but -baffled partly by the natives, partly by the slave hunters, and partly -by his long illnesses it was not till the 29th of March 1871 that he -succeeded in reaching the Lualaba, at the town of Nyangwe, where he -stayed four months, vainly trying to get a canoe to take him across. It -was here that a party of Arab slavers, without warning or provocation, -assembled one day when the market was busiest and commenced shooting -the women, hundreds being killed or drowned in trying to escape. -Livingstone had "the impression that he was in hell," but was helpless, -though his "first impulse was to pistol the murderers." The account of -this scene which he sent home roused indignation in England to such a -degree as to lead to determined and to a considerable extent successful -efforts to get the sultan of Zanzibar to suppress the trade. In sickened -disgust the weary traveller made his way back to Ujiji, which he reached -on the 13th of October. Five days after his arrival in Ujiji he was -inspired with new life by the timely arrival of H. M. Stanley, the -richly laden almoner of Mr Gordon Bennett, of the _New York Herald_. -With Stanley Livingstone explored the north end of Tanganyika, and -proved conclusively that the Rusizi runs into and not out of it. In the -end of the year the two started eastward for Unyamwezi, where Stanley -provided Livingstone with an ample supply of goods, and bade him -farewell. Stanley left on the 15th of March 1872, and after Livingstone -had waited wearily in Unyamwezi for five months, a troop of fifty-seven -men and boys arrived, good and faithful fellows on the whole, selected -by Stanley himself. Thus attended, he started on the 15th of August for -Lake Bangweulu, proceeding along the east side of Tanganyika. His old -enemy dysentery soon found him out. In January 1873 the party got among -the endless spongy jungle on the east of Lake Bangweulu, Livingstone's -object being to go round by the south and away west to find the -"fountains." The doctor got worse and worse, and in the middle of April -he had unwillingly to submit to be carried in a rude litter. On the 29th -of April Chitambo's village on the Lulimala, in Ilala, on the south -shore of the lake, was reached. The last entry in the journal is on the -27th of April: "Knocked up quite, and remain--recover--sent to buy milch -goats. We are on the banks of the Molilamo." On the 30th of April he -with difficulty wound up his watch, and early on the morning of the 1st -of May the boys found "the great master," as they called him, kneeling -by the side of his bed, dead. His faithful men preserved the body in the -sun as well as they could, and, wrapping it carefully up, carried it and -all his papers, instruments and other things across Africa to Zanzibar. -It was borne to England with all honour, and on the 18th of April 1874, -was deposited in Westminster Abbey. His faithfully kept journals during -these seven years' wanderings were published under the title of the -_Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_, in 1874, edited -by his old friend the Rev. Horace Waller. In Old Chitambo's the time and -place of his death are commemorated by a permanent monument, which -replaced in 1902 the tree on which his native followers had recorded the -event. - -In spite of his sufferings and the many compulsory delays, Livingstone's -discoveries during these last years were both extensive and of prime -importance as leading to a solution of African hydrography. No single -African explorer has ever done so much for African geography as -Livingstone during his thirty years' work. His travels covered one-third -of the continent, extending from the Cape to near the equator, and from -the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. Livingstone was no hurried traveller; -he did his journeying leisurely, carefully observing and recording all -that was worthy of note, with rare geographical instinct and the eye of -a trained scientific observer, studying the ways of the people, eating -their food, living in their huts, and sympathizing with their joys and -sorrows. In all the countries through which he travelled his memory is -cherished by the native tribes who, almost without exception, treated -Livingstone as a superior being; his treatment of them was always -tender, gentle and gentlemanly. By the Arab slavers whom he opposed he -was also greatly admired, and was by them styled "the very great -doctor." "In the annals of exploration of the Dark Continent," wrote -Stanley many years after the death of the missionary explorer, "we look -in vain among other nationalities for a name such as Livingstone's. He -stands pre-eminent above all; he unites in himself all the best -qualities of other explorers. ... Britain ... excelled herself even when -she produced the strong and perseverant Scotchman, Livingstone." But the -direct gains to geography and science are perhaps not the greatest -results of Livingstone's journeys. His example and his death acted like -an inspiration, filling Africa with an army of explorers and -missionaries, and raising in Europe so powerful a feeling against the -slave trade that through him it may be considered as having received its -deathblow. Personally Livingstone was a pure and tender-hearted man, -full of humanity and sympathy, simple-minded as a child. The motto of -his life was the advice he gave to some school children in -Scotland--"Fear God, and work hard." - - See, besides his own narratives and W. G. Blaikie's _Life_ (1880), the - publications of the London Missionary Society from 1840, the _Journal - and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, the despatches to - the Foreign Office sent home by Livingstone during his last two - expeditions, and Stanley's _Autobiography_ (1909) and _How I Found - Livingstone_ (1872). (J. S. K.) - - - - -LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS, a band of highlands in German East Africa, -forming the eastern border of the rift-valley of Lake Nyasa, at the -northern end of the lake. In parts these highlands, known also under -their native name of Kinga, present rather the character of a plateau -than of a true mountain range, but the latter name may be justified by -the fact that they form a comparatively narrow belt of country, which -falls considerably to the east as well as to the west. The northern end -is well marked in 8 deg. 50' S. by an escarpment falling to the Ruaha -valley, which is regarded as a north-eastern branch of the main -rift-valley. Southwards the Livingstone range terminates in the deep -valley of the Ruhuhu in 10 deg. 30' S., the first decided break in the -highlands that is reached from the north, on the east coast of Nyasa. -Geologically the range is formed on the side of the lake by a zone of -gneiss running in a series of ridges and valleys generally parallel to -its axis. The ridge nearest the lake (which in Mount Jamimbi or -Chamembe, 9 deg. 41' S., rises to an absolute height of 7870 ft., or -6200 ft. above Nyasa) falls almost sheer to the water, the same steep -slope being continued beneath the surface. Towards the south the range -appears to have a width of some 20 m. only, but northwards it widens out -to about 40 m., though broken here by the depression, drained towards -the Ruaha, of Buanyi, on the south side of which is the highest known -summit of the range (9600 ft.). North and east of Buanyi, as in the -eastern half of the range generally, table-topped mountains occur, -composed above of horizontally bedded quartzites, sandstones and -conglomerates. The uplands are generally clothed in rich grass, forest -occurring principally in the hollows, while the slopes towards the lake -are covered with poor scrub. Native settlements are scattered over the -whole range, and German mission stations have been established at -Bulongwa and Mtandala, a little north of the north end of Nyasa. The -climate is here healthy, and night frosts occur in the cold season. -European crops are raised with success. At the foot of the mountains on -Lake Nyasa are the ports of Wiedhafen, at the mouth of the Ruhuhu, and -Old Langenburg, at the north-east corner of the lake. (E. He.) - - - - -LIVIUS ANDRONICUS (c. 284-204 B.C.), the founder of Roman epic poetry -and drama. His name, in which the Greek [Greek: Andronikos] is combined -with the gentile name of one of the great Roman houses, while indicative -of his own position as a manumitted slave, is also significant of the -influences by which Roman literature was fostered, viz. the culture of -men who were either Greeks or "semi-Graeci" by birth and education, and -the protection and favour bestowed upon them by the more enlightened -members of the Roman aristocracy. He is supposed to have been a native -of Tarentum, and to have been brought, while still a boy, after the -capture of that town in 272, as a slave to Rome. He lived in the -household of a member of the gens Livia, probably M. Livius Salinator. -He determined the course which Roman literature followed for more than a -century after his time. The imitation of Greek comedy, tragedy and epic -poetry, which produced great results in the hands of Naevius, Plautus, -Ennius and their successors, received its first impulse from him. To -judge, however, from the insignificant remains of his writings, and from -the opinions of Cicero and Horace, he can have had no pretension either -to original genius or to artistic accomplishment. His real claim to -distinction was that he was the first great schoolmaster of the Roman -people. We learn from Suetonius that, like Ennius after him, he obtained -his living by teaching Greek and Latin; and it was probably as a -school-book, rather than as a work of literary pretension, that his -translation of the _Odyssey_ into Latin Saturnian verse was executed. -This work was still used in schools in the time of Horace (_Epp._ ii. -1., 69), and, although faultily executed, satisfied a real want by -introducing the Romans to a knowledge of Greek. Such knowledge became -essential to men in a high position as a means of intercourse with -Greeks, while Greek literature stimulated the minds of leading Romans. -Moreover, southern Italy and Sicily afforded many opportunities for -witnessing representations of Greek comedies and tragedies. The Romans -and Italians had an indigenous drama of their own, known by the name of -_Satura_, which prepared them for the reception of the more regular -Greek drama. The distinction between this _Satura_ and the plays of -Euripides or Menander was that it had no regular plot. This the Latin -drama first received from Livius Andronicus; but it did so at the cost -of its originality. In 240, the year after the end of the first Punic -War, he produced at the ludi Romani a translation of a Greek play (it is -uncertain whether a comedy or tragedy or both), and this representation -marks the beginning of Roman literature (Livy vii. 2). Livius himself -took part in his plays, and in order to spare his voice he introduced -the custom of having the solos (_cantica_) sung by a boy, while he -himself represented the action of the song by dumb show. In his -translation he discarded the native Saturnian metre, and adopted the -iambic, trochaic and cretic metres, to which Latin more easily adapted -itself than either to the hexameter or to the lyrical measures of a -later time. He continued to produce plays for more than thirty years -after this time. The titles of his tragedies--_Achilles_, _Aegisthus_, -_Equus Trojanus_, _Hermione_, _Tereus_--are all suggestive of subjects -which were treated by the later tragic poets of Rome. In the year 207, -when he must have been of a great age, he was appointed to compose a -hymn of thanksgiving, sung by maidens, for the victory of the Metaurus -and an intercessory hymn to the Aventine Juno. As a further tribute of -national recognition the "college" or "gild" of poets and actors was -granted a place of meeting in the temple of Minerva on the Aventine. - - See fragments in L. Muller, _Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabularum - Reliquiae_ (1885); also J. Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of - Early Latin_ (1874); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, bk. iii. ch. 14. - - - - -LIVNO, a town of Bosnia, situated on the eastern side of the fertile -plain of Livno, at the foot of Mount Krug (6581 ft.). Pop. about 5000. -The Dalmatian border is 7 m. W. Livno had a trade in grain, live-stock -and silver filigree-work up to 1904, when a fire swept away more than -500 of the old Turkish houses, together with the Roman citadel. Remains -prove that Livno occupies the site of a Roman settlement, the name of -which is uncertain. The Roman Catholic convent of Gurici is 6 m. S. - - - - -LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, _Liflandia_), one of the three Baltic -provinces of Russia, bounded W. by the Gulf of Riga, N. by Esthonia, E. -by the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov and Vitebsk, and S. by -Courland. A group of islands (1110 sq. m.) at the entrance of the Gulf -of Riga, of which Oesel, Mohn, Runo and Paternoster are the largest, -belong to this government. It covers an area of 18,160 sq. m., but of -this the part of Lake Peipus which belongs to it occupies 1090. Its -surface is diversified by several plateaus, those of Haanhof and of the -Livonian Aa having an average elevation of 400 to 700 ft., while several -summits reach 800 to 1000 ft. or more. The edges of the plateaus are -gapped by deep valleys; the hilly tract between the Dvina and its -tributary the Livonian Aa has received, from its picturesque narrow -valleys, thick forests and numerous lakes, the name of "Livonian -Switzerland." The plateau of Odenpah, drained by tributaries of the -Embach river, which flows for 93 m. from Lake Virz-yarvi into Lake -Peipus, occupies an area of 2830 sq. m., and has an average elevation of -500 ft. More than a thousand lakes are scattered over Livonia, of which -that of Virz-yarvi, having a surface of 106 sq. m. (115 ft. above -sea-level), is the largest. Marshes and peat-bogs occupy one-tenth of -the province. Of the numerous rivers, the Dvina, which flows for 90 m. -along its frontier, the Pernau, Salis, Livonian Aa and Embach are -navigable. - -The Silurian formation which covers Esthonia, appears in the northern -part of Livonia, the remainder of the province consisting of Devonian -strata. The whole is overlaid with glacial deposits, sometimes 400 ft. -thick. The typical bottom moraine, with erratics from Finland, extends -all over the country. Glacial furrows, striae and elongated troughs are -met with everywhere, running mostly from north-west to south-east, as -well as _asar_ or _eskers_, which have the same direction. Sand-dunes -cover large tracts on the shores of the Baltic. No traces of marine -deposits are found higher than 100 or 150 ft. above the present -sea-level. The soil is not very fertile. Forests cover about two-fifths -of the surface. The climate is rather severe. The mean temperatures are -43 deg. F. at Riga (winter 23 deg., summer 63 deg.) and 40 deg. at -Yuriev. The winds are very variable; the average number of rainy and -snowy days is 146 at Riga (rainfall 24.1 in.). Fogs are not uncommon. - -The population of Livonia, which was 621,600 in 1816, reached 1,000,876 -in 1870, and 1,295,231 in 1897, of whom 43.4% were Letts, 39.9% Ehsts, -7.6% Germans, 5.4% Russians, 2% Jews and 1.2% Poles. The estimated pop. -in 1906 was 1,411,000. The Livs, who formerly extended east into the -government of Vitebsk, have nearly all passed away. Their native -language, of Finnish origin, is rapidly disappearing, their present -language being a Lettish patois. In 1846 a grammar and dictionary of it -were made with difficulty from the mouths of old people. The Ehsts, who -resemble the Finns of Tavastland, have maintained their ethnic features, -their customs, national traditions, songs and poetry, and their -harmonious language. There is a marked revival of national feeling, -favoured by "Young Esthonia." The prevailing religion is the Lutheran -(79.8%); 14.3% belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; of the Russians, -however, a considerable proportion are Raskolniks (Nonconformists); the -Roman Catholics amount to 2.3%, and the Jews to 2%. The Russian civil -code was introduced in the Baltic provinces in 1835, and the use of -Russian, instead of German, in official correspondence and in law -courts was ordered in 1867, but not generally brought into practice. - - Nearly all the soil belongs to the nobility, the extent of the - peasants' estates being only 15% of the entire area of the government. - Serfdom was abolished in 1819, but the peasants remained under the - jurisdiction of their landlords. The class of peasant proprietors - being restricted to a small number of wealthy peasants, the bulk have - remained tenants at will; they are very miserable, and about - one-fourth of them are continually wandering in search of work. From - time to time the emigration takes the shape of a mass movement, which - the government stops by forcible measures. The average size of the - landed estates is 9500 to 11,000 acres, far above the general average - for Russia. Agriculture has reached a high degree of perfection on the - estates of the landlords. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, - flax and potatoes, with some wheat, hemp and buckwheat. Dairy-farming - and gardening are on the increase. Fishing in Lake Peipus gives - occupation to nearly 100,000 persons, and is also carried on in the - Gulf of Riga and in the rivers. Woollen, cloth, cotton and flax mills, - steam flour and saw mills, distilleries and breweries, machinery - works, paper mills, furniture, tobacco, soap, candle and hardware - works are among the chief industrial establishments. Livonia carries - on a large export trade, especially through Riga and Pernau, in - petroleum, wool, oilcake, flax, linseed, hemp, grain, timber and - wooden wares; the Dvina is the chief channel for this trade. - - Education stands on a much higher level than elsewhere in Russia, no - less than 87% of the children receiving regular instruction. The - higher educational institutions include Yuriev (Dorpat) University, - Riga polytechnic and a high school for the clergy. - - The government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns of - which, with their populations in 1897, are: Riga, capital of the - government (282,943); Arensburg, in the island of Oesel (4621); Yuriev - or Dorpat (42,421); Fellin (7659); Pernau (12,856); Walk (10,139); - Wenden (6327); Werro (4154); and Wolmar (5124). The capital of the - government is Riga. - -Coins of the time of Alexander the Great, found on the island of Oesel, -show that the coasts of the Baltic were at an early period in commercial -relation with the civilized world. The chronicle of Nestor mentions as -inhabitants of the Baltic coast the Chudes, the Livs, the Narova, -Letgola, Semigallians and Kors. It was probably about the 9th century -that the Chudes became tributary to the Varangian-Russian states. As -they reacquired their independence, Yaroslav I. undertook in 1030 a -campaign against them, and founded Yuriev (Dorpat). The Germans first -penetrated into Livonia in the 11th century, and in 1158 several Lubeck -and Visby merchants landed at the mouth of the Dvina. In 1186 the -emissaries of the archbishop of Bremen began to preach Christianity -among the Ehsts and Letts, and in 1201 the bishop of Livonia established -his residence at Riga. In 1202 or 1204 Innocent III. recognized the -order of Brothers of the Sword, the residence of its grand master being -at Wenden; and the order, spreading the Christian religion by the sword -among the natives, carried on from that time a series of uninterrupted -wars against the Russian republics and Lithuania, as well as a struggle -against the archbishop of Riga, Riga having become a centre for trade, -intermediate between the Hanseatic towns and those of Novgorod, Pskov -and Polotsk. The first active interference of Lithuania in the affairs -of Livonia took place immediately after the great outbreak of the -peasants on Oesel; Olgierd then devastated all southern Livonia. The -order, having purchased the Danish part of Esthonia, in 1347, began a -war against the bishop of Riga, as well as against Lithuania, Poland and -Russia. The wars against those powers were terminated respectively in -1435, 1466 and 1483. About the end of the 15th century the master of the -order, Plettenberg, acquired a position of great importance, and in 1527 -he was recognized as a prince of the empire by Charles V. On the other -hand, the authority of the bishops of Riga was soon completely destroyed -(1566). The war of the order with Ivan IV. of Russia in 1558 led to a -division of Livonia, its northern part, Dorpat included, being taken by -Russia, and the southern part falling under the dominion of Poland. From -that time (1561) Livonia formed a subject of dispute between Poland and -Russia, the latter only formally abdicating its rights to the country in -1582. In 1621 it was the theatre of a war between Poland and Sweden, and -was conquered by the latter power, enjoying thus for twenty-five years a -milder rule. In 1654, and again at the beginning of the 18th century, it -became the theatre of war between Poland, Russia and Sweden, and was -finally conquered by Russia. The official concession was confirmed by -the treaty of Nystad in 1721. - - See E. Seraphim, _Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands_ (2nd ed., - Revel, 1897-1904) and _Geschichte von Livland_ (Gotha, 1905, &c.). - (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) - - - - - -LIVY [TITUS LIVIUS] (59 B.C.-A.D. 17), Roman historian, was born at -Patavium (Padua). The ancient connexion between his native city and Rome -helped to turn his attention to the study which became the work of his -life. For Padua claimed, like Rome, a Trojan origin, and Livy is careful -to place its founder Antenor side by side with Aeneas. A more real bond -of union was found in the dangers to which both had been exposed from -the assaults of the Celts (Livy x. 2), and Padua must have been drawn to -Rome as the conqueror of her hereditary foes. Moreover, at the time of -Livy's birth, Padua had long been in possession of the full Roman -franchise, and the historian's family name may have been taken by one of -his ancestors out of compliment to the great Livian gens at Rome, whose -connexion with Cisalpine Gaul is well-established (Suet. _Tib._ 3), and -by one of whom his family may have been enfranchized. - -Livy's easy independent life at Rome, and his aristocratic leanings in -politics seem to show that he was the son of well-born and opulent -parents; he was certainly well educated, being widely read in Greek -literature, and a student both of rhetoric and philosophy. We have also -evidence in his writings that he had prepared himself for his great work -by researches into the history of his native town. His youth and early -manhood, spent perhaps chiefly at Padua, were cast in stormy times, and -the impression which they left upon his mind was ineffaceable. In the -Civil War his personal sympathies were with Pompey and the republican -party (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34); but far more lasting in its effects was his -experience of the licence, anarchy and confusion of these dark days. The -rule of Augustus he seems to have accepted as a necessity, but he could -not, like Horace and Virgil, welcome it as inaugurating a new and -glorious era. He writes of it with despondency as a degenerate and -declining age; and, instead of triumphant prophecies of world-wide rule, -such as we find in Horace, Livy contents himself with pointing out the -dangers which already threatened Rome, and exhorting his contemporaries -to learn, in good time, the lessons which the past history of the state -had to teach. - -It was probably about the time of the battle of Actium that Livy -established himself in Rome, and there he seems chiefly to have resided -until his retirement to Padua shortly before his death. We have no -evidence that he travelled much, though he must have paid at least one -visit to Campania (xxxviii. 56), and he never, so far as we know, took -any part in political life. Nor, though he enjoyed the personal -friendship and patronage of Augustus (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34) and stimulated -the historical zeal of the future emperor Claudius (Suet. _Claud._ -xli.), can we detect in him anything of the courtier. There is not in -his history a trace of that rather gross adulation in which even Virgil -does not disdain to indulge. His republican sympathies were freely -expressed, and as freely pardoned by Augustus. We must imagine him -devoted to the great task which he had set himself to perform, with a -mind free from all disturbing cares, and in the enjoyment of all the -facilities for study afforded by the Rome of Augustus, with its liberal -encouragement of letters, its newly-founded libraries and its brilliant -literary circles. As his work went on, the fame which he had never -coveted came to him in ample measure. He is said to have declared in one -volume of his history that he had already won glory enough, and the -younger Pliny (_Epist._ ii. 3) relates that a Spaniard came all the way -from Gades merely to see him, and, this accomplished, at once returned -home satisfied. The accession of Tiberius (A.D. 14) materially altered -for the worse the prospects of literature in Rome, and Livy retired to -Padua, where he died. He had at least one son (Quintil. x. 1. 39), who -also was possibly an author (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ i. 5. 6), and a -daughter married to a certain L. Magius, a rhetorician of no great merit -(Seneca, _Controv._ x. 29. 2). Nothing further is known of his personal -history. - -_Analysis of the History._--For us the interest of Livy's life centres -in the work to which the greater part of it was devoted, the history of -Rome from its foundation down to the death of Drusus (9 B.C.). Its -proper title was _Ab urbe condita libri_ (also called _historiae_ and -_annales_). Various indications point to the period from 27 to 20 B.C., -as that during which the first decade was written. In the first book -(19. 3) the emperor is called Augustus, a title which he assumed early -in 27 B.C., and in ix. 18 the omission of all reference to the -restoration, in 20 B.C., of the standards taken at Carrhae seems to -justify the inference that the passage was written before that date. In -the epitome of book lix. there is a reference to a law of Augustus which -was passed in 18 B.C. The books dealing with the civil wars must have -been written during Augustus's lifetime, as they were read by him (Tac. -_Ann._ iv. 34), while there is some evidence that the last part, from -book cxxi. onwards, was published after his death A.D. 14. - -The work begins with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, and closes with the -death of Drusus, 9 B.C., though it is possible that the author intended -to continue it as far as the death of Augustus. The division into -decades is certainly not due to the author himself, and is first heard -of at the end of the 5th century; on the other hand, the division into -_libri_ or _volumina_ seems to be original. That the books were grouped -and possibly published in sets is rendered probable both by the prefaces -which introduce new divisions of the work (vi. 1, xxi. 1, xxxi. 1) and -by the description in one MS. of books cix.-cxvi. as "bellorum civilium -libri octo." Such arrangement and publication in parts were, moreover, -common with ancient authors, and in the case of a lengthy work almost a -necessity. - -Of the 142 _libri_ composing the history, the first 15 carry us down to -the eve of the great struggle with Carthage, a period, as Livy reckons -it, of 488 years (xxxi. 1); 15 more (xvi-xxx.) cover the 63 years of the -two great Punic wars. With the close of book xlv. we reach the conquest -of Macedonia in 167 B.C. Book lviii. described the tribunate of Tiberius -Gracchus, 133 B.C. In book lxxxix. we have the dictatorship of Sulla (81 -B.C.), in ciii. Caesar's first consulship (59 B.C.), in cix.-cxvi. the -civil wars to the death of Caesar (44 B.C.), in cxxiv. the defeat of -Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, in cxxxiii. and cxxxiv. the battle of -Actium and the accession of Augustus. The remaining eight books give the -history of the first twenty years of Augustus's reign. - -Of this vast work only a small portion has come down to modern times; -only thirty-five books are now extant (i.-x., xxi.-xlv.), and of these -xli. and xliii. are incomplete. The lost books seem to have disappeared -between the 7th century and the revival of letters in the 15th--a fact -sufficiently accounted for by the difficulty of transmitting so -voluminous a work in times when printing was unknown, for the story that -Pope Gregory I. burnt all the copies of Livy he could lay his hands on -rests on no good evidence. Only one important fragment has since been -recovered--the portion of book xci. discovered in the Vatican in 1772, -and edited by Niebuhr in 1820. Very much no doubt of the substance of -the lost books has been preserved both by such writers as Plutarch and -Dio Cassius, and by epitomizers like Florus and Eutropius. But our -knowledge of their contents is chiefly derived from the so-called -_periochae_ or epitomes, of which we have fortunately a nearly complete -series, the epitomes of books cxxxvi. and cxxxvii. being the only ones -missing.[1] These epitomes have been ascribed without sufficient reason -to Florus (2nd century); but, though they are probably of even later -date, and are disappointingly meagre, they may be taken as giving, so -far as they go, a fairly authentic description of the original. They -have been expanded with great ingenuity and learning by Freinsheim in -Drakenborch's edition of Livy.[2] The _Prodigio_ of Julius Obsequens and -the list of consuls in the _Chronica_ of Cassiodorus are taken directly -from Livy, and to that extent reproduce the contents of the lost books. -It is probable that Obsequens, Cassiodorus and the compiler of the -epitomes did not use the original work but an abridgment. - -_Historical Standpoint._--If we are to form a correct judgment on the -merits of Livy's history, we must, above all things, bear in mind what -his aim was in writing it, and this he has told us himself in the -celebrated preface. He set himself the task of recording the history of -the Roman people, "the first in the world," from the beginning. The task -was a great one, and the fame to be won by it uncertain, yet it would -be something to have made the attempt, and the labour itself would bring -a welcome relief from the contemplation of present evils; for his -readers, too, this record will, he says, be full of instruction; they -are invited to note especially the moral lessons taught by the story of -Rome, to observe how Rome rose to greatness by the simple virtues and -unselfish devotion of her citizens, and how on the decay of these -qualities followed degeneracy and decline. - -He does not, therefore, write, as Polybius wrote, for students of -history. With Polybius the greatness of Rome is a phenomenon to be -critically studied and scientifically explained; the rise of Rome forms -an important chapter in universal history, and must be dealt with, not -as an isolated fact, but in connexion with the general march of events -in the civilized world. Still less has Livy anything in common with the -naive anxiety of Dionysius of Halicarnassus to make it clear to his -fellow Greeks that the irresistible people who had mastered them was in -origin, in race and in language Hellenic like themselves. - -Livy writes as a Roman, to raise a monument worthy of the greatness of -Rome, and to keep alive, for the guidance and the warning of Romans, the -recollection alike of the virtues which had made Rome great and of the -vices which had threatened her with destruction. In so writing he was in -close agreement with the traditions of Roman literature, as well as with -the conception of the nature and objects of history current in his time. -To a large extent Roman literature grew out of pride in Rome, for, -though her earliest authors took the form and often the language of -their writings from Greece, it was the greatness of Rome that inspired -the best of them, and it was from the annals of Rome that their themes -were taken. And this is naturally true in an especial sense of the Roman -historians; the long list of annalists begins at the moment when the -great struggle with Carthage had for the first time brought Rome into -direct connexion with the historic peoples of the ancient world, and -when Romans themselves awoke to the importance of the part reserved for -Rome to play in universal history. To write the annals of Rome became at -once a task worthy of the best of her citizens. Though other forms of -literature might be thought unbecoming to the dignity of a free-born -citizen, this was never so with history. On the contrary, men of high -rank and tried statesmanship were on that very account thought all the -fitter to write the chronicles of the state they had served. And history -in Rome never lost either its social prestige or its intimate and -exclusive connexion with the fortunes of the Roman people. It was well -enough for Greeks to busy themselves with the manners, institutions and -deeds of the "peoples outside." The Roman historians, from Fabius Pictor -to Tacitus, cared for none of these things. This exclusive interest in -Rome was doubtless encouraged by the peculiar characteristics of the -history of the state. The Roman annalist had not, like the Greek, to -deal with the varying fortunes and separate doings of a number of petty -communities, but with the continuous life of a single city. Nor was his -attention drawn from the main lines of political history by the claims -of art, literature and philosophy, for just as the tie which bound -Romans together was that of citizenship, not of race or culture, so the -history of Rome is that of the state, of its political constitution, its -wars and conquests, its military and administrative system. - -Livy's own circumstances were all such as to render these views natural -to him. He began to write at a time when, after a century of -disturbance, the mass of men had been contented to purchase peace at the -price of liberty. The present was at least inglorious, the future -doubtful, and many turned gladly to the past for consolation. This -retrospective tendency was favourably regarded by the government. It was -the policy of Augustus to obliterate all traces of recent revolution, -and to connect the new imperial regime as closely as possible with the -ancient traditions and institutions of Rome and Italy. The _Aeneid_ of -Virgil, the _Fasti_ of Ovid, suited well with his own restoration of the -ancient temples, his revival of such ancient ceremonies as the Ludi -Saeculares, his efforts to check the un-Roman luxury of the day, and his -jealous regard for the purity of the Roman stock. And, though we are -nowhere told that Livy undertook his history at the emperor's -suggestion, it is certain that Augustus read parts of it with pleasure, -and even honoured the writer with his assistance and friendship. - -Livy was deeply penetrated with a sense of the greatness of Rome. From -first to last its majesty and high destiny are present to his mind. -Aeneas is led to Italy by the Fates that he may be the founder of Rome. -Romulus after his ascension declares it to be the will of heaven that -Rome should be mistress of the world; and Hannibal marches into Italy, -that he may "set free the world" from Roman rule. But, if this -ever-present consciousness often gives dignity and elevation to his -narrative, it is also responsible for some of its defects. It leads him -occasionally into exaggerated language (e.g. xxii. 33, "nullius usquam -terrarum rei cura Romanos effugiebat"), or into such mis-statements as -his explanation of the course taken by the Romans in renewing war with -Carthage, that "it seemed more suitable to the dignity of the Roman -people." Often his jealousy for the honour of Rome makes him unfair and -one-sided. In all her wars not only success but justice is with Rome. To -the same general attitude is also due the omission by Livy of all that -has no direct bearing on the fortunes of the Roman people. "I have -resolved," he says (xxxix. 48), "only to touch on foreign affairs so far -as they are bound up with those of Rome." As the result, we get from -Livy very defective accounts even of the Italic peoples most closely -connected with Rome. Of the past history and the internal condition of -the more distant nations she encountered he tells us little or nothing, -even when he found such details carefully given by Polybius. - -Scarcely less strong than his interest in Rome is his interest in the -moral lessons which her history seemed to him so well qualified to -teach. This didactic view of history was a prevalent one in antiquity, -and it was confirmed no doubt by those rhetorical studies which in Rome -as in Greece formed the chief part of education, and which taught men to -look on history as little more than a storehouse of illustrations and -themes for declamation. But it suited also the practical bent of the -Roman mind, with its comparative indifference to abstract speculation or -purely scientific research. It is in the highest degree natural that -Livy should have sought for the secret of the rise of Rome, not in any -large historical causes, but in the moral qualities of the people -themselves, and that he should have looked upon the contemplation of -these as the best remedy for the vices of his own degenerate days. He -dwells with delight on the unselfish patriotism of the old heroes of the -republic. In those times children obeyed their parents, the gods were -still sincerely worshipped, poverty was no disgrace, sceptical -philosophies and foreign fashions in religion and in daily life were -unknown. But this ethical interest is closely bound up with his Roman -sympathies. His moral ideal is no abstract one, and the virtues he -praises are those which in his view made up the truly Roman type of -character. The prominence thus given to the moral aspects of the history -tends to obscure in some degree the true relations and real importance -of the events narrated, but it does so in Livy to a far less extent than -in some other writers. He is much too skilful an artist either to -resolve his history into a mere bundle of examples, or to overload it, -as Tacitus is sometimes inclined to do, with reflections and axioms. The -moral he wishes to enforce is usually either conveyed by the story -itself, with the aid perhaps of a single sentence of comment, or put as -a speech into the mouth of one of his characters (e.g. xxiii. 49; the -devotion of Decius, viii. 10, cf. vii. 40; and the speech of Camillus, -v. 54); and what little his narrative thus loses in accuracy it gains in -dignity and warmth of feeling. In his portraits of the typical Romans of -the old style, such as Q. Fabius Maximus, in his descriptions of the -unshaken firmness and calm courage shown by the fathers of the state in -the hour of trial, Livy is at his best; and he is so largely in virtue -of his genuine appreciation of character as a powerful force in the -affairs of men. - -This enthusiasm for Rome and for Roman virtues is, moreover, saved from -degenerating into gross partiality by the genuine candour of Livy's mind -and by his wide sympathies with every thing great and good. Seneca -(_Suasoriae_ vi. 22) and Quintilian (x. 1. 101) bear witness to his -impartiality. Thus, Hasdrubal's devotion and valour at the battle on the -Metaurus are described in terms of eloquent praise; and even in -Hannibal, the lifelong enemy of Rome, he frankly recognizes the great -qualities that balanced his faults. Nor, though his sympathies are -unmistakably with the aristocratic party, does he scruple to censure the -pride, cruelty and selfishness which too often marked their conduct (ii. -54; the speech of Canuleius, iv. 3; of Sextius and Licinius, vi. 36); -and, though he feels acutely that the times are out of joint, and has -apparently little hope of the future, he still believes in justice and -goodness. He is often righteously indignant, but never satirical, and -such a pessimism as that of Tacitus and Juvenal is wholly foreign to his -nature. - -Though he studied and even wrote on philosophy (Seneca, _Ep._ 100. 9), -Livy is by no means a philosophic historian. We learn indeed from -incidental notices that he inclined to Stoicism and disliked the -Epicurean system. With the scepticism that despised the gods (x. 40) and -denied that they meddled with the affairs of men (xliii. 13) he has no -sympathy. The immortal gods are everywhere the same; they govern the -world (xxxvii. 45) and reveal the future to men by signs and wonders -(xliii. 13), but only a debased superstition will look for their hand in -every petty incident, or abandon itself to an indiscriminate belief in -the portents and miracles in which popular credulity delights. The -ancient state religion of Rome, with its temples, priests and auguries, -he not only reverences as an integral part of the Roman constitution, -with a sympathy which grows as he studies it, but, like Varro, and in -true Stoic fashion, he regards it as a valuable instrument of government -(i. 19. 21), indispensable in a well-ordered community. As distinctly -Stoical is the doctrine of a fate to which even the gods must yield (ix. -4), which disposes the plans of men (i. 42) and blinds their minds (v. -37), yet leaves their wills free (xxxvii. 45). - -But we find no trace in Livy of any systematic application of philosophy -to the facts of history. He is as innocent of the leading ideas which -shaped the work of Polybius as he is of the cheap theorizing which -wearies us in the pages of Dionysius. The events are graphically, if not -always accurately, described; but of the larger causes at work in -producing them, of their subtle action and reaction upon each other, and -of the general conditions amid which the history worked itself out, he -takes no thought at all. Nor has Livy much acquaintance with either the -theory or the practice of politics. He exhibits, it is true, political -sympathies and antipathies. He is on the whole for the nobles and -against the commons; and, though the unfavourable colours in which he -paints the leaders of the latter are possibly reflected from the -authorities he followed, it is evident that he despised and disliked the -multitude. Of monarchy he speaks with a genuine Roman hatred, and we -know that in the last days of the republic his sympathies were wholly -with those who strove in vain to save it. He betrays, too, an insight -into the evils which were destined finally to undermine the imposing -fabric of Roman empire. The decline of the free population, the spread -of slavery (vi. 12, vii. 25), the universal craving for wealth (iii. -26), the employment of foreign mercenaries (xxv. 33), the corruption of -Roman race and Roman manners by mixture with aliens (xxxix. 3), are all -noticed in tones of solemn warning. But his retired life had given him -no wide experience of men and things. It is not surprising, therefore, -to find that he fails altogether to present a clear and coherent picture -of the history and working of the Roman constitution, or that his -handling of intricate questions of policy is weak and inadequate. - -_Sources._--If from the general aim and spirit of Livy's history we pass -to consider his method of workmanship, we are struck at once by the very -different measure of success attained by him in the two great -departments of an historian's labour. He is a consummate artist, but an -unskilled and often careless investigator and critic. The materials -which lay ready to his hand may be roughly classed under two heads: (1) -the original evidence of monuments, inscriptions, &c., (2) the written -tradition as found in the works of previous authors. It is on the second -of these two kinds of evidence that Livy almost exclusively relies. Yet -that even for the very early times a certain amount of original evidence -still existed is proved by the use which was made of it by Dionysius, -who mentions at least three important inscriptions, two dating from the -regal period and one from the first years of the republic (iv. 26, iv. -58, x. 32). We know from Livy himself (iv. 20) that the breastplate -dedicated by Aulus Cornelius Cossus (428 B.C.) was to be seen in his own -day in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, nor is there any reason to -suppose that the _libri lintei_, quoted by Licinius Macer, were not -extant when Livy wrote. For more recent times the materials were -plentiful, and a rich field of research lay open to the student in the -long series of laws, decrees of the senate, and official registers, -reaching back, as it probably did, at least to the beginning of the 3rd -century B.C. Nevertheless it seems certain that Livy never realized the -duty of consulting these relics of the past, even in order to verify the -statements of his authorities. Many of them he never mentions; the -others (e.g. the _libri lintei_) he evidently describes at second hand. -Antiquarian studies were popular in his day, but the instances are very -few in which he has turned their results to account. There is no sign -that he had ever read Varro; and he never alludes to Verrius Flaccus. -The haziness and inaccuracy of his topography make it clear that he did -not attempt to familiarize himself with the actual scenes of events even -that took place in Italy. Not only does he confuse Thermon, the capital -of Aetolia, with Thermopylae (xxxiii. 35), but his accounts of the Roman -campaigns against Volsci, Aequi and Samnites swarm with confusions and -difficulties; nor are even his descriptions of Hannibal's movements free -from an occasional vagueness which betrays the absence of an exact -knowledge of localities. - - The consequence of this indifference to original research and patient - verification might have been less serious had the written tradition on - which Livy preferred to rely been more trustworthy. But neither the - materials out of which it was composed, nor the manner in which it had - been put together, were such as to make it a safe guide. It was indeed - represented by a long line of respectable names. The majority of the - Roman annalists were men of high birth and education, with a long - experience of affairs, and their defects did not arise from seclusion - of life or ignorance of letters. It is rather in the conditions under - which they wrote and in the rules and traditions of their craft that - the causes of their shortcomings must be sought. - - - The Annalists. - - It was not until the 6th century from the foundation of the city that - historical writing began in Rome. The father of Roman history, Q. - Fabius Pictor, a patrician and a senator, can scarcely have published - his annals before the close of the Second Punic War, but these annals - covered the whole period from the arrival of Evander in Italy down at - least to the battle by Lake Trasimene (217 B.C.). Out of what - materials, then, did he put together his account of the earlier - history? Recent criticism has succeeded in answering this question - with some degree of certainty. A careful examination of the fragments - of Fabius (see H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Relliquiae_, Leipzig, - 1870; and C. W. Nitzsch, _Rom. Annalistik_, Berlin, 1873) reveals in - the first place a marked difference between the kingly period and that - which followed the establishment of the republic. The history of the - former stretches back into the regions of pure mythology. It is little - more than a collection of fables told with scarcely any attempt at - criticism, and with no more regard to chronological sequence than was - necessary to make the tale run smoothly or to fill up such gaps as - that between the flight of Aeneas from Troy and the supposed year of - the foundation of Rome. But from its very commencement the history of - the republic wears a different aspect. The mass of floating tradition, - which had come down from early days, with its tales of border raids - and forays, of valiant chiefs and deeds of patriotism, is now rudely - fitted into a framework of a wholly different kind. This framework - consists of short notices of important events, wars, prodigies, - consecration of temples, &c., all recorded with extreme brevity, - precisely dated, and couched in a somewhat archaic style. They were - taken probably from one or more of the state registers, such as the - annals of the pontiffs, or those kept by the aediles in the temple of - Ceres. This bare official outline of the past history of his city was - by Fabius filled in from the rich store of tradition that lay ready to - his hand. The manner and spirit in which he effected this combination - were no doubt wholly uncritical. Usually he seems to have transferred - both annalistic notices and popular traditions to his pages much in - the shape in which he found them. But he unquestionably gave undue - prominence to the tales of the prowess and glory of the Fabii, and - probably also allowed his own strong aristocratic sympathies to colour - his version of the early political controversies. This fault of - partiality was, according to Polybius, a conspicuous blot in Fabius's - account of his own times, which was, we are told, full and in the main - accurate, and, like the earlier portions, consisted of official - annalistic notices, supplemented, however, not from tradition, but - from his own experience and from contemporary sources. But even here - Polybius charges him with favouring Rome at the expense of Carthage, - and with the undue exaltation of the great head of his house, Q. - Fabius Cunctator. - - Nevertheless the comparative fidelity with which Fabius seems to have - reproduced his materials might have made his annals the starting point - of a critical history. But unfortunately intelligent criticism was - exactly what they never received. It is true that in some respects a - decided advance upon Fabius was made by subsequent annalists. M. - Porcius Cato (234-149 B.C.) widened the scope of Roman history so as - to include that of the chief Italian cities, and made the first - serious attempt to settle the chronology. In his history of the Punic - wars Caelius Antipater (c. 130 B.C.) added fresh material, drawn - probably from the works of the Sicilian Greek Silenus, while Licinius - Macer (70 B.C.) distinguished himself by the use he made of the - ancient "linen books." No doubt, too, the later annalists, at any rate - from Caelius Antipater onwards, improved upon Fabius in treatment and - style. But in more essential points we can discern no progress. One - annalist after another quietly adopted the established tradition, as - it had been left by his predecessors, without any serious alterations - of its main outlines. Of independent research and critical analysis we - find no trace, and the general agreement upon main facts is to be - attributed simply to the regularity with which each writer copied the - one before him. But, had the later annalists contented themselves with - simply reproducing the earlier ones, we should at least have had the - old tradition before us in a simple and tolerably genuine form. As it - was, while they slavishly clung to its substance, they succeeded, as a - rule, in destroying all traces of its original form and colouring. L. - Calpurnius Piso, tribune in 149 B.C. and consul in 133 B.C., prided - himself on reducing the old legends to the level of common sense, and - importing into them valuable moral lessons for his own generation. By - Caelius Antipater the methods of rhetoric were first applied to - history, a disastrous precedent enough. He inserted speeches, - enlivened his pages with chance tales, and aimed, as Cicero tells us, - at not merely narrating facts but also at beautifying them. His - successors carried still farther the practice of dressing up the - rather bald chronicles of earlier writers with all the ornaments of - rhetoric. The old traditions were altered, almost beyond the - possibility of recognition, by exaggerations, interpolations and - additions. Fresh incidents were inserted, new motives suggested and - speeches composed in order to infuse the required life and freshness - into these dry bones of history. At the same time the political bias - of the writers, and the political ideas of their day were allowed, in - some cases perhaps half unconsciously, to affect their representations - of past events. Annalists of the Gracchan age imported into the early - struggles of patricians and plebeians the economic controversies of - their own day, and painted the first tribunes in the colours of the - two Gracchi or of Saturninus. In the next generation they dexterously - forced the venerable records of the early republic to pronounce in - favour of the ascendancy of the senate, as established by Sulla. To - political bias was added family pride, for the gratification of which - the archives of the great houses, the funeral panegyrics, or the - imagination of the writer himself supplied an ample store of doubtful - material. Pedigrees were invented, imaginary consulships and - fictitious triumphs inserted, and family traditions and family honours - were formally incorporated with the history of the state. - - Things were not much better even where the annalists were dealing with - recent or contemporary events. Here, indeed, their materials were - naturally fuller and more trustworthy, and less room was left for - fanciful decoration and capricious alteration of the facts. But their - methods are in the main unchanged. What they found written they - copied; the gaps they supplied, where personal experience failed, by - imagination. No better proof of this can be given than a comparison of - the annalist's version of history with that of Polybius. In the fourth - and fifth decades of Livy the two appear side by side, and the - contrast between them is striking. Polybius, for instance, gives the - number of the slain at Cynoscephalae as 8000; the annalists raise it - as high as 40,000 (Livy xxxiii. 10). In another case (xxxii. 6) - Valerius Antias, the chief of sinners in this respect, inserts a - decisive Roman victory over the Macedonians, in which 12,000 of the - latter were slain and 2200 taken prisoner, an achievement recorded by - no other authority. - - Such was the written tradition on which Livy mainly relied. We have - next to examine the manner in which he used it, and here we are met at - the outset by the difficulty of determining with exactness what - authorities he is following at any one time; for of the importance of - full and accurate references he has no idea, and often for chapters - together he gives us no clue at all. More often still he contents - himself with such vague phrases as "they say," "the story goes," "some - think," or speaks in general terms of "ancient writers" or "my - authorities." Even where he mentions a writer by name, it is - frequently clear that the writer named is not the one whose lead he is - following at the moment, but that he is noticed incidentally as - differing from Livy's guide for the time being on some point of detail - (compare the references to Piso in the first decade, i. 55, ii. 32, - &c.). It is very rarely that Livy explicitly tells us whom he has - selected as his chief source (e.g. Fabius xxii. 7; Polybius xxxiii. - 10). By a careful analysis, however, of those portions of his work - which admit of a comparison with the text of his acknowledged - authorities (e.g. fourth and fifth decades, see H. Nissen, - _Untersuchungen_, Berlin, 1863), and elsewhere by comparing his - version with the known fragments of the various annalists, and with - what we are told of their style and method of treatment, we are able - to form a general idea of his plan of procedure. As to the first - decade, it is generally agreed that in the first and second books, at - any rate, he follows such older and simpler writers as Fabius Pictor - and Calpurnius Piso (the only ones whom he there refers to by name), - to whom, so far as the first book is concerned, Niebuhr (_Lectures_, - p. 33) would add the poet Ennius. With the close of the second book or - the opening of the third we come upon the first traces of the use of - later authors. Valerius Antias[3] is first quoted in iii. 5, and signs - of his handiwork are visible here and there throughout the rest of the - decade (vii. 36, ix. 27, x. 3-5). In the fourth book the principal - authority is apparently Licinius Macer, and for the period following - the sack of Rome by the Gauls Q. Claudius Quadrigarius, whose annals - began at this point in the history. We have besides a single reference - (vii. 3) to the antiquarian Cincius, and two (iv. 23, x. 9) to Q. - Aelius Tubero, one of the last in the list of annalists. Passing to - the third decade, we find ourselves at once confronted by a question - which has been long and fully discussed--the relation between Livy and - Polybius. Did Livy use Polybius at all, and, if so, to what extent? - - - Polybius. - - It is conceded on all hands that Livy in this decade makes - considerable use of other authorities than Polybius (e.g. Fabius xxii. - 7; Caelius Antipater xxi. 38, 46, 47, xxii. 31, &c.), that he only - once mentions Polybius (xxx. 45), and that, if he used him, he did so - to a much less extent than in the fourth and fifth decades, and in a - very different manner. It is also agreed that we can detect in Livy's - account of the Hannibalic war two distinct elements, derived - originally, the one from a Roman, the other from a non-Roman source. - But from these generally accepted premises two opposite conclusions - have been drawn. On the one hand, it is maintained (e.g. by Lachmann, - C. Peter, H. Peter, _Hist. Rom. Relliq._) that those parts of Livy's - narrative which point to a non-Roman authority (e.g. Hannibal's - movements prior to his invasion of Italy) are taken by Livy directly - from Polybius, with occasional reference of course to other writers, - and with the omission (as in the later decades) of all matters - uninteresting to Livy or his Roman readers, and the addition of - rhetorical touches and occasional comments. It is urged that Livy, who - in the fourth and fifth decades shows himself so sensible of the great - merits of Polybius, is not likely to have ignored him in the third, - and that his more limited use of him in the latter case is fully - accounted for by the closer connexion of the history with Rome and - Roman affairs, and the comparative excellence of the available Roman - authorities, and, lastly, that the points of agreement with Polybius, - not only in matter but in expression, can only be explained on the - theory that Livy is directly following the great Greek historian. On - the other hand, it is maintained (especially by Schwegler, Nitzsch, - and K. Bottcher) that the extent and nature of Livy's agreement with - Polybius in this part of his work point rather to the use by both of a - common original authority. It is argued that Livy's mode of using his - authorities is tolerably uniform, and that his mode of using Polybius - in particular is known with certainty from the later decades. - Consequently the theory that he used Polybius in the third decade - requires us to assume that in this one instance he departed widely, - and without sufficient reason, from his usual course of procedure. - Moreover, even in the passages where the agreement with Polybius is - most apparent, there are so many discrepancies and divergencies in - detail, and so many unaccountable omissions and additions, as to - render it inconceivable that he had the text of Polybius before him. - But all these are made intelligible if we suppose Livy to have been - here following directly or indirectly the same original sources that - were used by Polybius. The earliest of these original sources was - probably Silenus, with whom may possibly be placed, for books xxi. - xxii., Fabius Pictor. The latter Livy certainly used directly for some - parts of the decade. The former he almost as certainly knew only at - second hand, the intermediate authority being probably Caelius - Antipater. This writer, who confined himself to a history of the - Second Punic War, in seven books, is expressly referred to by Livy - eleven times in the third decade; and in other passages where his name - is not mentioned Livy can be shown to have followed him (e.g. xxii. 5, - 49, 50, 51, xxiv. 9). In the latter books of the decade his chief - authority is possibly Valerius Antias. - - In the fourth and fifth decades the question of Livy's authorities - presents no great difficulties, and the conclusions arrived at by - Nissen in his masterly _Untersuchungen_ have met with general - acceptance. These may be shortly stated as follows. In the portions of - the history which deal with Greece and the East, Livy follows - Polybius, and these portions are easily distinguishable from the rest - by their superior clearness, accuracy and fulness. On the other hand, - for the history of Italy and western Europe he falls back on Roman - annalists, especially, it seems, on Claudius Quadrigarius and Valerius - Antias--a most unfortunate choice--and from them too he takes the - annalistic mould into which his matter is cast. - - - Critical method. - - Livy's general method of using these authorities was certainly not - such as would be deemed satisfactory in a modern historian. He is - indeed free from the grosser faults of deliberate injustice and - falsification, and he resists that temptation to invent, to which "the - minds of authors are only too much inclined" (xxii. 7). Nor is he - unconscious of the necessity for some kind of criticism. He - distinguishes between rumour and the precise statements of recognized - authorities (cf. xxi. 46, v. 21, vii. 6). The latter he reproduced in - the main faithfully, but with a certain exercise of discretion. Where - they disagreed, he calls attention to the fact, occasionally - pronouncing in favour of one version rather than another (ii. 41, xxi. - 46) though often on no adequate grounds, or attempting to reconcile - and explain discrepancies (vi. 12, 38). Where he detects or suspects - the insertion of fabulous matter he has no scruple in saying so. Gross - exaggerations, such as those in which Valerius Antias indulged, he - roundly denounces, and with equal plainness of speech he condemns the - family vanity which had so constantly corrupted and distorted the - truth. "I suppose," he says (viii. 40), "that the record and memorial - of these matters hath been depraved and corrupted by these funeral - orations of praises, ... while every house and family draweth to it - the honour and renown of noble exploits, martial feats and dignities - by any untruth and lie, so it be colourable." The legendary character - of the earliest traditions he frankly admits. "Such things as are - reported either before or at the foundation of the city, more - beautiful and set out with poets' fables than grounded upon pure and - faithful records, I mean neither to aver nor disprove" (_Praef._); and - of the whole history previous to the sack of Rome by the Gauls (390 - B.C.) he writes that it was obscure "both in regard of exceeding - antiquity, and also for that in those days there were very few - writings and monuments, the only faithful safeguard and true - remembrancers of deeds past; and, besides, whatsoever was registered - in the commentaries of the priests and in other public or private - records, the same for the most part, when the city was burned, - perished withal." Further than this, however, Livy's criticism does - not go. Where his written authorities are not palpably inconsistent - with each other or with probability he accepts and transcribes their - record without any further inquiry, nor does he ever attempt to get - behind this record in order to discover the original evidence on which - it rested. His acceptance in any particular case of the version given - by an annalist by no means implies that he has by careful inquiry - satisfied himself of its truth. At the most it only presupposes a - comparison with other versions, equally second-hand, but either less - generally accepted or less in harmony with his own views of the - situation; and in many cases the reasons he gives for his preference - of one account over another are eminently unscientific. Livy's - history, then, rests on no foundation of original research or even of - careful verification. It is a compilation, and even as such it leaves - much to be desired. For we cannot credit Livy with having made such a - preliminary survey of his authorities as would enable him to determine - their relations to each other, and fuse their various narratives into - a consistent whole. It is clear, on the contrary, that his circle of - authorities for any one decade was a comparatively small one, that of - these he selected one, and transcribed him with the necessary - embellishments and other slight modifications until impelled by - various reasons to drop him. He then, without warning, takes up - another, whom he follows in the same way. The result is a curious - mosaic, in which pieces of all colours and dates are found side by - side, and in which even the great artistic skill displayed throughout - fails to conceal the lack of internal unity. Thus many of Livy's - inconsistencies are due to his having pieced together two versions, - each of which gave a differently coloured account of the same event. - Mommsen (_Rom. Forschungen_, ii.) has clearly shown that this is what - has happened in his relation of the legal proceedings against the - elder Africanus in book xxxviii.; and in the story of the first - secession, as he tells it, the older version which represented it as - due to political and the later which explained it by economical - grievances are found side by side. Similarly a change from one - authority to another leads him not unfrequently to copy from the - latter statements inconsistent with those he took from the former, to - forget what he has previously said, or to treat as known a fact which - has not been mentioned before (cf. ii. 1, xxxiv. 