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diff --git a/42173-h/42173-h.htm b/42173-h/42173-h.htm index 9f65512..393641e 100644 --- a/42173-h/42173-h.htm +++ b/42173-h/42173-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVI Slice VII - Liquid Gases to Logar. @@ -144,46 +144,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 16, Slice 7, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 16, Slice 7 - "Liquid Gases" to "Logar" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: February 23, 2013 [EBook #42173] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42173 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -239,12 +200,12 @@ Liquid Gases to Logar</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">LISSA</a> (Prussian town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">LOANGO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">LIST, FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">LOBACHEVSKIY, NICOLAS IVANOVICH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">LIST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKI, ALEXIS BORISOVICH</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">LÖBAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">LÖBAU</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">LOBBY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">LISTER, MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">LOBBYING</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">LISTON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">LOBE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">LISTON, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">LISZT, FRANZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">LOBEIRA, JOÃO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">LISZT, FRANZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">LOBEIRA, JOÃO</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">LITANY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">LOBELIA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">LITCHFIELD</a> (Connecticut, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">LOBENSTEIN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">LITCHFIELD</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES</a></td></tr> @@ -267,11 +228,11 @@ Liquid Gases to Logar</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">LITTLE ROCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">LITTLETON, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">LOCKHART, GEORGE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LITTRÉ, MAXIMILIEN PAUL ÉMILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM STEPHEN ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">LITTRÉ, MAXIMILIEN PAUL ÉMILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM STEPHEN ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">LITURGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">LOCK HAVEN</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">LITUUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">LOCKPORT</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">LIUDPRAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">LOCKPORT</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LIVE OAK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">LIVE OAK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">LIVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">LIVERMORE, MARY ASHTON [RICE]</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">LOCKWOOD, WILTON</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN</a></td></tr> @@ -281,17 +242,17 @@ Liquid Gases to Logar</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">LIVERY COMPANIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">LOCO-WEEDS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">LIVIA DRUSILLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">LOCRI</a> (people of ancient Greece)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">LIVINGSTON, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">LOCRI</a> (Italian city)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">LÖCSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">LÖCSE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">LOCUS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">LIVINGSTONE, DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">LOCUST</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">LOCUST-TREE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">LIVIUS ANDRONĪCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">LODÈVE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">LIVIUS ANDRONĪCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">LODÈVE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">LIVNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">LODGE, EDMUND</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">LIVONIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">LODGE, HENRY CABOT</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">LIVY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">LIZARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">LODGE, THOMAS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">LIZARD POINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">LODGE</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HÅKAN JORDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">LODGER AND LODGINGS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HÃ…KAN JORDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">LODGER AND LODGINGS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">LLAMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">LODI</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">LLANBERIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">LODZ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">LLANDAFF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">LOESS</a></td></tr> @@ -328,7 +289,7 @@ Faraday, at the suggestion of Sir Humphry Davy, exposed hydrate of chlorine to heat under pressure in the laboratories of the Royal Institution. He placed the substance at the end of one arm of a bent glass tube, which was then hermetically sealed, -and decomposing it by heating to 100° F., he saw a yellow liquid +and decomposing it by heating to 100° F., he saw a yellow liquid distil to the end of the other arm. This liquid he surmised to be chlorine separated from the water by the heat and “condensed into a dry fluid by the mere pressure of its own abundant vapour,” @@ -359,7 +320,7 @@ the liquid was suddenly ejected into the air a portion of it was solidified into a snow-like substance (<i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1835, 60, pp. 427-432). Four years later J. K. Mitchell in America, by mixing this snow with ether and exhausting it under an air -pump, attained a minimum temperature of 146° below zero F., +pump, attained a minimum temperature of 146° below zero F., by the aid of which he froze sulphurous acid gas to a solid.</p> <p>Stimulated by Thilorier’s results and by considerations arising @@ -384,7 +345,7 @@ able to bring those gases into the liquid or solid state, which would require a still greater degree of cold. To fulfil this condition he immersed the tubes containing his gases in a bath of solid carbonic acid and ether, the temperature of which was -reduced by exhaustion under the air pump to −166° F., or a +reduced by exhaustion under the air pump to −166° F., or a little lower, and at the same time he subjected the gases to pressures up to 50 atmospheres by the use of two pumps working in series. In this way he added six substances, usually gaseous, @@ -415,7 +376,7 @@ simultaneously though independently. The former relied on the cold produced by the sudden expansion of the gases at high compression. By means of a specially designed pump he compressed about 100 cc. of oxygen in a narrow glass tube to about -200 atmospheres, at the same time cooling it to about −29° C., +200 atmospheres, at the same time cooling it to about −29° C., and on suddenly releasing the pressure he saw momentarily in the interior of the tube a mist (<i>brouillard</i>), from which he inferred the presence of a vapour very near its point of liquefaction. @@ -435,11 +396,11 @@ standing in a tumbler. But subsequent knowledge showed that even this proximate liquefaction could not have taken place, and that the fog could not have consisted of drops of liquid hydrogen, because the cooling produced by the adiabatic expansion -would give a temperature of only 44° abs., which is +would give a temperature of only 44° abs., which is certainly above the critical temperature of hydrogen. Pictet again announced that on opening the tap of a vessel containing hydrogen at a pressure of 650 atmospheres and cooled by the -cascade method (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation of Gases</a></span>) to −140° C., +cascade method (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation of Gases</a></span>) to −140° C., he saw issuing from the orifice an opaque jet which he assumed to consist of hydrogen in the liquid form or in the liquid and solid forms mixed. But he was no more successful than Cailletet in @@ -458,7 +419,7 @@ and K. S. Olszewski, who for some years worked together at Cracow. In April 1883 the former announced to the French Academy that he had obtained oxygen in a completely liquid state and (a few days later) that nitrogen at a temperature of -−136° C., reduced suddenly from a pressure of 150 atmospheres to +−136° C., reduced suddenly from a pressure of 150 atmospheres to one of 50, had been seen as a liquid which showed a true meniscus, but disappeared in a few seconds. But with hydrogen treated in the same way he failed to obtain even the mist reported by @@ -512,7 +473,7 @@ a gas intermediate in volatility between those two. By 1894 attempts had been made in the Royal Institution laboratories to manufacture an artificial gas of this nature by adding a small proportion of air to the hydrogen, so as to get a mixture with a -critical point of about −200° C. When such a mixture was +critical point of about −200° C. When such a mixture was cooled to that temperature and expanded from a high degree of compression into a vacuum vessel, the result was a white mass of solid air together with a clear liquid of very low density. @@ -570,7 +531,7 @@ The vessel in which the vacuum is to be produced is provided with a small subsidiary vessel joined by a narrow tube with the main vessel, and connected with a powerful air-pump. A quantity of mercury having been placed in it, it is heated in an oil- or -air-bath to about 200° C., so as to volatilize the mercury, the +air-bath to about 200° C., so as to volatilize the mercury, the vapour of which is removed by the pump. After the process has gone on for some time, the pipe leading to the pump is sealed off, the vessel immediately removed from the bath, and the small @@ -580,7 +541,7 @@ condensed in the small vessel and a vacuum of enormous tenuity left in the large one. The final step is to seal off the tube connecting the two. In this way a vacuum may be produced having a vapour pressure of about the hundred-millionth of an atmosphere -at 0° C. If, however, some liquid mercury be left in the +at 0° C. If, however, some liquid mercury be left in the space in which the vacuum is produced, and the containing part of the vessel be filled with liquid air, the bright mirror of mercury which is deposited on the inside wall of the bulb is still more @@ -718,35 +679,35 @@ weighing about 40 to 50 grammes. Such an amount of material gives a very accurate density of the body about the boiling point of air, and a similar density taken in a suitable liquid at the ordinary temperature enables the mean coefficient of expansion between -+15° C. and −185° C. to be determined. One of the most interesting ++15° C. and −185° C. to be determined. One of the most interesting results is that the density of ice at the boiling point of air is not more than 0.93, the mean coefficient of expansion being therefore 0.000081. -As the value of the same coefficient between 0° C. and −27° C. is +As the value of the same coefficient between 0° C. and −27° C. is 0.000155, it is clear the rate of contraction is diminished to about one-half of what it was above the melting point of the ice. This suggests that by no possible cooling at our command is it likely we -could ever make ice as dense as water at 0° C., far less 4° C. In other +could ever make ice as dense as water at 0° C., far less 4° C. In other words, the volume of ice at the zero of temperature would not be the minimum volume of the water molecule, though we have every reason to believe it would be so in the case of the majority of known substances. Another substance of special interest is solid carbonic -acid. This body has a density of 1.53 at −78° C. and 1.633 at -−185° C., thus giving a mean coefficient of expansion between these +acid. This body has a density of 1.53 at −78° C. and 1.633 at +−185° C., thus giving a mean coefficient of expansion between these temperatures of 0.00057. This value is only about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> of the coefficient of expansion of the liquid carbonic acid gas just above its melting point, but it is still much greater at the low temperature -than that of highly expansive solids like sulphur, which at 40° C. +than that of highly expansive solids like sulphur, which at 40° C. has a value of 0.00019. The following table gives the densities at the -temperature of boiling liquid air (−185° C.) and at ordinary temperatures -(17° C.), together with the mean coefficient of expansion between +temperature of boiling liquid air (−185° C.) and at ordinary temperatures +(17° C.), together with the mean coefficient of expansion between those temperatures, in the case of a number of hydrated salts and other substances:</p> <p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span></p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Density<br />at −185°<br />C.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Density<br />at +17°<br />C.</td> - <td class="tccm allb">Mean<br />coefficient<br />of expansion<br />between<br />−185° C. and<br />+17° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Density<br />at −185°<br />C.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Density<br />at +17°<br />C.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Mean<br />coefficient<br />of expansion<br />between<br />−185° C. and<br />+17° C.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Aluminium sulphate (18)*</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.7194</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6913</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0000811</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sodium biborate (10)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.7284</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6937</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0001000</td></tr> @@ -777,7 +738,7 @@ and other substances:</p> <tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">* The figures within parentheses refer to the number of molecules<br />  of water of crystallization.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">** −189° to −38.85° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">** −189° to −38.85° C.</td></tr> </table> <p class="noind">It will be seen from this table that, with the exception of carbonate @@ -803,14 +764,14 @@ closed, the flask is now taken out of the liquid oxygen and left in the balance-room until its temperature is equalized. It is then weighed against a similar flask used as a counterpoise. Following such a method, it has been found that the weight of 1 litre of oxygen -vapour at its boiling point of 90.5° absolute is 4.420 grammes, and +vapour at its boiling point of 90.5° absolute is 4.420 grammes, and therefore the specific volume is 226.25 cc. According to the ordinary gaseous laws, the litre ought to weigh 4.313 grammes, and the specific volume should be 231.82 cc. In other words, the product of pressure and volume at the boiling point is diminished by 2.46%. In a similar way the weight of a litre of nitrogen vapour at the boiling point of oxygen was found to be 3.90, and the inferred value for -78° absolute, or its own boiling point, would be 4.51, giving a specific +78° absolute, or its own boiling point, would be 4.51, giving a specific volume of 221.3.</p> </div> @@ -906,12 +867,12 @@ temperature of the body. Olszewski has determined the inversion-point in the case of hydrogen, and -finds it to be 192.5° +finds it to be 192.5° absolute, the theoretical critical point being thus -about 28.5° absolute. +about 28.5° absolute. The cooling effect obtained is small, being for air about -¼° C. per atmosphere difference of pressure at ordinary temperatures. +¼° C. per atmosphere difference of pressure at ordinary temperatures. But the decrement of temperature is proportional to the difference of pressure and inversely as the absolute temperature, so that the Thomson-Joule effect increases rapidly @@ -934,7 +895,7 @@ by Linde in Germany, but also by Tripler in America and by Hampson and Dewar in England. The last-named experimenter exhibited in December 1895 a laboratory machine of this kind (fig. 2), which when supplied with oxygen initially cooled to -−79° C., and at a pressure of 100-150 atmospheres, began to +−79° C., and at a pressure of 100-150 atmospheres, began to yield liquid in about a quarter of an hour after starting. The initial cooling is not necessary, but it has the advantage of reducing the time required for the operation. The efficiency of @@ -960,10 +921,10 @@ of Vacuum Vessel.</td></tr></table> reason already explained, it would have been futile to experiment with this substance at ordinary temperatures, and therefore as a preliminary it was cooled to the temperature of boiling -liquid air, about −190° C. At this temperature it is still 2½ +liquid air, about −190° C. At this temperature it is still 2½ times above its critical temperature, and therefore its liquefaction in these circumstances would be comparable to that of air, -taken at +60° C., in an apparatus like that just described. +taken at +60° C., in an apparatus like that just described. Dewar showed in 1896 that hydrogen cooled in this way and expanded in a regenerative coil from a pressure of 200 atmospheres was rapidly reduced in temperature to such an extent that @@ -1004,7 +965,7 @@ and employed by other experimenters.</p> <p>With the liquefying plant above referred to liquid hydrogen was for the first time collected in an open vessel on the 10th of May 1898. The gas at a pressure of 180 atmospheres was cooled -to −205° C. by means of liquid air boiling <i>in vacuo</i>, and was +to −205° C. by means of liquid air boiling <i>in vacuo</i>, and was then passed through the nozzle of the regenerative coil, which was enclosed in vacuum vessels in such a way as to exclude external heat as perfectly as possible. In this way some 20 cc. @@ -1057,7 +1018,7 @@ Dewar, for instance (<i>Pres. Address Brit. Assoc.</i>, 1902), basing his deductions on the laws established by van der Waals and others from the study of phenomena at much higher temperatures, anticipated that the boiling-point of the substance would -be about 5° absolute, so that the liquid would be about four +be about 5° absolute, so that the liquid would be about four times more volatile than liquid hydrogen, just as liquid hydrogen is four times more volatile than liquid air; and he expressed the opinion that the gas would succumb on being subjected to the @@ -1075,7 +1036,7 @@ who, working with the splendid resources of the Leiden cryogenic laboratory, succeeded in obtaining helium in the liquid state on the 10th of July 1908. Having prepared 200 litres of the gas (160 litres in reserve) from monazite sand,<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> he cooled it with -exhausted liquid hydrogen to a temperature of 15 or 16° abs., +exhausted liquid hydrogen to a temperature of 15 or 16° abs., and expanded it through a regenerative coil under a pressure of 50 to 100 atmospheres, making use of the most elaborate precautions to prevent influx of heat and securing the absence @@ -1091,12 +1052,12 @@ hydrogen had been brought into requisition, that the surface of the liquid was seen, by reflection of light from below, standing out sharply like the edge of a knife against the glass wall of the vacuum vessel. Its boiling-point has been determined as being -4° abs., its critical temperature 5°, and its critical pressure not +4° abs., its critical temperature 5°, and its critical pressure not more than three atmospheres. The density of the liquid is found to be 0.015 or about twice that of liquid hydrogen. It could not be solidified even when exhausted under a pressure of 2 mm., which in all probability corresponds to a temperature -of 2° abs. (see <i>Communications from the physical laboratory at +of 2° abs. (see <i>Communications from the physical laboratory at the University of Leiden, 1908-1909</i>).</p> <p>The following are brief details respecting some of the more @@ -1105,9 +1066,9 @@ within recent years. (For argon, neon, krypton, &c., see <span class="sc"><a <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Oxygen</i>.—Liquid oxygen is a mobile transparent-liquid, possessing -a faint blue colour. At atmospheric pressure it boils at −181.5° C.; +a faint blue colour. At atmospheric pressure it boils at −181.5° C.; under a reduced pressure of 1 cm. of mercury its temperature falls -to −210° C. At the boiling point it has a density of 1.124 according +to −210° C. At the boiling point it has a density of 1.124 according to Olszewski, or of 1.168 according to Wroblewski; Dewar obtained the value 1.1375 as the mean of twenty observations by weighing a number of solid substances in liquid oxygen, noting the apparent @@ -1121,20 +1082,20 @@ state, but exposed to the temperature of liquid hydrogen it is frozen into a solid mass, having a pale bluish tint, showing by reflection all the absorption bands of the liquid. It is remarkable that the same absorption bands occur in the compressed gas. Dewar gives the -melting-point as 38° absolute, and the density at the boiling-point +melting-point as 38° absolute, and the density at the boiling-point of hydrogen as 1.4526. The refractive index of the liquid for the D sodium ray is 1.2236.</p> <p><i>Ozone.</i>—This gas is easily liquefied by the use of liquid air. The liquid obtained is intensely blue, and on allowing the temperature -to rise, boils and explodes about −120° C. About this temperature +to rise, boils and explodes about −120° C. About this temperature it may be dissolved in bisulphide of carbon to a faint blue solution. The liquid ozone seems to be more magnetic than liquid oxygen.</p> <p><i>Nitrogen</i> forms a transparent colourless liquid, having a density -of 0.8042 at its boiling-point, which is −195.5° C. The refractive +of 0.8042 at its boiling-point, which is −195.5° C. The refractive index for the D line is 1.2053. Evaporated under diminished -pressure the liquid becomes solid at a temperature of −215° C., +pressure the liquid becomes solid at a temperature of −215° C., melting under a pressure of 90 mm. The density of the solid at the boiling-point of hydrogen is 1.0265.</p> @@ -1146,7 +1107,7 @@ homogeneous liquid. Prepared on a large scale, liquid air may contain as much as 50% of oxygen when collected in open vacuum-vessels, but since nitrogen is the more volatile it boils off first, and as the liquid gradually becomes richer in oxygen the temperature -at which it boils rises from about −192° C. to about −182° C. +at which it boils rises from about −192° C. to about −182° C. At the former temperature it has a density of about 0.910. It is a non-conductor of electricity. Properly protected from external heat, and subjected to high exhaustion, liquid air becomes a stiff @@ -1154,7 +1115,7 @@ transparent jelly-like mass, a magma of solid nitrogen containing liquid oxygen, which may indeed be extracted from it by means of a magnet, or by rapid rotation of the vacuum vessel in imitation of a centrifugal machine. The temperature of this solid under a -vacuum of about 14 mm. is −216°. At the still lower temperatures +vacuum of about 14 mm. is −216°. At the still lower temperatures attainable by the aid of liquid hydrogen it becomes a white solid, having, like solid oxygen, a faint blue tint. The refractive index of liquid air is 1.2068.</p> @@ -1168,12 +1129,12 @@ of its chemical activity, and ceased to attack glass. But a very small vacuum formed over the oxygen was sufficient to determine liquefaction, a result which was also obtained by cooling the gas to the temperature of freshly-made liquid air boiling at atmospheric -pressure. Hence the boiling-point is fixed at about −187° C. The +pressure. Hence the boiling-point is fixed at about −187° C. The liquid is of a clear yellow colour, possessing great mobility. Its density is 1.14, and its capillarity rather less than that of liquid oxygen. The liquid, when examined in a thickness of 1 cm., does not show any absorption bands, and it is not attracted by a magnet. Cooled in -liquid hydrogen it is frozen to a white solid, melting at about 40° abs.</p> +liquid hydrogen it is frozen to a white solid, melting at about 40° abs.</p> <p><i>Hydrogen.</i>—Liquid hydrogen is the lightest liquid known to the chemist, having a density slightly less than 0.07 as compared with @@ -1205,10 +1166,10 @@ with water, liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen; the result obtained was 1.12. Liquid hydrogen is a non-conductor of electricity. The precise determination of its boiling-point is a matter of some difficulty. The first results obtained from the use of a platinum resistance -thermometer gave −238° C., while a similar thermometer made +thermometer gave −238° C., while a similar thermometer made with an alloy of rhodium-platinum indicated a value 8 degrees -lower. Later, a gold thermometer indicated about −249° C., -while with an iron one the result was only −210° C. It was thus +lower. Later, a gold thermometer indicated about −249° C., +while with an iron one the result was only −210° C. It was thus evident that electrical resistance thermometers are not to be trusted at these low temperatures, since the laws correlating resistance and temperature are not known for temperatures at and below the @@ -1222,23 +1183,23 @@ either a simple or a compound gas (<i>e.g.</i> oxygen or carbonic acid) at an initial pressure somewhat less than one atmosphere, may be relied upon to determine temperatures down to the respective boiling-points of the gases with which they are filled. The result obtained -was −252° C. Subsequently various other determinations were +was −252° C. Subsequently various other determinations were carried out in thermometers filled with hydrogen derived from different sources, and also with helium, the average value given by -the experiments being −252.5° C. (See “The Boiling Point of +the experiments being −252.5° C. (See “The Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen determined by Hydrogen and Helium Gas Thermometers,” <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 7th February 1901.) The critical -temperature is about 30° absolute (−243° C.), and the critical +temperature is about 30° absolute (−243° C.), and the critical pressure about 15 atmospheres. Hydrogen has not only the lowest critical temperature of all the old permanent gases, but it has the lowest critical pressure. Given a sufficiently low temperature, therefore, it is the easiest gas to liquefy so far as pressure is concerned. -Solid hydrogen has a temperature about 4° less. By +Solid hydrogen has a temperature about 4° less. By exhaustion under reduced pressure a still lower depth of cold may -be attained, and a steady temperature reached less than 16° +be attained, and a steady temperature reached less than 16° above the zero of absolute temperature. By the use of high exhaustion, and the most stringent precautions to prevent the influx -of heat, a temperature of 13° absolute (−260° C.) may be reached. +of heat, a temperature of 13° absolute (−260° C.) may be reached. This is the lowest steady temperature which can be maintained by the evaporation of solid hydrogen. At this temperature the solid has a density of about 0.077. Solid hydrogen presents no metallic @@ -1248,7 +1209,7 @@ Graham and other chemists and neither it nor the liquid is magnetic.</p> <p><i>The Approach to the Absolute Zero.</i>—The achievement of Kamerlingh Onnes has brought about the realization of a -temperature removed only 3° from the absolute zero, and the +temperature removed only 3° from the absolute zero, and the question naturally suggests itself whether there is any probability of a still closer approach to that point. The answer is that if, as is not impossible, there exists a gas, as yet unisolated, @@ -1264,11 +1225,11 @@ the operation being started from the initial temperature shown in the second column, while the fourth column gives the temperature of the resulting liquid. It will be seen that by the use of liquid or solid hydrogen as a cooling agent, it should be possible -to liquefy a body having a critical temperature of about 6° to -8° on the absolute scale, and a boiling point of about 4° or 5°, +to liquefy a body having a critical temperature of about 6° to +8° on the absolute scale, and a boiling point of about 4° or 5°, while with the aid of liquid helium at an initial temperature -of 5° we could liquefy a body having a critical temperature of -2° and a boiling point of 1°.</p> +of 5° we could liquefy a body having a critical temperature of +2° and a boiling point of 1°.</p> <p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table II.</span></p> @@ -1276,7 +1237,7 @@ of 5° we could liquefy a body having a critical temperature of <tr><td class="tccm allb">Substance.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Initial<br />Temperature.<br />Abs. Degrees.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Critical<br />Temperature.<br />Abs. Degrees.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Boiling Points.<br />Abs. Degrees.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">(Low red heat)</td> <td class="tcc rb">760</td> <td class="tcc rb">304</td> <td class="tcl rb">195 (CO<span class="su">2</span>)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">(52° C.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">325</td> <td class="tcc rb">130</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 86 (Air)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">(52° C.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">325</td> <td class="tcc rb">130</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 86 (Air)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Liquid air under exhaustion</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 75</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 30</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 20 (H)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Liquid hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 20</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 5 (He)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Solid hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 15</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 6</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4</td></tr> @@ -1287,8 +1248,8 @@ of 5° we could liquefy a body having a critical temperature of would not have attained the absolute zero, and he can scarcely hope ever to do so. It is true he would only be a very short distance from it, but it must be remembered that in a thermodynamic -sense one degree low down the scale, say at 10° absolute, -is equivalent to 30° at the ordinary temperature, and as the +sense one degree low down the scale, say at 10° absolute, +is equivalent to 30° at the ordinary temperature, and as the experimenter gets to lower and lower temperatures, the difficulties of further advance increase, not in arithmetical but in geometrical progression. Thus the step between the liquefaction @@ -1321,7 +1282,7 @@ agent in low temperature research.</p> <p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table III.</span>—<i>Gas Absorption by Charcoal.</i></p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Volume<br />absorbed at<br />0° Cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Volume<br />absorbed at<br />−185° Cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Volume<br />absorbed at<br />0° Cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Volume<br />absorbed at<br />−185° Cent.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Helium</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 2 cc.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 15 cc.