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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 04:04:39 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 04:04:39 -0800 |
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diff --git a/42173-0.txt b/42173-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cc75571 --- /dev/null +++ b/42173-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18477 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42173 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE LIQUID GASES: "Another important use of liquid gases is as + analytic agents, and for this purpose liquid air is becoming an + almost essential laboratory reagent." 'as' amended from 'an'. + + ARTICLE LIQUOR LAWS: "The proceedings are stricter and more summary + in the case of a new licence; notice of application must be given + to the local authorities; ..." 'authorities' amended from + 'authorites'. + + ARTICLE LISBON: "... and the royal national theatre (Teatro de Dona + Maria Segunda), erected on the site which the Inquisition buildings + occupied from 1520 to 1836." 'Teatro' amended from 'Theatro'. + + ARTICLE LIVERSEDGE: "... Great Northern, and London & North Western + railways. Pop. (1901) 13,980." 'Northern' amended from 'Nothern'. + + ARTICLE LOCRI: "... and found in Syracuse a support against + Rhegium: it was thus an active adversary of Athenian aggrandisement + in the west." 'of' amended from 'or'. + + ARTICLE LOG: "The Bliss resembles the Rocket log in shape, and is + secured to the taffrail by a rope or sling." 'sling' amended from + 'slung'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVI, SLICE VII + + Liquid Gases to Logar + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + LIQUID GASES LLANWRTYD WELLS + LIQUORICE LLEWELYN + LIQUOR LAWS LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO + LIRA LLOYD, EDWARD + LIRI LLOYD, WILLIAM + LIROCONITE LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS + LISBON LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID + LISBURN LLOYD'S + LISIEUX LLWYD, EDWARD + LISKEARD LOACH + LISLE, ALICE LOAD; LODE + LISMORE (Scottish island) LOAF + LISMORE (Australian town) LOAM + LISMORE (Irish town) LOAN + LISSA (Austrian island) LOANDA + LISSA (Prussian town) LOANGO + LIST, FRIEDRICH LOBACHEVSKIY, NICOLAS IVANOVICH + LIST LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKI, ALEXIS BORISOVICH + LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO LÖBAU + LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER LOBBY + LISTER, MARTIN LOBBYING + LISTON, JOHN LOBE + LISTON, ROBERT LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST + LISZT, FRANZ LOBEIRA, JOÃO + LITANY LOBELIA + LITCHFIELD (Connecticut, U.S.A.) LOBENSTEIN + LITCHFIELD (Illinois, U.S.A.) LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES + LITCHI LOBO, JERONIMO + LITERATURE LOBSTER + LITERNUM LOCAL GOVERNMENT + LITHGOW, WILLIAM LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD + LITHGOW LOCARNO + LITHIUM LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH + LITHOGRAPHY LOCHABER + LITHOSPHERE LOCHES + LITHUANIANS and LETTS LOCHGELLY + LITMUS LOCHGILPHEAD + LITOPTERNA LOCHMABEN + LITOTES LOCK, MATTHIAS + LITTER LOCK + LITTLE FALLS (Minnesota, U.S.A.) LOCKE, JOHN + LITTLE FALLS (New York, U.S.A.) LOCKE, MATTHEW + LITTLEHAMPTON LOCKERBIE + LITTLE ROCK LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK + LITTLETON, EDWARD LOCKHART, GEORGE + LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS DE LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON + LITTRÉ, MAXIMILIEN PAUL ÉMILE LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM ALEXANDER + LITURGY LOCK HAVEN + LITUUS LOCKPORT (Illinois, U.S.A.) + LIUDPRAND LOCKPORT (New York, U.S.A.) + LIVE OAK LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD + LIVER LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK + LIVERMORE, MARY ASHTON [RICE] LOCKWOOD, WILTON + LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN + LIVERPOOL LOCLE, LE + LIVERSEDGE LOCMARIAQUER + LIVERY LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA + LIVERY COMPANIES LOCO-WEEDS + LIVIA DRUSILLA LOCRI (people of ancient Greece) + LIVINGSTON, EDWARD LOCRI (Italian city) + LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R. LÖCSE + LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM LOCUS + LIVINGSTONE, DAVID LOCUST + LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS LOCUST-TREE + LIVIUS ANDRONICUS LODÈVE + LIVNO LODGE, EDMUND + LIVONIA LODGE, HENRY CABOT + LIVY LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH + LIZARD LODGE, THOMAS + LIZARD POINT LODGE + LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HÅKAN JORDAN LODGER AND LODGINGS + LLAMA LODI + LLANBERIS LODZ + LLANDAFF LOESS + LLANDEILO GROUP LOFFT, CAPEL + LLANDILO LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN + LLANDOVERY LOFT + LLANDOVERY GROUP LOFTUS, ADAM + LLANDRINDOD LOG + LLANDUDNO LOGAN, JOHN (American Indian chief) + LLANELLY LOGAN, JOHN (Scottish poet) + LLANES LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER + LLANGOLLEN LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM EDMOND + LLANQUIHUE LOGAN (Utah, U.S.A.) + LLANTRISANT LOGANSPORT + LLANTWIT MAJOR LOGAR + + + + +LIQUID GASES.[1] Though Lavoisier remarked that if the earth were +removed to very cold regions of space, such as those of Jupiter or +Saturn, its atmosphere, or at least a portion of its aeriform +constituents, would return to the state of liquid (_Oeuvres_, ii. 805), +the history of the liquefaction of gases may be said to begin with the +observation made by John Dalton in his essay "On the Force of Steam or +Vapour from Water and various other Liquids" (1801): "There can scarcely +be a doubt entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids +of whatever kind into liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting +it in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted on the unmixed +gases." It was not, however, till 1823 that the question was +investigated by systematic experiment. In that year Faraday, at the +suggestion of Sir Humphry Davy, exposed hydrate of chlorine to heat +under pressure in the laboratories of the Royal Institution. He placed +the substance at the end of one arm of a bent glass tube, which was then +hermetically sealed, and decomposing it by heating to 100° F., he saw a +yellow liquid distil to the end of the other arm. This liquid he +surmised to be chlorine separated from the water by the heat and +"condensed into a dry fluid by the mere pressure of its own abundant +vapour," and he verified his surmise by compressing chlorine gas, freed +from water by exposure to sulphuric acid, to a pressure of about four +atmospheres, when the same yellow fluid was produced (_Phil. Trans._, +1823, 113, pp. 160-165). He proceeded to experiment with a number of +other gases subjected in sealed tubes to the pressure caused by their +own continuous production by chemical action, and in the course of a few +weeks liquefied sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, +euchlorine, nitrous acid, cyanogen, ammonia and muriatic acid, the last +of which, however, had previously been obtained by Davy. But he failed +with hydrogen, oxygen, fluoboric, fluosilicic and phosphuretted hydrogen +gases (_Phil. Trans._, ib. pp. 189-198). Early in the following year he +published an "Historical statement respecting the liquefaction of gases" +(_Quart. Journ. Sci._, 1824, 16, pp. 229-240), in which he detailed +several recorded cases in which previous experimenters had reduced +certain gases to their liquid state. + +In 1835 Thilorier, by acting on bicarbonate of soda with sulphuric acid +in a closed vessel and evacuating the gas thus obtained under pressure +into a second vessel, was able to accumulate large quantities of liquid +carbonic acid, and found that when the liquid was suddenly ejected into +the air a portion of it was solidified into a snow-like substance (_Ann. +chim. phys._, 1835, 60, pp. 427-432). Four years later J. K. Mitchell in +America, by mixing this snow with ether and exhausting it under an air +pump, attained a minimum temperature of 146° below zero F., by the aid +of which he froze sulphurous acid gas to a solid. + +Stimulated by Thilorier's results and by considerations arising out of +the work of J. C. Cagniard de la Tour (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1822, 21, pp. +127 and 178, and 1823, 22, p. 410), which appeared to him to indicate +that gases would pass by some simple law into the liquid state, Faraday +returned to the subject about 1844, in the "hope of seeing nitrogen, +oxygen and hydrogen either as liquid or solid bodies, and the latter +probably as a metal" (_Phil. Trans._, 1845, 135, pp. 155-157). On the +basis of Cagniard de la Tour's observation that at a certain temperature +a liquid under sufficient pressure becomes a vapour or gas having the +same bulk as the liquid, he inferred that "at this temperature or one a +little higher, it is not likely that any increase of pressure, except +perhaps one exceedingly great, would convert the gas into a liquid." He +further surmised that the Cagniard de la Tour condition might have its +point of temperature for oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, &c., below that +belonging to the bath of solid carbonic acid and ether, and he realized +that in that case no pressure which any apparatus would be able to bear +would be able to bring those gases into the liquid or solid state, which +would require a still greater degree of cold. To fulfil this condition +he immersed the tubes containing his gases in a bath of solid carbonic +acid and ether, the temperature of which was reduced by exhaustion under +the air pump to -166° F., or a little lower, and at the same time he +subjected the gases to pressures up to 50 atmospheres by the use of two +pumps working in series. In this way he added six substances, usually +gaseous, to the list of those that could be obtained in the liquid +state, and reduced seven, including ammonia, nitrous oxide and +sulphuretted hydrogen, into the solid form, at the same time effecting a +number of valuable determinations of vapour tensions. But he failed to +condense oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, the original objects of his +pursuit, though he found reason to think that "further diminution of +temperature and improved apparatus for pressure may very well be +expected to give us these bodies in the liquid or solid state." His +surmise that increased pressure alone would not suffice to bring about +change of state in these gases was confirmed by subsequent +investigators, such as M. P. E. Berthelot, who in 1850 compressed oxygen +to 780 atmospheres (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1850, 30, p. 237), and Natterer, +who a few years later subjected the permanent gases to a pressure of +2790 atmospheres, without result; and in 1869 Thomas Andrews (_Phil. +Trans._, 11) by his researches on carbonic acid finally established the +conception of the "critical temperature" as that temperature, differing +for different bodies, above which no gas can be made to assume the +liquid state, no matter what pressure it be subjected to (see +CONDENSATION OF GASES). + +About 1877 the problem of liquefying the permanent gases was taken up by +L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, working almost simultaneously though +independently. The former relied on the cold produced by the sudden +expansion of the gases at high compression. By means of a specially +designed pump he compressed about 100 cc. of oxygen in a narrow glass +tube to about 200 atmospheres, at the same time cooling it to about -29° +C., and on suddenly releasing the pressure he saw momentarily in the +interior of the tube a mist (_brouillard_), from which he inferred the +presence of a vapour very near its point of liquefaction. A few days +later he repeated the experiment with hydrogen, using a pressure of +nearly 300 atmospheres, and observed in his tube an exceedingly fine and +subtle fog which vanished almost instantaneously. At the time when these +experiments were carried out it was generally accepted that the mist or +fog consisted of minute drops of the liquefied gases. Even had this been +the case, the problem would not have been completely solved, for +Cailletet was unable to collect the drops in the form of a true stable +liquid, and at the best obtained a "dynamic" not a "static" liquid, the +gas being reduced to a form that bears the same relation to a true +liquid that the partially condensed steam issuing from the funnel of a +locomotive bears to water standing in a tumbler. But subsequent +knowledge showed that even this proximate liquefaction could not have +taken place, and that the fog could not have consisted of drops of +liquid hydrogen, because the cooling produced by the adiabatic expansion +would give a temperature of only 44° abs., which is certainly above the +critical temperature of hydrogen. Pictet again announced that on opening +the tap of a vessel containing hydrogen at a pressure of 650 atmospheres +and cooled by the cascade method (see CONDENSATION OF GASES) to -140° +C., he saw issuing from the orifice an opaque jet which he assumed to +consist of hydrogen in the liquid form or in the liquid and solid forms +mixed. But he was no more successful than Cailletet in collecting any of +the liquid, which--whatever else it may have been, whether ordinary air +or impurities associated with the hydrogen--cannot have been hydrogen +because the means he employed were insufficient to reduce the gas to +what has subsequently been ascertained to be its critical point, below +which of course liquefaction is impossible. It need scarcely be added +that if the liquefaction of hydrogen be rejected a fortiori Pictet's +claim to have effected its solidification falls to the ground. + +After Cailletet and Pictet, the next important names in the history of +the liquefaction of gases are those of Z. F. Wroblewski and K. S. +Olszewski, who for some years worked together at Cracow. In April 1883 +the former announced to the French Academy that he had obtained oxygen +in a completely liquid state and (a few days later) that nitrogen at a +temperature of -136° C., reduced suddenly from a pressure of 150 +atmospheres to one of 50, had been seen as a liquid which showed a true +meniscus, but disappeared in a few seconds. But with hydrogen treated in +the same way he failed to obtain even the mist reported by Cailletet. At +the beginning of 1884 he performed a more satisfactory experiment. +Cooling hydrogen in a capillary glass tube to the temperature of liquid +oxygen, he expanded it quickly from 100 atmospheres to one, and +obtained the appearance of an instantaneous ebullition. Olszewski +confirmed this result by expanding from a pressure of 190 atmospheres +the gas cooled by liquid oxygen and