6, and Weissenborn's - _Introduction_, p. 37). In other cases where the same event has been - placed by different annalists in different years, or where their - versions of it varied, it reappears in Livy as two events. Thus the - four campaigns against the Volsci (ii. 17 seq.) are, as Schwegler - (_R.G._ i. 13) rightly says, simply variations of one single - expedition. Other instances of such "doublettes" are the two single - combats described in xxiii. 46 and xxv. 18, and the two battles at - Baecula in Spain (xxvii. 18 and xxviii. 13). Without doubt, too, much - of the chronological confusion observable throughout Livy is due to - the fact that he follows now one now another authority, heedless of - their differences on this head. Thus he vacillates between the - Catonian and Varronian reckoning of the years of the city, and between - the chronologies of Polybius and the Roman annalists. - - To these defects in his method must be added the fact that he does not - always succeed even in accurately reproducing the authority he is for - the time following. In the case of Polybius, for instance, he allows - himself great freedom in omitting what strikes him as irrelevant, or - tedious, or uninteresting to his Roman readers, a process in which - much valuable matter disappears. In other cases his desire to give a - vividness and point to what he doubtless considered the rather bald - and dry style of Polybius leads him into absurdities and inaccuracies. - Thus by the treaty with Antiochus (188 B.C.) it was provided that the - Greek communities of Asia Minor "shall settle their mutual differences - by arbitration," and so far Livy correctly transcribes Polybius, but - he adds with a rhetorical flourish, "or, if both parties prefer it, by - war" (xxxviii. 38). Elsewhere his blunders are apparently due to - haste, or ignorance or sheer carelessness; thus, for instance, when - Polybius speaks of the Aetolians assembling at their capital Thermon, - Livy (xxxiii. 35) not only substitutes Thermopylae but gratuitously - informs his readers that here the Pylaean assemblies were held. Thanks - partly to carelessness, partly to mistranslation, he makes sad havoc - (xxxv. 5 seq.) of Polybius's account of the battle of Cynoscephalae. - Finally, Livy cannot be altogether acquitted on the charge of having - here and there modified Polybius in the interests of Rome. - - - Speeches. - - _Style._--Serious as these defects in Livy's method appear if viewed - in the light of modern criticism, it is probable that they were easily - pardoned, if indeed they were ever discovered, by his contemporaries. - For it was on the artistic rather than on the critical side of history - that stress was almost universally laid in antiquity, and the thing - that above all others was expected from the historian was not so much - a scientific investigation and accurate exposition of the truth, as - its skilful presentation in such a form as would charm and interest - the reader. Tried by this standard, Livy deservedly won and held a - place in the very first rank. Asinius Pollio sneered at his - Patavinity, and the emperor Caligula denounced him as verbose, but - with these exceptions the opinion of antiquity was unanimous in - pronouncing him a consummate literary workman. The classical purity of - his style, the eloquence of his speeches, the skill with which he - depicted the play of emotion, and his masterly portraiture of great - men, are all in turn warmly commended, and in our own day we question - if any ancient historian is either more readable or more widely read. - It is true that for us his artistic treatment of history is not - without its drawbacks. The more trained historical sense of modern - times is continually shocked by the obvious untruth of his colouring, - especially in the earlier parts of his history, by the palpable - unreality of many of the speeches, and by the naivete with which he - omits everything, however important, which he thinks will weary his - readers. But in spite of all this we are forced to acknowledge that, - as a master of what we may perhaps call "narrative history," he has no - superior in antiquity; for, inferior as he is to Thucydides, to - Polybius, and even to Tacitus in philosophic power and breadth of - view, he is at least their equal in the skill with which he tells his - story. He is indeed the prince of chroniclers, and in this respect not - unworthy to be classed even with Herodotus (Quintilian, x. 1. 101). - Nor is anything more remarkable than the way in which Livy's fine - taste and sense of proportion, his true poetic feeling and genuine - enthusiasm, saved him from the besetting faults of the mode of - treatment which he adopted. The most superficial comparison of his - account of the earliest days of Rome with that given by Dionysius - shows from what depths of tediousness he was preserved by these - qualities. Instead of the wearisome prolixity and the misplaced - pedantry which make the latter almost unreadable, we find the old - tales briefly and simply told. Their primitive beauty is not marred by - any attempt to force them into an historical mould, or disguised - beneath an accumulation of the insipid inventions of later times. At - the same time they are not treated as mere tales for children, for - Livy never forgets the dignity that belongs to them as the prelude to - the great epic of Rome, and as consecrated by the faith of - generations. Perhaps an even stronger proof of the skill which enabled - Livy to avoid dangers which were fatal to weaker men is to be found in - his speeches. We cannot indeed regard them, with the ancients, as the - best part of his history, for the majority of them are obviously - unhistorical, and nearly all savour somewhat too much of the - rhetorical schools to be perfectly agreeable to modern taste. To - appreciate them we must take them for what they are, pieces of - declamation, intended either to enliven the course of the narrative, - to place vividly before the reader the feelings and aims of the chief - actors, or more frequently still to enforce some lesson which the - author himself has at heart. The substance, no doubt, of many of them - Livy took from his authorities, but their form is his own, and, in - throwing into them all his own eloquence and enthusiasm, he not only - acted in conformity with the established traditions of his art, but - found a welcome outlet for feelings and ideas which the fall of the - republic had deprived of all other means of expression. To us, - therefore, they are valuable not only for their eloquence, but still - more as giving us our clearest insight into Livy's own sentiments, his - lofty sense of the greatness of Rome, his appreciation of Roman - courage and firmness, and his reverence for the simple virtues of - older times. But, freely as Livy uses this privilege of speechmaking, - his correct taste keeps his rhetoric within reasonable limits. With a - very few exceptions the speeches are dignified in tone, full of life - and have at least a dramatic propriety, while of such incongruous and - laboured absurdities as the speech which Dionysius puts into the mouth - of Romulus, after the rape of the Sabine women, there are no instances - in Livy. - - But, if our estimate of the merits of his speeches is moderated by - doubts as to his right to introduce them at all, no such scruples - interfere with our admiration for the skill with which he has drawn - the portraits of the great men who figure in his pages. We may indeed - doubt whether in all cases they are drawn with perfect accuracy and - impartiality, but of their life-like vigour and clearness there can be - no question. With Livy this portrait-painting was a labour of love. - "To all great men," says Seneca, "he gave their due ungrudgingly," but - he is at his best in dealing with those who, like Q. Fabius Maximus, - "the Delayer," were in his eyes the most perfect types of the true - Roman. - - The general effect of Livy's narrative is no doubt a little spoilt by - the awkward arrangement, adopted from his authorities, which obliges - him to group the events by years, and thus to disturb their natural - relations and continuity. As the result his history has the appearance - of being rather a series of brilliant pictures loosely strung together - than a coherent narrative. But it is impossible not to admire the - copious variety of thought and language, and the evenly flowing style - which carried him safely through the dreariest periods of his history; - and still more remarkable is the dramatic power he displays when some - great crisis or thrilling episode stirs his blood, such as the sack of - Rome by the Gauls, the battle by the Metaurus and the death of - Hasdrubal. - - In style and language Livy represents the best period of Latin prose - writing. He has passed far beyond the bald and meagre diction of the - early chroniclers. In his hands Latin acquired a flexibility and a - richness of vocabulary unknown to it before. If he writes with less - finish and a less perfect rhythm than his favourite model Cicero, he - excels him in the varied structure of his periods, and their - adaptation to the subject-matter. It is true that here and there the - "creamy richness" of his style becomes verbosity, and that he - occasionally draws too freely on his inexhaustible store of epithets, - metaphors and turns of speech; but these faults, which did not escape - the censure even of friendly critics like Quintilian, are - comparatively rare in the extant parts of his work. From the tendency - to use a poetic diction in prose, which was so conspicuous a fault in - the writers of the silver age, Livy is not wholly free. In his earlier - books especially there are numerous phrases and sentences which have - an unmistakably poetic ring, recalling sometimes Ennius and more often - his contemporary Virgil. But in Livy this poetic element is kept - within bounds, and serves only to give warmth and vividness to the - narrative. Similarly, though the influence of rhetoric upon his - language, as well as upon his general treatment, is clearly - perceptible, he has not the perverted love of antithesis, paradox and - laboured word-painting which offends us in Tacitus; and, in spite of - the Venetian richness of his colouring, and the copious flow of his - words, he is on the whole wonderfully natural and simple. - - These merits, not less than the high tone and easy grace of his - narrative and the eloquence of his speeches, gave Livy a hold on Roman - readers such as only Cicero and Virgil besides him ever obtained. His - history formed the groundwork of nearly all that was afterwards - written on the subject. Plutarch, writers on rhetoric like the elder - Seneca, moralists like Valerius Maximus, went to Livy for their stock - examples. Florus and Eutropius abridged him; Orosius extracted from - him his proofs of the sinful blindness of the pagan world; and in - every school Livy was firmly established as a text-book for the Roman - youth. - - _Text._--The received text of the extant thirty-five books of Livy is - taken from different sources, and no one of our MSS. contains them - all. The MSS. of the first decade, some thirty in number, are with one - exception derived, more or less directly, from a single archetype, - viz., the recension made in the 4th century by the two Nicomachi, - Flavianus and Dexter, and by Victorianus. This is proved in the case - of the older MSS. by written subscriptions to that effect, and in the - case of the rest by internal evidence. Of all these descendants of the - Nicomachean recension, the oldest is the Codex Parisinus of the 10th - century, and the best the Codex Mediceus or Florentinus of the 11th. - An independent value attaches to the ancient palimpsest of Verona, of - which the first complete account was given by Mommsen in _Abhandl. der - preussischen Akad. der Wissenschaften_ (1868). It contains the third, - fourth, fifth and fragments of the sixth book, and, according to - Mommsen, whose conclusions are accepted by Madvig (_Emend. Livianae_, - 2nd ed., 1877, p. 37), it is derived, not from the Nicomachean - recension, but from an older archetype common to both. - - For the third decade our chief authority is the Codex Puteanus, an - uncial MS. of the 5th century, now at Paris. For the fourth we have - two leading MSS.--Codex Bambergensis, 11th century, and the slightly - older Codex Moguntinus, now lost and only known through the Mainz - edition of 1518-1519. What remains of the fifth decade depends on the - 5th century Laurishamensis or Vindobonensis from the monastery of - Lorsch, edited at Basel in 1531. - - A bibliography of the various editions of Livy, or of all that has - been written upon him, cannot be attempted here. The following may be - consulted for purposes of reference; W. Engelmann, _Scriptores Latini_ - (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1882); J. E. B. Mayor, _Bibliographical Clue - to Latin Literature_ (1875); Teuffel-Schwabe, _History of Roman - Literature_ (Eng. trans.), 256, 257; M. Schanz, _Geschichte der - romischen Litteratur_. ii. 1 (2nd ed., 1899). The best editions of the - complete text are those of W. Weissenborn (1858-1862, containing an - introductory essay on Livy's life and writings; new edition by M. - Muller, 1902), and J. N. Madvig and J. L. Ussing (1863-1873). The only - English translation of any merit is by Philemon Holland (1600). - (H. F. P.; X.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] For the fragments of an epitome discovered at Oxyrhynchus see J. - S. Reid in _Classical Review_ (July, 1904); E. Kornemann, _Die neue - Livius-Epitome aus Oxyrhynchus_, with text and commentary (Leipzig, - 1904); C. H. Moore, "The Oxyrhynchus Epitome of Livy in relation to - Obsequens and Cassiodorus," in _American Journal of Philology_ - (1904), 241. - - [2] The various rumours once current of complete copies of Livy in - Constantinople, Chios and elsewhere, are noticed by B. G. Niebuhr, - _Lectures on the History of Rome from the first Punic War_ (ed. L. - Schmitz, 1844), i. 65. - - [3] For Livy's debt to Valerius Antias, see A. A. Howard in _Harvard - Studies in Classical Philology_, xvii. (1906), pp. 161 sqq. - - - - -LIZARD (Lat. _lacerta_[1]), a name originally referred only to the small -European species of four-legged reptiles, but now applied to a whole -order (_Lacertilia_), which is represented by numerous species in all -temperate and tropical regions. Lizards are reptiles which have a -transverse external anal opening (instead of a longitudinal slit as in -Crocodilians and tortoises) and which have the right and left halves of -the mandibles connected by a sutural symphysis. The majority are -distinguished from snakes by the possession of two pairs of limbs, of -external ear-openings and movable eyelids, but since in not a few of the -burrowing, snake-shaped lizards these characters give way entirely, it -is well-nigh impossible to find a diagnosis which should be absolutely -sufficient for the distinction between lizards and snakes. In such -doubtful cases a number of characters have to be resorted to, and, while -each of these may fail when taken singly, their combination decides the -question. It is certain that the snakes have been evolved as a -specialized branch from some Lacertilian stock, and that both "orders" -are intimately related, but it is significant that it is only through -the degraded members of the lizards that recent representatives of the -two great groups seem to run into each other. Such critical characters -are:-- - - Lizards. Snakes. - - Limbs 2 pairs, 1 or 0. 0 or vestigial hind-limbs. - - Ear-opening Usually present. Always absent. - - Eyelids Mostly movable. No movable lids. - - Tongue Often not retractile. Always bifid and - retractile into itself. - - Teeth Pleuro- or acrodont, Acrodont, anchylosed. - not anchylosed. - - Mandibles Mostly firmly united Never with suture, - suturally. mostly ligamentous. - - Columella cranii Mostly present. Absent. - Mostly with bony arches - across the temporal No bony arches. - region. - Osteoderms common. No bony arches. - No osteoderms. - -The lizards and snakes are the two dominant reptilian orders which are -still on the increase in species, though certainly not in size. As a -moderate estimate, the number of recent species of lizards is about -1700. As a group they are cosmopolitan, their northern limit approaching -that of the permanently frozen subsoil, while in the southern hemisphere -the southern point of Patagonia forms the farthest limit. As we approach -the tropics, the variety of forms and the number of individuals -increase, the most specialized and developed forms, and also the most -degraded, being found in the tropics. In the temperate regions they -hibernate. The majority live on broken ground, with or without much -vegetation; many are arboreal and many are true desert animals, while a -few are more or less aquatic; one, the leguan of the Galapagos, -_Amblyrhynchus_, even enters the sea. Some, like the majority of the -geckos, are nocturnal. In adaptation to these varied surroundings they -exhibit great variety in shape, size and structure. Most of these -modifications are restricted to the skin, limbs, tail or tongue. Most -lizards live on animal food, varying from tiny insects and worms to -lizards, snakes, birds and mammals, while others prefer a mixed or an -entirely vegetable diet. Accordingly, the teeth and the whole digestive -tract are modified. But swiftness, the apparatus necessary for climbing, -running and digging, the mechanism of the tongue, the muscles of the -jaws (hence modifications of the cranial arches) stand also in -correlation with the kind of food and with the way in which it has to be -procured. Generally the teeth are conical or pointed, more rarely blunt, -grooved or serrated. They are inserted either on the inner side of the -margin of the jaws (_pleurodonta_) or on the edge of the bones -(_acrodonta_). The tongue is generally beset with more or less scaly or -velvety papillae and has always a well-marked posterior margin, while -the anterior portion may or may not be more or less retractile into the -posterior part. - -In many lizards the muscles of the segments of the tail are so loosely -connected and the vertebrae are so weak that the tail easily breaks off. -The severed part retains its muscular irritability for a short time, -wriggling as if it were a living creature. A lizard thus mutilated does -not seem to be much affected, and the lost part is slowly reproduced. -This faculty is of advantage to those lizards which lack other means of -escape when pursued by some other animal, which is satisfied with -capturing the detached member. - -The motions of most lizards are executed with great but not enduring -rapidity. With the exception of the chameleon, all drag their body over -the ground, the limbs being wide apart, turned outwards and relatively -to the bulk of the body generally weak. But the limbs show with regard -to development great variation, and an uninterrupted transition from the -most perfect condition of two pairs with five separate clawed toes to -their total disappearance; yet even limbless lizards retain bony -vestiges beneath the skin. The motions of these limbless lizards are -similar to those of snakes, which they resemble in their elongate body. - -The eggs are elliptical in shape, both poles being equal, and are -covered with a shell which may be thin and leathery or hard and -calcareous. The number of eggs laid is small in comparison with other -reptiles, rarely exceeding a score, and some like the anolids and the -geckos deposit only one or two. The parents leave the eggs to hatch -where they are deposited, in sand or in mould. Many lizards, however, -retain the eggs in the oviducts until the embryo is fully developed; -these species then bring forth living young and are called -ovo-viviparous by purists. Some lizards possess a considerable amount of -intelligence; they play with each other, become very tame, and act -deliberately according to circumstances. As a rule the Iguanids and -Varans are as bright as the Agamas are dull. Many have the power of -changing colour, a faculty which they share only with various frogs, -toads and fishes. Lizards are not poisonous, with the single exception -of _Heloderma_. - - The Lacertilia, or lizards in the wider sense, fall easily into three - natural groups: geckos (q.v.), chameleons (q.v.) and lizards. - - I. Suborder, GECKONES. Pleurodont lizards with well-developed limbs; - without temporal bony arches; postthoracic ribs united across the - abdomen. Tongue, thick and broad, slightly nicked anteriorly. With few - exceptions they have amphicoelous vertebrae, the parietal bones remain - separate and they have no eyelids, with very few exceptions. - - 1. Family, _Geckonidae._--Amphicoelous; parietals separate; clavicles - dilated and with a perforation near the ventral end. Cosmopolitan, - although mainly tropical, with about 270 species (see GECKO). - - Nearly all geckos are nocturnal and the pupil contracts into a - vertical slit, except in a few diurnal kinds, e.g. _Phelsuma_ of - islands in the Indian Ocean, and _Lygodactylus_ of Africa. - _Aelurosaurus_ of Borneo and Australia, and _Ptenopus_ of South - Africa, have upper and lower movable eyelids. Whilst the skin is - mostly soft on the back, with little granular tubercles, scales - (except on the belly) are absent, but they are present in - _Homopholis_, in _Geckolepis_ of Madagascar, and most fully developed - in _Teratoscincus scincus_. This peculiar little inhabitant of the - steppes and desert regions of Turkestan and Persia, by rubbing the - imbricating scales upon each other, produces a shrill cricket-like - noise, whilst sitting at night in front of its hole in the ground. - Furthermore it is so thoroughly adapted to running upon the desert - sand that its digits are devoid of adhesive lamellae. The same - beautiful adaptation to the surroundings exists also in _Ptenopus_ - (with fringed toes) and _Stenodactylus_, which are likewise - deserticolous. _Aeluronyx_ of Madagascar and Seychelles has cat-like - retractile claws. _Naultinus elegans_ of New Zealand is said to be - viviparous; the others lay but one rather large egg at a time. Many - species have a feeble voice which resembles a repeated click of the - tongue, and their name "gecko" is supposed to be an Indian imitation - of the sound. - - 2. Family, _Uroplatidae._--Amphicoelous; parietals separate; but the - nasal bones are fused together, and the clavicles are not dilated. - Genus _Uroplates_, with a few species, e.g. _U. fimbriatus_ in - Madagascar. - - 3. Family, _Eublepharidae._--Procoelous; parietals united; eyelids - functional; clavicles expanded as in the true geckos which they - resemble in other respects. The few genera and species are undoubtedly - a heterogeneous assembly, as indicated by their very scattered - distribution, but they all agree in their decidedly handsome colour - pattern, bands of dark brown to maroon upon a light ground. - _Eublepharis_, with one species each in Panama, Mexico, Texas and - California; two in India. _Coleonyx elegans_ in forests of Central - America and Mexico. _Psilodactylus_ in West Africa. - - II. Suborder, CHAMAELEONTES. Acrodont, Old World lizards, with - laterally compressed body, prehensile tail and well developed limbs - with the digits arranged in opposing, grasping bundles of two and - three respectively. The chameleons (q.v.) have many structural - peculiarities. - - III. Suborder, LACERTAE. Procoelous vertebrae; ventral portions of the - clavicles not dilated; parietal bones fused into one. - - The general appearance is too misleading for the classification of the - Lacertae. E. D. Cope (_Proc. Ac. Philad._, 1864, pp. 224 et seq. and - _Proc. Amer. Ass._ xix., 1871, p. 236, &c.) therefore relied upon more - fundamental characters, notably the presence or absence of osteoderms, - the formation of the skull, the teeth and the tongue. G. A. Boulenger - (_Ann. Nat. Hist._ 5, xiv., 1884, p. 117, &c.) has further improved - upon the then prevailing arrangements, and has elaborated a - classification which, used by himself in the three volumes of the - catalogue of lizards in the British Museum, is followed in the present - article with slight alterations in the order of treatment of the - families. In the following diagnoses of the families preference is - given to such characters as are most easily ascertained. - - The 17 "families" fall into 4 or 5 main groups. Presumably the - presence of osteoderms and of complete cranial arches are more archaic - than their absence, just as we conclude that limbless forms have been - evolved from various groups possessed of fully developed limbs. - _Zonuridae_ and _Anguidae_ assume a central position, with _Agamidae_ - and _Iguanidae_ as two parallel families (not very different from each - other) of highest development, one in the Old World, the other in - America. _Xenosaurus_ seems to be an offshoot intermediate between the - _Iguanidae_ and the _Anguidae_; a degraded form of latter is perhaps - _Aniella_ of California, whilst _Heloderma_ and _Lanthanotus_ are also - specialized and isolated offshoots. A second group is formed by the - few American _Xantusiidae_, the numerous American _Tejidae_, and the - burrowing, degraded American and African _Amphisbaenidae_. A third - group comprises the cosmopolitan _Scincidae_, the African and Malagasy - _Gerrhosauridae_ which in various features remind us of the - _Anguidae_, and the African and Eurasian _Lacertidae_ which are the - highest members of this group. _Anelytropidae_ and perhaps also - _Dibamidae_ may be degraded Scincoids. The _Varanidae_ stand quite - alone, in many respects the highest of all lizards, with some, quite - superficial, Crocodilian resemblances. Lastly there are the few - _Pygopodidae_ of the Australian region, with still quite obscure - relationship. - - Family 1. _Agamidae._--Acrodont; tongue broad and thick, not - protractile; no osteoderms. Old World. - - The agamas have always two pairs of well-developed limbs. The teeth - are usually differentiated into incisors, canines and molars. The skin - is devoid of ossifications, but large and numerous cutaneous spines - are often present, especially on the head and on the tail. The family, - comprising some 200 species, with about 30 genera, shows great - diversity of form; the terrestrial members are mostly flat-bodied, the - arboreal more laterally compressed and often with a very long tail. - Most of them are insectivorous, but a few are almost entirely - vegetable feeders. They are an exclusively Old World family; they are - most numerous in Australia (except New Zealand) and the Indian and - Malay countries; comparatively few live in Africa (none in Madagascar) - and in the countries from Asia Minor to India. - - The majority of the ground-agamas, and the most common species of the - plains, deserts or rocky districts of Africa and Asia, belong to the - genera _Stellio_ and _Agama_. Their scales are mixed with larger - prominent spines, which in some species are particularly developed on - the tail, and disposed in whorls. Nearly all travellers in the north - of Africa mention the _Hardhon_ of the Arabs (_Agama stellio_), which - is extremely common, and has drawn upon itself the hatred of the - Mahommedans by its habit of nodding its head, which they interpret as - a mockery of their own movements whilst engaged in prayer. In some of - the Grecian islands they are still called _korkordilos_, just as they - were in the time of Herodotus. _Uromastix_ is one of the largest of - ground-agamas, and likewise found in Africa and Asia. The body is - uniformly covered with granular scales, whilst the short, strong tail - is armed with powerful spines disposed in whorls. The Indian species - (_U. hardwicki_) is mainly herbivorous; the African _U. acanthinurus_ - and _U. spinipes_, the Dab of the Arabs, take mixed food. - _Phrynocephalus_ is typical of the steppes and deserts of Asia. - _Ceratophora_ and _Lyriocephalus_ scutatus, the latter remarkable for - its chameleon-like appearance, are Ceylonese. _Calotes_, peculiar to - Indian countries, comprises many species, e.g. _C. ophiomachus_, - generally known as the "bloodsucker" on account of the red colour on - the head and neck displayed during excitement. _Draco_ (see DRAGON) is - Indo-Malayan. _Physignathus_ is known from Australia to Cochin China. - - Of the Australian agamas no other genus is so numerously represented - and widely distributed as _Grammatophora_, the species of which grow - to a length of from 8 to 18 in. Their scales are generally rough and - spinous; but otherwise they possess no strikingly distinguishing - peculiarity, unless the loose skin of their throat, which is - transversely folded and capable of inflation, be regarded as such. On - the other hand, two other Australian agamoids have attained some - celebrity by their grotesque appearance, due to the extraordinary - development of their integuments. One (fig. 1) is the frilled lizard - (_Chlamydosaurus kingi_), which is restricted to Queensland and the - north coast, and grows to a length of 3 ft., including the long - tapering tail. It is provided with a frill-like fold of the skin round - the neck, which, when erected, resembles a broad collar. This lizard - when startled rises with the fore-legs off the ground and squats and - runs on its hind-legs. The other lizard is one which most - appropriately has been called _Moloch horridus_. It is covered with - large and small spine-bearing tubercules; the head is small and the - tail short. It is sluggish in its movements, and so harmless that its - armature and (to a casual observer) repulsive appearance are its sole - means of defence. It grows only to a length of 10 in., and is not - uncommon in the flats of South and West Australia. - - Family 2. _Iguanidae._--Pleurodont; tongue broad and thick, not - protractile; no osteoderms. America, Madagascar and Fiji Islands. - - According to the very varied habits, their external appearance varies - within wide limits, there being amongst the 300 species, with 50 - genera, arboreal, terrestrial, burrowing and semi-aquatic forms, and - even one semi-marine kind. All have well-developed limbs. In their - general structure the _Iguanidae_ closely resemble the _Agamidae_, - from which they differ mainly by the pleurodont dentition. Most of - them are insectivorous. Some, especially _Anolis_ and _Polychrus_, can - change colour to a remarkable extent. The family ranges all through - the neotropical region, inclusive of the Galapagos and the Antilles, - into the southern and western states of North America. Remarkable - cases of discontinuous distribution are _Chalarodon_ and _Hoplodon_ in - Madagascar, and _Brachylophus fasciatus_ in the Fiji Islands. - _Conolophus subcristatus_ and _Amblyrhynchus cristatus_ inhabit the - Galapagos; the former feeds upon cactus and leaves, the latter is - semi-marine, diving for the algae which grow below tide-marks. For - _Basiliscus_ see BASILISK; IGUANA is dealt with under its own heading; - allied is _Metopoceros cornutus_ of Hayti. _Polychrus_, the - "chameleon," and _Liolaemus_ are South American; _Ctenosaura_ of - Central America and Mexico resembles the agamoid _Uromastix_. - _Corythophanes_ and _Laemanctus_, with only a few species, are rare - inhabitants of the tropical forests of Central America and Mexico. - _Sauromalus_, _Crotaphytus_, _Callisaurus_, _Holbrookia_, _Uma_, _Uta_ - are typical Sonoran genera, some ranging from Oregon through Mexico. - Allied is _Sceloporus_, with about 34 species, the most characteristic - genus of Mexican lizards; only 4 species live in the United States, - and only 3 or 4 are found south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and are - restricted to Central America. The majority are humivagous, while - others are truly arboreal, e.g. _S. microlepidotus_, a species which, - moreover, has the greatest possible altitudinal range, from the hot - country of southern Oaxaca to the upper tree-line of Citlaltepetl, - about 13,500 ft. elevation; many species are viviparous. _Phrynosoma_, - with about a dozen species, the "horned toads" of California to Texas, - and through Mexico. Some of these comical-looking little creatures are - viviparous, others deposit their eggs in the ground. They are well - concealed by the colour of their upper parts, which in most cases - agrees with the prevailing tone of their surroundings, mostly arid, - stony or sandy localities; the large spikes on the head protect them - from being swallowed by snakes. The enlarged spiny scales scattered - over the back look as if it were sprinkled with the dried husks of - seeds. They are entirely insectivorous, bask on the broiling hot sand - and then can run fast enough; otherwise they are sluggish, dig - themselves into the sand by a peculiar shuffling motion of the fringed - edges of their flattened bodies, and when surprised they feign death. - The statement, persistently repeated (O. P. Hay, _Proc. U.S. Nat. - Mus._ xv., 1892, pp. 375-378), that some, e.g. _P. blainvillei_ of - California, have the power of squirting a blood-red fluid from the - corner of the eye, still requires renewed investigation. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Frilled Lizard (_Chlamydosaurus kingi_).] - - The smallest lizards of this family belong to the genus _Anolis_, - extremely numerous as regards species (more than 100) and individuals - on bushes and trees of tropical America, and especially of the West - Indies. They offer many points of analogy to the humming birds in - their distribution, colours and even disposition. Hundreds may be seen - on a bright day, disporting themselves on trees and fences, and - entering houses. Like the iguanas, they (at least the males) are - provided with a large, expansible dewlap at the throat, which is - brilliantly coloured, and which they display on the slightest - provocation. This appendage is merely a fold of the skin, ornamental - and sexual; it has no cavity in its interior, and has no communication - with the mouth or with the respiratory organs; it is supported by the - posterior horns of the hyoid bone, and can be erected and spread at - the will of the animal. The presence of such dewlaps in lizards is - always a sign of an excitable temper. Many, e.g. _A. carolinensis_, - the "chameleon," can change colour to an extraordinary degree. They - are much fed upon by birds and snakes, and have a fragile tail, easily - reproduced. They bring forth only one large egg at a time, but - probably breed several times during the season. - - Family 3. _Xenosauridae._--Pleurodont; solid teeth; anterior part of - tongue slightly emarginate and retractile, and covered with flat - papillae; no osteoderms. Mexico. - - The only representative of this family is _Xenosaurus grandis_, - recorded from the mountains of Orizaba, Cordoba and Oaxaca. The - four-footed creature is less than 1 ft. in length; the body is - depressed, covered above with minute granules and tubercles; a - distinct fold of skin extends from the axilla to the groin, reminding - of the similar fold of some _Anguidae_, to which this singular genus - seems to be allied. - - Family 4. _Anguidae._--Pleurodont; teeth solid, sometimes - (_Ophiosaurus_) grooved; anterior part of tongue emarginate and - retractile into the posterior portion; osteoderms on the body, and - especially on the head where they are roofing over the temporal fossa; - entirely zoophagous and ovo-viviparous. America, Europe and India. - - _Gerrhonotus_, 8 species, in mountainous countries, from British - Columbia to Costa Rica; like _Diploglossus s. Celestus_ of Mexico, the - Antilles and Central America, with well-developed limbs, but with a - lateral fold. _Anguis fragilis_ and two species of _Ophiosaurus_ are - the only members of this family which are not American, and even the - third species of _Ophiosaurus_, _O. ventralis_, lives in the United - States. _Ophiosaurus s. Pseudopus_, the glass-snake, from Morocco and - the Balkan peninsula to Burma and Fokien; also in the U.S.A., with the - limbs reduced to a pair of tiny spikes near the vent, and a lateral - fold along the snake-like body. _Anguis_, with its sole species - fragilis, the slow-worm or blind-worm, is devoid of a lateral fold, - and the limbs are entirely absent. Europe, Algeria and western Asia. - - Family 5. _Helodermatidae_, with _Heloderma_ of Arizona and Mexico, - and _Lanthanotus_ of Borneo.--The teeth of _Heloderma_ are recurved, - with slightly swollen bases, loosely attached to the inner edge of the - jaws; each tooth is grooved, and those of the lower jaw are in close - vicinity of the series of labial glands which secrete a poison; the - only instance among lizards.[2] Limbs well developed. Tongue - resembling that of the _Anguidae_. The skin of the upper surface is - granular, with many irregular bony tubercles which give it an ugly - warty look. _H. horridum_ in Mexico, and _H. suspectum_, the gila - monster, in the hot and sandy lowlands of the Gila basin. The animal, - which reaches a length of more than 2 ft., is blackish-brown and - yellow or orange, and on the thick tail these "warning colours" are - arranged in alternate rings. Small animals are probably paralyzed or - killed by the bite, the poison being effective enough to produce - severe symptoms even in man. The Zapotecs, who call the creature - Talachini, and other tribes of Mexico have endowed it with fabulous - properties and fear it more than the most poisonous snakes. - _Lanthanotus corneensis_, of which only a few specimens are known, is - apparently closely allied to _Heloderma_, although the teeth are not - grooved, osteoderms are absent and probably also the poison glands. - - Family 6. _Aniellidae._--One genus, _Aniella_, with a few worm- or - snake-shaped species in California, which seem to be degraded forms of - _Anguidae_. The eyes and ears are concealed, the limbs are entirely - absent, body and tail covered with soft, imbricating scales. The - tongue is villose, smooth, bifid anteriorly. The few teeth are - recurved, with swollen bases. The skull is much reduced. Total length - of _A. pulchra_ up to 8 in. - - Family 7. _Zonuridae._--Pleurodont; tongue short, villose, scarcely - protractile, feebly nicked at the tip. With osteoderms at least upon - the skull, where they roof in the temporal region. Africa and - Madagascar. - - Only 4 genera, with about 15 species. _Zonurus_ of South Africa and - Madagascar has the whole head, neck, back and tail covered with strong - bony scales, the horny covering of which forms sharp spikes, - especially on the tail. They defend themselves by jerking head and - tail sidewards. _Z. giganteus_ reaches 15 in. in length, and is, like - the other members of the family, zoophagous. The other genera live in - southern and in tropical Africa: _Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_ and - _Chamaesaura_; the latter closely approaches the _Anguidae_ by its - snake-shaped body, very long tail and much reduced limbs, which in _C. - macrolepis_ are altogether absent. - - Family 8. _Xantusiidae._--Pleurodont; tongue very short and scaly; no - osteoderms; supratemporal fossa roofed over by the cranial bones; eyes - devoid of movable lids; tympanum exposed; femoral pores present; limbs - and tail well developed. American. - - _Xantusia_ (so named after Xantus, a Hungarian collector), e.g. _X. - vigilis_ and a few other species from the desert tracts of Nevada and - California to Lower California. _Lepidophyma flavomaculatum_, Central - America; and _Cricosaura typica_ in Cuba. - - Family 9. _Tejidae._--Teeth solid, almost acrodont; tongue long and - narrow, deeply bifid, beset with papillae; no osteoderms; scales of - the back very small or quite granular; limbs sometimes reduced. - America. - - This large, typically American family comprises more than 100 species - which have been arranged in many genera. Some are entirely arboreal, - dwellers in forests, while others, like _Cnemidophorus_ and _Ameiva_, - are strictly terrestrial, with great running powers; a few dwell below - the surface and are transformed into almost limbless worm-shaped - creatures. The family is essentially neotropical. Of its several dozen - genera only two extend through and beyond Central America: _Ameiva_ - into the eastern and western Hot-lands of Mexico, _Cnemidophorus_ - (monographed by H. Gadow, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1906, pp. 277-375) - through Mexico into the United States, where _C. sexlineatus_, the - "swift," has spread over most of the Union. _Tupinambis teguixin_, the - "teju" of South America and the West Indies, is the largest member of - the family; it reaches a length of a yard, most of which, however, - belongs to the strong, whip-like tail. _Teguixin_ is taken from the - Aztec _teco-ixin_, i.e. rock-lizard, the vernacular name of - _Sceloporus torquatus_ which is one of the _Iguanidae_ misspelt and - misapplied. The tejus frequent forests and plantations and are - carnivorous, eating anything they can overpower. They in turn are much - hunted for the sake of their delicate flesh. They defend themselves - not only with their powerful jaws and sharp claws, but also with - lashing strokes of the long tail. They also use this whip for killing - snakes which they are said to eat. Their long-oval, hard-shelled eggs - are deposited in the ground. They retire into self-dug burrows. - _Cophias_ and _Scolecosaurus_ have very much reduced limbs. In the - genus _Tejus_ the teeth of the adult become molar-like; and in - _Dracaena_ they are transformed into large, oval crushers, indicating - strictly herbivorous habits, while most members of the family live - upon animal food. - - Family 10. _Amphisbaenidae._--The body is covered with soft skin, - forming numerous rings with mere vestiges of scales. Worm-shaped, - without limbs, except _Chirotes_ which has short, clawed fore-limbs. - Eyes and ears concealed. Tongue slightly elongated, covered with - scale-like papillae and bifurcating. Tail extremely short. Acrodont or - pleurodont. America, Mediterranean countries, and Africa with the - exception of Madagascar. - - _Chirotes canaliculatus_, and two other species; Pacific side of - Mexico and Lower California. With five, four or three claws on the - stout little digging fore-limbs. These pink, worm-like creatures live - in sandy, moist localities, burrowing little tunnels and never - appearing on the surface. _Amphisbaena_ (q.v.). _Rhineura_ of Florida, - and also known from the Oligocene of South Dakota; _Lepidosternum_ of - South America; and _Anops_ in America and Africa; _Blanus cinereus_, - Mediterranean countries. _Trogonophis_, _Pachycalamus_ and _Agamodon_ - of Africa are all acrodont; the other genera are pleurodont. In all - about a dozen genera, with some 60, mostly tropical species. - - Family 11. _Scincidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue scaly, feebly nicked in - front. Osteoderms on the head and body. Limbs often reduced. - Cosmopolitan. The temporal region is covered over, as in the - _Lacertidae_ and _Anguidae_, with strongly developed dermal - ossifications. Similar osteoderms underlie the scales of the body and - tail. Femoral pores are absent. - - All the skinks seem to be viviparous, and they prefer dry, sandy - ground, in which they burrow and move quickly about in search of their - animal food. This partly subterranean life is correlated with the - frequent reduction of the limbs which, in closely allied forms, show - every stage from fully developed, five-clawed limbs to complete - absence. Some have functional fore-limbs but mere vestiges of - hind-limbs; in others this condition is reversed. In some - deserticolous kinds e.g. _Ablepharus_, the lower eyelid is transformed - into a transparent cover which is fused with the rim of the reduced - upper lid. The same applies to the limbless little _Ophiopsiseps - nasutus_ of Australia. This large family contains about 400 species, - with numerous genera; the greatest diversity in numbers and forms - occurs in the tropical parts of the Old World, especially in the - Australian region, inclusive of many of the Pacific islands. New - Zealand has at least 6 species of _Lygosoma_. America, notably South - America, has comparatively very few skinks. - - The skink, which has given the name to the whole family, is a small - lizard (_Scincus officinalis_) of 6 or 8 in. in length, common in arid - districts of North Africa and Syria. A peculiarly wedge-shaped snout, - and toes provided with strong fringes, enable this animal to burrow - rapidly in and under the sand of the desert. In former times large - quantities of it were imported in a dry state into Europe for - officinal purposes, the drug having the reputation of being - efficacious in diseases of the skin and lungs; and even now it may be - found in apothecaries' shops in the south of Europe, country people - regarding it as a powerful aphrodisiac for cattle. - - _Mabouia_, with many species, in the whole of Africa, southern Asia - and in tropical America. _M. (Euprepes) vittata_, the "poisson de - sable" of Algeria, is semi-aquatic. _Chalcides s. Seps_, of the - Mediterranean countries and south-western Asia, has a transparent disk - on the lower eyelid which is movable; limbs very short or reduced to - mere vestiges. _Lygosoma_ circumtropical; _Eumeces_, also with many - small species, in America, Africa and Asia. _Cyclodus s. Tiliqua_ of - Australia, Tasmania and Malay Islands, has stout lateral teeth with - rounded-off crowns; _C. gigas_ of the Moluccas and of New Guinea is - the largest member of the family, reaching a length of nearly 2 ft.; - the limbs are well developed, as in _Trachysaurus rugosus_ of - Australia, which is easily recognized by the large and rough scales - and the short, broad, stump-like tail. - - Family 12. _Anelytropidae._--An artificial assembly of a few degraded - Scincoids. The worm-shaped body is devoid of osteoderms. The tongue is - short, covered with imbricating papillae and slightly nicked - anteriorly. Teeth pleurodont. _Anelytropsis papillosus_, of which only - three specimens are known, from the humus of forests in the state of - Vera Cruz. Eyes concealed. _Typhlosaurus_ and _Feylinia_ in tropical - Africa and Madagascar. - - Family 13. _Dibamidae._--_Dibamus novae-Guineae_ of New Guinea, the - Moluccas, Celebes and the Nicobar Islands. Tongue arrow-shaped, - covered with curved papillae. The vermiform body is covered with - cycloid imbricating scales, devoid of osteoderms. Limbs and even their - arches are absent, excepting a pair of flaps which represent the - hind-limbs in the males. - - Family 14. _Gerrhosauridae._--Pleurodont. Tongue long, with papillae, - like that of the _Lacertidae_ but only feebly nicked anteriorly. - Osteoderms on the head and body, roofing over the temporal region. - Femoral pores present, also mostly a lateral fold. Limbs sometimes - reduced to small stumps. Tail long and brittle. The few genera and - species of this family are restricted to Africa, south of the Sahara - and Madagascar. - - _Gerrhosaurus_, with lateral fold and complete limbs; _Tetradactylus_ - also with a fold, but with very variable limbs; _Condylosaurus_; all - in Africa. _Zonosaurus_ and _Tracheloptychus_ in Madagascar. - - Family 15. _Lacertidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue long and bifid, with - papillae or folds, with osteoderms on the head but not on the body. - Limbs always well developed. Palaearctic and palaeotropical with the - exception of Madagascar; not in the Australian region. - - The _Lacertidae_ or true lizards comprise about 20 genera, with some - 100 species, most abundant in Africa; their northern limit coincides - fairly with that of the permanently frozen subsoil. They all are - terrestrial and zoophagous. The long, pointed tail is brittle. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Heads of British Lizards. a, _Lacerta - vivipara_; b, _L. agilis_; c, _L. viridis_.] - - Most of the European lizards with four well developed limbs belong to - the genus _Lacerta_. Only three species occur in Great Britain (see - fig. 2). The common lizard (_Lacerta vivipara_) frequents heaths and - banks in England and Scotland, and is locally met with also in - Ireland; it is viviparous. Much scarcer is the second species, the - sand-lizard (_Lacerta agilis_), which is confined to some localities - in the south of England, the New Forest and its vicinity; it does not - appear to attain on English soil the same size as on the continent of - Europe where it abounds, growing sometimes to a length of 9 in. - Singularly, a snake (_Coronella laevis_), also common on the - continent, and feeding principally on this lizard, has followed it - across the British Channel, apparently existing in those localities - only in which the sand-lizard has settled. This lizard is oviparous. - The males differ by their brighter green ground colour from the - females, which are brown, spotted with black. The third British - species, the green lizard (_Lacerta viridis_), does not occur in - England proper; it has found a congenial home in the island of - Guernsey, but is there much less developed as regards size and beauty - than on the continent. This species is larger than the two preceding; - it is green, with minute blackish spots. In Germany and France one - other species only (_Lacerta muralis_) appears; but in the south of - Europe the species of _Lacerta_ are much more numerous, the largest - and finest, being _L. ocellata_, which grows to a length of 18 or 20 - in., and is brilliantly green, ornamented with blue eye-like spots on - the sides. Even the small island-rocks of the Mediterranean, sometimes - only a few hundred yards in diameter, are occupied by peculiar races - of lizards, which have attracted much attention from the fact that - they have assumed under such isolated conditions a more or less dark, - almost black, coloration. _L. muralis_, with its numerous varieties, - has been monographed by G. A. Boulenger, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xvii. - (1905), pp. 351-422, pl. 22-29. - - Other genera are _Psammodromus_ and _Acanthodactylus_ in south-western - Europe and northern Africa. _Cabrita_ in India, with transparent lower - eyelids. _Ophiops_, likewise with transparent but united lids, from - North Africa to India. - - Family 16. _Varanidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue very long, smooth and - bifid. Osteoderms absent. Limbs always well developed. Old World. - - This family contains only one genus, _Varanus_, with nearly 30 - species, in Africa, Arabia and southern Asia, and Australia, but not - in Madagascar. The generic term is derived from the Arabic _Ouaran_, - which means lizard. Owing to a ridiculous muddle, this Arabic word has - been taken to mean "warning" lizard, hence the Latin _Monitor_, one of - the many synonyms of this genus, now often used as the vernacular. - Many of the "monitors" are semi-aquatic, e.g. _V. niloticus_, and - these have a laterally compressed tail; others inhabit dry sandy - districts, e.g. _V. scincus_, the _ouaran el ard_ of North Africa; - others prefer wooded localities. _V. salvator_ is the largest species, - reaching a length of 7 ft.; it ranges from Nepal and southern China to - Cape York; a smaller species, common in New Guinea and Australia, is - _V. gouldi_. They all are predaceous, powerful creatures, with a - partiality for eggs. Their own eggs are laid in hollow trees, or - buried in the sand. The young are prettily spotted with white and - black ocelli, but the coloration of the adult is mostly very plain. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Monitor of the Nile (_Varanus niloticus_).] - - The following families are much degraded in conformity with their, in - most cases, subterranean life. They are of doubtful relationships and - contain each but a few species. - - Family 17. _Pygopodidae._--Pleurodont, snake-shaped, covered with - roundish, imbricating scales. Tail long and brittle. Fore-limbs - absent; hind-limbs transformed into a pair of scale-covered flaps. - Tongue slightly forked. Eyes functional but devoid of movable lids. - Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. - - _Pygopus_, e.g. _P. lepidopus_, about 2 ft. long, two-thirds belonging - to the tail, distributed over the whole of Australia. - - _Lialis burtoni_, of similar size and distribution, has the hind-limbs - reduced to very small, narrow appendages. The members of this family - seem to lead a snake-like life, not subterranean, and some are said to - eat other lizards. _L. jicari_, from the Fly river, has a very - snake-like appearance, with a long, pointed snout like certain - tree-snakes, but with an easily visible ear-opening; their eyelids are - reduced to a ring which is composed of two or three rows of small - scales. (H. F. G.