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4</td> <td class="tcl rb">135</td></tr> @@ -1359,7 +1320,7 @@ at a gradually increasing temperature. The results in the table were all obtained with the same specimen of charcoal, and the volumes of the gases absorbed, both at ordinary and at low temperatures, were measured under standard conditions—at -0° C., and 760 mm. pressure. It appears that at the lower +0° C., and 760 mm. pressure. It appears that at the lower temperature there is a remarkable increase of absorption for every gas, but that the increase is in general smaller as the boiling-points of the various gases are lower. Helium is conspicuous @@ -1367,12 +1328,12 @@ for the fact that it is absorbed to a comparatively slight extent at both the higher and the lower temperature, but in this connexion it must be remembered that, being the most volatile gas known, it is being treated at a temperature which -is relatively much higher than the other gases. At −185° -(= 88° abs.), while hydrogen is at about 4½ times its boiling-point -(20° abs.), helium is at about 20 times its boiling-point (4.5° abs.), +is relatively much higher than the other gases. At −185° +(= 88° abs.), while hydrogen is at about 4½ times its boiling-point +(20° abs.), helium is at about 20 times its boiling-point (4.5° abs.), and it might, therefore, be expected that if it were taken at a temperature corresponding to that of the hydrogen, <i>i.e.</i> at 4 or 5 -times its boiling-point, or say 20° abs., it would undergo much +times its boiling-point, or say 20° abs., it would undergo much greater absorption. This expectation is borne out by the results shown in table IV., and it may be inferred that charcoal cooled in liquid helium would absorb helium as freely as charcoal @@ -1382,22 +1343,22 @@ hydrogen absorbs about equal volumes of those three gases (about 260 cc. per gramme); and, as the relation between volume and temperature is nearly lineal at the lowest portions of either the hydrogen or the helium absorption, it is a legitimate -inference that at a temperature of 5° to 6° abs. helium would be +inference that at a temperature of 5° to 6° abs. helium would be as freely absorbed by charcoal as hydrogen is at its boiling-point -and that the boiling-point of helium lies at about 5° abs.</p> +and that the boiling-point of helium lies at about 5° abs.</p> <p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IV.</span>—<i>Gas Absorption by Charcoal at Low Temperatures.</i></p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Temperature.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Helium.<br />Vols. of<br />Carbon.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hydrogen.<br />Vols. of<br />Carbon.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">−185° C. (boiling-point of liquid air)</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½</td> <td class="tcc rb">137</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">−210° C. (liquid air under exhaustion)</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">180</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">−252° C. (boiling-point of liquid hydrogen)</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td> <td class="tcc rb">258</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">−258° C. (solid hydrogen)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">195</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">−185° C. (boiling-point of liquid air)</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½</td> <td class="tcc rb">137</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">−210° C. (liquid air under exhaustion)</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">180</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">−252° C. (boiling-point of liquid hydrogen)</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td> <td class="tcc rb">258</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">−258° C. (solid hydrogen)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">195</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> </table> -<p>The rapidity with which air is absorbed by charcoal at −185° C. +<p>The rapidity with which air is absorbed by charcoal at −185° C. and under small pressures is illustrated by table V., which shows the reductions of pressure effected in a tube of 2000 cc. capacity by means of 20 grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air.</p> @@ -1449,7 +1410,7 @@ can be made to boil at any definite temperature under diminished pressure which is measured by the manometer R. The volume of gas admitted into the charcoal is determined by the burette D and the pipette P, and the corresponding occlusion pressure at any -concentration and any temperature below 90° abs. by the gauge G. +concentration and any temperature below 90° abs. by the gauge G. In presence of charcoal, and for small concentrations, great variations are shown in the relation between the pressure and the concentration of different gases, all at the same temperature. Table VI. gives the @@ -1474,12 +1435,12 @@ of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Gas.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Concentration<br />in cc. per grm.<br />of Charcoal.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pressure<br />in mm.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Temperature<br />Absolute.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Helium</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 97</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 20°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">397</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 20°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 15</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 90°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">250</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 90°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcc rb">300</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 90°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 90</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">195°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Helium</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 97</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 20°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">397</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 20°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 15</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 90°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">250</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 90°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcc rb">300</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 90°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 90</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">195°</td></tr> </table> <p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VIII.</span></p> @@ -1487,12 +1448,12 @@ of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Gas.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Concentration<br />cc. per grm.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Molecular<br />Latent Heat.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mean<br />Temperature.<br />Absolute.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Helium</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 97</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 483.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 18°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">390</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 524.4</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 18°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 20</td> <td class="tcc rb">2005.6</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 78°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">250</td> <td class="tcc rb">3059.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 82°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcc rb">300</td> <td class="tcc rb">3146.4</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 82°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 90</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6099.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">180°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Helium</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 97</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 483.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 18°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">390</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 524.4</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 18°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 20</td> <td class="tcc rb">2005.6</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 78°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">250</td> <td class="tcc rb">3059.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 82°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcc rb">300</td> <td class="tcc rb">3146.4</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 82°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 90</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6099.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">180°</td></tr> </table> <p><i>Heat of Occlusion.</i>—In every case when gases are condensed to the @@ -1531,7 +1492,7 @@ vapour. But if a charcoal condenser be used in conjunction with the liquid air it becomes possible to obtain a high vacuum when the tube contains air initially. For instance, in one experiment, with a bulb having a capacity of 300 cc. and filled with air at a -pressure of about 1.7 mm. and at a temperature of 15° C., when +pressure of about 1.7 mm. and at a temperature of 15° C., when an attached condenser with 5 grammes of charcoal was cooled in liquid air, the pressure was reduced to 0.0545 mm. of mercury in five minutes, to 0.01032 mm. in ten minutes, to 0.000139 mm. @@ -1568,7 +1529,7 @@ the boiling-point of hydrogen would reduce the vanes of the helium radiometer to rest, and consequently that the boiling-point of helium would be about -5° abs.</p> +5° abs.</p> <p>The vacua obtainable by means of cooled charcoal are so high that it is @@ -1593,7 +1554,7 @@ when the bulb A was cooled in liquid air. When, however, the mercury was warmed by placing the bulb in liquid water, the vanes began to move again, and in the particular radiometer used this was found to happen when the -temperature of the mercury had risen to −23° C. +temperature of the mercury had risen to −23° C. corresponding to a pressure of about one fifty-millionth of an atmosphere.</p> @@ -1831,7 +1792,7 @@ can be collected. After the charcoal in E has been saturated, the stop-cock K is closed and I and J are opened for a short time, to allow the less condensable gas in E to be sucked into the second condenser D along with some portion of air. The condenser E -is then taken out of the liquid air, heated quickly to 15° C. to +is then taken out of the liquid air, heated quickly to 15° C. to expel the occluded air and replaced. More air is then passed in, and by repeating the operation several times 50 litres of air can be treated in a short time, supplying sparking-tubes @@ -1842,7 +1803,7 @@ of the air.</p> xenon, may be obtained by leading a current of air, purified by passage through a series of tubes cooled in liquid air, through a charcoal condenser also cooled in liquid air. The condenser is -then removed and placed in solid carbon dioxide at −78° C. +then removed and placed in solid carbon dioxide at −78° C. The gas that comes off is allowed to escape, but what remains in the charcoal is got out by heating and exhaustion, the carbon compounds and oxygen are removed and the residue, consisting @@ -1860,7 +1821,7 @@ the manner described above.</p> <p>Charcoal enables a mixture containing a high percentage of oxygen to be extracted from the atmosphere. In one experiment 50 grammes of it, after being heated and exhausted were allowed -to absorb air at −185° C.; some 5 or 6 litres were taken up in +to absorb air at −185° C.; some 5 or 6 litres were taken up in ten minutes, and it then presumably contained air of the composition of the atmosphere, <i>i.e.</i> 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen, as shown in fig. 11. But @@ -1890,9 +1851,9 @@ separately showed the following composition:—</p> <p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IX.</span></p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm allb f90">Liquid Gases.</td> <td class="tccm allb f90">Boiling<br />Point.</td> <td class="tccm allb f90">Liquid Volume<br />of 1 gram at<br />Boiling Point<br />in c.c.</td> <td class="tccm allb f90">Latent Heat<br />in gram<br />Calories.</td> <td class="tccm allb f90">Volume of Gas<br />at 0° C. and<br />760 mm. per<br />gram Calorie<br />in c.c.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb f90">Liquid Gases.</td> <td class="tccm allb f90">Boiling<br />Point.</td> <td class="tccm allb f90">Liquid Volume<br />of 1 gram at<br />Boiling Point<br />in c.c.</td> <td class="tccm allb f90">Latent Heat<br />in gram<br />Calories.</td> <td class="tccm allb f90">Volume of Gas<br />at 0° C. and<br />760 mm. per<br />gram Calorie<br />in c.c.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphurous acid</td> <td class="tcl rb">+ 10°C.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 0.7</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 97.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 3.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphurous acid</td> <td class="tcl rb">+ 10°C.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 0.7</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 97.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 3.6</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbonic acid</td> <td class="tcl rb">− 78.0</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 0.65 (solid)</td> <td class="tcc rb">142.4</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 3.6</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ethylene</td> <td class="tcl rb">−103.0</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">119.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7.0</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcl rb">−182.5</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 0.9</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 53.0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 13.2</td></tr> @@ -1954,12 +1915,12 @@ of liquid air.</p> <p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table X.</span></p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tccm allb">Substance.</td> <td class="tccm allb">18° to<br />−78° C.,<br />or, at<br />−30° C.</td> <td class="tccm allb">−78° to<br />−188° C.,<br />or, at<br />−133° C.</td> <td class="tccm allb">−188° to<br />−252° C.,<br />or, at<br />−220° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Substance.</td> <td class="tccm allb">18° to<br />−78° C.,<br />or, at<br />−30° C.</td> <td class="tccm allb">−78° to<br />−188° C.,<br />or, at<br />−133° C.</td> <td class="tccm allb">−188° to<br />−252° C.,<br />or, at<br />−220° C.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Diamond</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0794</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0190</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0043</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Graphite</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.1341</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0599</td> <td class="tcl rb">0.0133</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Ice</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">0.463*</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">0.285</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">0.146</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">* This is from −18° to −78° in the ice experiment.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">* This is from −18° to −78° in the ice experiment.</td></tr> </table> <p>Dewar used pure metallic lead for the purpose of conveying @@ -2021,7 +1982,7 @@ cooled mass. The stability of endothermic bodies like nitric oxide and ozone at low temperatures requires further investigation. The behaviour of fluorine, which may be regarded as the most active of the elements, is instructive in this respect. As a -gas, cooled to −180° C. it loses the power of attacking glass; +gas, cooled to −180° C. it loses the power of attacking glass; similarly silicon, borax, carbon, sulphur and phosphorus at the same temperature do not become incandescent in an atmosphere of the gas. Passed into liquid oxygen, the gas dissolves and @@ -2029,7 +1990,7 @@ imparts a yellowish tint to the liquid; if the oxygen has been exposed to the air for some hours, the fluorine produces a white flocculent precipitate, which if separated by filtering deflagrates with violence as the temperature rises. It appears to be a -hydrate of fluorine. As a liquid at −210° fluorine attacks +hydrate of fluorine. As a liquid at −210° fluorine attacks turpentine also cooled to that temperature with explosive force and the evolution of light, while the direction of a jet of hydrogen upon its surface is immediately followed by combination and a @@ -2038,13 +1999,13 @@ fluorine is broken off under liquid hydrogen, a violent explosion ensues.</p> <p><i>Photographic Action.</i>—The action of light on photographic -plates, though greatly diminished at −180°, is far from being +plates, though greatly diminished at −180°, is far from being in abeyance; an Eastman film, for instance, remains fairly -sensitive at −210°. At the still lower temperature of liquid +sensitive at −210°. At the still lower temperature of liquid hydrogen the photographic activity is reduced to about half what it is at that of liquid air; in other words, about 10% of the original sensitivity remains. Experiments carried out -with an incandescent lamp, a Röntgen bulb and the ultra-violet +with an incandescent lamp, a Röntgen bulb and the ultra-violet spark from magnesium and cadmium, to discover at what distances from the source of light the plates must be placed in order to receive an equal photographic impression, yielded the @@ -2056,12 +2017,12 @@ results shown in table XI.</p> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Source of Light.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cooled<br />Plate.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Uncooled<br />Plate.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ratio of<br />Intensities<br />at Balance.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">16 C.P. lamp</td> <td class="tcl rb">20 in.</td> <td class="tcl rb">50 in.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1 to 6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Röntgen bulb</td> <td class="tcl rb">10 in.</td> <td class="tcl rb">24¾ in.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1 to 6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Ultra-violet spark</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">22½ in.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">90 in.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1 to 16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Röntgen bulb</td> <td class="tcl rb">10 in.</td> <td class="tcl rb">24¾ in.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1 to 6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Ultra-violet spark</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">22½ in.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">90 in.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1 to 16</td></tr> </table> <p>It appears that the photographic action of both the incandescent -lamp and the Röntgen rays is reduced by the temperature +lamp and the Röntgen rays is reduced by the temperature of liquid air to 17% of that exerted at ordinary temperatures, while ultra-violet radiation retains only 6%. It is possible that the greater dissipation of the latter by the photographic @@ -2072,7 +2033,7 @@ and that if the plate could be developed at a low temperature it would show no effect, the photographic action taking place subsequently through an internal phosphorescence in the film during the time it is heating up. With regard to the transparency -of bodies to the Röntgen radiation at low temperatures, small +of bodies to the Röntgen radiation at low temperatures, small tubes of the same bore, filled with liquid argon and chlorine, potassium, phosphorus, aluminium, silicon and sulphur, were exposed at the temperature of liquid air (in order to keep the @@ -2084,7 +2045,7 @@ liquid oxygen and air, nitrous and nitric oxides, proved much more transparent than chlorine. Tubes of potassium, argon and liquid chlorine showed no very marked difference of density on the photographic plates. It appears that argon is relatively -more opaque to the Röntgen radiation than either oxygen, +more opaque to the Röntgen radiation than either oxygen, nitrogen or sodium, and is on a level with potassium, chlorine, phosphorus, aluminium and sulphur. This fact may be regarded as supporting the view that the atomic weight of argon is twice @@ -2094,7 +2055,7 @@ elements in the solid state increases with the atomic weight.</p> <p><i>Phosphorescence.</i>—Phosphorescing sulphides of calcium, which are luminous at ordinary temperatures, and whose emission of light is increased by heating, cease to be luminous if cooled to -−80° C. But their light energy is merely rendered latent, not +−80° C. But their light energy is merely rendered latent, not destroyed, by such cold, and they still retain the capacity of taking in light energy at the low temperature, to be evolved again when they are warmed. At the temperature of liquid air many @@ -2170,7 +2131,7 @@ support the weight of an ounce without being straightened out, will, when cooled to the temperature of liquid oxygen, and so long as it remains in that cooled condition, support several pounds and vibrate like a steel spring. Similarly a bell of fusible -metal at −182° C. gives a distinct metallic ring when struck. +metal at −182° C. gives a distinct metallic ring when struck. Balls of iron, lead, tin, ivory, &c., thus cooled, exhibit an increased rebound when dropped from a height; an indiarubber ball, on the other hand, becomes brittle, and is smashed to atoms @@ -2183,7 +2144,7 @@ temperature of liquid oxygen.</p> in diameter.</i></p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">+15° C.</td> <td class="tcc bb">−182° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">+15° C.</td> <td class="tcc bb">−182° C.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Steel (soft)</td> <td class="tcc">420</td> <td class="tcc">700</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Iron</td> <td class="tcc">320</td> <td class="tcc">670</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Copper</td> <td class="tcc">200</td> <td class="tcc">300</td></tr> @@ -2197,7 +2158,7 @@ in diameter.</i></p> diameter of rod-0.2 inch.</i></p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">+15° C.</td> <td class="tcc bb">−182° C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">+15° C.</td> <td class="tcc bb">−182° C.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Tin</td> <td class="tcc">200</td> <td class="tcc">390</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Lead</td> <td class="tcc"> 77</td> <td class="tcc">170</td></tr> @@ -2221,7 +2182,7 @@ greatly affected by cold, for although a number were examined, no measurable differences could be detected in their elongation under repeated additions of the same load. No quantitative experiments have been made on the cohesive properties of the -metals at the temperature of boiling hydrogen (−252°), owing +metals at the temperature of boiling hydrogen (−252°), owing to the serious cost that would be involved. A lead wire cooled in liquid hydrogen did not become brittle, as it could be bent backwards and forwards in the liquid.</p> @@ -2241,13 +2202,13 @@ was that the resistivity decreases much more quickly than the absolute temperature, so as to approach zero at a point not far below the temperature of nitrogen evaporating <i>in vacuo</i>. Cailletet and Bouty, using ethylene as the refrigerant, and experimenting -at temperatures ranging from 0° C. to −100° C. and −123° C., +at temperatures ranging from 0° C. to −100° C. and −123° C., constructed formulae intended to give the coefficients of variation in electrical resistance for mercury, tin, silver, magnesium, aluminium, copper, iron and platinum. Between 1892 and 1896 Dewar and Fleming carried out a large number of experiments to ascertain the changes of conductivity that occur in metals -and alloys cooled in liquid air or oxygen to −200° C. The method +and alloys cooled in liquid air or oxygen to −200° C. The method employed was to obtain the material under investigation in the form of a fine regular wire and to wind it in a small coil; this was then plunged in the liquid and its resistance determined. @@ -2259,8 +2220,8 @@ which was used throughout the investigation. A table showing the value of these degrees in degrees centigrade according to Dickson will be found in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> for June 1898, p. 527; to give some idea of the relationship, it may be stated here that -−100° of the platinum thermometer = −94°.2 C., −150° plat. -= −140°.78 C., and −200° plat. = −185°.53 C. In general, the +−100° of the platinum thermometer = −94°.2 C., −150° plat. += −140°.78 C., and −200° plat. = −185°.53 C. In general, the resistance of perfectly pure metals was greatly decreased by cold—so much so that, to judge by the course of the curves on the chart, it appeared probable that at the zero of absolute temperature @@ -2301,7 +2262,7 @@ point. The influence of the presence of impurities in minute quantities is strikingly shown in the case of bismuth. Various specimens of the metal, prepared with great care by purely chemical methods, gave in the hands of Dewar and Fleming -some very anomalous results, appearing to reach at −80° C. a +some very anomalous results, appearing to reach at −80° C. a maximum of conductivity, and thereafter to increase in resistivity with decrease of temperature. But when the determinations were carried out on a sample of really pure bismuth prepared @@ -2330,8 +2291,8 @@ in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermoelectricity</a></span> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tccm allb">Metals.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Platinum.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Platinum-<br />rhodium<br />Alloy.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Gold.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Silver.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Copper.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Iron.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at 100°</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.655</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.336</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.572</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.290</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at 0° C</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.851</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.990</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.117</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.765</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at 100°</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.655</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.336</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.572</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.290</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at 0° C</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.851</td> <td class="tcc rb">31.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.990</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.117</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.765</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at carbonic acid</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.620</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at liquid oxygen</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.662</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.380</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.669</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.589</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.633</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at liquid nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.149</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> @@ -2339,8 +2300,8 @@ in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermoelectricity</a></span> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at liquid hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.826</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.381 </td> <td class="tcc rb">0.244</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.077</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.356</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance at liquid hydrogen under exhaustion</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.705</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.298</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.226</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.071</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Resistance coefficients</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.003745</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.003607</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.003903</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.003917</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.004257</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.005515</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tclm lb rb bb cl" rowspan="2">Vanishing temperatures (Centigrade)</td> <td class="tcc rb">−244.50°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−543.39°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−257.90°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−252.26°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−225.62°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−258.40°C.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">−244.15°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−530.32°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−257.8°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−252.25°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−226.04°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−246.80°D.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb bb cl" rowspan="2">Vanishing temperatures (Centigrade)</td> <td class="tcc rb">−244.50°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−543.39°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−257.90°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−252.26°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−225.62°</td> <td class="tcc rb">−258.40°C.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">−244.15°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−530.32°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−257.8°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−252.25°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−226.04°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">−246.80°D.</td></tr> </table> <p><i>Magnetic Phenomena.</i>—Low temperatures have very marked @@ -2396,7 +2357,7 @@ Hadfield, <i>Id.</i> lxxiv. 326-336).</p> degree of magnetization it is capable of acquiring under the influence of a certain magnetic force. With fine Swedish iron, carefully annealed, the permeability is slightly reduced by -cooling to −185° C. Hard iron, however, in the same circumstances +cooling to −185° C. Hard iron, however, in the same circumstances suffers a large increase of permeability. Unhardened steel pianoforte wire, again, behaves like soft annealed iron. As to hysteresis, low temperatures appear to produce no appreciable @@ -2407,7 +2368,7 @@ organisms is a matter of great intrinsic interest as well as of wide theoretical importance. Experiment indicates that moderately high temperatures are much more fatal, at least to the lower forms of life, than are exceedingly low ones. Professor M‘Kendrick -froze for an hour at a temperature of −182° C. samples of +froze for an hour at a temperature of −182° C. samples of meat, milk, &c., in sealed tubes; when these were opened, after being kept at blood-heat for a few days, their contents were found to be quite putrid. More recently some more elaborate @@ -2520,7 +2481,7 @@ without any danger of accidental explosion.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>For further information the reader may consult W. L. Hardin, <i>Rise and Development of the Liquefaction of Gases</i> (New York, 1899), -and Lefèvre, <i>La Liquéfaction des gaz et ses applications</i>; also the +and Lefèvre, <i>La Liquéfaction des gaz et ses applications</i>; also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation of Gases</a></span>. But the literature of liquid gases is mostly contained in scientific periodicals and the proceedings of learned societies. Papers by Wroblewski and Olszewski on the @@ -2528,7 +2489,7 @@ liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen may be found in the <i>Comptes rendus</i>, vols, xcvi.