nitrogen boiling under reduced +pressure, and even announced that he saw it running down the walls of +the tube as a colourless liquid. + +Wroblewski, however, was unable to observe this phenomenon, and +Olszewski himself, when seven years later he repeated the experiment in +the more favourable conditions afforded by a larger apparatus, was +unable to produce again the colourless drops he had previously reported: +the phenomenon of the appearance of sudden ebullition indeed lasted +longer, but he failed to perceive any meniscus such as would have been a +certain indication of the presence of a true liquid. Still, though +neither of these investigators succeeded in reaching the goal at which +they aimed, their work was of great value in elucidating the conditions +of the problem and in perfecting the details of the apparatus employed. +Wroblewski in particular devoted the closing years of his life to a most +valuable investigation of the isothermals of hydrogen at low +temperatures. From the data thus obtained he constructed a van der Waals +equation which enabled him to calculate the critical temperature, +pressure and density of hydrogen with very much greater certainty than +had previously been possible. Liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen and liquid +air--the last was first made by Wroblewski in 1885--became something +more than mere curiosities of the laboratory, and by the year 1891 were +produced in such quantities as to be available for the purposes of +scientific research. Still, nothing was added to the general principles +upon which the work of Cailletet and Pictet was based, and the "cascade" +method, together with adiabatic expansion from high compression (see +CONDENSATION OF GASES), remained the only means of procedure at the +disposal of experimenters in this branch of physics. + +In some quarters a certain amount of doubt appears to have arisen as to +the sufficiency of these methods for the liquefaction of hydrogen. +Olszewski, for example, in 1895 pointed out that the succession of less +and less condensible gases necessary for the cascade method breaks down +between nitrogen and hydrogen, and he gave as a reason for hydrogen not +having been reduced to the condition of a static liquid the +non-existence of a gas intermediate in volatility between those two. By +1894 attempts had been made in the Royal Institution laboratories to +manufacture an artificial gas of this nature by adding a small +proportion of air to the hydrogen, so as to get a mixture with a +critical point of about -200° C. When such a mixture was cooled to that +temperature and expanded from a high degree of compression into a vacuum +vessel, the result was a white mass of solid air together with a clear +liquid of very low density. This was in all probability hydrogen in the +true liquid state, but it was not found possible to collect it owing to +its extreme volatility. Whether this artificial gas might ultimately +have enabled liquid hydrogen to be collected in open vessels we cannot +say, for experiments with it were abandoned in favour of other measures, +which led finally to a more assured success. + +_Vacuum Vessels._--The problem involved in the liquefaction of hydrogen +was in reality a double one. In the first place, the gas had to be +cooled to such a temperature that the change to the liquid state was +rendered possible. In the second, means had to be discovered for +protecting it, when so cooled, from the influx of external heat, and +since the rate at which heat is transferred from one body to another +increases very rapidly with the difference between their temperatures, +the question of efficient heat insulation became at once more difficult +and more urgent in proportion to the degree of cold attained. The second +part of the problem was in fact solved first. Of course packing with +non-conducting materials was an obvious expedient when it was not +necessary that the contents of the apparatus should be visible to the +eye, but in the numerous instances when this was not the case such +measures were out of the question. Attempts were made to secure the +desired end by surrounding the vessel that contained the cooled or +liquid gas with a succession of other vessels, through which was +conducted the vapour given off from the interior one. Such devices +involved awkward complications in the arrangement of the apparatus, and +besides were not as a rule very efficient, although some workers, e.g. +Dr Kamerlingh Onnes, of Leiden, reported some success with their use. In +1892 it occurred to Dewar that the principle of an arrangement he had +used nearly twenty years before for some calorimetric experiments on the +physical constants of hydrogenium, which was a natural deduction from +the work of Dulong and Petit on radiation, might be employed with +advantage as well to protect cold substances from heat as hot ones from +cold. He therefore tried the effect of surrounding his liquefied gas +with a highly exhausted space. The result was entirely successful. +Experiment showed that liquid air contained in a glass vessel with two +walls, the space between which was a high vacuum, evaporated at only one +fifth the rate it did when in an ordinary vessel surrounded with air at +atmospheric pressure, the convective transference of heat by means of +the gas particles being enormously reduced owing to the vacuum. But in +addition these vessels lent themselves to an arrangement by which +radiant heat could still further be cut off, since it was found that +when the inner wall was coated with a bright deposit of silver, the +influx of heat was diminished to one-sixth of the amount existing +without the metallic coating. The total effect, therefore, of the high +vacuum and silvering is to reduce the in-going heat to one-thirtieth +part. In making such vessels a mercurial vacuum has been found very +satisfactory. The vessel in which the vacuum is to be produced is +provided with a small subsidiary vessel joined by a narrow tube with the +main vessel, and connected with a powerful air-pump. A quantity of +mercury having been placed in it, it is heated in an oil- or air-bath to +about 200° C., so as to volatilize the mercury, the vapour of which is +removed by the pump. After the process has gone on for some time, the +pipe leading to the pump is sealed off, the vessel immediately removed +from the bath, and the small subsidiary part immersed in some cooling +agent such as solid carbonic acid or liquid air, whereby the mercury +vapour is condensed in the small vessel and a vacuum of enormous tenuity +left in the large one. The final step is to seal off the tube connecting +the two. In this way a vacuum may be produced having a vapour pressure +of about the hundred-millionth of an atmosphere at 0° C. If, however, +some liquid mercury be left in the space in which the vacuum is +produced, and the containing part of the vessel be filled with liquid +air, the bright mirror of mercury which is deposited on the inside wall +of the bulb is still more effective than silver in protecting the +chamber from the influx of heat, owing to the high refractive index, +which involves great reflecting power, and the bad heat-conducting +powers of mercury. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Metallic Vacuum Vessel.] + +With the discovery of the remarkable power of gas absorption possessed +by charcoal cooled to a low temperature (see below), it became possible +to make these vessels of metal. Previously this could not be done with +success, because gas occluded in the metal gradually escaped and +vitiated the vacuum; but now any stray gas may be absorbed by means of +charcoal so placed in a pocket within the vacuous space that it is +cooled by the liquid in the interior of the vessel. Metal vacuum +vessels (fig. 1), of a capacity of from 2 to 20 litres, may be formed of +brass, copper, nickel or tinned iron, with necks of some alloy that is a +bad conductor of heat, silvered glass vacuum cylinders being fitted as +stoppers. Such flasks, when properly constructed, have an efficiency +equal to that of the chemically-silvered glass vacuum vessels now +commonly used in low temperature investigations, and they are obviously +better adapted for transport. The principle of the Dewar vessel is +utilized in the Thermos flasks which are now extensively manufactured +and employed for keeping liquids warm in hospitals, &c. + + _Thermal Transparency at Low Temperatures._--The proposition, once + enunciated by Pictet, that at low temperatures all substances have + practically the same thermal transparency, and are equally ineffective + as non-conductors of heat, is based on erroneous observations. It is + true that if the space between the two walls of a double-walled vessel + is packed with substances like carbon, magnesia, or silica, liquid air + placed in the interior will boil off even more quickly than it will + when the space merely contains air at atmospheric pressure; but in + such cases it is not so much the carbon, &c., that bring about the + transference of heat, as the air contained in their interstices. If + this air be pumped out such substances are seen to exert a very + considerable influence in stopping the influx of heat, and a vacuum + vessel which has the space between its two walls filled with a + non-conducting material of this kind preserves a liquid gas even + better than one in which that space is simply exhausted of air. In + experiments on this point double-walled glass tubes, as nearly + identical in shape and size as possible, were mounted in sets of three + on a common stem which communicated with an air-pump, so that the + degree of exhaustion in each was equal. In two of each three the space + between the double walls was filled with the powdered material it was + desired to test, the third being left empty and used as the standard. + The time required for a certain quantity of liquid air to evaporate + from the interior of this empty bulb being called 1, in each of the + eight sets of triple tubes, the times required for the same quantity + to boil off from the other pairs of tubes were as follows:-- + + / Charcoal 5 / Lampblack 5 + \ Magnesia 2 \ Silica 4 + + / Graphite 1.3 / Lampblack 4 + \ Alumina 3.3 \ Lycopodium 2.5 + + / Calcium carbonate 2.5 / Barium carbonate 1.3 + \ Calcium fluoride 1.25 \ Calcium phosphate 2.7 + + / Phosphorus (amorphous) 1 / Lead oxide 2 + \ Mercuric iodide 1.5 \ Bismuth oxide 6 + + Other experiments of the same kind made--(a) with similar vacuum + vessels, but with the powders replaced by metallic and other septa; + and (b) with vacuum vessels having their walls silvered, yielded the + following results:-- + + /(a) Vacuum space empty 1 / Vacuum space empty 1 + | Three turns silver | Three turns black paper, + | paper, bright < black outside 3 + < surface inside 4 | Three turns black paper, + | Three turns silver \ black inside 3 + | paper, bright + \ surfaceoutside 4 + + / Vacuum space empty 1 / Vacuum space empty 1 + | Three turns gold paper, | Three turns, not touching, + | gold outside 4 < of sheet lead 4 + < Some pieces of goldleaf | Three turns, not touching, + | put in so as \ of sheet aluminium 4 + | to make contact + | between walls of + \ vacuum-tube 0.3 + + /(b) Vacuum space empty, / Empty silvered vacuum 1 + | silvered on inside < Charcoal in silvered + < surfaces 1 \ vacuum 1.25 + | Silica in silvered + \ vacuum space 1.1 + + It appears from these experiments that silica, charcoal, lampblack, + and oxide of bismuth all increase the heat insulations to four, five + and six times that of the empty vacuum space. As the chief + communication of heat through an exhausted space is by molecular + bombardment, the fine powders must shorten the free path of the + gaseous molecules, and the slow conduction of heat through the porous + mass must make the conveyance of heat-energy more difficult than when + the gas molecules can impinge upon the relatively hot outer glass + surface, and then directly on the cold one without interruption. (See + _Proc. Roy. Inst._ xv. 821-826.) + + _Density of Solids and Coefficients of Expansion at Low + Temperatures._--The facility with which liquid gases, like oxygen or + nitrogen, can be guarded from evaporation by the proper use of vacuum + vessels (now called Dewar vessels), naturally suggests that the + specific gravities of solid bodies can be got by direct weighing when + immersed in such fluids. If the density of the liquid gas is + accurately known, then the loss of weight by fluid displacement gives + the specific gravity compared to water. The metals and alloys, or + substances that can be got in large crystals, are the easiest to + manipulate. If the body is only to be had in small crystals, then it + must be compressed under strong hydraulic pressure into coherent + blocks weighing about 40 to 50 grammes. Such an amount of material + gives a very accurate density of the body about the boiling point of + air, and a similar density taken in a suitable liquid at the ordinary + temperature enables the mean coefficient of expansion between +15° C. + and -185° C. to be determined. One of the most interesting results is + that the density of ice at the boiling point of air is not more than + 0.93, the mean coefficient of expansion being therefore 0.000081. As + the value of the same coefficient between 0° C. and -27° C. is + 0.000155, it is clear the rate of contraction is diminished to about + one-half of what it was above the melting point of the ice. This + suggests that by no possible cooling at our command is it likely we + could ever make ice as dense as water at 0° C., far less 4° C. In + other words, the volume of ice at the zero of temperature would not be + the minimum volume of the water molecule, though we have every reason + to believe it would be so in the case of the majority of known + substances. Another substance of special interest is solid carbonic + acid. This body has a density of 1.53 at -78° C. and 1.633 at -185° + C., thus giving a mean coefficient of expansion between these + temperatures of 0.00057. This value is only about 1/6 of the + coefficient of expansion of the liquid carbonic acid gas just above + its melting point, but it is still much greater at the low temperature + than that of highly expansive solids like sulphur, which at 40° C. has + a value of 0.00019. The following table gives the densities at the + temperature of boiling liquid air (-185° C.) and at ordinary + temperatures (17° C.), together with the mean coefficient of expansion + between those temperatures, in the case of a number of hydrated salts + and other substances: + + TABLE I. + + +---------------------------+---------+--------+------------+ + | | | | Mean | + | | | | coefficient| + | | Density | Density|of expansion| + | | at -185°| at +17°| between | + | | C. | C. |-185° C. and| + | | | | +17° C. | + +---------------------------+---------+--------+------------+ + | Aluminium sulphate (18)* | 1.7194 | 1.6913 | 0.0000811 | + | Sodium biborate (10) | 1.7284 | 1.6937 | 0.0001000 | + | Calcium chloride (6) | 1.7187 | 1.6775 | 0.0001191 | + | Magnesium chloride (6) | 1.6039 | 1.5693 | 0.0001072 | + | Potash alum (24) | 1.6414 | 1.6144 | 0.0000813 | + | Chrome alum (24) | 1.7842 | 1.7669 | 0.0000478 | + | Sodium carbonate (10) | 1.4926 | 1.4460 | 0.0001563 | + | Sodium phosphate (12) | 1.5446 | 1.5200 | 0.0000787 | + | Sodium thiosulphate (5) | 1.7635 | 1.7290 | 0.0000969 | + | Potassium ferrocyanide (3)| 1.8988 | 1.8533 | 0.0001195 | + | Potassium ferricyanide | 1.8944 | 1.8109 | 0.0002244 | + | Sodium nitro-prusside (4) | 1.7196 | 1.6803 | 0.0001138 | + | Ammonium chloride | 1.5757 | 1.5188 | 0.0001820 | + | Oxalic acid (2) | 1.7024 | 1.6145 | 0.0002643 | + | Methyl oxalate | 1.5278 | 1.4260 | 0.0003482 | + | Paraffin | 0.9770 | 0.9103 | 0.0003567 | + | Naphthalene | 1.2355 | 1.1589 | 0.0003200 | + | Chloral hydrate | 1.9744 | 1.9151 | 0.0001482 | + | Urea | 1.3617 | 1.3190 | 0.0001579 | + | Iodoform | 4.4459 | 4.1955 | 0.0002930 | + | Iodine | 4.8943 | 4.6631 | 0.0002510 | + | Sulphur | 2.0989 | 2.0522 | 0.0001152 | + | Mercury |14.382 | .. | 0.0000881**| + | Sodium | 1.0056 | 0.972 | 0.0001810 | + | Graphite (Cumberland) | 2.1302 | 2.0990 | 0.0000733 | + +---------------------------+---------+--------+------------+ + + * The figures within parentheses refer to the number of molecules of + water of crystallization. + ** -189° to -38.85° C. + + It will be seen from this table that, with the exception of carbonate + of soda and chrome alum, the hydrated salts have a coefficient of + expansion that does not differ greatly from that of ice at low + temperatures. Iodoform is a highly expansive body like iodine, and + oxalate of methyl has nearly as great a coefficient as paraffin, which + is a very expansive solid, as are naphthalene and oxalic acid. The + coefficient of solid mercury is about half that of the liquid metal, + while that of sodium is about the value of mercury at ordinary + temperatures. Further details on the subject can be found in the + _Proc. Roy. Inst._ (1895), and _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (1902). + + _Density of Gases at Low Temperatures._--The ordinary mode of + determining the density of gases may be followed, provided that the + glass flask, with its carefully ground stop-cock sealed on, can stand + an internal pressure of about five atmospheres, and that all the + necessary corrections for change of volume are made. All that is + necessary is to immerse the exhausted flask in boiling oxygen, and + then to allow the second gas to enter from a gasometer by opening the + stop-cock until the pressure is equalized. The stop-cock being closed, + the flask is now taken out of the liquid oxygen and left in the + balance-room until its temperature is equalized. It is then weighed + against a similar flask used as a counterpoise. Following such a + method, it has been found that the weight of 1 litre of oxygen vapour + at its boiling point of 90.5° absolute is 4.420 grammes, and therefore + the specific volume is 226.25 cc. According to the ordinary gaseous + laws, the litre ought to weigh 4.313 grammes, and the specific volume + should be 231.82 cc. In other words, the product of pressure and + volume at the boiling point is diminished by 2.46%. In a similar way + the weight of a litre of nitrogen vapour at the boiling point of + oxygen was found to be 3.90, and the inferred value for 78° absolute, + or its own boiling point, would be 4.51, giving a specific volume of + 221.3. + +_Regenerative Cooling._--One part of the problem being thus solved and a +satisfactory device discovered for warding off heat in such vacuum +vessels, it remained to arrange some practically efficient method for +reducing hydrogen to a temperature sufficiently low for liquefaction. To +gain that end, the idea naturally occurred of using adiabatic expansion, +not intermittently, as when gas is allowed to expand suddenly from a +high compression, but in a continuous process, and an obvious way of +attempting to carry out this condition was to enclose the orifice at +which expansion takes place in a tube, so as to obtain a constant stream +of cooled gas passing over it. But further consideration of this plan +showed that although the gas jet would be cooled near the point of +expansion owing to the conversion of a portion of its sensible heat into +dynamical energy of the moving gas, yet the heat it thus lost would be +restored to it almost immediately by the destruction of this mechanical +energy through friction and its consequent reconversion into heat. Thus +the net result would be _nil_ so far as change of temperature through +the performance of external work was concerned. But the conditions in +such an arrangement resemble that in the experiments of Thomson and +Joule on the thermal changes which occur in a gas when it is forced +under pressure through a porous plug or narrow orifice, and those +experimenters found, as the former of them had predicted, that a change +of temperature does take place, owing to internal work being done by the +attraction of the gas molecules. Hence the effective result obtainable +in practice by such an attempt at continuous adiabatic expansion as that +suggested above is to be measured by the amount of the "Thomson-Joule +effect," which depends entirely on the internal, not the external, work +done by the gas. To Linde belongs the credit of having first seen the +essential importance of this effect in connexion with the liquefaction +of gases by adiabatic expansion, and he was, further, the first to +construct an industrial plant for the production of liquid air based on +the application of this principle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Laboratory Liquid Air Machine. + + A, Air or oxygen inlet. + B, Carbon dioxide inlet. + C, Carbon dioxide valve. + D, Regenerator coils. + F, Air or oxygen expansion valve. + G, Vacuum vessel with liquid air or oxygen. + H, Carbon dioxide and air outlet. + O, Air coil. + O, Carbon dioxide coil.] + +The change of temperature due to the Thomson-Joule effect varies in +amount with different gases, or rather with the temperature at which the +operation is conducted. At ordinary temperatures oxygen and carbonic +acid are cooled, while hydrogen is slightly heated. But hydrogen also is +cooled if before being passed through the nozzle or plug it is brought +into a thermal condition comparable to that of other gases at ordinary +temperatures--that is to say, when it is initially cooled to a +temperature having the same ratio to its critical point as their +temperatures have to their critical points--and similarly the more +condensible gases would be heated, and not cooled, by passing through a +nozzle or plug if they were employed at a temperature sufficiently above +their critical points. Each gas has therefore a point of inversion of +the Thomson-Joule effect, and this temperature is, according to the +theory of van der Waals, about 6.75 times the critical temperature of +the body. Olszewski has determined the inversion-point in the case of +hydrogen, and finds it to be 192.5° absolute, the theoretical critical +point being thus about 28.5° absolute. The cooling effect obtained is +small, being for air about ¼° C. per atmosphere difference of pressure +at ordinary temperatures. But the decrement of temperature is +proportional to the difference of pressure and inversely as the absolute +temperature, so that the Thomson-Joule effect increases rapidly by the +combined use of a lower temperature and greater difference of gas +pressure. By means of the "regenerative" method of working, which was +described by C. W. Siemens in 1857, developed and extended by Ernest +Solvay in 1885, and subsequently utilized by numerous experimenters in +the construction of low temperature apparatus, a practicable liquid air +plant was constructed by Linde. The gas which has passed the orifice and +is therefore cooled is made to flow backwards round the tube that leads +to the nozzle; hence that portion of the gas that is just about to pass +through the nozzle has some of its heat abstracted, and in consequence +on expansion is cooled to a lower temperature than the first portion. In +its turn it cools a third portion in the same way, and so the reduction +of temperature goes on progressively until ultimately a portion of the +gas is liquefied. Apparatus based on this principle has been employed +not only by Linde in Germany, but also by Tripler in America and by +Hampson and Dewar in England. The last-named experimenter exhibited in +December 1895 a laboratory machine of this kind (fig. 2), which when +supplied with oxygen initially cooled to -79° C., and at a pressure of +100-150 atmospheres, began to yield liquid in about a quarter of an hour +after starting. The initial cooling is not necessary, but it has the +advantage of reducing the time required for the operation. The +efficiency of the Linde process is small, but it is easily conducted and +only requires plenty of cheap power. When we can work turbines or other +engines at low temperatures, so as to effect cooling through the +performance of external work, then the economy in the production of +liquid air and hydrogen will be greatly increased. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hydrogen Jet Apparatus. A, Cylinder containing +compressed hydrogen. B and C, Vacuum vessels containing carbonic acid +under exhaustion and liquid air respectively. D, Regenerating coil in +vacuum vessel. F, Valve. G, Pin-hole nozzle.] + +This treatment was next extended to hydrogen. For the reason already +explained, it would have been futile to experiment with this substance +at ordinary temperatures, and therefore as a preliminary it was cooled +to the temperature of boiling liquid air, about -190° C. At this +temperature it is still 2½ times above its critical temperature, and +therefore its liquefaction in these circumstances would be comparable to +that of air, taken at +60° C., in an apparatus like that just described. +Dewar showed in 1896 that hydrogen cooled in this way and expanded in a +regenerative coil from a pressure of 200 atmospheres was rapidly reduced +in temperature to such an extent that after the apparatus had been +working a few minutes the issuing jet was seen to contain liquid, which +was sufficiently proved to be liquid hydrogen by the fact that it was so +cold as to freeze liquid air and oxygen into hard white solids. Though +with this apparatus, a diagrammatic representation of which is shown in +fig. 3, it was now found possible at the time to collect the liquid in +an open vessel, owing to its low specific gravity and the rapidity of +the gas-current, still the general type of the arrangement seemed so +promising that in the next two years there was laid down in the +laboratories of the Royal Institution a large plant--it weighs 2 tons +and contains 3000 ft. of pipe--which is designed on precisely the same +principles, although its construction is far more elaborate. The one +important novelty, without which it is practically impossible to +succeed, is the provision of a device to surmount the difficulty of +withdrawing the liquefied hydrogen after it has been made. The +desideratum is really a means of forming an aperture in the bottom of a +vacuum vessel by which the contained liquid may be run out. For this +purpose the lower part of the vacuum vessel (D in fig. 3) containing the +jet is modified as shown in fig. 4; the inner vessel is prolonged in a +fine tube, coiled spirally, which passes through the outer wall of the +vacuum vessel, and thus sufficient elasticity is obtained to enable the +tube to withstand without fracture the great contraction consequent on +the extreme cold to which it is subjected. Such peculiarly shaped vacuum +vessels were made by Dewar's directions in Germany, and have +subsequently been supplied to and employed by other experimenters. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Bottom of Vacuum Vessel.] + +With the liquefying plant above referred to liquid hydrogen was for the +first time collected in an open vessel on the 10th of May 1898. The gas +at a pressure of 180 atmospheres was cooled to -205° C. by means of +liquid air boiling _in vacuo_, and was then passed through the nozzle of +the regenerative coil, which was enclosed in vacuum vessels in such a +way as to exclude external heat as perfectly as possible. In this way +some 20 cc. of the liquid had been collected when the experiment came to +a premature end, owing to the nozzle of the apparatus becoming blocked +by a dense solid--air-ice resulting from the congelation of the air +which was present to a minute extent as an impurity in the hydrogen. +This accident exemplifies what is a serious trouble encountered in the +production of liquid hydrogen, the extreme difficulty of obtaining the +gas in a state of sufficient purity, for the presence of 1% of foreign +matters, such as air or oxygen, which are more condensible than +hydrogen, is sufficient to cause complete stoppage, unless the nozzle +valve and jet arrangement is of special construction. In subsequent +experiments the liquid was obtained in larger quantities--on the 13th of +June 1901 five litres of it were successfully conveyed through the +streets of London from the laboratory of the Royal Institution to the +rooms of the Royal Society--and it may be said that it is now possible +to produce it in any desired amount, subject only to the limitations +entailed by expense. Finally, the reduction of hydrogen to a solid state +was successfully undertaken in 1899. A portion of the liquid carefully +isolated in vacuum-jacketed vessels was suddenly transformed into a +white mass resembling frozen foam, when evaporated under an air-pump at +a pressure of 30 or 40 mm., and subsequently hydrogen was obtained as a +clear transparent ice by immersing a tube containing the liquid in this +solid foam. + +_Liquefaction of Helium._--The subjection of hydrogen completed the +experimental proof that all gases can be reduced to the liquid and solid +states by the aid of pressure and low temperature, at least so far as +regards those in the hands of the chemist at the beginning of the last +decade of the 19th century. But a year or so before hydrogen was +obtained in the liquid form, a substance known to exist in the sun from +spectroscopic researches carried out by Sir Edward Frankland and Sir J. +Norman Lockyer was shown by Sir William Ramsay to exist on the earth in +small quantities. Helium (q.v.), as this substance was named, was found +by experiment to be a gas much less condensable than hydrogen. Dewar in +1901 expanded it from a pressure of 80-100 atmospheres at the +temperature of solid hydrogen without perceiving the least indication of +liquefaction. Olszewski repeated the experiment in 1905, using the still +higher initial compression of 180 atmospheres, but