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] For the etymology of this word, see CROCODILE. - - [2] For anatomical detail and experiments, see R. W. Shufeldt, _P. Z. - S._ (1890), p. 178; G. A. Boulenger, _ibid._ (1891), p. 109, and C. - Stewart, _ibid._ (1891), p. 119. - - - - -LIZARD POINT, or THE LIZARD, the southernmost point of Great Britain, in -Cornwall, England, in 49 deg. 57' 30" N., 5 deg. 12' W. It is generally -the first British land sighted by ships bound up the English Channel, -and there are two lighthouses on it. The cliff scenery is magnificent, -and attracts many visitors. The coast is fretted into several small -bays, such as Housel and, most famous of all, Kynance Cove; caves pierce -the cliffs at many points, and bold isolated rocks fringe the shore. The -coloured veining of the serpentine rock is a remarkable feature. The -Lion's Den is a chasm formed by the falling in of a sea-cave in 1847; -the Stags is a dangerous reef stretching southward from the point, and -at Asparagus Island, Kynance Cove, is a natural funnel in which the air -is compressed by the waves and causes a violent ejection of foam. The -principal village is Lizard Town, 10(1/2) m. from Helston, the nearest -railway station. - - - - -LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HAKAN JORDAN (1823-1905), Swedish man of letters, was -born at Lund on the 6th of March 1823. He was educated at Lund -university, where he was professor of German (1850-1859), of aesthetics -(1859-1889) and rector (1875-1885). He had been a member of the Swedish -Academy for twenty years at the time of his death in September 1905. His -most important work, _Svenska vitterhetens hafder efter Gustav III.'s -dod_ (5 vols., Lund., 1873-1895), is a comprehensive study of Swedish -literature in the 19th century. His other works include: _Framstallning -af de fornamste estetiska systemerna_ (an exposition of the principal -system of aesthetics; 2 vols., 1856-1860); _Svenska dramat intill slutet -af 17 arhundradet_ (a history of the Swedish drama down to the end of -the 17th century, Lund, 1864); an edition (1864) of the _Epistlar_ of -Bellman and Fredman, and a history of the Swedish Academy in the year of -its centenary (1886). - - His scattered writings were collected as _Smarre Skrifter_ (3 vols., - 1872-1881). - - - - -LLAMA, the Spanish modification of the Peruvian name of the larger of -the two domesticated members of the camel-tribe indigenous to South -America. The llama (_Lama huanacus glama_) is a domesticated derivative -of the wild guanaco, which has been bred as a beast of burden. Chiefly -found in southern Peru, it generally attains a larger size than the -guanaco, and is usually white or spotted with brown or black, and -sometimes altogether black. The following account by Augustin de Zarate -was given in 1544: - -[Illustration: Llama.] - - "In places where there is no snow, the natives want water, and to - supply this they fill the skins of sheep with water and make other - living sheep carry them, for, it must be remarked, these sheep of Peru - are large enough to serve as beasts of burden. They can carry about - one hundred pounds or more, and the Spaniards used to ride them, and - they would go four or five leagues a day. When they are weary they lie - down upon the ground, and as there are no means of making them get up, - either by beating or assisting them, the load must of necessity be - taken off. When there is a man on one of them, if the beast is tired - and urged to go on, he turns his head round, and discharges his - saliva, which has an unpleasant odour, into the rider's face. These - animals are of great use and profit to their masters, for their wool - is very good and fine, particularly that of the species called pacas, - which have very long fleeces; and the expense of their food is - trifling, as a handful of maize suffices them, and they can go four or - five days without water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat - sheep of Castile. There are now public shambles for the sale of their - flesh in all parts of Peru, which was not the case when the Spaniards - came first; for when one Indian had killed a sheep his neighbours came - and took what they wanted, and then another Indian killed a sheep in - his turn." - -The disagreeable habit of spitting is common to all the group. - -In a wide sense the term "llama" is used to designate all the South -American _Camelidae_. (See TYLOPODA.) - - - - -LLANBERIS, a town of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 8(1/2) m. E. by S. of -Carnarvon, by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. -(1901) 3015. It is finely situated in a valley near the foot of -Snowdon. The valley has two lakes, Llyn Peris and Llyn Padarn, of over 1 -m. and 2 m. long respectively, about 1/4 m. apart. From Padarn rises the -Seint, called Rothell in its upper part. Dolbadarn Castle is a circular -tower near the foot of Peris lake. Dolbadarn means the "Padarn meadow." -Several Welsh churches are dedicated to Padarn. In the castle Owen Goch -(Owen the Red) was imprisoned from 1254 to 1277, by the last Llewelyn, -whose brother Dafydd held it for some time against Edward I. During the -time of Owen Glendower (_temp._ Henry IV. and Henry V.), the castle -often changed hands. Near is Ceunantmawr waterfall. The Vaenol slate -quarries are here, and hence is the easiest ascent of Snowdon, with a -railway to the summit. From the road over the fine Llanberis pass -towards Capel Curig, a turn to the right leads to Beddgelert, through -Nant Gwynnant ("white" or "happy valley," or "stream"), where Pembroke -and Ieuan ap Robert (for the Lancastrians) had many skirmishes in the -time of Edward IV. Gwynnant Lake is about 1 m. long, by 1/4 m. broad, -and below it is the smaller Llyn Dinas. - - - - -LLANDAFF, a city of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the Taff Vale railway, 149 -m. from London. Pop. (1901) 5777. It is almost entirely within the -parliamentary borough of Cardiff. It is nobly situated on the heights -which slope towards the southern bank of the Taff. Formerly the see of -Llandaff was looked upon as the oldest in the kingdom; but its origin is -obscure, although the first two bishops, St Dubricius and St Teilo, -certainly flourished during the latter half of the 6th century. By the -12th century, when Urban was bishop, the see had acquired great wealth -(as may be seen from the _Book of Llandaff_, a collection of its records -and land-grants compiled probably by Geoffrey of Monmouth), but after -the reign of Henry VIII. Llandaff, largely through the alienations of -its bishops and the depredations of the canons, became impoverished, and -its cathedral was left for more than a century to decay. In the 18th -century a new church, in debased Italian style, was planted amid the -ruins. This was demolished and replaced (1844-1869) by the present -restored cathedral, due chiefly to the energy of Dean Williams. The -oldest remaining portion is the chancel arch, belonging to the Norman -cathedral built by Bishop Urban and opened in 1120. Jasper Tudor, uncle -of Henry VII., was the architect of the north-west tower, portions of -which remain. The cathedral is also the parish church. The palace or -castle built by Urban was destroyed, according to tradition, by Owen -Glendower in 1404, and only a gateway with flanking towers and some -fragments of wall remain. After this, Mathern near Chepstow became the -episcopal residence until about 1690, when it fell into decay, leaving -the diocese without a residence until Llandaff Court was acquired during -Bishop Ollivant's tenure of the see (1849-1882). For over 120 years the -bishops had been non-resident. The ancient stone cross on the green -(restored in 1897) is said to mark the spot on which Archbishop Baldwin, -and his chaplain Giraldus Cambrensis, preached the Crusade in 1187. -Money bequeathed by Thomas Howell, a merchant, who died in Spain in -1540, maintains an intermediate school for girls, managed by the -Drapers' Company, Howell's trustees. There is an Anglican theological -college, removed to Llandaff from Aberdare in 1907. The city is almost -joined to Cardiff, owing to the expansion of that town. - -Llandaff Court, already mentioned, was the ancient mansion of the Mathew -family, from which Henry Matthews, 1st Viscount Llandaff (b. 1826), was -descended. Another branch of this family formerly held the earldom of -Llandaff in the Irish peerage. Henry Matthews, a barrister and -Conservative M.P., whose father was a judge in Ceylon, was home -secretary 1886-1892, and was created viscount in 1895. - - - - -LLANDEILO GROUP, in geology, the middle subdivision of the British -Ordovician rocks. It was first described and named by Sir. R. I. -Murchison from the neighbourhood of Llandeilo in Carmarthenshire. In the -type area it consists of a series of slaty rocks, shales, calcareous -flagstones and sandstones; the calcareous middle portion is sometimes -termed the "Llandeilo limestone"; and in the upper portion volcanic -rocks are intercalated. A remarkable feature in the history of the -Llandeilo rocks in Britain, more especially in North Wales and -Cumberland, was the outbreak of volcanic action; vast piles of Llandeilo -lava and ashes form such hills as Cader Idris, and the Arenigs in Wales, -and Helvellyn and Scafell in Westmorland and Cumberland. The series is -also found at Builth and in Pembrokeshire. The average thickness in -Wales is about 2000 ft. The group is usually divided in this area into -three subdivisions. In the Corndon district of Shropshire the _Middleton -Series_ represents the Llandeilo group; it includes, in descending -order, the Rorrington black shales, the _Meadowtown limestones_ and -flags, and the western grits and shales. In the Lake District the great -_volcanic series of Borrowdale_, green slates and porphyries, 8000 to -9000 ft. in thickness, lies on this horizon; and in the Cross Fell area -the _Milburn beds_ of the Skiddaw slates (see ARENIG) appear to be of -the same age. In Scotland the Llandeilo group is represented by the -_Glenkiln shales_, black shales and yellowish mudstones with radiolarian -cherts and volcanic tuffs; by the _Barr Series_, including the Benan -conglomerates, Stinchar limestone and Kirkland sandstones; and by the -Glenapp conglomerates and Tappins mudstones and grits south of Stinchar. -Graptolitic shales, similar to those of southern Scotland, are traceable -into the north-east of Ireland. - - The fossils of the Llandeilo group include numerous graptolites, - _Coenograptus gracilis_ being taken as the zonal fossil of the upper - portion, _Didymograptus Murchisoni_ of the lower. Other forms are - _Climacograptus Scharenbergi_ and _Diplograptus foliaceus_. Many - trilobites are found in these rocks, e.g. _Ogygia Buchi_, _Asaphus - tyrannus_, _Calymene cambrensis_, _Cheirurus Sedgwickii_. Among the - brachiopods are _Crania_, _Leptaena_, _Lingula_, _Strophomena_; - _Cardiola_ and _Modiolopsis_ occur among the Pelecypods; _Euomphalus_, - _Bellerophon_, _Murchisonia_ among the Gasteropods; _Conularia_ and - _Hyolithes_ among the Pteropods; the Cephalopods are represented by - _Orthoceras_ and _Cyrtoceras_. The green roofing slates and plumbago - (graphite) of the Lake District are obtained from this group of rocks, - (see ORDOVICIAN). - - - - -LLANDILO, or LLANDEILO FAWR, a market town and urban district of -Carmarthenshire, Wales, picturesquely situated above the right bank of -the river Towy. Pop. (1901) 1721. Llandilo is a station on the Mid-Wales -section of the London & North-Western railway, and a terminus of the -Llandilo-Llanelly branch line of the Great Western. The large parish -church of St Teilo has a low embattled Perpendicular tower. Adjoining -the town is the beautiful park of Lord Dynevor, which contains the -ruined keep of Dinefawr Castle and the residence of the Rices (Lords -Dynevor), erected early in the 17th century but modernized in 1858. Some -of the loveliest scenery of South Wales lies within reach of Llandilo, -which stands nearly in the centre of the Vale of Towy. - -The name of Llandilo implies the town's early foundation by St Teilo, -the great Celtic missionary of the 6th century, the friend of St David -and reputed founder of the see of Llandaff. The historical interest of -the place centres in its proximity to the castle of Dinefawr, now -commonly called Dynevor, which was originally erected by Rhodri Mawr or -his son Cadell about the year 876 on the steep wooded slopes overhanging -the Towy. From Prince Cadell's days to the death of the Lord Rhys, last -reigning prince of South Wales, in 1196, Dinefawr continued to be the -recognized abode of South Welsh royalty. The castle ruins remain in the -possession of the Rices, Lords Dynevor, heirs and descendants of Prince -Cadell. At one period residence and park became known as New-town, a -name now obsolete. Some personal relics of the celebrated Sir Rhys ap -Thomas, K.G. (1451-1527), are preserved in the modern house. Dinefawr -Castle and its estates were granted away by Henry VIII. on the execution -for high treason of Sir Rhys's grandson, Rhys ap Griffith, but were -restored to the family under Queen Mary. - - - - -LLANDOVERY (_Llan-ym-ddyffri_), a market town and ancient municipal -borough of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated amid hills near the left -bank of the Towy. Pop. (1901) 1809. Llandovery is a station on the -Mid-Wales section of the London & North-Western railway. The -old-fashioned town lies in the parish of Llandingat, and contains the -two churches of Llandingat and Llanfair-ar-y-bryn. The slight remains of -the castle stand on a hillock above the river Bran. The public school -was founded here by Sir Thomas Phillips in 1847. - -The place probably owes its Celtic name of Llan-ym-ddyffri (the church -amid the waters) to the proximity of Llandingat church to the streams of -the Towy, Bran and Gwydderig. On account of its commanding position at -the head of the fertile vale of Towy, Llandovery was a strategic site of -some importance in the middle ages. The castle erected here by the -Normans early in the 12th century frequently changed owners during the -course of the Anglo-Welsh wars before 1282. In 1485 the borough of -Llandovery, or Llanymtheverye, was incorporated by a charter from -Richard III., and this king's privileges were subsequently confirmed by -Henry VIII. in 1521, and by Elizabeth in 1590, the Tudor queen's -original charter being still extant and in the possession of the -corporation, which is officially styled "the bailiff and burgesses of -the borough of Llanymtheverye, otherwise Llandovery." The bailiff -likewise holds the office of recorder, but has neither duties nor -emoluments. In the 17th century the vicarage of Llandingat was held by -the celebrated Welsh poet and preacher, Rhys Prichard, commonly called -"the vicar of Llandovery" (d. 1644). In the middle of the 19th century -William Rees of Tonn published at Llandovery many important works -dealing with early Welsh history and archaeology. - - - - -LLANDOVERY GROUP, in geology, the lowest division of the Silurian (Upper -Silurian) in Britain. C. Lapworth in 1879 proposed the name _Valentian_ -(from the ancient north British province of Valentia) for this group. It -includes in the type area the Tarannon Shales 1000-1500 ft., Upper -Llandovery and May Hill Sandstone 800 ft., Lower Llandovery, 600-1500 -ft. - - The _Lower Llandovery_ rocks consist of conglomerates, sandstones and - slaty beds. At Llandovery they rest unconformably upon Ordovician - rocks (Bala), but in many other places no unconformity is traceable. - These rocks occur with a narrow crop in Pembrokeshire, which curves - round through Llandovery, and in the Rhyader district they attain a - considerable thickness. Northwards they thin out towards Bala Lake. - They occur also in Cardiganshire and Carmarthenshire in many places - where they have not been clearly separated from the associated - Ordovician rocks. - - There is a change in the fauna on leaving the Ordovician and entering - the Llandovery. Among the graptolites the Diplograptidae begin to be - replaced by the Monograptidae. Characteristic graptolite zones, in - descending order, are:--_Monograptus gregarius_, - _Diplograptusvesiculosus_, _D. acuminatus_. Common trilobites - are:--_Acidaspis_, _Encrinurus_, _Phacops_, _Proetus_; among the - brachiopods are _Orthis elegantula_, _O. testudinaria_, _Meristella - crassa_ and _Pentamerus_ (_Stricklandinia_) _lens_ (_Pentamerus_ is so - characteristic that the Llandovery rocks are frequently described as - the "Pentamerus beds"). - - The _Upper Llandovery_, including the May Hill Sandstone of May Hill, - Gloucestershire, is an arenaceous series generally conglomeratic at - the base, with local lenticular developments of shelly limestone - (Norbury, Hollies and Pentamerus limestones). It occurs with a narrow - outcrop in Carmarthenshire at the base of the Silurian, disappearing - beneath the Old Red Sandstone westward to reappear in Pembrokeshire; - north-eastward the outcrop extends to the Longmynd, which the - conglomerate wraps round. As it is followed along the crop it is found - to rest unconformably upon the Lower Llandovery, Caradoc, Llandeilo, - Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks. The fossils include the trilobites - _Phacops caudata_, _Encrinurus punctatus_, _Calymene Blumenbachii_; - the brachiopods _Pentamerus oblongus_, _Orthis calligramma_, _Atrypa - reticularis_; the corals _Favosites_, _Lindostroemia_, &c.; and the - zonal graptolites _Rastrites maximus_ and _Monograptus spinigerus_ and - others (_Monograptus Sedgwicki_, _M. Clingani_, _M. proteus_, - _Diplograptus Hughesii_). - - The _Tarannon shales_, grey and blue slates, designated by A. Sedgwick - the "paste rock," is traceable from Conway into Carmarthenshire; in - Cardiganshire, besides the slaty facies, gritty beds make their - appearance; and in the neighbourhood of Builth soft dark shales. The - group is poor in fossils with the exception of graptolites; of these - _Cyrtograptus grayae_ and _Monograptus exiguus_ are zonal forms. The - Tarannon group is represented by the Rhyader Pale Shales in - Radnorshire; by the Browgill beds, with _Monograptus crispus_ and _M. - turriculatus_, in the Lake district; in the Moffat Silurian belt in - south Scotland by a thick development, including the Hawick rocks and - Ardwell beds, and the Queensberry group or Gala (Grieston shales, - Buckholm grits and Abbotsford flags); in the Girvan area, by the - Drumyork flags, Bargany group and Penkill group; and in Ireland by the - Treveshilly shales of Strangford Lough, and the shales of Salterstown, - Co. Louth. - - The Upper and Lower Llandovery rocks are represented in descending - order by the Pale shales, Graptolite shales, Grey slates and Corwen - grit of Merionethshire and Denbighshire. In the Rhyader district the - Caban group (Gafalt beds, shales and grits and Caban conglomerate), - and the Gwastaden group (Gigrin mudstones, Ddol shales, Dyffryn flags, - Cerig Gwynion grits) lie on this horizon; at Builth also there is a - series of grits and shales. In the Lake district the lower part of the - Stockdale shales (Skelgill beds) is of Llandovery age. In south - Scotland in the central and southern belt of Silurian rocks, which - extends across the country from Luce Bay to St Abb's Head, the - Birkhill shales, a highly crumpled series of graptolitic beds, - represent the Llandovery horizon. In the Girvan area to the north - their place is taken by the Camregan, Shaugh Hill and Mullock Hill - groups. In Ireland the Llandovery rocks are represented by the - Anascaul slates of the Dingle promontory, by the Owenduff and Gowlaun - grits, Co. Galway, by the Upper Pomeroy beds, by the Uggool and - Ballaghaderin beds, Co. Mayo, and by rocks of this age in Coalpit Bay - and Slieve Felim Mountains. - - Economic deposits in Llandovery rocks include slate pencils - (Teesdale), building stone, flag-stone, road metal and lime. Lead ore - occurs in Wales. (See SILURIAN.) (J. A. H.) - - - - -LLANDRINDOD, or LLANDRINDOD WELLS, a market town, urban district and -health-resort of Radnorshire, Wales, situated in a lofty and exposed -district near the river Ithon, a tributary of the Wye. Pop. (1901) 1827. -Llandrindod is a station on the Mid-Wales section of the London & -North-Western railway. The town annually receives thousands of visitors, -and lies within easy reach of the beautiful Wye Valley and the wild -district of Radnor Forest. The saline, sulphur and chalybeate springs of -Llandrindod have long been famous. According to a treatise published by -a German physician, Dr Wessel Linden, in 1754, the saline springs at -Ffynon-llwyn-y-gog ("the well in the cuckoos' grove") in the present -parish of Llandrindod had acquired more than a local reputation as early -as the year 1696. In the 18th century both saline and sulphur springs -were largely patronized by numbers of visitors, and about 1749 a Mr -Grosvenor built a hydropathic establishment near the old church, on a -site now covered by a farm-house known as Llandrindod Hall. - - - - -LLANDUDNO, a seaside resort in the Arfon parliamentary division of -Carnarvonshire, North Wales, in a detached portion of the county east of -the Conwy, on a strip of sandy soil terminating in the massive limestone -of Great Orme's Head. Pop. of urban district (1901) 9279. The town is -reached by the London & North-Western railway, and lies 227 m. N.W. of -London. A village in 1850, Llandudno is to-day one of the most -flourishing watering-places in North Wales. Sheltered by the Great Orme -on the N.W. and by the Little Orme on the E., it faces a wide bay of the -Irish Sea, and is backed by low sandhills. A Marine Drive encircles the -Great Orme. The Little Orme has caverns and abounds in sea birds and -rare plants. Close to the town are the Gloddaeth woods, open to -visitors. On the Great Orme are old circular buildings, an ancient -fortress, a "rocking-stone" (_cryd Tudno_) and the 7th-century church of -St Tudno, restored in 1885. Druidical and other British antiquities are -numerous in the district. At Deganwy, or Diganwy, 2 m. from Llandudno, -is a castle, Dinas Gonwy (Conwy fort), known to English historians as -Gannoc, dating from the 11th or (according to the Welsh) earlier than -the 9th century. - - - - -LLANELLY, a market town, urban district, and seaport of Carmarthenshire, -Wales, situated on the north shore of the broad estuary of the river -Loughor (Llwchwr), known as Burry river, which forms an inlet of -Carmarthen Bay. Pop. (1901) 25,617. Llanelly is a station on the South -Wales section of the Great Western railway. The town is wholly of modern -appearance. The mother-church of St Elliw, or Elli (whence the town -derives its name) has been practically rebuilt (1906), but it retains -its 13th-century tower and other ancient features of the original -fabric. Its situation on a broad estuary and its central position with -regard to a neighbourhood rich in coal, iron and limestone, have -combined to make Llanelly one of the many important industrial towns of -South Wales. Anthracite and steam-coal from the collieries of the coast -and along the Loughor Valley are exported from the extensive docks; and -there are also large works for the smelting of copper and the -manufacture of tin plates. - -Llanelly, though an ancient parish and a borough by prescription under a -portreeve and burgesses in the old lordship of Kidwelly, remained -insignificant until the industrial development in South Wales during the -19th century. In 1810 the combined population of Llanelly, with its four -subsidiary hamlets of Berwick, Glyn, Hencoed and Westowe, only amounted -to 2972; in 1840 the inhabitants of the borough hamlet alone had risen -to 4173. Llanelly is now the most populous town in Wales outside the -confines of Glamorganshire. In 1832 Llanelly was added as a contributory -borough to the Carmarthen parliamentary district. - - - - -LLANES, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, on the -river Carrocedo and the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1900) 18,684. The streets -are mostly narrow and irregular, and contain some curious old houses. -The principal buildings are a fine Gothic church and an old Augustinian -monastery, which has been converted into a school and meteorological -station. In summer the fine climate, scenery and sea-bathing attract -many visitors. Llanes is a second-class port for light-draught vessels; -but the entrance is narrow, and rather difficult in rough weather. The -trade is chiefly in agricultural produce, timber, butter and fish. - - - - -LLANGOLLEN, a picturesque market-town and summer resort of Denbighshire, -N. Wales, in the Dee (_Dyfrdwy_) valley, on a branch of the Great -Western Railway, 9 m. S.W. of Wrexham, 202(1/2) m. from London by rail. -Pop. of urban district (1901) 3303. The Dee is here crossed by a -14th-century bridge of four arches, "one of the seven wonders of Wales," -built by John Trevor, afterwards bishop of St Asaph (_Llanelwy_). The -Anglican church of St Collen, Norman and Early English, has a monument -in the churchyard to the "Ladies of Llangollen," Lady Eleanor Butler and -Hon. Sarah Ponsonby, of Plas Newydd, (1778 to 1829 and 1831 -respectively). The house is now a museum. Castell Dinas Bran (the castle -of the town of Bran; the mountain stream below is also called Bran), the -ruins of a fortress on a high conical hill about 1 m. from the town, is -supposedly British, of unknown date. "An old ruynous thinge," as the -Elizabethan poet Churchyard calls it even in the 16th century, it was -inhabited, apparently, about 1390, by Myfanwy Fechan of the Tudor Trevor -family and beloved by the bard Howel ab Einion Llygliw, whose ode to her -is still extant. Valle Crucis Abbey (_Llan Egwest_) is a Cistercian ruin -at the foot of Bronfawr hill, some 2 m. N.W. of Llangollen, founded -about 1200 by Madoc ab Gruffydd Maelor, lord of Dinas Bran and grandson -of Owen Gwynedd, prince of Wales. Llan Egwest, dissolved in 1535, was -given by James I. to Lord Edward Wootton. In the meadow adjoining, still -called Llwyn y Groes ("grove of the cross"), is "Eliseg's Pillar." -Eliseg was father of Brochmael, prince of Powys, and his grandson, -Concen or Congen, appears to have erected the pillar, which is now -broken, with an illegible inscription; the modern inscription dates only -from 1779. At Llangollen are linen and woollen manufactures, and near -are collieries, lime and iron works. Brewing, malting and -slate-quarrying are also carried on. Within the parish, an aqueduct -carries the Ellesmere canal across the Dee. - - - - -LLANQUIHUE (pron. _lan-ke-wa_), a province of southern Chile bordering -on the northern shores of the Gulf and Straits of Chacao, and extending -from the Pacific to the Argentine frontier. The province of Valdivia -lies N. and is separated from it in part by the Bueno river. Pop. (1895) -78,315. Area 45,515 sq. m. It is a region of forests, rivers and lakes, -and the greater part is mountainous. The rainfall is excessive, the -average at Puerto Montt being 104 in. a year, and the temperature is -singularly uniform, the average for the summer being 58(1/2) deg., of -the winter 47(1/2) deg., and of the year 53 deg. F. There are several -large lakes in the eastern part of the province--Puyehue, on the -northern frontier, Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos. Lake -Llanquihue is the largest body of fresh water in Chile, having an -extreme length from N. to S., or from Octai to Varas, of about 33 m., -and extreme breadth of nearly the same. There is a regular steamship -service on the lake between Octai and Varas, and its western shores are -well settled. The volcanoes of Calbuco and Osorno rise from near its -eastern shores, the latter to a height of 7382 ft. The outlet of the -lake is through Maullin river, the lower course of which is navigable. -The other large rivers of the province are the Bueno, which receives the -waters of Lakes Puyehue and Rupanco, and the Puelo, which has its rise -in a lake of the same name in the Argentine territory of Chubut. A short -tortuous river of this vicinity, called the Petrohue, affords an outlet -for the picturesque lake of Todos los Santos, and enters the Reloncavi -Inlet near the Puelo. The southern coast of the province is indented by -a number of inlets and bays affording good fishing, but the mouths of -the rivers flowing into the Pacific are more or less obstructed by -sand-bars. Apart from the lumber industry, which is the most important, -the productions of Llanquihue include wheat, barley, potatoes and -cattle. The white population is composed in great part of Germans, who -have turned large areas of forest lands in the northern districts into -productive wheat fields. The capital is Puerto Montt, on a nearly -land-locked bay called the Reloncavi, designed to be the southern -terminus of the longitudinal railway from Tacna, a distance of 2152 m. -An important town in the northern part of the province is Osorno, on the -Rahue river, which is chiefly inhabited by Germans. It exports wheat and -other farm produce, leather, lumber and beer. - - - - -LLANTRISANT, a small town and a contributory parliamentary borough of -Glamorganshire, Wales, picturesquely situated with a southern aspect, -commanding a fine view of the vale of Glamorgan, in a pass on the -mountain range which separates that vale from the valley of the Taff. -The population of the parish in 1901 was 10,091 and of the contributory -borough 2057. A branch of the Taff Vale railway running from Pontypridd -to Cowbridge and Aberthaw has a station, Cross Inn, 1/2 m. below the -town, while nearly 2 m. farther south it passes (near the village of -Pontyclun) through Llantrisant station on the Great Western railway main -line, which is 156(1/4) m. by rail from London and 11 m. N.W. from -Cardiff. The castle, which according to G. T. Clark was "second only to -Cardiff in military importance," dates from the reign of Henry III. or -Edward I. Of the original building nothing remains, and of a later -building only a tall and slender fragment. It was the head of the -lordship of Miskin, a great part of which was in the hands of native -owners, until the last of them, Howel ap Meredith, was expelled by -Richard de Clare (1229-1262). Since then it has always been in the -hands of the lord of Glamorgan. It was in the near neighbourhood of the -town that Edward II. was captured in 1327. In 1426 the then lord of -Glamorgan, Richard, 5th earl of Warwick, granted to the residents a -charter confirming grants made by his predecessors in 1346, 1397 and -1424. The corporation was abolished in 1883, and its property (including -284 acres of common land) is administered by a town trust under a scheme -of the charity commissioners. The "freemen" of the borough, however, -still hold a court leet in the town-hall. The market formerly held here -has been discontinued, but there are four annual fairs. The church was -dedicated to three saints (Illtyd, Gwyno and Tyfodwg), whence the name -Llantrisant. Originally a Norman building, most of the present fabric -belongs to the 15th century. There are numerous chapels. Welsh is still -the predominant language. Oliver Cromwell's forbears were natives of -this parish, as also was Sir Leoline Jenkins, secretary of state under -Charles II. There are tinplate works at Pontyclun and numerous -collieries in the district. - - - - -LLANTWIT MAJOR (Welsh _Llan-Illtyd-Fawr_), a small market town in the -southern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales, about 1 -m. from the Bristol Channel, with a station on the Barry railway, 5 m. -S. of Cowbridge. Pop. (1901) 1113. About 1 m. N.N.W. of the town there -were discovered in 1888 the remains of a large Roman villa within a -square enclosure of about 8 acres, which has been identified as part of -the site of a Roman settlement mentioned in Welsh writings as Caer -Wrgan. The building seemed to have been the scene of a massacre, -possibly the work of Irish pirates in the 5th century, as some -forty-three human skeletons and the remains of three horses were found -within its enclosure. Etymological reasoning have led some to suggest -that the Roman station of Bovium was at Boverton, 1 m. E. of the town, -but it is more likely to have been at Ewenny (2 m. S.E. of Bridgend) or -perhaps at Cowbridge. On the sea coast are two camps, one known as -Castle Ditches, commanding the entrance to the creek of Colhugh, once -the port of Llantwit. In the time of Henry I. a small colony of Flemings -settled in the district. The town and church derive their name from St -Illtyd or Iltutus, styled the "knight," a native of Brittany and a -great-nephew of Germanus of Auxerre. Having come under the influence of -St Cadoc, abbot of Llancarvan, 6 m. E.N.E. of Llantwit, Illtyd -established at the latter place, about A.D. 520, a monastic college -which became famous as a seat of learning. He attracted a number of -scholars to him, especially from Brittany, including Samson, archbishop -of Dol, Maglorius (Samson's successor) and Paul de Leon, while his Welsh -students included David, the patron saint of Wales, Gildas the -historian, Paulinus and Teilo. The college continued to flourish for -several centuries, sending forth a large number of missionaries until, -early in the 12th century, its revenues were appropriated to the abbey -of Tewkesbury by Fitzhamon, the first Norman lord of Glamorgan. A school -seems, however, to have lingered on in the place until it lost all its -emoluments in the reign of Henry VIII. The present church of St Illtyd -is the result of a sequence of churches which have sprung from a -pre-Norman edifice, almost entirely rebuilt and greatly extended in the -13th century and again partially rebuilt late in the 14th century. It -consists of an "eastern" church which (according to Professor Freeman) -belonged probably to the monks, and is the only part now used for -worship, a western one used as a parochial church before the -dissolution, but now disused, and still farther west of this a chantry -with sacristan's house, now in ruins. The western church consists of the -nave of a once cruciform building, while in continuation of it was built -the eastern church, consisting of chancel, nave (of great height and -width but very short), aisles and an embattled western tower built over -the junction of the two naves. A partial restoration was made in 1888, -and a careful and more complete one in 1900-1905. In the church and -churchyard are preserved some early monumental remains of the British -church, dating from the 9th century, and some possibly from an earlier -date. They include two cross-shafts and one cross with inscriptions in -debased Latin (one being to the memory of St Illtyd) and two cylindrical -pillars, most of them being decorated with interlaced work. There are -some good specimens of domestic architecture of the 17th century. The -town is situated in a fertile district and the inhabitants depend almost -entirely on agriculture. Its weekly market is mainly resorted to for its -stock sales. St Donats castle, 2 m. to the west, was for nearly seven -centuries the home of the Stradling family. - - As to the Roman remains, see the _Athenaeum_ for October 20 (1888), - and the _Antiquary_ for August (1892). As to the church, see the - _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, 3rd ser. iv. 31 (an article by Professor - Freeman), 5th ser., v. 409 and xvii. 129, and 6th ser., iii. 56; A. C. - Fryer, _Llantwit-Major: a Fifth Century University_ (1893). - (D. Ll. T.) - - - - -LLANWRTYD WELLS, an urban district of Breconshire, south Wales, with a -station on the central Wales section of the London & North Western -railway, 231 m. from London. It is situated in the midst of wild -mountain scenery on the river Irfon, a right-bank tributary of the Wye. -The place is chiefly noted for its sulphur and chalybeate springs, the -former being the strongest of the kind in Wales. The medicinal -properties of the sulphur water were discovered, or perhaps -rediscovered, in 1732 by a famous Welsh writer, the Rev. Theophilus -Evans, then vicar of Llangammarch (to which living Llanwrtyd was a -chapelry till 1871). Saline water is obtained daily in the season from -Builth Wells. The Irfon is celebrated as a trout-stream. Out of the -civil parish, which has an area of 10,785 acres and had in 1901 a -population of 854, there was formed in 1907 the urban district, -comprising 1611 acres, and with an estimated population at the date of -formation of 812. Welsh is the predominant language of the district. - -Four miles lower down the Irfon valley, at the junction of the Cammarch -and Irfon, and with a station on the London & North Western railway, is -the village of Llangammarch, noted for its barium springs. The ancient -parish of Llangammarch consists of the townships of Penbuallt and -Treflis, the wells being in the former, which comprises 11,152 acres and -had in 1901 a population of only 433. John Penry, the Puritan martyr, -was born at Cefn-brith in this parish. Charles Wesley's wife, Sarah -Gwynne, was of Garth, an old residence just outside the parish. - - - - -LLEWELYN, the name of two Welsh princes. - -LLEWELYN I., AB IORWERTH (d. 1240), prince of North Wales, was born -after the expulsion of his father, Iorwerth, from the principality. In -1194, while still a youth, Llewelyn recovered the paternal inheritance. -In 1201 he was the greatest prince in Wales. At first he was a friend of -King John, whose illegitimate daughter, Joanna, he took to wife (1201); -but the alliance soon fell through, and in 1211 John reduced Llewelyn to -submission. In the next year Llewelyn recovered all his losses in North -Wales. In 1215 he took Shrewsbury. His rising had been encouraged by the -pope, by France, and by the English barons. His rights were secured by -special clauses in Magna Carta. But he never desisted from his wars with -the Marchers of South Wales, and in the early years of Henry III. he was -several times attacked by English armies. In 1239 he was struck with -paralysis and retired from the active work of government in favour of -his son David. He retired into a Cistercian monastery. - - See the lists of English chronicles for the reigns of John and Henry - III.; also the Welsh chronicle _Brut y Tywysogion_ (ed. Rolls Series); - O. M. Edwards, _History of Wales_ (1901); T. F. Tout in the _Political - History of England_, iii. (1905). - -LLEWELYN II., AB GRUFFYDD (d. 1282), prince of North Wales, succeeded -his uncle David in 1246, but was compelled by Henry III. to confine -himself to Snowdon and Anglesey. In 1254 Henry granted Prince Edward the -royal lands in Wales. The steady encroachment of royal officers on -Llewelyn's land began immediately, and in 1256 Llewelyn declared war. -The Barons' War engaged all the forces of England, and he was able to -make himself lord of south and north Wales. Llewelyn also assisted the -barons. By the treaty of Shrewsbury (1265) he was recognized as overlord -of Wales; and in return Simon de Montfort was supplied with Welsh troops -for his last campaign. Llewelyn refused to do homage to Edward I., who -therefore attacked him in 1276. He was besieged in the Snowdon mountains -till hunger made him surrender, and conclude the humiliating treaty of -Conway (1277). He was released, but in 1282 he revolted again, and was -killed in a skirmish with the Mortimers, near Builth in central Wales. - - See C. Bemont, _Simon de Montfort_ (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in the - _Political History of England_, iii. (1905); J. E. Morris in _The - Welsh Wars of Edward I._ (1901). - - - - -LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO (1756-1823), Spanish historian, was born on the -30th of March 1756 at Rincon de Soto in Aragon. He studied at the -university of Saragossa, and, having been ordained priest, became -vicar-general to the bishop of Calahorra in 1782. In 1785 he became -commissary of the Holy Office at Logrono, and in 1789 its general -secretary at Madrid. In the crisis of 1808 Llorente identified himself -with the Bonapartists, and was engaged for a few years in superintending -the execution of the decree for the suppression of the monastic orders, -and in examining the archives of the Inquisition. On the return of King -Ferdinand VII. to Spain in 1814 he withdrew to France, where he -published his great work, _Historia critica de la inquisicion de Espana_ -(Paris, 1815-1817). Translated into English, French, German, Dutch and -Italian, it attracted much attention in Europe, and involved its author -in considerable persecution, which, on the publication of his _Portraits -politiques des papes_ in 1822, culminated in a peremptory order to quit -France. He died at Madrid on the 5th of February 1823. Both the personal -character and the literary accuracy of Llorente have been assailed, but -although he was not an exact historian there is no doubt that he made an -honest use of documents relating to the Inquisition which are no longer -extant. - - The English translation of the _Historia_ (London, 1826) is abridged. - Llorente also wrote _Memorias para la historia de la revolucion - espanola_ (Paris, 1814-1816), translated into French (Paris, - 1815-1819); _Noticias historicas sobre las tres provincias vacongadas_ - (Madrid, 1806-1808); an autobiography, _Noticia biografica_ (Paris, - 1818), and other works. - - - - -LLOYD, EDWARD (1845- ), English tenor vocalist, was born in London on -the 7th of March 1845, his father, Richard Lloyd, being vicar choralist -at Westminster Abbey. From 1852 to 1860 he sang in the abbey choir, and -was thoroughly trained in music, eventually becoming solo tenor at the -Chapel Royal. He began singing at concerts in 1867, and in 1871 appeared -at the Gloucester Musical Festival. His fine evenly-produced voice and -pure style at once brought him into notice, and he gradually took the -place of Sims Reeves as the leading English tenor of the day, his -singing of classical music, and especially of Handel, being particularly -admired. At the Handel Festivals after 1888 he was the principal tenor, -and even in the vast auditorium at the Crystal Palace he triumphed over -acoustic difficulties. In 1888, 1890 and 1892 he paid successful visits -to the United States; but by degrees he appeared less frequently in -public, and in 1900 he formally retired from the platform. - - - - -LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627-1717), English divine, successively bishop of St -Asaph, of Lichfield and Coventry, and of Worcester, was born at -Tilehurst, Berkshire, in 1627, and was educated at Oriel and Jesus -Colleges, Oxford. He graduated M.A. in 1646. In 1663 he was prebendary -of Ripon, in 1667 prebendary of Salisbury, in 1668 archdeacon of -Merioneth, in 1672 dean of Bangor and prebendary of St Paul's, London, -in 1680 bishop of St Asaph, in 1689 lord-almoner, in 1692 bishop of -Lichfield and Coventry, and in 1699 bishop of Worcester. Lloyd was an -indefatigable opponent of the Roman Catholic tendencies of James II., -and was one of the seven bishops who for refusing to have the -Declaration of Indulgence read in his diocese was charged with -publishing a seditious libel against the king and acquitted (1688). He -engaged Gilbert Burnet to write _The History of the Reformation of the -Church of England_ and provided him with much material. He was a good -scholar and a keen student of biblical apocalyptic literature and -himself "prophesied" to Queen Anne, Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, -William Whiston, and John Evelyn the diarist. Lloyd was a stanch -supporter of the revolution. His chief publication was _An Historical -Account of Church Government as it was in Great Britain and Ireland when -they first received the Christian Religion_ (London, 1684, reprinted -Oxford, 1842). He died at Hartlebury castle on the 30th of August 1717. - - - - -LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813-1893), English man of letters, was born at -Homerton, Middlesex, on the 11th of March 1813. He received his early -education at Newcastle-under-Lyme grammar school, and at the age of -fifteen entered a family business in London, with which he was connected -for thirty-five years. He devoted his leisure to the study of art, -architecture, archaeology, Shakespeare, classical and modern languages -and literature. He died in London on the 22nd of December 1893. The work -by which he is best known is _The Age of Pericles_ (1875), characterized -by soundness of scholarship, great learning, and a thorough appreciation -of the period with which it deals, but rendered unattractive by a -difficult and at times obscure style. He wrote also: _Xanthian Marbles_ -(1845); _Critical Essays upon Shakespeare's Plays_ (1875); _Christianity -in the Cartoons_ [of Raphael] (1865), which excited considerable -attention from the manner in which theological questions were discussed; -_The History of Sicily to the Athenian War_ (1872); _Panics and their -Panaceas_ (1869); an edition of _Much Ado about Nothing_, "now first -published in fully recovered metrical form" (1884; the author held that -all the plays were originally written in blank verse). A number of -manuscripts still remain unpublished, the most important of which have -been bequeathed to the British Museum, amongst them being: _A Further -History of Greece_; _The Century of Michael Angelo_; _The -Neo-Platonists_. - - See Memoir by Sophia Beale prefixed to Lloyd's (posthumously - published) _Elijah Fenton: his Poetry and Friends_ (1894), containing - a list of published and unpublished works. - - - - -LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID (1863- ), British statesman, was born at Manchester -on the 17th of January 1863. His father, William George, a Welshman of -yeoman stock, had left Pembrokeshire for London at an early age and -became a school teacher there, and afterwards in Liverpool and -Haverfordwest, and then headmaster of an elementary school at Pwllheli, -Carnarvonshire, where he married the daughter of David Lloyd, a -neighbouring Baptist minister. Soon afterwards William George became -headmaster of an elementary school in Manchester, but after the birth of -his eldest son David his health failed, and he gave up his post and took -a small farm near Haverfordwest. Two years later he died, leaving his -widow in poor circumstances; a second child, another son, was -posthumously born. Mrs George's brother, Richard Lloyd, a shoemaker at -Llanystumdwy, and pastor of the Campbellite Baptists there, now became -her chief support; it was from him that young David obtained his -earliest views of practical and political life, and also the means of -starting, at the age of fourteen, on the career of a solicitor. - -Having passed his law preliminary, he was articled to a firm in -Portmadoc, and in 1884 obtained his final qualifications. In 1888 he -married Margaret, daughter of Richard Owen of Criccieth. From the first -he managed to combine his solicitor's work with politics, becoming -secretary of the South Carnarvonshire Anti-tithe League; and his local -reputation was made by a successful fight, carried to the High Court, in -defence of the right of Nonconformists to burial in the parish -churchyard. In the first county council elections for Carnarvonshire he -played a strenuous part on the Radical side, and was chosen an alderman; -and in 1890, at a by-election for Carnarvon Boroughs, he was returned to -parliament by a majority of 18 over a strong Conservative opponent. He -held his seat successfully at the contests in 1892, 1895 and 1900, his -reputation as a champion of Welsh nationalism, Welsh nonconformity and -extreme Radicalism becoming thoroughly established both in parliament -and in the country. In the House of Commons he was one of the most -prominent guerrilla fighters, conspicuous for his audacity and pungency -of utterance, and his capacity for obstruction while the Conservatives -were in office. During the South African crisis of 1899-1902 he was -specially vehement in opposition to Mr Chamberlain, and took the -"pro-Boer" side so bitterly that he was mobbed in Birmingham during the -1900 election when he attempted to address a meeting at the Town Hall. -But he was again returned for Carnarvon Boroughs; and in the ensuing -parliament he came still more to the front by his resistance to the -Education Act of 1902. - -As the leader of the Welsh party, and one of the most dashing -parliamentarians on the Radical side, his appointment to office when Sir -H. Campbell-Bannerman became premier at the end of 1905 was generally -expected; but his elevation direct to the cabinet as president of the -Board of Trade was somewhat of a surprise. The responsibilities of -administration have, however, often converted a political free-lance -into a steady-going official, and the Unionist press did its best to -encourage such a tendency by continual praise of the departmental action -of the new minister. His settlement of the railway dispute in 1906 was -universally applauded; and the bills he introduced and passed for -reorganizing the port of London, dealing with Merchant Shipping, and -enforcing the working in England of patents granted there, and so -increasing the employment of British labour, were greeted with -satisfaction by the tariff-reformers, who congratulated themselves that -a Radical free-trader should thus throw over the policy of _laisser -faire_. The president of the Board of Trade was the chief success of the -ministry, and when Mr Asquith became premier in 1908 and promoted Mr -Lloyd George to the chancellorship of the exchequer, the appointment was -well received even in the City of London. For that year the budget was -already settled, and it was introduced by Mr Asquith himself, the -ex-chancellor; but Mr Lloyd George earned golden opinions, both at the -Treasury and in parliament, by his industry and his handling of the -Finance Bill, especially important for its inclusion of Old Age -Pensions, in the later stages. - -It was not till the time came nearer for the introduction of the budget -for 1909-1910 that opinion in financial circles showed the change which -was afterwards to become so marked. A considerable deficit, of about -L16,000,000, was in prospect, and the chancellor of the exchequer -aroused misgivings by alluding in a speech to the difficulty he had in -deciding what "hen roost" to "rob." The government had been losing -ground in the country, and Mr Lloyd George and Mr Winston Churchill were -conspicuously in alliance in advocating the use of the budget for -introducing drastic reforms in regard to licensing and land, which the -resistance of the House of Lords prevented the Radical party from -effecting by ordinary legislation. The well-established doctrine that -the House of Lords could not amend, though it might reject, a -money-bill, coupled with the fact that it never had gone so far as to -reject a budget, was relied on by the extremists as dictating the -obvious party tactics; and before the year 1909 opened, the possibility -of the Lords being driven to compel a dissolution by standing on their -extreme rights as regards the financial provision for the year was -already canvassed in political circles, though it was hardly credited -that the government would precipitate a constitutional crisis of such -magnitude. When Mr Lloyd George, on the 29th of April, introduced his -budget, its revolutionary character, however, created widespread dismay -in the City and among the propertied classes. In a very lengthy speech, -which had to be interrupted for half an hour while he recovered his -voice, he ended by describing it as a "war budget" against poverty, -which he hoped, in the result, would become "as remote to the people of -this country as the wolves which once infested its forests." Some of the -original proposals, which were much criticized, were subsequently -dropped, including the permanent diversion of the Old Sinking Fund to a -National Development Fund (created by a separate bill), and a tax on -"ungotten minerals," for which was substituted a tax on mineral rights. -But the main features of the budget were adhered to, and eventually -passed the House of Commons on the 4th of November, in spite of the -persistent opposition of the scanty Unionist minority. Apart from -certain non-contentious provisions, such as a tax on motorcars, the main -features of the measure were large increases in the spirit and tobacco -duties, license duties, estate, legacy and succession duties, and income -tax, and an elaborate and novel system of duties on land-values -("increment duty," "reversion duty," "undeveloped land duty"), depending -on the setting up of arrangements for valuation of a highly complicated -kind. The discussions on the budget entirely monopolized public -attention for the year, and while the measure was defended by Mr Lloyd -George in parliament with much suavity, and by Mr Asquith, Sir Edward -Grey and Mr Haldane outside the House of Commons with tact and -moderation, the feelings of its opponents were exasperated by a series -of inflammatory public speeches at Limehouse and elsewhere from the -chancellor of the exchequer, who took these opportunities to rouse the -passions of the working-classes against the landed classes and the -peers. When the Finance Bill went up to the House of Lords, Lord -Lansdowne gave notice that on the second reading he would move "that -this House is not justified in giving its consent to this bill until it -has been submitted to the judgment of the country," and on the last day -of November this motion was carried by an overwhelming majority of -peers. The government passed a solemn resolution of protest in the House -of Commons and appealed to the country; and the general election of -January 1910 took place amid unexampled excitement. The Unionists gained -a hundred seats over their previous numbers, but the constitutional -issue undoubtedly helped the government to win a victory, depending -indeed solely on the votes of the Labour members and Irish Nationalists, -which a year before had seemed improbable. - -Events had now made Mr Lloyd George and his financial policy the centre -of the Liberal party programme; but party tactics for the moment -prevented the ministry, who remained in office, from simply sending the -budget up again to the Lords and allowing them to pass it. There was no -majority in the Commons for the budget as such, since the Irish -Nationalists only supported it as an engine for destroying the veto of -the Lords and thus preparing the way for Irish Home Rule. Instead, -therefore, of proceeding with the budget, the government allowed the -financial year to end without one, and brought forward resolutions for -curtailing the powers of the Lords, on which, if rejected by them, -another appeal could be made to the people (see PARLIAMENT). Hardly, -however, had the battle been arrayed when the King's death in May upset -all calculations. An immediate continuance of hostilities between the -two Houses was impossible. A truce was called, and a conference arranged -between four leaders from each side--Mr Lloyd George being one--to -consider whether compromise on the constitutional question was not -feasible. The budget for 1909-10 went quietly through, and before the -August adjournment the chancellor introduced his budget for 1910-11, -discussion being postponed till the autumn. It imposed no new taxation, -and left matters precisely as they were. (H. Ch.) - - - - -LLOYD'S, an association of merchants, shipowners, underwriters, and ship -and insurance brokers, having its headquarters in a suite of rooms in -the north-east corner of the Royal Exchange, London. Originally a mere -gathering of merchants for business or gossip in a coffee-house kept by -one Edward Lloyd in Tower Street, London, the earliest notice of which -occurs in the _London Gazette_ of the 18th of February 1688, this -institution has gradually become one of the greatest organizations in -the world in connexion with commerce. The establishment existed in Tower -Street up to 1692, in which year it was removed by the proprietor to -Lombard Street, in the centre of that portion of the city most -frequented by merchants of the highest class. Shortly after this event -Mr Lloyd established a weekly newspaper furnishing commercial and -shipping news, in those days an undertaking of no small difficulty. This -paper took the name of _Lloyd's News_, and, though its life was not -long, it was the precursor of the now ubiquitous _Lloyd's List_, the -oldest existing paper, the _London Gazette_ excepted. In Lombard Street -the business transacted at Lloyd's coffee-house steadily grew, but it -does not appear that throughout the greater part of the 18th century the -merchants and underwriters frequenting the rooms were bound together by -any rules, or acted under any organization. By and by, however, the -increase of marine insurance business made a change of system and -improved accommodation necessary, and after finding a temporary -resting-place in Pope's Head Alley, the underwriters and brokers settled -in the Royal Exchange in March 1774. One of the first improvements in -the mode of effecting marine insurance was the introduction of a printed -form of policy. Hitherto various forms had been in use; and, to avoid -numerous disputes the committee of Lloyd's proposed a general form, -which was adopted by the members on the 12th of January 1779, and -remains in use, with a few slight alterations, to this day. The two most -important events in the history of Lloyd's during the 19th century were -the reorganization of the association in 1811, and the passing of an act -in 1871 granting to Lloyd's all the rights and privileges of a -corporation sanctioned by parliament. According to this act of -incorporation, the three main objects for which the society exists -are--first, the carrying out of the business of marine insurance; -secondly, the protection of the interests of the members of the -association; and thirdly, the collection, publication and diffusion of -intelligence and information with respect to shipping. In the promotion -of the last-named object an intelligence department has been developed -which for wideness of range and efficient working has no parallel among -private enterprises. By Lloyd's Signal Station Act 1888, powers were -conferred on Lloyd's to establish signal stations with telegraphic -communications, and by the Derelict Vessels (Report) Act 1896, masters -of British ships are required to give notice to Lloyd's agents of -derelict vessels, which information is published by Lloyd's. - -The rooms at Lloyd's are available only to subscribers and members. The -former pay an annual subscription of five guineas without entrance fee, -but have no voice in the management of the institution. The latter -consist of non-underwriting members, who pay an entrance fee of twelve -guineas, and of underwriting members who pay a fee of L100. Underwriting -members are also required to deposit securities to the value of L5000 to -L10,000, according to circumstances, as a guarantee for their -engagements. The management of the establishment is delegated by the -members to certain of their number selected as a "committee for managing -the affairs of Lloyd's." With this body lies the appointment of all the -officials and agents of the institution, the daily routine of duty being -entrusted to a secretary and a large staff of clerks and other -assistants. The mode employed in effecting an insurance at Lloyd's is -simple. The business is done entirely by brokers, who write upon a slip -of paper the name of the ship and shipmaster, the nature of the voyage, -the subject to be insured, and the amount at which it is valued. If the -risk is accepted, each underwriter subscribes his name and the amount he -agrees to take or underwrite, the insurance being effected as soon as -the total value is made up. - - See F. Martin, _History of Lloyd's and of Marine Insurance in Great - Britain_ (1876). - - - - -LLWYD, EDWARD (1660-1709), British naturalist and antiquary, was born in -Cardiganshire in 1660. He was educated at Jesus College, Oxford, but did -not graduate; he received the degree of M.A. however in 1701. In 1690, -after serving for six years as assistant, he succeeded R. Plot as keeper -of the Ashmolean museum, a position which he retained until 1709. In -1699 he published _Lithophylacii Britannici Ichnographia_, in which he -described and figured various fossils, personally collected or received -from his friends, and these were arranged in cabinets in the museum. -They were obtained from many parts of England, but mostly from the -neighbourhood of Oxford. A second edition was prepared by Llwyd, but not -published until 1760. He issued in 1707 the first volume of -_Archaeologia Britannica_ (afterwards discontinued). He was elected -F.R.S. in 1708. He died at Oxford on the 30th of June 1709. - - - - -LOACH. The fish known as loaches (_Cobitinae_) form a very distinct -subfamily of the _Cyprinidae_, and are even regarded by some authors as -constituting a family. Characters: Barbels, three to six pairs; -pharyngeal teeth in one row, in moderate number; anterior part of the -air-bladder divided into a right and left chamber, separated by a -constriction, and enclosed in a bony capsule, the posterior part free or -absent. They are more or less elongate in form, often eel-shaped, and -naked or covered with minute scales. Most of the species are small, the -largest known measuring 12 (the European _Misgurnus fossilis_), 13 (the -Chinese _Botia variegata_), or 14 in. (the Central Asian _Nemachilus -siluroides_). They mostly live in small streams and ponds, and many are -mountain forms. They are almost entirely confined to Europe and Asia, -but one species (_Nemachilus abyssinicus_) has recently been discovered -in Abyssinia. About 120 species are known, mostly from Central and -South-Eastern Asia. Only two species occur in Great Britain: the common -_Nemachilus barbatulus_ and the rarer and more local _Cobitis taenia_. -The latter extends across Europe and Asia to Japan. Many of these fishes -delight in the mud at the bottom of ponds, in which they move like -eels. In some cases the branchial respiration appears to be -insufficient, and the intestinal tract acts as an accessory breathing -organ. The air-bladder may be so reduced as to lose its hydrostatic -function and become subservient to a sensory organ, its outer exposed -surface being connected with the skin