-cii., and there are important memoirs by the former on the relations between the gaseous and liquid states and on the compressibility of hydrogen in <i>Wien. Akad. Sitzber.</i> vols. xciv. -and xcvii.; his pamphlet <i>Comme l’air a été liquéfié</i> (Paris, 1885) +and xcvii.; his pamphlet <i>Comme l’air a été liquéfié</i> (Paris, 1885) should also be referred to. For Dewar’s work, see <i>Proc. Roy. Inst.</i> from 1878 onwards, including “Solid Hydrogen” (1900); “Liquid Hydrogen Calorimetry” (1904); “New Low Temperature Phenomena” @@ -2866,7 +2827,7 @@ restrictive acts passed in 1728-1729. The physical and moral evils caused by the excessive consumption of spirits were fully recognized; an additional duty of 5s. a gallon was placed on the distiller, and retailers were compelled to take out an excise -licence of £20 per annum. The object was to make spirits +licence of £20 per annum. The object was to make spirits dearer and therefore less accessible. At the same time, with a view to lessening the number of houses, the licensing procedure of the justices was amended by the provision that licences @@ -2890,7 +2851,7 @@ numbers of others were by its use rendered unfit for useful labour, debauched in morals and drawn into all manner of vice and wickedness....” The retailing of spirits in quantities of less than 2 gallons was made subject to a licence costing -£50 and the retailer had also to pay a duty of 20s. on every +£50 and the retailer had also to pay a duty of 20s. on every gallon sold. This experiment in “high licensing” was a disastrous failure, though energetic attempts were made to enforce it by wholesale prosecutions and by strengthening the regulations @@ -2901,7 +2862,7 @@ of spirits in England and Wales nearly doubled between 1733 and 1742, and the state of things was so intolerable that after much controversy the high duties were repealed in 1742 with the object of bringing the trade back into authorized channels; -the cost of a licence was reduced from £50 to £1 and the retail +the cost of a licence was reduced from £50 to £1 and the retail duty from 20s. to 1d. a gallon.</p> <p>This period witnessed the high-water mark of intemperance @@ -2923,7 +2884,7 @@ raised and the regulations were amended and made stricter. The class of houses eligible for licensing was for the first time taken into account, and the retailing of spirits was only permitted on premises assessed for rates and, in London, of the annual -value of £10; justices having an interest in the trade were +value of £10; justices having an interest in the trade were excluded from licensing functions. Another measure which had an excellent effect made “tippling” debts—that is, small public-houses debts incurred for spirits—irrecoverable at law. @@ -3017,8 +2978,8 @@ applied to wine, which was not then under the jurisdiction of the justices at all (see above). In 1710 a small annual tax was imposed on the retailers of beer and ale and collected by means of a stamp on the justices’ licence. In 1728 an annual excise -licence of £20 was imposed on retailers of spirits, and in 1736 -this was raised to £50 (see above). The object of these particular +licence of £20 was imposed on retailers of spirits, and in 1736 +this was raised to £50 (see above). The object of these particular imposts, however, was rather to check the sale, as previously explained, than to secure revenue. In 1756 the previous tax on the retail sale of wine for consumption on the premises was @@ -3056,10 +3017,10 @@ to the first, it was believed that spirit-drinking was increasing again at the time and was doing a great deal of harm. The reason appears to have been a great rise in the returns of consumption, which followed a lowering of the duty on spirits from -11s. 8¼d. to 7s. a gallon in 1825. The latter step was taken +11s. 8¼d. to 7s. a gallon in 1825. The latter step was taken because of the prevalence of illicit distillation. In 1823 the duty had been lowered for the same reason in Scotland from 6s. 2d. -and in Ireland from 5s. 7d. to a uniform rate of 2s. 4¾d. a gallon, +and in Ireland from 5s. 7d. to a uniform rate of 2s. 4¾d. a gallon, with so much success in turning the trade from illegal to legal channels that a similar change was thought advisable in England, as stated. The legal or apparent consumption rose at once @@ -3305,29 +3266,29 @@ are on the same legal footing as public-houses.</p> for offences under the foregoing provisions. For selling any other kind of liquor than that authorized—first offence, -fine not exceeding £50 or one month’s +fine not exceeding £50 or one month’s imprisonment; second offence, fine not -exceeding £100 or 3 months’ imprisonment +exceeding £100 or 3 months’ imprisonment with forfeiture of licence and, if ordered, confiscation of liquor and disqualification for five years; third offence, -fine not exceeding £100 or six months’ +fine not exceeding £100 or six months’ imprisonment with forfeiture of licence and, if ordered, confiscation of liquor and unlimited disqualification. Under the Excise Acts the penalty for selling without a licence is—for spirits, a -fine of £100, confiscation of liquor, forfeiture +fine of £100, confiscation of liquor, forfeiture of licence and perpetual disqualification; -for wine, a fine of £20; for -beer or cider “on” consumption £20, “off” -consumption £10. For sale to children; -first offence, fine up to £2, second offence, -fine up to £5. Permitting premises to be -used as a brothel, fine of £20, forfeiture +for wine, a fine of £20; for +beer or cider “on” consumption £20, “off” +consumption £10. For sale to children; +first offence, fine up to £2, second offence, +fine up to £5. Permitting premises to be +used as a brothel, fine of £20, forfeiture of licence and perpetual disqualification. -Other offences, fine up to £10 for first -conviction, up to £20 for second.</p> +Other offences, fine up to £10 for first +conviction, up to £20 for second.</p> <p>14. The following are offences on the part of the public. Being found drunk on @@ -3335,16 +3296,16 @@ any highway or other public place or on licensed premises; penalty, fine up to 10s. for first conviction, up to 20s. for second, and up to 40s. for third. Riotous or disorderly conduct while drunk; fine up to 40s. Falsely pretending -to be a traveller or lodger; fine up to £5. Causing children +to be a traveller or lodger; fine up to £5. Causing children to be in a bar or sending them for liquor contrary to the law; -fine up to £2 for first and up to £5 for second offence. Attempt +fine up to £2 for first and up to £5 for second offence. Attempt to obtain liquor by a person notified to the police as an habitual drunkard; fine up to 20s. for first offence, up to 40s. for subsequent ones. Giving drunken persons liquor or helping them to get it on licensed premises; fine up to 40s. or imprisonment for a month. Causing children under 11 to sing or otherwise perform on licensed premises, and causing boys under 14 or girls under -16 to do so between 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>; fine up to £25 or three +16 to do so between 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>; fine up to £25 or three months’ imprisonment.</p> <p>The foregoing statement of the law does not in all respects @@ -3370,28 +3331,28 @@ one divisional justice.</p> <tr><td class="tccm allb" style="width: 35%">Licence.</td> <td class="tccm allb" style="width: 20%">Old Duty.</td> <td class="tccm allb">New Duty 1909-1910.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb cl"><i>Manufacturers’ Licences</i>—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Distiller (spirits)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>£10 for first 50,000 gallons, £10 for every additional 25,000 gallons.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Rectifier (spirits)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£15, 15s.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Brewer</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>£1 for first 100 barrels, 12s. for every additional 50 barrels.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Sweets (British wines)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1</td> <td class="tcl rb">£5, 5s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Distiller (spirits)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>£10 for first 50,000 gallons, £10 for every additional 25,000 gallons.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Rectifier (spirits)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£15, 15s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Brewer</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>£1 for first 100 barrels, 12s. for every additional 50 barrels.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Sweets (British wines)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1</td> <td class="tcl rb">£5, 5s.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb cl"><i>Wholesale Dealers’ Licences</i>—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Spirits</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£15, 15s.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Beer</td> <td class="tcc rb">£3, 6s. 1d.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£10, 10s.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Wine</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">No change.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Sweets</td> <td class="tcc rb">£5, 5s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">No change.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Spirits</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£15, 15s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Beer</td> <td class="tcc rb">£3, 6s. 1d.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£10, 10s.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Wine</td> <td class="tcc rb">£10, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">No change.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Sweets</td> <td class="tcc rb">£5, 5s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">No change.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb cl"><i>Retail Licences On</i>—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p> Full or Publican’s (spirits, beer, wine and cider)</p></td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>£4, 10s. to £60 according to annual value of premises.</p></td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>Half the annual value of premises, with a fixed minimum ranging from £5 in places with less than 2000 inhabitants to £35 in towns having over 100,000 inhabitants.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Beer-house</td> <td class="tcc rb">£3, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>One-third of annual value of premises, with a minimum as above ranging from £3, 10s. to £23, 10s.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Wine (confectioners’)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£3, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>From £4, 10s. to £12 according to annual value.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Cider</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1, 5s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">From £2, 5s. to £6.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Sweets</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1, 5s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">From £2, 5s. to £6.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p> Full or Publican’s (spirits, beer, wine and cider)</p></td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>£4, 10s. to £60 according to annual value of premises.</p></td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>Half the annual value of premises, with a fixed minimum ranging from £5 in places with less than 2000 inhabitants to £35 in towns having over 100,000 inhabitants.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Beer-house</td> <td class="tcc rb">£3, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>One-third of annual value of premises, with a minimum as above ranging from £3, 10s. to £23, 10s.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Wine (confectioners’)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£3, 10s.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><p>From £4, 10s. to £12 according to annual value.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Cider</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1, 5s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">From £2, 5s. to £6.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Sweets</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1, 5s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">From £2, 5s. to £6.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl lb rb cl"><i>Retail Licences Off</i>—</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Spirits</td> <td class="tcc rb">£3, 3s.</td> <td class="tclm rb cl" rowspan="3"><p>From £10 to £50 according to annual value.</p></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Spirits (grocers’, Scotland)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£4, 4s. to<br />£13, 13s. 6d.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Spirits (grocers’, Ireland)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£9, 18s. 5d. to<br />£14, 6s. 7d.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Beer (England)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1, 5s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£1, 10s. to £10.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Beer (grocers’, Scotland)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£2, 10s. and £4, 4s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£1, 10s. to £10.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> Wine (grocers’)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£2, 10s. 0d.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">£2, 10s. to £10.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Spirits</td> <td class="tcc rb">£3, 3s.</td> <td class="tclm rb cl" rowspan="3"><p>From £10 to £50 according to annual value.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Spirits (grocers’, Scotland)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£4, 4s. to<br />£13, 13s. 6d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Spirits (grocers’, Ireland)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£9, 18s. 5d. to<br />£14, 6s. 7d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Beer (England)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£1, 5s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£1, 10s. to £10.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Beer (grocers’, Scotland)</td> <td class="tcc rb">£2, 10s. and £4, 4s.</td> <td class="tcl rb">£1, 10s. to £10.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> Wine (grocers’)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£2, 10s. 0d.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">£2, 10s. to £10.</td></tr> </table> <p><i>Excise Licences and Taxation.</i>—The excise licences may be @@ -3415,17 +3376,17 @@ the duty is 2s. 6d. a day for the full licence (raised to 10s.) and <p>The total amount raised by the excise licences in the United Kingdom for the financial year ending 31st March 1909 was -£2,209,928. Of this amount £1,712,160, or nearly four-fifths, -was derived from the full or publicans’ licence, £126,053 from the -wholesale spirit licence and £88,167 from the beer-house licence; +£2,209,928. Of this amount £1,712,160, or nearly four-fifths, +was derived from the full or publicans’ licence, £126,053 from the +wholesale spirit licence and £88,167 from the beer-house licence; the rest are comparatively unimportant. But the licences only represent a small part of the revenue derived from liquor. The great bulk of it is collected by means of duties on manufacture and importation. The total amount for the year ending March -1909 was £37,428,189, or nearly 30% of the total taxation +1909 was £37,428,189, or nearly 30% of the total taxation revenue of the country. The excise duties on the manufacture -of spirits yielded £17,456,366 and those on beer £12,691,332; -customs duties on importation yielded £5,046,949. The excise +of spirits yielded £17,456,366 and those on beer £12,691,332; +customs duties on importation yielded £5,046,949. The excise duty on spirits was at the rate of 11s. a gallon, raised at the end of April 1909 to 14s. 9d.; the corresponding duty on beer is 7s. 9d. a barrel (36 gallons). The relative taxation of the liquor @@ -3512,7 +3473,7 @@ reduction in the ten years 1894-1904 before the act was 359; in the four years 1905-1908; after the act it rose to 1388. The average annual number of licences suppressed with compensation was 1137, and the average annual amount of compensation paid -was £1,096,946, contributed by the trade as explained above.</p> +was £1,096,946, contributed by the trade as explained above.</p> <p>The reduction of public-houses has been accompanied in recent years by a constant increase in the number of clubs. By the act @@ -3623,7 +3584,7 @@ country. The United States government only interferes with the traffic to tax it for revenue, and to regulate the sale of liquor to Indians, to soldiers, etc. The liquor traffic is subject—whether in the form of manufacture, wholesale or retail trade—to -a uniform tax of 25 dollars (£5) per annum imposed on +a uniform tax of 25 dollars (£5) per annum imposed on every one engaged in it. Congress, under the constitution, controls interstate commerce, and the Supreme Court has decided that without its consent no state can prevent @@ -3695,8 +3656,8 @@ they are not quite the same; but in many states there appears to be only one licence, and no distinction between on and off sale, wholesale or retail. Another condition generally imposed in addition to the tax is a heavy bond with sureties; it varies -in amount but is usually not less than 2000 dollars (£400) and -may be as high as 6000 dollars (£1200). A condition precedent +in amount but is usually not less than 2000 dollars (£400) and +may be as high as 6000 dollars (£1200). A condition precedent to the granting of a licence imposed in some states is the deposit of a petition or application some time beforehand, which may have to be backed by a certain number of local residents or tax-payers. @@ -3930,22 +3891,22 @@ the latter varies greatly, even in those states which have adopted the “high licence.” This system is intended to fulfil two purposes; to act as an automatic check on the number of licences and to produce revenue. It was introduced in Nebraska in 1881, when a tax -of 1000 dollars (£200) was placed on saloons (public houses) in large +of 1000 dollars (£200) was placed on saloons (public houses) in large towns, and half that amount in smaller ones. The practice gradually spread and has now been adopted by a large number of states, noticeably the populous and industrial north-eastern and central states. In Massachusetts, where the high licence was adopted in 1874 when the state returned to licensing after a trial of prohibition, the fees are exceptionally high, the minimum for a fully licensed on -and off house being 1300 dollars (£260); in Boston the average tax -is £310. In New York state it ranges from 150 dollars (£30) in -sparsely populated districts to 1200 dollars (£240), and in Pennsylvania +and off house being 1300 dollars (£260); in Boston the average tax +is £310. In New York state it ranges from 150 dollars (£30) in +sparsely populated districts to 1200 dollars (£240), and in Pennsylvania it is much the same. In New Jersey, on the other hand, it -ranges from £20 to £60; in Connecticut from £50 to £90; in Rhode -Island from £40 to £80. In Missouri, which has a special system +ranges from £20 to £60; in Connecticut from £50 to £90; in Rhode +Island from £40 to £80. In Missouri, which has a special system of its own and a sort of sliding scale, great variations occur and in -some cases the tax exceeds £500. In Michigan it is uniform at £100. -The mean for the large cities is £133. The revenue derived from this +some cases the tax exceeds £500. In Michigan it is uniform at £100. +The mean for the large cities is £133. The revenue derived from this source is distributed in many ways, but is generally divided in varying proportions between the state, the county and the municipality; sometimes a proportion goes to the relief of the poor, to @@ -3956,7 +3917,7 @@ in the United Kingdom. The total yield was ascertained by a special inquiry in 1896 and found to be rather less than 12 millions sterling; in the same year the yield from the same source in the United Kingdom was just under 2 millions. Allowing for difference -of population the American rate of taxation was 3¼ times as great +of population the American rate of taxation was 3¼ times as great as the British. It has been inferred that the liquor trade is much more highly taxed in the United States and that it would bear largely increased taxation in the United Kingdom; that argument @@ -3981,8 +3942,8 @@ less revenue than the existing taxation. Other calculations based on the consumption and taxation per head lead to the same conclusion that the trade is actually taxed at a considerably higher rate in the United Kingdom. In the three years ending 1908 the -average amount paid per head in taxation was 13s. 8¾d. in the -United States and 17s. 6¾d. in the United Kingdom. It may be +average amount paid per head in taxation was 13s. 8¾d. in the +United States and 17s. 6¾d. in the United Kingdom. It may be added that the method of taxing licences heavily has certain disadvantages; it stimulates that illicit trade which is the most outstanding feature of the traffic in the United States, and combined @@ -4013,7 +3974,7 @@ and the United States is not less concern for public welfare but the simple fact that the traffic gives less trouble and causes less harm through the abuse of drink; the habits of the people are different in regard to the character of the drinks consumed, -the mode of consumption and the type of establishment. Cafés, +the mode of consumption and the type of establishment. Cafés, restaurants and beer-gardens are much more common, and mere pot-houses less so than in the English-speaking countries. Where trouble arises and engages the attention of the authorities @@ -4038,10 +3999,10 @@ where liquor is sold for consumption on the premises was passed in 1880; it abrogated the previous decree of 1851, by which full discretion was vested in the local authorities, and freed the traffic from arbitrary restrictions. It provides that any person -desiring to open a café, cabaret or other place for retailing liquor must +desiring to open a café, cabaret or other place for retailing liquor must give notice to the authorities, with details concerning himself, the establishment and the proprietor, at least 15 days beforehand; -the authority in Paris is the préfecture of police and elsewhere the +the authority in Paris is the préfecture of police and elsewhere the mairie. Transfers of proprietorship or management must be notified within 15 days, and intended transference of location 8 days beforehand. The penalty for infraction is a fine of 16 francs to 100 francs. @@ -4066,7 +4027,7 @@ considerably but usually they are 11 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, midnight or The trade is lightly taxed; retailers pay from 15 to 50 francs a year; wholesale dealers, 125 francs; breweries the same in most departments, distilleries 25 francs. The excise revenue from liquor -amounted to £20,000,000 in 1900.</p> +amounted to £20,000,000 in 1900.</p> <p><i>Germany.</i>—The German law and practice are broadly similar to the French, but the several states vary somewhat in detail. Under @@ -4094,7 +4055,7 @@ an open house for profit, and includes “pensions” of a public character; the imperial law provides that a licence may be limited to this function and need not include the retailing of liquor. <i>Schank-wirthschaft</i> is the retailing for profit of all sorts of drinks, including -coffee and mineral waters; it corresponds to café in France and +coffee and mineral waters; it corresponds to café in France and refreshment house in England; but the mere serving of food does not come under the law with which we are here concerned. <i>Klein-handel</i> is retail sale either for on or off consumption, and the liquor @@ -4107,7 +4068,7 @@ Licences may be withdrawn for offences against the law. Licensed houses are under the supervision of the police, who fix the hours of closing; it is usually 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, but is commonly extended to 11 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> or midnight in the larger towns and still later in the case of particular -establishments. Some cafés in Berlin do not close till 3 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and some +establishments. Some cafés in Berlin do not close till 3 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and some never close at all. Persons remaining on the premises in forbidden hours after being ordered to leave by the landlord are liable to punishment. Serving drunkards and persons of school age is forbidden. @@ -4117,16 +4078,16 @@ and placed under guardianship. For music and dancing special permits are required. With regard to taxation, in Prussia all business establishments beyond a certain value pay an annual tax and licensed houses are on the same footing as the rest. Businesses -producing less than £75 a year or of less than £150 capital value are +producing less than £75 a year or of less than £150 capital value are free; the rest are arranged in four classes on a rising scale. In the three lower classes the tax ranges from a minimum of 4s. to a -maximum of £24; in the highest class, which represents businesses -producing £2500 and upwards (or a capital value of £50,000 and +maximum of £24; in the highest class, which represents businesses +producing £2500 and upwards (or a capital value of £50,000 and upwards) the tax is 1% of the profits. There is also a stamp duty -on the licence ranging from 1s. 6d. to £5. The latter goes to the +on the licence ranging from 1s. 6d. to £5. The latter goes to the local revenue, the business tax to the government. Beer and spirits are also subject to an excise tax, from which the imperial revenue -derived £7,700,000 in 1901; but the total taxation of the liquor +derived £7,700,000 in 1901; but the total taxation of the liquor trade could only be calculated from the returns of all the federated states.</p> @@ -4205,7 +4166,7 @@ licensing system was introduced which gave the local authority power to fix the number of licences and put them up to auction or to hand over the retail traffic altogether to a company formed for the purpose of carrying it on. The latter idea, which is the Gothenburg -system, was taken from the example of Falun and Jönköping +system, was taken from the example of Falun and Jönköping which had a few years ago voluntarily adopted the plan. The law of 1855 further gave rural districts the power of local veto. Four-fifths of the population live in rural districts, and the great majority @@ -4237,7 +4198,7 @@ distribution: 65% to the state, 20% to the company, and 15% to the municipality. In 1907 Sweden adopted a law in the same direction. The intention is to eliminate more completely the motive of gain from the traffic. In 1898 the net profits of the companies -exceeded half a million sterling in Sweden and reached £117,500 +exceeded half a million sterling in Sweden and reached £117,500 in Norway.</p> <p>The company system had in 1910 had more than half a century’s @@ -4315,7 +4276,7 @@ authorities have power, in Quebec, to prohibit as well as to regulate the trade. The high licence system has not been adopted in Canada. The total revenue derived by the Dominion government in 1908 from taxation of the liquor trade, including duties and licence fees, -was £1,800,000.</p> +was £1,800,000.</p> <p><i>Australia.</i>—The licensing laws of Australia are less repressive and the practice more resembles the British model. Queensland @@ -4334,11 +4295,11 @@ prohibition in the Commonwealth.</p> <p><i>New Zealand.</i>—This state has a licensing system with local option provisions of its own. The licensing authority is a local committee, and there are seven kinds of licence, of which two are for consumption -on the premises. The fees range from £1 for a wine licence to £40 -for a full publican’s licence in towns, or £45 for one permitting an +on the premises. The fees range from £1 for a wine licence to £40 +for a full publican’s licence in towns, or £45 for one permitting an additional hour’s sale at night; the fees go to the revenue of the local authority. In 1907 the total number of licences granted was -2179 and the fees paid amounted to £45,865. Of the whole number, +2179 and the fees paid amounted to £45,865. Of the whole number, 1367, or 1 to every 666 persons, were houses licensed for on consumption. The closing hour is 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> except for houses specially licensed to be open till 11 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> In 1893 local option was introduced @@ -4417,14 +4378,14 @@ course of 104 m. It is not navigable at any point.</p> <p><span class="bold">LIROCONITE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a rare mineral consisting of hydrous basic copper and aluminium arsenate, with the probable formula <span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span> -Cu<span class="su">9</span>Al<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">15</span>(AsO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">5</span>·20H<span class="su">2</span>O. It crystallizes in the monoclinic +Cu<span class="su">9</span>Al<span class="su">4</span>(OH)<span class="su">15</span>(AsO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">5</span>·20H<span class="su">2</span>O. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system, forming flattened octahedra almost lenticular in shape (hence the German name <i>Linsenkupfer</i>). Characteristic is the bright sky-blue colour, though sometimes, possibly owing to differences in chemical composition, it is verdigris-green. The colour of the streak or powder is rather paler; hence the name liroconite, from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="leiros">λειρός</span>, pale, and <span class="grk" title="konia">κονία</span>, powder. The -hardness is 2½, and the specific gravity 2.95. The mineral +hardness is 2½, and the specific gravity 2.95. The mineral was found at the beginning of the 19th century in the copper mines near Gwennap in Cornwall, where it was associated with other copper arsenates in the upper, oxidized portions of the @@ -4436,7 +4397,7 @@ lodes.</p> <p><span class="bold">LISBON<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (<i>Lisboa</i>), the capital of the kingdom of Portugal and of the department of Lisbon; on the right bank of the river Tagus, near its entrance into the Atlantic Ocean, in -38° 42′ 24″ N. and 9° 11′ 10″ W. Pop. (1900) 356,009. Lisbon, +38° 42′ 24″ N. and 9° 11′ 10″ W. Pop. (1900) 356,009. Lisbon, the westernmost of European capitals, is built in a succession of terraces up the sides of a range of low hills, backed by the granite mountains of Cintra. It fronts the Tagus, and the view @@ -4459,7 +4420,7 @@ shores of both channel and lake, and for more than 3 m. inland. Its suburbs, which generally terminate in a belt of vineyards, parks or gardens, interspersed with villas and farms, stretch in some cases beyond the Estrada Militar, or Estrada da Nova -Circumvallação, an inner line of defence 25 m. long, supplementary +Circumvallação, an inner line of defence 25 m. long, supplementary to the forts and other military works at the mouth of the Tagus, on the heights of Cintra and Alverca, and at Caxias, Sacavem, Monsanto and Ameixoeira. The climate of Lisbon is mild and @@ -4467,7 +4428,7 @@ equable, though somewhat oppressive in summer. Extreme cold is so rare that in the twenty years 1856-1876 snow fell only thrice; and in the 18th and early 19th centuries Lisbon was justly esteemed as a winter health-resort. The mean -annual temperature is 60.1° F., the mean for winter 50.9°, the +annual temperature is 60.1° F., the mean for winter 50.9°, the average rainfall 29.45 in. As in 1906, when no rain fell between April and September, long periods of drought are not uncommon, although the proximity of the Atlantic and the frequency of @@ -4512,13 +4473,13 @@ its narrow, steep and winding alleys retain the medieval aspect which all other parts of the city have lost; and almost rival the slums of Oporto in picturesque squalor. The most conspicuous feature of the Alfama is the rocky hill surmounted by the -Castello de São Jorge, a Moorish citadel which has been converted -into a fort and barracks. The Sé Patriarchal, a cathedral +Castello de São Jorge, a Moorish citadel which has been converted +into a fort and barracks. The Sé Patriarchal, a cathedral founded in 1150 by Alphonso I., is said by tradition to have been a Moorish mosque. It was wrecked by an earthquake in 1344 and rebuilt in 1380, but the earthquake of 1755 shattered the dome, the roof and belfry were subsequently burned, and after the -work of restoration was completed the choir and façade were +work of restoration was completed the choir and façade were the only parts of the 14th-century Gothic church unspoiled. In one of the side chapels is the tomb of St Vincent (d. 304), patron saint of Lisbon; a pair of ravens kept within the cathedral @@ -4526,10 +4487,10 @@ precincts are popularly believed to be the same birds which, according to the legend, miraculously guided the saint’s vessel to the city. The armorial bearings of Lisbon, representing a ship and two ravens, commemorate the legend. Other noteworthy -buildings in the Alfama are the 12th-century church of São -Vicente de Fóra, originally, as its name implies, “outside” the +buildings in the Alfama are the 12th-century church of São +Vicente de Fóra, originally, as its name implies, “outside” the city; the 13th-century chapel of Nossa Senhora do Monte; -the 16th-century church of Nossa Senhora da Graça, which +the 16th-century church of Nossa Senhora da Graça, which contains a reputed wonder-working statue of Christ and the tomb of Alphonso d’Albuquerque (1453-1515); and a secularized Augustinian monastery, used as the archbishop’s palace.