he equally failed to +find any evidence of liquefaction, and in consequence was inclined to +doubt whether the gas was liquefiable at all, whether in fact it was not +a truly "permanent" gas. Other investigators, however, took a different +and more hopeful view of the matter. Dewar, for instance (_Pres. Address +Brit. Assoc._, 1902), basing his deductions on the laws established by +van der Waals and others from the study of phenomena at much higher +temperatures, anticipated that the boiling-point of the substance would +be about 5° absolute, so that the liquid would be about four times more +volatile than liquid hydrogen, just as liquid hydrogen is four times +more volatile than liquid air; and he expressed the opinion that the gas +would succumb on being subjected to the process that had succeeded with +hydrogen, except that liquid hydrogen, instead of liquid air, +evaporating under exhaustion must be employed as the primary cooling +agent, and must also be used to surround the vacuum vessel in which the +liquid was collected. + +Various circumstances combined to prevent Dewar from actually carrying +out the operation thus foreshadowed, but his anticipations were +justified and the sufficiency of the method he indicated practically +proved by Dr H. Kamerlingh Onnes, who, working with the splendid +resources of the Leiden cryogenic laboratory, succeeded in obtaining +helium in the liquid state on the 10th of July 1908. Having prepared 200 +litres of the gas (160 litres in reserve) from monazite sand,[2] he +cooled it with exhausted liquid hydrogen to a temperature of 15 or 16° +abs., and expanded it through a regenerative coil under a pressure of 50 +to 100 atmospheres, making use of the most elaborate precautions to +prevent influx of heat and securing the absence of less volatile gases +that might freeze and block the tubes of the apparatus by including in +the helium circuit charcoal cooled to the temperature of liquid air. +Operations began at 5.45 in the morning with the preparation of the +necessary liquid hydrogen, of which 20 litres were ready by 1.30. The +circulation of the helium was started at 4.30 in the afternoon and was +continued until the gas had been pumped round the circuit twenty times; +but it was not till 7.30, when the last bottle of liquid hydrogen had +been brought into requisition, that the surface of the liquid was seen, +by reflection of light from below, standing out sharply like the edge of +a knife against the glass wall of the vacuum vessel. Its boiling-point +has been determined as being 4° abs., its critical temperature 5°, and +its critical pressure not more than three atmospheres. The density of +the liquid is found to be 0.015 or about twice that of liquid hydrogen. +It could not be solidified even when exhausted under a pressure of 2 +mm., which in all probability corresponds to a temperature of 2° abs. +(see _Communications from the physical laboratory at the University of +Leiden, 1908-1909_). + +The following are brief details respecting some of the more important +liquid gases that have become available for study within recent years. +(For argon, neon, krypton, &c., see ARGON.) + + _Oxygen._--Liquid oxygen is a mobile transparent-liquid, possessing a + faint blue colour. At atmospheric pressure it boils at -181.5° C.; + under a reduced pressure of 1 cm. of mercury its temperature falls to + -210° C. At the boiling point it has a density of 1.124 according to + Olszewski, or of 1.168 according to Wroblewski; Dewar obtained the + value 1.1375 as the mean of twenty observations by weighing a number + of solid substances in liquid oxygen, noting the apparent relative + density of the liquid, and thence calculating its real density, + Fizeau's values for the coefficients of expansion of the solids being + employed. The capillarity of liquid oxygen is about one-sixth that of + water; it is a non-conductor of electricity, and is strongly magnetic. + By its own evaporation it cannot be reduced to the solid state, but + exposed to the temperature of liquid hydrogen it is frozen into a + solid mass, having a pale bluish tint, showing by reflection all the + absorption bands of the liquid. It is remarkable that the same + absorption bands occur in the compressed gas. Dewar gives the + melting-point as 38° absolute, and the density at the boiling-point of + hydrogen as 1.4526. The refractive index of the liquid for the D + sodium ray is 1.2236. + + _Ozone._--This gas is easily liquefied by the use of liquid air. The + liquid obtained is intensely blue, and on allowing the temperature to + rise, boils and explodes about -120° C. About this temperature it may + be dissolved in bisulphide of carbon to a faint blue solution. The + liquid ozone seems to be more magnetic than liquid oxygen. + + _Nitrogen_ forms a transparent colourless liquid, having a density of + 0.8042 at its boiling-point, which is -195.5° C. The refractive index + for the D line is 1.2053. Evaporated under diminished pressure the + liquid becomes solid at a temperature of -215° C., melting under a + pressure of 90 mm. The density of the solid at the boiling-point of + hydrogen is 1.0265. + + _Air._--Seeing that the boiling-points of nitrogen and oxygen are + different, it might be expected that on the liquefaction of + atmospheric air the two elements would appear as two separate liquids. + Such, however, is not the case; they come down simultaneously as one + homogeneous liquid. Prepared on a large scale, liquid air may contain + as much as 50% of oxygen when collected in open vacuum-vessels, but + since nitrogen is the more volatile it boils off first, and as the + liquid gradually becomes richer in oxygen the temperature at which it + boils rises from about -192° C. to about -182° C. At the former + temperature it has a density of about 0.910. It is a non-conductor of + electricity. Properly protected from external heat, and subjected to + high exhaustion, liquid air becomes a stiff transparent jelly-like + mass, a magma of solid nitrogen containing liquid oxygen, which may + indeed be extracted from it by means of a magnet, or by rapid rotation + of the vacuum vessel in imitation of a centrifugal machine. The + temperature of this solid under a vacuum of about 14 mm. is -216°. At + the still lower temperatures attainable by the aid of liquid hydrogen + it becomes a white solid, having, like solid oxygen, a faint blue + tint. The refractive index of liquid air is 1.2068. + + _Fluorine_, prepared in the free state by Moissan's method of + electrolysing a solution of potassium fluoride in anhydrous + hydrofluoric acid, was liquefied in the laboratories of the Royal + Institution, London, in 1897. Exposed to the temperature of + quietly-boiling liquid oxygen, the gas did not change its state, + though it lost much of its chemical activity, and ceased to attack + glass. But a very small vacuum formed over the oxygen was sufficient + to determine liquefaction, a result which was also obtained by cooling + the gas to the temperature of freshly-made liquid air boiling at + atmospheric pressure. Hence the boiling-point is fixed at about -187° + C. The liquid is of a clear yellow colour, possessing great mobility. + Its density is 1.14, and its capillarity rather less than that of + liquid oxygen. The liquid, when examined in a thickness of 1 cm., does + not show any absorption bands, and it is not attracted by a magnet. + Cooled in liquid hydrogen it is frozen to a white solid, melting at + about 40° abs. + + _Hydrogen._--Liquid hydrogen is the lightest liquid known to the + chemist, having a density slightly less than 0.07 as compared with + water, and being six times lighter than liquid marsh-gas, which is + next in order of lightness. One litre weighs only 70 grammes, and 1 + gramme occupies a volume of 14-15 cc. In spite of its extreme + lightness, however, it is easily seen, has a well-defined meniscus and + drops well. At its boiling-point the liquid is only 55 times denser + than the vapour it is giving off, whereas liquid oxygen in similar + condition is 258 times denser than its vapour, and nitrogen 177 times. + Its atomic volume is about 14.3, that of liquid oxygen being 13.7, + and that of liquid nitrogen 16.6, at their respective boiling-points. + Its latent heat of vaporization about the boiling-point is about 121 + gramme-calories, and the latent heat of fluidity cannot exceed 16 + units, but may be less. Hydrogen appears to have the same specific + heat in the liquid as in the gaseous state, about 3.4. Its surface + tension is exceedingly low, about one-fifth that of liquid air at its + boiling-point, or one-thirty-fifth that of water at ordinary + temperatures, and this is the reason that bubbles formed in the liquid + are so small as to give it an opalescent appearance during ebullition. + The liquid is without colour, and gives no absorption spectrum. + Electric sparks taken in the liquid between platinum poles give a + spectrum showing the hydrogen lines C and F bright on a background of + continuous spectrum. Its refractive index at the boiling-point has + theoretically the value 1.11. It was measured by determining the + relative difference of focus for a parallel beam of light sent through + a spherical vacuum vessel filled successively with water, liquid + oxygen and liquid hydrogen; the result obtained was 1.12. Liquid + hydrogen is a non-conductor of electricity. The precise determination + of its boiling-point is a matter of some difficulty. The first results + obtained from the use of a platinum resistance thermometer gave -238° + C., while a similar thermometer made with an alloy of rhodium-platinum + indicated a value 8 degrees lower. Later, a gold thermometer indicated + about -249° C., while with an iron one the result was only -210° C. It + was thus evident that electrical resistance thermometers are not to be + trusted at these low temperatures, since the laws correlating + resistance and temperature are not known for temperatures at and below + the boiling-point of hydrogen, though they are certainly not the same + as those which hold good higher up the thermometric scale. The same + remarks apply to the use of thermo-electric junctions at such + exceptional temperatures. Recourse was therefore had to a + constant-volume hydrogen thermometer, working under reduced pressure, + experiments having shown that such a thermometer, filled with either a + simple or a compound gas (e.g. oxygen or carbonic acid) at an initial + pressure somewhat less than one atmosphere, may be relied upon to + determine temperatures down to the respective boiling-points of the + gases with which they are filled. The result obtained was -252° C. + Subsequently various other determinations were carried out in + thermometers filled with hydrogen derived from different sources, and + also with helium, the average value given by the experiments being + -252.5° C. (See "The Boiling Point of Liquid Hydrogen determined by + Hydrogen and Helium Gas Thermometers," _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 7th February + 1901.) The critical temperature is about 30° absolute (-243° C.), and + the critical pressure about 15 atmospheres. Hydrogen has not only the + lowest critical temperature of all the old permanent gases, but it has + the lowest critical pressure. Given a sufficiently low temperature, + therefore, it is the easiest gas to liquefy so far as pressure is + concerned. Solid hydrogen has a temperature about 4° less. By + exhaustion under reduced pressure a still lower depth of cold may be + attained, and a steady temperature reached less than 16° above the + zero of absolute temperature. By the use of high exhaustion, and the + most stringent precautions to prevent the influx of heat, a + temperature of 13° absolute (-260° C.) may be reached. This is the + lowest steady temperature which can be maintained by the evaporation + of solid hydrogen. At this temperature the solid has a density of + about 0.077. Solid hydrogen presents no metallic characteristics, such + as were predicted for it by Faraday, Dumas, Graham and other chemists + and neither it nor the liquid is magnetic. + +_The Approach to the Absolute Zero._--The achievement of Kamerlingh +Onnes has brought about the realization of a temperature removed only 3° +from the absolute zero, and the question naturally suggests itself +whether there is any probability of a still closer approach to that +point. The answer is that if, as is not impossible, there exists a gas, +as yet unisolated, which has an atomic weight one-half that of helium, +that gas, liquefied in turn by the aid of liquid helium, would render +that approach possible, though the experimental difficulties of the +operation would be enormous and perhaps prohibitive. The results of +experiments bearing on this question and of theory based on them are +shown in table II. The third column shows the critical temperature of +the gas which can be liquefied by continuous expansion through a +regenerative cooling apparatus, the operation being started from the +initial temperature shown in the second column, while the fourth column +gives the temperature of the resulting liquid. It will be seen that by +the use of liquid or solid hydrogen as a cooling agent, it should be +possible to liquefy a body having a critical temperature of about 6° to +8° on the absolute scale, and a boiling point of about 4° or 5°, while +with the aid of liquid helium at an initial temperature of 5° we could +liquefy a body having a critical temperature of 2° and a boiling point +of 1°. + + TABLE II. + + +------------------+-------------+-------------+---------------+ + | | Initial | Critical |Boiling Points.| + | Substance. | Temperature.|Temperature. | Abs. Degrees. | + | |Abs. Degrees.|Abs. Degrees.