by a meatus between the bands of -muscle, and conveying the thermo-barometrical impressions to the -auditory nerves. Loaches are known in some parts of Germany as -"Wetterfisch." - - - - -LOAD; LODE. The O.E. _lad_, from which both these words are derived, -meant "way," "journey," "conveyance," and is cognate with Ger. _Leite_. -The Teutonic root is also seen in the O. Teut. _laidjan_, Ger. _leiten_, -from which comes "to lead." The meanings of the word have been -influenced by a supposed connexion with "lade," O.E. _hladan_, a word -common to many old branches of Teutonic languages in the sense of "to -place," but used in English principally of the placing of cargo in a -ship, hence "bill of lading," and of emptying liquor or fluid out of one -vessel into another; it is from the word in this sense that is derived -"ladle," a large spoon or cup-like pan with a long handle. The two -words, though etymologically one, have been differentiated in meaning, -the influence of the connexion with "lade" being more marked in "load" -than in "lode," a vein of metal ore, in which the original meaning of -"way" is clearly marked. A "load" was originally a "carriage," and its -Latin equivalent in the _Promptorium Parvulorum_ is _vectura_. From that -it passed to that which is laid on an animal or vehicle, and so, as an -amount usually carried, the word was used of a specific quantity of -anything, a unit of weight, varying with the locality and the commodity. -A "load" of wheat = 40 bushels, of hay = 36 trusses. Other meanings of -"load" are: in electricity, the power which an engine or dynamo has to -furnish; and in engineering, the weight to be supported by a structure, -the "permanent load" being the weight of the structure itself, the -"external load" that of anything which may be placed upon it. - - - - -LOAF, properly the mass of bread made at one baking, hence the smaller -portions into which the bread is divided for retailing. These are of -uniform size (see BAKING) and are named according to shape ("tin loaf," -"cottage loaf," &c.), weight ("quartern loaf," &c.), or quality of flour -("brown loaf," &c.). "Loaf," O.E. _hlaf_, is a word common to Teutonic -languages; cf. Ger. _Laib_, or _Leib_, Dan. _lev_, Goth, _hlaifs_; -similar words with the same meaning are found in Russian, Finnish and -Lettish, but these may have been adapted from Teutonic. The ultimate -origin is unknown, and it is uncertain whether "bread" (q.v.) or "loaf" -is the earlier in usage. The O.E. _hlaf_ is seen in "Lammas" and in -"lord," i.e. _hlaford_ for _hlafweard_, the loaf-keeper, or -"bread-warder"; cf. the O.E. word for a household servant _hlaf-aeta_, -loaf-eater. The Late Lat. _companio_, one who shares, _panis_, bread, -Eng. "companion," was probably an adaptation of the Goth, _gahlaiba_, -O.H. Ger. _gileipo_, messmate, comrade. The word "loaf" is also used in -sugar manufacture, and is applied to sugar shaped in a mass like a cone, -a "sugar-loaf," and to the small knobs into which refined sugar is cut, -or "loaf-sugar." - - The etymology of the verb "to loaf," i.e. to idle, lounge about, and - the substantive "loafer," an idler, a lazy vagabond, has been much - discussed. R. H. Dana (_Two Years before the Mast_, 1840) called the - word "a newly invented Yankee word." J. R. Lowell (_Biglow Papers_, - 2nd series, Introd.) explains it as German in origin, and connects it - with _laufen_, to run, and states that the dialectical form _lofen_ is - used in the sense of "saunter up and down." This explanation has been - generally accepted. The _New English Dictionary_ rejects it, however, - and states that _laufen_ is not used in this sense, but points out - that the German _Landlaufer_, the English obsolete word "landlouper," - or "landloper," one who wanders about the country, a vagrant or - vagabond, has a resemblance in meaning. J. S. Farmer and W. E. - Henley's _Dictionary of Slang and its Analogues_ gives as French - synonyms of "loafer," _chevalier de la loupe_ and _loupeur_. - - - - -LOAM (O.E. _lam_; the word appears in Dut. _leem_ and Ger. _Lehm_; the -ultimate origin is the root _lai_-, meaning "to be sticky," which is -seen in the cognate "lime," Lat. _limus_, mud, clay), a fertile soil -composed of a mixture of sand, clay, and decomposed vegetable matter, -the quantity of sand being sufficient to prevent the clay massing -together. The word is also used of a mixture of sand, clay and straw, -used for making casting-moulds and bricks, and for plastering walls, &c. -(see SOIL). - - - - -LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic -languages, cf. Swed. _lan_, Icel. _lan_, Dut. _leen_; the O.E. _laen_ -appears in "lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. -[Greek: leipein] and Lat. _linquere_, to leave), that which is lent; a -sum of money or something of value lent for a specific or indefinite -period when it or its equivalent is to be repaid or returned, usually at -a specified rate of interest (see USURY and MONEY-LENDING). For public -loans see FINANCE, NATIONAL DEBT, and the various sections on finance -under the names of the various countries. - - - - -LOANDA (_Sao Paulo de Loanda_), a seaport of West Africa, capital of the -Portuguese province of Angola, situated in 8 deg. 48' S., 13 deg. 7' E., -on a bay between the rivers Bango and Kwanza. The bay, protected from -the surf by a long narrow island of sand, is backed by a low sandy cliff -which at its southern end sweeps out with a sharp curve and terminates -in a bold point crowned by Fort San Miguel. The depth of water at the -entrance to the bay is 20 fathoms or more. The bay has silted up -considerably, but there is a good anchorage about 1(1/2) m. from the -shore in 7 to 14 fathoms, besides cranage accommodation and a floating -dock. Vessels discharge into lighters, and are rarely delayed on account -of the weather. A part of the town lies on the foreshore, but the more -important buildings--the government offices, the governor's residence, -the palace of the bishop of Angola, and the hospital--are situated on -higher ground. Most of the European houses are large stone buildings of -one storey with red tile roofs. Loanda possesses a meteorological -observatory, public garden, tramways, gas-works, statues to Salvador -Correia de Sa, who wrested Angola from the Dutch, and to Pedro -Alexandrino, a former governor, and is the starting-point of the railway -to Ambaca and Malanje. - -Loanda was founded in 1576, and except between 1640 and 1648, when it -was occupied by the Dutch, has always been in Portuguese possession. It -was for over two centuries the chief centre of the slave trade between -Portuguese West Africa and Brazil. During that time the traffic of the -port was of no small account, and after a period of great depression -consequent on the suppression of that trade, more legitimate commerce -was developed. There is a regular service of steamers between the port -and Lisbon, Liverpool and Hamburg. The town has some 15,000 inhabitants, -including a larger European population than any other place on the west -coast of Africa. It is connected by submarine cables with Europe and -South Africa. Fully half the imports and export trade of Angola (q.v.) -passes through Loanda. - - - - -LOANGO, a region on the west coast of Africa, extending from the mouth -of the Congo river in 6 deg. S. northwards through about two degrees. At -one time included in the "kingdom of Congo" (see ANGOLA, _History_), -Loango became independent about the close of the 16th century, and was -still of considerable importance in the middle of the 18th century. -Buali, the capital, was situated on the banks of a small river not far -from the port of Loango, where were several European "factories." The -country afterwards became divided into a large number of petty states, -while Portugal and France exercised an intermittent sovereignty over the -coast. Here the slave trade was longer maintained than anywhere else on -the West African seaboard; since its extirpation, palm oil and -india-rubber have been the main objects of commerce. The Loango coast is -now divided between French Congo and the Portuguese district of Kabinda -(see those articles). The natives, mainly members of the Ba-Kongo group -of Bantu negroes, and often called Ba-Fiot, are in general well-built, -strongly dolichocephalous and very thick of skull, the skin of various -shades of warm brown with the faintest suggestion of purple. Baldness is -unknown, and many of the men wear beards. Physical deformity is -extremely rare. In religious beliefs and in the use of fetishes they -resemble the negroes of Upper Guinea. - - - - -LOBACHEVSKIY, NICOLAS IVANOVICH (1793-1856), Russian mathematician, was -born at Makariev, Nizhniy-Novgorod, on the 2nd of November (N.S.) 1793. -His father died about 1800, and his mother, who was left in poor -circumstances, removed to Kazan with her three sons. In 1807 Nicolas, -the second boy, entered as a student in the University of Kazan, then -recently established. Five years later, having completed the curriculum, -he began to take part in the teaching, becoming assistant professor in -1814 and extraordinary professor two years afterwards. In 1823 he -succeeded to the ordinary professorship of mathematics, and retained the -chair until about 1846, when he seems to have fallen into official -disfavour. At that time his connexion with the university to which he -had devoted his life practically came to an end, except that in 1855, at -the celebration of his jubilee, he brought it as a last tribute his -_Pangeometrie_, in which he summarized the results of his geometrical -studies. This work was translated into German by H. Liebmann in 1902. He -died at Kazan on the 24th of February (N.S.) 1856. Lobachevskiy was one -of the first thinkers to apply a critical treatment to the fundamental -axioms of geometry, and he thus became a pioneer of the modern -geometries which deal with space other than as treated by Euclid. His -first contribution to non-Euclidian geometry is believed to have been -given in a lecture at Kazan in 1826, but the subject is treated in many -of his subsequent memoirs, among which may be mentioned the -_Geometrische Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Parallellinien_ (Berlin, -1840, and a new edition in 1887), and the _Pangeometrie_ already -referred to, which in the subtitle is described as a precis of geometry -founded on a general and rigorous theory of parallels. (See GEOMETRY, S -_Non-Euclidean_, and GEOMETRY, S _Axioms of_.) In addition to his -geometrical studies, he made various contributions to other branches of -mathematical science, among them being an elaborate treatise on algebra -(Kazan, 1834). Besides being a geometer of power and originality, -Lobachevskiy was an excellent man of business. Under his administration -the University of Kazan prospered as it had never done before; and he -not only organized the teaching staff to a high degree of efficiency, -but arranged and enriched its library, furnished instruments for its -observatory, collected specimens for its museums and provided it with -proper buildings. In order to be able to supervise the erection of the -last, he studied architecture, with such effect, it is said, that he was -able to carry out the plans at a cost considerably below the original -estimates. - - See F. Engel, _N. I. Lobatchewsky_ (Leipzig, 1899). - - - - -LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKI, ALEXIS BORISOVICH, PRINCE (1824-1896), Russian -statesman, was born on the 30th of December 1824, and educated, like -Prince Gorchakov and so many other eminent Russians, at the lyceum of -Tsarskoe Selo. At the age of twenty he entered the diplomatic service, -and became minister at Constantinople in 1859. In 1863 a regrettable -incident in his private life made him retire temporarily from the public -service, but four years later he re-entered it and served for ten years -as _adlatus_ to the minister of the interior. At the close of the -Russo-Turkish war in 1878 he was selected by the emperor to fill the -post of ambassador at Constantinople, and for more than a year he -carried out with great ability the policy of his government, which aimed -at re-establishing tranquillity in the Eastern Question, after the -disturbances produced by the reckless action of his predecessor, Count -Ignatiev. In 1879 he was transferred to London, and in 1882 to Vienna; -and in March 1895 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in -succession to M. de Giers. In this position he displayed much of the -caution of his predecessor, but adopted a more energetic policy in -European affairs generally and especially in the Balkan Peninsula. At -the time of his appointment the attitude of the Russian government -towards the Slav nationalities had been for several years one of extreme -reserve, and he had seemed as ambassador to sympathize with this -attitude. But as soon as he became minister of foreign affairs, Russian -influence in the Balkan Peninsula suddenly revived. Servia received -financial assistance; a large consignment of arms was sent openly from -St Petersburg to the prince of Montenegro; Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria -became ostensibly reconciled with the Russian emperor, and his son Boris -was received into the Eastern Orthodox Church; the Russian embassy at -Constantinople tried to bring about a reconciliation between the -Bulgarian exarch and the oecumenical patriarch; Bulgarians and Servians -professed, at the bidding of Russia, to lay aside their mutual -hostility. All this seemed to foreshadow the creation of a Balkan -confederation hostile to Turkey, and the sultan had reason to feel -alarmed. In reality Prince Lobanov was merely trying to establish a -strong Russian hegemony among these nationalities, and he had not the -slightest intention of provoking a new crisis in the Eastern Question so -long as the general European situation did not afford Russia a -convenient opportunity for solving it in her own interest without -serious intervention from other powers. Meanwhile he considered that the -integrity and independence of the Ottoman empire must be maintained so -far as these other powers were concerned. Accordingly, when Lord -Salisbury proposed energetic action to protect the Armenians, the -cabinet of St Petersburg suddenly assumed the role of protector of the -sultan and vetoed the proposal. At the same time efforts were made to -weaken the Triple Alliance, the principal instrument employed being the -_entente_ with France, which Prince Lobanov helped to convert into a -formal alliance between the two powers. In the Far East he was not less -active, and became the protector of China in the same sense as he had -shown himself the protector of Turkey. Japan was compelled to give up -her conquests on the Chinese mainland, so as not to interfere with the -future action of Russia in Manchuria, and the financial and other -schemes for increasing Russian influence in that part of the world were -vigorously supported. All this activity, though combined with a haughty -tone towards foreign governments and diplomatists, did not produce much -general apprehension, probably because there was a widespread conviction -that he desired to maintain peace, and that his great ability and -strength of character would enable him to control the dangerous forces -which he boldly set in motion. However this may be, before he had time -to mature his schemes, and when he had been the director of Russian -policy for only eighteen months, he died suddenly of heart disease when -travelling with the emperor on the 30th of August 1896. Personally -Prince Lobanov was a _grand seigneur_ of the Russian type, proud of -being descended from the independent princes of Rostov, and at the same -time an amiable man of wide culture, deeply versed in Russian history -and genealogy, and perhaps the first authority of his time in all that -related to the reign of the emperor Paul. (D. M. W.) - - - - -LOBAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Lobau water, -12 m. S.E. of the town of Bautzen, on the Dresden-Gorlitz railway. Pop. -(1905) 10,683. There is a spa, Konig Albert-Bad, largely frequented -during the summer season. The town has agricultural implement, -pianoforte, sugar, machine-building and button works, and trade in -grain, yarn, linen and stockings. Other industries are spinning, -weaving, dyeing, bleaching and brewing. - -Lobau is first mentioned as a town in 1221; it received civic rights -early in the 14th century and, in 1346, became one of the six allied -towns of Lusatia. It suffered severely during the Hussite war and was -deprived of its rights in 1547. - - See Bergmann, _Geschichte der Oberlausitzer Sechsstadt Lobau_ - (Bischofswerda, 1896); and Kretschmer, _Die Stadl Lobau_ (Chemnitz, - 1904). - - - - -LOBBY, a corridor or passage, also any apartment serving as an -ante-room, waiting room or entrance hall in a building. The Med. Lat. -_lobia_, _laubia_ or _lobium_, from which the word was directly adapted, -was used in the sense of a cloister, gallery or covered place for -walking attached to a house, as defined by Du Cange (_Gloss. Med. et -Inf. Lat._, s.v. _Lobia_), _porticus operta ad spatiandum idonea, -aedibus adjuncta_. The French form of _lobia_ was _loge_, cf. Ital. -_loggia_, and this gave the Eng. "lodge," which is thus a doublet of -"lobby." The ultimate derivation is given under LODGE. Other familiar -uses of the term "lobby" are its application (1) to the entrance hall of -a parliament house, and (2) to the two corridors known as -"division-lobbies," into which the members of the House of Commons and -other legislative bodies pass on a division, their votes being recorded -according to which "lobby," "aye" or "no," they enter. The entrance -lobby to a legislative building is open to the public, and thus is a -convenient place for interviews between members and their constituents -or with representatives of public bodies, associations and interests, -and the press. The influence and pressure thus brought to bear upon -members of legislative bodies has given rise to the use of "to lobby," -"lobbying," "lobbyist," &c., with this special significance. The -practice, though not unknown in the British parliament, is most -prevalent in the United States of America, where the use of the term -first arose (see below). - - - - -LOBBYING, in America, a general term used to designate the efforts of -persons who are not members of a legislative body to influence the -course of legislation. In addition to the large number of American -private bills which are constantly being introduced in Congress and the -various state legislatures, there are many general measures, such as -proposed changes in the tariff or in the railway or banking laws, which -seriously affect special interests. The people who are most intimately -concerned naturally have a right to appear before the legislature or its -representative, the committee in charge of the bill, and present their -side of the case. Lobbying in this sense is legitimate, and may almost -be regarded as a necessity. Unfortunately, however, all lobbying is not -of this innocent character. The great industrial corporations, insurance -companies, and railway and traction monopolies which have developed in -comparatively recent years are constantly in need of legislative -favours; they are also compelled to protect themselves against -legislation which is unreasonably severe, and against what are known in -the slang of politics as _strikes_ or _hold-ups_.[1] In order that these -objects may be accomplished there are kept at Washington and at the -various state capitals paid agents whose influence is so well recognized -that they are popularly called "the third house." Methods of the most -reprehensible kind have often been employed by them. - -Attempts have been made to remedy the evil by constitutional -prohibition, by statute law and by the action of the governor of the -state supported by public opinion. Improper lobbying has been declared a -felony in California, Georgia, Utah, Tennessee, Oregon, Montana and -Arizona, and the constitutions of practically all of the states impose -restrictions upon the enactment of special and private legislation. The -Massachusetts anti-lobbying act of 1890, which has served as a model for -the legislation of Maryland (1900), Wisconsin (1905) and a few of the -other states, is based upon the publicity principle. Counsel and other -legislative agents must register with the sergeant-at-arms giving the -names and addresses of their employers and the date, term and character -of their employment. In 1907 alone laws regulating lobbying were passed -in nine states--Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Missouri, -Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota and Texas. - - See James Bryce, _American Commonwealth_ (New York, ed. 1889), i. - 673-678; Paul S. Reinsch, _American Legislatures and Legislative - Methods_ (New York, 1907), chaps. viii., ix.; Margaret A. Schaffner, - "Lobbying," in _Wisconsin Comparative Legislation Bulletins_, No. 2; - and G. M. Gregory, _The Corrupt Use of Money in Politics and Laws for - its Prevention_ (Madison, Wis., 1893). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Bills introduced for purposes of blackmail. - - - - -LOBE, any round projecting part, specifically the lower part of the -external ear, one of the parts into which the liver is divided, also one -of several parts of the brain, divided by marked fissures (see LIVER and -BRAIN). The Greek [Greek: lobos], from which "lobe" is derived, was -applied to the lobe of the ear and of the liver, and to the pod of a -leguminous plant. - - - - -LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1781-1860), German classical scholar, was born -at Naumburg on the 5th of June 1781. After having studied at Jena and -Leipzig, he settled at Wittenberg in 1802 as privat-docent, and in 1810 -was appointed to a professorship in the university. Four years later, he -accepted the chair of rhetoric and ancient literature at Konigsberg, -which he occupied till within two years of his death (25th of August -1860). His literary activities were devoted to the history of Greek -religion and to the Greek language and literature. His greatest work, -_Aglaophamus_ (1829), is still valuable to students. In this he -maintains, against the views put forward by G. F. Creuzer in his -_Symbolik_ (1810-1823), that the religion of the Greek mysteries -(especially those of Eleusis) did not essentially differ from the -national religion; that it was not esoteric; that the priests as such -neither taught nor possessed any higher knowledge of God; that the -Oriental elements were a later importation. His edition of the _Ajax_ of -Sophocles (1809) had gained him the reputation of a sound scholar and -critic; his Phrynichus (1820) and _Paralipomena grammaticae graecae_ -(1837) exhibit the widest acquaintance with Greek literature. He had -little sympathy with comparative philology, holding that it needed a -lifetime to acquire a thorough knowledge of a single language. - - See the article by L. Friedlander in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; - C. Bursian's _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ - (1883); Lehrs, _Populare Aufsatze aus dem Altertum_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, - 1875); Ludwich, _Ausgewahlte Briefe von und an Chr. Aug. Lobeck und K. - Lehrs_ (1894); also J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_, - i. (1908), 103. - - - - -LOBEIRA, JOAO (c. 1233-1285), a Portuguese troubadour of the time of -King Alphonso III., who is supposed to have been the first to reduce -into prose the story of _Amadis de Gaula_ (q.v.). D. Carolina Michaelis -de Vasconcellos, in her masterly edition of the _Cancioneiro de Ajuda_ -(Halle, 1904, vol. i. pp. 523-524), gives some biographical notes on -Joao Lobeira, who is represented in the Colocci Brancuti _Canzoniere_ -(Halle, 1880) by five poems (Nos. 230-235). In number 230, Joao Lobeira -uses the same _ritournelle_ that Oriana sings in _Amadis de Gaula_, and -this has led to his being generally considered by modern supporters of -the Portuguese case to have been the author of the romance, in -preference to Vasco de Lobeira, to whom the prose original was formerly -ascribed. The folklorist A. Thomas Pires (in his _Vasco de Lobeira_, -Elvas, 1905), following the old tradition, would identify the novelist -with a man of that name who flourished in Elvas at the close of the 14th -and beginning of the 15th century, but the documents he publishes -contain no reference to this Lobeira being a man of letters. - - - - -LOBELIA, the typical genus of the tribe _Lobelieae_, of the order -Campanulaceae, named after Matthias de Lobel, a native of Lille, -botanist and physician to James I. It numbers about two hundred species, -natives of nearly all the temperate and warmer regions of the world, -excepting central and eastern Europe as well as western Asia. They are -annual or perennial herbs or under-shrubs, rarely shrubby; remarkable -arborescent forms are the tree-lobelias found at high elevations on the -mountains of tropical Africa. Two species are British, _L. Dortmanna_ -(named by Linnaeus after Dortmann, a Dutch druggist), which occurs in -gravelly mountain lakes; and _L. urens_, which is only found on heaths, -&c., in Dorset and Cornwall. The genus is distinguished from _Campanula_ -by the irregular corona and completely united anthers, and by the -excessive acridity of the milky juice. The species earliest described -and figured appears to be _L. cardinalis_, under the name _Trachelium -americanum sive cardinalis planta_, "the rich crimson cardinal's -flower"; Parkinson (_Paradisus_, 1629, p. 357) says, "it groweth neere -the riuer of Canada, where the French plantation in America is seated." -It is a native of the eastern United States. This and several other -species are in cultivation as ornamental garden plants, e.g. the dwarf -blue _L. Erinus_, from the Cape, which, with its numerous varieties, -forms a familiar bedding plant. _L. splendens_ and _L. fulgens_, growing -from 1 to 2 ft. high, from Mexico, have scarlet flowers; _L. Tupa_, a -Chilean perennial 6 to 8 ft. high, has reddish or scarlet flowers; _L. -tenuior_ with blue flowers is a recent acquisition to the greenhouse -section, while _L. amaena_, from North America, as well as _L. -syphilitica_ and its hybrids, from Virginia, have also blue flowers. The -last-named was introduced in 1665. The hybrids raised by crossing -_cardinalis_, _fulgens_, _splendens_ and _syphilitica_, constitute a -fine group of fairly hardy and showy garden plants. Queen Victoria is a -well-known variety, but there are now many others. - - The _Lobelia_ is familiar in gardens under two very different forms, - that of the dwarf-tufted plants used for summer bedding, and that of - the tall showy perennials. Of the former the best type is _L. Erinus_, - growing from 4 to 6 in. high, with many slender stems, bearing through - a long period a profusion of small but bright blue two-lipped flowers. - The variety _speciosa_ offers the best strain of the dwarf lobelias; - but the varieties are being constantly superseded by new sorts. A good - variety will reproduce itself sufficiently true from seed for ordinary - flower borders, but to secure exact uniformity it is necessary to - propagate from cuttings. - - The herbaceous lobelias, of which _L. fulgens_ may be taken as the - type, may be called hardy except in so far as they suffer from damp in - winter; they throw up a series of short rosette-like suckers round the - base of the old flowering stem, and these sometimes, despite all the - care taken of them, rot off during winter. The roots should either be - taken up in autumn, and planted closely side by side in boxes of dry - earth or ashes, these being set for the time they are dormant either - in a cold frame or in any airy place in the greenhouse; or they may be - left in the ground, in which case a brick or two should be put beside - the plants, some coal ashes being first placed round them, and slates - to protect the plants being laid over the bricks, one end resting on - the earth beyond. About February they should be placed in a warm pit, - and after a few days shaken out and the suckers parted, and potted - singly into small pots of light rich earth. After being kept in the - forcing pit until well established, they should be moved to a more - airy greenhouse pit, and eventually to a cold frame preparatory to - planting out. In the more favoured parts of the United Kingdom it is - unnecessary to go to this trouble, as the plants are perfectly hardy; - even in the suburbs of London they live for several years without - protection except in very severe winters. They should have a loamy - soil, well enriched with manure; and require copious waterings when - they start into free growth. They may be raised from seeds, which, - being very fine, require to be sown carefully; but they do not flower - usually till the second year unless they are sown very early in heat. - - The species _Lobelia inflata_, the "Indian tobacco" of North America, - is used in medicine, the entire herb, dried and in flower, being - employed. The species derives its specific name from its - characteristic inflated capsules. It is somewhat irritant to the - nostrils, and is possessed of a burning, acrid taste. The chief - constituent is a volatile liquid alkaloid (cf. nicotine) named - lobeline, which occurs to the extent of about 30 %. This is a very - pungent body, with a tobacco-like odour. It occurs in combination with - lobelic acid and forms solid crystalline salts. The single preparation - of this plant in the British Pharmacopeia is the _Tinctura Lobeliae - Ethereae_, composed of five parts of spirits of ether to one of - lobelia. The dose is 5 to 15 minims. The ether is employed in order to - add to the efficacy of the drug in asthma, but a simple alcoholic - tincture would be really preferable. - - Lobelia has certain pharmacological resemblances to tobacco. It has no - action upon the unbroken skin, but may be absorbed by it under - suitable conditions. Taken internally in small doses, e.g. 5 minims of - the tincture, it stimulates the peristaltic movements of the coecum - and colon. In large doses it is a powerful gastrointestinal irritant, - closely resembling tobacco, and causing giddiness, headache, nausea, - vomiting, purging and extreme prostration, with clammy sweats and - faltering rapid pulse. Its action on the circulation is very decided. - The cardiac terminals of the vagus nerves are paralysed, the pulse - being thus accelerated by loss of the normal inhibitory influence, and - the blood-vessels being relaxed owing to paresis of the vasomotor - centre. The blood-pressure thus falls very markedly. The respiratory - centre is similarly depressed, death ensuing from this action. Lobelia - is thus a typical respiratory poison. In less than toxic doses the - motor terminals of the vagi in the bronchi and bronchioles are - paralysed, thus causing relaxation of the bronchial muscles. It is - doubtful whether lobelia affects the cerebrum directly. It is excreted - by the kidneys and the skin, both of which it stimulates in its - passage. In general terms the drug may be said to stimulate - non-striped muscular fibres in small, and paralyse them in toxic - doses. - - Five minims of the tincture may be usefully prescribed to be taken - night and morning in chronic constipation due to inertia of the lower - part of the alimentary canal. In spasmodic (neurotic) asthma, and also - in bronchitis accompanied by asthmatic spasm of the bronchioles, the - tincture may be given in comparatively large doses (e.g. one drachm) - every fifteen minutes until nausea is produced. Thereafter, whether - successful or not in relieving the spasm, the administration of the - drug must be stopped. - - - - -LOBENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the principality of Reuss, on the -Lemnitz, situated in a pleasant and fertile country, 25 m. N.W. from Hof -by railway. Pop. (1905) 2990. The town, grouped round a rock, upon which -stand the ruins of the old castle, is exceedingly picturesque. It -contains a spacious parish church, a palace, until 1824 the residence of -the princes of Reuss-Lobenstein-Elersdorf, and a hydropathic -establishment. The manufactures include dyeing, brewing and -cigar-making. - - See Zedler and Schott, _Fuhrer durch Lobenstein und Umgebung_ (2nd - ed., Lobenstein, 1903). - - - - -LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES (?1575-?1627), Portuguese bucolic writer, a -lineal descendant in the family of letters of Bernardim Ribeiro and -Christovam Falcao. All we know of his life is that he was born of rich -and noble parents at Leiria, and lived at ease in its picturesque -neighbourhood, reading philosophy and poetry and writing of shepherds -and shepherdesses by the rivers Liz and Lena. He studied at the -university of Coimbra and took the degree of licentiate about 1600. He -visited Lisbon from time to time, and tradition has it that he died by -drowning on his way thither as he was descending the Tagus from -Santarem. Though his first book, a little volume of verses (Romances) -published in 1596, and his last, a rhymed welcome to King Philip III., -published in 1623, are written in Spanish, he composed his eclogues and -prose pastorals entirely in Portuguese, and thereby did a rare service -to his country at a time when, owing to the Spanish domination, -Castilian was the language preferred by polite society and by men of -letters. His _Primavera_, a book that may be compared to the _Diana_ of -Jorge de Montemor (Montemayor), appeared in 1601, its second part, the -_Pastor Peregrino_, in 1608, and its third, the _Desenganado_, in 1614. -The dullness of these lengthy collections of episodes without plan, -thread or ideas, is relieved by charming and ingenious pastoral songs -named _serranilhas_. His eclogues in endecasyllables are an echo of -those of Camoens, but like his other verses they are inferior to his -_redondilhas_, which show the traditional fount of his inspiration. In -his _Corte na Aldeia_ (1619), a man of letters, a young nobleman, a -student and an old man of easy means, beguile the winter evenings at -Cintra by a series of philosophic and literary discussions in dialogue -which may still be read with pleasure. Lobo is also the author of an -insipid epic in twenty cantos in _ottava rima_ on the Constable D. Nuno -Alvares Pereira, the hero of the war of independence against Spain at -the end of the 14th century. The characteristics of his prose style are -harmony, purity and elegance, and he ranks as one of Portugal's leading -writers. A disciple of the Italian school, his verses are yet free from -imitations of classical models, his descriptions of natural scenery are -unsurpassed in the Portuguese language, and generally his writings -strike a true note and show a sincerity that was rare at the time. Their -popularity may be seen by the fact that the _Primavera_ went through -seven editions in the 17th century and nine in all, a large number for -so limited a market as that of Portugal, while six editions exist of the -_Pastor Peregrino_ and four of the epic poem. An edition of his -collected works was published in one volume in Lisbon in 1723, and -another in four volumes, but less complete, appeared there in 1774. - - See Costa e Silva, _Ensaio biographico critico_, v. 5-112, for a - critical examination of Lobo's writings; also Bouterwek's _History of - Portuguese Literature_. (E. Pr.) - - - - -LOBO, JERONIMO (1593-1678), Jesuit missionary, was born in Lisbon, and -entered the Order of Jesus at the age of sixteen. In 1621 he was ordered -as a missionary to India, and in 1622 he arrived at Goa. With the -intention of proceeding to Abyssinia, whose Negus (emperor) Segued had -been converted to Roman Catholicism by Pedro Paez, he left India in -1624. He disembarked on the coast of Mombasa, and attempted to reach his -destination through the Galla country, but was forced to return. In 1625 -he set out again, accompanied by Mendez, the patriarch of Ethiopia, and -eight missionaries. The party landed on the coast of the Red Sea, and -Lobo settled in Abyssinia as superintendent of the missions in Tigre. He -remained there until death deprived the Catholics of their protector, -the emperor Segued. Forced by persecution to leave the kingdom, in 1634 -Lobo and his companions fell into the hands of the Turks at Massawa, who -sent him to India to procure a ransom for his imprisoned -fellow-missionaries. In this he was successful, but could not induce the -Portuguese viceroy to send an armament against Abyssinia. Intent upon -accomplishing this cherished project, he embarked for Portugal, and -after he had been shipwrecked on the coast of Natal, and captured by -pirates, arrived at Lisbon. Neither at this city, however, nor at Madrid -and Rome, was any countenance given to Lobo's plan. He accordingly -returned to India in 1640, and was elected rector, and afterwards -provincial, of the Jesuits at Goa. After some years he returned to his -native city, and died there on the 29th of January 1678. - - Lobo wrote an account of his travels in Portuguese, which appears - never to have been printed, but is deposited in the monastery of St - Roque, Lisbon. Balthazar Telles made large use of the information - therein in his _Historia geral da Ethiopia a Alta_ (Coimbra, 1660), - often erroneously attributed to Lobo (see Machado's _Bibliotheca - Lusitana_). Lobo's own narrative was translated from a MS. copy into - French in 1728 by the Abbe Joachim le Grand, under the title of - _Voyage historique d'Abissinie_. In 1669 a translation by Sir Peter - Wyche of several passages from a MS. account of Lobo's travels was - published by the Royal Society (translated in M. Thevenot's _Relation - des voyages_ in 1673). An English abridgment of Le Grand's edition by - Dr Johnson was published in 1735 (reprinted 1789). In a _Memoire - justificatif en rehabilitation des peres Pierre Paez et Jerome Lobo_, - Dr C. T. Beke maintains against Bruce the accuracy of Lobo's - statements as to the source of the Abai branch of the Nile. See A. de - Backer, _Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus_ (ed. C. Sommervogel, - iv., 1893). - - - - -LOBSTER (O.E. _lopustre_, _lopystre_, a corruption of Lat. _locusta_, -lobster or other marine shell-fish; also a locust), an edible crustacean -found on the coasts of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean. The name is -sometimes loosely applied to any of the larger Crustacea of the order -Macrura, especially to such as are used for food. - -The true lobsters, forming the family _Homaridae_, are distinguished -from the other Macrura by having the first three pairs of legs -terminating in chelae or pincers. The first pair are large and massive -and are composed of six segments, while the remaining legs are each -composed of seven segments. The sternum of the last thoracic somite is -immovably united with the preceding. This last character, together with -some peculiarities of the branchial system, distinguish the lobsters -from the freshwater crayfishes. The common lobster (_Homarus gammarus_ -or _vulgaris_) is found on the European coasts from Norway to the -Mediterranean. The American lobster (_Homarus americanus_), which should -perhaps be ranked as a variety rather than as a distinct species, is -found on the Atlantic coast of North America from Labrador to Cape -Hatteras. A third species, found at the Cape of Good Hope, is of small -size and of no economic importance. - -Both in Europe and in America the lobster is the object of an important -fishery. It lives in shallow water, in rocky places, and is usually -captured in traps known as lobster-pots, or creels, made of wickerwork -or of hoops covered with netting, and having funnel-shaped openings -permitting entrance but preventing escape. These traps are baited with -pieces of fish, preferably stale, and are sunk on ground frequented by -lobsters, the place of each being marked by a buoy. In Europe the -lobsters are generally sent to market in the fresh state, but in -America, especially in the northern New England states and in the -maritime provinces of Canada, the canning of lobsters is an important -industry. The European lobster rarely reaches 10 pounds in weight, -though individuals of 14 pounds have been found, and in America there -are authentic records of lobsters weighing 20 to 23 pounds. - -The effects of over-fishing have become apparent, especially in America, -rather in the reduced average size of the lobsters caught than in any -diminution of the total yield. The imposition of a close time to protect -the spawning lobsters has been often tried, but as the female carries -the spawn attached to her body for nearly twelve months after spawning -it is impossible to give any effective protection by this means. The -prohibition of the capture of females carrying spawn, or, as it is -termed, "in berry," is difficult to enforce. A minimum size, below which -it is illegal to sell lobsters, is fixed by law in most lobster-fishing -districts, but the value of the protection so given has also been -questioned. - -The Norway lobster (_Nephrops norvegicus_) is found, like the common -lobster, from Norway to the Mediterranean. It is a smaller species, with -long and slender claws and is of an orange colour, often beautifully -marked with red and blue. It is found in deeper water and is generally -captured by trawling. It is a curious and unexplained fact that nearly -all the individuals so captured are males. It is less esteemed for food -than the common species. In London it is sold under the name of "Dublin -prawn." - -The rock lobster, spiny lobster, or sea-crawfish (_Palinurus vulgaris_) -belongs to the family _Palinuridae_, distinguished from the _Homaridae_ -by the fact that the first legs are not provided with chelae or pincers, -and that all the legs possess only six segments. The antennae are very -long and thick. It is found on the southern and western coasts of the -British, Islands and extends to the Mediterranean. It is highly esteemed -for the table, especially in France, where it goes by the name of -_Langouste_. Other species of the same family are used for food in -various parts of the world, especially on the Pacific coast of North -America and in Australia and New Zealand. - -In Melbourne and Sydney the name of "Murray lobster" is given to a large -species of crayfish (_Astacopsis spinifer_, formerly known as _Astacus_, -or _Potamobius serratus_) which is much used for food. (W. T. Ca.) - - - - -LOCAL GOVERNMENT, a phrase specially adopted in English usage for the -decentralized or deconcentrated administration, within a state or -national and central government, of local affairs by local authorities. -It is restricted not only in respect of area but also in respect of the -character and extent of the duties assigned to them. It is not to be -confused with local self-government in the wider sense in which the -words are sometimes employed, e.g. for the granting by the crown of -self-government to a colony; the expression, in a general way, may mean -this, but "local government" as technically used in England refers more -narrowly to the system of county or municipal administration, and -English usage transfers it to denote the similar institutions in other -countries. The growth and persistence of this kind of subordinate -government is due practically to the need of relieving the central -authority in the state, and to experience of the failure of a completely -centralized bureaucracy. The degree to which local government is adopted -varies considerably in different countries, and those which are the best -examples of it in modern times--the United Kingdom, the United States, -France and Germany--differ very much in their local institutions, partly -through historical, partly through temperamental, causes. A certain -shifting of ideas from time to time, as to what is local and what is -central, is inevitable, and the same view is not possible in countries -of different configuration, history or political system. The history and -present state of the local government in the various countries are dealt -with in the separate articles on them (ENGLAND, GERMANY, &c.), in the -sections dealing with government and administration, or political -institutions. - - The best recent comparative study of local government is Percy - Ashley's _Local and Central Government_ (Murray, 1906), an admirable - account of the evolution and working of the systems in England, - France, Prussia and United States. Other important works, in addition - to general works on constitutional law, are J. A. Fairlie's _Municipal - Administration_, Shaw's _Municipal Government in Continental Europe_, - Redlich and Hirst's _Local Government in England_, Mr and Mrs Sidney - Webb's elaborate historical inquiry into English local government - (1906), and for Germany, Bornhak's _Geschichte des preussischen - Verwaltungsrechts_. - - - - -LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD, a department of the administration of the United -Kingdom, constituted in 1871. It is the successor of the General Board -of Health, established in 1848 pursuant to the Public Health Act of that -year. The General Board of Health continued in existence until 1854, -when it was reconstituted. Its existence under its new constitution was -originally limited to one year, but was extended from year to year until -1858, when it was allowed to expire, its powers under the various acts -for the prevention of diseases being transferred to the privy council, -while those which related to the control of local authorities passed to -the secretary of state for the home department, to whose department the -staff of officers and clerks belonging to the board was transferred. -This state of affairs continued until 1871, when the Local Government -Board was created by the Local Government Board Act 1871. It consists of -the lord president of the council, the five principal secretaries of -state, the lord privy seal, the chancellor of the exchequer and a -president appointed by the sovereign. The board itself seldom meets, and -the duties of the department are discharged by the president assisted by -a parliamentary and a permanent secretary and a permanent staff. The -president and one of the secretaries usually have seats in parliament, -and the president is generally a member of the cabinet. The salary of -the president, formerly L2000, was raised in 1910 to L5000 a year. The -board has all the powers of the secretary of state under the Public -Health Act 1848, and the numerous subsequent acts relating to sanitary -matters and the government of sanitary districts; together with all the -powers and duties of the privy council under the acts relating to the -prevention of epidemic disease and to vaccination. The powers and duties -of the board have been largely added to by legislation since its -creation; it may be said that the board exercises a general supervision -over the numerous authorities to whom local government has been -entrusted (see ENGLAND: _Local Government_). A committee presided over -by Lord Jersey in 1904 inquired into the constitution and duties of the -board, but made no recommendation as to any change therein. It -recommended, however, an increase in the salaries of the president and -of the parliamentary and permanent secretaries. - - - - -LOCARNO (Ger. _Luggarus_), a small town of Italian appearance in the -Swiss canton of Tessin or Ticino, of which till 1881 it was one of the -three capitals (the others being Bellinzona, q.v., and Lugano, q.v.). It -is built at the north or Swiss end of the Lago Maggiore, not far from -the point at which the Maggia enters that lake, and is by rail 14 m. -S.W. of Bellinzona. Its height above the sea-level is only 682 ft., so -that it is said to be the lowest spot in Switzerland. In 1900 its -population was 3603, mainly Italian-speaking and Romanists. It was taken -from the Milanese in 1512 by the Swiss who ruled it till 1798, when it -became part of the canton of Lugano in the Helvetic Republic, and in -1803 part of that of Tessin or Ticino, then first erected. In 1555 a -number of Protestant inhabitants were expelled for religious reasons, -and going to Zurich founded the silk industry there. Above Locarno is -the romantically situated sanctuary of the Madonna del Sasso (now -rendered easily accessible by a funicular railway) that commands a -glorious view over the lake and the surrounding country. (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH, 1ST BARON (1827-1900), British colonial -administrator, son of James Loch, M.P., of Drylaw, Midlothian, was born -on the 23rd of May 1827. He entered the navy, but at the end of two -years quitted it for the East India Company's military service, and in -1842 obtained a commission in the Bengal Light Cavalry. In the Sikh war -in 1845 he was given an appointment on the staff of Sir Hugh Gough, and -served throughout the Sutlej campaign. In 1852 he became second in -command of Skinner's Horse. At the outbreak of the Crimean war in 1854, -Loch severed his connexion with India, and obtained leave to raise a -body of irregular Bulgarian cavalry, which he commanded throughout the -war. In 1857 he was appointed attache to Lord Elgin's mission to the -East, was present at the taking of Canton, and in 1858 brought home the -treaty of Yedo. In April 1860 he again accompanied Lord Elgin to China, -as secretary of the new embassy sent to secure the execution by China of -her treaty engagements. The embassy was backed up by an allied -Anglo-French force. With Harry S. Parkes he negotiated the surrender of -the Taku forts. During the advance on Peking Loch was chosen with Parkes -to complete the preliminary negotiations for peace at Tungchow. They -were accompanied by a small party of officers and Sikhs. It having been -discovered that the Chinese were planning a treacherous attack on the -British force, Loch rode back and warned the outposts. He then returned -to Parkes and his party under a flag of truce hoping to secure their -safety. They were all, however, made prisoners and taken to Peking, -where the majority died from torture or disease. Parkes and Loch, after -enduring irons and all the horrors of a Chinese prison, were afterwards -more leniently treated. After three weeks' time the negotiations for -their release were successful, but they had only been liberated ten -minutes when orders were received from the Chinese emperor, then a -fugitive in Mongolia, for their immediate execution. Loch never entirely -recovered his health after this experience in a Chinese dungeon. -Returning home he was made C.B., and for a while was private secretary -to Sir George Grey, then at the Home Office. In 1863 he was appointed -lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man. During his governorship the -House of Keys was transformed into an elective assembly, the first line -of railway was opened, and the influx of tourists began to bring fresh -prosperity to the island. In 1882 Loch, who had become K.C.B. in 1880, -accepted a commissionership of woods and forests, and two years later -was made governor of Victoria, where he won the esteem of all classes. -In June 1889 he succeeded Sir Hercules Robinson as governor of Cape -Colony and high commissioner of South Africa. - -As high commissioner his duties called for the exercise of great -judgment and firmness. The Boers were at the same time striving to -frustrate Cecil Rhodes's schemes of northern expansion and planning to -occupy Mashonaland, to secure control of Swaziland and Zululand and to -acquire the adjacent lands up to the ocean. Loch firmly supported -Rhodes, and, by informing President Kruger that troops would be sent to -prevent any invasion of territory under British protection, he -effectually crushed the "Banyailand trek" across the Limpopo (1890-91). -Loch, however, with the approval of the imperial government, concluded -in July-August 1890 a convention with President Kruger respecting -Swaziland, by which, while the Boers withdrew all claims to territory -north of the Transvaal, they were granted an outlet to the sea at Kosi -Bay on condition that the republic entered the South African Customs -Union. This convention was concluded after negotiations conducted with -President Kruger by J. H. Hofmeyr on behalf of the high commissioner, -and was made at a time when the British and Bond parties in Cape Colony -were working in harmony. The Transvaal did not, however, fulfil the -necessary condition, and in view of the increasingly hostile attitude of -the Pretoria administration to Great Britain Loch became a strong -advocate of the annexation by Britain of the territory east of -Swaziland, through which the Boer railway to the sea would have passed. -He at length induced the British government to adopt his view and on the -15th of March 1895 it was announced that these territories -(Amatongaland, &c.), would be annexed by Britain, an announcement -received by Mr Kruger "with the greatest astonishment and regret." -Meantime Loch had been forced to intervene in another matter. When the -commandeering difficulty of 1894 had roused the Uitlanders in the -Transvaal to a dangerous pitch of excitement, he travelled to Pretoria -to use his personal influence with President Kruger, and obtained the -withdrawal of the obnoxious commandeering regulations. In the following -year he entered a strong protest against the new Transvaal franchise -law. Meanwhile, however, the general situation in South Africa was -assuming year by year a more threatening aspect. Cecil Rhodes, then -prime minister of Cape Colony, was strongly in favour of a more -energetic policy than was supported by the Imperial government, and at -the end of March 1895 the high commissioner, finding himself, it is -believed, out of touch with his ministers, returned home a few months -before the expiry of his term of office. In the same year he was raised -to the peerage. When the Anglo-Boer war broke out in 1899 Loch took a -leading part in raising and equipping a body of mounted men, named after -him "Loch's Horse." He died in London on the 20th of June 1900, and was -succeeded as 2nd baron by his son Edward (b. 1873). - - - - -LOCHABER, a district of southern Inverness-shire, Scotland, bounded W. -by Loch Linnhe, the river and loch Lochy, N. by the Corryarrick range -and adjoining hills, N.E. and E. by the district of Badenoch, S.E. by -the district of Rannoch and S. by the river and loch Leven. It measures -32 m. from N.E. to S.W. and 25 m. from E. to W., and is remarkable for -wild and romantic scenery, Ben Nevis being the chief mountain. The -district has given its name to a celebrated type of axe, consisting of a -long shaft with a blade like a scythe and a large hook behind it, which, -according to Sir Walter Scott, was introduced into the Highlands and -Ireland from Scandinavia. It was the weapon of the old City Guard of -Edinburgh. The pathetic song of "Lochaber no more" was written by Allan -Ramsay. - - - - -LOCHES, a town in France, capital of an arrondissement in the department -of Indre-et-Loire, 29 m. S.E. of Tours by rail, on the left bank of the -Indre. Pop. (1906) 3751. The town, one of the most picturesque in -central France, lies at the foot of the rocky eminence on which stands -the castle of the Anjou family, surrounded by an outer wall 1(1/4) m. in -circumference, and consisting of the old collegiate church of St Ours, -the royal lodge and the donjon. The church of St Ours dates from the -10th to the 12th centuries; among its distinguishing features are the -huge stone pyramids surmounting the nave and the beautiful carving of -the west door. The royal lodge, built by Charles VII. and used as the -subprefecture, contains the tomb of Agnes Sorel and the oratory of Anne -of Brittany. The donjon includes, besides the ruined keep (12th -century), the Martelet, celebrated as the prison of Lodovico Sforza, -duke of Milan, who died there in 1508, and the Tour Ronde, built by -Louis XI. and containing the famous iron cages in which state prisoners, -including--according to a story now discredited--their inventor Cardinal -Balue, were confined. Loches has an hotel-de-ville and several houses of -the Renaissance period. It has a tribunal of first instance, a communal -college and a training college. Liqueur-distilling and tanning are -carried on together with trade in farm-produce, wine, wood and -live-stock. - -On the right bank of the Loire, opposite the town and practically its -suburb, is the village of Beaulieu-les-Loches, once the seat of a -barony. Besides the parish church of St Laurent, a beautiful specimen of -12th-century architecture, it contains the remains of the great abbey -church of the Holy Sepulchre founded in the 11th century by Fulk Nerra, -count of Anjou, who is buried in the chancel. This chancel, which with -one of the older transepts now constitutes the church, dates from the -15th century. The Romanesque nave is in ruins, but of the two towers one -survives intact; it is square, crowned with an octagonal steeple of -stone, and is one of the finest extant monuments of Romanesque -architecture. - -Loches (the Roman _Leucae_) grew up round a monastery founded about 500 -by St Ours and belonged to the counts of Anjou from 886 till 1205. In -the latter year it was seized from King John of England by Philip -Augustus, and from the middle of the 13th century till after the time of -Charles IX. the castle was a residence of the kings of France. - - - - -LOCHGELLY, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 7(1/2) m. N.E. of -Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 5472. The town is -modern and owes its prosperity to the iron-works and collieries in its -immediate vicinity. Loch Gelly, from which the town takes its name, -situated 1/2 m. S.E., measures 1/2 m. in length by 3/4 m. in breadth, -contains some trout and pike, and has on its west banks Lochgelly House, -a seat of the earl of Minto. The Romans are said to have had a station -at Loch Ore in the parish of Ballingry, 2(1/4) m. N. by W., which was -drained about the end of the 18th century and then cultivated. To the -N.E. rises the hill of Benarty (1131 ft.). Hallyards, about 2 m. S.E. of -Lochgelly, is a ruined house that once belonged to Sir William Kirkaldy -of Grange, who held Edinburgh Castle for Queen Mary. Here James V. was -received after his defeat at Solway Moss in 1542, and here a few -Jacobites used to meet in 1715. - - - - -LOCHGILPHEAD, a municipal and police burgh of Argyllshire, Scotland, at -the head of Loch Gilp, a small arm on the western side of Loch Fyne. -Pop. (1901) 1313. The herring-fishery is the chief industry, but there -is some weaving of woollens and, in summer, a considerable influx of -visitors. Ardrishaig (pop. 1285), a seaport on the west of the mouth of -Loch Gilp, is the east terminus of the Crinan Canal. It is the place of -transhipment from the large Glasgow passenger steamers to the small -craft built for the navigation of the canal. It is an important harbour -in connexion with the Loch Fyne herring-fishery, and there is also a -distillery. During the summer there is a coach service to Ford at the -lower end of Loch Awe. - - - - -LOCHMABEN, a royal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 8 m. -N.E. of Dumfries, with a station on the Caledonian railway company's -branch from Dumfries to Locherbie. Pop. (1901) 1328. It is delightfully -situated, there being eight lakes in the immediate neighbourhood, while -the river Annan, and the Waters of Ae, Kinnel and Dryfe are in the -vicinity. The town hall is a handsome edifice with clock tower. At the -south end of Castle Loch, the chief lake, stand the ruins, a mere shell, -of Lochmaben Castle, dating from the 13th century, where local tradition -declares that Robert Bruce was born--an honour which is also claimed, -however, for Turnberry Castle on the coast of Ayrshire. In the parish -church is a bell said to have been presented to King Robert by the pope -after reconciliation with him. A statue of the king stands in front of -the town hall. Whether it were his birthplace or not, the associations -of Bruce with Lochmaben were intimate. He exempted his followers in the -district from feudal service and their descendants--the "kindly tenants -of Lochmaben"--were confirmed in their tenure by the court of session in -1824. The Castle Loch is the only fresh water in Scotland, and possibly -in the British Isles, where the vendace (_coregonus vandesius_) occurs. -This fish, which is believed to be growing scarcer, is alleged on -doubtful authority to have been introduced by Queen Mary. It is captured -by the sweep-net in August, and is esteemed as a delicacy. The lakes -adjoining the town afford the inhabitants exceptional advantages for the -game of curling. There was once a team of Lochmaben Curlers entirely -composed of shoemakers (souters) who held their own against all comers, -and their prowess added the phrase "to souter" to the vocabulary of the -sport, the word indicating a match in which the winners scored "game" to -their opponents' "love." Lochmaben unites with Annan, Dumfries, -Kirkcudbright and Sanquhar (the Dumfries burghs) in returning one member -to parliament. - - - - -LOCK, MATTHIAS, English 18th-century furniture designer and -cabinet-maker. The dates of his birth and death are unknown; but he was -a disciple of Chippendale, and subsequently of the Adams, and was -possibly in partnership with Henry Copeland (q.v.). During the greater -part of his life he belonged to that flamboyant school which derived its -inspiration from Louis XV. models; but when he fell under the influence -of Robert Adam he absorbed his manner so completely that it is often -difficult to distinguish between them, just as it is sometimes easy to -confound Lock's work with the weaker efforts of Chippendale. Thus from -being extravagantly rococo he progressed to a simple ordered classicism. -His published designs are not equal to his original drawings, many of -which are preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, -while the pieces themselves are often bolder and more solid than is -suggested by the author's representations of them. He was a clever -craftsman and holds a distinct place among the minor furniture designers -of the second half of the 18th century. - - Among his works, some of which were issued in conjunction with - Copeland, are: _A New Drawing Book of Ornaments_ (n. d.); _A New Book - of Ornaments_ (1768); _A New Book of Pier Frames, Ovals, Girandoles, - Tables, &c._ (1769); and _A New Book of Foliage_ (1769). - - - - -LOCK (from the O. Eng. _loc._; the word appears, in different forms, in -many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as "hole," Ger. -_Loch_, "lid," Swed. _lock_, &c.; probably the original was a root -meaning "to enclose"), a fastening, particularly one which consists of a -bolt held in a certain position by one or more movable parts which -require to be placed in definite positions by the aid of a key or of a -secret arrangement of letters, figures or signs, before the bolt can be -moved. It is with such fastenings that the present article chiefly -deals. - - The word is also used, in the original sense of an enclosure or - barrier, for a length of water in a river or canal, or at the entrance - of a dock, enclosed at both ends by gates, the "lock-gates," and - fitted with sluices, to enable vessels to be raised from a lower to a - higher level or vice versa (see CANAL and DOCK). In guns and rifles - the lock is the mechanism which effects the firing of the charge; it - thus appears in the names of old types of weapons, such as wheel-lock, - match-lock, flint-lock (see ARMS AND ARMOUR, S _Firearms_; also GUN - and RIFLE). Lock (Ger. _Locke_) in the sense of a curl or tuft of - hair, the separate groups in which the hair naturally grows, may be, - in ultimate origin, connected with the root of the main word. Lockjaw - is the popular name of the disease known as tetanus (q.v.). The name - "Lock Hospital" is frequently used in English for a hospital for - patients suffering from venereal diseases. According to the _New - English Dictionary_ there was in Southwark as early as 1453 a - leper-hospital, known as the Lock Lazar House, which later was used - for the treatment of venereal diseases. The name appears to have - become used in the present sense as early as the end of the 17th - century. Lock hospitals were established in London in 1745-1747 and in - Dublin in 1754-1755. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -The forms in which locks are manufactured, such as padlock, rim-lock, -mortise-lock, one-sided or two-sided, &c., are necessarily extremely -numerous; and the variations in the details of construction of any one -of these forms are still more numerous, so that it is impossible to do -more here than describe the main types which have been or are in common -use. Probably the earliest locks were of Chinese origin. Specimens of -these still extant are quite as secure as any locks manufactured in -Europe up to the 18th century, but it is impossible to ascertain the -date of their manufacture. With the exception, in all probability, of -these Chinese examples, the earliest lock of which the construction is -known is the Egyptian, which was used four thousand years ago. In fig. -1, _aa_ is the body of the lock, _bb_ the bolt and _cc_ the key. The -three pins _p, p, p_ drop into three holes in the bolt when it is pushed -in, and so hold it fast; and they are raised again by putting in the key -through the large hole in the bolt and raising it a little, so that the -pins in the key push the locking pins up out of the way of the bolt. It -was evidently to locks and keys of this nature that the prophet alluded: -"And the key of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder" (Isaiah -xxii. 22), the word _muftah_ used in this passage being the common word -for key to this day. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -In the 18th century the European lock was nothing better than a mere -bolt, held in its place, either shut or open, by a spring b (fig. 2), -which pressed it down, and so held it at either one end or the other of -the convex notch _aa_; and the only impediment to opening it was the -wards which the key had to pass before it could turn in the keyhole. But -it was always possible to find the shape of the wards by merely putting -in a blank key covered with wax, and pressing it against them; and when -this had been done it was unnecessary to cut out the key into the -complicated form of the wards (such as fig. 3), because no part of that -key does any work except the edge _bc_ farthest from the pipe a; and so -a key of the form fig. 4 would do just as well. Thus a small collection -of skeleton keys, as they are called, of a few different patterns, was -all the stock in trade that a lock-picker required. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - - - Lever locks. - -The common single-tumbler lock (fig. 5) requires two operations instead -of one to open it. The tumbler _at_ turns on a pivot at t, and has a -square pin at a, which drops into a notch in the bolt _bb_, when it is -either quite open or quite shut, and the tumbler must be lifted by the -key before the bolt can be moved again. The tumbler offered little -resistance to picking, as the height to which it might be lifted was not -limited and the bolt would operate provided only that this height was -sufficient; the improvement which formed the foundation of the modern -key lock was the substitution of what is known as the "lever" for the -tumbler, the difference being that the lever must be lifted to _exactly_ -the right height to allow the bolt to pass. This improvement, together -with the obvious one of using more than one lever, was introduced in -1778 by Robert Barron, and is illustrated in figs. 6 and 7. Unless the -square pin a (fig. 6) is lifted by the key to the proper height and no -higher, the bolt cannot move. Fig. 8 illustrates the key of such a lock -with four levers, the different distances between the centre of the key -barrel and the edge of the bit being adapted to lift the levers to the -respective heights required. This lock differs from the modern lever -lock only in the fact that Barron made his gating in the bolt and -carried stumps on his levers, instead of having the main stump riveted -into the bolt and the gatings in the levers as is the modern practice. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.] - -A lock operating on exactly the same principle but entirely different in -construction (fig. 9) was invented by Joseph Bramah in 1784. It consists -of an outer barrel _aaaa_, within which is a revolving barrel, _cccc_, -held in place by a steel disk, _dd_, and provided with a pin b fixed -eccentrically for operating the bolt; the barrel is prevented from -turning by sheet metal sliders _ss_, which slide axially in radial -grooves in the barrel and project into slots cut into the steel disk -which is fastened to the case of the lock. Each slider has a gating cut -in its outer edge sufficiently deep to allow it to embrace the inwardly -projecting steel plate and turn on it with the barrel. The key is of -tubular form having slots cut in its end, each of a depth corresponding -to the position of the gating in one of the sliders; so that, on -inserting the key, each slider is pushed in--against a spring--exactly -far enough to bring its slot opposite the steel disk; in this position -the barrel carrying the sliders is turned by the key and actuates the -bolt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.] - -Up to 1851 it was generally believed that well-made lever locks of all -types were practically unpickable, but at this time Alfred Charles -Hobbs--an American--demonstrated, by picking the locks of Barron, Chubb, -Bramah and others, that this belief was a fallacy. The method of Hobbs -became widely known as the "tickling" or "tentative" method. In the -modern lever lock the bolt carries a projecting piece--the "main -stump"--which, when the levers are all raised to the proper height, -enters the slots--"gatings"--in their faces. If, when the levers are not -in this position, pressure is applied to the bolt, the main stump will -press against the face of the levers; but owing to inaccuracies of -workmanship and other causes the pressure will not be equal on all the -levers. If now, the pressure on the bolt being maintained, each lever in -turn is carefully raised a little, one will be found on which the -pressure of the stump is greatest; this one is lifted till it becomes -easy and then carefully lowered till it is sustained by the pressure of -the stump in a new position. Another lever now bears the greatest -pressure, and this in its turn is similarly treated. By this gradual or -"tentative" process the levers will in time all be raised to the correct -height and the bolt will slip back without, if sufficient care has been -exercised, any of the levers having been raised above its correct -position. Although this method of picking only became generally known in -1851, it is evident that it was not novel, since in 1817 one of Bramah's -workmen, named Russell, invented the use of false notches or gatings, -which were slots similar to the true gating but of small depth cut in -the face of the levers. Similar false gatings were used in Anthony -Radford Strutt's lock in 1819. The only possible object of these -gatings--two of which are shown in each of the sliders of Bramah's -lock--was to prevent the tentative method of picking. They are, however, -not efficient for their purpose although they render the operation more -difficult and tedious. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.] - -The best-known locks up to 1851 were those of Jeremiah Chubb, their -popularity being due to their superior workmanship and probably still -more to their title "detector." His lock, patented in 1818, contained a -device intended to frustrate attempts at picking, and further to detect -if such an attempt had been made. This device, at any rate as far as -detecting was concerned, had been anticipated by the patent of Thomas -Ruxton in 1816. Since the device only comes into operation when any -lever is raised too high, it is not effective against a skilful -application of the tentative method. The original form of this lock is -shown in fig. 10, when the lever DT, which turns on a pin in the middle, -is acted upon at its end T by a spring S, which will evidently allow -some play to the lever on either side of the corner X; but the moment it -is pushed past that point the spring will carry it farther in the same -direction, like what is called in clock-work a jumper. In its proper -position that end always remains above the turning-point; but, if any -one of the tumblers is raised too high, the other end D of the detector, -which reaches over all the levers, is lifted so far that the end T is -sent down below the corner, and the tooth T then falls into a notch in -the bolt, and so prevents it from being drawn back, even though all the -levers are raised properly by the right key. It thus at once becomes -obvious that somebody has been trying to pick the lock. The way to open -it, then, is to turn the key the other way, as if to overlock the bolt; -a short piece of gating near the end of the levers allows the bolt to -advance just far enough to push the tooth of the detector up again by -means of its inclination there, and then the lock can be opened as -usual. To render the mechanism of locks more inaccessible for picking -purposes, two devices, the "curtain" and the "barrel," were in use; -these devices were simply the one a disk and the other a cylinder -carrying a keyhole which revolved with the key and so closed the fixed -keyhole in the case. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.] - - It is to Hobbs himself that we are indebted for the invention of the - movable stump, since called the safety lever, the only device - introduced rendering the tentative method of picking inoperative. This - invention was incorporated in the "protector" locks of Hobbs, Hart & - Co.; it consists in the employment of a movable main stump which is - not riveted into the bolt as usual, but is set on the end b of a bent - lever _abc_ (fig. 11) which lies in a hollow of the bolt A behind it, - turning on a pivot in the bolt itself, and kept steady by a small - friction-spring e. The stump comes through a hole in the bolt large - enough to let it have a little play; and the long end a of the lever - stands just above the edge of a square pin d, which is fixed in the - back plate of the lock. When the lock is locked, if the bolt be pushed - back, no sensible pressure on the levers is produced, but only just - enough to turn this protector lever, as Hobbs called it, on its pivot - c, and so bring down its end a in front of the square pin, and then - the bolt can no more be pushed back than when held by Chubb's - detector. The protector is set free again by merely pushing the bolt - forward with the key, without reference to the levers. However, the - protector could be prevented from acting by a method used by the - inventor himself for another purpose, viz., by pushing a piece of - watch-spring through the keyhole, and up behind the bolt, so as to - reach the protector at a, and keep it up while the bolt was pushed - back, or, again, by pushing up the watch-spring between any two of the - levers, and holding the end b of the protector with it, so as to press - the stump against the levers. Both these devices, however, are - prevented now by letting in a feather FF in a groove between the bolt - and the back of the lock, which no watch-spring can pass, and also - bringing a piece of the feather forward through the front gating of - the levers just under the stump. In this form the lock is safe against - any mode of picking known. A lock possessing valuable features was - invented in 1852 by Sir Edmund Beckett--afterwards Lord - Grimthorpe--but did not come into general use for commercial reasons. - - All the locks containing many levers so far described have a common - defect in that the levers are moved in one direction by the key and in - the other by springs. But it not infrequently happens that dirt or - grease gets between the levers and causes two or more to stick - together, in which case one of them is lifted too high and the bolt is - prevented from operating. To overcome this difficulty locks, - especially those intended for safes, have been made so that alternate - levers move in opposite directions, the key having two bits on - opposite sides. This construction entails that the key enter the body - of the levers instead of passing below them, an arrangement that had - previously been in use to reduce the space into which gunpowder could - be packed through the keyhole. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.] - - - Key locks. - - The key locks chiefly used in English safes have been the ordinary - lever lock with 6-8 or 10 levers, Chubb's "detector," Hobbs's - "protector" or variants of these. In the Yale lock, which reverts in - some degree to the idea of the ancient Egyptian lock, America has - produced one key lock which has come into almost universal use in that - country and is certainly worthy of note. The key of this lock, shown - full size at _ka_ in fig. 12, is remarkably small, being stamped from - a piece of flat steel and weighing only a small fraction of an ounce. - The barrel _abc_ has to turn, as in the Bramah lock, in order to move - the bolt, which is not shown in the figure. That may be done either as - in Bramah locks or by a tongue or bit attached to the end _ab_ of the - barrel as in several other locks. The barrel is prevented from being - turned, except by the proper key, thus. The (apparently) five plugs - with spiral springs over them in fig. 12 are really all divided at the - cross line _bc_, being all now lifted to the proper height by the key. - Consequently the barrel _abc_ can turn round, as there is no plug - either projecting from it or projecting into it. But when the key is - out, all the plugs are pushed down by the springs, and so the upper - ones descend into the barrel and hold it fast. And again, if any of - the steps of a false key are too high, some of the lower plugs will be - pushed up beyond the barrel into the holes above them, and so the - barrel cannot turn. The bevelled end of the key near a enables it to - be pushed in under the plugs, though with some friction and - resistance. - - It is frequently convenient to have a number of different locks so - arranged that, whilst each has its own individual key, yet one special - or "master" key will operate any of the series. In warded locks this - is done by "differing" the wards of the individual locks so that each - key will only pass its own lock, and then filing away the bit of an - extra key so that it will pass all the wards; the objection to this - method is that any of the individual keys can easily be filed away and - so form a master key. A better method, which meets this objection, - consists in making all the levers except one--or if need be two--of - each lock alike and cutting another gating or widening the gating in - the differing levers, so as to pass the master key which has one--or - two--special steps. - -The growth of safe deposits has called for special locks so that when a -box changes tenants the outgoing tenant's key shall be useless. In some -cases the lock has been taken off and another substituted, but this is a -clumsy makeshift now rarely employed, and has been superseded by the use -of changeable key locks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.] - - The first of these, invented by Robert Newell in 1841, was introduced - into Great Britain from America by Hobbs in 1851. A simpler form, the - construction of which is clearly shown by fig. 13, was brought out by - Hobbs, Hart & Co. The bolt of this lock, instead of the ordinary main - stump, carries a set of sliders, PPS, one corresponding to each lever - and each carrying a projection S corresponding to a portion of the - main stump. It will be seen that if any key having steps of certain - lengths is inserted when the lock is unlocked and the bolt B thrown - thereby, each slider will be raised to a height corresponding to that - to which its lever is raised by the key, and the two fixed teeth CC - will engage two of the teeth in the front of each slider, so that they - will be held in place ready to enter the lever gatings when the same - key is inserted. - - [Illustration: FIG. 14.] - - A changeable key lock introduced by the Chatwood Safe Co. has no - gatings in the levers, whose fronts are cut with teeth gearing into - similar teeth cut in a set of disks carrying the gatings. The disks - are mounted on a stud which can be moved by a key from the back of the - lock in such a way that while the main stump is in the - gatings--keeping the disks in position--the disks are carried forward - out of gear with the levers; the key can then be removed and another - having steps of suitable length inserted and turned so as to raise the - levers, the disks being then brought back into gear. - - [Illustration: FIG. 15.] - - Both the above locks require that the key steps should have certain - definite lengths corresponding to the teeth, but a later lock - resembling to some extent that brought out by Hobbs, Hart & Co. has - been introduced by the Chatwood Co., in which it is sufficient after - unlocking the lock to file any of the key steps and so alter the - pattern of the key in any way. In this lock, which is illustrated in - fig. 14, unlike all those that have been described, the levers are not - pivoted but slide upon guide stumps; the main stump is divided as in - Hobbs Hart's lock, the various pieces being clamped together by a - screw to form a solid stump. The sliders composing the main stump are - not provided with teeth, the changing being effected as follows: when - the bolt is partly shot by the correct key, the screw which binds the - sliders together as it comes opposite an opening in the back of the - case is loosened, the key is removed and altered--or a fresh key - substituted--and is inserted so as to lift the levers to their correct - height and expose the clamping screw at the back, which is then - tightened. This lock is now commonly used for safe deposits, combined - with a small lever lock of which the custodian carries the key, and - which either blocks the bolt of the main lock or covers the keyhole. - - In connexion with changeable key locks requiring key steps of definite - lengths, much ingenuity has been displayed in designing keys with - movable bits or steps, as fig. 15, which are useful chiefly as - duplicates, being built up to match the key from time to time in use, - and then deposited in some bank or other secure place to be used in - case of emergency. - - - Combination locks. - -From the very earliest times secret devices, either to hide keyholes or -to take the place of locks proper, have been in use; these are to-day -only seriously represented by "combination" locks which, whilst -following the same general principles as key locks, differ entirely in -construction. Locks in which the arranging of the internal parts in -their proper positions was secured by the manipulation of external parts -marked with letters or numbers were common in China in very early times, -but their history is unfortunately lost. This form of lock has been -developed to a very high degree of perfection and is, for safes, in -almost universal use to-day in America. - - The American lock consists of a series of disks mounted upon one - spindle, only one, however--the bolt disk--being fixed thereto, and - provided each with a gating into which a stump connected with the bolt - can drop when all the gatings lie upon a given line parallel to the - axis of the spindle. Each disk is provided with a driving pin so - arranged that it can impinge on and drive a similar pin in its next - neighbour; the gating in the bolt disk and the portion of the stump - which enters it are so formed that the disk can draw the bolt back. - The spindle is provided on the outside with a knob and graduated - disk--usually with 100 divisions--surrounded by an annulus on which a - fixed position is denoted. Each disk, including the bolt disk, is - provided with a pin projecting from its surface in such a way that the - pin of one disk comes into contact with that of the next disk and - drives it round. If, then, the bolt disk being at the back, there are - three letter disks and the spindle is rotated to the left, the bolt - disk will in the course of one revolution pick up letter disk No. - 1--counting from the bolt disk--in the second revolution it will pick - up No. 2, and in the third No. 3, the revolution being continued for - part of a turn till the number corresponding to the correct position - of No. 3 is reached. The revolution of the spindle is now reversed. - The bolt disk leaves No. 1 in the first revolution and picks it up - again, and the second revolution picks up No. 2. The motion is - continued for part of a revolution till No. 2 is brought to the - correct position (No. 3 obviously not being disturbed) and is then - reversed. No. 1 is again left behind and picked up in the first - revolution to the left, the motion being continued till the correct - position of No. 1 is reached, when, on reversal, the gating in the - bolt disk comes into the correct position, the stump falls and a - continuance of the motion to the right draws back the bolt. A lock - constructed in this way would be of little utility, as the combination - would have to be determined once for all by the maker. The difficulty - is got over by making the letter disks in two parts, the inner part - carrying the driving pin and the outer the gating; these two parts are - locked together by small cams or other devices which come into such a - position that they can be released with the help of a square key when - the lock is unlocked. The combination is set by altering the position - of the inner disks with the driving pins in relation to the outer part - carrying the gatings which are meanwhile held steady by the square - key. - - - Time locks. - -One advantage of the combination lock is that there is no key to be lost -or stolen, but the means adopted by burglars, especially in America, are -such that even this is not a perfect protection, cases having occurred -in which a person has been compelled to disclose the combination. With -key locks the keyhole through the safe door forms a distinct point of -danger, and with combination locks the spindle passing through the door -may be attacked by explosives. To obviate these two risks time locks -were introduced in America and have been used in Europe. Essentially the -time lock consists of a high-class chronometer or watch movement, little -liable to get out of order, driving a disk provided with a gating such -that the bolt can only enter the gating during certain hours; as a rule -two, three or four chronometers are used, any one of which can release -the lock. - - The Yale time lock contains two chronometer movements which revolve - two dial plates studded with twenty-four pins to represent the - twenty-four hours of the day. These pins, when pushed in, form a track - on which run rollers supporting the lever which secures the bolt or - locking agency, but when they are drawn out the track is broken, the - rollers fall down and the bolt is released. By pulling out the day - pins, say from 9 till 4, the door is automatically prepared for - opening between these hours, and at 4 it again of itself locks up. For - keeping the repository closed over Sundays and holidays, a subsidiary - segment or track is brought into play by which a period of twenty-four - hours is added to the locked interval. Careful provision is made - against the eventuality of running down or accidental stoppage of the - clock motion, by which the rightful owner might be as seriously - incommoded as the burglar. In the Yale lock, just before the - chronometers run out, a trigger is released which depresses the lever - by which the bolt is held in position. (A. B. Ch.) - - - - -LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704), English philosopher, was born at Wrington, 10 -m. W. of Belluton, in Somersetshire, on the 29th of August 1632, six -years after the death of Bacon, and three months before the birth of -Spinoza. His father was a small landowner and attorney at Pensford, near -the northern boundary of the county, to which neighbourhood the family -had migrated from Dorsetshire early in that century. The elder Locke, a -strict but genial Puritan, by whom the son was carefully educated at -home, was engaged in the military service of the parliamentary party. -"From the time that I knew anything," Locke wrote in 1660, "I found -myself in a storm, which has continued to this time." For fourteen years -his education, more or less interrupted, went on in the rural home at -Belluton, on his father's little estate, half a mile from Pensford, and -6 m. from Bristol. In 1646 he entered Westminster School and remained -there for six years. Westminster was uncongenial to him. Its memories -perhaps encouraged the bias against public schools which afterwards -disturbed his philosophic calm in his _Thoughts on Education_. In 1652 -he entered Christ Church, Oxford, then under John Owen, the Puritan dean -and vice-chancellor of the university. Christ Church was Locke's -occasional home for thirty years. For some years after he entered, -Oxford was ruled by the Independents, who, largely through Owen, unlike -the Presbyterians, were among the first in England to advocate genuine -religious toleration. But Locke's hereditary sympathy with the Puritans -was gradually lessened by the intolerance of the Presbyterians and the -fanaticism of the Independents. He had found in his youth, he says, that -"what was called general freedom was general bondage, and that the -popular assertors of liberty were the greatest engrossers of it too, and -not unfitly called its _keepers_." And the influence of the liberal -divines of the Church of England afterwards showed itself in his -spiritual development. - -Under Owen scholastic studies were maintained with a formality and -dogmatism unsuited to Locke's free inquisitive temper. The aversion to -them which he expressed showed thus early an innate disposition to rebel -against empty verbal reasoning. He was not, according to his own account -of himself to Lady Masham, a hard student at first. He sought the -company of pleasant and witty men, and thus gained knowledge of life. He -took the ordinary bachelor's degree in 1656, and the master's in 1658. -In December 1660 he was serving as tutor of Christ Church, lecturing in -Greek, rhetoric and philosophy. - -At Oxford Locke was nevertheless within reach of liberal intellectual -influence tending to promote self-education and strong individuality. -The metaphysical works of Descartes had appeared a few years before he -went to Oxford, and the _Human Nature_ and _Leviathan_ of Hobbes during -his undergraduate years. It does not seem that Locke read extensively, -but he was attracted by Descartes. The first books, he told Lady Masham, -which gave him a relish for philosophy, were those of this philosopher, -although he very often differed from him. At the Restoration potent -influences were drawing Oxford and England into experimental inquiries. -Experiment in physics became the fashion. The Royal Society was then -founded, and we find Locke experimenting in chemistry in 1663, also in -meteorology, in which he was particularly interested all his life. - -The restraints of a professional career were not suited to Locke. There -is a surmise that early in his Oxford career he contemplated taking -orders in the Church of England. His religious disposition attracted him -to theology. Revulsion from the dogmatic temper of the Presbyterians, -and the unreasoning enthusiasm of the Independents favoured sympathy -afterwards with Cambridge Platonists and other liberal Anglican -churchmen. Whichcote was his favourite preacher, and close intimacy with -the Cudworth family cheered his later years. But, though he has a place -among lay theologians, dread of ecclesiastical impediment to free -inquiry, added to strong inclination for scientific investigation, made -him look to medicine as his profession, and before 1666 we find him -practising as a physician in Oxford. Nevertheless, although known among -his friends as "Doctor Locke," he never graduated in medicine. His -health was uncertain, for he suffered through life from chronic -consumption and asthma. A fortunate event soon withdrew him from the -medical profession. - -Locke early showed an inclination to politics, as well as to theology -and medicine. As early as 1665 he diverged for a short time from medical -pursuits at Oxford, and was engaged as secretary to Sir Walter Vane on -his mission to the Elector of Brandenburg. Soon after his return in 1666 -the incident occurred which determined his career. Lord Ashley, -afterwards first earl of Shaftesbury, had come to Oxford for his health. -Locke was introduced to him by his physician, Dr Thomas. This was the -beginning of a lasting friendship, sustained by common sympathy with -liberty--civil, religious and philosophical. In 1667 Locke moved from -Christ Church to Exeter House, Lord Ashley's London residence, to become -his confidential secretary. Although he retained his studentship at -Christ Church, and occasionally visited Oxford, as well as his patrimony -at Belluton, he found a home and shared fortune with Shaftesbury for -fifteen years. - -Locke's commonplace books throw welcome light on the history of his mind -in early life. A paper on the "Roman Commonwealth" which belongs to this -period, expresses convictions about religious liberty and the relations -of religion to the state that were modified and deepened afterwards; -objections to the sacerdotal conception of Christianity appear in -another article; short work is made of ecclesiastical claims to -infallibility in the interpretation of Scripture in a third; a scheme of -utilitarian ethics, wider than that of Hobbes, is suggested in a fourth. -The most significant of those early revelations is the _Essay concerning -Toleration_ (1666), which anticipates conclusions more fully argued -nearly thirty years later. - -The Shaftesbury connexion must have helped to save Locke from those -idols of the "Den" to which professional life and narrow experience is -exposed. It brought him into contact with public men, the springs of -political action and the duties of high office. The place he held as -Shaftesbury's adviser is indeed the outstanding circumstance in his -middle life. Exeter House afforded every opportunity for society. He -became intimate among others with the illustrious Sydenham; he joined -the Royal Society and served on its council. The foundation of the -monumental work of his life was laid when he was at Exeter House. He was -led to it in this way. It was his habit to encourage informal reunions -of his intimates, to discuss debatable questions in science and -theology. One of these, in the winter of 1670, is historically -memorable. "Five or six friends," he says, met in his rooms and were -discussing "principles of morality and religion. They found themselves -quickly at a stand by the difficulties that arose on every side." Locke -proposed some criticism of the necessary "limits of human understanding" -as likely to open a way out of their difficulties. He undertook to -attempt this, and fancied that what he had to say might find sufficient -space on "one sheet of paper." What was thus "begun by chance, was -continued by entreaty, written by incoherent parcels, and after long -intervals of neglect resumed again as humour and occasions permitted." -At the end of nearly twenty years the issue was given to the world as -Locke's now famous _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_. - -The fall of Shaftesbury in 1675 enabled Locke to escape from English -politics. He found a retreat in France, where he could unite calm -reflection upon the legitimate operations of "human understanding" with -attention to his health. He spent three years partly at Montpellier and -partly in Paris. His journals and commonplace books in these years show -the _Essay_ in preparation. At Paris he met men of science and -letters--Peter Guenellon, the well-known Amsterdam physician; Ole Romer, -the Danish astronomer; Thoynard, the critic; Melchisedech Thevenot, the -traveller; Henri Justel, the jurist; and Francois Bernier, the expositor -of Gassendi. But there is no mention of Malebranche, whose _Recherche de -la verite_ had appeared three years before, nor of Arnauld, the -illustrious rival of Malebranche. - -Locke returned to London in 1679. Reaction against the court party had -restored Shaftesbury to power. Locke resumed his old confidential -relations, now at Thanet House in Aldersgate. A period of often -interrupted leisure for study followed. It was a time of plots and -counterplots, when England seemed on the brink of another civil war. In -the end Shaftesbury was committed to the Tower, tried and acquitted. -More insurrectionary plots followed in the summer of 1682, after which, -suspected at home, the versatile statesman escaped to Holland, and died -at Amsterdam in January 1683. In these two years Locke was much at -Oxford and in Somerset, for the later movements of Shaftesbury did not -commend themselves to him. Yet the government had their eyes upon him. -"John Locke lives a very cunning unintelligible life here," Prideaux -reported from Oxford in 1682. "I may confidently affirm," wrote John -Fell, the dean of Christ Church, to Lord Sunderland, "there is not any -one in the college who has heard him speak a word against, or so much as -censuring, the government; and, although very frequently, both in public -and private, discourses have been purposely introduced to the -disparagement of his master, the earl of Shaftesbury, he could never be -provoked to take any notice, or discover in word or look the least -concern; so that I believe there is not in the world such a master of -taciturnity and passion." Unpublished correspondence with his Somerset -friend, Edward Clarke of Chipley, describes Locke's life in those -troubled years. It also reveals the opening of his intimate intercourse -with the Cudworth family, who were friends of the Clarkes, and connected -by birth with Somerset. The letters allude to toleration in the state -and comprehension in the church, while they show an indifference to -theological dogma hardly consistent with an exclusive connexion with any -sect. - -In his fifty-second year, in the gloomy autumn of 1683, Locke retired to -Holland, then the asylum of eminent persons who were elsewhere denied -liberty of thought. Descartes and Spinoza had speculated there; it had -been the home of Erasmus and Grotius; it was now the refuge of Bayle. -Locke spent more than five years there; but his (unpublished) letters -show that exile sat heavily upon him. Amsterdam was his first Dutch -home, where he lived in the house of Dr Keen, under the assumed name of -Dr Van der Linden. For a time he was in danger of arrest at the instance -of the English government. After months of concealment he escaped; but -he was deprived of his studentship at Christ Church by order of the -king, and Oxford was thus closed against him. Holland introduced him to -new friends. The chief of these was Limborch, the successor of -Episcopius as Remonstrant professor of theology, lucid, learned and -tolerant, the friend of Cudworth, Whichcote and More. By Limborch he was -introduced to Le Clerc, the youthful representative of letters and -philosophy in Limborch's college, who had escaped from Geneva and -Calvinism to the milder atmosphere of Holland and the Remonstrants. The -_Bibliotheque universelle_ of Le Clerc was then the chief organ in -Europe of men of letters. Locke contributed several articles. It was his -first appearance as an author, although he was now fifty-four years of -age. This tardiness in authorship is a significant fact in his life, in -harmony with his tempered wisdom. - -In the next fourteen years the world received through his books the -thoughts which had been gradually forming, and were taking final shape -while he was in Holland. The _Essay_ was finished there, and a French -epitome appeared in 1688 in Le Clerc's journal, the forecast of the -larger work. Locke was then at Rotterdam, where he lived for a year in -the house of a Quaker friend, Benjamin Furley, or Furly, a wealthy -merchant and lover of books. At Rotterdam he was a confidant of -political exiles, including Burnet and the famous earl of Peterborough, -and he became known to William, prince of Orange. William landed in -England in November 1688; Locke followed in February 1689, in the ship -which carried the princess Mary. - -After his return to England in 1689 Locke emerged through authorship -into European fame. Within a month after he reached London he had -declined an offer of the embassy to Brandenburg, and accepted the modest -office of commissioner of appeals. The two following years, during which -he lived at Dorset Court in London, were memorable for the publication -of his two chief works on social polity, and of the epoch-making book on -modern philosophy which reveals the main principles of his life. The -earliest of these to appear was his defence of religious liberty, in the -_Epistola de Tolerantia_, addressed to Limborch, published at Gouda in -the spring of 1689, and translated into English in autumn by William -Popple, a Unitarian merchant in London. _Two Treatises on Government_, -in defence of the right of ultimate sovereignty in the people, followed -a few months later. The famous _Essay concerning Human Understanding_ -saw the light in the spring of 1690. He received L30 for the copyright, -nearly the same as Kant got in 1781 for his _Kritik der reinen -Vernunft_. In the _Essay_ Locke was the critic of the empirical data of -human experience: Kant, as the critic of the intellectual and moral -presuppositions of experience, supplied the complement to the incomplete -and ambiguous answer to its own leading question that was given in -Locke's _Essay_. The _Essay_ was the first book in which its author's -name appeared, for the _Epistola de Tolerantia_ and the _Treatises on -Government_ were anonymous. - -Locke's asthma was aggravated by the air of London; and the course of -public affairs disappointed him, for the settlement at the Revolution -fell short of his ideal. In spring, 1691, he took up his residence in -the manor house of Otes in Essex, the country seat of Sir Francis -Masham, between Ongar and Harlow. Lady Masham was the accomplished -daughter of Ralph Cudworth, and was his friend before he went to -Holland. She told Le Clerc that after Locke's return from exile, "by -some considerably long visits, he had made trial of the air of Otes, -which is some 20 m. from London, and he thought that none would be so -suitable for him. His company," she adds, "could not but be very -desirable for us, and he had all the assurances we could give him of -being always welcome; but, to make him easy in living with us, it was -necessary he should do so on his own terms, which Sir Francis at last -assenting to, he then believed himself at home with us, and resolved, if -it pleased God, here to end his days as he did." At Otes he enjoyed for -fourteen years as much domestic peace and literary leisure as was -consistent with broken health, and sometimes anxious visits to London on -public affairs, in which he was still an active adviser. Otes was in -every way his home. In his letters and otherwise we have pleasant -pictures of its inmates and domestic life and the occasional visits of -his friends, among others Lord Peterborough, Lord Shaftesbury of the -_Characteristics_, Sir Isaac Newton, William Molyneux and Anthony -Collins. - -At Otes he was busy with his pen. The _Letter on Toleration_ involved -him in controversy. An _Answer_ by Jonas Proast of Queen's College, -Oxford, had drawn forth in 1690 a _Second Letter_. A rejoinder in 1691 -was followed by Locke's elaborate _Third Letter on Toleration_ in the -summer of the following year. In 1691 currency and finance were much in -his thoughts, and in the following year he addressed an important letter -to Sir John Somers on the _Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and -Raising the Value of Money_. When he was in Holland he had written -letters to his friend Clarke of Chipley about the education of his -children. These letters formed the substance of the little volume -entitled _Thoughts on Education_ (1693), which still holds its place -among classics in that department. Nor were the "principles of revealed -religion" forgotten. The subtle theological controversies of the 17th -century made him anxious to show how simple after all fundamental -Christianity is. In the _Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in -the Scriptures_ (anonymous, 1695), Locke sought to separate the divine -essence of Christ's religion from later accretions of dogma, and from -reasonings due to oversight of the necessary limits of human thought. -This intended Eirenicon involved him in controversies that lasted for -years. Angry polemics assailed the book. A certain John Edwards was -conspicuous. Locke's _Vindication_, followed by a _Second Vindication_ -in 1697, added fuel to this fire. Above all, the great _Essay_ was -assailed and often misinterpreted by philosophers and divines. Notes of -opposition had been heard almost as soon as it appeared. John Norris, -the metaphysical rector of Bemerton and English disciple of Malebranche, -criticized it in 1690. Locke took no notice at the time, but his second -winter at Otes was partly employed in _An Examination of Malebranche's -Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_, and in _Remarks upon some of Mr -Norris's Books_, tracts which throw light upon his own ambiguous theory -of perception through the senses. These were published after his death. -A second edition of the _Essay_, with a chapter added on "Personal -Identity," and numerous alterations in the chapter on "Power," appeared -in 1694. The third, which was only a reprint, was published in 1695. -Wynne's well-known abridgment helped to make the book known in Oxford, -and his friend William Molyneux introduced it in Dublin. In 1695 a -revival of controversy about the currency diverted Locke's attention. -Events in that year occasioned his _Observations on Silver Money_ and -_Further Considerations on Raising the Value of Money_. - -In 1696 Locke was induced to accept a commissionership on the Board of -Trade. This required frequent visits to London. Meantime the _Essay on -Human Understanding_ and the _Reasonableness of Christianity_ were -becoming more involved in a wordy warfare between dogmatists and -latitudinarians, trinitarians and unitarians. The controversy with -Edwards was followed by a more memorable one with Stillingfleet, bishop -of Worcester. John Toland, in his _Christianity not Mysterious_, had -exaggerated doctrines in the _Essay_, and then adopted them as his own. -In the autumn of 1696, Stillingfleet, an argumentative ecclesiastic more -than a religious philosopher, in his _Vindication of the Doctrine of the -Trinity_, charged Locke with disallowing mystery in human knowledge, -especially in his account of the metaphysical idea of "substance." Locke -replied in January 1697. Stillingfleet's rejoinder appeared in May, -followed by a _Second Letter_ from Locke in August, to which the bishop -replied in the following year. Locke's _Third Letter_, in which the -ramifications of this controversy are pursued with a copious expenditure -of acute reasoning and polished irony, was delayed till 1699, in which -year Stillingfleet died. Other critics of the _Essay_ entered the lists. -One of the ablest was John Sergeant, a priest of the Roman Church, in -_Solid Philosophy Asserted Against the Fancies of the Ideists_ (1697). -He was followed by Thomas Burnet and Dean Sherlock. Henry Lee, rector of -Tichmarch, criticized the _Essay_, chapter by chapter in a folio volume -entitled _Anti-Scepticism_ (1702); John Broughton dealt another blow in -his _Psychologia_ (1703); and John Norris returned to the attack, in his -_Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World_ (1701-1704). On the other -hand Locke was defended with vigour by Samuel Bolde, a Dorsetshire -clergyman. The _Essay_ itself was meanwhile spreading over Europe, -impelled by the name of its author as the chief philosophical defender -of civil and religious liberty. The fourth edition (the last while Locke -was alive) appeared in 1700, with important additional chapters on -"Association of Ideas" and "Enthusiasm." What was originally meant to -form another chapter was withheld. It appeared among Locke's posthumous -writings as _The Conduct of the Understanding_, one of the most -characteristic of his works. The French translation of the _Essay_ by -Pierre Coste, Locke's amanuensis at Otes, was issued almost -simultaneously with the fourth edition. The Latin version by Richard -Burridge of Dublin followed a year after, reprinted in due time at -Amsterdam and at Leipzig. - -In 1700 Locke resigned his commission at the Board of Trade, and devoted -himself to Biblical studies and religious meditation. The Gospels had -been carefully studied when he was preparing his _Reasonableness of -Christianity_. He now turned to the Epistles of St Paul, and applied the -spirit of the _Essay_ and the ordinary rules of critical interpretation -to a literature which he venerated as infallible, like the pious -Puritans who surrounded his youth. The work was ready when he died, and -was published two years after. A tract on _Miracles_, written in 1702, -also appeared posthumously. Fresh adverse criticism of the _Essay_ was -reported to him in his last year, and the book was formally condemned by -the authorities at Oxford. "I take what has been done rather as a -recommendation of the book," he wrote to his young friend Anthony -Collins, "and when you and I next meet we shall be merry on the -subject." One attack only moved him. In 1704 his adversary, Jonas -Proast, revived their old controversy. Locke in consequence began a -_Fourth Letter on Toleration_. A few pages, ending in an unfinished -paragraph, exhausted his remaining strength; but the theme which had -employed him at Oxford more than forty years before, and had been a -ruling idea throughout the long interval, was still dominant in the last -days of his life. - -All the summer of 1704 he continued to decline, tenderly nursed by Lady -Masham and her step-daughter Esther. On the 28th of October he died, -according to his last recorded words, "in perfect charity with all men, -and in sincere communion with the whole church of Christ, by whatever -names Christ's followers call themselves." His grave is on the south -side of the parish church of High Laver, in which he often worshipped, -near the tombs of the Mashams, and of Damaris, the widow of Cudworth. At -the distance of 1 m. are the garden and park where the manor house of -Otes once stood. - -Locke's writings have made his intellectual and moral features familiar. -The reasonableness of taking probability as our guide in life was in the -essence of his philosophy. The desire to see for himself what is true in -the light of reasonable evidence, and that others should do the same, -was his ruling passion, if the term can be applied to one so calm and -judicial. "I can no more know anything by another man's understanding," -he would say, "than I can see by another man's eyes." This repugnance to -believe blindly what rested on arbitrary authority, as distinguished -from what was seen to be sustained by self-evident reason, or by -demonstration, or by good probable evidence, runs through his life. He -is typically English in his reverence for facts, whether facts of sense -or of living consciousness, in his aversion from abstract speculation -and verbal reasoning, in his suspicion of mysticism, in his calm -reasonableness, and in his ready submission to truth, even when truth -was incapable of being fully reduced to system by man. The delight he -took in exercising reason in regard to everything he did was what his -friend Pierre Coste remarked in Locke's daily life at Otes. "He went -about the most trifling things always with some good reason." Above all -things he loved order; and he had got the way of observing it in -everything with wonderful exactness. As he always kept the useful in his -eye in all his disquisitions, he esteemed the employments of men only in -proportion to the good they were capable of producing; for which cause -he had no great value for the critics who waste their lives in composing -words and phrases in coming to the choice of a various reading, in a -passage that has after all nothing important in it. He cared yet less -for those professed disputants, who, being taken up with the desire of -coming off with victory, justify themselves behind the ambiguity of a -word, to give their adversaries the more trouble. And whenever he had to -deal with this sort of folks, if he did not beforehand take a strong -resolution of keeping his temper, he quickly fell into a passion; for he -was naturally choleric, but his anger never lasted long. If he retained -any resentment it was against himself, for having given way to so -ridiculous a passion; which, as he used to say, "may do a great deal of -harm, but never yet did anyone the least good." Large, "round-about" -common sense, intellectual strength directed by a virtuous purpose, not -subtle or daring speculation sustained by an idealizing faculty, in -which he was deficient, is what we find in Locke. Defect in speculative -imagination appears when he encounters the vast and complex final -problem of the universe in its organic unity. - -Locke is apt to be forgotten now, because in his own generation he so -well discharged the intellectual mission of initiating criticism of -human knowledge, and of diffusing the spirit of free inquiry and -universal toleration which has since profoundly affected the civilized -world. He has not bequeathed an imposing system, hardly even a striking -discovery in metaphysics, but he is a signal example in the Anglo-Saxon -world of the love of attainable truth for the sake of truth and -goodness. "If Locke made few discoveries, Socrates made none." But both -are memorable in the record of human progress. - - In the inscription on his tomb, prepared by himself, Locke refers to - his books as a true representation of what he was. They are concerned - with _Social Economy_, _Christianity_, _Education_ and _Philosophy_, - besides _Miscellaneous_ writings. - - I. SOCIAL ECONOMY.--(1) _Epistola de Tolerantia_ (1689, translated - into English in the same year). (2) _Two Treatises on Government_ - (1690) (the _Patriarcha_ of Filmer, to which the _First Treatise_ was - a reply, appeared in 1680). (3) _A Second Letter concerning - Toleration_ (1690). (4) _Some Considerations on the Consequence of - Lowering the Rate of Interest and Raising the Value of Money_ (1691). - (5) _A Third Letter for Toleration_ (1692). (6) _Short Observations on - a printed paper entitled, "For encouraging the Coining of Silver Money - in England, and after for Keeping it here"_ (1695). (7) _Further - Considerations concerning Raising the Value of Money_ (1695) - (occasioned by a _Report_ containing an "Essay for the Amendment of - Silver Coins," published that year by William Lowndes, secretary for - the Treasury). (8) _A Fourth Letter for Toleration_ (1706, - posthumous). - - II. CHRISTIANITY.--(1) _The Reasonableness of Christianity as - delivered in the Scriptures_ (1695). (2) _A Vindication of the - Reasonableness of Christianity from Mr Edwards's Reflections_ (1695). - (3) _A Second Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity_ - (1697). (4) _A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St Paul to the - Galatians, First and Second Corinthians, Romans and Ephesians. To - which is prefixed an Essay for the understanding of St Paul's Epistles - by consulting St Paul himself_ (1705-1707, posthumous). (5) _A - Discourse of Miracles_ (1716, posthumous). - - III. EDUCATION.--(1) _Some Thoughts concerning Education_ (1693). (2) - _The Conduct of the Understanding_ (1706, posthumous). (3) _Some - Thoughts concerning Reading and Study for a Gentleman_ (1706, - posthumous). (4) _Instructions for the Conduct of a Young Gentleman_ - (1706, posthumous). (5) _Of Study_ (written in France in Locke's - journal, and published in L. King's _Life of Locke_ in 1830). - - IV. PHILOSOPHY.--(1) _An Essay concerning Human Understanding_, in - four books (1690). (2) _A Letter to the Bishop of Worcester concerning - some passages relating to Mr Locke's Essay of Human Understanding in a - late Discourse of his Lordship's in Vindication of the Trinity_ - (1697). (3) _Mr Locke's Reply to the Bishop of Worcester's Answer to - his Letter_ (1697). (4) _Mr Locke's Reply to the Bishop of Worcester's - Answer to his Second Letter_ (1699). (5) _An Examination of Father - Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_ (1706, posthumous). - (6) _Remarks upon Some of Mr Norris's Books, wherein he asserts Father - Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_ (1720, posthumous). - - MISCELLANEOUS.--(1) _A New Method of a Common Place Book_ (1686). This - was Locke's first article in the _Bibliotheque_ of Le Clerc; his other - contributions to it are uncertain, except the _Epitome of the Essay_, - (in 1688). (2) _The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina_ (prepared - in 1673 when Locke was Lord Shaftesbury's secretary at Exeter House, - remarkable for recognition of the principle of toleration, published - in 1706, in the posthumous collection). (3) _Memoirs relating to the - Life of Anthony, First Earl of Shaftesbury_ (1706). (4) _Elements of - Natural Philosophy_ (1706). (5) _Observations upon the Growth and - Culture of Vines and Olives_ (1706). (6) _Rules of a Society which met - once a Week, for their improvement in Useful Knowledge, and for the - Promotion of Truth and Christian Charity_ (1706). (7) _A Letter from a - Person of Quality to his Friend in the Country_, published in 1875 - (included by Des Maizeaux in his _Collection of Several Pieces of Mr - John Locke's_, 1720), and soon afterwards burned by the common hangman - by orders from the House of Lords, was disavowed by Locke himself. It - may have been dictated by Shaftesbury. There are also miscellaneous - writings of Locke first published in the biographies of Lord King - (1830) and of Mr Fox Bourne (1876). - - _Letters_ from Locke to Thoynard, Limborch, Le Clerc, Guenellon, - Molyneux, Collins, Sir Isaac Newton, the first and the third Lord - Shaftesbury, Lords Peterborough and Pembroke, Clarke of Chipley and - others are preserved, many of them unpublished, most of them in the - keeping of Lord Lovelace at Horseley Towers, and of Mr Sanford at - Nynehead in Somerset, or in the British Museum. They express the - gracious courtesy and playful humour which were natural to him, and - his varied interests in human life. - - I. _Social Economy._--It has been truly said that all Locke's - writings, even the _Essay on Human Understanding_ itself, were - occasional, and "intended directly to counteract the enemies of reason - and freedom in his own age." This appears in his works on social - polity, written at a time when the principles of democracy and - toleration were struggling with divine right of kings, and when "the - popular assertors of public liberty were the greatest engrossers of it - too." "The state" with Locke was the deliberate outcome of free - contract rather than a natural growth or organism. That the people, in - the exercise of their sovereignty, have the right to govern themselves - in the way they judge to be for the common good; and that civil - government, whatever form it assumes, has no right to interfere with - religious beliefs that are not inconsistent with civil society, is at - the foundation of his political philosophy. He rested this sovereignty - on virtual mutual contract on the part of the people themselves to be - so governed. But the terms of the contract might be modified by the - sovereign people themselves, from time to time, in accommodation to - changing circumstances. He saw that things in this world were in a - constant flux, so that no society could remain long in the same state, - and that "the grossest absurdities" must be the issue of "following - custom when reason has left the custom." He was always disposed to - liberal ecclesiastical concessions for the sake of peace, and he - recommended harmonious co-operation with the civil magistrate in all - matters of worship and government that were not expressly determined - by Scripture. - - - The social contract. - - The attack on Sir Robert Filmer in Locke's _First Treatise on - Government_ was an anachronism. The democratic principle argued for in - the _Second Treatise_, while in advance of the practice of his age, - was in parts anticipated by Aquinas and Bodin, as well as by Grotius - and Hooker. Its guiding principle is, that civil rulers hold their - power not absolutely but conditionally, government being essentially a - moral trust, forfeited if the conditions are not fulfilled by the - trustees. This presupposes an original and necessary law of nature or - reason, as insisted on by Hooker. But it points to the constitution of - civil society in the abstract rather than to the actual origin of - government as a matter of fact and past history. There is no - historical proof that power was formally entrusted to rulers by the - conscious and deliberate action of the ruled. Indeed Locke seems to - allow that the consent was at first tacit, and by anterior law of - nature conditional on the beneficial purpose of the trust being - realized. His _Treatises on Government_ were meant to vindicate the - Convention parliament and the English revolution, as well as to refute - the ideas of absolute monarchy held by Hobbes and Filmer. They are - classics in the library of English constitutional law and polity. - - - Religious Toleration. - - Locke's philosophical defence of religious liberty in the four - _Letters of Toleration_ is the most far-reaching of his contributions - to social polity. He had a more modest estimate of human resources for - forming true judgments in religion, and a less pronounced opinion of - the immorality of religious error, than either the Catholic or the - Puritan. The toleration which he spent his life in arguing for - involved a change from the authoritative and absolute to the relative - point of view, as regards man's means of knowledge and belief. It was - a protest against those who in theology "peremptorily require - demonstration and demand certainty where probability only is to be - had." The practice of universal toleration amidst increasing religious - differences was an application of the conception of human - understanding which governs his _Essay_. Once a paradox it is now - commonplace, and the superabundant argument in the _Letters on - Toleration_ fatigues the modern reader. The change is due more to - Locke himself than to anyone else. Free thought and liberty of - conscience had indeed been pleaded for, on various grounds, in the - century in which he lived. Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Glanvill and - other philosophical thinkers in the Church of England urged toleration - in the state, in conjunction with wide comprehension in the church, on - the ground of our necessary intellectual limitation and inability to - reach demonstration in theological debates. Puritans like Owen and - Goodwin, whose idea of ecclesiastical comprehension was dogmatic and - narrow, were ready to accept sectarian variety, because it was their - duty to allow many religions in the nation, but only one form of - theology within their own sect. The existence of separate - nationalities, on the other hand, was the justification of national - churches according to the latitudinarian churchmen with whom Locke - associated: a national church comprehensive in creed, and thus - co-extensive with the nation was their ideal. Locke went far to unite - in a higher principle elements in the broad Anglican and the Puritan - theories, while he recognized the individual liberty of thought which - distinguishes the national church of England. A constant sense of the - limits of human understanding was at the bottom of his arguments for - tolerance. He had no objection to a national establishment of - religion, provided that it was comprehensive enough, and was really - the nation organized to promote goodness; not to protect the - metaphysical subtleties of sectarian theologians. The recall of the - national religion to the simplicity of the gospels would, he hoped, - make toleration of nonconformists unnecessary, as few would then - remain. To the atheist alone Locke refuses full toleration, on the - ground that social obligation can have no hold over him, for "the - taking away of God dissolves all." He argued, too, against full - toleration of the Church of Rome in England, on the ground of its - unnational allegiance to a foreign sovereign. The unfitness of - persecution as a means of propagating truth is copiously insisted on - by Locke. Persecution can only transform a man into a hypocrite; - belief is legitimately formed only by discernment of sufficient - evidence; apart from evidence, a man has no right to control the - understanding; he cannot determine arbitrarily what his neighbours - must believe. Thus Locke's pleas for religious toleration resolve at - last into his philosophical view of the foundation and limits of human - knowledge. - - II. _The Reasonableness of Christianity._--The principles that - governed Locke's social polity largely determined his attitude to - Christianity. His "latitudinarianism" was the result of extraordinary - reverence for truth, and a perception that knowledge may be sufficient - for the purposes of human life while it falls infinitely short of - speculative completeness. He never loses sight of essential - reasonableness as the only ground on which Christian faith can - ultimately rest. But Locke accepted Holy Scripture as infallible with - the reverence of a Puritan. "It has God for its author, salvation for - its end, and truth without any mixture of error for its matter." Yet - he did not, like many Puritans, mean Scripture as interpreted by - himself or by his sect. And faith in its infallibility was combined in - Locke with deep distrust in "enthusiasm." This predisposed him to - regard physical miracles as the solid criterion for distinguishing - reasonable religious conviction from "inclinations, fancies and strong - assurances." Assent in religion as in everything else he could justify - only on the ground of its harmony with reason; professed "illumination - without search, and certainty without proof" was to him a sign of - absence of the divine spirit in the professor. Confidence that we are - right, he would say, is in itself no proof that we are right: when God - asks assent to the truth of a proposition in religion, he either shows - us its intrinsic rationality by ordinary means, or he offers - miraculous proof of the reality of which we need reasonable evidence. - But we must know what we mean by miracle. Reasonableness, in short, - must always at last be our guide. His own faith in Christianity rested - on its moral excellence when it is received in its primitive - simplicity, combined with the miracles which accompanied its original - promulgation. But "even for those books which have the attestation of - miracles to confirm their being from God, the miracles," he says, "are - to be judged by the doctrine, and not the doctrine by the miracles." - Miracles alone cannot vindicate the divinity of immoral doctrine. - Locke's _Reasonableness of Christianity_ was an attempt to recall - religion from the crude speculations of theological sects, destructive - of peace among Christians, to its original simplicity; but this is apt - to conceal its transcendent mystery. Those who practically acknowledge - the supremacy of Jesus as Messiah accept all that is essential to the - Christianity of Locke. His own Christian belief, sincere and earnest, - was more the outcome of the common sense which, largely through him, - moulded the prudential theology of England in the 18th century, than - of the nobler elements present in More, Cudworth and other religious - thinkers of the preceding age, or afterwards in Law and Berkeley, - Coleridge and Schleiermacher. - - III. _Education._--Locke has his place among classic writers on the - theory and art of Education. His contribution may be taken as either - an introduction to or an application of the _Essay on Human - Understanding_. In the _Thoughts on Education_ imaginative sentiment - is never allowed to weigh against utility; information is subordinate - to the formation of useful character; the part which habit plays in - individuals is always kept in view; the dependence of intelligence and - character, which it is the purpose of education to improve, upon - health of body is steadily inculcated; to make children happy in - undergoing education is a favourite precept; accumulating facts - without exercising thought, and without accustoming the youthful mind - to look for evidence, is always referred to as a cardinal vice. Wisdom - more than much learning is what he requires in the teacher. In - instruction he gives the first place to "that which may direct us to - heaven," and the second to "the study of prudence, or discreet - conduct, and management of ourselves in the several occurrences of our - lives, which most assists our quiet prosperous passage through this - present life." The infinity of real existence, in contrast with the - necessary finitude of human understanding and experience, is always in - his thoughts. This "disproportionateness" between the human mind and - the universe of reality imposes deliberation in the selection of - studies, and disregard for those which lie out of the way of a wise - man. Knowledge of what other men have thought is perhaps of too little - account with Locke. "It is an idle and useless thing to make it one's - business to study what have been other men's sentiments in matters - where only reason is to be judge." In his _Conduct of the - Understanding_ the pupil is invited to occupy the point at which "a - full view of all that relates to a question" is to be had, and at - which alone a rational discernment of truth is possible. The - uneducated mass of mankind, he complains, either "seldom reason at - all," or "put passion in the place of reason," or "for want of large, - sound, round-about sense" they direct their minds only to one part of - the evidence, "converse with one sort of men, read but one sort of - books, and will not come in the hearing of but one sort of notions, - and so carve out to themselves a little Goshen in the intellectual - world, where light shines, and, as they conclude, day blesses them; - but the rest of the vast expansion they give up to night and darkness, - and avoid coming near it." Hasty judgment, bias, absence of an a - priori "indifference" to what the evidence may in the end require us - to conclude, undue regard for authority, excessive love for custom and - antiquity, indolence and sceptical despair are among the states of - mind marked by him as most apt to interfere with the formation of - beliefs in harmony with the Universal Reason that is active in the - universe. - - IV. _Philosophy._--The _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_ embodies - Locke's philosophy. It was the first attempt on a great scale, and in - the Baconian spirit, to estimate critically the certainty and the - adequacy of human knowledge, when confronted with God and the - universe. - - The "Introduction" to the _Essay_ is the keynote to the whole. The - ill-fortune of men in their past endeavours to comprehend themselves - and their environment is attributed in a great measure to their - disposition to extend their inquiries into matters beyond the reach of - human understanding. To inquire with critical care into "the original, - certainty and extent of human knowledge, together with the grounds and - degrees of belief, opinion and assent," is accordingly Locke's design - in this _Essay_. Excluding from his enquiry "the physical - consideration of the mind," he sought to make a faithful report, based - on an introspective study of consciousness, as to how far a human - understanding of the universe can reach. Although his report might - show that our knowledge at its highest must be far short of a - "universal or perfect comprehension of whatsoever is," it might still - be "sufficient" for us, because "suited to our individual state." The - "light of reason," the "candle of the Lord," that is set up in us may - be found to shine bright enough for all _our_ purposes. If human - understanding cannot fully solve the infinite problem of the universe, - man may at least see that at no stage of his finite experience is he - necessarily the sport of chance, and that he can practically secure - his own wellbeing. - - The last book of the _Essay_, which treats of Knowledge and - Probability, is concerned more directly than the three preceding ones - with Locke's professed design. It has been suggested that Locke may - have begun with this book. It contains few references to the foregoing - parts of the _Essay_, and it might have appeared separately without - being much less intelligible than it is. The other books, concerned - chiefly with ideas and words, are more abstract, and may have opened - gradually on his mind as he studied more closely the subject treated - in the fourth book. For Locke saw that the ultimate questions about - our knowledge and its extent _presuppose_ questions about ideas. - Without ideas knowledge is impossible. "Idea" is thus a leading term - in the _Essay_. It is used in a way peculiar to himself--"the term - which, I think, stands best for whatsoever is the object of the - understanding when a man thinks" or "whatever it is which the mind can - be employed about." But ideas themselves are, he reminds us, "neither - true nor false, being nothing but bare appearances," phenomena as we - might call them. Truth and falsehood belong only to assertions or - denials concerning ideas, that is, to our interpretations of our ideas - according to their mutual relations. - - - Innate ideas. - - That none of our ideas are "innate" is the argument contained in the - first book. This means that the human mind, before any ideas are - present to it, is a _tabula rasa_: it needs the quickening of ideas to - become intellectually alive. The inward purpose of this famous - argument is apt to be overlooked. It has been criticized as if it was - a speculative controversy between empiricism and intellectualism. For - this Locke himself is partly to blame. It is not easy to determine the - antagonist he had in view. Lord Herbert is referred to as a defender - of innateness. Locke was perhaps too little read in the literature of - philosophy to do full justice to those more subtle thinkers who, from - Plato downwards, have recognized the need for categories of the - understanding and presuppositions of reason in the constitution of - knowledge. "Innate," Lord Shaftesbury says, "is a word Mr Locke poorly - plays on." For the real question is not about the _time_ when ideas - entered the mind, but "whether the constitution of man be such that, - being adult and grown up, the ideas of order and administration of a - God will not infallibly and necessarily spring up in him." This Locke - himself sometimes seems to allow. "That there are certain - propositions," we find him saying, "which, though the soul from the - beginning, or when a man is born, does not know, yet, by assistance - from the outward senses, and the help of some previous cultivation, it - may afterwards come certainly to know the truth of, is no more than - what I have affirmed in my first book" ("Epistle to Reader," in second - edition). And much of our knowledge, as he shows in the fourth book, - is rational insight, immediate or else demonstrable, and thus - intellectually necessary in its constitution. - - What Locke really objects to is, that any of our supposed knowledge - should claim immunity from free criticism. He argues in the first book - against the innateness of our knowledge of God and of morality; yet in - the fourth book he finds that the existence of God is demonstrable, - being supported by causal necessity, without which there can be no - knowledge; and he also maintains that morality is as demonstrable as - pure mathematics. The positions are not inconsistent. The demonstrable - rational necessity, instead of being innate, or conscious from our - birth, may lie latent or subconscious in the individual mind; but for - all that, when we gradually become more awake intellectually, such - truths are seen to "carry their own evidence along with them." Even in - the first book he appeals to the common reason, which he calls "common - sense." "He would be thought void of common sense who asked, on the - one side, or, on the other, went to give a reason, _why_ 'it is - impossible for the same thing to be and not to be.' It carries its own - light and evidence with it, and needs no other proof: he that - understands the terms assents to it for its own sake, or else nothing - else will ever be able to prevail with him to do it" (bk. i. chap. 3, - S 4). - - The truth is that neither Locke, on the one hand, nor the - intellectualists of the 17th century, on the other, expressed their - meaning with enough of precision; if they had, Locke's argument would - probably have taken a form less open to the charge of mere empiricism. - Locke believed that in attacking "innate principles" he was pleading - for universal reasonableness instead of blind reliance on authority, - and was thus, as he says, not "pulling up the foundations of - knowledge," but "laying those foundations surer." When men heard that - there were propositions that could not be doubted, it was a short and - easy way to assume that what are only arbitrary prejudices are - "innate" certainties, and therefore must be accepted unconditionally. - This "eased the lazy from the pains of search, stopped the inquiry of - the doubtful, concerning all that was once styled innate. It was no - small advantage to those who affected to be masters and teachers to - make this the principle of principles--that principles must not be - questioned." The assumption that they were "innate" was enough "to - take men off the use of their own reason and judgment, and to put them - upon believing and taking upon trust without further examination.... - Nor is it a small power it gives one man over another to have the - authority to make a man swallow that for an innate principle which may - serve his purpose who teacheth them" (bk. i. chap. 4, S 24). - - - Genesis of ideas. - - The second book proposes a hypothesis regarding the genesis of our - ideas and closes after an elaborate endeavour to verify it. The - hypothesis is, that all human ideas, even the most complex and - abstract and sublime, ultimately depend upon "experience." Otherwise, - what we take to be ideas are only empty words. Here the important - point is what human "experience" involves. Locke says that our "ideas" - all come, either from the five senses or from reflective - consciousness; and he proposes to show that even those concerned with - the Infinite depend at last on one or other of these two sources: our - "complex ideas" are all made up of "simple ideas," either from without - or from within. The "verification" of this hypothesis, offered in the - thirteenth and following chapters of the second book, goes to show in - detail that even those ideas which are "most abstruse," how remote - soever they may seem from original data of outward sense, or of inner - consciousness, "are only such as the understanding frames to itself by - repeating and joining together simple ideas that it had at first, - either from perceiving objects of sense, or from reflection upon its - own operations." - - To prove this, our thoughts of space, time, infinity, power, - substance, personal identity, causality, and others which "seem most - remote from the supposed original" are examined in a "plain historical - method," and shown to depend either on (a) perception of things - external, through the five senses, or on (b) reflection upon - operations of the mind within. Reflection, "though it be not sense, as - having nothing to do with external objects," is yet, he says, "very - like it, and might properly enough be called internal sense." But the - suggestion that "sense" might designate _both_ the springs of - experience is misleading, when we find in the sequel how much Locke - tacitly credits "reflection" with. The ambiguity of his language makes - opposite interpretations of this cardinal part of the Essay possible; - the best we can do is to compare one part with another, and in - doubtful cases to give him the benefit of the doubt. - - Although the second book is a sort of inventory of our ideas, as - distinguished from the certainty and boundaries of our knowledge, - Locke even here makes the assumption that the "simple ideas" of the - five senses are practically qualities of things which exist without - us, and that the mental "operations" discovered by "reflection" are - those of a person continuously existing. He thus relieves himself of - the difficulty of having at the outset to explain _how_ the immediate - data of outward sense and reflection are accepted as "qualities" of - things and persons. He takes this as a fact. - - Such, according to Locke, are the only simple ideas which can appear - even in the sublimest human speculations. But the mind, in becoming - gradually stored with its "simple ideas" is able to elaborate them in - numberless modes and relations; although it is not in the power of the - most exalted wit or enlarged understanding to invent or frame any new - simple idea, not taken in in one or the other of these two ways. All - that man can imagine about the universe or about God is necessarily - confined to them. For proof of this Locke would have any one try to - fancy a taste which had never affected his palate, or to frame the - idea of a scent he had never felt, or an operation of mind, divine or - human, foreign to all human consciousness. - - - Qualities of matter. - - The contrast and correlation of these two data of experience is - suggested in the chapter on the "qualities of matter" in which we are - introduced to a noteworthy vein of speculation (bk. ii. chap. 8). This - chapter, on "things and their qualities," looks like an interpolation - in an analysis of mere "ideas." Locke here treats simple ideas of the - five senses as qualities of outward things. And the sense data are, he - finds, partly (a) revelations of external things themselves in their - mathematical relations, and partly (b) sensations, boundless in - variety, which are somehow awakened in us through contact and - collision with things relatively to their mathematical relations. - Locke calls the former sort "primary, original or essential qualities - of matter," and the others "secondary or derived qualities." The - primary, which are quantities rather than qualities, are inseparable - from matter, and virtually identical with the ideas we have of them. - On the other hand, there is nothing perceived in the mathematical - relations of bodies which in the least resembles their secondary - qualities. If there were no sentient beings in existence, the - secondary qualities would cease to exist, "except perhaps as unknown - modes of the primary, or, if not, as something still more obscure." On - the other hand, "solidity, extension, figure and motion would," he - assumes, "be really in the world as they are, whether there were any - sensible being to perceive them or not." - - - Matter. - - Thus far the outcome of what Locke teaches about matter is, that it is - Something capable of being expressed in terms of mathematical - quantity, and also in terms of our own sensations. A further step was - to suggest the ultimate dependence of the secondary qualities of - bodies upon "the bulk, figures, number, situation and motions of the - solid parts of which the bodies consist," these mathematical or - primary qualities "existing as we think of them whether or not they - are perceived." This Locke proposes in a hesitating way. For we, "not - knowing what particular size, figure and texture of parts they are on - which depend, and from which result, those qualities which make our - complex idea, for example, of gold, it is impossible we should know - what other qualities result from, or are incompatible with, the same - constitution of the insensible parts of gold; and so consequently must - always coexist with that complex idea we have of it, or else are - inconsistent with it." - - Some of the most remarkable chapters in the second book concern what - may be called "crucial instances" in verification of its fundamental - hypothesis of the dependence of human knowledge upon the simple ideas - presented in our dual experience (bk. ii. ch. 13-28). They carry us - towards the ultimate mysteries which attract meditative minds. The - hypothesis, that even our most profound and sublime speculations are - all limited to data of the senses and of reflection, is crucially - tested by the "modes" and "substances" and "relations" under which, in - various degrees of complexity, we somehow find ourselves obliged to - conceive those simple phenomena. Such are modes of quantity in space, - and time and number, under which Locke reports that we find ourselves - mentally impelled towards immensity, eternity and the innumerable--in - a word, towards Infinity which seems to transcend quantity; then there - is the complex thought of Substance, to which we find ourselves - mysteriously impelled, when the simple phenomena of the senses come to - be regarded as qualities of "something"; again there is the obscure - idea of the identity of persons, notwithstanding their constant - changes of state; and there is, above all, the inevitable tendency we - somehow have to refund a change into what we call its "Cause," with - the associated idea of active power. Locke begins with our complex - ideas of Space, Succession or Time, and Number. - - - Immensity and endlessness and infinity. - - Space, he says, appears when we use our senses of sight and touch; - succession he finds "suggested" by all the changing phenomena of - sense, and by "what passes in our minds"; number is "suggested by - every object of our senses, and every thought of our minds, by - everything that either doth exist or can be imagined." The - modifications of which these are susceptible he reports to be - "inexhaustible and truly infinite, extension alone affording a - boundless field to the mathematicians." But the mystery latent in our - ideas of space and time is, that "something in the mind" irresistibly - hinders us from allowing the possibility of any limit to either. We - find ourselves, when we try, compelled to lose our positive ideas of - finite spaces in the negative idea of Immensity or Boundlessness, and - our positive ideas of finite times in the negative thought of - Endlessness. We have never seen, and we cannot imagine, an object - whose extent is boundless. Yet we find when we reflect that something - forces us to think that space and time must be unlimited. Thus Locke - seems by implication to acknowledge something added by the mind to the - original "simple ideas" of extension and succession; though he finds - that what is added is not positively conceivable. When we reflect on - immensity and eternity, we find them negations of all that is - imaginable; and that whether we try infinite addition or infinite - subdivision. He accepts this fact; he does not inquire why mind finds - itself obliged to add without limit and to divide without limit. He - simply reports that immensity and eternity are inevitable negative - ideas, and also that every endeavour to realize them in positive - images must be an attempt to represent as quantity what is beyond - quantity. After all our additions we are as far from the infinite idea - as we were at the beginning. - - - Substance and personality. - - Locke is too faithful to facts to overlook the ultimate mysteries in - human experience. This is further illustrated in his acknowledgment of - the inconceivable that is at the root of our idea of Substance. He - tries to phenomenalize it, and thus resolve it into simple ideas; but - he finds that it cannot be phenomenalized, and yet that we cannot - dispense with it. An unsubstantiated succession of phenomena, without - a centre of unity to which they are referable as qualities, is - unintelligible: we cannot have a language of adjectives without nouns. - Locke had some apprehension of this transcendent intellectual - obligation. According to his report, "the mind" always obliges us to - suppose Something beyond positive phenomena to which the phenomena - must be attributed; but he was perplexed by this "confused negative" - idea. So for him the word substance means "only an uncertain - supposition of we know not what." If one were to ask him what the - substance is in which this colour and that taste or smell inhere, "he - would find himself in a difficulty like that of the Indian, who, after - saying that the world rested on an elephant, and the elephant on a - broad-backed tortoise, could only suppose the tortoise to rest on - 'Something, I know not what.'" The attempt to conceive it is like the - attempt positively to conceive immensity or eternity: we are involved - in an endless, ultimately incomprehensible, regress. We fail when we - try either positively to phenomenalize substance or to dispense with - the superphenomenal abstraction. Our only positive idea is of an - aggregate of phenomena. And it is only thus, he says, that we can - approach a positive conception of God, namely by "enlarging - indefinitely some of the simple ideas we received from reflection." - Why man must remain in this mental predicament, Locke did not inquire. - He only reported the fact. He likewise struggled bravely to be - faithful to fact in his report of the state in which we find ourselves - when we try to conceive continued personal identity. The paradoxes in - which he here gets involved illustrate this (bk. ii. ch. 27). - - - Causality. - - Locke's thoughts about Causality and Active Power are especially - noteworthy, for he rests our knowledge of God and of the external - universe on those ultimate ideas. The intellectual demand for "the - cause" of an event is what we find we cannot help having; yet it is a - demand for what in the end the mind cannot fully grasp. Locke is - content to trace the idea of "cause and effect," as far as mere - natural science goes, to our "constant observation" that "qualities - and finite substances begin to exist, and receive their existence from - other beings which produce them." We find that this connexion is what - gives intelligibility to ceaseless and what seemed chaotic changes, - converting them into the divinely concatenated system which we call - "the universe." Locke seems hardly to realize all that is implied in - scientific prevision or expectation of change. Anything, as far as - "constant observation" tells us, might a priori have been the natural - cause of anything; and no finite number of "observed" sequences, _per - se_, can guarantee universality and necessity. The idea of power, or - _active_ causation, on the other hand, "is got," he acknowledges, not - through the senses, but "through our consciousness of our own - voluntary agency, and therefore through reflection" (bk. ii. ch. 21). - In bodies we observe no active agency, only a sustained natural order - in the succession of passive sensuous phenomena. The true source of - change in the material world must be analogous to what we are - conscious of when we exert volition. Locke here unconsciously - approaches the spiritual view of active power in the physical universe - afterwards taken by Berkeley, forming the constructive principle of - his philosophy. - - - Ideas and words. - - Locke's book about Ideas leads naturally to his Third Book which is - concerned with Words, or the sensible signs of ideas. Here he analyses - "abstract ideas," and instructively illustrates the confusion apt to - be produced in them by the inevitable imperfection of words. He - unfolds the relations between verbal signs and the several sorts of - ideas; words being the means for enabling us to treat ideas as - typical, abstract and general. "Some parts of this third book," - concerning Words, Locke tells his friend Molyneux, "though the - thoughts were easy and clear enough, yet cost me more pains to express - than all the rest of my _Essay_. And therefore I should not much - wonder, if there be in some places of it obscurity and doubtfulness." - - - Theory of knowledge. - - The Fourth Book, about Knowledge proper and Probability, closes the - _Essay_. Knowledge, he says, is perception of relations among ideas; - it is expressed in our affirmations and negations; and real knowledge - is discernment of the relations of ideas to what is real. In the - foregoing part of the _Essay_ he had dealt with "ideas" and "simple - apprehension," here he is concerned with intuitive "judgment" and - demonstrative "reasoning," also with judgments and reasonings about - matters of fact. At the end of this patient search among our ideas, he - supposes the reader apt to complain that he has been "all this while - only building a castle in the air," and to ask what the purpose of all - this stir is, if we are not thereby carried beyond mere ideas. "If it - be true that knowledge lies only in the agreement or disagreement of - ideas, the visions of an enthusiast and the reasonings of a sober man - will be equally certain. It is no matter how things themselves are" - (bk. iv. 4). This gives the keynote to the fourth book. It does not, - however, carry him into a critical analysis of the rational - constitution of knowledge, like Kant. Hume had not yet shown the - sceptical objections against conclusions which Locke accepted without - criticism. The subtle agnostic, who doubted reason because reason - could not be supported in the end by empirical evidence, was less in - his view than persons blindly resting on authority or prejudice. Total - scepticism he would probably have regarded as unworthy of the serious - attention of a wise man. "Where we perceive the agreement or - disagreement of any of our ideas there is certain knowledge; and - wherever we are sure these ideas agree with the reality of things, - there is certain _real_ knowledge" (bk. iv. ch. 4). - - - Four sorts of knowable relations. - - Locke's report about human knowledge and its narrow extent forms the - first thirteen chapters of the fourth book. The remainder of the book - is concerned for the most part with the probabilities on which human - life practically turns, as he and Butler are fond of reminding us. As - regards kinds of knowledge, he finds that "all knowledge we are - capable of" must be assertion or denial of some one of three sorts of - relation among our ideas themselves, or else of relations between our - ideas and reality that exists independently of us and our ideas. - Accordingly, knowledge is concerned either with (a) relations of - identity and difference among ideas, as when we say that "blue is not - yellow"; or (b) with mathematical relations, as that "two triangles - upon equal bases between two parallels must be equal"; or (c) in - assertions that one quality does or does not coexist with another in - the same substance, as that "iron is susceptible of magnetical - impressions, or that ice is not hot"; or (d) with ontological reality, - independent of our perceptions, as that "God exists" or "I exist" or - "the universe exists." The first sort is analytical; mathematical and - ethical knowledge represents the second; physical science forms the - third; real knowledge of self, God and the world constitutes the - fourth. - - - Intuition and demonstration. - - Locke found important differences in the way in which knowledge of any - sort is reached. In some instances the known relation is self-evident, - as when we judge intuitively that a circle cannot be a triangle, or - that three must be more than two. In other cases the known relation is - perceived to be intellectually necessary through the medium of - premisses, as in a mathematical demonstration. All that is strictly - knowledge is reached in these two ways. But there is a third sort, - namely sense-perception, which hardly deserves the name. For "our - perceptions of the particular existence of finite beings without us" - go beyond mere probability, yet they are not purely rational. There is - nothing self-contradictory in the supposition that our perceptions of - things external are illusions, although we are somehow unable to doubt - them. We find ourselves inevitably "conscious of a different sort of - perception," when we actually see the sun by day and when we only - imagine the sun at night. - - Locke next inquired to what extent knowledge--in the way either of - intuitive certainty, demonstrative certainty, or sense perception--is - possible, in regard to each of the four (already mentioned) sorts of - knowable relation. There is only one of the four in which our - knowledge is co-extensive with our ideas. It is that of "identity and - diversity": we cannot be conscious at all without distinguishing, and - every affirmation necessarily implies negation. The second sort of - knowable relation is sometimes intuitively and sometimes demonstrably - discernible. Morality, Locke thinks, as well as mathematical quantity, - is capable of being demonstrated. "Where there is no property there is - no injustice," is an example of a proposition "as certain as any - demonstration in Euclid." Only we are more apt to be biassed, and thus - to leave reason in abeyance, in dealing with questions of morality - than in dealing with problems in mathematics. - - Turning from abstract mathematical and moral relations to concrete - relations of coexistence and succession among phenomena--the third - sort of knowable relation--Locke finds the light of pure reason - disappear; although these relations form "the greatest and most - important part of what we desire to know." Of these, including as they - do all inductive science, he reports that demonstrable knowledge "is - very short, if indeed we have any at all"; and are not thrown wholly - on presumptions of probability, or else left in ignorance. Man cannot - attain perfect and infallible science of bodies. For natural science - depends, he thinks, on knowledge of the relations between their - secondary qualities on the one hand, and the mathematical qualities of - their atoms on the other, or else "on something yet more remote from - our comprehension." Now, as perception of these atoms and their - relations is beyond us, we must be satisfied with inductive - presumptions, for which "experimental verification" affords, after - all, only conclusions that wider experience may prove to be - inadequate. But this moral venture Locke accepts as "sufficient for - our purposes." - - - Real existence. - - Our knowledge under Locke's fourth category of relations--real - existence--includes (a) intuitive perceptions of our own existence; - (b) demonstrable certainty of the existence of God; and (c) actual - perception of the existence of surrounding things, as long as, but - only as long as the things are present to sense. "If I doubt all other - things, that very doubt makes me perceive my own existence, and will - not suffer me to doubt of that" (iv. 9. 3). Faith in the existence of - God is virtually with Locke an expression of faith in the principle of - active causality in its ultimate universality. Each person knows that - he now exists, and is convinced that he had a beginning; with not less - intuitive certainty he knows that "_nothing_ can no more produce any - real being than it can be equal to two right angles." His final - conclusion is that there must be eternally "a most powerful and most - knowing Being, in which, as the origin of all, must be contained all - the perfections that can ever after exist," and out of which can come - only what it has already in itself; so that as the cause of my mind, - it must be Mind. There is thus causal necessity for Eternal Mind, or - what we call "God." This is cautiously qualified thus in a letter to - Anthony Collins, written by Locke a few months before he died: "Though - I call the thinking faculty in me 'mind,' yet I cannot, because of - that name, equal it in anything to that infinite and incomprehensible - Being, which, for want of right and distinct conceptions, is called - 'Mind' also." But the immanence of God in the things and persons that - compose the universal order, with what this implies, is a conception - foreign to Locke, whose habitual conception was of an extra-mundane - deity, the dominant conception in the 18th century. - - - Knowledge of the external world. - - Turning from our knowledge of Spirit to our knowledge of Matter, - nearly all that one can affirm or deny about "things external is," - according to Locke, not knowledge but venture or presumptive trust. We - have, strictly speaking, no "knowledge" of real beings beyond our own - self-conscious existence, the existence of God, and the existence of - objects of sense as long as they are actually present to sense. "When - I see an external object at a distance, a man for instance, I cannot - but be satisfied of his existence while I am looking at him. (Locke - might have added that when one only 'sees a man' it is merely his - _visible_ qualities that are perceived; his other qualities are as - little 'actual present sensations' as if he were out of the range of - sense.) But when the man leaves me alone, I cannot be certain that he - still exists." "There is no necessary connexion between his existence - a minute since (when he was present to any sense of sight) and his - existence now (when he is absent from all my senses); by a thousand - ways he may have ceased to be. I have not that certainty of his - continued existence which we call knowledge; though the great - likelihood of it puts it past doubt. But this is but probability and - not knowledge" (chap. 11, S 9). Accordingly, purely rational science - of external Nature is, according to Locke, impossible. All our - "interpretations of nature" are inadequate; only reasonable - probabilities, not final rational certainties. This boundless region - affords at the best probabilities, ultimately grounded on moral faith, - all beyond lies within the veil. Such is Locke's "plain, - matter-of-fact" account of the knowledge of the Real that is open to - man. - - - The rationale of probability. - - We learn little from Locke as to the rationale of the probabilities on - which man thus depends when he deals with the past, the distant or the - future. The concluding chapters of the fourth book contain wise advice - to those whose lives are passed in an ever-changing environment, for - avoiding the frequent risk of error in their conclusions, with or - without the help of syllogism, the office of which, as a means of - discovery, is here critically considered. - - - Locke and Hume. - - Investigation of the foundation of inductive inference was resumed by - Hume where Locke left it. With a still humbler view of human reason - than Locke's, Hume proposed as "a subject worthy of curiosity," to - inquire into "the nature of that evidence which assures us of any real - existence and matter of fact, _beyond_ the present testimony of our - senses and the records of our memory; a part of philosophy that has - been little cultivated either by the ancients or the moderns." Hume - argues that custom is a sufficient practical explanation of this - gradual enlargement of our objective experience, and that no deeper - explanation is open to man. All beyond each present transitory - "impression" and the stores of memory is therefore reached blindly, - through custom or habitual association. Associative tendency, - individual or inherited, has since been the favourite constructive - factor of human experience in Empirical Philosophy. This factor is not - prominent in Locke's _Essay_. A short chapter on "association of - ideas" was added to the second book in the fourth edition. And the - tendency to associate is there presented, not as the fundamental - factor of human knowledge, but as a chief cause of human error. - - - Locke and Kant. - - Kant's critical analysis of pure reason is more foreign to Locke than - the attempts of 18th- and 19th-century associationists and - evolutionists to explain experience and science. Kant's aim was to - show the necessary rational constitution of experience. Locke's design - was less profound. It was his distinction to present to the modern - world, in his own "historical plain method," perhaps the largest - assortment ever made by any individual of facts characteristic of - human understanding. Criticism of the presuppositions implied in those - facts--by Kant and his successors, and in Britain more unpretentiously - by Reid, all under the stimulus of Hume's sceptical criticism--has - employed philosophers since the author of the _Essay on Human - Understanding_ collected materials that raised deeper philosophical - problems than he tried to solve. Locke's mission was to initiate - modern criticism of the foundation and limits of our knowledge. Hume - negatively, and the German and Scottish schools constructively, - continued what it was Locke's glory to have begun. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Essay concerning Human Understanding_ has passed - through more editions than any classic in modern philosophical - literature. Before the middle of the 18th century it had reached - thirteen, and it has now passed through some forty editions, besides - being translated into Latin, French, Dutch, German and modern Greek. - There are also several abridgments. In addition to those criticisms - which appeared when Locke was alive, among the most important are - Leibnitz's _Nouveaux Essais sur l'entendement humain_--written about - 1700 and published in 1765, in which each chapter of the _Essay_ of - Locke is examined in a corresponding chapter by Leibnitz; Cousin's - "Ecole sensualiste: systeme de Locke," in his _Histoire de la - philosophie au XVIII^e siecle_ (1829); and the criticisms in T. H. - Green's Introduction to the _Philosophical Works of Hume_ (1874). The - _Essay, with Prolegomena, biographical, critical and historical_, - edited by Professor Campbell Fraser and published by the Oxford - Clarendon Press in 1894, is the only annotated edition, unless the - _Nouveaux Essais_ of Leibnitz may be reduced to this category. - - The _Letters on Toleration_, _Thoughts on Education_ and _The_ - _Reasonableness of Christianity_ have also gone through many editions, - and been translated into different languages. - - The first collected edition of Locke's _Works_ was in 1714, in three - folio volumes. The best is that by Bishop Law, in four quartos (1777). - The one most commonly known is in ten volumes (1812). - - The _Eloge_ of Jean le Clerc (_Bibliotheque choisie_, 1705) has been - the basis of the memoirs of Locke prefixed to the successive editions - of his _Works_, or contained in biographical dictionaries. In 1829 a - _Life of Locke_ (2nd ed. in two volumes, with considerable additions, - 1830), was produced by Peter, 7th Baron King, a descendant of Locke's - cousin, Anne Locke. This adds a good deal to what was previously - known, as Lord King was able to draw from the mass of correspondence, - journals and commonplace books of Locke in his possession. In the same - year Dr Thomas Foster published some interesting letters from Locke to - Benjamin Furly. The most copious account of the life is contained in - the two volumes by H. R. Fox-Bourne (1876), the results of laborious - research among the Shaftesbury Papers, Locke MSS. in the British - Museum, the Public Record Office, the Lambeth, Christ Church and - Bodleian libraries, and in the Remonstrants' library at Amsterdam. - Monographs on Locke by T. H. Fowler in 1880, in "English Men of - Letters," and by Fraser, in 1890, in Blackwood's "Philosophical - Classics" may be mentioned; also addresses by Sir F. Pollock and - Fraser at the bicentenary commemoration by the British Academy of - Locke's death, published in the _Proceedings_ of the Academy (1904). - See also C. Bastide, _John Locke; ses theories politiques et leur - influence en Angleterre_ (Paris, 1907); H. Ollion, _La Philosophie - generale de J. L._ (1909). (A. C. F.) - - - - -LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677), English musician, perhaps the earliest -English writer for the stage, was born at Exeter, where he became a -chorister in the cathedral. His music, written with Christopher Gibbons -(son of Orlando Gibbons), for Shirley's masque _Cupid and Death_, was -performed in London in 1653. He wrote some music for Davenant's _Siege -of Rhodes_ in 1656; and in 1661 was appointed composer in ordinary to -Charles II. During the following years he wrote a number of anthems for -the Chapel Royal, and excited some criticism on the score of novelty, to -which he replied with considerable heat (_Modern Church Music; -pre-accused, censured and obstructed in its Performance before His -Majesty, April 1st, 1666, &c._; copies in the Fitzwilliam Museum, -Cambridge, and the Royal College of Music). A good deal of music for the -theatre followed, the most important being for Davenant's productions of -_The Tempest_ (1667) and of _Macbeth_ (1672), but some doubt as to this -latter has arisen, Purcell, Eccles or Leveridge, being also credited -with it. He also composed various songs and instrumental pieces, and -published some curious works on musical theory. He died in August 1677, -an elegy being written by Purcell. - - - - -LOCKERBIE, a municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in -the district of Annandale, 14(1/2) m. E.N.E. of Dumfries by the -Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2358. It has long been famous for its -cattle and sheep sales, but more particularly for the great August lamb -fair, the largest in Scotland, at which as many as 126,000 lambs have -been sold. The town hall and Easton institute are in the Scottish -Baronial style. The police station is partly accommodated in an ancient -square tower, once the stronghold of the Johnstones, for a long period -the ruling family under whose protection the town gradually grew up. At -Dryfe Sands, about 2 m. to the W., a bloody encounter took place in 1593 -between the Johnstones and Maxwells. The Maxwells were pursued into -Lockerbie and almost exterminated; hence "Lockerbie Lick" became a -proverbial expression, signifying an overwhelming defeat. - - - - -LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK (1821-1895), English man of letters, was born, -on the 29th of May 1821, at Greenwich Hospital. His father, who was -Civil Commissioner of the Hospital, was Edward Hawke Locker, youngest -son of that Captain William Locker who gave Nelson the memorable advice -"to lay a Frenchman close, and beat him." His mother, Eleanor Mary -Elizabeth Boucher, was a daughter of the Rev. Jonathan Boucher, vicar of -Epsom and friend of George Washington. After a desultory education, -Frederick Locker began life in a colonial broker's office. Soon -deserting this uncongenial calling, he obtained a clerkship in Somerset -House, whence he was transferred to Lord Haddington's private office at -the Admiralty. Here he became deputy-reader and _precis_ writer. In 1850 -he married Lady Charlotte Bruce, daughter of the Lord Elgin who brought -the famous marbles to England, and sister of Lady Augusta Stanley. After -his marriage he left the Civil Service, in consequence of ill-health. In -1857 he published _London Lyrics_, a slender volume of 90 pages, which, -with subsequent extensions, constitutes his poetical legacy. _Lyra -Elegantiarum_ (1867), an anthology of light and familiar verse, and -_Patchwork_ (1879), a book of extracts, were his only other -publications. In 1872 Lady Charlotte Locker died. Two years later Locker -married Miss Hannah Jane Lampson, the only daughter of Sir Curtis -Miranda Lampson, Bart., of Rowfant, Sussex, and in 1885 took his wife's -surname. At Rowfant he died on the 30th of May 1895. Chronic ill-health -debarred Locker from any active part in life, but it did not prevent his -delighting a wide circle of friends by his gifts as a host and -_raconteur_, and from accumulating many treasures as a connoisseur. His -books are catalogued in the volume called the _Rowfant Library_ (1886), -to which an appendix (1900) was added, after his death, under the -superintendence of his eldest son. As a poet, Locker belongs to the -choir who deal with the gay rather than the grave in verse--with the -polished and witty rather than the lofty or emotional. His good taste -kept him as far from the broadly comic on the one side as his kind heart -saved him from the purely cynical on the other. To something of Prior, -of Praed and of Hood he added qualities of his own which lent his work -distinction--a distinction in no wise diminished by his unwearied -endeavour after directness and simplicity. - - A posthumous volume of Memoirs, entitled _My Confidences_ (1896), and - edited by his son-in-law, Mr Augustine Birrell, gives an interesting - idea of his personality and a too modest estimate of his gifts as a - poet. (A. D.) - - - - -LOCKHART, GEORGE (1673-1731), of Carnwath, Scottish writer and -politician, was a member of a Lanarkshire family tracing descent from -Sir Simon Locard (the name being originally territorial, de Loch Ard), -who is said to have accompanied Sir James Douglas on his expedition to -the East with the heart of Bruce, which relic, according to Froissart, -Locard brought home from Spain when Douglas fell in battle against the -Moors, and buried in Melrose Abbey; this incident was the origin of the -"man's heart within a fetterlock" borne on the Lockhart shield, which in -turn perhaps led to the altered spelling of the surname. George -Lockhart's grandfather was Sir James Lockhart of Lee (d. 1674), a lord -of the court of session with the title of Lord Lee, who commanded a -regiment at the battle of Preston. Lord Lee's eldest son, Sir William -Lockhart of Lee (1621-1675), after fighting on the king's side in the -Civil War, attached himself to Oliver Cromwell, whose niece he married, -and by whom he was appointed commissioner for the administration of -justice in Scotland in 1652, and English ambassador at the French court -in 1656, where he greatly distinguished himself by his successful -diplomacy. Lord Lee's second son, Sir George Lockhart (c. 1630-1689), -was lord-advocate in Cromwell's time, and was celebrated for his -persuasive eloquence; in 1674, when he was disbarred for alleged -disrespect to the court of session in advising an appeal to parliament, -fifty barristers showed their sympathy for him by withdrawing from -practice. Lockhart was readmitted in 1676, and became the leading -advocate in political trials, in which he usually appeared for the -defence. He was appointed lord-president of the court of session in -1685; and was shot in the streets of Edinburgh on the 31st of March 1689 -by John Chiesley, against whom the lord-president had adjudicated a -cause. Sir George Lockhart purchased the extensive estates of the earls -of Carnwath in Lanarkshire, which were inherited by his eldest son, -George, whose mother was Philadelphia, daughter of Lord Wharton. - -George Lockhart, who was member for the city of Edinburgh in the -Scottish parliament, was appointed a commissioner for arranging the -union with England in 1705. After the union he continued to represent -Edinburgh, and later the Wigton burghs. His sympathies were with the -Jacobites, whom he kept informed of all the negotiations for the union; -in 1713 he took part in an abortive movement aiming at the repeal of the -union. He was deeply implicated in the rising of 1715, the preparations -for which he assisted at Carnwath and at Dryden, his Edinburgh -residence. He was imprisoned in Edinburgh castle, but probably, through -the favour of the duke of Argyll, he was released without being brought -to trial; but his brother Philip was taken prisoner at the battle of -Preston and condemned to be shot, the sentence being executed on the 2nd -of December 1715. After his liberation Lockhart became a secret agent of -the Pretender; but his correspondence with the prince fell into the -hands of the government in 1727, compelling him to go into concealment -at Durham until he was able to escape abroad. Argyll's influence was -again exerted in Lockhart's behalf, and in 1728 he was permitted to -return to Scotland, where he lived in retirement till his death in a -duel on the 17th of December 1731. Lockhart was the author of _Memoirs -of the Affairs of Scotland_, dealing with the reign of Queen Anne till -the union with England, first published in 1714. These _Memoirs_, -together with Lockhart's correspondence with the Pretender, and one or -two papers of minor importance, were published in two volumes in 1817, -forming the well-known "Lockhart Papers," which are a valuable authority -for the history of the Jacobites. - -Lockhart married Eupheme Montgomerie, daughter of Alexander, 9th earl of -Eglinton, by whom he had a large family. His grandson James, who assumed -his mother's name of Wishart in addition to that of Lockhart, was in the -Austrian service during the Seven Years' War, and was created a baron -and count of the Holy Roman Empire. He succeeded to the estates of Lee -as well as of Carnwath, both of which properties passed, on the death of -his son Charles without issue in 1802, to his nephew Alexander, who was -created a baronet in 1806. - - See _The Lockhart Papers_ (2 vols., London, 1817); Andrew Lang, - _History of Scotland_ (4 vols., London, 1900). For the story of Sir - Simon Lockhart's adventures with the heart of the Bruce, see Sir - Walter Scott's _The Talisman_. (R. J. M.) - - - - -LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON (1794-1854), Scottish writer and editor, was born -on the 14th of July 1794 in the manse of Cambusnethan in Lanarkshire, -where his father, Dr John Lockhart, transferred in 1796 to Glasgow, was -minister. His mother, who was the daughter of the Rev. John Gibson, of -Edinburgh, was a woman of considerable intellectual gifts. He was sent -to the Glasgow high school, where he showed himself clever rather than -industrious. He fell into ill-health, and had to be removed from school -before he was twelve; but on his recovery he was sent at this early age -to Glasgow University, and displayed so much precocious learning, -especially in Greek, that he was offered a Snell exhibition at Oxford. -He was not fourteen when he entered Balliol College, where he acquired a -great store of knowledge outside the regular curriculum. He read French, -Italian, German and Spanish, was interested in classical and British -antiquities, and became versed in heraldic and genealogical lore. In -1813 he took a first class in classics in the final schools. For two -years after leaving Oxford he lived chiefly in Glasgow before settling -to the study of Scottish law in Edinburgh, where he was called to the -bar in 1816. A tour on the continent in 1817, when he visited Goethe at -Weimar, was made possible by the kindness of the publisher Blackwood, -who advanced money for a promised translation of Schlegel's _Lectures on -the History of Literature_, which was not published until 1838. -Edinburgh was then the stronghold of the Whig party, whose organ was the -_Edinburgh Review_, and it was not till 1817 that the Scottish Tories -found a means of expression in _Blackwood's Magazine_. After a somewhat -hum-drum opening, _Blackwood_ suddenly electrified the Edinburgh world -by an outburst of brilliant criticism. John Wilson (Christopher North) -and Lockhart had joined its staff in 1817. Lockhart no doubt took his -share in the caustic and aggressive articles which marked the early -years of _Blackwood_; but his biographer, Mr Andrew Lang, brings -evidence to show that he was not responsible for the virulent articles -on Coleridge and on "The Cockney School of Poetry," that is on Leigh -Hunt, Keats and their friends. He has been persistently accused of the -later _Blackwood_ article (August 1818) on Keats, but he showed at any -rate a real appreciation of Coleridge and Wordsworth. He contributed to -_Blackwood_ many spirited translations of Spanish ballads, which in 1823 -were published separately. In 1818 the brilliant and handsome young man -attracted the notice of Sir Walter Scott, and the acquaintance soon -ripened into an intimacy which resulted in a marriage between Lockhart -and Scott's eldest daughter Sophia, in April 1820. Five years of -domestic happiness followed, with winters spent in Edinburgh and summers -at a cottage at Chiefswood, near Abbotsford, where Lockhart's two eldest -children, John Hugh and Charlotte, were born; a second son, Walter, was -born later at Brighton. In 1820 John Scott, the editor of the _London -Magazine_, wrote a series of articles attacking the conduct of -_Blackwood's Magazine_, and making Lockhart chiefly responsible for its -extravagances. A correspondence followed, in which a meeting between -Lockhart and John Scott was proposed, with Jonathan Henry Christie and -Horace Smith as seconds. A series of delays and complicated negotiations -resulted early in 1821 in a duel between Christie and John Scott, in -which Scott was killed. This unhappy affair, which has been the subject -of much misrepresentation, is fully discussed in Mr Lang's book on -Lockhart. - -Between 1818 and 1825 Lockhart worked indefatigably. In 1819 _Peter's -Letters to his Kinsfolk_ appeared, and in 1822 he edited Peter Motteux's -edition of _Don Quixote_, to which he prefixed a life of Cervantes. Four -novels followed: _Valerius_ in 1821, _Some Passages in the Life of Adam -Blair_, _Minister of Gospel at Cross Meikle_ in 1822, _Reginald Dalton_ -in 1823 and _Matthew Wald_ in 1824. But his strength did not lie in -novel writing, although the vigorous quality of _Adam Blair_ has been -recognized by modern critics. In 1825 Lockhart accepted the editorship -of the _Quarterly Review_, which had been in the hands of Sir John -Taylor Coleridge since Gifford's resignation in 1824. He had now -established his literary position, and, as the next heir to his -unmarried half-brother's property in Scotland, Milton Lockhart, he was -sufficiently independent, though he had abandoned the legal profession. -In London he had great social success, and was recognized as a brilliant -editor. He contributed largely to the _Quarterly Review_ himself, his -biographical articles being especially admirable. He showed the old -railing spirit in an amusing but violent article in the _Quarterly_ on -Tennyson's _Poems_ of 1833, in which he failed to discover the mark of -genius. He continued to write for _Blackwood_; he produced for -_Constable's Miscellany_ in 1828 what remains the most charming of the -biographies of Burns; and he undertook the superintendence of the series -called "Murray's Family Library," which he opened in 1829 with a -_History of Napoleon_. But his chief work was the _Life of Sir Walter -Scott_ (7 vols., 1837-1838; 2nd ed., 10 vols., 1839). There were not -wanting those in Scotland who taxed Lockhart with ungenerous exposure of -his subject, but to most healthy minds the impression conveyed by the -biography was, and is, quite the opposite. Carlyle did justice to many -of its excellencies in a criticism contributed to the _London and -Westminster Review_ (1837). Lockhart's account of the transactions -between Scott and the Ballantynes and Constable caused great outcry; and -in the discussion that followed he showed unfortunate bitterness by his -pamphlet, "The Ballantyne Humbug handled." The _Life of Scott_ has been -called, after Boswell's _Johnson_, the most admirable biography in the -English language. The proceeds, which were considerable, Lockhart -resigned for the benefit of Scott's creditors. - -The close of Lockhart's life was saddened by family bereavement, -resulting in his own breakdown in health and spirits. His eldest boy -(the suffering "Hugh Littlejohn" of Scott's _Tales of a Grandfather_) -died in 1831; Scott himself in 1832; Mrs Lockhart in 1837; and the -surviving son, Walter Lockhart, in 1852. Resigning the editorship of the -_Quarterly Review_ in 1853, he spent the next winter in Rome, but -returned to England without recovering his health; and being taken to -Abbotsford by his daughter Charlotte, who had become Mrs James Robert -Hope-Scott, he died there on the 25th of November 1854. He was buried in -Dryburgh Abbey, near Sir Walter Scott. - - Lockhart's _Life_ (2 vols., London and New York, 1897) was written by - Andrew Lang. A. W. Pollard's edition of the _Life of Scott_ (1900) is - the best. - - - - -LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM STEPHEN ALEXANDER (1841-1900), British general, -was born in Scotland on the 2nd of September 1841, his father being a -Lanarkshire clergyman. He entered the Indian army in 1858, in the Bengal -native infantry. He served in the Indian Mutiny, the Bhutan campaign -(1864-66), the Abyssinian expedition (1867-68; mentioned in despatches), -the Hazara Black Mountain expedition (1868-69; mentioned in despatches). -From 1869 to 1879 he acted as deputy-assistant and assistant -quartermaster-general in Bengal. In 1877 he was military attache with -the Dutch army in Acheen. He served in the Afghan War of 1878-80, was -mentioned in despatches and made a C.B., and from 1880 to 1885 was -D.Q.G. in the intelligence branch at headquarters. He commanded a -brigade in the Third Burmese War (1886-87), and was made K.C.B., C.S.I., -and received the thanks of the government. An attack of fever brought -him to England, where he was employed as assistant military secretary -for Indian affairs; but in 1890 he returned to India to take command of -the Punjab frontier force, and for five years was engaged in various -expeditions against the hill tribes. After the Waziristan campaign in -1894-95 he was made K.C.S.I. He became full general in 1896, and in 1897 -he was given the command against the Afridis and Mohmands, and conducted -the difficult Tirah campaign with great skill. He was made G.C.B., and -in 1898 became commander-in-chief in India. He died on the 18th of March -1900. Sir William Lockhart was not only a first-rate soldier, but also -had a great gift for dealing with the native tribesmen. Among the latter -he had the _sobriquet_ of Amir Sahib, on account of their respect and -affection for him. - - - - -LOCK HAVEN, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Pennsylvania, -U.S.A., on the west branch of the Susquehanna river, near the mouth of -Bald Eagle Creek, about 70 m. N.N.