</p> @@ -4540,30 +4501,30 @@ arranged in long straight streets, its gardens and open spaces, a few of its public buildings, and almost all its numerous statues and fountains, will bear comparison with those of any European capital. The centre of social and commercial activity is the -district which comprises the Praça do Commercio, Rua Augusta, -Rocío, and Avenida da Liberdade, streets and squares occupying -the valley of a vanished tributary of the Tagus. The Praça +district which comprises the Praça do Commercio, Rua Augusta, +RocÃo, and Avenida da Liberdade, streets and squares occupying +the valley of a vanished tributary of the Tagus. The Praça do Commercio is a spacious square, one side of which faces the river, while the other three sides are occupied by the arcaded buildings of the custom house, post office and other government property. In the midst is a bronze equestrian statue of Joseph I., by J. M. de Castro, which was erected in 1775 and gives point to the name of “Black Horse Square” commonly applied to the -Praça by the British. A triumphal arch on the north side leads +Praça by the British. A triumphal arch on the north side leads to Rua Augusta, originally intended to be the cloth-merchants’ street; for the plan upon which Lisbon was rebuilt after 1755 involved the restriction of each industry to a specified area. This plan succeeded in the neighbouring Rua Aurea and Rua da Prata, still, as their names indicate, famous for goldsmiths’ and silversmiths’ shops. Rua Augusta terminates on the north in -the Rocío or Praça de Dom Pedro Quarto, a square paved with +the RocÃo or Praça de Dom Pedro Quarto, a square paved with mosaic of a curious undulatory pattern and containing two bronze fountains, a lofty pillar surmounted by a statue of Pedro IV., and the royal national theatre (<span class="correction" title="amended from Theatro">Teatro</span> de Dona Maria Segunda), erected on the site which the Inquisition buildings occupied from 1520 to 1836. The narrow Rua do Principe, leading past the central railway station, a handsome Mauresque -building, connects the Rocío with the Avenida da Liberdade, one +building, connects the RocÃo with the Avenida da Liberdade, one of the finest avenues in Europe. The central part of the Avenida, a favourite open-air resort of Lisbon society, is used for riding and driving; on each side of it are paved double avenues of @@ -4601,7 +4562,7 @@ of modern Lisbon are generally built in the Italian style of the 18th century; the interiors are overlaid with heavy ornament. Perhaps the finest is the Estrella church, with its white marble dome and twin towers visible for many miles above the city. -The late Renaissance church of São Roque contains two beautiful +The late Renaissance church of São Roque contains two beautiful chapels dating from the 18th century, one of which is inlaid with painted tiles, while the other was constructed in Rome of coloured marbles, and consecrated by the pope before being shipped to @@ -4610,14 +4571,14 @@ The 14th-century Gothic Igreja do Carmo was shattered by the great earthquake. Only the apse, pillared aisles and outer walls remain standing, and the interior has been converted into an archaeological museum. The church of Nossa Senhora da -Conceição has a magnificent Manoeline façade.</p> +Conceição has a magnificent Manoeline façade.</p> <p>The Palacio das Cortes, in which both Houses of Parliament sit, is a 16th-century Benedictine convent, used for its present purpose since 1834. It contains the national archives, better known as the Torre do Tombo collection, because in 1375 the archives were first stored in a tower of that name. The royal -palace, or Paço das Necessidades, west of Buenos Ayres, is a +palace, or Paço das Necessidades, west of Buenos Ayres, is a vast 18th-century mansion occupying the site of a chapel dedicated to Nossa Senhora das Necessidades (<i>i.e.</i> “Our Lady who helps at need”).</p> @@ -4625,16 +4586,16 @@ who helps at need”).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>The Suburbs of Ajuda and Belem.</i>—In the extreme west of Lisbon, beyond the Alcantara valley, are Belem (<i>i.e.</i> “Bethlehem”), beside -the Tagus, and Ajuda, on the heights above. The Paço de Belem, +the Tagus, and Ajuda, on the heights above. The Paço de Belem, built in 1700 for the counts of Aveiro, became the chief royal palace under John V. (1706-1750). The Torre de Belem, on the foreshore, is a small tower of beautiful design, built in 1520 for the protection of shipping. The finest ecclesiastical building in Portugal except -the monasteries of Alcobaça and Batalha also fronts the river. +the monasteries of Alcobaça and Batalha also fronts the river. It is the Convento dos Jeronymos, a Hieronymite convent and church, founded in 1499 to commemorate the discovery of the sea-route to India by Vasco da Gama. It was built of white limestone -by João de Castilho (d. 1581), perhaps the greatest of Manoeline architects. +by João de Castilho (d. 1581), perhaps the greatest of Manoeline architects. Its cloisters form a square with blunted corners, surrounded by a two-storeyed arcade, every available portion of which is covered with exquisite sculptures. Parts of the building have been restored, @@ -4668,10 +4629,10 @@ the hamlet of Trafaria, inhabited by fishermen. The beautiful strip of coast west of Oeiras and south of Cape Roca is often called the “Portuguese Riviera.” Its fine climate, mineral springs and sea-bathing attract visitors at all seasons to the picturesque fortified bay -of Cascaes, or to Estoril, Mont’ Estoril and São João do Estoril, +of Cascaes, or to Estoril, Mont’ Estoril and São João do Estoril, modern towns consisting chiefly of villas, hotels and gardens. The Boca do Inferno (“Mouth of Hell”) is a cavity in the rocks at -Cascaes resembling the Bufador at Peñiscola (<i>q.v.</i>). The villages of +Cascaes resembling the Bufador at Peñiscola (<i>q.v.</i>). The villages of Carcavellos, Bucellas, Lumiar and Collares produce excellent wines; at Carcavellos is the receiving station for cables, with a large British staff, and a club and grounds where social and athletic @@ -4681,12 +4642,12 @@ fighting bulls for the Lisbon arena are bred in the adjacent pastures.</p> </div> <p><i>Railways, Shipping and Commerce.</i>—Lisbon has five railway -stations—the central (Lisboa-Rocío), for the lines to Cintra, +stations—the central (Lisboa-RocÃo), for the lines to Cintra, northern and central Portugal, and Madrid via Valencia de -Alcántara; the Santa Apolonia or Caes dos Soldados, at the +Alcántara; the Santa Apolonia or Caes dos Soldados, at the eastern extremity of the quays, for the same lines (excluding Cintra) and for southern Portugal and Andalusia; the Caes do -Sodré and Santos, farther west along the quays, for Cascaes; +Sodré and Santos, farther west along the quays, for Cascaes; and the Barreiro, on the left bank of the Tagus, for southern Portugal. In 1902 the railways north and south of the Tagus were connected near Lisbon by a bridge. In the previous year @@ -4756,7 +4717,7 @@ a foundling hospital and a very large quarantine station on the south bank of the Tagus, founded in 1857 after an outbreak of yellow fever had devastated the city. Foremost among the theatres, circuses and other places of amusement is the royal -opera-house of São Carlos, built in 1792-1793 on the model of +opera-house of São Carlos, built in 1792-1793 on the model of the Scala at Milan.</p> <p><i>Population.</i>—The population of Lisbon, 187,404<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in 1878, @@ -4803,7 +4764,7 @@ which, however, according to Strabo, was placed by ancient tradition rather in the mountains of Turdetania (the extreme south of Spain). Under the Romans Olisipo became a <i>municipium</i> with the epithet of <i>Felicitas Julia</i>, but was inferior in -importance to the less ancient <i>Emerita Augusta</i> (Mérida). From +importance to the less ancient <i>Emerita Augusta</i> (Mérida). From 407 to 585 it was occupied by Alaric, and thenceforward by the Visigoths until 711, when it was taken by the Moors. Under the Moors the town bore in Arabic the name of <i>Al Oshbūna</i> or <i>Lashbūna</i>. @@ -4834,7 +4795,7 @@ reduced almost in an instant to a heap of ruins. A tidal wave at the same time broke over the quays and wrecked the shipping in the Tagus; fire broke out to complete the work of destruction; between 30,000 and 40,000 persons lost their lives; and the value -of the property destroyed was about £20,000,000. The shock +of the property destroyed was about £20,000,000. The shock was felt from Scotland to Asia Minor. Careful investigation by Daniel Sharpe, an English geologist, has delimited the area in and near Lisbon to which its full force was confined. Lisbon is @@ -4894,7 +4855,7 @@ There are also bleaching and dyeing works, and a considerable agricultural trade. The town is governed by an urban district council. The ruins of Castle Robin, 2 m. N. of the town, stand on a summit of the White Mountains, and the building dates -from the time of Queen Elizabeth. At Drumbo, 3½ m. E. of +from the time of Queen Elizabeth. At Drumbo, 3½ m. E. of Lisburn, is one of the finest examples of early fortification in Ireland, known as the Giant’s Ring, with a cromlech in the centre. Here are also a round tower and the remains of a @@ -4930,17 +4891,17 @@ The church of St Peter, formerly a cathedral, is reputed to be the first Gothic church built in Normandy. Begun in the latter half of the 12th century it was completed in the 13th and 16th centuries. There is a lantern-tower over the crossing and -two towers surmount the west façade, one only of which has +two towers surmount the west façade, one only of which has a spire, added towards the end of the 16th century. In the interior there is a Lady-Chapel, restored in the 15th century by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, one of the judges of Joan of Arc. The church of St Jacques (late 15th century) contains beautiful glass of the Renaissance, some remarkable stalls and old frescoes, and a curious picture on wood, restored in 1681. The church of -St Désir (18th century) once belonged to a Benedictine abbey. +St Désir (18th century) once belonged to a Benedictine abbey. The old episcopal palace near the cathedral is now used as a court-house, museum, library and prison, and contains a beautiful -hall called the salle dorée. Lisieux is the seat of a sub-prefect, +hall called the salle dorée. Lisieux is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of trade arbitrators and a communal college. Its manufactures of woollens are important, @@ -4962,7 +4923,7 @@ of Blois. The town was not reduced till 1141, by which time both it and the neighbourhood had been brought to the direst extremities of famine. In 1152 the marriage of Henry II. of England to Eleanor of Guienne, which added so largely to his -dominions, was celebrated in the cathedral. Thomas à Becket +dominions, was celebrated in the cathedral. Thomas à Becket took refuge here, and some vestments used by him are shown in the hospital chapel. Taken by Philip Augustus and reunited to France in 1203, the town was a frequent subject of dispute @@ -5001,7 +4962,7 @@ a free borough and its burgesses freemen with all the liberties enjoyed by the burgesses of Launceston and Helston. In 1266 he granted fairs at the Feasts of the Assumption and St Matthew. His son Edmund earl of Cornwall in 1275 granted -to the burgesses for a yearly rent of £18 (sold by William III. +to the burgesses for a yearly rent of £18 (sold by William III. to Lord Somers) the borough in fee farm with its mills, tolls, fines and pleas, pleas of the crown excepted. Liskeard was made a coinage town for tin in 1304. Edward the Black Prince @@ -5083,10 +5044,10 @@ Stephen, <i>History of the Criminal Law of England</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LISMORE,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> an island in the entrance to Loch Linnhe, Argyllshire, Scotland, 5 m. N.W. of Oban. Pop. (1901) 500. It lies -S.W. and N.E., is 9½ m. long and 1¾ m. broad, and has an area +S.W. and N.E., is 9½ m. long and 1¾ m. broad, and has an area of 9600 acres. It divides the lower end of the loch into two channels, the Lynn of Morvern on the W. and the Lynn of -Lome on the E. The name is derived from the Gaelic <i>lios mòr</i>, +Lome on the E. The name is derived from the Gaelic <i>lios mòr</i>, “great garden.” Several ruined castles stand on the coast, and the highest point of the island is 500 ft. above the sea. The inhabitants raise potatoes, oats, cattle and horses, and @@ -5167,8 +5128,8 @@ also ceased to exercise its municipal functions.</p> <p><span class="bold">LISSA<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Serbo-Croation <i>Vis</i>; Lat. <i>Issa</i>), an island in the Adriatic sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lissa lies 31 m. S. by W. of Spalato, and is the outermost island of the -Dalmatian Archipelago. Its greatest length is 10½ m.; its -greatest breadth 4½ m. In shape it is a long, roughly drawn +Dalmatian Archipelago. Its greatest length is 10½ m.; its +greatest breadth 4½ m. In shape it is a long, roughly drawn parallelogram, surrounded by a wall of rock, which incloses the fertile central plain, and is broken, on the north, west and east by natural harbours. Its culminating point is Mount Hum @@ -5253,7 +5214,7 @@ their operations. The Italian admiral Persano arranged his ships in a single long line ahead, which allowing for the necessary space between them meant that the Italian formation stretched for more than 2 m. Just before the action began Admiral -Persano shifted his flag from the “Ré d’Italia,” the fourth ship +Persano shifted his flag from the “Ré d’Italia,” the fourth ship in order from the van, to the ram “Affondatore,” the fifth. This made it necessary for the “Affondatore” and the ships astern to shorten speed, and, as the leading vessels stood on, @@ -5264,11 +5225,11 @@ a very rapid and ill-directed fire at a distance of 1000 yds. The Austrians did not reply till they were at a distance of 300 yds. Under Tegethoff’s vigorous leadership, and aided by the disorder in the Italian line, the Austrians brought on a brief, but to -the Italians destructive, mêlée. They broke through an interval +the Italians destructive, mêlée. They broke through an interval between the third and fourth Italian ships. The unarmed Austrian ships headed to attack the unarmed Italians in the rear. At this point an incident occurred to which an exaggerated -importance was given. The Italian ironclad “Ré di Portogallo” +importance was given. The Italian ironclad “Ré di Portogallo” of 5600 tons, in the rear of the line, stood out to cover the unarmoured squadron by ramming the Austrians. She was herself rammed by the wooden “Kaiser” (5000 tons), but received @@ -5276,20 +5237,20 @@ little injury, while the Austrian was much injured. The “Kaiser” and the wooden vessels then made for the protection of fort San Giorgio on Lissa unpursued. In the centre, where the action was hottest, the Austrian flagship “Ferdinand Max” of -5200 tons rammed and sank the “Ré d’Italia.” The Italian +5200 tons rammed and sank the “Ré d’Italia.” The Italian “Palestro” of 2000 tons was fired by a shell and blew up. By midday the Italians were in retreat, and Tegethoff anchored at San Giorgio. His squadron had suffered very little from the wild fire of the Italians. The battle of the 20th July was the first fought at sea by modern ironclad steam fleets, and therefore -attracted a great deal of attention. The sinking of the “Ré +attracted a great deal of attention. The sinking of the “Ré d’Italia” and the ramming of the “Portogallo” by the “Kaiser” gave an immense impulse to the then popular theory that the ram would be a leading, if not the principal, weapon in modern sea warfare. This calculation has not been borne out by more recent experience, and indeed was not justified by the battle itself, in which the attempts to ram were many and the successes -very few. The “Ré d’Italia” was struck only because she was +very few. The “Ré d’Italia” was struck only because she was suddenly and most injudiciously backed, so that she had no way on when charged by the “Ferdinand Max.”</p> @@ -5303,7 +5264,7 @@ H. W. Wilson’s <i>Ironclads in Action</i> (London, 1896).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LISSA<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (Polish <i>Lézno</i>), a town in the Prussian province of +<p><span class="bold">LISSA<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (Polish <i>Lézno</i>), a town in the Prussian province of Posen, 25 m. N.E. from Glogau by rail and at the junction of lines to Breslau, Posen and Landsberg. Pop. (1905) 16,021. The chief buildings are the handsome palace, the medieval town-hall, @@ -5324,20 +5285,20 @@ was long rector of the celebrated Moravian school here. In 1656 and 1707 Lissa was burned down.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Voigt, <i>Aus Lissas erster Blütezeit</i> (Lissa, 1905), and Sanden, +<p>See Voigt, <i>Aus Lissas erster Blütezeit</i> (Lissa, 1905), and Sanden, <i>Geschichte der Lissaer Schule</i> (Lissa, 1905).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIST, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1789-1846), German economist, was born -at Reutlingen, Württemberg, on the 6th of August 1789. Unwilling +at Reutlingen, Württemberg, on the 6th of August 1789. Unwilling to follow the occupation of his father, who was a prosperous tanner, he became a clerk in the public service, and by 1816 had risen to the post of ministerial under-secretary. In 1817 he was appointed professor of administration and politics -at the university of Tübingen, but the fall of the ministry in -1819 compelled him to resign. As a deputy to the Württemberg +at the university of Tübingen, but the fall of the ministry in +1819 compelled him to resign. As a deputy to the Württemberg chamber, he was active in advocating administrative reforms. He was eventually expelled from the chamber and in April 1822 sentenced to ten months’ imprisonment with hard labour in @@ -5360,9 +5321,9 @@ on the 30th of November 1846.</p> <p>List holds historically one of the highest places in economic thought as applied to practical objects. His principal work is -entitled <i>Das Nationale System der Politischen Ökonomie</i> (1841). +entitled <i>Das Nationale System der Politischen Ökonomie</i> (1841). Though his practical conclusions were different from those of -Adam Müller (1779-1829), he was largely influenced not only by +Adam Müller (1779-1829), he was largely influenced not only by Hamilton but also by the general mode of thinking of that writer, and by his strictures on the doctrine of Adam Smith. It was particularly against the cosmopolitan principle in the modern @@ -5454,7 +5415,7 @@ his ideas were undoubtedly the economic foundation of modern Germany, as applied by the practical genius of Bismarck.</p> <p>See biographies of List by Goldschmidt (Berlin, 1878) and Jentsch -(Berlin, 1901), also <i>Fr. List, ein Vorläufer und ein Opfer für das +(Berlin, 1901), also <i>Fr. List, ein Vorläufer und ein Opfer für das Vaterland</i> (Anon., 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1877); M. E. Hirst’s <i>Life of Friedrich List</i> (London, 1909) contains a bibliography and a reprint of List’s <i>Outlines of American Political Economy</i> (1827).</p> @@ -5507,11 +5468,11 @@ imposing an import duty.</p> meaning “hark!” is another form of “listen,” and is to be referred, as to its ultimate origin, to an Indo-European root <i>klu</i>-, seen in Gr. <span class="grk" title="klyein">κλύειν</span>, to hear, <span class="grk" title="kleos">κλέος</span>, glory, renown, and in the English “loud.” -The same root is seen in Welsh <i>clûst</i> and Irish <i>clûas</i>, ear. Another +The same root is seen in Welsh <i>clûst</i> and Irish <i>clûas</i>, ear. Another word “list,” meaning pleasure, delight, or, as a verb, meaning “to please, choose,” is chiefly found in such phrases as “the wind bloweth where it listeth.” This is from the O.E. <i>lystan</i>, cf. Dut. -<i>lusten</i>, Ger. <i>lüsten</i>, to take pleasure in, and is also found in the +<i>lusten</i>, Ger. <i>lüsten</i>, to take pleasure in, and is also found in the English doublet “lust,” now always used in the sense of an evil or more particularly sexual desire. It is probably an application of this word, in the sense of “inclination,” that has given rise to the @@ -5894,7 +5855,7 @@ Epsom on the 2nd of February 1712.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LISTON, JOHN<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1776-1846), English comedian, was born -in London. He made his public <i>début</i> on the stage at Weymouth +in London. He made his public <i>début</i> on the stage at Weymouth as Lord Duberley in <i>The Heir-at-law</i>. After several dismal failures in tragic parts, some of them in support of Mrs Siddons, he discovered accidentally that his <i>forte</i> was comedy, especially @@ -5943,7 +5904,7 @@ was born on the 22nd of October 1811, at Raiding, in Hungary. His appeal to musicians was made in a threefold capacity, and we have, therefore, to deal with Liszt the unrivalled pianoforte virtuoso (1830-1848); Liszt the conductor of the “music of -the future” at Weimar, the teacher of Tausig, Bülow and a host +the future” at Weimar, the teacher of Tausig, Bülow and a host of lesser pianists, the eloquent writer on music and musicians, the champion of Berlioz and Wagner (1848-1861); and Liszt the prolific composer, who for some five-and-thirty years continued @@ -5964,21 +5925,21 @@ of scores. In his eleventh year he began to play in public there, and Beethoven came to his second concert in April 1823. During the three years following he played in Paris, the French provinces and Switzerland, and paid three visits to England. In Paris -he had composition lessons from Paër, and a six months’ course +he had composition lessons from Paër, and a six months’ course of lessons in counterpoint from Reicha. In the autumn of 1825 -the handsome and fascinating <i>enfant gâté</i> of the salons and ateliers—“La -Neuvième Merveille du monde”—had the luck to get an -operetta (<i>Don Sancho</i>) performed three times at the Académie +the handsome and fascinating <i>enfant gâté</i> of the salons and ateliers—“La +Neuvième Merveille du monde”—had the luck to get an +operetta (<i>Don Sancho</i>) performed three times at the Académie Royale. The score was accidentally destroyed by fire, but a -set of studies à la Czerny and Cramer, belonging to 1826 and -published at Marseilles as 12 Études, op. i., is extant, and shows +set of studies à la Czerny and Cramer, belonging to 1826 and +published at Marseilles as 12 Études, op. i., is extant, and shows remarkable precocity. After the death of his father in 1828 young Liszt led the life of a teacher of the pianoforte in Paris, got through a good deal of miscellaneous reading, and felt the influence of the religious, literary and political aspirations of the time. He attended the meetings of the Saint-Simonists, -lent an ear to the romantic mysticism of Père Enfantin and later -to the teaching of Abbé Lamennais. He also played Beethoven +lent an ear to the romantic mysticism of Père Enfantin and later +to the teaching of Abbé Lamennais. He also played Beethoven and Weber in public—a very courageous thing in those days. The appearance of the violinist Paganini in Paris, 1831, marks the starting-point of the supreme eminence Liszt ultimately @@ -5990,9 +5951,9 @@ to an extraordinary degree. After Paganini he received a fresh impulse from the playing and the compositions of Chopin, who arrived in 1831, and yet another impulse of equal force from a performance of Berlioz’s “Symphonie Fantastique, -épisode de la vie d’un artiste,” in 1832. Liszt transcribed this +épisode de la vie d’un artiste,” in 1832. Liszt transcribed this work, and its influence ultimately led him to the composition -of his “Poèmes symphoniques” and other examples of orchestral +of his “Poèmes symphoniques” and other examples of orchestral programme-music.</p> <p>From 1833 to 1848—when he gave up playing in public—he @@ -6035,37 +5996,37 @@ on the 28th of August 1850, before a special audience assembled from far and near. Among the works produced for the first time or rehearsed with a view to the furtherance of musical art were <span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span> -Wagner’s <i>Tannhäuser</i>, <i>Der fliegende Holländer</i>, <i>Das Liebesmahl -der Apostel</i>, and <i>Eine Faust Overtüre</i>, Berlioz’s <i>Benvenuto Cellini</i>, -the <i>Symphonie Fantastique</i>, <i>Harold en Italie</i>, <i>Roméo et Juliette</i>, +Wagner’s <i>Tannhäuser</i>, <i>Der fliegende Holländer</i>, <i>Das Liebesmahl +der Apostel</i>, and <i>Eine Faust Overtüre</i>, Berlioz’s <i>Benvenuto Cellini</i>, +the <i>Symphonie Fantastique</i>, <i>Harold en Italie</i>, <i>Roméo et Juliette</i>, <i>La Damnation de Faust</i>, and <i>L’Enfance du Christ</i>—the last two conducted by the composer—Schumann’s <i>Genoveva</i>, <i>Paradise and the Peri</i>, the music to <i>Manfred</i> and to <i>Faust</i>, Weber’s <i>Euryanthe</i>, -Schubert’s <i>Alfonso und Estrella</i>, Raff’s <i>König Alfred</i>, Cornelius’s +Schubert’s <i>Alfonso und Estrella</i>, Raff’s <i>König Alfred</i>, Cornelius’s <i>Der Barbier von Baghdad</i> and many more. It was Liszt’s habit to recommend novelties to the public by explanatory articles or essays, which were written in French (some for the <i>Journal -des débats</i> and the <i>Gazette musicale</i> of Paris) and translated for +des débats</i> and the <i>Gazette musicale</i> of Paris) and translated for the journals of Weimar and Leipzig—thus his two masterpieces -of sympathetic criticism, the essays <i>Lohengrin et Tannhäuser à +of sympathetic criticism, the essays <i>Lohengrin et Tannhäuser à Weimar</i> and <i>Harold en Italie</i>, found many readers and proved very effective. They are now included, together with articles on Schumann and Schubert, and the elaborate and rather high-flown -essays on Chopin and <i>Des Bohémiens et de leur musique en +essays on Chopin and <i>Des Bohémiens et de leur musique en Hongrie</i> (the latter certainly, and the former probably, written in collaboration with Madame de Wittgenstein), in his <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> (6 vols., Leipzig). The compositions belonging to the period of his residence at Weimar comprise two pianoforte concertos, in E flat and in A, the “Todtentanz,” the “Concerto -pathétique” for two pianos, the solo sonata “An Robert -Schumann,” sundry “Études,” fifteen “Rhapsodies Hongroises,” -twelve orchestral “Poèmes symphoniques,” “Eine Faust +pathétique” for two pianos, the solo sonata “An Robert +Schumann,” sundry “Études,” fifteen “Rhapsodies Hongroises,” +twelve orchestral “Poèmes symphoniques,” “Eine Faust Symphonie,” and “Eine Symphonie zu Dante’s ‘Divina Commedia,’” the “13th Psalm” for tenor solo, chorus and orchestra, the choruses to Herder’s dramatic scenes “Prometheus,” and the “Missa solennis” known as the “Graner Fest Messe.” Liszt retired to Rome in 1861, and joined the Franciscan order -in 1865.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> From 1869 onwards Abbé Liszt divided his time +in 1865.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> From 1869 onwards Abbé Liszt divided his time between Rome and Weimar, where during the summer months he received pupils—gratis as formerly—and, from 1876 up to his death at Bayreuth on the 31st of July 1886, he also taught for @@ -6089,7 +6050,7 @@ command of the instrument was supreme, and who played like an inspired poet. Liszt’s strange musical nature was long in maturing its fruits. At the pianoforte his achievements culminate in the two books of studies, twice rewritten, and finally published -in 1852 as <i>Études d’exécution transcendante</i>, the <i>Études de concert</i> +in 1852 as <i>Études d’exécution transcendante</i>, the <i>Études de concert</i> and the <i>Paganini Studies</i>; the two concertos and the <i>Todtentanz</i>, the <i>Sonata in B minor</i>, the <i>Hungarian Rhapsodies</i> and the fine transcriptions of Beethoven’s symphonies (the 9th for @@ -6109,7 +6070,7 @@ musical, for the order of the ideas that serve as a programme is apt to interfere with the order which the musical exposition naturally assumes—and the result in most cases is but an amalgam of irreconcilable materials. In pieces such as Liszt’s -“Poèmes symphoniques,” <i>Ce qu’on entend sur la montagne</i> +“Poèmes symphoniques,” <i>Ce qu’on entend sur la montagne</i> (1848-1856), after a poem by Victor Hugo, and <i>Die Ideale</i> (1853-1857), after a poem by Schiller, the hearer is bewildered by a series of startling orchestral effects which succeed one another @@ -6129,10 +6090,10 @@ representative themes (<i>Leitmotif</i>), and their combination and interaction. Incidents of the poem or the play are illustrated or alluded to as may be convenient, and the exigencies of musical form are not unfrequently disregarded for the sake of special -effects. Of the twelve Poèmes symphoniques, <i>Orphée</i> is the most +effects. Of the twelve Poèmes symphoniques, <i>Orphée</i> is the most consistent from a musical point of view, and is exquisitely scored. Melodious, effective, readily intelligible, with a dash of the -commonplace, <i>Les Préludes</i>, <i>Tasso</i>, <i>Mazeppa</i> and <i>Fest-Klänge</i> +commonplace, <i>Les Préludes</i>, <i>Tasso</i>, <i>Mazeppa</i> and <i>Fest-Klänge</i> bid for popularity. In these pieces, as in almost every production of his, in lieu of melody Liszt offers fragments of melody—touching and beautiful, it may be, or passionate, or tinged with @@ -6161,9 +6122,9 @@ music, but is none the less distinctly present.</p> <p>Omitting trifles and all publications that have been cancelled, the following list of compositions may be taken as fairly comprehensive:—</p> -<p><i>Pianoforte Pieces.</i>—Études d’exécution transcendante; Études de +<p><i>Pianoforte Pieces.</i>—Études d’exécution transcendante; Études de concert; Zwei Etuden, Waldesrauschen, Gnomentanz; Ab Irato; -Paganini Studies; Années de Pélerinage, 3 sets; Harmonies poétiques +Paganini Studies; Années de Pélerinage, 3 sets; Harmonies poétiques et religieuses, 1-10; Consolations, 1-6; Ave Maria in E; Sonata in B minor; Konzert-Solo in E minor; Scherzo und Marsch; Ballades, I. II.; Polonaises, I. II.; Apparitions, 1-3; Berceuse; @@ -6172,13 +6133,13 @@ chromatique; Mephisto-Walzer, I., II., III. and Polka; Zwei Legenden, “Die Vogelpredigt,” “Der heilige Franciscus auf den Wogen schreitend”; “Der Weihnachtsbaum,” 1-12; Sarabande und Chaconne (“Almira”); Elegies, I., II. and III.; La lugubre -Gondola; Dem Andenken Petöfi’s; Mosonyi’s Grabgeleit; Romance -oubliée; Valses oubliées, 1-3; Liebesträume, 1-3 (originally songs); +Gondola; Dem Andenken Petöfi’s; Mosonyi’s Grabgeleit; Romance +oubliée; Valses oubliées, 1-3; Liebesträume, 1-3 (originally songs); Hexameron; Rhapsodies Hongroises, 1-18.</p> -<p><i>Pieces for Two Pianos.</i>—Concerto pathétique (identical with the +<p><i>Pieces for Two Pianos.</i>—Concerto pathétique (identical with the Konzert-Solo in E minor); Dante symphony; Faust symphony; -Poèmes symphoniques, 1-12; Beethoven’s 9th symphony.</p> +Poèmes symphoniques, 1-12; Beethoven’s 9th symphony.</p> <p><i>Pianoforte with Orchestra.</i>—Concertos I. in E flat, II. in A; Todtentanz; Fantasie ueber Motif aus Beethoven’s “Ruinen von @@ -6189,71 +6150,71 @@ Fantasia in C; Weber’s Polacca in E.</p> <p><i>Fantaisies de Concert for Piano Solo.</i>—Don Juan; Norma; Sonnambula; I Puritani; Lucia, I., II.; Lucrezia, I., II.; La Juive; -Robert le Diable; Les Huguenots; Le Prophète, 1-4. <i>Paraphrases</i>, +Robert le Diable; Les Huguenots; Le Prophète, 1-4. <i>Paraphrases</i>, Auber, Tarantella di bravura (Masaniello); Verdi, Rigoletto, Ernani, Il Trovatore; Mendelssohn, “Hochzeitsmarsch und Elfenreigen”; -Gounod, Valse de Faust, Les Adieux de Roméo et Juliette; Tschaikowsky, +Gounod, Valse de Faust, Les Adieux de Roméo et Juliette; Tschaikowsky, Polonaise; Dargomiyski, Tarantelle; Cui, Tarantella; -Saint-Saëns, Danse macabre; Schubert, Soirées de Vienne, Valses +Saint-Saëns, Danse macabre; Schubert, Soirées de Vienne, Valses caprices, 1-9.