| | + +------------------+-------------+-------------+---------------+ + | (Low red heat) | 760 | 304 | 195 (CO2) | + | (52° C.) | 325 | 130 | 86 (Air) | + | Liquid air under | | | | + | exhaustion | 75 | 30 | 20 (H) | + | Liquid hydrogen | 20 | 8 | 5 (He) | + | Solid hydrogen | 15 | 6 | 4 | + | Liquid helium | 5 | 2 | 1 | + +------------------+-------------+-------------+---------------+ + +It is to be remarked, however, that even so the physicist would not have +attained the absolute zero, and he can scarcely hope ever to do so. It +is true he would only be a very short distance from it, but it must be +remembered that in a thermodynamic sense one degree low down the scale, +say at 10° absolute, is equivalent to 30° at the ordinary temperature, +and as the experimenter gets to lower and lower temperatures, the +difficulties of further advance increase, not in arithmetical but in +geometrical progression. Thus the step between the liquefaction of air +and that of hydrogen is, thermodynamically and practically, greater than +that between the liquefaction of chlorine and that of air, but the +number of degrees of temperature that separates the boiling-points of +the first pair of substances is less than half what it is in the case of +the second pair. But the ratio of the absolute boiling-points in the +first pair of substances is as 1 to 4, whereas in the second pair it is +only 1 to 3, and it is this value that expresses the difficulty of the +transition. + +But though Ultima Thule may continue to mock the physicist's efforts, he +will long find ample scope for his energies in the investigation of the +properties of matter at the temperatures placed at his command by liquid +air and liquid and solid hydrogen. Indeed, great as is the sentimental +interest attached to the liquefaction of these refractory gases, the +importance of the achievement lies rather in the fact that it opens out +new fields of research and enormously widens the horizon of physical +science, enabling the natural philosopher to study the properties and +behaviour of matter under entirely novel conditions. We propose to +indicate briefly the general directions in which such inquiries have so +far been carried on, but before doing so will call attention to the +power of absorbing gases possessed by cooled charcoal, which has on that +account proved itself a most valuable agent in low temperature research. + + TABLE III.--_Gas Absorption by Charcoal._ + + +---------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | | Volume | Volume | + | | absorbed at | absorbed at | + | | 0° Cent. | -185° Cent. | + +---------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Helium | 2 cc. | 15 cc. | + | Hydrogen | 4 | 135 | + | Electrolytic gas | 12 | 150 | + | Argon | 12 | 175 | + | Nitrogen | 15 | 155 | + | Oxygen | 18 | 230 | + | Carbonic oxide | 21 | 190 | + | Carbonic oxide and oxygen | 30 | 195 | + +---------------------------+-------------+-------------+ + +_Gas Absorption by Charcoal._--Felix Fontana was apparently the first to +discover that hot charcoal has the power of absorbing gases, and his +observations were confirmed about 1770 by Joseph Priestley, to whom he +had communicated them. A generation later Theodore de Saussure made a +number of experiments on the subject, and noted that at ordinary +temperatures the absorption is accompanied with considerable evolution +of heat. Among subsequent investigators were Thomas Graham and +Stenhouse, Faure and Silberman, and Hunter, the last-named showing that +charcoal made from coco-nut exhibits greater absorptive powers than +other varieties. In 1874 Tait and Dewar for the first time employed +charcoal for the production of high vacua, by using it, heated to a red +heat, to absorb the mercury vapour in a tube exhausted by a mercury +pump; and thirty years afterwards it occurred to the latter investigator +to try how its absorbing powers are affected by cooling it, with the +result that he found them to be greatly enhanced. Some of his earlier +observations are given in table III., but it must be pointed out that +much larger absorptions were obtained subsequently when it was found +that the quality of the charcoal was greatly influenced by the mode in +which it was prepared, the absorptive power being increased by +carbonizing the coco-nut shell slowly at a gradually increasing +temperature. The results in the table were all obtained with the same +specimen of charcoal, and the volumes of the gases absorbed, both at +ordinary and at low temperatures, were measured under standard +conditions--at 0° C., and 760 mm. pressure. It appears that at the lower +temperature there is a remarkable increase of absorption for every gas, +but that the increase is in general smaller as the boiling-points of the +various gases are lower. Helium is conspicuous for the fact that it is +absorbed to a comparatively slight extent at both the higher and the +lower temperature, but in this connexion it must be remembered that, +being the most volatile gas known, it is being treated at a temperature +which is relatively much higher than the other gases. At -185° (= 88° +abs.), while hydrogen is at about 4½ times its boiling-point (20° abs.), +helium is at about 20 times its boiling-point (4.5° abs.), and it might, +therefore, be expected that if it were taken at a temperature +corresponding to that of the hydrogen, i.e. at 4 or 5 times its +boiling-point, or say 20° abs., it would undergo much greater +absorption. This expectation is borne out by the results shown in table +IV., and it may be inferred that charcoal cooled in liquid helium would +absorb helium as freely as charcoal cooled in liquid hydrogen absorbs +hydrogen. It is found that a given specimen of charcoal cooled in liquid +oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen absorbs about equal volumes of those three +gases (about 260 cc. per gramme); and, as the relation between volume +and temperature is nearly lineal at the lowest portions of either the +hydrogen or the helium absorption, it is a legitimate inference that at +a temperature of 5° to 6° abs. helium would be as freely absorbed by +charcoal as hydrogen is at its boiling-point and that the boiling-point +of helium lies at about 5° abs. + + TABLE IV.--_Gas Absorption by Charcoal at Low Temperatures._ + + +--------------------------------------------+--------+----------+ + | | Helium.| Hydrogen.| + | Temperature. |Vols. of| Vols. of | + | |Carbon. | Carbon. | + +--------------------------------------------+--------+----------+ + | -185° C. (boiling-point of liquid air) | 2½ | 137 | + | -210° C. (liquid air under exhaustion) | 5 | 180 | + | -252° C. (boiling-point of liquid hydrogen)| 160 | 258 | + | -258° C. (solid hydrogen) | 195 | .. | + +--------------------------------------------+--------+----------+ + +The rapidity with which air is absorbed by charcoal at -185° C. and +under small pressures is illustrated by table V., which shows the +reductions of pressure effected in a tube of 2000 cc. capacity by means +of 20 grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air. + + TABLE V.--_Velocity of Absorption._ + + +-----------+--------+-----------+---------+ + | Time of |Pressure| Time of |Pressure | + |Exhaustion.| in mm. |Exhaustion.| in mm. | + +-----------+--------+-----------+---------+ + | 0 sec. | 2.190 | 60 sec. | 0.347 | + | 10 " | 1.271 | 2 min. | 0.153 | + | 20 " | 0.869 | 5 " | 0.0274 | + | 30 " | 0.632 | 10 " | 0.00205 | + | 40 " | 0.543 | 19 " | 0.00025 | + | 50 " | 0.435 | .. | .. | + +-----------+--------+-----------+---------+ + + TABLE VI. + + +----------+----------+-----------+ + | Volume | Occlusion| Occlusion | + | of Gas | Hydrogen | Nitrogen | + | absorbed.| Pressure.| Pressure. | + +----------+----------+-----------+ + | cc. | mm. | mm. | + | 0 | 0.00003 | 0.00005 | + | 5 | 0.0228 | .. | + | 10 | 0.0455 | .. | + | 15 | 0.0645 | .. | + | 20 | 0.0861 | .. | + | 25 | 0.1105 | .. | + | 30 | 0.1339 | 0.00031 | + | 35 | 0.1623 | .. | + | 40 | 0.1870 | .. | + | 130 | .. | 0.00110 | + | 500 | .. | 0.00314 | + | 1000 | .. | 0.01756 | + | 1500 | .. | 0.02920 | + | 2500 | .. | 0.06172 | + +----------+----------+-----------+ + + + _Charcoal Occlusion Pressures._--For measuring the gas concentration, + pressure and temperature, use may be made of an apparatus of the type + shown in fig. 5. A mass of charcoal, E, immersed in liquid air, is + employed for the preliminary exhaustion of the McLeod gauge G and of + the charcoal C, which is to be used in the actual experiments, and is + then sealed off at S. The bulb C is then placed in a large spherical + vacuum vessel containing liquid oxygen which can be made to boil at + any definite temperature under diminished pressure which is measured + by the manometer R. The volume of gas admitted into the charcoal is + determined by the burette D and the pipette P, and the corresponding + occlusion pressure at any concentration and any temperature below 90° + abs. by the gauge G. In presence of charcoal, and for small + concentrations, great variations are shown in the relation between the + pressure and the concentration of different gases, all at the same + temperature. Table VI. gives the comparison between hydrogen and + nitrogen at the temperature of liquid air, 25 grammes of charcoal + being employed. It is seen that 15 cc. of hydrogen produce nearly the + same pressure (0.0645 mm.) as 2500 cc. of nitrogen (0.06172 mm.). This + result shows how enormously greater, at the temperature of liquid air, + is the volatility of hydrogen as compared with that of nitrogen. In + the same way the concentrations, for the same pressure, vary greatly + with temperature, as is exemplified by table VII., even though the + pressures are not quite constant. The temperatures employed were the + boiling-points of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + TABLE VII. + + +---------------+---------------+--------+-----------+ + | | Concentration |Pressure|Temperature| + | Gas. |in cc. per grm.| in mm. | Absolute. | + | | of Charcoal. | | | + +---------------+---------------+--------+-----------+ + | Helium | 97 | 2.2 | 20° | + | Hydrogen | 397 | 2.2 | 20° | + | Hydrogen | 15 | 2.1 | 90° | + | Nitrogen | 250 | 1.6 | 90° | + | Oxygen | 300 | 1.0 | 90° | + | Carbon dioxide| 90 | 3.6 | 195° | + +---------------+---------------+--------+-----------+ + + TABLE VIII. + + +---------------+-------------+------------+------------+ + | |Concentration| Molecular | Mean | + | Gas. | cc. per grm.|Latent Heat.|Temperature.| + | | | | Absolute. | + +---------------+-------------+------------+------------+ + | Helium | 97 | 483.0 | 18° | + | Hydrogen | 390 | 524.4 | 18° | + | Hydrogen | 20 | 2005.6 | 78° | + | Nitrogen | 250 | 3059.0 | 82° | + | Oxygen | 300 | 3146.4 | 82° | + | Carbon dioxide| 90 | 6099.6 | 180° | + +---------------+-------------+------------+------------+ + + _Heat of Occlusion._--In every case when gases are condensed to the + liquid state there is evolution of heat, and during the absorption of + a gas in charcoal or any other occluding body, as hydrogen in + palladium, the amount of heat evolved exceeds that of direct + liquefaction. From the relation between occlusion-pressure and + temperature at the same concentration, the reaction being reversible, + it is possible to calculate this heat evolution. Table VIII. gives the + mean molecular latent heats of occlusion resulting from Dewar's + experiments for a number of gases, having concentrations in the + charcoal as shown. The concentrations were so regulated as to start + with an initial pressure not exceeding 3 mm. at the respective + boiling-points of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. + +_Production of High Vacua._--Exceedingly high vacua can be obtained by +the aid of liquid gases, with or without charcoal. If a vessel +containing liquid hydrogen be freely exposed to the atmosphere, a rain +of snow (solid air) at once begins to fall upon the surface of the +liquid; similarly, if one end of a sealed tube containing ordinary air +be immersed in the liquid, the same thing happens, but since there is +now no new supply to take the place of the air that has been solidified +and has accumulated in the cooled portion of the tube, the pressure is +quickly reduced to something like one-millionth of an atmosphere, and a +vacuum is formed of such tenuity that the electric discharge can be made +to pass only with difficulty. Liquid air can be employed in the same +manner if the tube, before sealing, is filled with some less volatile +gas or vapour, such as sulphurous acid, benzol or water vapour. But if a +charcoal condenser be used in conjunction with the liquid air it becomes +possible to obtain a high vacuum when the tube contains air initially. +For instance, in one experiment, with a bulb having a capacity of 300 +cc. and filled with air at a pressure of about 1.7 mm. and at a +temperature of 15° C., when an attached condenser with 5 grammes of +charcoal was cooled in liquid air, the pressure was reduced to 0.0545 +mm. of mercury in five minutes, to 0.01032 mm. in ten minutes, to +0.000139 mm. in thirty minutes, and to 0.000047 mm. in sixty minutes. +The condenser then being cooled in liquid hydrogen the pressure fell to +0.0000154 mm. in ten minutes, and to 0.0000058 mm. in a further ten +minutes when solid hydrogen was employed as the cooling agent, and no +doubt, had it not been for the presence of hydrogen and helium in the +air, an even greater reduction could have been effected. Another +illustration of the power of cooled charcoal to produce high vacua is +afforded by a Crookes radiometer. If the instrument be filled with +helium at atmospheric pressure and a charcoal bulb attached to it be +cooled in liquid air, the vanes remain motionless even when exposed to +the concentrated beam of an electric arc lamp; but if liquid hydrogen be +substituted for the liquid air rapid rotation at once sets in. When a +similar radiometer was filled with hydrogen and the attached charcoal +bulb was cooled in liquid air rotation took place, because sufficient of +the gas was absorbed to permit motion. But when the charcoal was cooled +in liquid hydrogen instead of in liquid air, the absorption increased +and consequently the rarefaction became so high that there was no motion +when the light from the arc was directed on the vanes. These experiments +again permit of an inference as to the boiling-point of helium. A fall +of 75% in the temperature of the charcoal bulb, from the boiling-point +of air to the boiling-point of hydrogen, reduced the vanes to rest in +the case of the radiometer filled with hydrogen; hence it might be +inferred that a fall of like amount from the boiling-point of hydrogen +would reduce the vanes of the helium radiometer to rest, and +consequently that the boiling-point of helium would be about 5° abs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +The vacua obtainable by means of cooled charcoal are so high that it is +difficult to determine the pressures by the McLeod gauge, and the +radiometer experiments referred to above suggested the possibility of +another means of ascertaining such pressures, by determining the +pressures below which the radiometer would not spin. The following +experiment shows how the limit of pressure can be ascertained by +reference to the pressures of mercury vapour which have been very +accurately determined through a wide range of temperature. To a +radiometer (fig. 6) with attached charcoal bulb B was sealed a tube +ending in a small bulb A containing a globule of mercury. The radiometer +and bulb B were heated, exhausted and repeatedly washed out with pure +oxygen gas, and then the mercury was allowed to distil for some time +into the charcoal cooled in liquid air. On exposure to the electric beam +the vanes began to spin, but soon ceased when the bulb A was cooled in +liquid air. When, however, the mercury was warmed by placing the bulb in +liquid water, the vanes began to move again, and in the particular +radiometer used this was found to happen when the temperature of the +mercury had risen to -23° C. corresponding to a pressure of about