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 7210 -(618 foreign-born and 122 negroes); (1910) 7772. It is served by -branches of the Pennsylvania and the New York Central & Hudson River -railways and by electric interurban railways. The city is pleasantly -situated in an agricultural region, and there are large deposits of -cement and of fire-brick clay in the vicinity. Lock Haven is the seat of -the Central State Normal School (opened 1877), and has a public library -and a hospital. There are various manufactures. The municipality owns -and operates the water-works. The locality was settled in 1769. A town -was founded in 1833, the Pennsylvania Canal (no longer in use here) was -completed to this point in 1834, and the name of the place was suggested -by two canal locks and the harbour, or haven, for rafts in the river. -Lock Haven was made the county-seat immediately after the erection of -Clinton county in 1839, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and first -chartered as a city in 1870. - - - - -LOCKPORT, a city of Will county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Des Plaines -river and the Illinois & Michigan Canal, and the terminus of the Chicago -Sanitary District Drainage Canal, about 33 m. S.W. of Chicago and 4 m. -N.N.E. of Joliet. Pop. (1900) 2659 (552 being foreign-born and 130 -negroes); (1910) 2555. Lockport is served by the Chicago & Alton, and -the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railways, and by the Chicago & Joliet -Electric railway. It is in a picturesque farming country, and there are -good limestone quarries in the valley of the Des Plaines river. It has -manufactures and a considerable trade, especially in grain. A settlement -was made here about 1827; in 1837 the site was chosen as headquarters -for the Illinois & Michigan Canal and a village was laid out; it was -incorporated in 1853, and was chartered as a city in 1904. In 1892 work -was begun on the Chicago Drainage Canal, whose controlling works are -here and whose plant, developing 40,000 h.p. from the 40 ft. fall -between Joliet and Lockport, supplies Lockport with cheap power and has -made it a manufacturing rather than a commercial city. - - - - -LOCKPORT, a city and the county-seat of Niagara county, New York, -U.S.A., on the Erie Canal, 26 m. by rail N. by E. of Buffalo and 56 m. -W. of Rochester. Pop. (1900) 16,581, of whom 2036 were foreign-born and -160 were negroes; (1910 census) 17,970. It is served by the New York -Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways, by the International -railway (electric interurban), and by the Erie Canal. The city owes its -name to the five double locks of the canal, which here falls 66 ft. -(over a continuation of the Niagara escarpment locally known as -"Mountain Ridge") from the level of Lake Erie to that of the Genesee -river. In 1909 a scheme was on foot to replace these five locks by a -huge lift lock and to construct a large harbour immediately W. of the -city. The surplus water from Tonawanda Creek, long claimed both by the -Canal and by the Lockport manufacturers, after supplying the canal -furnishes water-power, and electric power is derived from Niagara. The -factory products, mostly paper and wood-pulp, flour and cereal foods, -and foundry and machine-shop products, were valued in 1905 at -$5,807,980. Lockport lies in a rich farming and fruit (especially apple -and pear) country, containing extensive sandstone and Niagara limestone -quarries, and is a shipping point for the fruits and grains and the -limestone and sandstone of the surrounding country. Many buildings in -the business part of the city are heated by the Holly distributing -system, which pipes steam from a central station or plant, and -originated in Lockport. The city owns and operates the water-works, long -operated under the Holly system, which, as well as the Holly -distributing system, was devised by Birdsill Holly, a civil engineer of -Lockport. In 1909 a new system was virtually completed, water being -taken from the Niagara river at Tonawanda and pumped thence to a -stand-pipe in Lockport. - -The site, that of the most easterly village in New York state held by -the Neutral Nation of Indians, was part of the tract bought by the -Holland Company in 1792-1793. Subsequently most of the land on which the -city stands was bought from the Holland Company by Esek Brown, the -proprietor of a local tavern, and fourteen others, but there were few -settlers until after 1820. In 1822 the place was made the county-seat, -and in 1823 it was much enlarged by the settlement here of workmen on -the Erie Canal, and was the headquarters for a time of the canal -contractors. It was incorporated as a village in 1829, was reached by -the Erie railway in 1852, and in 1865 was chartered as a city. - - - - -LOCKROY, EDOUARD (1838- ), French politician, son of Joseph Philippe -Simon (1803-1891), an actor and dramatist who took the name of Lockroy, -was born in Paris on the 18th of July 1838. He had begun by studying -art, but in 1860 enlisted as a volunteer under Garibaldi. The next three -years were spent in Syria as secretary to Ernest Renan, and on his -return to Paris he embarked in militant journalism against the second -empire in the _Figaro_, the _Diable a quatre_, and eventually in the -_Rappel_, with which his name was thenceforward intimately connected. He -commanded a battalion during the siege of Paris, and in February 1871 -was elected deputy to the National Assembly where he sat on the extreme -left and protested against the preliminaries of peace. In March he -signed the proclamation for the election of the Commune, and resigned -his seat as deputy. Arrested at Vanves he remained a prisoner at -Versailles and Chartres until June when he was released without being -tried. He was more than once imprisoned for violent articles in the -press, and in 1872 for a duel with Paul de Cassagnac. He was returned to -the Chamber in 1873 as Radical deputy for Bouches-du-Rhone in 1876, 1877 -and 1881 for Aix, and in 1881 he was also elected in the 11th -arrondissement of Paris. He elected to sit for Paris, and was repeatedly -re-elected. During the elections of 1893 he was shot at by a cab-driver -poet named Moore, but was not seriously injured. For the first ten years -of his parliamentary life he voted consistently with the extreme left, -but then adopted a more opportunist policy, and gave his unreserved -support to the Brisson ministry of 1885. In the new Freycinet cabinet -formed in January he held the portfolio of commerce and industry, which -he retained in the Goblet ministry of 1886-1887. In 1885 he had been -returned at the head of the poll for Paris, and his inclusion in the -Freycinet ministry was taken to indicate a prospect of reconciliation -between Parisian Radicalism and official Republicanism. During his -tenure of the portfolio of commerce and industry he made the preliminary -arrangements for the Exposition of 1889, and in a witty letter he -defended the erection of the Tour Eiffel against artistic Paris. After -the Panama and Boulangist scandals he became one of the leading -politicians of the Radical party. He was vice-president of the Chamber -in 1894 and in 1895, when he became minister of marine under Leon -Bourgeois. His drastic measures of reform alarmed moderate politicians, -but he had the confidence of the country, and held the same portfolio -under Henri Brisson (1898) and Charles Dupuy (1898-1899). He gave his -support to the Waldeck-Rousseau Administration, but actively criticized -the marine policy of Camille Pelletan in the Combes ministry of -1902-1905, during which period he was again vice-president of the -Chamber. M. Lockroy was a persistent and successful advocate of a strong -naval policy, in defence of which he published _La Marine de Guerre_ -(1890), _Six mois rue Royale_ (1897), _La Defense navale_ (1900), _Du -Weser a la Vistula_ (1901), _Les Marines francaise et allemande_ (1904), -_Le Programme naval_ (1906). His other works include _M. de Moltke et la -guerre future_ (1891) and _Journal d'une bourgeoise pendant la -Revolution_ (1881) derived from the letters of his great-grandmother. M. -Lockroy married in 1877 Madame Charles Hugo, the daughter-in-law of the -poet. - - - - -LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK (1846-1897), English lawyer, was born at Doncaster. -His grandfather and great-grandfather were mayors of Doncaster, and the -former for some years filled the office of judge on the racecourse. He -was educated at a private school, at Manchester grammar school, and -Caius College, Cambridge. Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1872, he -joined the old midland circuit, afterwards going to the north-eastern, -making in his first year 120 guineas and in the next 265 guineas. From -that time he had a career of uninterrupted success. In 1882 he was made -a queen's counsel, in 1884 he was made recorder of Sheffield, and in -1894 he became solicitor-general in Lord Rosebery's ministry, and was -knighted, having first entered parliament as Liberal member for York in -1885, after two unsuccessful attempts, the one at King's Lynn in 1880, -the other at York in 1883. He was solicitor-general for less than a -year. In 1896 Lord Chief Justice Coleridge, Mr Montague Crackanthorpe -and Sir Frank Lockwood went to the United States to attend, as specially -invited representatives of the English bar, the nineteenth meeting of -the American Bar Association. On this trip Sir Frank Lockwood sustained -the reputation which he enjoyed in England as a humorous after-dinner -speaker, and helped to strengthen the bond of friendship which unites -the bench and bar of the United States with the bench and bar of -England. He died in London on the 18th of December 1897. Lockwood had -considerable talent for drawing, inherited from his father, which he -employed, chiefly for the amusement of himself and his friends, in the -making of admirable caricatures in pen and ink, and of sketches of -humorous incidents, real or imaginary, relating to the topic nearest at -hand. An exhibition of them was held soon after his death. - - See Augustine Birrell's biography of Lockwood and _The Frank Lockwood - Sketch-Book_ (1898). - - - - -LOCKWOOD, WILTON (1861- ), American artist, was born at Wilton, -Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1861. He was a pupil and an -assistant of John La Farge, and also studied in Paris, becoming a -well-known portrait and flower painter. He became a member of the -Society of American Artists (1898), and of the Copley Society, Boston, -and an associate of the National Academy of Design, New York. - - - - -LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN (1836- ), English astronomer, was born at -Rugby on the 17th of May 1836. After completing his education on the -Continent of Europe, he obtained a clerkship in the War Office in 1857. -His leisure was devoted to the study of astronomy, and he was appointed -in 1870 secretary to the duke of Devonshire's royal commission on -science. In 1875 he was transferred to the Science and Art Department at -South Kensington, and on the foundation of the Royal College of Science -he became director of the solar physics observatory and professor of -astronomical physics. Eight British government expeditions for observing -total solar eclipses were conducted by him between 1870 and 1905. On the -26th of October 1868 he communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences, -almost simultaneously with Dr P. J. C. Janssen, a spectroscopic method -for observing the solar prominences in daylight, and the names of both -astronomers appear on a medal which was struck by the French government -in 1872 to commemorate the discovery. Lockyer was elected a fellow of -the Royal Society in 1869, and received the Rumford medal in 1874. He -initiated in 1866 the spectroscopic observation of sunspots; applied -Doppler's principle in 1869 to determine the radial velocities of the -chromospheric gases; and successfully investigated the chemistry of the -sun from 1872 onward. Besides numerous contributions to the -_Proceedings_ of the Royal and the Royal Astronomical Societies, he -published several books, both explanatory and speculative. The -_Chemistry of the Sun_ (1887) is an elaborate treatise on solar -spectroscopy based on the hypothesis of elemental dissociation through -the intensity of solar heat. The _Meteoritic Hypothesis_ (1890) -propounds a comprehensive scheme of cosmical evolution, which has evoked -more dissent than approval, while the _Sun's Place in Nature_ (1897) -lays down the lines of a classification of the stars, depending upon -their supposed temperature-relations. Among Lockyer's other works -are--_The Dawn of Astronomy_ (1894), to which _Stonehenge and other -British Stone Monuments astronomically considered_ (1906) may be -considered a sequel; _Recent and coming Eclipses_ (1897); and _Inorganic -Evolution_ (1900). He was created K.C.B. in 1897, and acted as president -of the British Association in 1903-1904. His fifth son, WILLIAM JAMES -STEWART LOCKYER (b. 1868), devoted himself to solar research, and became -chief assistant in the Solar Physics Observatory, South Kensington. - - - - -LOCLE, LE, a town in the Swiss canton of Neuchatel, 24 m. by rail N. of -Neuchatel, and 5 m. S.W. of La Chaux de Fonds. It is built (3035 ft. -above the sea-level) on the Bied stream in a valley of the Jura, and is -about 1 m. from the French frontier. In 1681 Daniel Jean Richard -introduced watch-making here, which soon drove out all other industries. -In 1900 the population was 12,559, mainly Protestants and -French-speaking. The church tower dates from 1521, but the old town was -destroyed by fire in 1833. The valley in which the town is situated used -to be subject to inundations, but in 1805 a tunnel was constructed by -means of which the surplus waters of the Bied are carried into the -Doubs. About 1 m. W. of the town the Bied plunged into a deep chasm, on -the steep rock face of which were formerly the subterranean mills of the -Col des Roches, situated one above another; but the stream is now -diverted by the above-mentioned tunnel, while another serves the railway -line from Le Locle to Morteau in France (8 m.). (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LOCMARIAQUER, a village of western France, on the W. shore of the Gulf -of Morbihan, in the department of Morbihan, 8(1/2) m. S. of Auray by road. -Pop. (1906) 756. Locmariaquer has a small port, and oyster culture is -carried on close to it. Roman remains are to be seen, but the place owes -its celebrity to the megalithic monuments in the vicinity, some of which -are among the largest extant. The menhir of Men-er-H'roeck (Fairy -stone), which was broken into four pieces by lightning in the 18th -century, previously measured about 67 ft. in height, and from 9 to 13 -ft. in thickness. - - - - -LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA (Gr. [Greek: ha], priv., and [Greek: taxis], order; -synonyms, _Tabes dorsalis_, _posterior spinal sclerosis_), a progressive -degeneration of the nervous system, involving the posterior columns of -the spinal cord with other structures, and causing muscular -incoordination and disorder of gait and station. The essential symptoms -of the disease--stamping gait, and swaying with the eyes shut, the -occurrence of blindness and of small fixed pupils--were recognized by -Romberg (1851), but it was the clinical genius of Duchenne and his -masterly description of the symptoms which led to its acceptance as a -definite disease (1858), and he named it locomotor ataxia after its most -striking symptom. In 1869 Argyll Robertson discovered that the eye-pupil -is inactive to light but acts upon accommodation in the great majority -of cases. This most important sign is named the "Argyll Robertson -pupil." With an ever-increasing knowledge of the widespread character of -this disease and its manifold variations in the complex of symptoms, the -tendency among neurologists is to revert to the term employed by -Romberg--_tabes dorsalis_. "Locomotor ataxia," although it expresses a -very characteristic feature of the disease, has this objection: it is a -symptom which does not occur in the first (preataxic) stage of the -disease; indeed a great number of years may elapse before ataxy comes -on, and sometimes the patient, after suffering a very long time from the -disease, may die from some intercurrent complication, having never been -ataxic. - -It is generally recognized by neurologists that persons who are not the -subjects of acquired or hereditary syphilis do not suffer from this -disease; and the average time of onset after infection is ten years (see -NEUROPATHOLOGY). There are three stages: (1) The preataxic, (2) the -ataxic, (3) the bed-ridden paralytic. The duration of the first stage -may be from one or two years, up to twenty years or even longer. In this -stage various symptoms may arise. The patient usually complains of -shooting, lightning-like pains in the legs, which he may attribute to -rheumatism. If a physician examines him he will almost certainly find -the knee-jerks absent and Argyll Robertson pupils present; probably on -inquiry he will ascertain that the patient has had some difficulty in -starting urination, or that he is unable to retain his water or to empty -his bladder completely. In other cases, temporary or permanent paralysis -of one or more muscles of the eyeball (which causes squint and double -vision), a failure of sight ending in blindness, attacks of vomiting (or -gastric crises), painless spontaneous fractures of bones and -dislocations of joints, failing sexual power and impotence, may lead the -patient to consult a physician, when this disease will be diagnosed, -although the patient may not as yet have had locomotor ataxy. All cases, -however, if they live long enough, pass into the second ataxic stage. -The sufferer complains now of difficulty of walking in the dark; he -sways with his eyes shut and feels as if he would fall (Romberg's -symptom); he has the sensation of walking on wool, numbness and -formication of the skin, and many sensory disturbances in the form of -partial or complete loss of sensibility to pain, touch and temperature. -These disturbances affect especially the feet and legs, and around the -trunk at the level of the fourth to the seventh ribs, giving rise to a -"girdle sensation." There may be a numbed feeling on the inner side of -the arm, and muscular incoordination may affect the upper limb as well -as the lower, although there is no wasting or any electrical change. The -ataxic gait is very characteristic, owing to the loss of reflex tonus in -the muscles, and the absence of guiding sensations from all the deep -structures of the limbs, muscles, joints, bones, tendons and ligaments, -as well as from the skin of the soles of the feet; therefore the -sufferer has to be guided by vision as to where and how to place his -feet. This necessitates the bending forward of the body, extension of -the knees and broadening of the basis of support; he generally uses a -walking stick or even two, and he jerks the leg forward as if he were on -wires, bringing the sole of the foot down on the ground with a wide -stamping action. If the arm be affected, he is unable to touch the tip -of his nose with the eyes shut. Sooner or later he passes into the -_third_ bed-ridden stage, with muscles wasted and their tonus so much -lost that he is in a perfectly helpless condition. - -The complications which may arise in this disease are intercurrent -affections due to septic conditions of the bladder, bedsores, pneumonia, -vascular and heart affections. About 10% of the cases, at least, develop -general paralysis of the insane. This is not surprising seeing that it -is due to the same cause, and the etiology of the two diseases is such -as to lead many neurologists to consider them one and the same disease -affecting different parts of the nervous system. _Tabes dorsalis_ occurs -with much greater frequency in men than in women (see NEUROPATHOLOGY). - -The avoidance of all stress of the nervous system, whether physical, -emotional or intellectual, is indicated, and a simple regular life, -without stimulants or indulgence of the sexual passion, is the best -means of delaying the progress of the disease. Great attention should be -paid to micturition, so as to avoid retention and infection of the -bladder. Drugs, even anti-syphilitic remedies, appear to have but little -influence upon the course of the disease. - - - - -LOCO-WEEDS, or CRAZY-WEEDS, leguminous plants, chiefly species of -_Astragalus_ and _Lupinus_, which produce a disease in cattle known as -"loco-disease." The name is apparently taken from the Spanish _loco_, -mad. The disease affects the nervous system of the animals eating the -plants, and is accompanied by exhaustion and wasting. - - - - -LOCRI, a people of ancient Greece, inhabiting two distinct districts, -one extending from the north-east of Parnassus to the northern half of -the Euboean channel, between Boeotia and Malis, the other south-west of -Parnassus, on the north shore of the Corinthian Gulf, between Phocis and -Aetolia. The former were divided into the northern Locri Epicnemidii, -situated on the spurs of Mount Cnemis, and the southern Locri Opuntii, -so named from their chief town Opus (q.v.): and the name Opuntia is -often applied to the whole of this easterly district. Homer mentions -only these eastern Locrians: their national hero in the Trojan war is -Ajax Oileus, who often appears afterwards on Locrian coins. From -Hesiod's time onwards, the Opuntians were thought by some to be of -"Lelegian" origin (see LELEGES), but they were Hellenized early (though -matriarchal customs survived among them)--, and Deucalion, the father of -Hellen himself, is described as the first king of Opus. The westerly -Locri "in Ozolae" on the Corinthian Gulf, a rude and barbarous people, -make no appearance in Greek history till the Peloponnesian war. It was -believed that they had separated from the eastern Locrians four -generations before the Trojan war; yet Homer has no hint of their -existence. Probably the Locrians were once a single people, extending -from sea to sea, till subsequent immigrations forced them apart into two -separate districts. The Locrian dialect of Greek is little known, but -resembles that of Elis: it has [Greek: st] for [Greek: sth]; uses -[alpha]; and has [Greek: ois] in dat. plur. 3rd decl. A colony of -Locrians (whether from Opus or Ozolae was disputed in antiquity) -settled, about the end of the 8th century B.C., at the south-west -extremity of Italy. They are often called Locri Epizephyrii from Cape -Zephyrion 15 m. S. of the city. Their founder's name was Euanthes. Their -social organization resembled that of the Opuntian Locri, and like them -they venerated Ajax Oileus and Persephone. Aristotle (ap. Polyb. xii. 5 -sqq.) records a tradition that these western Locrians were base-born, -like the Parthenians of Tarentum; but this was disputed by his -contemporary Timaeus. See LOCRI (town) below. (J. L. M.) - - - - -LOCRI, an ancient city of Magna Graecia, Italy. The original settlers -took possession of the Zephyrian promontory (Capo Bruzzano some 12 m. N. -of Capo Spartivento), and though after three or four years they -transplanted themselves to a site 12 m. farther north, still near the -coast, 2 m. S. of Gerace Marina below the modern Gerace, they still -retained the name of Locri Epizephyrii ([Greek: Lokroi hoi -epizephurioi]), which served to distinguish them from the Ozolian and -Opuntian Locri of Greece itself (see preceding article). The foundation -of Locri goes back to about 683 B.C. It was the first of all Greek -communities to have a written code of laws given by Zaleucus in 664 B.C. -From Locri were founded the colonies of Meisma and Heiponium -(Hipponium). It succeeded in repelling the attacks of Croton (battle on -the river Sagras, perhaps sometime in the 6th century), and found in -Syracuse a support against Rhegium: it was thus an active adversary of -Athenian aggrandisement in the west. Pindar extolls its uprightness and -love of the heroic muse of beauty, of wisdom, and of war, in the 10th -and 11th Olympian Odes. Stesichorus (q.v.) was indeed of Locrian origin. -But it owed its greatest external prosperity to the fact that Dionysius -I. of Syracuse selected his wife from Locri: its territory was then -increased, and the circuit of its walls was doubled, but it lost its -freedom. In 356 B.C. it was ruled by Dionysius II. From the battle of -Heraclea to the year 205 (when it was captured by P. Cornelius Scipio -Africanus Maior, and placed under the control of his legate Q. -Pleminius), Locri was continually changing its allegiance between Rome -and her enemies; but it remained an ally, and was only obliged like -other Greek coast towns to furnish ships. In later Roman times it is -often mentioned, but was apparently of no great importance. It is -mentioned incidentally until the 6th century A.D., but was destroyed by -the Saracens in 915. - -Excavations in 1889-1890 led to the discovery of an Ionic temple (the -Doric style being usual in Magna Graecia) at the north-west angle of the -town--originally a cella with two naves, a closed pronaos on the E. and -an adytum at the back (W.), later converted into a hexastyle peripheral -temple with 34 painted terra-cotta columns. This was then destroyed -about 400 B.C. and a new temple built on the ruins, heptastyle -peripteral, with no intermediate columns in the cella and opisthodomos, -and with 44 columns in all. The figures from the pediment of the twin -Dioscuri, who according to the legend assisted Locri against Crotona, -are in the Naples museum (see R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, _Griechische -Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien_, Berlin, 1899, pp. l sqq.). -Subsequent excavations in 1890-1891 were of the greatest importance, but -the results remained unpublished up to 1908. From a short account by P. -Orsi in _Atti del Congresso Storico_, vol. v. (Archeologia) Rome, 1904, -p. 201, we learn that the exploration of the environs of the temple led -to the discovery of a large number of archaic terra-cottas, and of some -large trenches, covered with tiles, containing some 14,000 scyphoi -arranged in rows. The plan of the city was also traced; the walls, the -length of which was nearly 5 m., consisted of three parts--the fortified -castles ([Greek: phrouria]) with large towers, on three different hills, -the city proper, and the lower town--the latter enclosed by long walls -running down to the sea. In the Roman period the city was restricted to -the plain near the sea. Since these excavations, a certain amount of -unauthorized work has gone on, and some of the remains have been -destroyed. In the course of these excavations some prehistoric objects -have been discovered, which confirm the accounts of Thucydides and -Polybius that the Greek settlers found the Siculi here before them. - (T. As.) - - - - -LOCSE (Ger. _Leutschau_), the capital of the county of Szepes, in -Hungary, 230 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 6845, mostly -Germans and Slovaks. The county of Szepes is the highest part of -Hungary, and its north-western portion is occupied by the Tatra -Mountains. Locse lies in an elevated position surrounded by mountains, -and is one of the oldest towns of Hungary. The church of St James is a -Gothic structure of the 13th century, with richly carved altar, several -monuments, and a celebrated organ erected in 1623, and long reputed the -largest in Hungary. The old town-hall, restored in 1894, contains a -Protestant upper gymnasium, founded in 1544, and one of the oldest -printing establishments in Hungary, founded in 1585. Bee-keeping and the -raising of garden produce are the chief industries. - -Founded by Saxon colonists in 1245, Locse had by the early part of the -16th century attained a position of great relative importance. In 1599 a -fire destroyed the greater part of the town, and during the 17th century -it suffered repeatedly at the hands of the Transylvanian princes and -leaders. - - - - -LOCUS (Lat. for "place"; in Gr. [Greek: topos]), a geometrical term, the -invention of the notion of which is attributed to Plato. It occurs in -such statements as these: the locus of the points which are at the same -distance from a fixed point, or of a point which moves so as to be -always at the same distance from a fixed point, is a circle; conversely -a circle is the locus of the points at the same distance from a fixed -point, or of a point moving so as to be always at the same distance from -a fixed point; and so in general a curve of any given kind is the locus -of the points which satisfy, or of a point moving so as always to -satisfy, a given condition. The theory of loci is thus identical with -that of curves (see CURVE and GEOMETRY: S _Analytical_). The notion of a -locus applies also to solid geometry. Here the locus of the points -satisfying a single (or onefold) condition is a surface; the locus of -the points satisfying two conditions (or a twofold condition) is a curve -in space, which is in general a twisted curve or curve of double -curvature. - - - - -LOCUST.[1] In its general acceptation this term is applied only to -certain insects of the order _Orthoptera_, family _Acridiidae_. The -family _Locustidae_ is now viewed zoologically in a sense that does not -admit of the species best known as "locusts" being included therein. The -idea of a very destructive insect is universally associated with the -term; therefore many orthopterous species that cannot be considered true -locusts have been so-called; in North America it has even embraced -certain _Hemiptera-Homoptera_, belonging to the _Cicadidae_, and in some -parts of England cockchafers are so designated. In a more narrow -definition the attribute of migration is associated with the destructive -propensities, and it therefore becomes necessary that a true locust -should be a migratory species of the family _Acridiidae_. Moreover, the -term has yet a slightly different signification as viewed from the Old -or New World. In Europe by a locust is meant an insect of large size, -the smaller allied species being ordinarily known as "grasshoppers," -hence the "Rocky Mountain locust" of North America is to Eastern ideas -rather a grasshopper than a locust. - -In Europe, and a greater part of the Old World, the best known migratory -locust is that which is scientifically termed _Pachytylus cinerascens_ -with which an allied species _P. migratorius_ has been often confounded. -Another locust found in Europe and neighbouring districts is _Caloptenus -italicus_, and still another, _Acridium peregrinum_, has once or twice -occurred in Europe, though its home (even in a migratory sense) is more -properly Africa and Asia. These practically include all the locusts of -the Old World, though a migratory species of South Africa known as -_Pachytylus pardalinus_ (presumed to be distinct from _P. migratorius_) -should be mentioned. The Rocky Mountain locust of North America is -_Caloptenus spretus_, and in that continent there occurs an _Acridium_ -(_A. americanum_) so closely allied to _A. peregrinum_ as to be scarcely -distinct therefrom, though there it does not manifest migratory -tendencies. In the West Indies and Central America _A. peregrinum_ is -also reported to occur. - -The females excavate holes in the earth in which the eggs are deposited -in a long cylindrical mass enveloped in a glutinous secretion. The young -larvae hatch and immediately commence their destructive career. As these -insects are "hemimetabolic" there is no quiescent stage; they go on -increasing rapidly in size, and as they approach the perfect state the -rudiments of the wings begin to appear. Even in this stage their -locomotive powers are extensive and their voracity great. Once winged -and perfect these powers become infinitely more disastrous, redoubled by -the development of the migratory instinct. The laws regulating this -instinct are not perfectly understood. Food and temperature have a great -deal to do with it, and there is a tendency for the flights to take a -particular direction, varied by the physical circumstances of the -breeding districts. So likewise each species has its area of constant -location, and its area of extraordinary migration. Perhaps the most -feasible of the suggestions as to the causes of the migratory impulse is -that locusts naturally breed in dry sandy districts in which food is -scarce, and are impelled to wander to procure the necessaries of life; -but against this it has been argued that swarms bred in a highly -productive district in which they have temporarily settled will seek the -barren home of their ancestors. Another ingenious suggestion is that -migration is intimately connected with a dry condition of the -atmosphere, urging them to move on until compelled to stop for food or -procreative purposes. Swarms travel considerable distances, though -probably generally fewer than 1000 m., though sometimes very much more. -As a rule the progress is only gradual, and this adds vastly to the -devastating effects. When an extensive swarm temporarily settles in a -district, all vegetation rapidly disappears, and then hunger urges it on -another stage. The large Old World species, although undoubtedly -phytophagous, when compelled by hunger sometimes attack at least dry -animal substances, and even cannibalism has been asserted as an outcome -of the failure of all other kinds of food. The length of a single flight -must depend upon circumstances. From peculiarities in the examples of -_Acridium peregrinum_ taken in England in 1869, it has been asserted -that they must have come direct by sea from the west coast of Africa; -and what is probably the same species has been seen in the Atlantic at -least 1200 m. from land, in swarms completely covering the ship; thus, -in certain cases flight must be sustained for several days and nights -together. The height at which swarms fly, when their horizontal course -is not liable to be altered by mountains, has been very variously -estimated at from 40 to 200 ft., or even in a particular case to 500 ft. -The extent of swarms and the number of individuals in a swarm cannot be -accurately ascertained. They come sometimes in such numbers as to -completely obscure the sun, when the noise made by the rustling of the -wings is deafening. Nevertheless some idea on this point may be formed -from the ascertained fact that in Cyprus in 1881, at the close of the -season, 1,600,000,000 egg-cases, each containing a considerable number -of eggs, had been destroyed; the estimated weight exceeding 1300 tons. -Yet two years later, it is believed that not fewer than 5,076,000,000 -egg-cases were again deposited in the island. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Pachytylus migratorius_. This and the other -figures are all natural size.] - - In Europe the best known and ordinarily most destructive species is - _Pachytylus cinerascens_, and it is to it that most of the numerous - records of devastations in Europe mainly refer, but it is probably not - less destructive in many parts of Africa and Asia. That the arid - steppes of central Asia are the home of this insect appears probable; - still much on this point is enveloped in uncertainty. In any case the - area of permanent distribution is enormous, and that of occasional - distribution is still greater. The former area extends from the - parallel of 40 deg. N. in Portugal, rising to 48 deg. in France and - Switzerland, and passing into Russia at 55 deg., thence continuing - across the middle of Siberia, north of China to Japan; thence south to - the Fiji Islands, to New Zealand and North Australia; thence again to - Mauritius and over all Africa to Madeira. The southern distribution is - uncertain and obscure. Taking exceptional distribution, it is well - known that it occasionally appears in the British Isles, and has in - them apparently been noticed as far north as Edinburgh; so also does - it occasionally appear in Scandinavia, and it has probably been seen - up to 63 deg. N. in Finland. Looking at this vast area, it is easy to - conceive that an element of uncertainty must always exist with regard - to the exact determination of the species, and in Europe especially is - this the case, because there exists a distinct species, known as _P. - migratorius_, the migratory area of which appears to be confined to - Turkestan and eastern Europe. - - _P. cinerascens_ is certainly the most common of the "locusts" - occasionally found in the British Isles, and E. de Selys-Longchamps is - of opinion that it breeds regularly in Belgium, whereas the true _P. - migratorius_ is only accidental in that country. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Acridium peregrinum_.] - - A South African species allied to the preceding and provisionally - identified as _Pachytylus salcicollis_ is noteworthy from the - manifestation of the migratory instinct in immature wingless - individuals. The families of young, after destroying the vegetation of - a district, unite in a vast army and move away in search of fresh - pastures, devastating the country as they go and proceeding of - necessity on foot, hence they are known to the Dutch as "voetgangers." - Travelling northwards towards the centre of the continent, the home of - their parents before migration, they are diverted from their course by - no obstacles. Upon reaching a river or stream they search the bank for - a likely spot to cross, then fearlessly cast themselves upon the water - where they form floating islands of insects, most of which usually - succeed in gaining the opposite bank, though many perish in the - attempt. - - _Acridium peregrinum_ (fig. 2) can scarcely be considered even an - accidental visitor to Europe; yet it has been seen in the south of - Spain, and in many examples spread over a large part of England in the - year 1869. It is a larger insect than _P. migratorius_. There is every - reason to believe that it is the most destructive locust throughout - Africa and in India and other parts of tropical Asia, and its ravages - are as great as those of _P. migratorius_. Presumably it is the - species occasionally noticed in a vast swarm in the Atlantic, very far - from land, and presumably also it occurs in the West Indies and some - parts of Central America. In the Argentine Republic a (possibly) - distinct species (_A. paranense_) is the migratory locust. - - _Caloptenus italicus_ (fig. 3) is a smaller insect, with a less - extended area of migration; the destruction occasioned in the - districts to which it is limited is often scarce less than that of its - more terrible allies. It is essentially a species of the Mediterranean - district, and especially of the European side of that sea, yet it is - also found in North Africa, and appears to extend far into southern - Russia. - - _Caloptenus spretus_ (fig. 4) is the "Rocky Mountain locust" or - "hateful grasshopper" of the North American continent. Though a - comparatively small insect, not so large as some of the grasshoppers - of English fields, its destructiveness has procured for it great - notoriety. By early travellers and settlers the species was not - recognized as distinct from some of its non-migratory congeners. But - in 1877, Congress appointed a United States Entomological Commission - to investigate the subject. The report of the commissioners (C. V. - Riley, A. S. Packard and C. Thomas) deals with the whole subject of - locusts both in America and the Old world. _C. spretus_ has its home - or permanent area in the arid plains of the central region east of the - Rocky Mountains, extending slightly into the southern portion of - Canada; outside this is a wide fringe to which the term sub-permanent - is applied, and this is again bounded by the limits of only occasional - distribution, the whole occupying a large portion of the North - American continent; but it is not known to have crossed the Rocky - Mountains westward, or to have extended into the eastern states. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Caloptenus italicus_.] - - As to remedial or preventive measures tending to check the ravages of - locusts, little unfortunately can be said; but anything that will - apply to one species may be used with practically all. Something can - be done (as is now done in Cyprus) by offering a price for all the - egg-tubes collected, which is the most direct manner of attacking - them. Some little can be done by destroying the larvae while in an - unwinged condition, and by digging trenches in the line of march into - which they can fall and be drowned or otherwise put an end to. Little - can be done with the winged hordes; starvation, the outcome of their - own work, probably here does much. In South Africa some success has - attended the spraying of the swarms with arsenic. It has been shown - that with all migratory locusts the breeding-places, or true homes, - are comparatively barren districts (mostly elevated plateaus); hence - the progress of colonization, and the conversion of those heretofore - barren plains into areas of fertility, may (and probably will) - gradually lessen the evil. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Rocky Mountain Locust (_Caloptenus spretus_). - (After Riley.) - - a, a, a, Female in different positions, ovipositing. - b, Egg-pod extracted from ground, with the end broken open. - c, A few eggs lying loose on the ground. - d, e show the earth partially removed, to illustrate an egg-mass - already in place, and one being placed. - f, shows where such a mass has been covered up.] - - Locusts have many enemies besides man. Many birds greedily devour - them, and it has many times been remarked that migratory swarms of the - insects were closely followed by myriads of birds. Predatory insects - of other orders also attack them, especially when they are in the - unwinged condition. Moreover, they have still more deadly insect foes - as parasites. Some attack the fully developed winged insect. But the - greater part attack the eggs. To such belong certain beetles, chiefly - of the family _Cantharidae_, and especially certain two-winged flies - of the family _Bombyliidae_. These latter, both in the Old and New - World, must prevent vast quantities of eggs from producing larvae. - - The larger Old World species form articles of food with certain - semi-civilized and savage races, by whom they are considered as - delicacies, or as part of ordinary diet, according to the race and the - method of preparation. (R. M'L.; R. I. P.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The Lat. _locusta_ was first applied to a lobster or other marine - shell-fish and then, from its resemblance, to the insect. - - - - -LOCUST-TREE, or CAROB-TREE (_Ceratonia siliqua_), a member of the tribe -_Cassieae_ of the order Leguminosae, the sole species of its genus, and -widely diffused spontaneously and by cultivation from Spain to the -eastern Mediterranean regions. The name of the genus is derived from the -often curved pod (Gr. [Greek: keration], a little horn). The flowers -have no petals and are polygamous or dioecious (male, female and -hermaphrodite flowers occur). The seed-pod is compressed, often curved, -indehiscent and coriaceous, but with sweet pulpy divisions between the -seeds, which, as in other genera of the _Cassieae_, are albuminous. The -pods are eaten by men and animals, and in Sicily a spirit and a syrup -are made from them. These husks being often used for swine are called -swine's bread, and are probably referred to in the parable of the -Prodigal Son. It is also called St John's bread, from a misunderstanding -of Matt. iii. 4. The carob-tree was regarded by Sprengel as the tree -with which Moses sweetened the bitter waters of Marah (Exod. xv. 25), as -the _kharrub_, according to Avicenna (p. 205), has the property of -sweetening salt and bitter waters. Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1241) -cultivated it in 1597, it having been introduced in 1570. - - - - -LODEVE, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondissement of the -department of Herault, 36 m. W.N.W. of Montpellier by rail. Pop. (1906), -6142. It is situated in the southern Cevennes at the foot of steep hills -in a small valley where the Soulondres joins the Lergue, a tributary of -the Herault. Two bridges over the Lergue connect the town with the -faubourg of Carmes on the left bank of the river, and two others over -the Soulondres lead to the extensive ruins of the chateau de Montbrun -(13th century). The old fortified cathedral of St Fulcran, founded by -him in 950, dates in its present condition from the 13th, 14th and 16th -centuries; the cloister, dating from the 15th and 17th centuries, is in -ruins. In the picturesque environs of the town stands the well-preserved -monastery of St Michel de Grammont, dating from the 12th century and now -used as farm buildings. In the neighbourhood are three fine dolmens. The -manufacture of woollens for army clothing is the chief industry. Wool is -imported in large quantities from the neighbouring departments, and from -Morocco; the exports are cloth to Italy and the Levant, wine, brandy and -wood. The town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board -of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a communal -college. - -Lodeve (Luteva) existed before the invasion of the Romans, who for some -time called it _Forum Neronis_. The inhabitants were converted to -Christianity by St Flour, first bishop of the city, about 323. After -passing successively into the hands of the Visigoths, the Franks, the -Ostrogoths, the Arabs and the Carolingians, it became in the 9th century -a separate countship, and afterwards the domain of its bishops. During -the religious wars it suffered much, especially in 1573, when it was -sacked. It ceased to be an episcopal see at the Revolution. - - - - -LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839), English writer on heraldry, was born in -London on the 13th of June 1756, son of Edmund Lodge, rector of -Carshalton, Surrey. He held a cornet's commission in the army, which he -resigned in 1773. In 1782 he became Bluemantle pursuivant-at-arms in the -College of Arms. He subsequently became Lancaster herald, Norroy -king-at-arms, Clarencieux king-at-arms, and, in 1832, knight of the -order of the Guelphs of Hanover. He died in London on the 16th of -January 1839. He wrote _Illustrations of British History_, _Biography -and Manners in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth -and James I._ ... (3 vols., 1791), consisting of selections from the -MSS. of the Howard, Talbot and Cecil families preserved at the College -of Arms; _Life of Sir Julius Caesar ..._ (2nd ed., 1827). He contributed -the literary matter to _Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great -Britain_ (1814, &c.), an elaborate work of which a popular edition is -included in Bohn's "Illustrated Library." His most important work on -heraldry was _The Genealogy of the existing British Peerage ..._ (1832; -enlarged edition, 1859). In _The Annual Peerage and Baronetage_ -(1827-1829), reissued after 1832 as _Peerage of the British Empire_, and -generally known as Lodge's Peerage, his share did not go beyond the -title-page. - - - - -LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850- ), American political leader and author, was -born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 12th of May 1850. He graduated at -Harvard College in 1871 and at the Harvard Law School in 1875; was -admitted to the Suffolk (Massachusetts) bar in 1876; and in 1876-1879 -was instructor in American history at Harvard. He was a member of the -Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1880-1881, and of the National -House of Representatives in 1887-1893; succeeded Henry L. Dawes as -United States Senator from Massachusetts in 1893; and in 1899 and in -1905 was re-elected to the Senate, where he became one of the most -prominent of the Republican leaders, and an influential supporter of -President Roosevelt. He was a member of the Alaskan Boundary Commission -of 1903, and of the United States Immigration Commission of 1907. In the -National Republican Convention of 1896 his influence did much to secure -the adoption of the gold standard "plank" of the party's platform. He -was the permanent chairman of the National Republican Convention of -1900, and of that of 1908. In 1874-1876 he edited the _North American -Review_ with Henry Adams; and in 1879-1882, with John T. Morse, Jr., he -edited the _International Review_. In 1884-1890 he was an overseer of -Harvard College. His doctoral thesis at Harvard was published with -essays by Henry Adams, J. L. Laughlin and Ernest Young, under the title -_Essays on Anglo-Saxon Land Law_ (1876). He wrote: _Life and Letters of -George Cabot_ (1877); _Alexander Hamilton_ (1882), _Daniel Webster_ -(1883) and _George Washington_ (2 vols., 1889), in the "American -Statesmen" series; _A Short History of the English Colonies in America_ -(1881); _Studies in History_ (1884); _Boston_ (1891), in the "Historic -Towns" series; _Historical and Political Essays_ (1892); with Theodore -Roosevelt, _Hero Tales from American History_ (1895); _Certain Accepted -Heroes_ (1897); _The Story of the American Revolution_ (2 vols., 1898); -_The War with Spain_ (1899); _A Fighting Frigate_ (1902); _A Frontier -Town_ (1906); and, with J. W. Garner, _A History of the United States_ -(4 vols., 1906). He edited _The Works of Alexander Hamilton_ (9 vols., -1885-1886) and _The Federalist_ (1891). - -His son, GEORGE CABOT LODGE (1873-1909), also became known as an author, -with _The Song of the Wave_ (1898), _Poems, 1899-1902_ (1902), _The -Great Adventure_ (1905), _Cain: a Drama_ (1904), _Herakles_ (1908) and -other verse. - - - - -LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851- ), English physicist, was born at -Penkhull, Staffordshire, on the 12th of June 1851, and was educated at -Newport (Salop) grammar school. He was intended for a business career, -but being attracted to science he entered University College, London, in -1872, graduating D.Sc. at London University in 1877. In 1875 he was -appointed reader in natural philosophy at Bedford College for Women, and -in 1879 he became assistant professor of applied mathematics at -University College, London. Two years later he was called to the chair -of physics in University College, Liverpool, where he remained till in -1900 he was chosen first principal of the new Birmingham University. He -was knighted in 1902. His original work includes investigations on -lightning, the seat of the electromotive force in the voltaic cell, the -phenomena of electrolysis and the speed of the ion, electromagnetic -waves and wireless telegraphy, the motion of the aether near the earth, -and the application of electricity to the dispersal of fog and smoke. He -presided over the mathematical and physical section of the British -Association in 1891, and served as president of the Physical Society in -1899-1900 and of the Society for Psychical Research in 1901-1904. In -addition to numerous scientific memoirs he wrote, among other works, -_Lightning Conductors and Lightning Guards_, _Signalling without Wires_, -_Modern Views of Electricity_, _Electrons_ and _The Ether of Space_, -together with various books and papers of a metaphysical and theological -character. - - - - -LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558-1625), English dramatist and miscellaneous -writer, was born about 1558 at West Ham. He was the second son of Sir -Thomas Lodge, who was lord mayor of London in 1562-1563. He was educated -at Merchant Taylors' School and Trinity College, Oxford; taking his B.A. -degree in 1577 and that of M.A. in 1581. In 1578 he entered Lincoln's -Inn, where, as in the other Inns of Court, a love of letters and a crop -of debts and difficulties were alike wont to spring up in a kindly soil. -Lodge, apparently in disregard of the wishes of his family, speedily -showed his inclination towards the looser ways of life and the lighter -aspects of literature. When the penitent Stephen Gosson had (in 1579) -published his _Schoole of Abuse_, Lodge took up the glove in his -_Defence of Poetry, Music and Stage Plays_ (1579 or 1580; reprinted for -the Shakespeare Society, 1853), which shows a certain restraint, though -neither deficient in force of invective nor backward in display of -erudition. The pamphlet was prohibited, but appears to have been -circulated privately. It was answered by Gosson in his _Playes Confuted -in Five Actions_; and Lodge retorted with his _Alarum Against Usurers_ -(1584, reprinted ib.)--a "tract for the times" which no doubt was in -some measure indebted to the author's personal experience. In the same -year he produced the first tale written by him on his own account in -prose and verse, _The Delectable History of Forbonius and Prisceria_, -both published and reprinted with the _Alarum_. From 1587 onwards he -seems to have made a series of attempts as a playwright, though most of -those attributed to him are mainly conjectural. That he ever became an -actor is improbable in itself, and Collier's conclusion to that effect -rested on the two assumptions that the "Lodge" of Henslowe's M.S. was a -player and that his name was Thomas, neither of which is supported by -the text (see C. M. Ingleby, _Was Thomas Lodge an Actor?