</p> <p><i>Transcriptions.</i>—Beethoven’s Nine Symphonies; Berlioz’s “Symphonie -fantastique,” “Harold en Italie”; Bénédiction et Serment +fantastique,” “Harold en Italie”; Bénédiction et Serment (Benvenuto Cellini); Danse des Sylphes (Damnation de Faust); -Weber’s overtures, Der Freischütz, Euryanthe, Oberon, Jubilee; -Beethoven’s and Hummel’s Septets; Schubert’s Divertissement à +Weber’s overtures, Der Freischütz, Euryanthe, Oberon, Jubilee; +Beethoven’s and Hummel’s Septets; Schubert’s Divertissement à la Hongroise; Beethoven’s Concertos in C minor, G and E flat -(orchestra for a second piano); Wagner’s Tannhäuser overture, +(orchestra for a second piano); Wagner’s Tannhäuser overture, march, romance, chorus of pilgrims; Lohengrin, Festzug und Brautlied, Elsa’s Brautgang, Elsa’s Traum, Lohengrin’s Verweiss an -Elsa; Fliegender Holländer, Spinnlied; Rienzi, Gebet; Rheingold, +Elsa; Fliegender Holländer, Spinnlied; Rienzi, Gebet; Rheingold, Walhall; Meistersinger, “Am stillen Herd”; Tristan, Isolde’s Liebestod; Chopin’s six Chants Polonais; Meyerbeer’s Schillermarsch; Bach’s six organ Preludes and Fugues; Prelude and Fugue in G minor; Beethoven, Adelaide; 6 miscellaneous and 6 Geistliche -Lieder; Liederkreis; Rossini’s Les Soirées musicales; Schubert, +Lieder; Liederkreis; Rossini’s Les Soirées musicales; Schubert, 59 songs; Schumann, 13 songs; Mendelssohn, 8 songs; Robert Franz, 13 songs.</p> <p><i>Organ Pieces.</i>—Missa pro organo; Fantasia and Fugue, “Ad nos, ad salutarem undam”; B-A-C-H Fugue; Variations on Bach’s Basso continuo, “Weinen, Klagen”; Bach’s Introduction and -Fugue, “Ich hatte viel Bekümmerniss”; Bach’s Choral Fugue, -“Lob und Ehre”; Nicolai’s Kirchliche Festouvertüre, “Ein feste +Fugue, “Ich hatte viel Bekümmerniss”; Bach’s Choral Fugue, +“Lob und Ehre”; Nicolai’s Kirchliche Festouvertüre, “Ein feste Burg”; Allegri’s Miserere; Mozart’s Ave Verum; Arcadelt’s Ave Maria; Lasso’s Regina Coeli.</p> <p><i>Orchestral Pieces.</i>—Eine Symphonie zu Dante’s “Divina Commedia”; -Eine Faust Symphonie; Poèmes symphoniques: 1. “Ce -qu’on entend sur la montagne”; 2. Tasso; 3. Les Préludes; 4. -Orphée; 5. Prométhée; 6. Mazeppa; 7. Fest-Klänge; 8. Héroïde -funèbre; 9. Hungaria; 10. Hamlet; 11. Hunnenschlacht; 12. Die -Ideale; Zwei Episoden aus Lenau’s Faust: I. Der nächtliche Zug, +Eine Faust Symphonie; Poèmes symphoniques: 1. “Ce +qu’on entend sur la montagne”; 2. Tasso; 3. Les Préludes; 4. +Orphée; 5. Prométhée; 6. Mazeppa; 7. Fest-Klänge; 8. Héroïde +funèbre; 9. Hungaria; 10. Hamlet; 11. Hunnenschlacht; 12. Die +Ideale; Zwei Episoden aus Lenau’s Faust: I. Der nächtliche Zug, II. Der Tanz in der Dorfschenke; Marches, Rakoczy, Goethe, Huldigung, “Vom Fels zum Meer” (for a military band); Ungarischer, -Heroischer and Sturmmarsch; Le Triomphe funèbre du Tasse; +Heroischer and Sturmmarsch; Le Triomphe funèbre du Tasse; “Von der Wiege bis zum Grab”; six Hungarian rhapsodies; four marches; four songs, and Die Allmacht, by Schubert.</p> <p><i>Vocal Music.</i>—Oratorios: “Die Legende von der Heiligen Elisabeth,” “Christus,” “Stanislaus” (unfinished). Masses: Missa solennis for the inauguration of the cathedral at Gran; Ungarische -Krönungs-messe; Missa choralis (with organ); Missa and Requiem +Krönungs-messe; Missa choralis (with organ); Missa and Requiem for male voices (with organ); Psalms, 13, 137, 23 and 18; 12 -Kirchen-Chor-Gesänge (with organ). Cantatas: Prometheus-chöre; -“Beethoven Cantata”; “An die Künstler”; Die Glocken des -Strassburger Münsters; 12 Chöre für Männergesang; Songs, 8 -books; Scena, Jeanne d’Arc au bûcher.</p> +Kirchen-Chor-Gesänge (with organ). Cantatas: Prometheus-chöre; +“Beethoven Cantata”; “An die Künstler”; Die Glocken des +Strassburger Münsters; 12 Chöre für Männergesang; Songs, 8 +books; Scena, Jeanne d’Arc au bûcher.</p> <p><i>Melodramatic Pieces for Declamation, with Pianoforte Accompaniment.</i>—Leonore -(Bürger); Der traurige Mönch (Lenau); Des todten -Dichter’s Liebe (Jokai); Der blinde Sänger (Tolstoy).</p> +(Bürger); Der traurige Mönch (Lenau); Des todten +Dichter’s Liebe (Jokai); Der blinde Sänger (Tolstoy).</p> -<p><i>Editions, Text and Variants.</i>—Beethoven’s Sonatas; Weber’s Concertstück +<p><i>Editions, Text and Variants.</i>—Beethoven’s Sonatas; Weber’s Concertstück and Sonatas; Schubert Fantasia, 4 Sonatas, Impromptus, Valses and Moments musicaux.</p> -<p>See also L. Ramaun, <i>Fr. Liszt als Künstler und Mensch</i> (1880-1894); +<p>See also L. Ramaun, <i>Fr. Liszt als Künstler und Mensch</i> (1880-1894); E. Dannreuther, <i>Oxford Hist. of Music</i>, vol. vi.(1905).</p> </div> <div class="author">(E. Da.)</div> @@ -6268,7 +6229,7 @@ quietly had him ordained.—[<span class="sc">Ed.</span> <i>E.B.</i>].</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LITANY.<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> This word (<span class="grk" title="litaneia">λιτανεία</span>), like <span class="grk" title="litê">λιτή</span> (both from <span class="grk" title="litomai">λίτομαι</span>), +<p><span class="bold">LITANY.<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> This word (<span class="grk" title="litaneia">λιτανεία</span>), like <span class="grk" title="litê">λιτή</span> (both from <span class="grk" title="litomai">λίτομαι</span>), is used by Eusebius and Chrysostom, commonly in the plural, in a general sense, to denote a prayer or prayers of any sort, whether public or private; it is similarly employed in the law of Arcadius @@ -6407,14 +6368,14 @@ product for the entire state being $7,090,188.</p> <p>The lands included in the township of Litchfield (originally called Bantam) were bought from the Indians in 1715-1716 for -£15. the Indians reserving a certain part for hunting. The township +£15. the Indians reserving a certain part for hunting. The township was incorporated in 1719, was named Litchfield, after Lichfield in England, and was settled by immigrants from Hartford, Windsor, Wethersfield, Farmington and Lebanon (all within the state) in 1720-1721. In 1751 it became the county-seat of Litchfield county, and at the same time the borough of Litchfield (incorporated in 1879) was laid out. From 1776 to -1780 two depôts for military stores and a workshop for the +1780 two depôts for military stores and a workshop for the Continental army were maintained, and the leaden statue of George III., erected in Bowling Green, New York City, in 1770, and torn down by citizens on the 9th of July 1776, was cut up @@ -6485,7 +6446,7 @@ indigenous fruits. It is also cultivated in India. The tree bears large compound leaves with two to four pairs of leathery lanceolate pointed leaflets about 3 in. long, and panicles of small flowers without petals. The fruits are commonly roundish, about -1½ in. in diameter, with a thin, brittle, red shell which bears rough +1½ in. in diameter, with a thin, brittle, red shell which bears rough protuberances. In the fresh state they are filled with a sweet white pulp which envelops a large brown seed, but in the dried condition the pulp forms a blackish fleshy substance. The pulp @@ -6567,7 +6528,7 @@ of the 9th century, and the new varieties of Romance did not become ripe for literary purposes till a hundred years later. Meanwhile, not a single literary masterpiece was produced in western Europe for five centuries; by comparison only do -Boëthius and Venantius Fortunatus seem to be luminous points +Boëthius and Venantius Fortunatus seem to be luminous points in the prolonged night; the promise of a literary renaissance at the court of Charlemagne was unfulfilled, and the task of creating a new literature devolved upon the descendants of the @@ -6598,8 +6559,8 @@ by the French execution, and by the creative power of the <i>chansons de geste</i>. Again, France takes the stories of the Arthurian court from Welsh texts or from the lips of Welsh settlers, rehandles the romantic element, and, through Marie de France and -Chrétien de Troyes, imparts to the whole a touch of personal -artistry which is absent from the <i>chansons de geste</i>. The <i>matière +Chrétien de Troyes, imparts to the whole a touch of personal +artistry which is absent from the <i>chansons de geste</i>. The <i>matière de Bretagne</i> goes forth to Italy, Germany and England—later to Portugal and Spain—bearing the imprint of the French genius. Thus France internationalizes local subjects, and first assumes @@ -6618,15 +6579,15 @@ general diffusion of literary accomplishment as to the emergence of three great personalities. Dante, Boccacio and Petrarch created a new art of poetry and of prose. England yielded to the fascination in the person of Chaucer, Spain in the person of her -chancellor López de Ayala, and France in the person of Charles -d’Orléans, the son of an Italian mother. Petrarch, once +chancellor López de Ayala, and France in the person of Charles +d’Orléans, the son of an Italian mother. Petrarch, once ambassador in France, alleged that there were no poets out of Italy, and indeed there were no living poets to compare with him elsewhere. But in all countries he raised up rivals—Chaucer, Marot, Garcilaso de la Vega—as Sannazaro did a century and a half later. Sannazaro’s <i>Arcadia</i> captured the Portuguese -Montemôr, whose pastoral novel the <i>Diana</i>, written in Spanish, -inspired d’Urfé no less than Sidney, and, as d’Urfé’s <i>Astrée</i> is +Montemôr, whose pastoral novel the <i>Diana</i>, written in Spanish, +inspired d’Urfé no less than Sidney, and, as d’Urfé’s <i>Astrée</i> is considered the starting-point of the modern French novel, the historical importance of the Italian original cannot be exaggerated. Spain never obtained any intellectual predominance @@ -6638,7 +6599,7 @@ literature is essentially local. Cervantes, indeed, may be said to have influenced all subsequent writers of fiction, and the influence of Spanish literature is visible in the body of European picaresque tales; but, apart from Corneille and a few other -dramatists who preceded Molière in France, and apart from the +dramatists who preceded Molière in France, and apart from the Restoration drama in England, the influence of the Spanish drama was relatively small. In some respects it was too original to be imitated with success. Much the same may be said of @@ -6654,7 +6615,7 @@ was little more than a geographical expression. Even when Germany recovered her literary independence, Lessing first heard of Shakespeare through Voltaire. Neither Shakespeare nor Milton was read in France before the 18th century—the first -translated by Ducis, the second by Dupré de Saint-Maur—and +translated by Ducis, the second by Dupré de Saint-Maur—and they were read with curiosity rather than with rapture. On the other hand, Boileau, Rapin and Le Bossu were regarded as oracles in England, and through them French literature @@ -6775,9 +6736,9 @@ may be obtained by heating dry lithium hydroxide with magnesium the chloride in pyridine solution, a carbon anode and an iron or platinum cathode being used. O. Ruff and O. Johannsen (<i>Zeit. elektrochem.</i>, 1906, 55, p. 537) electrolyse a mixture of -bromide and chloride which melts at 520°. It is a soft, silvery-white +bromide and chloride which melts at 520°. It is a soft, silvery-white metal, which readily tarnishes on exposure. Its specific -gravity is 0.59, and it melts at 180° C. It burns on ignition in +gravity is 0.59, and it melts at 180° C. It burns on ignition in air, and when strongly heated in an atmosphere of nitrogen it forms lithium nitride, Li<span class="su">3</span>N. It decomposes water at ordinary temperature, liberating hydrogen and forming lithium @@ -6786,7 +6747,7 @@ hydroxide.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p><i>Lithium hydride</i>, LiH, obtained by heating the metal in a current of hydrogen at a red heat, or by heating the metal with ethylene to -700° C. (M. Guntz, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1896, 122, p. 244; 123, p. 1273), +700° C. (M. Guntz, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1896, 122, p. 244; 123, p. 1273), is a white solid which inflames when heated in chlorine. With alcohol it forms lithium ethylate, LiOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, with liberation of hydrogen. <i>Lithium oxide</i>, Li<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained by burning the metal @@ -6804,10 +6765,10 @@ soluble in water. <i>Lithium phosphate</i>, Li<span class="su">3</span>PO<span c of sodium phosphate to a soluble lithium salt in the presence of sodium hydroxide, is almost insoluble in water. <i>Lithium ammonium</i>, LiNH<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained by passing ammonia gas over lithium, the product -being heated to 70° C. in order to expel any excess of ammonia. It +being heated to 70° C. in order to expel any excess of ammonia. It turns brown-red on exposure to air, and is inflammable. It is decomposed by water evolving hydrogen, and when heated <i>in vacuo</i> -at 50°-60° C. it gives lithium and ammonia. With ammonia solution +at 50°-60° C. it gives lithium and ammonia. With ammonia solution it gives hydrogen and <i>lithiamide</i>, LiNH<span class="su">2</span> (H. Moissan, <i>ibid.</i>, 1898, 127, p. 685). <i>Lithium carbide</i>, Li<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">2</span>, obtained by heating lithium carbonate and carbon in the electric furnace, forms a transparent @@ -6949,7 +6910,7 @@ artists who aided them in doing it, were more numerous than ever, and scarcely less able, but it would be outside the present purpose to differentiate between them.</p> -<p>The <i>raison d’être</i> of “stipple” work is its capacity for retransferring +<p>The <i>raison d’être</i> of “stipple” work is its capacity for retransferring without serious loss of quality, for it can scarcely be contended that it is as artistic as the methods just described. Retransferring is the process of pulling impressions from the @@ -7442,7 +7403,7 @@ were already known under the name of Litva, and, together with two other branches of the same stem—the Borussians and the Letts—they occupied the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea from the Vistula to the Duna, extending north-east towards the -Lakes Vierzi-järvi and Peipus, south-east to the watershed +Lakes Vierzi-järvi and Peipus, south-east to the watershed between the affluents of the Baltic and those of the Black Sea, and south to the middle course of the Vistula (Brest Litovsk)—a tract bounded by Finnish tribes in the north, and by Slavs @@ -7463,7 +7424,7 @@ three main branches:—the <i>Borussians</i> or <i>Prussians</i>; the <i>Let (who call themselves <i>Latvis</i>, whilst the name under which they are known in Russian chronicles, <i>Letygola</i>, is an abbreviation of <i>Latvin-galas</i>, “the confines of Lithuania”); and the <i>Lithuanians</i>, -or rather <i>Lituanians</i>, <i>Litva</i> or <i>Letuvininkaï</i>,—these last being +or rather <i>Lituanians</i>, <i>Litva</i> or <i>Letuvininkaï</i>,—these last being subdivided into Lithuanians proper, and <i>Zhmud’</i> (<i>Zmudz</i>, <i>Samogitians</i> or <i>Zemailey</i>), the “Lowlanders.” To these main branches must be added the <i>Yatvyags</i>, or <i>Yadzvings</i>, a warlike, black-haired @@ -7627,7 +7588,7 @@ in songs, and also in common speech.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Schiemann, <i>Russland, Polen und Livland bis ins 17te Jahrhundert</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1886-1887); S. Daukantas, -<i>Lietuvos Istorija</i> (Plymouth, Pa., 1893); J. de Brye, <i>Étude historique +<i>Lietuvos Istorija</i> (Plymouth, Pa., 1893); J. de Brye, <i>Étude historique sur la Lithuanie</i> (Paris, 1894); P. D. Bryantsev, <i>Istorija Litovskago Gosudarstva</i> (Vilna, 1899).</p> </div> @@ -7642,12 +7603,12 @@ included with them in a single linguistic group, the Balto-Slavic. In their phonology, however, though not in their structure the Baltic languages appear to be more primitive than the Slavonic. Lithuanian, for example, retains the archaic diphthongs which -disappear in Slavonic—Lith. <i>véidas</i>, “face,” Gr. <span class="grk" title="eidos">εἶδος</span>, O.S. +disappear in Slavonic—Lith. <i>véidas</i>, “face,” Gr. <span class="grk" title="eidos">εἶδος</span>, O.S. <i>vidŭ</i>. Among other noteworthy phonological characteristics of Lithuanian are the conversion of <i>k</i> into a sibilant, the loss of <i>h</i> and change of all aspirates into tenues and the retention of primitive consonantal noun-terminations, <i>e.g.</i> the final <i>s</i> in Sans. -<i>Vṛkás</i>, Lith. <i>vīlkas</i>, O.S. <i>vŭlkŭ</i>. Lettic is phonologically less +<i>Vṛkás</i>, Lith. <i>vīlkas</i>, O.S. <i>vŭlkŭ</i>. Lettic is phonologically less archaic than Lithuanian, although in a few cases it has preserved Indo-European forms which have been changed in Lithuanian, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>s</i> and <i>z</i> which have become Lith. <i>sz</i> (<i>sh</i>) and <i>ž</i> (<i>zh</i>). The @@ -7692,7 +7653,7 @@ predominate, and both are rich in popular ballads, folk-tales and fables.</p> <p>The first book printed in Lithuanian was a translation of -Luther’s shorter Catechism (Königsberg, 1547); other translations +Luther’s shorter Catechism (Königsberg, 1547); other translations of devotional or liturgical works followed, and by 1701 59 Lithuanian books had appeared, the most noteworthy being those of the preacher J. Bretkun (1535-1602). The spread of @@ -7701,7 +7662,7 @@ Testament. The first dictionary was printed in 1749. But perhaps the most remarkable work of the second period was <i>The Four Seasons</i>, a pastoral poem in hexameters by Christian Donalitius (1714-1780), which was edited by Nesselmann -(Königsberg, 1869) with a German translation and notes. In +(Königsberg, 1869) with a German translation and notes. In the 19th century various collections of fables and folk-tales were published, and an epic, the <i>Onikshta Grove</i>, was written by Bishop Baranoski. But it was in journalism that the chief @@ -7710,7 +7671,7 @@ founded the first Lithuanian newspaper, and between 1834 and 1895 no fewer than 34 Lithuanian periodicals were published in the United States alone.</p> -<p>Luther’s Catechism (Königsberg, 1586) was the first book +<p>Luther’s Catechism (Königsberg, 1586) was the first book printed in Lettic, as in the sister speech. In the 17th century various translations of psalms, hymns and other religious works were published, the majority being Calvinistic in tone. The @@ -7733,8 +7694,8 @@ the dramatist Steperman and the poet Martin Lap, both of whom wrote in Lettic.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Lithuanian dictionaries: Nesselmann, <i>Wörterbuch -der litauischen Sprache</i> (Königsberg, 1851); Kurschat, <i>Wörterbuch +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Lithuanian dictionaries: Nesselmann, <i>Wörterbuch +der litauischen Sprache</i> (Königsberg, 1851); Kurschat, <i>Wörterbuch der litauischen Sprache</i> (Halle, 1870-1883); A. Juszkiewicz, <i>Litovskiy Slovar</i> (St Petersburg, 1897, &c.); P. Saurusaitis, <i>An Abridged Dictionary of the English-Lithuanian Languages</i>, 2 pts. @@ -7742,10 +7703,10 @@ Abridged Dictionary of the English-Lithuanian Languages</i>, 2 pts. and English Languages</i> (Chicago, 1903, &c.). Grammar and Linguistic: Schleicher, <i>Handbuch der litauischen Sprache</i> (Prague, 1856-1857); O. Wiedemann, <i>Handbuch der litauischen Sprache</i> -(Strassburg, 1897); A. Bezzenberger, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der -litauischen Sprache</i> (Göttingen, 1877); J. Schiekopp, <i>Gramatyka +(Strassburg, 1897); A. Bezzenberger, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der +litauischen Sprache</i> (Göttingen, 1877); J. Schiekopp, <i>Gramatyka litewska poczatkowa</i> (Cracow, 1902). Literature: Nesselmann, -<i>Litauische Volkslieder</i> (Berlin, 1853); A. Juszkiewicz, <i>Lietùwiškos +<i>Litauische Volkslieder</i> (Berlin, 1853); A. Juszkiewicz, <i>Lietùwiškos Dajnos Uzrasytos</i>, &c. (Kazan, 1881); A. Leskien and C. Brugman, <i>Litauische Volkslieder</i> (Strassburg, 1882); C. Bartsch, <i>Melodieen litauischer Volkslieder</i> (Heidelberg, 1886); A. Juszkiewicz, <i>Melodje @@ -7754,11 +7715,11 @@ Khrestomatiya</i> (St Petersburg, 1901, &c.).</p> <p>Lettic dictionaries and grammars: Bielenstein, <i>Die Lettische Sprache</i> (Berlin, 1863-1864); id., <i>Lettische Grammatik</i> (Mitau, 1863); -Ulmann and Brasche, <i>Lettisches Wörterbuch</i> (Riga, 1872-1880); A. -Bezzenberger, <i>Über die Sprache der preussischen Letten and lettische -Dialekt-Studien</i> (Göttingen, 1885); Bielenstein, <i>Grenzen des lettischen +Ulmann and Brasche, <i>Lettisches Wörterbuch</i> (Riga, 1872-1880); A. +Bezzenberger, <i>Ãœber die Sprache der preussischen Letten and lettische +Dialekt-Studien</i> (Göttingen, 1885); Bielenstein, <i>Grenzen des lettischen Volksstammes und der lettischen Sprache</i> (St Petersburg, 1892); -Literature: Bielenstein <i>Tausend lettische Räthsel</i> (Mitau, 1881); +Literature: Bielenstein <i>Tausend lettische Räthsel</i> (Mitau, 1881); T. Treuland, <i>Latyshskiya Narodnyya Skazki</i> (Moscow, 1887, &c.); K. Baron and H. Wissendorff, <i>Latwju dainas</i> (Mitau, 1894, &c.); V. Andreyanov, <i>Lettische Volkslieder und Mythen</i> (Halle, 1896).</p> @@ -7814,7 +7775,7 @@ specialized than the second family.</p> <p>The molar teeth approximate to the <i>Palaeotherium</i> type, but have a more or less strongly developed median longitudinal cleft. The three-toed type is represented by <i>Diadiaphorus</i>, in which the dental -formula is i.½, c.<span class="spp">0</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span>, p.<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, m.<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>, and the feet are very like those of <i>Hipparion</i>. +formula is i.½, c.<span class="spp">0</span>⁄<span class="suu">1</span>, p.<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, m.<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>, and the feet are very like those of <i>Hipparion</i>. The cervical vertebrae are of normal form, the orbit (as in the second family) is encircled by bone, the last molar has a third lobe, the single pair of upper incisors are somewhat elongated, and have a gap @@ -7921,18 +7882,18 @@ presented by certain members of the <i>Proterotheriidae</i>.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LITOTES<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="litotês">λιτότης</span>, plainness, <span class="grk" title="litos">λιτός</span>, plain, simple, smooth), +<p><span class="bold">LITOTES<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="litotês">λιτότης</span>, plainness, <span class="grk" title="litos">λιτός</span>, plain, simple, smooth), a rhetorical figure in which emphasis is secured for a statement by turning it into a denial of the contrary, <i>e.g.</i> “a citizen of no mean city,” <i>i.e.</i> a citizen of a famous city, “A. is not a man to be neglected.” Litotes is sometimes used for what should be -more strictly called “meiosis” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="meiôsis">μείωσις</span>, lessening, diminution, -<span class="grk" title="meiôn">μείων</span>, lesser), where the expressions used apparently are +more strictly called “meiosis” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="meiôsis">μείωσις</span>, lessening, diminution, +<span class="grk" title="meiôn">μείων</span>, lesser), where the expressions used apparently are weak or understated, but the effect is to intensify.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LITTER<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>litere</i> or <i>litiere</i>, mod. <i>litière</i> from +<p><span class="bold">LITTER<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>litere</i> or <i>litiere</i>, mod. <i>litière</i> from Med. Lat. <i>lectaria</i>, classical <i>lectica</i>, <i>lectus</i>, bed, couch), a word used of a portable couch, shut in by curtains and borne on poles by bearers, and of a bed of straw or other suitable @@ -8030,7 +7991,7 @@ and by a county bridge. The city derived its name (originally peninsula in the Arkansas, distinguished from the “Big Rock” (the site of the army post, Fort Logan H. Roots), 1 m. W. of the city, across the river. The Big Rock is said to have been first -discovered and named “Le Rocher Français” in 1722 by Sieur +discovered and named “Le Rocher Français” in 1722 by Sieur Bernard de la Harpe, who was in search of an emerald mountain; the Little Rock is now used as an abutment for a railway bridge. The state capitol, the state insane asylum, the state deaf @@ -8402,15 +8363,15 @@ Littleton’s book is called in all the early editions “Tenores Novell <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LITTRÉ, MAXIMILIEN PAUL ÉMILE<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1801-1881), French +<p><span class="bold">LITTRÉ, MAXIMILIEN PAUL ÉMILE<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1801-1881), French lexicographer and philosopher, was born in Paris on the 1st of February 1801. His father had been a gunner, and afterwards sergeant-major of marine artillery, in the French navy, and was deeply imbued with the revolutionary ideas of the day. Settling down as a collector of taxes, he married Sophie Johannot, a free-thinker like himself, and devoted himself to the education of -his son Émile. The boy was sent to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, -where he had for friends Hachette and Eugène Burnouf. After +his son Émile. The boy was sent to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, +where he had for friends Hachette and Eugène Burnouf. After he had completed his course at school, he hesitated for a time as to what profession he should adopt, and meanwhile made himself master, not only of the English and German languages, @@ -8431,11 +8392,11 @@ of the <i>National</i>, who gave him the task of reading the English and German papers for excerpts. Carrel by chance, in 1835, discovered the ability of his reader, who from that time became a constant contributor, and eventually director of the paper. -In 1836 Littré began to contribute articles on all sorts of subjects +In 1836 Littré began to contribute articles on all sorts of subjects to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>; in 1837 he married; and in 1839 appeared the first volume of his edition of the works of Hippocrates. The value of this work was recognized by his -election the same year into the Académie des Inscriptions et +election the same year into the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. At this epoch he came across the works of Auguste Comte, the reading of which formed, as he himself said, “the cardinal point of his life,” and from this time onward @@ -8447,16 +8408,16 @@ on the positivist philosophy. At the same time he continued his edition of Hippocrates, which was not completed till 1862, published a similar edition of Pliny’s <i>Natural History</i>, and after 1844 took Fauriel’s place on the committee engaged on the -<i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, where his knowledge of the early +<i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, where his knowledge of the early French language and literature was invaluable.</p> <p>It was about 1844 that he started working on his great <i>Dictionnaire -de la langue française</i>, which was, however, not to be +de la langue française</i>, which was, however, not to be completed till thirty years after. In the revolution of July 1848 he took part in the repression of the extreme republican party in June 1849. His essays, contributed during this period to the <i>National</i>, were collected together and published under -the title of <i>Conservation, révolution et positivisme</i> in 1852, +the title of <i>Conservation, révolution et positivisme</i> in 1852, and show a thorough acceptance of all the doctrines propounded by Comte. However, during the later years of his master’s life, he began to perceive that he could not wholly accept all @@ -8464,7 +8425,7 @@ the dogmas or the more mystic ideas of his friend and master, but he concealed his differences of opinion, and Comte failed to perceive that his pupil had outgrown him, as he himself had outgrown his master Saint-Simon. Comte’s death in 1858 freed -Littré from any fear of embittering his master’s later years, +Littré from any fear of embittering his master’s later years, and he published his own ideas in his <i>Paroles de la philosophie positive</i> in 1850, and at still greater length in his work in <i>Auguste Comte et la philosophie positive</i> in 1863. In this book he traces @@ -8478,9 +8439,9 @@ against J. S. Mill, but declared that, while he believed in a positivist philosophy, he did not believe in a religion of humanity. About 1863, after completing his Hippocrates and his Pliny, he set to work in earnest on his French dictionary. In the same -year he was proposed for the Académie Française, but rejected, +year he was proposed for the Académie Française, but rejected, owing to the opposition of Mgr. Dupanloup, bishop of Orleans, -who denounced him in his <i>Avertissement aux pères de famille</i> +who denounced him in his <i>Avertissement aux pères de famille</i> as the chief of the French materialists. He also at this time started with G. Wyrouboff the <i>Philosophie Positive</i>, a review which was to embody the views of modern positivists. His @@ -8491,24 +8452,24 @@ retired with his family to Britanny, whence he was summoned by M. Gambetta to Bordeaux, to lecture on history, and thence to Versailles to take his seat in the senate to which he had been chosen by the department of the Seine. In December 1871 -he was elected a member of the Académie Française in spite +he was elected a member of the Académie Française in spite of the renewed opposition of Mgr. Dupanloup, who resigned -his seat rather than receive him. Littré’s <i>Dictionary</i> was completed +his seat rather than receive him. Littré’s <i>Dictionary</i> was completed in 1873. An authoritative interpretation is given of the use of each word, based on the various meanings it had held -in the past. In 1875 Littré was elected a life senator. The +in the past. In 1875 Littré was elected a life senator. The most notable of his productions in these years were his political papers attacking and unveiling the confederacy of the Orleanists and legitimists, and in favour of the republic, his republication of many of his old articles and books, among others the <i>Conservation, -révolution et positivisme</i> of 1852 (which he reprinted +révolution et positivisme</i> of 1852 (which he reprinted word for word, appending a formal, categorical renunciation of many of the Comtist doctrines therein contained), and a little -tract <i>Pour la dernière fois</i>, in which he maintained his unalterable +tract <i>Pour la dernière fois</i>, in which he maintained his unalterable belief in materialism. When it became obvious that the old man could not live much longer, his wife and daughter, who had always been fervent Catholics, strove to convert him to their -religion. He had long interviews with Père Millériot, a celebrated +religion. He had long interviews with Père Millériot, a celebrated controversialist, and was much grieved at his death; but it is hardly probable he would have ever been really converted. Nevertheless, when on the point of death, his wife had him @@ -8518,30 +8479,30 @@ Catholic Church. He died on the 2nd of June 1881.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The following are his most important works: his editions of Hippocrates (1839-1861), and of Pliny’s <i>Natural History</i> (1848-1850); -his translation of Strauss’s <i>Vie de Jésus</i> (1839-1840), and -Müller’s <i>Manuel de physiologie</i> (1851); his edition of the works of +his translation of Strauss’s <i>Vie de Jésus</i> (1839-1840), and +Müller’s <i>Manuel de physiologie</i> (1851); his edition of the works of Armand Carrel, with notes (1854-1858); the <i>Histoire de la langue -française</i>, a collection of magazine articles (1862); and his <i>Dictionnaire -de la langue française</i> (1863-1872). In the domain of science +française</i>, a collection of magazine articles (1862); and his <i>Dictionnaire +de la langue française</i> (1863-1872). In the domain of science must be noted his edition, with Charles Robin, of Nysten’s <i>Dictionnaire -de médicine, de chirurgie</i>, &c. (1855); in that of philosophy, his -<i>Analyse raisonnée du cours de philosophie positive de M. A. Comte</i> +de médicine, de chirurgie</i>, &c. (1855); in that of philosophy, his +<i>Analyse raisonnée du cours de philosophie positive de M. A. Comte</i> (1845); <i>Application de la philosophie positive au gouvernement</i> -(1849); <i>Conservation, révolution et positivisme</i> (1852, 2nd ed., with +(1849); <i>Conservation, révolution et positivisme</i> (1852, 2nd ed., with supplement, 1879); <i>Paroles de la philosophie positive</i> (1859); <i>Auguste Comte et la philosophie positive</i> (1863); <i>La Science au point de vue philosophique</i> (1873); <i>Fragments de philosophie et de sociologie contemporaine</i> (1876); and his most interesting miscellaneous works, -his <i>Études et glanures</i> (1880); <i>La Verité sur la mort d’Alexandre le -grand</i> (1865); <i>Études sur les barbares et le moyen âge</i> (1867); <i>Médecine -et médecins</i> (1871); <i>Littérature et histoire</i> (1875); and <i>Discours -de réception à l’Académie française</i> (1873).