one +fifty-millionth of an atmosphere. + +For washing out the radiometer with oxygen the arrangement shown in fig. +7 is convenient. Here A is a bulb containing perchlorate of potash, +which when heated gives off pure oxygen; C is again the radiometer and B +the charcoal bulb. The side tube E is for the purpose of examining the +gas given off by minerals like thorianite or the gaseous products of the +transformation of radioactive bodies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +_Analytic Uses._--Another important use of liquid gases is as analytic +agents, and for this purpose liquid air is becoming an almost essential +laboratory reagent. It is one of the most convenient agents for drying +gases and for their purification. If a mixture of gases be subjected to +the temperature of liquid air, it is obvious that all the constituents +that are more condensable than air will be reduced to liquid, while +those that are less condensable will either remain as a gaseous residue +or be dissolved in the liquid obtained. The bodies present in the latter +may be separated by fractional distillation, while the contents of the +gaseous residue may be further differentiated by the air of still lower +temperatures, such as are obtainable by liquid hydrogen. An apparatus +such as the following can be used to separate both the less and the more +volatile gases of the atmosphere, the former being obtained from their +solution in liquid air by fractional distillation at low pressure and +separation of the condensable part of the distillate by cooling in +liquid hydrogen, while the latter are extracted from the residue of +liquid air, after the distillation of the first fraction, by allowing it +to evaporate gradually at a temperature rising only very slowly. + + In fig. 8, A represents a vacuum-jacketed vessel, containing liquid + air; this can be made to boil at reduced pressure and therefore be + lowered in temperature by means of an air-pump, which is in + communication with the vessel through the pipe _s_. The liquid boiled + away is replenished when necessary from the reservoir C, _p_ being a + valve, worked by handle _q_, by which the flow along _r_ is regulated. + The vessel B, immersed in the liquid air of A, communicates with the + atmosphere by _a_; hence when the temperature of A falls under + exhaustion below that of liquid air, the contents of B condense, and + if the stop-cock _m_ is kept open, and _n_ shut, air from the outside + is continuously sucked in until B is full of liquid, which contains in + solution the whole of the most volatile gases of the atmosphere which + have passed in through _a_. At this stage of the operation _m_ is + closed and _n_ opened, a passage thus being opened along _b_ from A to + the remainder of the apparatus seen on the left side of the figure. + Here E is a vacuum vessel containing liquid hydrogen, and _d_ a + three-way cock by which communication can be established either + between _b_ and D, between _b_ and _e_, the tube leading to the + sparking-tube _g_, or between D and _e_. If now _d_ is arranged so + that there is a free passage from _b_ to D, and the stop-cock _n_ also + opened, the gas dissolved in the liquid in B, together with some of + the most volatile part of that liquid, quickly distils over into D, + which is at a much lower temperature than B, and some of it condenses + there in the solid state. When a small fraction of the contents of B + has thus distilled over, _d_ is turned so as to close the passage + between D and _b_ and open that between D and _e_, with the result + that the gas in D is pumped out by the mercury-pump, shown + diagrammatically at _F_, along the tube _e_ (which is immersed in the + liquid hydrogen in order that any more condensable gas carried along + by the current may be frozen out) to the sparking-tube or tubes _g_, + where it can be examined spectroscopically. When the apparatus is used + to separate the least volatile part of the gases in the atmosphere, + the vessel E and its contents are omitted, and the tube _b_ made to + communicate with the pump through a number of sparking-tubes which can + be sealed off successively. The nitrogen and oxygen which make up the + bulk of the liquid in B are allowed to evaporate gradually, the + temperature being kept low so as to check the evaporation of gases + less volatile than oxygen. When most of the oxygen and nitrogen have + thus been removed, the stop-cock _n_ is closed, and the tubes + partially exhausted by the pump; spectroscopic examination is made of + the gases they contain, and repeated from time to time as more gas is + allowed to evaporate from B. The general sequence of spectra, apart + from those of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon compounds, which are never + eliminated by the process of distillation alone, is as follows: The + spectrum of argon first appears, followed by the brightest (green and + yellow) rays of krypton. Then the intensity of the argon spectrum + wanes and it gives way to that of krypton, until, as Runge observed, + when a Leyden jar is in the circuit, the capillary part of the + sparking-tube has a magnificent blue colour, while the wide ends are + bright pale yellow. Without a jar the tube is nearly white in the + middle and yellow about the poles. As distillation proceeds, the + temperature of the vessel containing the residue of liquid air being + allowed to rise slowly, the brightest (green) rays of xenon begin to + appear, and the krypton rays soon die out, being superseded by those + of xenon. At this stage the capillary part of the sparking-tube is, + with a jar in circuit, a brilliant green, and it remains green, though + less brilliant, if the jar is removed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Apparatus for Fractional Distillation.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Apparatus for continuous Spectroscopic + Examination.] + + An improved form of apparatus for the fractionation is represented in + fig. 9. The gases to be separated, that is, the least volatile part of + atmospheric air, enter the bulb B from a gasholder by the tube _a_ + with stop-cock _c_. B, which is maintained at a low temperature by + being immersed in liquid hydrogen, A, boiling under reduced pressure, + in turn communicates through the tube _b_ and stop-cock _d_ with a + sparking-tube or tubes _f_, and so on through _e_ with a mercurial + pump. To use the apparatus, stop-cock _d_ is closed and _c_ opened, + and gas allowed to pass from the gasholder into B, where it is + condensed in the solid form. Stop-cock _c_ then being closed and _d_ + opened, gas passes into the exhausted tube _f_, where it is examined + with the spectroscope. The vessel D contains liquid air, in which the + tube _e_ is immersed in order to condense vapour of mercury which + would otherwise pass from the pump into the sparking-tube. The success + of the operation of separating all the gases which occur in air and + which boil at different temperatures, depends on keeping the + temperature of B as low as possible, as will be understood from the + following consideration:-- + + The pressure _p_, of a gas G, above the same material in the liquid + state, at temperature T, is given approximately by the formula + + B + log p = A - ---, + T + + where A and B are constants for the same material. For some other gas + G´ the formula will be + + B1 + log p1 = A1 - ---, + T + + and + + p B1 - B + log --- = A - A1 + ------, + p1 T + + Now for argon, krypton and xenon respectively the values of A are + 6.782, 6.972 and 6.963, and those of B are 339, 496.3 and 669.2; so + that for these substances and many others A - A1 is always a small + quantity, while (B1 - B)/T is considerable and increases as T + diminishes. Hence the ratio of _p_ to _p_1 increases rapidly as T + diminishes, and by evaporating all the gases from the solid state, and + keeping the solid at as low a temperature as possible, the gas that is + taken off by the mercurial pump first consists mainly of the substance + which has the lowest boiling point, in this case nitrogen, and is + succeeded with comparative abruptness by the gas which has the next + higher boiling point. Examination of the spectrum in the sparking-tube + easily reveals the change from one gas to another, and when that is + observed the reservoirs into which the gases are pumped can be changed + and the fractions stored separately. Or several sparking-tubes may be + arranged so as to form parallel communications between _b_ and _e_, + and can be successively sealed off at the desired stages of + fractionation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +Analytical operations can often be performed still more conveniently +with the help of charcoal, taking advantage of the selective character +of its absorption, the general law of which is that the more volatile +the gas the less is it absorbed at a given temperature. The following +are some examples of its employment for this purpose. If it be required +to separate the helium which is often found in the gases given off by a +thermal spring, they are subjected to the action of charcoal cooled with +liquid air. The result is the absorption of the less volatile +constituents, i.e. all except hydrogen and helium. The gaseous residue, +with the addition of oxygen, is then sparked, and the water thus formed +is removed together with the excess of oxygen, when helium alone +remains. Or the separation may be effected by a method of fractionation +as described above. To separate the most volatile constituents of the +atmosphere an apparatus such as that shown in fig. 10 may be employed. +In one experiment with this, when 200 c.c. was supplied from the +graduated gas-holder F to the vessel D, containing 15 grammes of +charcoal cooled in liquid air, the residue which passed on unabsorbed to +the sparking-tube AB, which had a small charcoal bulb C attached, showed +the C and F lines of hydrogen, the yellow and some of the orange lines +of neon and the yellow and green of helium. By using a second charcoal +vessel E, with stop-cocks at H, I, J, K and L to facilitate +manipulation, considerable quantities of the most volatile gases can be +collected. After the charcoal in E has been saturated, the stop-cock K +is closed and I and J are opened for a short time, to allow the less +condensable gas in E to be sucked into the second condenser D along with +some portion of air. The condenser E is then taken out of the liquid +air, heated quickly to 15° C. to expel the occluded air and replaced. +More air is then passed in, and by repeating the operation several times +50 litres of air can be treated in a short time, supplying +sparking-tubes which will show the complete spectra of the volatile +constituents of the air. + +The less volatile constituents of the atmosphere, krypton and xenon, may +be obtained by leading a current of air, purified by passage through a +series of tubes cooled in liquid air, through a charcoal condenser also +cooled in liquid air. The condenser is then removed and placed in solid +carbon dioxide at -78° C. The gas that comes off is allowed to escape, +but what remains in the charcoal is got out by heating and exhaustion, +the carbon compounds and oxygen are removed and the residue, consisting +of nitrogen with krypton and xenon, is separated into its constituents +by condensation and fractionation. Another method is to cover a few +hundred grammes of charcoal with old liquid air, which is allowed to +evaporate slowly in a silvered vacuum vessel; the gases remaining in the +charcoal are then treated in the manner described above. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +Charcoal enables a mixture containing a high percentage of oxygen to be +extracted from the atmosphere. In one experiment 50 grammes of it, after +being heated and exhausted were allowed to absorb air at -185° C.; some +5 or 6 litres were taken up in ten minutes, and it then presumably +contained air of the composition of the atmosphere, i.e. 20% oxygen and +80% nitrogen, as shown in fig. 11. But when more air was passed over it, +the portion that was not absorbed was found to consist of about 98% +nitrogen, showing that excess of oxygen was being absorbed, and in the +course of a few hours the occluded gas attained a new and apparently +definite composition exhibited in fig. 12. When the charcoal containing +this mixture was transferred to a vacuum vessel and allowed to warm up +slowly, the successive litres of gas when collected and analyzed +separately showed the following composition:-- + + 1st litre 18.5% oxygen + 2nd litre 20.6% " + 3rd litre 53.0% " + 4th litre 72.0% " + 5th litre 79.0% " + 6th litre 84.0% " + + TABLE IX. + + +----------------+--------+--------------+-----------+-------------+ + | | | Liquid Volume| |Volume of Gas| + | |Boiling | of 1 gram at |Latent Heat|at 0° C. and | + | Liquid Gases. | Point. | Boiling Point| in gram | 760 mm. per | + | | | in c.c. | Calories. | gram Calorie| + | | | | | in c.c. | + +----------------+--------+--------------+-----------+-------------+ + | Sulphurous acid| + 10°C.| 0.7 | 97.0 | 3.6 | + | Carbonic acid | - 78.0 | 0.65 (solid)| 142.4 | 3.6 | + | Ethylene | -103.0 | 1.7 | 119.0 | 7.0 | + | Oxygen | -182.5 | 0.9 | 53.0 | 13.2 | + | Nitrogen | -195.6 | 1.3 | 50.0 | 15.9 | + | Hydrogen | -252.5 | 14.3 | 125.0 | 88.9 | + | Helium | -269.0 | 7.0 | 13.0 | 450.0 | + +----------------+--------+--------------+-----------+-------------+ + +_Calorimetry._--Certain liquid gases lend themselves conveniently to the +construction of a calorimeter, in which the heat in weighed quantities +of any substance with which it is desired to experiment may be measured +by the quantity of liquid gas they are able to evaporate. One advantage +of this method is that a great range of temperature is available when +liquid air, oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen is employed as the +calorimetric substance. Another is the relatively large quantity of gas +yielded by the evaporation, as may be seen from table IX., which shows +the special physical constants of the various gases that are of +importance in calorimetry. In consequence it is easy to detect 1/50 gram +calorie with liquid air and so little as 1/300 gram calorie with liquid +hydrogen. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Calorimetric Apparatus.] + + The apparatus (fig. 13) consists of a large vacuum vessel A, of 2 or 3 + litres' capacity, containing liquid air, in which is inserted a + smaller vacuum vessel B, of 25-30 c.c. capacity, having sealed to it a + long narrow tube G that projects above the mouth of A and is held in + place by some loosely packed cotton wool. To the top of this tube the + test tube C, containing the material under investigation, is connected + by a piece of flexible rubber tubing D; this enables C to be tilted so + as to throw a piece or pieces of the contained material into the + calorimeter. An improved form of this receptacle, attached to B by a + flexible tube at D´, is shown at C´. In this P is a wire movable + through a cork Q and having at its end a hook by which a piece of the + substance under examination can be pulled up and dropped into B. In + the absence of other arrangements the substance is at the temperature + of the room, but when lower initial temperatures are desired a vacuum + vessel H containing solid carbonic acid, liquid ethylene, air or other + gas, can be placed to envelop C or C´, or higher temperatures may be + obtained by filling the surrounding vessel with vapour of water or + other liquids. The gas volatilized in B is conveyed by a side tube E + to be collected in a graduated receiver F over water, oil or other + liquid. If liquid hydrogen is to be used as the calorimetric substance + the instrument must be so modified as to prevent the ordinary + atmosphere from entering G, and to that end a current of hydrogen + supplied from a Kipp apparatus is arranged to flow continuously + through D and E until the moment of making the experiment, when it is + cut off by a suitable stop-cock. In this case the outer vessel must + contain liquid hydrogen instead of liquid air. + + TABLE X. + + +-----------+---------+----------+----------+ + | | 18° to | -78° to | -188° to | + | Substance.| -78° C.,| -188° C.,| -252° C.,| + | | or, at | or, at | or, at | + | | -30° C. | -133° C. | -220° C. | + +-----------+---------+----------+----------+ + | Diamond | 0.0794 | 0.0190 | 0.0043 | + | Graphite | 0.1341 | 0.0599 | 0.0133 | + | Ice | 0.463* | 0.285 | 0.146 | + +-----------+---------+----------+----------+ + + * This is from -18° to -78° in the ice experiment. + +Dewar used pure metallic lead for the purpose of conveying definite +amounts of heat to liquid gas calorimeters of this kind, that metal +being selected on the ground of the small variation in its specific heat +at low temperatures. He was thus able to determine the latent heats of +evaporation of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen directly at their +boiling points, and he also ascertained the specific heats of a large +number of inorganic and organic bodies, and of some gases in the solid +state, such as carbon dioxide, sulphurous acid and ammonia. Perhaps his +most interesting results were those which showed the variation in the +specific heats of diamond, graphite and ice as typical bodies (table +X.). With Professor Curie he used both the liquid oxygen and the liquid +hydrogen calorimeter for preliminary measurements of the rate at which +radium bromide gives out energy at low temperatures. The quantity of the +salt available was 0.42 gram, and the thermal evolutions were as +follows:-- + + Gas evolved Calories + per minute. per hour. + + Liquid oxygen 5.5 cc. 22.8 \ + Liquid hydrogen 51.0 " 31.6 > Crystals. + Melting ice .. 24.1 / + Liquid oxygen 2.0 " 8.3 After fusion. + Liquid oxygen 2.5 " 10.3 Emanation condensed. + +The apparent increase of heat evolution at the temperature of liquid +hydrogen was probably due to the calorimeter being too small; hydrogen +spray was thus carried away with the gas, making the volume of gas too +great and inferentially also the heat evolved. + +Liquid air and liquid hydrogen calorimeters open up an almost unlimited +field of research in the determination of specific heats and other +thermal constants, and are certain to become common laboratory +instruments for such purposes. + +_Chemical Action._--By extreme cold chemical action is enormously +reduced, though it may not in all cases be entirely abolished even at +the lowest temperatures yet attained; one reason for this diminution of +activity may doubtless be sought in the fact that in such conditions +most substances are solid, that is, in the state least favourable to +chemical combination. Thus an electric pile of sodium and carbon ceases +to yield a current when immersed in liquid oxygen. Sulphur, iron and +other substances can be made to burn under the surface of liquid oxygen +if the combustion is properly established before the sample is immersed, +and the same is true of a fragment of diamond. Nitric oxide in the +gaseous condition combines instantly with free oxygen, producing the +highly-coloured gas, nitric peroxide, but in the solid condition it may +be placed in contact with liquid oxygen without showing any signs of +chemical action. If the combination of a portion of the mixture is +started by elevation of temperature, then detonation may take place +throughout the cooled mass. The stability of endothermic bodies like +nitric oxide and ozone at low temperatures requires further +investigation. The behaviour of fluorine, which may be regarded as the +most active of the elements, is instructive in this respect. As a gas, +cooled to -180° C. it loses the power of attacking glass; similarly +silicon, borax, carbon, sulphur and phosphorus at the same temperature +do not become incandescent in an atmosphere of the gas. Passed into +liquid oxygen, the gas dissolves and imparts a yellowish tint to the +liquid; if the oxygen has been exposed to the air for some hours, the +fluorine produces a white flocculent precipitate, which if separated by +filtering deflagrates with violence as the temperature rises. It appears +to be a hydrate of fluorine. As a liquid at -210° fluorine attacks +turpentine also cooled to that temperature with explosive force and the +evolution of light, while the direction of a jet of hydrogen upon its +surface is immediately followed by combination and a flash of flame. +Even when the point of a tube containing solid fluorine is broken off +under liquid hydrogen, a violent explosion ensues. + +_Photographic Action._--The action of light on photographic plates, +though greatly diminished at -180°, is far from being in abeyance; an +Eastman film, for instance, remains fairly sensitive at -210°. At the +still lower temperature of liquid hydrogen the photographic activity is +reduced to about half what it is at that of liquid air; in other words, +about 10% of the original sensitivity remains. Experiments carried out +with an incandescent lamp, a Röntgen bulb and the ultra-violet spark +from magnesium and cadmium, to discover at what distances from the +source of light the plates must be placed in order to receive an equal +photographic impression, yielded the results shown in table XI. + + TABLE XI. + + +--------------------+---------+----------+--------------+ + | | Cooled | Uncooled | Ratio of | + | Source of Light. | Plate. | Plate. | Intensities | + | | | | at Balance. | + +--------------------+---------+----------+--------------+ + | 16 C.P. lamp | 20 in. | 50 in. | 1 to 6 | + | Röntgen bulb | 10 in. | 24¾ in. | 1 to 6 | + | Ultra-violet spark | 22½ in. | 90 in. | 1 to 16 | + +--------------------+---------+----------+--------------+ + +It appears that the photographic action of both the incandescent lamp +and the Röntgen rays is reduced by the temperature of liquid air to 17% +of that exerted at ordinary temperatures, while ultra-violet radiation +retains only 6%. It is possible that the greater dissipation of the +latter by the photographic film at low temperatures than at ordinary +ones is due to its absorption and subsequent emission as a +phosphorescent glow, and that if the plate could be developed at a low +temperature it would show no effect, the photographic action taking +place subsequently through an internal phosphorescence in the film +during the time it is heating up. With regard to the transparency of +bodies to the Röntgen radiation at low temperatures, small tubes of the +same bore, filled with liquid argon and chlorine, potassium, phosphorus, +aluminium, silicon and sulphur, were exposed at the temperature of +liquid air (in order to keep the argon and chlorine solid), in front of +a photographic plate shielded with a sheet of aluminium, to an X-ray +bulb. The sequence of the elements as mentioned represents the order of +increasing opacity observed in the shadows. Sodium and liquid oxygen and +air, nitrous and nitric oxides, proved much more transparent than +chlorine. Tubes of potassium, argon and liquid chlorine showed no very +marked difference of density on the photographic plates. It appears that +argon is relatively more opaque to the Röntgen radiation than either +oxygen, nitrogen or sodium, and is on a level with potassium, chlorine, +phosphorus, aluminium and sulphur. This fact may be regarded as +supporting the view that the atomic weight of argon is twice its density +relative to hydrogen, since in general the opacity of elements in the +solid state increases with the atomic weight. + +_Phosphorescence._--Phosphorescing sulphides of calcium, which are +luminous at ordinary temperatures, and whose emission of light is +increased by heating, cease to be luminous if cooled to -80° C. But +their light energy is merely rendered latent, not destroyed, by such +cold, and they still retain the capacity of taking in light energy at +the low temperature, to be evolved again when they are warmed. At the +temperature of liquid air many bodies become phosphorescent which do not +exhibit the phenomenon at all, or only to a very slight extent, at +ordinary temperatures, e.g. ivory, indiarubber, egg-shells, feathers, +cottonwool, paper, milk, gelatine, white of egg, &c. Of definite +chemical compounds, the platinocyanides among the inorganic bodies seem +to yield the most brilliant effects. Crystals of ammonium +platinocyanide, if stimulated by exposure to the ultra-violet radiation +of the electric arc--or better still of a mercury vapour lamp in +quartz--while kept moistened with liquid air, may be seen in the dark to +glow faintly so long as they are kept cold, but become exceedingly +brilliant when the liquid air evaporates and the temperature rises. +Among organic bodies the phenomenon is particularly well marked with the +ketonic compounds and others of the same type. The chloro-, bromo-, +iodo-, sulpho- and nitro-compounds show very little effect as a rule. +The activity of the alcohols, which is usually considerable, is +destroyed by the addition of a little iodine. Coloured salts, &c., are +mostly inferior in activity to white ones. When the lower temperature of +liquid hydrogen is employed there is a great increase in phosphorescence +under light stimulation as compared with that observed with liquid air. +The radio-active bodies, like radium, which exhibit self-luminosity in +the dark, maintain that luminosity unimpaired when cooled in liquid +hydrogen. + +Some crystals become for a time self-luminous when placed in liquid +hydrogen, because the high electric stimulation due to the cooling +causes actual electric discharges between the crystal molecules. This +phenomenon is very pronounced with nitrate of uranium and some +platinocyanides, and cooling such crystals even to the temperature of +liquid air is sufficient to develop marked electrical and luminous +effects, which are again observed, when the crystal is taken out of the +liquid, during its return to normal temperature. Since both liquid +hydrogen and liquid air are good electrical insulators, the fact that +electric discharges take place in them proves that the electric +potential generated by the cooling must be very high. A crystal of +nitrate of uranium indeed gets so highly charged electrically that it +refuses to sink in liquid air, although its density is 2.8 times +greater, but sticks to the side of the vacuum vessel, and requires for +its displacement a distinct pull on the silk thread to which it is +attached. Such a crystal quickly removes cloudiness from liquid air by +attracting all the suspended particles to its surface, just as a fog is +cleared out of air by electrification. It is interesting to observe that +neither fused nitrate of uranium nor its solution in absolute alcohol +shows any of the remarkable effects of the crystalline state on cooling. + +_Cohesion._--The physical force known as cohesion is greatly increased +by low temperatures. This fact is of much interest in connexion with two +conflicting theories of matter. Lord Kelvin's view was that the forces +that hold together the ultimate particles of bodies may be accounted for +without assuming any other forces than that of gravitation, or any other +law than the Newtonian. An opposite view is that the phenomena of +cohesion, chemical union, &c., or the general phenomena of the +aggregation of molecules, depend on the molecular vibrations as a +physical cause (Tolver Preston, _Physics of the Ether_, p. 64). Hence at +the zero of absolute temperature, this vibrating energy being in +complete abeyance, the phenomena of cohesion should cease to exist and +matter generally be reduced to an incoherent heap of "cosmic dust." This +second view receives no support from experiment. Atmospheric air, for +instance, frozen at the temperature of liquid hydrogen, is a hard solid, +the strength of which gives no hint that with a further cooling of some +20 degrees it would crumble into powder. On the contrary, the lower the +scale of temperature is descended, the more powerful become the forces +which hold together the particles of matter. A spiral of fusible metal, +which at ordinary temperatures cannot support the weight of an ounce +without being straightened out, will, when cooled to the temperature of +liquid oxygen, and so long as it remains in that cooled condition, +support several pounds and vibrate like a steel spring. Similarly a bell +of fusible metal at -182° C. gives a distinct metallic ring when struck. +Balls of iron, lead, tin, ivory, &c., thus cooled, exhibit an increased +rebound when dropped from a height; an indiarubber ball, on the other +hand, becomes brittle, and is smashed to atoms by a very moderate fall. +Tables XII. and XIII., which give the mean results of a large number of +experiments, show the increased breaking stress gained by metals while +they are cooled to the temperature of liquid oxygen. + + TABLE XII.--_Breaking Stress in Pounds of Metallic Wires 0.098 inch in + diameter._ + + +15° C. -182° C. + Steel (soft) 420 700 + Iron 320 670 + Copper 200 300 + Brass 310 440 + German silver 470 600 + Gold 255 340 + Silver 330 420 + + TABLE XIII.