_ 1868). Having, -in the spirit of his age, "tried the waves" with Captain Clarke in his -expedition to Terceira and the Canaries, Lodge in 1591 made a voyage -with Thomas Cavendish to Brazil and the Straits of Magellan, returning -home by 1593. During the Canaries expedition, to beguile the tedium of -his voyage, he composed his prose tale of _Rosalynde, Euphues' Golden -Legacie_, which, printed in 1590, afterwards furnished the story of -Shakespeare's _As You Like It_. The novel, which in its turn owes some, -though no very considerable, debt to the medieval _Tale of Gamelyn_ -(unwarrantably appended to the fragmentary _Cookes Tale_ in certain MSS. -of Chaucer's works), is written in the euphuistic manner, but decidedly -attractive both by its plot and by the situations arising from it. It -has been frequently reprinted. Before starting on his second expedition -he had published an historical romance, _The History of Robert, Second -Duke of Normandy, surnamed Robert the Divell_; and he left behind him -for publication _Catharos, Diogenes in his Singularity_, a discourse on -the immorality of Athens (London). Both appeared in 1591. Another -romance in the manner of Lyly, _Euphues Shadow, the Battaile of the -Sences_ (1592), appeared while Lodge was still on his travels. His -second historical romance, the _Life and Death of William Longbeard_ -(1593), was more successful than the first. Lodge also brought back with -him from the new world _A Margarite of America_ (published 1596), a -romance of the same description interspersed with many lyrics. Already -in 1589 Lodge had given to the world a volume of poems bearing the title -of the chief among them, _Scillaes Metamorphosis, Enterlaced with the -Unfortunate Love of Glaucus_, more briefly known as _Glaucus and Scilla_ -(reprinted with preface by S. W. Singer in 1819). To this tale -Shakespeare was possibly indebted for the idea of _Venus and Adonis_. -Some readers would perhaps be prepared to give up this and much else of -Lodge's sugared verse, fine though much of it is in quality, largely -borrowed from other writers, French and Italian in particular, in -exchange for the lost _Sailor's Kalendar_, in which he must in one way -or another have recounted his sea adventures. If Lodge, as has been -supposed, was the Alcon in _Colin Clout's come Home Again_, it may have -been the influence of Spenser which led to the composition of _Phillis_, -a volume of sonnets, in which the voice of nature seems only now and -then to become audible, published with the narrative poem, _The -Complaynte of Elstred_, in 1593. _A Fig for Momus_, on the strength of -which he has been called the earliest English satirist, and which -contains eclogues addressed to Daniel and others, an epistle addressed -to Drayton, and other pieces, appeared in 1595. Lodge's ascertained -dramatic work is small in quantity. In conjunction with Greene he, -probably in 1590, produced in a popular vein the odd but far from feeble -play of _A Looking Glasse for London and England_ (printed in 1594). He -had already written _The Wounds of Civile War. Lively set forth in the -Tragedies of Marius and Scilla_ (produced perhaps as early as 1587, and -published in 1594), a good second-rate piece in the half-chronicle -fashion of its age. Mr F. G. Fleay thinks there were grounds for -assigning to Lodge _Mucedorus and Amadine_, played by the Queen's Men -about 1588, a share with Robert Greene in _George a Greene, the Pinner -of Wakefield_, and in Shakespeare's 2nd part of _Henry VI._; he also -regards him as at least part-author of _The True Chronicle of King Leir -and his three Daughters_ (1594); and _The Troublesome Raigne of John, -King of England_ (c. 1588); in the case of two other plays he allowed -the assignation to Lodge to be purely conjectural. That Lodge is the -"Young Juvenal" of Greene's _Groatsworth of Wit_ is no longer a -generally accepted hypothesis. In the latter part of his life--possibly -about 1596, when he published his _Wits Miserie_ and the _World's -Madnesse_, which is dated from Low Leyton in Essex, and the religious -tract _Prosopopeia_ (if, as seems probable, it was his), in which he -repents him of his "lewd lines" of other days--he became a Catholic and -engaged in the practice of medicine, for which Wood says he qualified -himself by a degree at Avignon in 1600. Two years afterwards he received -the degree of M.D. from Oxford University. His works henceforth have a -sober cast, comprising translations of Josephus (1602), of Seneca -(1614), a _Learned Summary_ of Du Bartas's _Divine Sepmaine_ (1625 and -1637), besides a _Treatise of the Plague_ (1603), and a popular manual, -which remained unpublished, on _Domestic Medicine_. Early in 1606 he -seems to have left England, to escape the persecution then directed -against the Catholics; and a letter from him dated 1610 thanks the -English ambassador in Paris for enabling him to return in safety. He was -abroad on urgent private affairs of one kind and another in 1616. From -this time to his death in 1625 nothing further concerning him remains to -be noted. - - Lodge's works, with the exception of his translations, have been - reprinted for the Hunterian Club with an introductory essay by Mr - Edmund Gosse. This preface was reprinted in Mr Gosse's _Seventeenth - Century Studies_ (1883). Of _Rosalynde_ there are numerous modern - editions. See also J. J. Jusserand, _English Novel in the Time of - Shakespeare_ (Eng. trans., 1890); F. G. Fleay, _Biographical Chronicle - of the English Drama_ (vol. ii., 1891). (A. W. W.) - - - - -LODGE, a dwelling-place, small and usually temporary, a hut, booth or -tent. The word was in M. Eng. _logge_, from Fr. _loge_, arbour, in -modern French a hut; also box in a theatre; the French word, like the -Italian _loggia_, came from the Med. Lat. _laubia_ or _lobia_, the -sheltered promenade in a cloister, from which English "lobby" is -derived. The Latin is of Teutonic origin from the word which survives in -the Mod. Ger. _Laube_, an arbour, but which earlier was used for any -hut, booth, &c. The word is probably ultimately from the root which -appears in "leaf," meaning a rough shelter of foliage or boughs. The -word is especially used of a house built either in a forest or away from -habitation, where people stay for the purpose of sport, as a "hunting -lodge," "shooting lodge," &c. The most frequent use of the word is of a -small building, usually placed at the entrance to an estate or park and -inhabited by a dependant of the owner. In the same sense the word means -the room or box inhabited by the porter of a college, factory or public -institution. Among Freemasons and other societies the "lodge" is the -name given to the meeting-place of the members of the branch or -district, and is applied to the members collectively as "a meeting of -the lodge." The governing body of the Freemasons presided over by the -grand master is called the "Grand Lodge." At the university of Cambridge -the house where the head of a college lives is called the "lodge." -Formerly the word was used of the den or lair of an animal, but is now -only applied to that of the beaver and the otter. It is also applied to -the tent of a North American Indian, a wigwam or tepee, and to the -number of inhabitants of such a tent. In mining the term is used of a -subterraneous reservoir made at the bottom of the pit, or at different -levels in the shaft for the purpose of draining the mine. It is used -also of a room or landing-place next to the shaft, for discharging ore, -&c. - - - - -LODGER AND LODGINGS. The term "lodger" (Fr. _loger_, to lodge) is used -in English law in several slightly different senses. It is applied (i.) -most frequently and properly to a person who takes furnished rooms in a -house, the landlord also residing on the premises, and supplying him -with attendance; (ii.) sometimes to a person, who takes unfurnished -rooms in a house finding his own attendance; (iii.) to a boarder in a -boarding-house (q.v.). It is with (i.) and (ii.) alone that this article -is concerned. - -Where furnished apartments are let for immediate use, the law implies an -undertaking on the part of the landlord that they are fit for -habitation, and, if this condition is broken, the tenant may refuse to -occupy the premises or to pay any rent. But there is no implied contract -that the apartments shall _continue_ fit for habitation; and the rule -has no application in the case of unfurnished lodgings. In the absence -of express agreement to the contrary, a lodger has a right to the use of -everything necessary to the enjoyment of the premises, such as the door -bell and knocker and the skylight of a staircase, whether the rent of -apartments can be distrained for by the immediate landlord where he -resides on the premises and supplies attendance is a question the answer -to which is involved in some uncertainty. The weight of authority seems -to support the negative view (see Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_, 3rd ed. p. -434). To make good a right to distrain it is necessary to show that the -terms of the letting create a tenancy or exclusive occupation and not a -mere licence, where the owner, although residing on the premises, does -not supply attendance, the question depends on whether there is a real -tenancy, giving the lodger an exclusive right of occupation as against -the owner. The ordinary test is whether the lodger has the control of -the outer door. But the whole circumstances of each case have to be -taken account of. A lodger is rateable to the poor-rate where he is in -exclusive occupation of the apartments let to him, and the landlord does -not retain the control and dominion of the whole structure. As to -distress on a lodger's goods for rent due by an immediate to a superior -landlord, see RENT. As to the termination of short tenancies, as of -apartments, see LANDLORD AND TENANT. The landlord has no lien on the -goods of the lodger for rent or charges. Overcrowding lodging-houses may -be dealt with as a nuisance under the Public Health Acts 1875 and 1891 -and the Housing of the Working Classes Acts. As to the lodger franchise, -see REGISTRATION OF VOTERS. It has been held in England that keepers of -lodging-houses do not come within the category of those persons (see -CARRIER; INNKEEPER) who hold themselves out to the public generally as -trustworthy in certain employments; but that they are under an -obligation to take reasonable care for the safety of their lodgers' -goods; see _Scarborough_ v. _Cosgrove_, 1905, 2 K.B. 805. As to Scots -Law see Bell's _Prin._ s. 236 (4). - -In the United States, the English doctrine of an implied warranty of -fitness for habitation on a letting of furnished apartments has only met -with partial acceptance; it was repudiated, e.g. in the District of -Columbia, but has been accepted in Massachusetts. In the French _Code -Civil_, there are some special rules with regard to furnished -apartments. The letting is reputed to be made for a year, a month or a -day, according as the rent is so much per year, per month or per day; if -that test is inapplicable, the letting is deemed to be made according to -the custom of the place (art. 1758). There are similar provisions in the -Civil Codes of Belgium (art. 1758), Holland (art. 1622) and Spain (Civil -Code, art. 1581). - - See also the articles, BOARDING HOUSE, and FLAT; and the - bibliographies to FLAT and LANDLORD AND TENANT. (A. W. R.) - - - - -LODI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of -Milan, 20(1/2) m. by rail S.E. of that city, on a hill above the right -bank of the Adda, 230 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 19,970 (town), -26,827 (commune). The site of the city is an eminence rising very -gradually from the Lombard plain, and the surrounding country is one of -the richest dairy districts in Italy. The cathedral (1158), with a -Gothic facade and a 16th-century lateral tower, has a restored interior. -The church of the Incoronata was erected by Battaggio (1488) in the -Bramantesque style. It is an elegant octagonal domed structure, and is -decorated with frescoes by the Piazza family, natives of the town, and -four large altar-pieces by Calisto Piazza (died after 1561). There is a -fine organ of 1507. The 13th-century Gothic church of San Francesco, -restored in 1889, with 14th-century paintings, is also noticeable. The -Palazzo Modegnani has a fine gateway in the style of Bramante, and the -hospital a cloistered quadrangle. In the Via Pompeia is an early -Renaissance house with fine decorations in marble and terra-cotta. -Besides an extensive trade in cheese (Lodi producing more Parmesan than -Parma itself) and other dairy produce, there are manufactures of linen, -silk, majolica and chemicals. - -The ancient Laus Pompeia lay 3(1/2) m. W. of the present city, and the -site is still occupied by a considerable village, Lodi Vecchio, with the -old cathedral of S. Bassiano, now a brick building, which contains -15th-century frescoes. It was the point where the roads from Mediolanum -to Placentia and Cremona diverged, and there was also a road to Ticinum -turning off from the former, but it is hardly mentioned by classical -writers. It appears to have been a _municipium_. No ruins exist above -ground, but various antiquities have been found here. From which -Pompeius, whether Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who gave citizenship to the -Transpadani, or his son, the more famous Pompey, it took its name is not -certain. In the middle ages Lodi was second to Milan among the cities of -northern Italy. A dispute with the archbishop of Milan about the -investiture of the bishop of Lodi (1024) proved the beginning of a -protracted feud between the two cities. In 1111 the Milanese laid the -whole place in ruins and forbade their rivals to restore what they had -destroyed, and in 1158, when in spite of this prohibition a fairly -flourishing settlement had again been formed, they repeated their work -in a more thorough manner. A number of the Lodigians had settled on -Colle Eghezzone; and their village, the Borgo d'Isella, on the site of a -temple of Hercules, soon grew up under the patronage of Frederick -Barbarossa into a new city of Lodi (1162). At first subservient to the -emperor, Lodi was before long compelled to enter the Lombard League, and -in 1198 it formed alliance offensive and defensive with Milan. The -strife between the Sommariva or aristocratic party and the Overgnaghi or -democratic party was so severe that the city divided into two distinct -communes. The Overgnaghi, expelled in 1236, were restored by Frederick -II. who took the city after three months' siege. Lodi was actively -concerned in the rest of the Guelph and Ghibelline struggle. In 1416 its -ruler, Giovanni Vignati, was treacherously taken prisoner by Filippo -Maria Visconti, and after that time it became dependent on Milan. The -duke of Brunswick captured it in 1625, in the interests of Spain; and it -was occupied by the French (1701), by the Austrians (1706), by the king -of Sardinia (1733), by the Austrians (1736), by the Spaniards (1745), -and again by the Austrians (1746). On the 10th of May 1796 was fought -the battle of Lodi between the Austrians and Napoleon, which made the -latter master of Lombardy. - - - - -LODZ (_Lodz_; more correctly _Lodzia_), a town of Russian Poland, in the -government of Piotrkow, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Warsaw. It is situated on -the Lodz plateau, which at the beginning of the 19th century was covered -with impenetrable forests. Now it is the centre of a group of industrial -towns--Zgerz, Leczyca, Pabianice, Konstantinov and Aleksandrov. Chiefly -owing to a considerable immigration of German capitalists and workers, -Lodz has grown with American-like rapidity. It consists principally of -one main street, 7 m. long, and is a sort of Polish Manchester, -manufacturing cottons, woollens and mixed stuffs, with chemicals, beer, -machinery and silk. One of the very few educational institutions is a -professional industrial school. The population, which was only 50,000 in -1872, reached 351,570 in 1900; the Poles numbering about 37%, Germans -40% and Jews 22(1/2)%. - - - - -LOESS (Ger. _Loss_), in geology, a variety of loam. Typical loess is a -soft, porous rock, pale yellowish or buff in colour; one characteristic -property is its capacity to retain vertical, or even over-hanging, walls -in the banks of streams. These vertical walls have been well described -by von Richthofen (_Fuhrer fur Forschungsreisende_, Berlin, 1886) in -China, where they stand in some places 500 ft. high and contain -innumerable cave dwellings; ancient roads too have worn their way -vertically downwards deep into the deposit, forming trench-like ways. -This character in the loess of the Mississippi region gave rise to the -name "Bluff formation." A coarse columnar structure is often exhibited -on the vertical weathered faces of the rock. Another characteristic is -the presence throughout the rock of small capillary tubules, which -appear to have been occupied by rootlets; these are often lined with -calcite. Typical loess is usually calcareous; some geologists regard -this as an essential property, and when the rock has become decalcified, -as it frequently is on the surface by weathering, they call it -"loess-loam" (_losslehm_). In the lower portions of a loess deposit the -calcium carbonate tends to form concretions, which on account of their -mimetic forms have received such names as _losskindchen_, _losspuppen_, -_poupees du loess_, "loess dolls." In deposits of this nature in South -America these concretionary masses form distinct beds. Bedding is absent -from typical loess. The mineral composition of loess varies somewhat in -different regions, but the particles are always small; they consist of -angular grains of quartz, fine particles of hydrated silicates of -alumina, mica scales and undecomposed fragments of felspar, hornblende -and other rock-forming silicates. - - In Europe and America loess deposits are associated with the margins - of the great ice sheets of the glacial period; thus in Europe they - stretch irregularly through the centre eastwards from the north-west - of France, and are not found north of the 57th parallel. In both - regions loess deposits are found within and upon glacial deposits. For - this reason the loess is very commonly assigned to the Pleistocene - period; but some of the loess deposits of northern Europe have been in - process of formation intermittently from the Miocene period onward, - and in South America the great loess formations known as the Pampean - or Patagonian belong to the Eocene, Oligocene and Pleistocene periods. - Most geologists are agreed that the loess is an aeolian or wind-borne - rock, formed most probably during periods of tundra or steppe - conditions. The capillary tubules are supposed to have been caused by - the roots of grass and herbage which kept growing upon the surface - even while the deposit was slowly increasing. Others contend that - loess is of the nature of alluvial loam; this may be true of certain - deposits classed as loess, but it cannot be true of most of the - typical loess formations, for they lie upon older rocks quite - independently of altitude, from near sea level up to 5000 ft. in - Europe and to 11,500 ft. in China; they are often developed on one - side of a mountain range and not upon the other, and in a series of - approximately parallel valleys the loess is frequently found lying - upon one side and that the same in each case, facts pointing to the - agency of prevalent winds. - - The thickness of loess deposits is usually not more than 33 ft., but - in China it reaches 1000 ft. or more; it also attains a great - thickness in South America. Numerous proboscidian and other mammalian - fossils have been found in the loess of Europe; the tapir, mastodon - and giant sloths occur in South America, but the most common fossils - are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms as _Succinea_. - Certain loess deposits in Turkestan have been attributed to rain-wash, - this is the so-called "lake-loess" (_see-loss_); according to Tukowski - the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that the former is - porous, dry and pervious, while the latter is laminated, plastic and - impervious. Two types of loess have been recognized in Russia, the - Hill- or Terrace-loess and the Low-level-loess, a product of the - weathering of underlying rocks. In South Germany the following order - has been recognized: (1) an upper unbedded, non-calcareous loess, (2) - the _gehangloss_, mixed with subsoil rocks, and (3) the sand or - _thal-loss_, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation on the upper - layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility, such as the - black earth (_Tschernozom_) of southern Russia, the dark _Bordeloss_ - of the Magdeburg district, and the black "cotton soil" (_regur_) of - the Deccan. - - - - -LOFFT, CAPEL (1751-1824), English miscellaneous writer, was born in -London on the 14th of November 1751. He was educated at Eton, and -Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he left to become a member of Lincoln's -Inn. He was called to the bar in 1775, and left by his father's and -uncle's deaths with a handsome property and the family estates. He was a -prolific writer on a variety of topics, and a vigorous contentious -advocate of parliamentary and other reforms, and carried on a voluminous -correspondence with all the literary men of his time. He became the -patron of Robert Bloomfield, the author of _The Farmer's Boy_, and -secured for him the very successful publication of that work. Byron, in -a note to his _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, ridiculed Lofft as -"the Maecenas of shoemakers and preface-writer general to distressed -versemen; a kind of gratis _accoucheur_ to those who wish to be -delivered of rhyme, but do not know how to bring forth." He died at -Montcalieri, near Turin, on the 26th of May 1824. - -His fourth son Capel Lofft, the younger (1806-1873), also a writer on -various topics, inherited his father's liberal ideas and principles, and -carried them in youth to greater extremes. In his old age he abandoned -these theories, which had brought him into the company of some of the -leading political agitators of the day. He died in America, where he had -a Virginia estate. - - - - -LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN, a large and picturesque group of islands lying -N.E. and S.W. off the N.W. coast of Norway, between 67 deg. 30' and 69 -deg. 20' N., and between 12 deg. and 16 deg. 35' E. forming part of the -_amt_ (county) of Nordland. The extreme length of the group from -Andenaes, at the north of Ando, to Rost, is about 150 m.; the aggregate -area about 1560 sq. m. It is separated from the mainland by the -Vestfjord, Tjaeldsund and Vaagsfjord, and is divided into two sections -by the Raftsund between Hindo and Ost-Vaago. To the W. and S. of the -Raftsund lie the Lofoten Islands proper, of which the most important are -Ost-Vaago, Gimso, Vest-Vaago, Flakstado, Moskenaeso, Mosken, Varo and -Rost; E. and N. of the Raftsund are the islands of Vesteraalen, the -chief being Hindo, Ulvo, Lango, Skogso and Ando. The islands, which are -all of granite or metamorphic gneiss, are precipitous and lofty. The -highest points and finest scenery are found on Ost-Vaago, in the -neighbourhood of the narrow, cliff-bound Raftsund and Troldfjord. The -principal peaks are Higrafstind (3811 ft.), Gjeitgaljartind (3555), -Rulten (3483), the Noldtinder (3467), Svartsundtind (3506). The long -line of jagged and fantastic peaks seen from the Vestfjord forms one of -the most striking prospects on the Norwegian coast, but still finer is -the panorama from the Digermuler (1150 ft.), embracing the islands, the -Vestfjord, and the mountains of the mainland. The channels which -separate the islands are narrow and tortuous, and generally of great -depth; they are remarkable for the strength of their tidal currents, -particularly the Raftsund and the famous Maelstrom or Moskenstrom -between Moskenaes and Mosken. The violent tempests which sweep over the -Vestfjord, which is exposed to the S.W., are graphically described in -Jonas Lie's _Den Fremsynte_ (1870) and in H. Schultze's _Udvalgte -Skrifter_ (1883), as the Maelstrom is imaginatively by Edgar Allan Poe. -Though situated wholly within the Arctic circle, the climate of the -Lofoten and Vesteraalen group is not rigorous when compared with that of -the rest of Norway. The isothermal line which marks a mean January -temperature of 32 deg. F. runs south from the Lofotens, passing a little -to the east of Bergen onward to Gothenburg and Copenhagen. The -prevailing winds are from the S. and W., the mean temperature for the -year is 38.5 deg. F., and the annual rainfall is 43.34 in. In summer the -hills have only patches of snow, the snow limit being about 3000 ft. The -natural pasture produced in favourable localities permits the rearing of -cattle to some extent; but the growth of cereals (chiefly barley, which -here matures in ninety days) is insignificant. The islands yield no -wood. The characteristic industry, and an important source of the -national wealth, is the cod fishery carried on along the east coast of -the Lofotens in the Vestfjord in spring. This employs about 40,000 men -during the season from all parts of Norway, the population being then -about doubled, and the surplus accommodated in temporary huts. The -average yield is valued at about L35,000. The fish are taken in nets let -down during the night, or on lines upwards of a mile in length, or on -ordinary hand-lines. The fishermen are paid in cash, and large sums of -money are sent to the islands by the Norwegian banks each February. -Great loss of life is frequent during the sudden local storms. The fish, -which is dried during early summer, is exported to Spain (where it is -known as _bacalao_), Holland, Great Britain, Belgium, &c. Industries -arising out of the fishery are the manufacture of cod-liver oil and of -artificial manure. The summer cod fisheries and the lobster fishery are -also valuable. The herring is taken in large quantities off the west -coasts of Vesteraalen, but is a somewhat capricious visitant. The -islands contain no towns properly so called, but Kabelvaag on Ost-Vaago -and Svolvaer on a few rocky islets off that island are considerable -centres of trade and (in the fishing season) of population; Lodingen -also, at the head of the Vestfjord on Hindo, is much frequented as a -port of call. A church existed at Vaagen (Kabelvaag) in the 12th -century, and here Hans Egede, the missionary of Greenland, was pastor. -There are factories for fish guano at Henningvaer (Ost-Vaago), -Kabelvaag, Svolvaer, Lodingen, and at Bretesnas on Store Molla. Regular -means of communication are afforded by the steamers which trade between -Hamburg or Christiania and Hammerfest, and also by local vessels; less -accessible spots can be visited by small boats, in the management of -which the natives are adepts. There are some roads on Hindo, Lango, and -Ando. The largest island in the group, and indeed in Norway, is Hindo, -with an area of 860 sq. m. The south-eastern portion of it belongs to -the _amt_ of Tromso. In the island of Ando there is a bed of coal at the -mouth of Ramsaa. - - - - -LOFT (connected with "lift," i.e. raised in the air; O. Eng. _lyft_; cf. -Ger. _Luft_; the French term is _grenier_ and Ger. _Boden_), the term -given in architecture to an upper room in the roof, sometimes called -"cockloft"; when applied over stabling it is known as a hay-loft; the -gallery over a chancel screen, carrying a cross, is called a rood-loft -(see ROOD). The term is also given to a gallery provided in the -choir-aisle of a cathedral or church, and used as a watching-loft at -night. - - - - -LOFTUS, ADAM (c. 1533-1605), archbishop of Armagh and Dublin, and lord -chancellor of Ireland, the son of a Yorkshire gentleman, was educated at -Cambridge. He accompanied the earl of Sussex to Ireland as his chaplain -in 1560, and three years later was consecrated archbishop of Armagh by -Hugh Curwen, archbishop of Dublin. In 1565 Queen Elizabeth, to -supplement the meagre income derivable from the archiepiscopal see owing -to the disturbed state of the country, appointed Loftus temporarily to -the deanery of St Patrick's; and in the same year he became president of -the new commission for ecclesiastical causes. In 1567 he was translated -to the archbishopric of Dublin, where the queen looked to him to carry -out reforms in the Church. On several occasions he temporarily executed -the functions of lord keeper, and in August 1581 he was appointed lord -chancellor of Ireland. Loftus was constantly occupied in attempts to -improve his financial position by obtaining additional preferment. He -had been obliged to resign the deanery of St Patrick's in 1567, and -twenty years later he quarrelled violently with Sir John Perrot, the -lord deputy, over the proposal to appropriate the revenues of the -cathedral to the foundation of a university. Loftus, however, favoured -the project of founding a university in Dublin, though on lines -different from Perrot's proposal, and it was largely through his -influence that the corporation of Dublin granted the lands of the priory -of All Hallows as a beginning of the endowment of Trinity College, of -which he was named first provost in the charter creating the foundation -in 1591. Loftus, who had an important share in the administration of -Ireland under successive lords deputy, and whose zeal and efficiency -were commended by James I. on his accession, died in Dublin on the 5th -of April 1605. By his wife, Jane Purdon, he had twenty children. - -His brother Robert was father of ADAM LOFTUS (c. 1568-1643), who became -lord chancellor of Ireland in 1619, and in 1622 was created Viscount -Loftus of Ely, King's county, in the peerage of Ireland. Lord Loftus -came into violent conflict with the lord deputy, Viscount Falkland, in -1624; and at a later date his quarrel with Strafford was still more -fierce. One of the articles in Strafford's impeachment was based on his -dealings with Loftus. The title, which became extinct on the death of -his grandson, the 3rd viscount, in 1725 (when the family estate of -Monasterevan, re-named Moore Abbey, passed to his daughter's son Henry, -4th earl of Drogheda), was re-granted in 1756 to his cousin Nicholas -Loftus, a lineal descendant of the archbishop. It again became extinct -more than once afterwards, but was on each occasion revived in favour of -a descendant through the female line; and it is now held by the marquis -of Ely in conjunction with other family titles. - - See Richard Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (2 vols., London, - 1840); J. R. O'Flanagan, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland_ (2 - vols., London, 1870); John D'Alton, _Memoirs of the Archbishops of - Dublin_ (Dublin, 1838); Henry Cotton, _Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae_ (5 - vols., Dublin, 1848-1878); William Monck Mason, _History and - Antiquities of the College and Cathedral Church of St Patrick, near - Dublin_ (Dublin, 1819); G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_ vol. iii., sub. - "Ely" (London, 1890). - - - - -LOG (a word of uncertain etymological origin, possibly onomatopoeic; the -_New English Dictionary_ rejects the derivation from Norwegian _lag_, a -fallen tree), a large piece of generally unhewn, wood. The word is also -used in various figurative senses, and more particularly for the -"nautical log," an apparatus for ascertaining the speed of ships. Its -employment in this sense depends on the fact that a piece of wood -attached to a line was thrown overboard to lie like a log in a fixed -position, motionless, the vessel's speed being calculated by observing -what length of line ran out in a given time ("common log"); and the word -has been retained for the modern "patent" or "continuous" log, though it -works in an entirely different manner. - -The origin of the "common log" is obscure, but the beginnings of the -"continuous log" may be traced back to the 16th century. By an invention -probably due to Humfray Cole and published in 1578 by William Bourne in -his _Inventions and Devices_, it was proposed to register a ship's speed -by means of a "little small close boat," with a wheel, or wheels, and an -axle-tree to turn clockwork in the little boat, with dials and pointers -indicating fathoms, leagues, scores of leagues and hundreds of leagues. -About 1668 Dr R. Hooke showed some members of the Royal Society an -instrument for the same purpose, depending on a vane or fly which -rotated as the vessel progressed (Birch, _History of the Royal Society_, -iv. 231), and Sir Isaac Newton in 1715 reported unfavourably on the -"marine surveyor" of Henry de Saumarez, which also depended on a -rotator. Conradus Mel in his _Antiquarius Sacer_ (1719) described a -"pantometron nauticum" which he claimed would show without calculation -the distance sailed by the ship; and J. Smeaton in 1754 published -improvements on the apparatus of Saumarez. William Foxon of Deptford in -1772, James Guerimand of Middlesex in 1776 (by his "marine -perambulator"), and R. H. Gower in 1772, practically demonstrated the -registration of a vessel's speed by mechanical means. Viscount de Vaux -in 1807 made use of water-pressure, as did the Rev. E. L. Berthon in -1849, and C. E. Kelway invented an electrical log in 1876. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -_Common Log._--To ascertain the ship's speed by the common log four -articles are necessary--a log-ship or log-chip, log-reel, log-line and -log-glass. The log-ship (fig. 1) is a wooden quadrant 1/2 in. thick, -with a radius of 5 or 6 in., the circumference of which is weighted with -lead to keep it upright and retard its passage through the water. Two -holes are made near its lower angles. One end of a short piece of thin -line is passed through one of these holes, and knotted; the other end -has spliced to it a hard bone peg which is inserted in the other hole. -The holes are so placed that the log-ship will hang square from the span -thus formed. The log-line is secured to this span and consists of two -parts. The portion nearest the log-ship is known as the "stray line"; -its length varies from 10 to 20 fathoms, but should be sufficient to -ensure that the log-ship shall be outside the disturbing element of the -ship's wake. The point where it joins the other part is marked by a -piece of bunting, and the line from this point towards its other end is -marked at known intervals with "knots," which consist of pieces of cord -worked in between its strands. A mean degree of the meridian being -assumed to be 69.09 statute miles of 5280 ft., the nautical mile (1/60 -degree) is taken as 6080 ft., which is a sufficiently close -approximation for practical purposes, and the distances between the -knots are made to bear the same relation to 6080 ft. as 28 seconds to an -hour (3600 seconds); that is, they are placed at intervals of 47 ft. 3 -in. The end of the first interval of this length (counting from the -piece of bunting) is marked by a bit of leather, the second by a cord -with two knots, the third by one with three knots, and so on; the middle -of each of these lengths (half-knot) is also marked by a cord with one -knot. It follows that, if, say, five knots of the line run out in 28 -seconds, the ship has gone 5 X 47(1/4) ft. in that time, or is moving at -the rate of 5 X 6080 ft. (= five nautical miles) an hour; hence the -common use of knot as equivalent to a nautical mile. In the log-glass -the time is measured by running sand, which, however, is apt to be -affected by the humidity of the atmosphere. Sometimes a 30-second glass -is used instead of a 28-second one, and the intervals between the knots -on the log-line are then made 50 ft. 7 in. instead of 47 ft. 3 in. For -speeds over six knots a 14-second glass is employed, and the speed -indicated by the log-line is doubled. - - The log-line, after being well soaked, stretched and marked with - knots, is wound uniformly on the log-reel, to which its inner end is - securely fastened. To "heave the log," a man holds the log-reel over - his head (at high speeds the man and portable reel are superseded by a - fixed reel and a winch fitted with a brake), and the officer places - the peg in the log-ship, which he then throws clear and to windward of - the ship, allowing the line to run freely out. When the bunting at the - end of the stray line passes his hand, he calls to his assistant to - turn the glass, and allows the line to pay out freely. When all the - sand has run through, the assistant calls "Stop!" when the log-line is - quickly nipped, the knots counted, and the intermediate portion - estimated. The strain on the log-ship when the log-line is nipped, - causes the peg to be withdrawn from it, and the log-ship is readily - hauled in. In normal circumstances, the log is hove every hour. In a - steam vessel running at high speed on an ocean route, with engines - working smoothly and uniformly, a careful officer with correct line - and glass can obtain very accurate results with the common log. - -_Ground Log._--In the deltas of shoal rivers, with a strong tide or -current and no land visible, a 5 lb. lead is substituted for the -log-ship; the lead rests on the bottom, and the speed is obtained in a -manner similar to that previously described. Such a "ground-log" -indicates the actual speed over the ground, and in addition, when the -log-line is being hauled in, it will show the real course the ship is -making over the ground. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The A1 Harpoon Ship Log.] - -_Patent Log._--The screw or rotatory log of Edward Massey, invented in -1802, came into general use in 1836 and continued until 1861. The -registering wheelwork was contained in a shallow rectangular box (fig. -2), with a float plate on its upper side, carrying three indicating -dials, recording respectively fractions, units and tens of miles (up to -a hundred). The rotator was connected to the log by a rope 6 ft. in -length, actuating a universal joint on the first spindle of the -register; it consisted of an air-tight thin metal tube with a coned -fore-end, carrying flat metal vanes set at an angle. Alexander Bain in -1846 suggested enclosing the wheelwork in the rotator. In Thomas -Walker's harpoon or frictionless log, introduced in 1861, the wheelwork -was enclosed in a cylindrical case of the same diameter as the body of -the rotator or fan, and the latter was brought close up to the register, -forming a compact machine and avoiding the use of the 6-ft. line. Two -years later a heart-shaped float plate was attached to the case, and the -log called the A1 Harpoon ship log (fig. 3). The log should be washed in -fresh water when practicable, to prevent oxidization of the wheels, and -be lubricated with suitable oil through a hole in the case. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Cherub Log.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Neptune Pattern for securing Rotator.] - -These logs were towed from the ship, but with quick passages and well -surveyed coasts, the need arose for a patent log which could be readily -consulted from the deck, and from which the distance run under varying -speeds could be quickly ascertained. To meet this requirement, Walker in -1878 introduced the Cherub log (fig. 4), a taffrail one, which, however, -is not as a rule used for speeds over 18 knots. Owing to the increased -friction produced by a rotator making approximately 900 revolutions per -mile, towed at the end of a line varying from 40 fathoms for a 12-knot -speed to 60 fathoms for 20 knots, the pull of the line and rotator is -borne by coned rollers, having their outlines tapering to a common point -in their rotation, thus giving a broad rolling surface. Strong worms and -wheels are substituted for the light clockwork. In fig. 4 the shoe H is -secured to the taffrail, and the rotator in the water is hooked to the -eye of the spindle M by the hook D. The case A contains the registering -wheelwork and a sounding bell. The half gimbal B pivoting in the socket -of the base C allows the register to receive the strain in the direct -line. The bearings and rollers are lubricated with castor oil every -twelve hours through holes in the sliding case E, and can be examined by -unscrewing the case E and the eye M. When not in use, the register is -removed from the shoe by lifting a small screw button near C. The tow -line is usually plaited, and to avoid a knot close to the rotator, the -latter is secured to the former by a knot inside an egg-shaped shell -(fig. 5, Neptune pattern). - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Walker's Neptune Log.] - - Walker's Neptune log (fig. 6) is used for vessels of high speed. Case - A contains the wheelwork, and case E the spindle and steel ball - bearings; in each case are openings, closed by sliding tubes, for - examination and lubrication. In fig. 6 the cases A and E are shown - open. Fig. 7 shows the dial plate. In fig. 8 the ball bearings are - shown unscrewed from the body of the log, with eye, cap and spindle. - They consist of two rows of balls rolling in two pairs of V races or - grooves. The outer pair receive the strain of the rotator, and the - inner are for adjustment and to prevent lateral movement. The balls - and races are enclosed in a skeleton cage (fig. 9) unscrewing from the - cap F (fig. 6) for cleaning or renewal; the adjustment of the bearings - is made by screwing up the cage cap b, locked by a special washer and - the two screws a, a (figs. 8, 9). If the outer races become worn, the - complete cage and bearings are reversed; the strain of the line is - then transferred to what had previously been the inner with - practically unworn balls and races. It is for this purpose that the - skeleton cage is screwed internally at both ends, fitting a screwed - ring inside the cap F (fig. 6). To enable the indications of the log - register on the taffrail to be recorded in the chart room or any other - part of the vessel as desired, a chart room electric register has been - introduced. By means of an electric installation between the log - register aft and the electric register in the chart room, every tenth - of a mile indicated by the former is recorded by the latter. - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Dial-plate of Neptune Log.] - - Walker's Rocket log (fig. 10) is a taffrail one, with bearings of - hardened steel, and is intended to be slung or secured to the taffrail - by a line; the gimbal pattern has a fitting for the deck. In taffrail - logs, the movement of the line owing to its length becomes spasmodic - and jerky, increasing the vibration and friction; to obviate this a - governor or fly-wheel is introduced, the hook of the tow line K (fig. - 11) and the eye of the register M being attached to the governor. Fig. - 11 represents the arrangement fitted to the Neptune log; with the - Cherub log, a small piece of line is introduced between the governor - and the eye of the register. The two principal American taffrail logs - are the Negus and Bliss (Messrs Norie and Wilson). The former bears a - general resemblance to the Cherub log, but the dial plate is - horizontal and the faces turn upwards. The main shaft bearings are in - two sets and composed of steel balls running in steel cones and cups; - the governor is an iron rod about 16 in. long, with 1 in. balls at the - extremities. The Bliss resembles the Rocket log in shape, and is - secured to the taffrail by a rope or sling. A governor is not - employed. The blades of the rotator are adjustable, being fitted into - its tube or body by slits and holes and then soldered. The outer ends - of the blades are slit (fig. 12) to form two tongues, and with the - wrench (fig. 12) the angle of the pitch can be altered. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Ball Bearings of Neptune Log.] - -All patent logs have errors, the amounts of which should be ascertained -by shore observations when passing a well surveyed coast in tideless -waters on a calm day. Constant use, increased friction (more especially -at high speeds), and damage to the rotator will alter an ascertained log -error; head or following seas, strong winds, currents and tidal streams -also affect the correctness. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Ball Bearings of Neptune Log in Skeleton Case.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Rocket Log.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Neptune Log fitted with Governor.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Bliss Log.] - -A _Log Book_ is a marine or sea journal, containing, in the British -navy, the speed, course, leeway, direction and force of the wind, state -of the weather, and barometric and thermometric observations. Under the -heading "Remarks" are noted (for vessels with sail power) making, -shortening and trimming sails; and (for all ships) employment of crew, -times of passing prominent landmarks, altering of course, and any -subject of interest and importance. The deck log book, kept by the -officers of the watch, is copied into the ship's log book by the -navigating officer, and the latter is an official journal. In steam -vessels a rough and fair engine room register are kept, giving -information with regard to the engines and boilers. In the British -mercantile marine all ships (except those employed exclusively in -trading between ports on the coasts of Scotland) are compelled to keep -an official log book in a form approved by the Board of Trade. A mate's -log book and engine room register are not compulsory, but are usually -kept. (J. W. D.) - - - - -LOGAN, JOHN (c. 1725-1780), also known as TAHGAHJUTE, American Indian -chief, a Cayuga by birth, was the son of Shikellamy, a white man who had -been captured when a child by the Indians, had been reared among them, -and had become chief of the Indians living on the Shamokin Creek in what -is now Northumberland county, Pennsylvania. The name Logan was given to -the son in honour of James Logan (1674-1751), secretary of William Penn -and a steadfast friend of the Indians. John Logan lived for some time -near Reedsville, Penn., and removed to the banks of the Ohio river about -1770. He was not technically a chief, but acquired great influence among -the Shawnees, into which tribe he married. He was on good terms with the -whites until April 1774, when, friction having arisen between the -Indians and the whites, a band of marauders, led by one Greathouse, -attacked and murdered several Indians, including, it appears, Logan's -sister and possibly one or more other relatives. Believing that Captain -Michael Cresap was responsible for this murder, Logan sent him a -declaration of hostilities, the result of which was the bloody conflict -known as Lord Dunmore's war. Logan refused to join the Shawnee chief, -Cornstalk, in meeting Governor Dunmore in a peace council after the -battle of Point Pleasant, but sent him a message which has become famous -as an example of Indian eloquence. The message seems to have been given -by Logan to Colonel John Gibson, by whom it was delivered to Lord -Dunmore. Thomas Jefferson first called general attention to it in his -_Notes on Virginia_ (1787), where he quoted it and added: "I may -challenge the whole orations of Demosthenes and Cicero, and of any more -eminent orator, if Europe has furnished more eminent, to produce a -single passage superior to it." Logan became a victim of drink, and in -1780 was killed near Lake Erie by his nephew whom he had attacked. There -is a monument to him in Fair Hill Cemetery, near Auburn, New York. - - Brantz Mayer's _Tahgahjute, or Logan the Indian and Captain Michael - Cresap_ (Baltimore, 1851, 2nd ed., Albany, 1867) defends Captain - Cresap against Jefferson's charges, and also questions the - authenticity of Logan's message, about which there has been - considerable controversy, though its actual wording seems to be that - of Gibson rather than of Logan. - - - - -LOGAN, JOHN (1748-1788), Scottish poet, was born at Soutra, Midlothian, -in 1748. His father, George Logan, was a farmer and a member of the -Burgher sect of the Secession church. John Logan was sent to Musselburgh -grammar school, and in 1762 to the university of Edinburgh. In 1768-1769 -he was tutor to John, afterwards Sir John, Sinclair, at Ulbster, -Caithness, and in 1770, having left the Secession church, he was -licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Haddington. In 1771 he was -presented to the charge of South Leith, but was not ordained till two -years later. On the death of Michael Bruce (q.v.) he obtained that -poet's MSS. with a view to publication. In 1770 he published _Poems on -Several Occasions, by Michael Bruce_ with a preface, in which, after -eulogizing Bruce, who had been a fellow student of his, he remarked that -"to make up a miscellany some poems wrote by different authors are -inserted, all of them originals, and none of them destitute of merit. -The reader of taste will easily distinguish them from those of Mr Bruce, -without their being particularized by any mark." Logan was an active -member of the committee of the General Assembly of the Church of -Scotland which worked from 1775 to 1781 at revising the "Translations -and Paraphrases" for public worship, in which many of his hymns are -printed. In 1779-1781 he delivered a course of lectures on the -philosophy of history at St Mary's Chapel, Edinburgh. An analysis of -these lectures, _Elements of the Philosophy of History_ (1781), bears -striking resemblance to _A View of Ancient History_ (1787), printed as -the work of Dr W. Rutherford, but thought by Logan's friends to be his. -In 1781 he published his own _Poems_, including the "Ode to the Cuckoo" -and some other poems which had appeared in his volume of Michael Bruce's -poems, and also his own contributions to the Paraphrases. His other -publications were _An Essay on the Manners and Governments of Asia_ -(1782), _Runnamede, a tragedy_ (1783), and _A Review of the Principal -Charges against Warren Hastings_ (1788). His connexion with the theatre -gave offence to his congregation at South Leith; he was intemperate in -his habits, and there was some local scandal attached to his name. He -resigned his charge in 1786, retaining part of his stipend, and -proceeded to London, where he became a writer for the _English Review_. -He died on the 28th of December 1788. Two posthumous volumes of sermons -appeared in 1790 and 1791. They were very popular, and were reprinted in -1810. His _Poetical Works_ were printed in Dr Robert Anderson's _British -Poets_ (vol. xi., 1795), with a life of the author. They were reprinted -in similar collections, and separately in 1805. - -Logan was accused of having appropriated in his _Poems_ (1781) verses -written by Michael Bruce. The statements of John Birrell and David -Pearson on behalf of Bruce were included in Dr Anderson's _Life of -Logan_. The charge of plagiarism has been revived from time to time, -notably by Dr W. Mackelvie (1837) and Mr James Mackenzie (1905). The -whole controversy has been marked by strong partisanship. The chief -points against Logan are the suppression of the major portion of Bruce's -MSS. and some proved cases of plagiarism in his sermons and hymns. Even -in the beautiful "Braes of Yarrow" one of the verses is borrowed direct -from an old border ballad. The traditional evidence in favour of Bruce's -authorship of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" can hardly be set aside, but Dr -Robertson of Dalmeny, who was Logan's literary executor, stated that he -had gone over the MSS. procured at Kinnesswood with Logan. - - Logan's authorship of the poems in dispute is defended by David Laing, - _Ode to the Cuckoo with remarks on its authorship, in a letter to J. - C. Shairp, LL.D._ (1873); by John Small in the _British and Foreign - Evangelical Review_ (July, 1877, April and October, 1879); and by R. - Small in two papers (ibid., 1878). See also BRUCE, MICHAEL. - - - - -LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER (1826-1886), American soldier and political -leader, was born in what is now Murphysborough, Jackson county, -Illinois, on the 9th of February 1826. He had no schooling until he was -fourteen; he then studied for three years in Shiloh College, served in -the Mexican war as a lieutenant of volunteers, studied law in the office -of an uncle, graduated from the Law Department of Louisville University -in 1851, and practised law with success. He entered politics as a -Douglas Democrat, was elected county clerk in 1849, served in the State -House of Representatives in 1853-1854 and in 1857, and for a time, -during the interval, was prosecuting attorney of the Third Judicial -District of Illinois. In 1858 and 1860 he was elected as a Democrat to -the National House of Representatives. Though unattached and unenlisted, -he fought at Bull Run, and then returned to Washington, resigned his -seat, and entered the Union army as colonel of the 31st Illinois -Volunteers, which he organized. He was regarded as one of the ablest -officers who entered the army from civil life. In Grant's campaigns -terminating in the capture of Vicksburg, which city Logan's division was -the first to enter and of which he was military governor, he rose to the -rank of major-general of volunteers; in November 1863 he succeeded -Sherman in command of the XV. Army Corps; and after the death of -McPherson he was in command of the Army of the Tennessee at the battle -of Atlanta. When the war closed, Logan resumed his political career as a -Republican, and was a member of the National House of Representatives -from 1867 to 1871, and of the United States Senate from 1871 until 1877 -and again from 1879 until his death, which took place at Washington, -D.C., on the 26th of December 1886. He was always a violent partisan, -and was identified with the radical wing of the Republican party. In -1868 he was one of the managers in the impeachment of President Johnson. -His war record and his great personal following, especially in the Grand -Army of the Republic, contributed to his nomination for Vice-President -in 1884 on the ticket with James G. Blaine, but he was not elected. His -impetuous oratory, popular on the platform, was less adapted to the -halls of legislation. He was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the -Republic from 1868 to 1871, and in this position successfully urged the -observance of Memorial or Decoration Day, an idea which probably -originated with him. He was the author of _The Great Conspiracy: Its -Origin and History_ (1886), a partisan account of the Civil war, and of -_The Volunteer Soldier of America_ (1887). There is a fine statue of him -by St Gaudens in Chicago. - - The best biography is that by George F. Dawson, _The Life and Services - of Gen. John A. Logan, as Soldier and Statesman_ (Chicago and New - York, 1887). - - - - -LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM EDMOND (1798-1875), British geologist, was born in -Montreal on the 20th of April 1798, of Scottish parents. He was educated -partly in Montreal, and subsequently at the High School and university -of Edinburgh, where Robert Jameson did much to excite his interest in -geology. He was in a business house in London from 1817 to 1830. In 1831 -he settled in Swansea to take charge of a colliery and some -copper-smelting works, and here his interest in geology found abundant -scope. He collected a great amount of information respecting the South -Wales coal-field; and his data, which he had depicted on the 1-in. -ordnance survey map, were generously placed at the disposal of the -geological survey under Sir H. T. de la Beche and fully utilized. In -1840 Logan brought before the Geological Society of London his -celebrated paper "On the character of the beds of clay lying immediately -below the coal-seams of South Wales, and on the occurrence of -coal-boulders in the Pennant Grit of that district." He then pointed out -that each coal-seam rests on an under-clay with rootlets of _Stigmaria_, -and he expressed his opinion that the under-clay was the old soil in -which grew the plants from which the coal was formed. To confirm this -observation he visited America in 1841 and examined the coal-fields of -Pennsylvania and Nova Scotia, where he found the under-clay almost -invariably present beneath the seams of coal. In 1842 he was appointed -to take charge of the newly established geological survey in Canada, and -he continued as director until 1869. During the earlier years of the -survey he had many difficulties to surmount and privations to undergo, -but the work was carried on with great tact and energy, and he spared no -pains to make his reports trustworthy. He described the Laurentian rocks -of the Laurentian mountains in Canada and of the Adirondacks in the -state of New York, pointing out that they comprised an immense series of -crystalline rocks, gneiss, mica-schist, quartzite and limestone, more -than 30,000 ft. in thickness. The series was rightly recognized as -representing the oldest type of rocks on the globe, but it is now known -to be a complex of highly altered sedimentary and intrusive rocks; and -the supposed oldest known fossil, the _Eozoon_ described by Sir J. W. -Dawson, is now regarded as a mineral structure. Logan was elected F.R.S. -in 1851, and in 1856 was knighted. In the same year he was awarded the -Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London for his researches -on the coal-strata, and for his excellent geological map of Canada. -After his retirement in 1869, he returned to England, and eventually -settled in South Wales. He died at Castle Malgwyn in Pembrokeshire, on -the 22nd of June 1875. - - See the _Life_, by B. J. Harrington (1883). (H. B. Wo.) - - - - -LOGAN, a city and the county-seat of Cache county, Utah, U.S.A., on the -Logan river, about 70 m. N. of Salt Lake City. Pop. (1900) 5451 (1440 -foreign-born); (1910) 7522. It is served by the Oregon Short Line -railroad. It lies at the mouth of Logan Canon, about 4500 ft. above the -sea, and commands magnificent views of the Wasatch Mountains and the -fertile Cache Valley. At Logan is a temple of the Latter-Day Saints (or -Mormons), built in 1883, and the city is the seat of the Agricultural -College of Utah, of Brigham Young College, and of New Jersey Academy -(1878), erected by the women of the Synod of New Jersey and managed by -the Woman's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church. The -Agricultural College was founded in 1888 and opened in 1890; an -agricultural experiment station is connected with it and the institution -comprises schools of agriculture, domestic science and arts, commerce, -mechanic arts and general science. Six experiment stations in different -parts of the state and a central experimental farm near St George, -Washington county, were in 1908 under the direction of the experiment -station in Logan. Brigham Young College was endowed by Brigham Young in -1877 and was opened in 1878; it offers courses in the arts, theology, -civil engineering, music, physical culture, domestic science, nurse -training and manual training. Logan has various manufactures, and is the -trade centre for a fertile farming region. The municipality owns and -operates its water works and its electric lighting plant. Logan was -settled in 1859 and first incorporated in 1866. - - - - -LOGANSPORT, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Indiana, U.S.A., -on the Wabash river, at the mouth of the Eel river, about 67 m. N. by W. -of Indianapolis and 117 m. S. by E. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 16,204, of -whom 1432 were foreign-born, (1910 census) 19,050. It is served by six -divisions of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, two -divisions of the Vandalia (Pennsylvania Lines), and the Wabash railways, -and by electric interurban lines. The city is the seat of the Northern -Indiana Hospital for the Insane (1888), and has a public library, and a -hospital (conducted by the Sisters of St Joseph). Among the principal -buildings are the court house, a Masonic temple, an Odd Fellows' temple, -and buildings of the Order of Elks, of the Knights of Pythias, and of -the fraternal order of Eagles. Situated in the centre of a rich -agricultural region, Logansport is one of the most important grain and -produce markets in the state. The Wabash and the Eel rivers provide good -water power, and the city has various manufactures, besides the railway -repair shops of the Vandalia and of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & -St Louis railways. The value of the city's factory product increased -from $2,100,394 in 1900 to $2,955,921 in 1905, or 40.7%. Limestone, for -use in the manufacture of iron, is quarried in the vicinity. The city -owns and operates the water works and the electric-lighting plant. -Logansport was platted in 1828, was probably named in honour of a -Shawnee chief, Captain Logan (d. 1812), became the county-seat of Cass -county in 1829, and was chartered as a city in 1838. - - - - -LOGAR, a river and valley of Afghanistan. The Logar river drains a wide -tract of country, rising in the southern slopes of the Sanglakh range -and receiving affluents from the Kharwar hills, N.E. of Ghazni. It joins -the Kabul river a few miles below the city of Kabul. The Logar valley, -which is watered by its southern affluents, is rich and beautiful, about -40 m. long by 12 wide, and highly irrigated throughout. Lying in the -vicinity of the capital, the district contributes largely to its -food-supply. The valley was traversed in 1879 by a brigade under Sir F. -(afterwards Lord) Roberts. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 7, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 42173.txt or 42173.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/1/7/42173/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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