</p> +his <i>Études et glanures</i> (1880); <i>La Verité sur la mort d’Alexandre le +grand</i> (1865); <i>Études sur les barbares et le moyen âge</i> (1867); <i>Médecine +et médecins</i> (1871); <i>Littérature et histoire</i> (1875); and <i>Discours +de réception à l’Académie française</i> (1873).</p> -<p>For his life consult C. A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Notice sur M. Littré, sa +<p>For his life consult C. A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Notice sur M. Littré, sa vie et ses travaux</i> (1863); and <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i>, vol. v.; also -the notice by M. Durand-Gréville in the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i> of August -1881; E. Caro, <i>Littré et le positivisme</i> (1883); Pasteur, <i>Discours de -réception</i> at the Academy, where he succeeded Littré, and a reply by +the notice by M. Durand-Gréville in the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i> of August +1881; E. Caro, <i>Littré et le positivisme</i> (1883); Pasteur, <i>Discours de +réception</i> at the Academy, where he succeeded Littré, and a reply by E. Renan.</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. M. S.)</div> @@ -8836,7 +8797,7 @@ that of “Silentium facite” before the epistle (Migne, <i>Pat. Lat.</ lxxxv. col. 534); (2) the presence of a third lesson preceding the epistle, taken from the Old Testament; (3) the occasional presence of “preces” a series of short intercessions resembling the Greek -“Ektené” or deacon’s litany; (4) the position of the kiss of peace +“Ektené” or deacon’s litany; (4) the position of the kiss of peace at an early point in the service, before the canon, instead of the Roman position after consecration; (5) the exclamation “Sancta sanctis” occurring in the Mozarabic rite, being the counterpart of @@ -8906,7 +8867,7 @@ from the library at St Gall have been published by Bunsen (<i>Analecta Ante-Nicaena</i>, iii. 263-266), and from the Ambrosian library at Milan by Cardinal Mai (<i>Scriptt. Vet. Vat. Coll.</i> iii. 2. 247). A single page was discovered in Gonville and -Caius College, Cambridge, published in <i>Zeitschrift für Kath. +Caius College, Cambridge, published in <i>Zeitschrift für Kath. Theologie</i>, vi. 370.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -8963,7 +8924,7 @@ and Ceriani (in his edition, 1881, of an ancient MS. at Milan). (<i>a</i>) The prayer entitled “oratio super sindonem” corresponding to the prayer after the spreading of the corporal; (<i>b</i>) the proclamation of silence by the deacon before the epistle; (<i>c</i>) the litanies said after the Ingressa -(Introit) on Sundays in Lent, closely resembling the Greek Ektené; +(Introit) on Sundays in Lent, closely resembling the Greek Ektené; (<i>d</i>) varying forms of introduction to the Lord’s Prayer, in Coena Domini (Ceriani p. 116) in Pascha (<i>Ib.</i> p. 129); (<i>e</i>) the presence of passages in the prayer of consecration which are not part of the @@ -9127,9 +9088,9 @@ completeness: (1) the <i>Leofric Missal</i>, a composite 10th- to 11th-century MS. presented to the cathedral of Exeter by Leofric, the first bishop of that see (1046-1072), now in the Bodleian library at Oxford; edited by F. E. Warren (Oxford, 1883); -(2) the missal of Robert of Jumièges, archbishop of Canterbury +(2) the missal of Robert of Jumièges, archbishop of Canterbury (1051-1052), written probably at Winchester and presented by -Archbishop Robert to his old monastery of Jumièges in the +Archbishop Robert to his old monastery of Jumièges in the neighbourhood of Rouen, in the public library of which it now lies; edited by H. A. Wilson (London, 1896); (3) the <i>Red Book of Derby</i>, a MS. missal of the second half of the 11th century, @@ -9175,7 +9136,7 @@ These foreign ecclesiastics brought over with them a preference for and a habit of using certain features of the Gallican liturgy and ritual, which they succeeded in incorporating into the service-books of the church of England. One of the Norman prelates, -Osmund, count of Séez, earl of Dorset, chancellor of England, +Osmund, count of Séez, earl of Dorset, chancellor of England, and bishop of Salisbury (1078-1099), is credited with having undertaken the revision of the English service-books; and the missal which we know as the <i>Sarum Missal</i>, or the <i>Missal according @@ -9417,8 +9378,8 @@ substituted for the Latin language, the old framework and order of the Roman missal were closely followed, beginning with the Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie eleison, still always sung in Greek, Gloria in excelsis, &c. The text of this and other Lutheran services is given -in <i>Agende für christliche Gemeinden des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses</i> -(Nördlingen, 1853). At the same time Luther was tolerant and +in <i>Agende für christliche Gemeinden des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses</i> +(Nördlingen, 1853). At the same time Luther was tolerant and expressed a hope that different portions of the Lutheran church would from time to time make such changes or adaptations in the order of service as might be found convenient. The Lutheran @@ -9497,7 +9458,7 @@ and Willa his queen; (2) <i>Historia Ottonis</i>, a work of greater impartiality and merit, unfortunately covering only the years from 960 to 964; and (3) the <i>Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana</i> (968-969). All are to be found in the <i>Monum. Germ. Hist</i>. of Pertz, and in the -<i>Rer. Ital. Script</i>. of Muratori; there is an edition by E. Dümmler +<i>Rer. Ital. Script</i>. of Muratori; there is an edition by E. Dümmler (1877), and a partial translation into German, with an introduction by W. Wattenbach, is given in the second volume of the <i>Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit</i> (1853). Compare Wattenbach, @@ -9530,7 +9491,7 @@ as a city.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIVER<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>lifer</i>; cf. cognate forms, Dutch <i>lever</i>, Ger. <i>Leber</i>, Swed. <i>lefver</i>, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are <i>libara, lipora</i>, -&c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêpar">ἧπαρ</span> and Lat. +&c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. <span class="grk" title="hêpar">ἧπαρ</span> and Lat. <i>jecur</i>), in anatomy, a large reddish-brown digestive gland situated in the upper and right part of the abdominal cavity. When hardened <i>in situ</i> its shape is that of a right-angled, @@ -9574,7 +9535,7 @@ lobe, in which a broad shallow groove for the oesophagus may usually be seen. Sometimes the left lobe stretches as far as the left abdominal wall, but more often it ends below the apex of the heart, -which is 3½ in. to the left of the mid line of the +which is 3½ in. to the left of the mid line of the body. The relations of the lower surface can only be understood if it is realized that it looks backward and to the left as well as downward (see fig. 1). @@ -9813,7 +9774,7 @@ maimon</i>) figured by G. Ruge <i>Proc. Anat. Soc</i>., Feb. 1904, <i>Journ. Anat. and Phys</i>. vol. 33, p. xxiii. Georg Ruge “Die -äusseren Formverhältnisse der +äusseren Formverhältnisse der Leber bei den Primaten,” (<i>Morph. Jahrb</i>., Bd. 29 and 35) gives a critical study of @@ -9985,7 +9946,7 @@ fat and rich food, butter, pastry and sauces, and should drink no beer or wine—unless it be some very light French wine or Moselle. He should keep his bowels regular, or even loose, taking every morning a dose of sulphate of soda in a glass of hot water. A course at -Carlsbad, Vichy or Contrexéville, may be helpful. It is doubtful if +Carlsbad, Vichy or Contrexéville, may be helpful. It is doubtful if drugs have any direct influence upon gall-stones, such as sulphate of soda, olive oil or oleate of soda. No reliance can be placed upon massage in producing the onward passage of a gall-stone from the @@ -10034,7 +9995,7 @@ Sketches of Leading American Women</i> (1893).</p> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This movement was started in 1840 by habitués of a Baltimore +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This movement was started in 1840 by habitués of a Baltimore (Md.) tavern, who then founded the Washington Temperance Society (named in honour of George Washington). The movement spread rapidly in 1841-1843, but by the close of 1843 it had nearly @@ -10153,7 +10114,7 @@ the shore of which the line of docks is continued. The area of the city is 16,619 acres exclusive of water area. The population at the census of 1901 was 684,958; the estimated population in 1908 was 753,203; the birth-rate for 1907 was 31.7 and the -death-rate 18.3; in 1908 the rateable value was £4,679,520.</p> +death-rate 18.3; in 1908 the rateable value was £4,679,520.</p> <div class="center ptb2"><img style="width:682px; height:1129px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img805.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -10203,7 +10164,7 @@ and are now known as Calderstones Park. In outside the boundaries, was presented to the city. The total area of the parks and gardens of the city, not including the two last named, -is 881½ acres. A boulevard about 1 m. in +is 881½ acres. A boulevard about 1 m. in length, planted with trees in the centre, leads to the entrance of Prince’s Park.</p> @@ -10386,7 +10347,7 @@ and Warrington. There are two judges attached to the court.</p> <p><i>Ecclesiastical</i>.—The see of Liverpool was created in 1880 under the act of 1879, by the authority of the ecclesiastical commissioners, an -endowment fund of about £100,000 having been subscribed for the +endowment fund of about £100,000 having been subscribed for the purpose. The parish, which was separated from Walton-on-the-Hill in 1699, contained two churches, St Nicholas, the ancient chapel, and St Peter’s, then built. There were two rectors, the living being @@ -10668,8 +10629,8 @@ dues enormously increased, and became a cause of great complaint by the shipping interest. In 1856 a bill was introduced into parliament, and passed, by which the town dues were transferred to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board on payment -of £1,500,000, which was applied in part to the liquidation of the -bonded debt of the corporation, amounting to £1,150,000.</p> +of £1,500,000, which was applied in part to the liquidation of the +bonded debt of the corporation, amounting to £1,150,000.</p> <p><i>History</i>.—During the Norse irruption of the 8th century colonies of Norsemen settled on both sides of the Mersey, as is @@ -10728,7 +10689,7 @@ borough was transformed into a city by royal charter.</p> <p>The crown revenues from the burgage rents and the royal customs were leased in fee-farm from time to time, sometimes to the corporation, at other times to private persons. The -first lease was from Henry III., in 1229, at £10 per annum. In +first lease was from Henry III., in 1229, at £10 per annum. In the same year the borough, with all its appurtenances, was bestowed with other lands on Ranulf, earl of Chester, from whom it passed to his brother-in-law William de Ferrers, earl of Derby, @@ -10743,21 +10704,21 @@ for means which were refused by parliament, offered for sale about a thousand manors, among which Liverpool was included. The portion containing Liverpool was purchased by certain merchants of London, who, in 1635, reconveyed the crown -rights, including the fee-farm rent of £14, 6s. 8d., to Sir Richard +rights, including the fee-farm rent of £14, 6s. 8d., to Sir Richard Molyneux, then recently created Viscount Molyneux of Maryborough, -for the sum of £450. In 1672 all these rights and +for the sum of £450. In 1672 all these rights and interests were acquired by the corporation.</p> <p>Apart from the national objects for which Liverpool was -founded, its trade developed slowly. From £10 per annum, +founded, its trade developed slowly. From £10 per annum, in the beginning of the 13th century, the crown revenues had -increased towards the end of the 14th century, to £38; but +increased towards the end of the 14th century, to £38; but then they underwent a decline. The black death passed over Liverpool about 1360, and carried off a large part of the population. The Wars of the Roses in the 15th century unsettled the north-western districts and retarded progress for at least a -century. The crown revenues diminished from £38 to less -than half that sum, and were finally leased at £14, 6s. 8d., at +century. The crown revenues diminished from £38 to less +than half that sum, and were finally leased at £14, 6s. 8d., at which they continued until the sale by Charles I. It is, however, not safe to conclude that the reduced fee-farm rent represents an equivalent decline in prosperity; the privileges conferred @@ -10860,7 +10821,7 @@ and coal mining.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIVERY<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span>, originally the provision of food, clothing, &c., to household servants. The word is an adaptation of the Anglo-French -<i>livrée</i>, from <i>livrer</i>, to deliver (Late Lat. <i>liberare</i>, to set +<i>livrée</i>, from <i>livrer</i>, to deliver (Late Lat. <i>liberare</i>, to set free, to serve, to give freely), in the special sense of distributing. In the sense of a fixed allowance of provender for horses, it survives now only in “livery-stable,” <i>i.e</i>. an establishment where @@ -11044,7 +11005,7 @@ officers.</p> purposes of the state and the city are interesting points in their early history. Their wealth and their representative character made them a most appropriate instrument for the enforcement of -irregular taxation. The loan of £21,263, 6s. 8d. to Henry VIII. +irregular taxation. The loan of £21,263, 6s. 8d. to Henry VIII. for his wars in Scotland, in 1544, is believed by Herbert to be the first instance of a pecuniary grant to the crown, but the practice rapidly gained ground. The confiscation of ecclesiastical @@ -11112,7 +11073,7 @@ Ironmongers, Vintners, Cloth-workers. The “Irish Society” was incorporated in the 11 James I. as “the governor and assistants of the new plantation in Ulster, within the realm of Ireland.” The twelve companies contributed in equal portions -the sum of £60,000 for the new scheme, by which it was intended +the sum of £60,000 for the new scheme, by which it was intended to settle a Protestant colony in the lands forfeited by the Irish rebels. The companies divided the settlement into twelve nearly equal parts, assigning one to each, but the separate @@ -11139,8 +11100,8 @@ bound as an apprentice to a freeman of the company) or by redemption. Admission to many of the companies is subject to the payment of considerable fees. For example, in the Merchant Taylors the fees are—upon taking up the freedom, by patrimony or servitude, -£1, 3s. 4d.; by redemption, £84; on admission to the livery, £80, 8s.; -on election to the court of assistants, £115, 10s. At one time the +£1, 3s. 4d.; by redemption, £84; on admission to the livery, £80, 8s.; +on election to the court of assistants, £115, 10s. At one time the position of the livery companies was a subject of much political discussion. Two parties threatened to attack them—on one side those who were anxious for extensive reforms in the municipal @@ -11160,7 +11121,7 @@ companies, its value, situation and description. The companies very freely made returns to the commission, the only ones not doing so being the Broderers, Bowyers, Distillers, Glovers, Tin-Plate Workers and Weavers. The Commission estimated the annual income of -the companies to be from £750,000 to £800,000, about £200,000 of +the companies to be from £750,000 to £800,000, about £200,000 of that amount being trust income, the balance corporate income.</p> <p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—In addition to the <i>Report</i> referred to above the @@ -11172,7 +11133,7 @@ Gildhallae Londiniensis</i>, in Rolls Series, ed. by H. T. Riley (4 vols., English Text Society), with essay by L. Brentano (1870); W. Herbert, <i>History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies</i> (1837); C. Gross, <i>The Gild Merchant</i> (2 vols., 1890); W. C. Hazlitt, <i>The Livery -Companies of the City of London</i> (1892), contains a précis of the +Companies of the City of London</i> (1892), contains a précis of the Royal Commission; P. H. Ditchfield, <i>The City Companies of London</i> (1904); G. Unwin, <i>The Gilds and Companies of London</i> (1908).</p> @@ -11182,7 +11143,7 @@ London</i> (1904); G. Unwin, <i>The Gilds and Companies of London</i> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Properly the word should be spelled, as it was originally, -“mistery;” it comes through the O. Fr. <i>mestier</i>, modern <i>métier</i>, from +“mistery;” it comes through the O. Fr. <i>mestier</i>, modern <i>métier</i>, from Lat. <i>ministerium</i>, service, employment, and meant a trade or craft, and hence the plays acted by craftsmen and members of gilds were called “mystery plays” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drama</a></span>). For the word meaning a @@ -11635,7 +11596,7 @@ Maclear at the Cape, and an account of his journey to the Royal Geographical Society, which in May 1855 awarded him its patron’s medal. Loanda was left on the 20th of September 1854, but Livingstone lingered long about the Portuguese settlements. -Making a slight détour to the north to Kabango, the +Making a slight détour to the north to Kabango, the party reached Lake Dilolo on the 13th of June 1855. Here Livingstone made a careful study of the hydrography of the country. He “now for the first time apprehended the true @@ -11688,17 +11649,17 @@ a steam launch, the “Ma-Robert”; reaching Tete on the 8th of September. The remainder of the year was devoted to an examination of the river above Tete, and especially the Kebrabasa rapids. Most of the year 1859 was spent in the -exploration of the river Shiré and Lake Nyasa, which was +exploration of the river Shiré and Lake Nyasa, which was discovered in September; and during a great part of the year 1860 Livingstone was engaged in fulfilling his promise to take such of the Makololo home as cared to go. In January of next year arrived Bishop C. F. Mackenzie and a party of missionaries sent out by the Universities Mission to establish a station on the -upper Shiré.</p> +upper Shiré.</p> <p>After exploring the river Rovuma for 30 m. in his new vessel the “Pioneer,” Livingstone and the missionaries proceeded -up the Shiré to Chibisa’s; there they found the slave trade +up the Shiré to Chibisa’s; there they found the slave trade rampant. On the 15th of July Livingstone, accompanied by several native carriers, started to show the bishop the country. Several bands of slaves whom they met were liberated, and after @@ -11713,7 +11674,7 @@ Zambezi mouth, Livingstone welcomed his wife and the ladies of the mission, with whom were the sections of the “Lady Nyassa,” a river steamer which Livingstone had had built at his own expense. When the mission ladies reached the mouth -of the Ruo tributary of the Shiré, they were stunned to hear +of the Ruo tributary of the Shiré, they were stunned to hear of the death of the bishop and one of his companions. This was a sad blow to Livingstone, seeming to have rendered all his efforts to establish a mission futile. A still greater @@ -11751,11 +11712,11 @@ proposed to him that he should go out again, although he seems to have had a desire to spend the remainder of his days at home, the prospect was too tempting to be rejected. He was appointed British consul to Central Africa without a salary, and government -contributed only £500 to the expedition. The chief help came +contributed only £500 to the expedition. The chief help came from private friends. During the latter part of the expedition -government granted him £1000, but that, when he learned of it, +government granted him £1000, but that, when he learned of it, was devoted to his great undertaking. The Geographical -Society contributed £500. The two main objects of the expedition +Society contributed £500. The two main objects of the expedition were the suppression of slavery by means of civilizing influences, and the ascertainment of the watershed in the region between Nyasa and Tanganyika. At first Livingstone thought @@ -11768,7 +11729,7 @@ Livingstone arrived at Zanzibar on the 28th of January 1866. He was landed at the mouth of the Rovuma on the 22nd of March, and started for the interior on the 4th of April. His company consisted of thirteen sepoys, ten Johanna men, nine African boys -from Nasik school, Bombay, and four boys from the Shiré region, +from Nasik school, Bombay, and four boys from the Shiré region, besides camels, buffaloes, mules and donkeys. This imposing outfit soon melted away to four or five boys. Rounding the south end of Lake Nyasa, Livingstone struck in a north-north-west @@ -11902,15 +11863,15 @@ rather the character of a plateau than of a true mountain range, but the latter name may be justified by the fact that they form a comparatively narrow belt of country, which falls considerably to the east as well as to the west. The northern end is well -marked in 8° 50′ S. by an escarpment falling to the Ruaha valley, +marked in 8° 50′ S. by an escarpment falling to the Ruaha valley, which is regarded as a north-eastern branch of the main rift-valley. Southwards the Livingstone range terminates in the -deep valley of the Ruhuhu in 10° 30′ S., the first decided break +deep valley of the Ruhuhu in 10° 30′ S., the first decided break in the highlands that is reached from the north, on the east coast of Nyasa. Geologically the range is formed on the side of the lake by a zone of gneiss running in a series of ridges and valleys generally parallel to its axis. The ridge nearest the lake -(which in Mount Jamimbi or Chamembe, 9° 41′ S., rises to an +(which in Mount Jamimbi or Chamembe, 9° 41′ S., rises to an absolute height of 7870 ft., or 6200 ft. above Nyasa) falls almost sheer to the water, the same steep slope being continued beneath the surface. Towards the south the range appears to have a @@ -11998,7 +11959,7 @@ the “college” or “gild” of poets and actors was granted place of meeting in the temple of Minerva on the Aventine.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See fragments in L. Müller, <i>Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabularum +<p>See fragments in L. Müller, <i>Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabularum Reliquiae</i> (1885); also J. Wordsworth, <i>Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin</i> (1874); Mommsen, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, bk. iii. ch. 14.</p> </div> @@ -12032,11 +11993,11 @@ The edges of the plateaus are gapped by deep valleys; the hilly tract between the Dvina and its tributary the Livonian Aa has received, from its picturesque narrow valleys, thick forests and numerous lakes, the name of “Livonian Switzerland.” The -plateau of Odenpäh, drained by tributaries of the Embach -river, which flows for 93 m. from Lake Virz-yärvi into Lake +plateau of Odenpäh, drained by tributaries of the Embach +river, which flows for 93 m. from Lake Virz-yärvi into Lake Peipus, occupies an area of 2830 sq. m., and has an average elevation of 500 ft. More than a thousand lakes are scattered -over Livonia, of which that of Virz-yärvi, having a surface of +over Livonia, of which that of Virz-yärvi, having a surface of 106 sq. m. (115 ft. above sea-level), is the largest. Marshes and peat-bogs occupy one-tenth of the province. Of the numerous rivers, the Dvina, which flows for 90 m. along its frontier, the @@ -12050,13 +12011,13 @@ glacial deposits, sometimes 400 ft. thick. The typical bottom moraine, with erratics from Finland, extends all over the country. Glacial furrows, striae and elongated troughs are met with everywhere, running mostly from north-west to south-east, as -well as <i>ảsar</i> or <i>eskérs</i>, which have the same direction. Sand-dunes +well as <i>ảsar</i> or <i>eskérs</i>, which have the same direction. Sand-dunes cover large tracts on the shores of the Baltic. No traces of marine deposits are found higher than 100 or 150 ft. above the present sea-level. The soil is not very fertile. Forests cover about two-fifths of the surface. The climate is rather severe. -The mean temperatures are 43° F. at Riga (winter 23°, -summer 63°) and 40° at Yuriev. The winds are very variable; +The mean temperatures are 43° F. at Riga (winter 23°, +summer 63°) and 40° at Yuriev. The winds are very variable; the average number of rainy and snowy days is 146 at Riga (rainfall 24.1 in.). Fogs are not uncommon.</p> @@ -12130,7 +12091,7 @@ became tributary to the Varangian-Russian states. As they reacquired their independence, Yaroslav I. undertook in 1030 a campaign against them, and founded Yuriev (Dorpat). The Germans first penetrated into Livonia in the 11th century, -and in 1158 several Lübeck and Visby merchants landed at the +and in 1158 several Lübeck and Visby merchants landed at the mouth of the Dvina. In 1186 the emissaries of the archbishop of Bremen began to preach Christianity among the Ehsts and Letts, and in 1201 the bishop of Livonia established his residence at @@ -12341,7 +12302,7 @@ to be critically studied and scientifically explained; the rise of Rome forms an important chapter in universal history, and must be dealt with, not as an isolated fact, but in connexion with the general march of events in the civilized world. Still -less has Livy anything in common with the naïve anxiety of +less has Livy anything in common with the naïve anxiety of Dionysius of Halicarnassus to make it clear to his fellow Greeks that the irresistible people who had mastered them was in origin, in race and in language Hellenic like themselves.</p> @@ -12396,7 +12357,7 @@ least inglorious, the future doubtful, and many turned gladly to the past for consolation. This retrospective tendency was favourably regarded by the government. It was the policy of Augustus to obliterate all traces of recent revolution, and to -connect the new imperial régime as closely as possible with +connect the new imperial régime as closely as possible with the ancient traditions and institutions of Rome and Italy. The <i>Aeneid</i> of Virgil, the <i>Fasti</i> of Ovid, suited well with his own restoration of the ancient temples, his revival of such ancient @@ -12613,7 +12574,7 @@ did he put together his account of the earlier history? Recent criticism has succeeded in answering this question with some degree of certainty. A careful examination of the fragments of Fabius (see H. Peter, <i>Historicorum Romanorum Relliquiae</i>, Leipzig, 1870; and -C. W. Nitzsch, <i>Röm. Annalistik</i>, Berlin, 1873) reveals in the first +C. W. Nitzsch, <i>Röm. Annalistik</i>, Berlin, 1873) reveals in the first place a marked difference between the kingly period and that which followed the establishment of the republic. The history of the former stretches back into the regions of pure mythology. It is @@ -12789,7 +12750,7 @@ available Roman authorities, and, lastly, that the points of agreement with Polybius, not only in matter but in expression, can only be explained on the theory that Livy is directly following the great Greek historian. On the other hand, it is maintained (especially -by Schwegler, Nitzsch, and K. Böttcher) that the extent and nature +by Schwegler, Nitzsch, and K. Böttcher) that the extent and nature of Livy’s agreement with Polybius in this part of his work point rather to the use by both of a common original authority. It is argued that Livy’s mode of using his authorities is tolerably uniform, @@ -12961,7 +12922,7 @@ widely read. It is true that for us his artistic treatment of history is not without its drawbacks. The more trained historical sense of modern times is continually shocked by the obvious untruth of his colouring, especially in the earlier parts of his history, by the -palpable unreality of many of the speeches, and by the naïveté with +palpable unreality of many of the speeches, and by the naïveté with which he omits everything, however important, which he thinks will weary his readers. But in spite of all this we are forced to acknowledge that, as a master of what we may perhaps call “narrative @@ -13107,10 +13068,10 @@ may be consulted for purposes of reference; W. Engelmann, <i>Scriptores Latini</i> (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1882); J. E. B. Mayor, <i>Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature</i> (1875); Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>History of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. trans.), 256, 257; M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte -der römischen Litteratur</i>. ii. 1 (2nd ed., 1899). The best editions of +der römischen Litteratur</i>. ii. 1 (2nd ed., 1899). The best editions of the complete text are those of W. Weissenborn (1858-1862, containing an introductory essay on Livy’s life and writings; new edition -by M. Müller, 1902), and J. N. Madvig and J. L. Ussing (1863-1873). +by M. Müller, 1902), and J. N. Madvig and J. L. Ussing (1863-1873). The only English translation of any merit is by Philemon Holland (1600).</p> </div> @@ -13374,7 +13335,7 @@ species of the plains, deserts or rocky districts of Africa and Asia, belong to the genera <i>Stellio</i> and <i>Agama</i>. Their scales are mixed with larger prominent spines, which in some species are particularly developed on the tail, and disposed in whorls. Nearly all travellers -in the north of Africa mention the <i>Hardhón</i> of the Arabs (<i>Agama +in the north of Africa mention the <i>Hardhón</i> of the Arabs (<i>Agama stellio</i>), which is extremely common, and has drawn upon itself the hatred of the Mahommedans by its habit of nodding its head, which they interpret as a mockery of their own movements whilst engaged @@ -13628,7 +13589,7 @@ Africa with the exception of Madagascar.</p> Mexico and Lower California. With five, four or three claws on the stout little digging fore-limbs. These pink, worm-like creatures live in sandy, moist localities, burrowing little tunnels and never appearing -on the surface. <i>Amphisbaena</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Rhinëura</i> of Florida, and +on the surface. <i>Amphisbaena</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Rhinëura</i> of Florida, and also known from the Oligocene of South Dakota; <i>Lepidosternum</i> of South America; and <i>Anops</i> in America and Africa; <i>Blanus cinereus</i>, Mediterranean countries. <i>Trogonophis</i>, <i>Pachycalamus</i> and <i>Agamodon</i> @@ -13825,7 +13786,7 @@ C. Stewart, <i>ibid.</i> (1891), p. 119.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LIZARD POINT,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> or <span class="sc">The Lizard</span>, the southernmost point of -Great Britain, in Cornwall, England, in 49° 57′ 30″ N., 5° 12′ W. +Great Britain, in Cornwall, England, in 49° 57′ 30″ N., 5° 12′ W. It is generally the first British land sighted by ships bound up the English Channel, and there are two lighthouses on it. The cliff scenery is magnificent, and attracts many visitors. The coast @@ -13838,29 +13799,29 @@ Lion’s Den is a chasm formed by the falling in of a sea-cave in the point, and at Asparagus Island, Kynance Cove, is a natural funnel in which the air is compressed by the waves and causes a violent ejection of foam. The principal village is Lizard Town, -10½ m. from Helston, the nearest railway station.</p> +10½ m. from Helston, the nearest railway station.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HÅKAN JORDAN<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1823-1905), +<p><span class="bold">LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HÃ…KAN JORDAN<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1823-1905), Swedish man of letters, was born at Lund on the 6th of March 1823. He was educated at Lund university, where he was professor of German (1850-1859), of aesthetics (1859-1889) and rector (1875-1885). He had been a member of the Swedish Academy for twenty years at the time of his death in September -1905. His most important work, <i>Svenska vitterhetens häfder efter -Gustav III.’s död</i> (5 vols., Lund., 1873-1895), is a comprehensive +1905. His most important work, <i>Svenska vitterhetens häfder efter +Gustav III.’s död</i> (5 vols., Lund., 1873-1895), is a comprehensive study of Swedish literature in the 19th century. His other -works include: <i>Framställning af de förnämste estetiska systemerna</i> +works include: <i>Framställning af de förnämste estetiska systemerna</i> (an exposition of the principal system of aesthetics; 2 vols., -1856-1860); <i>Svenska dramat intill slutet af 17 århundradet</i> +1856-1860); <i>Svenska dramat intill slutet af 17 Ã¥rhundradet</i> (a history of the Swedish drama down to the end of the 17th century, Lund, 1864); an edition (1864) of the <i>Epistlar</i> of Bellman and Fredman, and a history of the Swedish Academy in the year of its centenary (1886).</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His scattered writings were collected as <i>Smärre Skrifter</i> (3 vols., +<p>His scattered writings were collected as <i>Smärre Skrifter</i> (3 vols., 1872-1881).</p> </div> @@ -13922,13 +13883,13 @@ the South American <i>Camelidae</i>. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">T <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LLANBERIS,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a town of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 8½ m. E. +<p><span class="bold">LLANBERIS,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a town of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 8½ m. E. by S. of Carnarvon, by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3015. It is finely situated in a valley near the foot of Snowdon. The valley has two lakes, Llyn Peris and Llyn Padarn, of over 1 m. and 2 m. long <span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span> -respectively, about ¼ m. apart. From Padarn rises the Seint, +respectively, about ¼ m. apart. From Padarn rises the Seint, called Rothell in its upper part. Dolbadarn Castle is a circular tower near the foot of Peris lake. Dolbadarn means the “Padarn meadow.” Several Welsh churches are dedicated to Padarn. @@ -13943,7 +13904,7 @@ Llanberis pass towards Capel Curig, a turn to the right leads to Beddgelert, through Nant Gwynnant (“white” or “happy valley,” or “stream”), where Pembroke and Ieuan ap Robert (for the Lancastrians) had many skirmishes in the time of Edward -IV. Gwynnant Lake is about 1 m. long, by ¼ m. broad, and +IV. Gwynnant Lake is about 1 m. long, by ¼ m. broad, and below it is the smaller Llyn Dinas.</p> @@ -14089,14 +14050,14 @@ is a station on the Mid-Wales section of the London & North-Western railway. The old-fashioned town lies in the parish of Llandingat, and contains the two churches of Llandingat and Llanfair-ar-y-bryn. The slight remains of the castle stand -on a hillock above the river Brân. The public school was +on a hillock above the river Brân. The public school was founded here by Sir Thomas Phillips in 1847.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span></p> <p>The place probably owes its Celtic name of Llan-ym-ddyffri (the church amid the waters) to the proximity of Llandingat -church to the streams of the Towy, Brân and Gwydderig. +church to the streams of the Towy, Brân and Gwydderig. On account of its commanding position at the head of the fertile vale of Towy, Llandovery was a strategic site of some importance in the middle ages. The castle erected here by the @@ -14142,7 +14103,7 @@ entering the Llandovery. Among the graptolites the Diplograptidae begin to be replaced by the Monograptidae. Characteristic graptolite zones, in descending order, are:—<i>Monograptus gregarius</i>, <i>Diplograptusvesiculosus</i>, <i>D. acuminatus</i>. Common trilobites are:—<i>Acidaspis</i>, -<i>Encrinurus</i>, <i>Phacops</i>, <i>Proëtus</i>; among the brachiopods are <i>Orthis +<i>Encrinurus</i>, <i>Phacops</i>, <i>Proëtus</i>; among the brachiopods are <i>Orthis elegantula</i>, <i>O. testudinaria</i>, <i>Meristella crassa</i> and <i>Pentamerus</i> (<i>Stricklandinia</i>) <i>lens</i> (<i>Pentamerus</i> is so characteristic that the Llandovery rocks are frequently described as the “Pentamerus beds”).</p> @@ -14300,7 +14261,7 @@ timber, butter and fish.</p> <p><span class="bold">LLANGOLLEN,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a picturesque market-town and summer resort of Denbighshire, N. Wales, in the Dee (<i>Dyfrdwy</i>) valley, on a branch of the Great Western Railway, 9 m. S.W. of Wrexham, -202½ m. from London by rail. Pop. of urban district (1901) +202½ m. from London by rail. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3303. The Dee is here crossed by a 14th-century bridge of four arches, “one of the seven wonders of Wales,” built by John Trevor, afterwards bishop of St Asaph (<i>Llanelwy</i>). The Anglican @@ -14308,8 +14269,8 @@ church of St Collen, Norman and Early English, has a monument in the churchyard to the “Ladies of Llangollen,” Lady Eleanor Butler and Hon. Sarah Ponsonby, of Plas Newydd, (1778 to 1829 and 1831 respectively). The house is now a museum. Castell -Dinas Brân (the castle of the town of Brân; the mountain -stream below is also called Brân), the ruins of a fortress on a high +Dinas Brân (the castle of the town of Brân; the mountain +stream below is also called Brân), the ruins of a fortress on a high conical hill about 1 m. from the town, is supposedly British, of unknown date. “An old ruynous thinge,” as the Elizabethan poet Churchyard calls it even in the 16th century, it was inhabited, @@ -14318,7 +14279,7 @@ Tudor Trevor family and beloved by the bard Howel ab Einion Llygliw, whose ode to her is still extant. Valle Crucis Abbey (<i>Llan Egwest</i>) is a Cistercian ruin at the foot of Bronfawr hill, some 2 m. N.W. of Llangollen, founded about 1200 by Madoc ab -Gruffydd Maelor, lord of Dinas Brân and grandson of Owen +Gruffydd Maelor, lord of Dinas Brân and grandson of Owen Gwynedd, prince of Wales. Llan Egwest, dissolved in 1535, was given by James I. to Lord Edward Wootton. In the meadow adjoining, still called Llwyn y Groes (“grove of the cross”), is @@ -14333,7 +14294,7 @@ carries the Ellesmere canal across the Dee.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LLANQUIHUE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (pron. <i>lan-kè-wa</i>), a province of southern +<p><span class="bold">LLANQUIHUE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (pron. <i>lan-kè-wa</i>), a province of southern Chile bordering on the northern shores of the Gulf and Straits of Chacao, and extending from the Pacific to the Argentine frontier. The province of Valdivia lies N. and is separated from @@ -14341,8 +14302,8 @@ it in part by the Bueno river. Pop. (1895) 78,315. Area 45,515 sq. m. It is a region of forests, rivers and lakes, and the greater part is mountainous. The rainfall is excessive, the average at Puerto Montt being 104 in. a year, and the temperature -is singularly uniform, the average for the summer being 58½°, -of the winter 47½°, and of the year 53° F. There are several large +is singularly uniform, the average for the summer being 58½°, +of the winter 47½°, and of the year 53° F. There are several large lakes in the eastern part of the province—Puyehue, on the northern frontier, Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos. Lake Llanquihue is the largest body of fresh water in Chile, @@ -14384,9 +14345,9 @@ separates that vale from the valley of the Taff. The population of the parish in 1901 was 10,091 and of the contributory borough 2057. A branch of the Taff Vale railway running from Pontypridd to Cowbridge and Aberthaw has a station, Cross Inn, -½ m. below the town, while nearly 2 m. farther south it passes +½ m. below the town, while nearly 2 m. farther south it passes (near the village of Pontyclun) through Llantrisant station on -the Great Western railway main line, which is 156¼ m. by rail +the Great Western railway main line, which is 156¼ m. by rail from London and 11 m. N.W. from Cardiff. The castle, which according to G. T. Clark was “second only to Cardiff in military importance,” dates from the reign of Henry III. or Edward I. @@ -14566,7 +14527,7 @@ revolted again, and was killed in a skirmish with the Mortimers, near Builth in central Wales.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See C. Bémont, <i>Simon de Montfort</i> (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in the +<p>See C. Bémont, <i>Simon de Montfort</i> (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in the <i>Political History of England</i>, iii. (1905); J. E. Morris in <i>The Welsh Wars of Edward I.</i> (1901).</p> </div> @@ -14578,14 +14539,14 @@ was born on the 30th of March 1756 at Rincon de Soto in Aragon. He studied at the university of Saragossa, and, having been ordained priest, became vicar-general to the bishop of Calahorra in 1782. In 1785 he became commissary of the Holy Office -at Logroño, and in 1789 its general secretary at Madrid. In +at Logroño, and in 1789 its general secretary at Madrid. In the crisis of 1808 Llorente identified himself with the Bonapartists, and was engaged for a few years in superintending the execution of the decree for the suppression of the monastic orders, and in examining the archives of the Inquisition. On the return of King Ferdinand VII. to Spain in 1814 he withdrew to France, where he published his great work, <i>Historia critica de la inquisicion -de España</i> (Paris, 1815-1817). Translated into English, +de España</i> (Paris, 1815-1817). Translated into English, French, German, Dutch and Italian, it attracted much attention in Europe, and involved its author in considerable persecution, which, on the publication of his <i>Portraits politiques des papes</i> @@ -14599,7 +14560,7 @@ to the Inquisition which are no longer extant.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The English translation of the <i>Historia</i> (London, 1826) is abridged. Llorente also wrote <i>Memorias para la historia de la revolucion -española</i> (Paris, 1814-1816), translated into French (Paris, 1815-1819); +española</i> (Paris, 1814-1816), translated into French (Paris, 1815-1819); <i>Noticias historicas sobre las tres provincias vacongadas</i> (Madrid, 1806-1808); an autobiography, <i>Noticia biografica</i> (Paris, 1818), and other works.</p> @@ -14766,7 +14727,7 @@ stages.</p> <p>It was not till the time came nearer for the introduction of the budget for 1909-1910 that opinion in financial circles showed the change which was afterwards to become so marked. A considerable -deficit, of about £16,000,000, was in prospect, and the +deficit, of about £16,000,000, was in prospect, and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span> chancellor of the exchequer aroused misgivings by alluding in a speech to the difficulty he had in deciding what “hen roost” @@ -14915,9 +14876,9 @@ members. The former pay an annual subscription of five guineas without entrance fee, but have no voice in the management of the institution. The latter consist of non-underwriting members, who pay an entrance fee of twelve guineas, and of underwriting -members who pay a fee of £100. Underwriting members -are also required to deposit securities to the value of £5000 to -£10,000, according to circumstances, as a guarantee for their +members who pay a fee of £100. Underwriting members +are also required to deposit securities to the value of £5000 to +£10,000, according to circumstances, as a guarantee for their <span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span> engagements. The management of the establishment is delegated by the members to certain of their number selected as a “committee @@ -14989,7 +14950,7 @@ known in some parts of Germany as “Wetterfisch.”</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LOAD; LODE.<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> The O.E. <i>lád</i>, from which both these words +<p><span class="bold">LOAD; LODE.<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> The O.E. <i>lád</i>, from which both these words are derived, meant “way,” “journey,” “conveyance,” and is cognate with Ger. <i>Leite</i>. The Teutonic root is also seen in the O. Teut. <i>laidjan</i>, Ger. <i>leiten</i>, from which comes “to lead.” @@ -15024,15 +14985,15 @@ the smaller portions into which the bread is divided for retailing. These are of uniform size (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baking</a></span>) and are named according to shape (“tin loaf,” “cottage loaf,” &c.), weight (“quartern loaf,” &c.), or quality of flour (“brown loaf,” &c.). “Loaf,” -O.E. <i>hláf</i>, is a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. +O.E. <i>hláf</i>, is a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. <i>Laib</i>, or <i>Leib</i>, Dan. <i>lev</i>, Goth, <i>hlaifs</i>; similar words with the same meaning are found in Russian, Finnish and Lettish, but these may have been adapted from Teutonic. The ultimate origin is unknown, and it is uncertain whether “bread” (<i>q.v.</i>) -or “loaf” is the earlier in usage. The O.E. <i>hláf</i> is seen in +or “loaf” is the earlier in usage. The O.E. <i>hláf</i> is seen in “Lammas” and in “lord,” <i>i.e.</i> <i>hlaford</i> for <i>hlafweard</i>, the loaf-keeper, or “bread-warder”; cf. the O.E. word for a household -servant <i>hláf-æta</i>, loaf-eater. The Late Lat. <i>companio</i>, one who +servant <i>hláf-æta</i>, loaf-eater. The Late Lat. <i>companio</i>, one who shares, <i>panis</i>, bread, Eng. “companion,” was probably an adaptation of the Goth, <i>gahlaiba</i>, O.H. Ger. <i>gileipo</i>, messmate, comrade. The word “loaf” is also used in sugar manufacture, @@ -15050,7 +15011,7 @@ connects it with <i>laufen</i>, to run, and states that the dialectical form <i>lofen</i> is used in the sense of “saunter up and down.” This explanation has been generally accepted. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> rejects it, however, and states that <i>laufen</i> is not used in this sense, -but points out that the German <i>Landläufer</i>, the English obsolete word +but points out that the German <i>Landläufer</i>, the English obsolete word “landlouper,” or “landloper,” one who wanders about the country, a vagrant or vagabond, has a resemblance in meaning. J. S. Farmer and W. E. Henley’s <i>Dictionary of Slang and its Analogues</i> gives as @@ -15059,7 +15020,7 @@ French synonyms of “loafer,” <i>chevalier de la loupe</i> and <i>lou <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LOAM<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (O.E. <i>lám</i>; the word appears in Dut. <i>leem</i> and Ger. +<p><span class="bold">LOAM<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (O.E. <i>lám</i>; the word appears in Dut. <i>leem</i> and Ger. <i>Lehm</i>; the ultimate origin is the root <i>lai</i>-, meaning “to be sticky,” which is seen in the cognate “lime,” Lat. <i>limus</i>, mud, clay), a fertile soil composed of a mixture of sand, clay, and @@ -15072,8 +15033,8 @@ casting-moulds and bricks, and for plastering walls, &c. (see <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LOAN<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common -to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. <i>lån</i>, Icel. <i>lán</i>, Dut. <i>leen</i>; the O.E. -<i>laén</i> appears in “lend,” the ultimate source is seen in the root +to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. <i>lÃ¥n</i>, Icel. <i>lán</i>, Dut. <i>leen</i>; the O.E. +<i>laén</i> appears in “lend,” the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. <span class="grk" title="leipein">λείπειν</span> and Lat. <i>linquere</i>, to leave), that which is lent; a sum of money or something of value lent for a specific or indefinite period when it or its equivalent is to be repaid or returned, @@ -15084,16 +15045,16 @@ various countries.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LOANDA<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (<i>São Paulo de Loanda</i>), a seaport of West Africa, -capital of the Portuguese province of Angola, situated in 8° 48′ S., -13° 7′ E., on a bay between the rivers Bango and Kwanza. The +<p><span class="bold">LOANDA<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (<i>São Paulo de Loanda</i>), a seaport of West Africa, +capital of the Portuguese province of Angola, situated in 8° 48′ S., +13° 7′ E., on a bay between the rivers Bango and Kwanza. The bay, protected from the surf by a long narrow island of sand, is backed by a low sandy cliff which at its southern end sweeps out with a sharp curve and terminates in a bold point crowned by Fort San Miguel. The depth of water at the entrance to the bay is 20 fathoms or more. The bay has silted up considerably, but <span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span> -there is a good anchorage about 1½ m. from the shore in 7 to 14 +there is a good anchorage about 1½ m. from the shore in 7 to 14 fathoms, besides cranage accommodation and a floating dock. Vessels discharge into lighters, and are rarely delayed on account of the weather. A part of the town lies on the foreshore, but the @@ -15102,7 +15063,7 @@ residence, the palace of the bishop of Angola, and the hospital—are situated on higher ground. Most of the European houses are large stone buildings of one storey with red tile roofs. Loanda possesses a meteorological observatory, public garden, tramways, -gas-works, statues to Salvador Correia de Sá, who wrested +gas-works, statues to Salvador Correia de Sá, who wrested Angola from the Dutch, and to Pedro Alexandrino, a former governor, and is the starting-point of the railway to Ambaca and Malanje.</p> @@ -15124,7 +15085,7 @@ imports and export trade of Angola (<i>q.v.</i>) passes through Loanda.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LOANGO,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a region on the west coast of Africa, extending from -the mouth of the Congo river in 6° S. northwards through about +the mouth of the Congo river in 6° S. northwards through about two degrees. At one time included in the “kingdom of Congo” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angola</a></span>, <i>History</i>), Loango became independent about the close of the 16th century, and was still of considerable importance @@ -15164,7 +15125,7 @@ professorship of mathematics, and retained the chair until about that time his connexion with the university to which he had devoted his life practically came to an end, except that in 1855, at the celebration of his jubilee, he brought it as a last -tribute his <i>Pangéométrie</i>, in which he summarized the results +tribute his <i>Pangéométrie</i>, in which he summarized the results of his geometrical studies. This work was translated into German by H. Liebmann in 1902. He died at Kazan on the 24th of February (N.S.) 1856. Lobachevskiy was one of the @@ -15176,10 +15137,10 @@ believed to have been given in a lecture at Kazan in 1826, but the subject is treated in many of his subsequent memoirs, among which may be mentioned the <i>Geometrische Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Parallellinien</i> (Berlin, 1840, and a new edition in 1887), -and the <i>Pangéométrie</i> already referred to, which in the subtitle -is described as a précis of geometry founded on a general -and rigorous theory of parallels. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>, § <i>Non-Euclidean</i>, -and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>, § <i>Axioms of</i>.) In addition to his +and the <i>Pangéométrie</i> already referred to, which in the subtitle +is described as a précis of geometry founded on a general +and rigorous theory of parallels. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>, § <i>Non-Euclidean</i>, +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>, § <i>Axioms of</i>.) In addition to his geometrical studies, he made various contributions to other branches of mathematical science, among them being an elaborate treatise on algebra (Kazan, 1834). Besides being a geometer of @@ -15247,7 +15208,7 @@ that the integrity and independence of the Ottoman empire must be maintained so far as these other powers were concerned. Accordingly, when Lord Salisbury proposed energetic action to protect the Armenians, the cabinet of St Petersburg suddenly -assumed the rôle of protector of the sultan and vetoed the +assumed the rôle of protector of the sultan and vetoed the proposal. At the same time efforts were made to weaken the Triple Alliance, the principal instrument employed being the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span> @@ -15279,23 +15240,23 @@ all that related to the reign of the emperor Paul.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LÖBAU,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on -the Löbau water, 12 m. S.E. of the town of Bautzen, on the -Dresden-Görlitz railway. Pop. (1905) 10,683. There is a spa, -König Albert-Bad, largely frequented during the summer season. +<p><span class="bold">LÖBAU,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on +the Löbau water, 12 m. S.E. of the town of Bautzen, on the +Dresden-Görlitz railway. Pop. (1905) 10,683. There is a spa, +König Albert-Bad, largely frequented during the summer season. The town has agricultural implement, pianoforte, sugar, machine-building and button works, and trade in grain, yarn, linen and stockings. Other industries are spinning, weaving, dyeing, bleaching and brewing.</p> -<p>Löbau is first mentioned as a town in 1221; it received civic +<p>Löbau is first mentioned as a town in 1221; it received civic rights early in the 14th century and, in 1346, became one of the six allied towns of Lusatia. It suffered severely during the Hussite war and was deprived of its rights in 1547.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Bergmann, <i>Geschichte der Oberlausitzer Sechsstadt Löbau</i> -(Bischofswerda, 1896); and Kretschmer, <i>Die Stadl Löbau</i> (Chemnitz, +<p>See Bergmann, <i>Geschichte der Oberlausitzer Sechsstadt Löbau</i> +(Bischofswerda, 1896); and Kretschmer, <i>Die Stadl Löbau</i> (Chemnitz, 1904).</p> </div> @@ -15400,7 +15361,7 @@ scholar, was born at Naumburg on the 5th of June 1781. After having studied at Jena and Leipzig, he settled at Wittenberg in 1802 as privat-docent, and in 1810 was appointed to a professorship in the university. Four years later, he accepted the chair -of rhetoric and ancient literature at Königsberg, which he +of rhetoric and ancient literature at Königsberg, which he occupied till within two years of his death (25th of August 1860). His literary activities were devoted to the history of Greek religion and to the Greek language and literature. His @@ -15420,10 +15381,10 @@ it needed a lifetime to acquire a thorough knowledge of a single language.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See the article by L. Friedländer in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>; +<p>See the article by L. Friedländer in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>; C. Bursian’s <i>Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland</i> -(1883); Lehrs, <i>Populäre Aufsätze aus dem Altertum</i> (2nd ed., -Leipzig, 1875); Ludwich, <i>Ausgewählte Briefe von und an Chr. Aug. +(1883); Lehrs, <i>Populäre Aufsätze aus dem Altertum</i> (2nd ed., +Leipzig, 1875); Ludwich, <i>Ausgewählte Briefe von und an Chr. Aug. Lobeck und K. Lehrs</i> (1894); also J. E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, i. (1908), 103.</p> </div> @@ -15431,14 +15392,14 @@ Classical Scholarship</i>, i. (1908), 103.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span></p> -<p><span class="bold">LOBEIRA, JOÃO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1233-1285), a Portuguese troubadour +<p><span class="bold">LOBEIRA, JOÃO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1233-1285), a Portuguese troubadour of the time of King Alphonso III., who is supposed to have been the first to reduce into prose the story of <i>Amadis de Gaula</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). D. Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcellos, in her masterly edition of the <i>Cancioneiro de Ajuda</i> (Halle, 1904, vol. i. pp. 523-524), gives -some biographical notes on João Lobeira, who is represented in +some biographical notes on João Lobeira, who is represented in the Colocci Brancuti <i>Canzoniere</i> (Halle, 1880) by five poems -(Nos. 230-235). In number 230, João Lobeira uses the same +(Nos. 230-235). In number 230, João Lobeira uses the same <i>ritournelle</i> that Oriana sings in <i>Amadis de Gaula</i>, and this has led to his being generally considered by modern supporters of the Portuguese case to have been the author of the romance, @@ -15583,7 +15544,7 @@ Reuss-Lobenstein-Elersdorf, and a hydropathic establishment. The manufactures include dyeing, brewing and cigar-making.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Zedler and Schott, <i>Führer durch Lobenstein und Umgebung</i> +<p>See Zedler and Schott, <i>Führer durch Lobenstein und Umgebung</i> (2nd ed., Lobenstein, 1903).</p> </div> @@ -15591,7 +15552,7 @@ The manufactures include dyeing, brewing and cigar-making.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (?1575-?1627), Portuguese bucolic writer, a lineal descendant in the family of letters of -Bernardim Ribeiro and Christovam Falcão. All we know of +Bernardim Ribeiro and Christovam Falcão. All we know of his life is that he was born of rich and noble parents at Leiria, and lived at ease in its picturesque neighbourhood, reading philosophy and poetry and writing of shepherds and shepherdesses @@ -15607,7 +15568,7 @@ and thereby did a rare service to his country at a time when, owing to the Spanish domination, Castilian was the language preferred by polite society and by men of letters. His <i>Primavera</i>, a book that may be compared to the <i>Diana</i> of -Jorge de Montemôr (Montemayor), appeared in 1601, its second +Jorge de Montemôr (Montemayor), appeared in 1601, its second part, the <i>Pastor Peregrino</i>, in 1608, and its third, the <i>Desenganado</i>, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span> in 1614. The dullness of these lengthy collections of episodes @@ -15657,7 +15618,7 @@ through the Galla country, but was forced to return. In 1625 he set out again, accompanied by Mendez, the patriarch of Ethiopia, and eight missionaries. The party landed on the coast of the Red Sea, and Lobo settled in Abyssinia as superintendent -of the missions in Tigré. He remained there until +of the missions in Tigré. He remained there until death deprived the Catholics of their protector, the emperor Segued. Forced by persecution to leave the kingdom, in 1634 Lobo and his companions fell into the hands of the Turks at @@ -15680,16 +15641,16 @@ Roque, Lisbon. Balthazar Telles made large use of the information therein in his <i>Historia geral da Ethiopia a Alta</i> (Coimbra, 1660), often erroneously attributed to Lobo (see Machado’s <i>Bibliotheca Lusitana</i>). Lobo’s own narrative was translated from a MS. copy into French in -1728 by the Abbé Joachim le Grand, under the title of <i>Voyage historique +1728 by the Abbé Joachim le Grand, under the title of <i>Voyage historique d’Abissinie</i>. In 1669 a translation by Sir Peter Wyche of several passages from a MS. account of Lobo’s travels was published by the -Royal Society (translated in M. Thévenot’s <i>Relation des voyages</i> in +Royal Society (translated in M. Thévenot’s <i>Relation des voyages</i> in 1673). An English abridgment of Le Grand’s edition by Dr Johnson -was published in 1735 (reprinted 1789). In a <i>Mémoire justificatif en -réhabilitation des pères Pierre Paez et Jérôme Lobo</i>, Dr C. T. Beke +was published in 1735 (reprinted 1789). In a <i>Mémoire justificatif en +réhabilitation des pères Pierre Paez et Jérôme Lobo</i>, Dr C. T. Beke maintains against Bruce the accuracy of Lobo’s statements as to the -source of the Abai branch of the Nile. See A. de Backer, <i>Bibliothèque -de la Compagnie de Jésus</i> (ed. C. Sommervogel, iv., 1893).</p> +source of the Abai branch of the Nile. See A. de Backer, <i>Bibliothèque +de la Compagnie de Jésus</i> (ed. C. Sommervogel, iv., 1893).</p> </div> @@ -15845,7 +15806,7 @@ by the president assisted by a parliamentary and a permanent secretary and a permanent staff. The president and one of the secretaries usually have seats in parliament, and the president is generally a member of the cabinet. The salary of the president, -formerly £2000, was raised in 1910 to £5000 a year. The board +formerly £2000, was raised in 1910 to £5000 a year. The board has all the powers of the secretary of state under the Public Health Act 1848, and the numerous subsequent acts relating to sanitary matters and the government of sanitary districts; @@ -15877,7 +15838,7 @@ in 1512 by the Swiss who ruled it till 1798, when it became part of the canton of Lugano in the Helvetic Republic, and in 1803 part of that of Tessin or Ticino, then first erected. In 1555 a number of Protestant inhabitants were expelled for religious -reasons, and going to Zürich founded the silk industry there. +reasons, and going to Zürich founded the silk industry there. Above Locarno is the romantically situated sanctuary of the Madonna del Sasso (now rendered easily accessible by a funicular railway) that commands a glorious view over the lake and the @@ -15898,7 +15859,7 @@ he became second in command of Skinner’s Horse. At the outbreak of the Crimean war in 1854, Loch severed his connexion with India, and obtained leave to raise a body of irregular Bulgarian cavalry, which he commanded throughout the war. -In 1857 he was appointed attaché to Lord Elgin’s mission to the +In 1857 he was appointed attaché to Lord Elgin’s mission to the East, was present at the taking of Canton, and in 1858 brought home the treaty of Yedo. In April 1860 he again accompanied Lord Elgin to China, as secretary of the new embassy sent to @@ -16006,7 +15967,7 @@ the department of Indre-et-Loire, 29 m. S.E. of Tours by rail, on the left bank of the Indre. Pop. (1906) 3751. The town, one of the most picturesque in central France, lies at the foot of the rocky eminence on which stands the castle of the Anjou family, -surrounded by an outer wall 1¼ m. in circumference, and consisting +surrounded by an outer wall 1¼ m. in circumference, and consisting of the old collegiate church of St Ours, the royal lodge and the donjon. The church of St Ours dates from the 10th to the 12th centuries; among its distinguishing features are the @@ -16019,14 +15980,14 @@ as the prison of Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan, who died there in 1508, and the Tour Ronde, built by Louis XI. and containing the famous iron cages in which state prisoners, including—according to a story now discredited—their inventor Cardinal -Balue, were confined. Loches has an hôtel-de-ville and several +Balue, were confined. Loches has an hôtel-de-ville and several houses of the Renaissance period. It has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college and a training college. Liqueur-distilling and tanning are carried on together with trade in farm-produce, wine, wood and live-stock.</p> <p>On the right bank of the Loire, opposite the town and practically -its suburb, is the village of Beaulieu-lès-Loches, once the +its suburb, is the village of Beaulieu-lès-Loches, once the seat of a barony. Besides the parish church of St Laurent, a beautiful specimen of 12th-century architecture, it contains the remains of the great abbey church of the Holy Sepulchre @@ -16047,15 +16008,15 @@ was a residence of the kings of France.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LOCHGELLY,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 7½ m. +<p><span class="bold">LOCHGELLY,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 7½ m. N.E. of Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 5472. The town is modern and owes its prosperity to the iron-works and collieries in its immediate vicinity. Loch Gelly, from -which the town takes its name, situated ½ m. S.E., measures ½ m. -in length by ¾ m. in breadth, contains some trout and pike, and +which the town takes its name, situated ½ m. S.E., measures ½ m. +in length by ¾ m. in breadth, contains some trout and pike, and has on its west banks Lochgelly House, a seat of the earl of Minto. The Romans are said to have had a station at Loch Ore in the -parish of Ballingry, 2¼ m. N. by W., which was drained about +parish of Ballingry, 2¼ m. N. by W., which was drained about the end of the 18th century and then cultivated. To the N.E. rises the hill of Benarty (1131 ft.). Hallyards, about 2 m. S.E. of Lochgelly, is a ruined house that once belonged to Sir @@ -16166,7 +16127,7 @@ sluices, to enable vessels to be raised from a lower to a higher level or vice versa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canal</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dock</a></span>). In guns and rifles the lock is the mechanism which effects the firing of the charge; it thus appears in the names of old types of weapons, such as wheel-lock, match-lock, -flint-lock (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arms and Armour</a></span>, § <i>Firearms</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gun</a></span> and +flint-lock (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arms and Armour</a></span>, § <i>Firearms</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gun</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>). Lock (Ger. <i>Locke</i>) in the sense of a curl or tuft of hair, the separate groups in which the hair naturally grows, may be, in ultimate origin, connected with the root of the main word. Lockjaw @@ -16808,11 +16769,11 @@ understanding” with attention to his health. He spent three years partly at Montpellier and partly in Paris. His journals and commonplace books in these years show the <i>Essay</i> in preparation. At Paris he met men of science and letters—Peter -Guenellon, the well-known Amsterdam physician; Ole Römer, -the Danish astronomer; Thoynard, the critic; Melchisédech -Thévenot, the traveller; Henri Justel, the jurist; and François +Guenellon, the well-known Amsterdam physician; Ole Römer, +the Danish astronomer; Thoynard, the critic; Melchisédech +Thévenot, the traveller; Henri Justel, the jurist; and François Bernier, the expositor of Gassendi. But there is no mention of -Malebranche, whose <i>Recherche de la vérité</i> had appeared three +Malebranche, whose <i>Recherche de la vérité</i> had appeared three years before, nor of Arnauld, the illustrious rival of Malebranche.</p> <p>Locke returned to London in 1679. Reaction against the @@ -16866,7 +16827,7 @@ Whichcote and More. By Limborch he was introduced to Le Clerc, the youthful representative of letters and philosophy in Limborch’s college, who had escaped from Geneva and Calvinism to the milder atmosphere of Holland and the Remonstrants. -The <i>Bibliothèque universelle</i> of Le Clerc was then the chief organ +The <i>Bibliothèque universelle</i> of Le Clerc was then the chief organ in Europe of men of letters. Locke contributed several articles. It was his first appearance as an author, although he was now fifty-four years of age. This tardiness in authorship is a significant @@ -16901,7 +16862,7 @@ into English in autumn by William Popple, a Unitarian merchant in London. <i>Two Treatises on Government</i>, in defence of the right of ultimate sovereignty in the people, followed a few months later. The famous <i>Essay concerning Human Understanding</i> -saw the light in the spring of 1690. He received £30 +saw the light in the spring of 1690. He received £30 for the copyright, nearly the same as Kant got in 1781 for his <i>Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>. In the <i>Essay</i> Locke was the critic of the empirical data of human experience: Kant, as the critic @@ -17166,7 +17127,7 @@ he asserts Father Malebranche’s Opinion of Seeing all Things in God</i> (1720, posthumous).</p> <p><span class="sc">Miscellaneous.</span>—(1) <i>A New Method of a Common Place Book</i> -(1686). This was Locke’s first article in the <i>Bibliothèque</i> of Le Clerc; +(1686). This was Locke’s first article in the <i>Bibliothèque</i> of Le Clerc; his other contributions to it are uncertain, except the <i>Epitome of the Essay</i>, (in 1688). (2) <i>The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina</i> (prepared in 1673 when Locke was Lord Shaftesbury’s secretary at @@ -17483,7 +17444,7 @@ other, went to give a reason, <i>why</i> ‘it is impossible for the same th to be and not to be.’ It carries its own light and evidence with it, and needs no other proof: he that understands the terms assents to it for its own sake, or else nothing else will ever be able to prevail -with him to do it” (bk. i. chap. 3, § 4).</p> +with him to do it” (bk. i. chap. 3, § 4).</p> <p>The truth is that neither Locke, on the one hand, nor the intellectualists of the 17th century, on the other, expressed their meaning @@ -17506,7 +17467,7 @@ reason and judgment, and to put them upon believing and taking upon trust without further examination.... Nor is it a small power it gives one man over another to have the authority to make a man swallow that for an innate principle which may serve his purpose who -teacheth them” (bk. i. chap. 4, § 24).</p> +teacheth them” (bk. i. chap. 4, § 24).</p> <p>The second book proposes a hypothesis regarding the genesis of our ideas and closes after an elaborate endeavour to verify it. @@ -17895,7 +17856,7 @@ and his existence now (when he is absent from all my senses); by a thousand ways he may have ceased to be. I have not that certainty of his continued existence which we call knowledge; though the great likelihood of it puts it past doubt. But this is but probability -and not knowledge” (chap. 11, § 9). Accordingly, purely rational +and not knowledge” (chap. 11, § 9). Accordingly, purely rational science of external Nature is, according to Locke, impossible. All our “interpretations of nature” are inadequate; only reasonable probabilities, not final rational certainties. This boundless region @@ -17963,8 +17924,8 @@ criticisms which appeared when Locke was alive, among the most important are Leibnitz’s <i>Nouveaux Essais sur l’entendement humain</i>—written about 1700 and published in 1765, in which each chapter of the <i>Essay</i> of Locke is examined in a corresponding chapter by -Leibnitz; Cousin’s “École sensualiste: système de Locke,” in his -<i>Histoire de la philosophie au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1829); and the criticisms +Leibnitz; Cousin’s “École sensualiste: système de Locke,” in his +<i>Histoire de la philosophie au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1829); and the criticisms in T. H. Green’s Introduction to the <i>Philosophical Works of Hume</i> (1874). The <i>Essay, with Prolegomena, biographical, critical and historical</i>, edited by Professor Campbell Fraser and published by the @@ -17980,7 +17941,7 @@ and been translated into different languages.</p> folio volumes. The best is that by Bishop Law, in four quartos (1777). The one most commonly known is in ten volumes (1812).</p> -<p>The <i>Éloge</i> of Jean le Clerc (<i>Bibliothèque choisie</i>, 1705) has been the +<p>The <i>Éloge</i> of Jean le Clerc (<i>Bibliothèque choisie</i>, 1705) has been the basis of the memoirs of Locke prefixed to the successive editions of his <i>Works</i>, or contained in biographical dictionaries. In 1829 a <i>Life of Locke</i> (2nd ed. in two volumes, with considerable additions, 1830), @@ -18000,8 +17961,8 @@ in 1890, in Blackwood’s “Philosophical Classics” may be mentio also addresses by Sir F. Pollock and Fraser at the bicentenary commemoration by the British Academy of Locke’s death, published in the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Academy (1904). See also C. Bastide, <i>John -Locke; ses théories politiques et leur influence en Angleterre</i> (Paris, -1907); H. Ollion, <i>La Philosophie générale de J. L.</i> (1909).</p> +Locke; ses théories politiques et leur influence en Angleterre</i> (Paris, +1907); H. Ollion, <i>La Philosophie générale de J. L.</i> (1909).</p> </div> <div class="author">(A. C. F.)</div> @@ -18031,7 +17992,7 @@ theory. He died in August 1677, an elegy being written by Purcell.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LOCKERBIE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, -Scotland, in the district of Annandale, 14½ m. E.N.E. of Dumfries +Scotland, in the district of Annandale, 14½ m. E.N.E. of Dumfries by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2358. It has long been famous for its cattle and sheep sales, but more particularly for the great August lamb fair, the largest in Scotland, at which @@ -18060,7 +18021,7 @@ After a desultory education, Frederick Locker began life in a colonial broker’s office. Soon deserting this uncongenial calling, he obtained a clerkship in Somerset House, whence he was transferred to Lord Haddington’s private office at the -Admiralty. Here he became deputy-reader and <i>précis</i> writer. +Admiralty. Here he became deputy-reader and <i>précis</i> writer. In 1850 he married Lady Charlotte Bruce, daughter of the Lord Elgin who brought the famous marbles to England, and sister of Lady Augusta Stanley. After his marriage he left the Civil @@ -18314,7 +18275,7 @@ the Abyssinian expedition (1867-68; mentioned in despatches), the Hazara Black Mountain expedition (1868-69; mentioned in despatches). From 1869 to 1879 he acted as deputy-assistant and assistant quartermaster-general in Bengal. In 1877 he was -military attaché with the Dutch army in Acheen. He served +military attaché with the Dutch army in Acheen. He served in the Afghan War of 1878-80, was mentioned in despatches and made a C.B., and from 1880 to 1885 was D.Q.G. in the intelligence branch at headquarters. He commanded a brigade @@ -18365,7 +18326,7 @@ terminus of the Chicago Sanitary District Drainage Canal, about 33 m. S.W. of Chicago and 4 m. N.N.E. of Joliet. Pop. (1900) 2659 (552 being foreign-born and 130 negroes); (1910) 2555. Lockport is served by the Chicago & Alton, and the Atchison, -Topeka & Santa Fé railways, and by the Chicago & Joliet Electric +Topeka & Santa Fé railways, and by the Chicago & Joliet Electric railway. It is in a picturesque farming country, and there are good limestone quarries in the valley of the Des Plaines river. It has manufactures and a considerable trade, especially in grain. @@ -18427,14 +18388,14 @@ as a city.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1838-  ), French politician, son +<p><span class="bold">LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1838-  ), French politician, son of Joseph Philippe Simon (1803-1891), an actor and dramatist who took the name of Lockroy, was born in Paris on the 18th of July 1838. He had begun by studying art, but in 1860 enlisted as a volunteer under Garibaldi. The next three years were spent in Syria as secretary to Ernest Renan, and on his return to Paris he embarked in militant journalism against the -second empire in the <i>Figaro</i>, the <i>Diable à quatre</i>, and eventually +second empire in the <i>Figaro</i>, the <i>Diable à quatre</i>, and eventually in the <i>Rappel</i>, with which his name was thenceforward intimately connected. He commanded a battalion during the siege of Paris, and in February 1871 was elected deputy to the National @@ -18445,7 +18406,7 @@ Arrested at Vanves he remained a prisoner at Versailles and Chartres until June when he was released without being tried. He was more than once imprisoned for violent articles in the press, and in 1872 for a duel with Paul de Cassagnac. He was returned -to the Chamber in 1873 as Radical deputy for Bouches-du-Rhône +to the Chamber in 1873 as Radical deputy for Bouches-du-Rhône in 1876, 1877 and 1881 for Aix, and in 1881 he was also elected in the 11th arrondissement of Paris. He elected to sit for Paris, and was repeatedly re-elected. During the elections @@ -18467,7 +18428,7 @@ he defended the erection of the Tour Eiffel against artistic Paris. After the Panama and Boulangist scandals he became one of the leading politicians of the Radical party. He was vice-president of the Chamber in 1894 and in 1895, when he became minister -of marine under Léon Bourgeois. His drastic measures of reform +of marine under Léon Bourgeois. His drastic measures of reform alarmed moderate politicians, but he had the confidence of the country, and held the same portfolio under Henri Brisson (1898) and Charles Dupuy (1898-1899). He gave his support to the @@ -18477,10 +18438,10 @@ marine policy of Camille Pelletan in the Combes ministry of of the Chamber. M. Lockroy was a persistent and successful advocate of a strong naval policy, in defence of which he published <i>La Marine de Guerre</i> (1890), <i>Six mois rue Royale</i> (1897), <i>La -Défense navale</i> (1900), <i>Du Weser à la Vistula</i> (1901), <i>Les Marines -française et allemande</i> (1904), <i>Le Programme naval</i> (1906). His +Défense navale</i> (1900), <i>Du Weser à la Vistula</i> (1901), <i>Les Marines +française et allemande</i> (1904), <i>Le Programme naval</i> (1906). His other works include <i>M. de Moltke et la guerre future</i> (1891) and -<i>Journal d’une bourgeoise pendant la Révolution</i> (1881) derived +<i>Journal d’une bourgeoise pendant la Révolution</i> (1881) derived from the letters of his great-grandmother. M. Lockroy married in 1877 Madame Charles Hugo, the daughter-in-law of the poet.</p> @@ -18579,8 +18540,8 @@ Observatory, South Kensington.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LOCLE, LE,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a town in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel, 24 m. -by rail N. of Neuchâtel, and 5 m. S.W. of La Chaux de Fonds. +<p><span class="bold">LOCLE, LE,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a town in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel, 24 m. +by rail N. of Neuchâtel, and 5 m. S.W. of La Chaux de Fonds. It is built (3035 ft. above the sea-level) on the Bied stream in a valley of the Jura, and is about 1 m. from the French frontier. In 1681 Daniel Jean Richard introduced watch-making here, @@ -18602,7 +18563,7 @@ Morteau in France (8 m.).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LOCMARIAQUER,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a village of western France, on the W. shore of the Gulf of Morbihan, in the department of Morbihan, -8½ m. S. of Auray by road. Pop. (1906) 756. Locmariaquer +8½ m. S. of Auray by road. Pop. (1906) 756. Locmariaquer has a small port, and oyster culture is carried on close to it. Roman remains are to be seen, but the place owes its celebrity to the megalithic monuments in the vicinity, some of which are @@ -18829,11 +18790,11 @@ Greek settlers found the Siculi here before them.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LÖCSE<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Leutschau</i>), the capital of the county of +<p><span class="bold">LÖCSE<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Leutschau</i>), the capital of the county of Szepes, in Hungary, 230 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 6845, mostly Germans and Slovaks. The county of Szepes is the highest part of Hungary, and its north-western -portion is occupied by the Tátra Mountains. Löcse lies in an +portion is occupied by the Tátra Mountains. Löcse lies in an elevated position surrounded by mountains, and is one of the oldest towns of Hungary. The church of St James is a Gothic structure of the 13th century, with richly carved altar, several @@ -18844,7 +18805,7 @@ in 1894, contains a Protestant upper gymnasium, founded in founded in 1585. Bee-keeping and the raising of garden produce are the chief industries.</p> -<p>Founded by Saxon colonists in 1245, Löcse had by the early +<p>Founded by Saxon colonists in 1245, Löcse had by the early part of the 16th century attained a position of great relative importance. In 1599 a fire destroyed the greater part of the town, and during the 17th century it suffered repeatedly at the @@ -18863,7 +18824,7 @@ be always at the same distance from a fixed point; and so in general a curve of any given kind is the locus of the points which satisfy, or of a point moving so as always to satisfy, a given condition. The theory of loci is thus identical with that of -curves (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curve</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: § <i>Analytical</i>). The notion +curves (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curve</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: § <i>Analytical</i>). The notion of a locus applies also to solid geometry. Here the locus of the points satisfying a single (or onefold) condition is a surface; the locus of the points satisfying two conditions (or a twofold @@ -18980,8 +18941,8 @@ steppes of central Asia are the home of this insect appears probable; still much on this point is enveloped in uncertainty. In any case the area of permanent distribution is enormous, and that of occasional distribution is still greater. The former area extends from the -parallel of 40° N. in Portugal, rising to 48° in France and Switzerland, -and passing into Russia at 55°, thence continuing across the middle +parallel of 40° N. in Portugal, rising to 48° in France and Switzerland, +and passing into Russia at 55°, thence continuing across the middle of Siberia, north of China to Japan; thence south to the Fiji Islands, to New Zealand and North Australia; thence again to Mauritius and over all Africa to Madeira. The southern distribution is uncertain @@ -18989,7 +18950,7 @@ and obscure. Taking exceptional distribution, it is well known that it occasionally appears in the British Isles, and has in them apparently been noticed as far north as Edinburgh; so also does it occasionally appear in Scandinavia, and it has probably been -seen up to 63° N. in Finland. Looking at this vast area, it is easy to +seen up to 63° N. in Finland. Looking at this vast area, it is easy to conceive that an element of uncertainty must always exist with regard to the exact determination of the species, and in Europe especially is this the case, because there exists a distinct species, @@ -19143,21 +19104,21 @@ used for swine are called swine’s bread, and are probably referred to in the parable of the Prodigal Son. It is also called St John’s bread, from a misunderstanding of Matt. iii. 4. The carob-tree was regarded by Sprengel as the tree with which Moses sweetened -the bitter waters of Marah (Exod. xv. 25), as the <i>kharrúb</i>, +the bitter waters of Marah (Exod. xv. 25), as the <i>kharrúb</i>, according to Avicenna (p. 205), has the property of sweetening salt and bitter waters. Gerard (<i>Herball</i>, p. 1241) cultivated it in 1597, it having been introduced in 1570.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LODÈVE,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town of southern France, capital of an arrondissement -of the department of Hérault, 36 m. W.N.W. of Montpellier +<p><span class="bold">LODÈVE,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town of southern France, capital of an arrondissement +of the department of Hérault, 36 m. W.N.W. of Montpellier by rail. Pop. (1906), 6142. It is situated in the southern -Cévennes at the foot of steep hills in a small valley where the -Soulondres joins the Lergue, a tributary of the Hérault. Two +Cévennes at the foot of steep hills in a small valley where the +Soulondres joins the Lergue, a tributary of the Hérault. Two bridges over the Lergue connect the town with the faubourg of Carmes on the left bank of the river, and two others over the -Soulondres lead to the extensive ruins of the château de Montbrun +Soulondres lead to the extensive ruins of the château de Montbrun (13th century). The old fortified cathedral of St Fulcran, founded by him in 950, dates in its present condition from the 13th, 14th and 16th centuries; the cloister, dating from the 15th and 17th @@ -19172,7 +19133,7 @@ Levant, wine, brandy and wood. The town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a communal college.</p> -<p>Lodève (Luteva) existed before the invasion of the Romans, +<p>Lodève (Luteva) existed before the invasion of the Romans, who for some time called it <i>Forum Neronis</i>. The inhabitants were converted to Christianity by St Flour, first bishop of the city, about 323. After passing successively into the hands @@ -19517,12 +19478,12 @@ bibliographies to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flat</a></span> and <span <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LODI,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the -province of Milan, 20½ m. by rail S.E. of that city, on a hill +province of Milan, 20½ m. by rail S.E. of that city, on a hill above the right bank of the Adda, 230 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 19,970 (town), 26,827 (commune). The site of the city is an eminence rising very gradually from the Lombard plain, and the surrounding country is one of the richest dairy districts in -Italy. The cathedral (1158), with a Gothic façade and a 16th-century +Italy. The cathedral (1158), with a Gothic façade and a 16th-century lateral tower, has a restored interior. The church of the Incoronata was erected by Battaggio (1488) in the Bramantesque style. It is an elegant octagonal domed structure, and is @@ -19539,7 +19500,7 @@ extensive trade in cheese (Lodi producing more Parmesan than Parma itself) and other dairy produce, there are manufactures of linen, silk, majolica and chemicals.</p> -<p>The ancient Laus Pompeia lay 3½ m. W. of the present city, +<p>The ancient Laus Pompeia lay 3½ m. W. of the present city, and the site is still occupied by a considerable village, Lodi Vecchio, with the old cathedral of S. Bassiano, now a brick building, which contains 15th-century frescoes. It was the @@ -19583,8 +19544,8 @@ latter master of Lombardy.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LODZ<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (<i>Lódẑ</i>; more correctly <i>Lodzia</i>), a town of Russian Poland, -in the government of Piotrków, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Warsaw. +<p><span class="bold">LODZ<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (<i>Lódẑ</i>; more correctly <i>Lodzia</i>), a town of Russian Poland, +in the government of Piotrków, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Warsaw. It is situated on the Lodz plateau, which at the beginning of the 19th century was covered with impenetrable forests. Now it is the centre of a group of industrial towns—Zgerź, Lḙczyca, @@ -19597,16 +19558,16 @@ stuffs, with chemicals, beer, machinery and silk. One of the very few educational institutions is a professional industrial school. The population, which was only 50,000 in 1872, reached 351,570 in 1900; the Poles numbering about 37%, Germans -40% and Jews 22½%.</p> +40% and Jews 22½%.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LOESS<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Löss</i>), in geology, a variety of loam. Typical +<p><span class="bold">LOESS<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Löss</i>), in geology, a variety of loam. Typical loess is a soft, porous rock, pale yellowish or buff in colour; one characteristic property is its capacity to retain vertical, or even over-hanging, walls in the banks of streams. These vertical walls have been well described by von Richthofen -(<i>Führer für Forschungsreisende</i>, Berlin, 1886) in China, where +(<i>Führer für Forschungsreisende</i>, Berlin, 1886) in China, where they stand in some places 500 ft. high and contain innumerable cave dwellings; ancient roads too have worn their way vertically downwards deep into the deposit, forming trench-like ways. @@ -19619,10 +19580,10 @@ by rootlets; these are often lined with calcite. Typical loess is usually calcareous; some geologists regard this as an essential property, and when the rock has become decalcified, as it frequently is on the surface by weathering, they call it “loess-loam” -(<i>lösslehm</i>). In the lower portions of a loess deposit the +(<i>lösslehm</i>). In the lower portions of a loess deposit the calcium carbonate tends to form concretions, which on account -of their mimetic forms have received such names as <i>lösskindchen</i>, -<i>lösspuppen</i>, <i>poupées du loess</i>, “loess dolls.” In deposits of this +of their mimetic forms have received such names as <i>lösskindchen</i>, +<i>lösspuppen</i>, <i>poupées du loess</i>, “loess dolls.” In deposits of this nature in South America these concretionary masses form distinct beds. Bedding is absent from typical loess. The mineral composition of loess varies somewhat in different @@ -19664,18 +19625,18 @@ fossils have been found in the loess of Europe; the tapir, mastodon and giant sloths occur in South America, but the most common fossils are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms as <i>Succinea</i>. Certain loess deposits in Turkestan have been attributed -to rain-wash, this is the so-called “lake-loess” (<i>see-löss</i>); according +to rain-wash, this is the so-called “lake-loess” (<i>see-löss</i>); according to Tukowski the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that the former is porous, dry and pervious, while the latter is laminated, plastic and impervious. Two types of loess have been recognized in Russia, the Hill- or Terrace-loess and the Low-level-loess, a product of the weathering of underlying rocks. In South Germany the following order has been recognized: (1) an upper unbedded, non-calcareous -loess, (2) the <i>gehanglöss</i>, mixed with subsoil rocks, and -(3) the sand or <i>thal-löss</i>, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation +loess, (2) the <i>gehanglöss</i>, mixed with subsoil rocks, and +(3) the sand or <i>thal-löss</i>, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation on the upper layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility, such as the black earth (<i>Tschernozom</i>) of southern Russia, the dark -<i>Bordelöss</i> of the Magdeburg district, and the black “cotton soil” +<i>Bordelöss</i> of the Magdeburg district, and the black “cotton soil” (<i>regur</i>) of the Deccan.</p> </div> @@ -19711,20 +19672,20 @@ day. He died in America, where he had a Virginia estate.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a large and picturesque group of islands lying N.E. and S.W. off the N.W. coast of -Norway, between 67° 30′ and 69° 20′ N., and between 12° and -16° 35′ E. forming part of the <i>amt</i> (county) of Nordland. The +Norway, between 67° 30′ and 69° 20′ N., and between 12° and +16° 35′ E. forming part of the <i>amt</i> (county) of Nordland. The extreme length of the group from Andenaes, at the north of -Andö, to Röst, is about 150 m.; the aggregate area about +Andö, to Röst, is about 150 m.; the aggregate area about 1560 sq. m. It is separated from the mainland by the Vestfjord, Tjaeldsund and Vaagsfjord, and is divided into two sections -by the Raftsund between Hindö and Öst-Vaagö. To the W. +by the Raftsund between Hindö and Öst-Vaagö. To the W. and S. of the Raftsund lie the Lofoten Islands proper, of -which the most important are Öst-Vaagö, Gimsö, Vest-Vaagö, -Flakstadö, Moskenaesö, Mosken, Värö and Röst; E. and N. +which the most important are Öst-Vaagö, Gimsö, Vest-Vaagö, +Flakstadö, Moskenaesö, Mosken, Värö and Röst; E. and N. of the Raftsund are the islands of Vesteraalen, the chief being -Hindö, Ulvö, Langö, Skogsö and Andö. The islands, which +Hindö, Ulvö, Langö, Skogsö and Andö. The islands, which are all of granite or metamorphic gneiss, are precipitous and -lofty. The highest points and finest scenery are found on Öst-Vaagö, +lofty. The highest points and finest scenery are found on Öst-Vaagö, in the neighbourhood of the narrow, cliff-bound Raftsund and Troldfjord. The principal peaks are Higrafstind (3811 ft.), Gjeitgaljartind (3555), Rulten (3483), the Noldtinder (3467), @@ -19736,18 +19697,18 @@ and the mountains of the mainland. The channels which separate the islands are narrow and tortuous, and generally of great depth; they are remarkable for the strength of their tidal currents, particularly the Raftsund and the famous -Maelström or Moskenström between Moskenaes and Mosken. +Maelström or Moskenström between Moskenaes and Mosken. The violent tempests which sweep over the Vestfjord, which is exposed to the S.W., are graphically described in Jonas Lie’s <i>Den Fremsynte</i> (1870) and in H. Schultze’s <i>Udvalgte Skrifter</i> -(1883), as the Maelström is imaginatively by Edgar Allan Poe. +(1883), as the Maelström is imaginatively by Edgar Allan Poe. Though situated wholly within the Arctic circle, the climate of the Lofoten and Vesteraalen group is not rigorous when compared with that of the rest of Norway. The isothermal line -which marks a mean January temperature of 32° F. runs south +which marks a mean January temperature of 32° F. runs south from the Lofotens, passing a little to the east of Bergen onward to Gothenburg and Copenhagen. The prevailing winds are from -the S. and W., the mean temperature for the year is 38.5° F., +the S. and W., the mean temperature for the year is 38.5° F., and the annual rainfall is 43.34 in. In summer the hills have only patches of snow, the snow limit being about 3000 ft. The natural pasture produced in favourable localities permits @@ -19759,7 +19720,7 @@ carried on along the east coast of the Lofotens in the Vestfjord in spring. This employs about 40,000 men during the season from all parts of Norway, the population being then about doubled, and the surplus accommodated in temporary huts. -The average yield is valued at about £35,000. The fish are taken +The average yield is valued at about £35,000. The fish are taken in nets let down during the night, or on lines upwards of a mile in length, or on ordinary hand-lines. The fishermen are paid in cash, and large sums of money are sent to the islands by the @@ -19772,22 +19733,22 @@ manure. The summer cod fisheries and the lobster fishery are also valuable. The herring is taken in large quantities off the west coasts of Vesteraalen, but is a somewhat capricious visitant. The islands contain no towns properly so called, but Kabelvaag -on Öst-Vaagö and Svolvaer on a few rocky islets off that island +on Öst-Vaagö and Svolvaer on a few rocky islets off that island are considerable centres of trade and (in the fishing season) of -population; Lödingen also, at the head of the Vestfjord on -Hindö, is much frequented as a port of call. A church existed +population; Lödingen also, at the head of the Vestfjord on +Hindö, is much frequented as a port of call. A church existed at Vaagen (Kabelvaag) in the 12th century, and here Hans Egede, the missionary of Greenland, was pastor. There are -factories for fish guano at Henningvaer (Öst-Vaagö), Kabelvaag, -Svolvaer, Lödingen, and at Bretesnäs on Store Molla. Regular +factories for fish guano at Henningvaer (Öst-Vaagö), Kabelvaag, +Svolvaer, Lödingen, and at Bretesnäs on Store Molla. Regular means of communication are afforded by the steamers which trade between Hamburg or Christiania and Hammerfest, and also by local vessels; less accessible spots can be visited by small boats, in the management of which the natives are adepts. -There are some roads on Hindö, Langö, and Andö. The largest -island in the group, and indeed in Norway, is Hindö, with an +There are some roads on Hindö, Langö, and Andö. The largest +island in the group, and indeed in Norway, is Hindö, with an area of 860 sq. m. The south-eastern portion of it belongs to -the <i>amt</i> of Tromsö. In the island of Andö there is a bed of coal +the <i>amt</i> of Tromsö. In the island of Andö there is a bed of coal at the mouth of Ramsaa.</p> @@ -19868,7 +19829,7 @@ Dublin</i> (Dublin, 1819); G. E. C., <i>Complete Peerage</i> vol. iii., sub. <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">LOG<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (a word of uncertain etymological origin, possibly onomatopoeic; the <i>New English Dictionary</i> rejects the derivation from -Norwegian <i>lág</i>, a fallen tree), a large piece of generally unhewn, +Norwegian <i>lág</i>, a fallen tree), a large piece of generally unhewn, wood. The word is also used in various figurative senses, and more particularly for the “nautical log,” an apparatus for ascertaining the speed of ships. Its employment in this sense @@ -19911,7 +19872,7 @@ E. Kelway invented an electrical log in 1876.</p> <p><i>Common Log.</i>—To ascertain the ship’s speed by the common log four articles are necessary—a log-ship or log-chip, log-reel, log-line and log-glass. The log-ship (fig. 1) is a wooden quadrant -½ in. thick, with a radius of 5 or 6 in., +½ in. thick, with a radius of 5 or 6 in., the circumference of which is weighted with lead to keep it upright and retard its passage through the water. Two @@ -19942,7 +19903,7 @@ second by a cord with two knots, the third by one with three knots, and so on; the middle of each of these lengths (half-knot) is also marked by a cord with one knot. It follows that, if, say, five knots of the line run out in 28 seconds, the ship has gone -5 × 47¼ ft. in that time, or is moving at the rate of 5 × 6080 ft. +5 × 47¼ ft. in that time, or is moving at the rate of 5 × 6080 ft. (= five nautical miles) an hour; hence the common use of knot as equivalent to a nautical mile. In the log-glass the time is measured by running sand, which, however, is apt to be affected @@ -20202,7 +20163,7 @@ register are not compulsory, but are usually kept.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">LOGAN, JOHN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1725-1780), also known as <span class="sc">Tahgahjuté</span>, +<p><span class="bold">LOGAN, JOHN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1725-1780), also known as <span class="sc">Tahgahjuté</span>, American Indian chief, a Cayuga by birth, was the son of Shikellamy, a white man who had been captured when a child by the Indians, had been reared among them, and had become chief of the @@ -20237,7 +20198,7 @@ There is a monument to him in Fair Hill Cemetery, near Auburn, New York.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Brantz Mayer’s <i>Tahgahjuté, or Logan the Indian and Captain +<p>Brantz Mayer’s <i>Tahgahjuté, or Logan the Indian and Captain Michael Cresap</i> (Baltimore, 1851, 2nd ed., Albany, 1867) defends Captain Cresap against Jefferson’s charges, and also questions the authenticity of Logan’s message, about which there has been considerable @@ -20431,7 +20392,7 @@ June 1875.</p> U.S.A., on the Logan river, about 70 m. N. of Salt Lake City. Pop. (1900) 5451 (1440 foreign-born); (1910) 7522. It is served by the Oregon Short Line railroad. It lies at the mouth of Logan -Cañon, about 4500 ft. above the sea, and commands magnificent +Cañon, about 4500 ft. above the sea, and commands magnificent views of the Wasatch Mountains and the fertile Cache Valley. At Logan is a temple of the Latter-Day Saints (or Mormons), built in 1883, and the city is the seat of the Agricultural College @@ -20499,382 +20460,6 @@ Lord) Roberts.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 16, Slice 7, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 42173-h.htm or 42173-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/1/7/42173/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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