--_Breaking Stress in Pounds of Cast Metallic Testpieces; + diameter of rod 0.2 inch._ + + +15° C. -182° C. + Tin 200 390 + Lead 77 170 + Zinc 35 26 + Mercury 0 31 + Bismuth 60 30 + Antimony 61 30 + Solder 300 645 + Fusible, metal (Wood) 140 450 + +In the second series of experiments the test-pieces were 2 in. long and +were all cast in the same mould. It will be noticed that in the cases of +zinc, bismuth and antimony the results appear to be abnormal, but it may +be pointed out that it is difficult to get uniform castings of +crystalline bodies, and it is probable that by cooling such stresses are +set up in some set of cleavage planes as to render rupture comparatively +easy. In the case of strong steel springs the rigidity modulus does not +appear to be greatly affected by cold, for although a number were +examined, no measurable differences could be detected in their +elongation under repeated additions of the same load. No quantitative +experiments have been made on the cohesive properties of the metals at +the temperature of boiling hydrogen (-252°), owing to the serious cost +that would be involved. A lead wire cooled in liquid hydrogen did not +become brittle, as it could be bent backwards and forwards in the +liquid. + +_Electrical Resistivity._--The first experiments on the conductivity of +metals at low temperatures appear to have been made by Wroblewski +(_Comptes rendus_, ci. 160), and by Cailletet and Bouty (_Journ. de +phys._ 1885, p. 297). The former's experiments were undertaken to test +the suggestion made by Clausius that the resistivity of pure metals is +sensibly proportional to the absolute temperature; he worked with copper +having a conductibility of 98%, and carried out measurements at various +temperatures, the lowest of which was that given by liquid nitrogen +boiling under reduced pressure. His general conclusion was that the +resistivity decreases much more quickly than the absolute temperature, +so as to approach zero at a point not far below the temperature of +nitrogen evaporating _in vacuo_. Cailletet and Bouty, using ethylene as +the refrigerant, and experimenting at temperatures ranging from 0° C. to +-100° C. and -123° C., constructed formulae intended to give the +coefficients of variation in electrical resistance for mercury, tin, +silver, magnesium, aluminium, copper, iron and platinum. Between 1892 +and 1896 Dewar and Fleming carried out a large number of experiments to +ascertain the changes of conductivity that occur in metals and alloys +cooled in liquid air or oxygen to -200° C. The method employed was to +obtain the material under investigation in the form of a fine regular +wire and to wind it in a small coil; this was then plunged in the liquid +and its resistance determined. The accompanying chart (fig. 14) gives +the results in a compendious form, the temperatures being expressed not +in degrees of the ordinary air-thermometer scale, but in platinum +degrees as given by one particular platinum resistance thermometer which +was used throughout the investigation. A table showing the value of +these degrees in degrees centigrade according to Dickson will be found +in the _Phil. Mag._ for June 1898, p. 527; to give some idea of the +relationship, it may be stated here that -100° of the platinum +thermometer = -94°.2 C., -150° plat. = -140°.78 C., and -200° plat. = +-185°.53 C. In general, the resistance of perfectly pure metals was +greatly decreased by cold--so much so that, to judge by the course of +the curves on the chart, it appeared probable that at the zero of +absolute temperature resistance would vanish altogether and all pure +metals become perfect conductors of electricity. This conclusion, +however, has been rendered very doubtful by subsequent observations by +Dewar, who found that with the still lower temperatures attainable with +liquid hydrogen the increases of conductivity became less for each +decrease of temperature, until a point was reached where the curves bent +sharply round and any further diminution of resistance became very +small; that is, the conductivity remained finite. The reduction in +resistance of some of the metals at the boiling point of hydrogen is +very remarkable. Thus copper has only (1/105)th, gold (1/30)th, platinum +(1/35)th to (1/17)th, silver (1/24)th the resistance at melting ice, but +iron is only reduced to (1/8)th part of the same initial resistance. +Table XIV. shows the progressive decrease of resistance for certain +metals and one alloy as the temperature is lowered from that of boiling +water down to that of liquid hydrogen boiling under reduced pressure; it +also gives the "vanishing temperature," at which the conductivity would +become perfect if the resistance continued to decrease in the same ratio +with still lower temperatures, the values being derived from the +extrapolation curves of the relation between resistance and temperature, +according to Callendar and Dickson. It will be seen that many of the +substances have actually been cooled to a lower temperature than that at +which their resistance ought to vanish. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Chart of the Variation of Electrical Resistance +of Pure Metals and Alloys with Temperature. (Dewar and Fleming.)] + +In the case of alloys and impure metals, cold brings about a much +smaller decrease in resistivity, and the continuations of the curves at +no time show any sign of passing through the zero point. The influence +of the presence of impurities in minute quantities is strikingly shown +in the case of bismuth. Various specimens of the metal, prepared with +great care by purely chemical methods, gave in the hands of Dewar and +Fleming some very anomalous results, appearing to reach at -80° C. a +maximum of conductivity, and thereafter to increase in resistivity with +decrease of temperature. But when the determinations were carried out on +a sample of really pure bismuth prepared electrolytically, a normal +curve was obtained corresponding to that given by other pure metals. As +to alloys, there is usually some definite mixture of two pure metals +which has a maximum resistivity, often greater than that of either of +the constituents. It appears too that high, if not the highest, +resistivity corresponds to possible chemical compounds of the two metals +employed, e.g. platinum 33 parts with silver 66 parts = PtAg4; iron 80 +with nickel 20 = Fe4Ni; platinum 80 with iridium 20 = IrPt4; and copper +70 with manganese 30 = Cu2Mn. The product obtained by adding a small +quantity of one metal to another has a higher specific resistance than +the predominant constituent, but the curve is parallel to, and therefore +the same in shape as, that of the latter (cf. the curves for various +mixtures of Al and Cu on the chart). The behaviour of carbon and of +insulators like gutta-percha, glass, ebonite, &c., is in complete +contrast to the metals, for their resistivity steadily increases with +cold. The thermo-electric properties of metals at low temperatures are +discussed in the article THERMOELECTRICITY. + + TABLE XIV. + + +-------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ + | | |Platinum-| | | | | + | Metals. |Platinum.| rhodium | Gold. |Silver. | Copper.| Iron. | + | | | Alloy. | | | | | + +-------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ + | Resistance at 100° | 39.655 | 36.87 | 16.10 | 8.336 | 11.572 | 4.290 | + | " 0° C | 28.851 | 31.93 | 11.58 | 5.990 | 8.117 | 2.765 | + | " carbonic acid | 19.620 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | " liquid oxygen | 7.662 | 22.17 | 3.380 | 1.669 | 1.589 | 0.633 | + | " " nitrogen | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1.149 | .. | + | " " oxygen | | | | | | | + | under exhaustion| 4.634 | 20.73 | .. | .. | .. | | + | " " hydrogen | 0.826 | 18.96 | 0.381 | 0.244 | 0.077 | 0.356 | + | " " hydrogen | | | | | | | + | under exhaustion| 0.705 | 18.90 | 0.298 | 0.226 | 0.071 | | + | Resistance coefficients | 0.003745| 0.003607|0.003903|0.003917|0.004257| 0.005515 | + | Vanishing temperatures (Centigrade)/| -244.50°| -543.39°|-257.90°|-252.26°|-225.62°|-258.40°C.| + | \| -244.15°| -530.32°|-257.8° |-252.25°|-226.04°|-246.80°D.| + +-------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------+--------+--------+----------+ + +_Magnetic Phenomena._--Low temperatures have very marked effects upon +the magnetic properties of various substances. Oxygen, long known to be +slightly magnetic in the gaseous state, is powerfully attracted in the +liquid condition by a magnet, and the same is true, though to a less +extent, of liquid air, owing to the proportion of liquid oxygen it +contains. A magnet of ordinary carbon steel has its magnetic moment +temporarily increased by cooling, that is, after it has been brought to +a permanent magnetic condition ("aged"). The effect of the first +immersion of such a magnet in liquid air is a large diminution in its +magnetic moment, which decreases still further when it is allowed to +warm up to ordinary temperatures. A second cooling, however, increases +the magnetic moment, which is again decreased by warming, and after a +few repetitions of this cycle of cooling and heating the steel is +brought into a condition such that its magnetic moment at the +temperature of liquid air is greater by a constant percentage than it +is at the ordinary temperature of the air. The increase of magnetic +moment seems then to have reached a limit, because on further cooling to +the temperature of liquid hydrogen hardly any further increase is +observed. The percentage differs with the composition of the steel and +with its physical condition. It is greater, for example, with a specimen +tempered very soft than it is with another specimen of the same steel +tempered glass hard. Aluminium steels show the same kind of phenomena as +carbon ones, and the same may be said of chrome steels in the permanent +condition, though the effect of the first cooling with them is a slight +increase of magnetic moment. Nickel steels present some curious +phenomena. When containing small percentages of nickel (e.g. 0.84 or +3.82), they behave under changes of temperature much like carbon steel. +With a sample containing 7.65%, the phenomena after the permanent state +had been reached were similar, but the first cooling produced a slight +increase in magnetic moment. But steels containing 18.64 and 29% of +nickel behaved very differently. The result of the first cooling was a +reduction of the magnetic moment, to the extent of nearly 50% in the +case of the former. Warming again brought about an increase, and the +final condition was that at the temperature of liquid air the magnetic +moment was always less than at ordinary temperatures. This anomaly is +all the more remarkable in that the behaviour of pure nickel is normal, +as also appears to be generally the case with soft and hard iron. +Silicon, tungsten and manganese steels are also substantially normal in +their behaviour, although there are considerable differences in the +magnitudes of the variations they display (_Proc. Roy. Soc._ lx. 57 et +seq.; also "The Effect of Liquid Air Temperatures on the Mechanical and +other Properties of Iron and its Alloys," by Sir James Dewar and Sir +Robert Hadfield, _Id._ lxxiv. 326-336). + +Low temperatures also affect the permeability of iron, i.e. the degree +of magnetization it is capable of acquiring under the influence of a +certain magnetic force. With fine Swedish iron, carefully annealed, the +permeability is slightly reduced by cooling to -185° C. Hard iron, +however, in the same circumstances suffers a large increase of +permeability. Unhardened steel pianoforte wire, again, behaves like soft +annealed iron. As to hysteresis, low temperatures appear to produce no +appreciable effect in soft iron; for hard iron the observations are +undecisive. + +_Biological Research._--The effect of cold upon the life of living +organisms is a matter of great intrinsic interest as well as of wide +theoretical importance. Experiment indicates that moderately high +temperatures are much more fatal, at least to the lower forms of life, +than are exceedingly low ones. Professor M'Kendrick froze for an hour at +a temperature of -182° C. samples of meat, milk, &c., in sealed tubes; +when these were opened, after being kept at blood-heat for a few days, +their contents were found to be quite putrid. More recently some more +elaborate tests were carried out at the Jenner (now Lister) Institute of +Preventive Medicine on a series of typical bacteria. These were exposed +to the temperature of liquid air for twenty hours, but their vitality +was not affected, their functional activities remained unimpaired and +the cultures which they yielded were normal in every respect. The same +result was obtained when liquid hydrogen was substituted for air. A +similar persistence of life has been demonstrated in seeds, even at the +lowest temperatures; they were frozen for over 100 hours in liquid air +at the instance of Messrs Brown and Escombe, with no other effect than +to afflict their protoplasm with a certain inertness, from which it +recovered with warmth. Subsequently commercial samples of barley, peas +and vegetable-marrow and mustard seeds were literally steeped for six +hours in liquid hydrogen at the Royal Institution, yet when they were +sown by Sir W. T. Thiselton Dyer at Kew in the ordinary way, the +proportion in which germination occurred was no smaller than with other +batches of the same seeds which had suffered no abnormal treatment. Mr +Harold Swithinbank has found that exposure to liquid air has little or +no effect on the vitality of the tubercle bacillus, although by very +prolonged exposures its virulence is modified to some extent; but +alternate exposures to normal and very cold temperatures do have a +decided effect both upon its vitality and its virulence. The suggestion +once put forward by Lord Kelvin, that life may in the first instance +have been conveyed to this planet on a meteorite, has been objected to +on the ground that any living organism would have been killed before +reaching the earth by its passage through the intense cold of +interstellar space; the above experiments on the resistance to cold +offered by seeds and bacteria show that this objection at least is not +fatal to Lord Kelvin's idea. + +At the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine liquid air has been +brought into use as an agent in biological research. An inquiry into the +intracellular constituents of the typhoid bacillus, initiated under the +direction of Dr Allan Macfadyen, necessitated the separation of the +cell-plasma of the organism. The method at first adopted for the +disintegration of the bacteria was to mix them with silver-sand and +churn the whole up in a closed vessel in which a series of horizontal +vanes revolved at a high speed. But certain disadvantages attached to +this procedure, and accordingly some means was sought to do away with +the sand and triturate the bacilli _per se_. This was found in liquid +air, which, as had long before been shown at the Royal Institution, has +the power of reducing materials like grass or the leaves of plants to +such a state of brittleness that they can easily be powdered in a +mortar. By its aid a complete trituration of the typhoid bacilli has +been accomplished at the Jenner Institute, and the same process, already +applied with success also to yeast cells and animal cells, is being +extended in other directions. + +_Industrial Applications._--While liquid air and liquid hydrogen are +being used in scientific research to an extent which increases every +day, their applications to industrial purposes are not so numerous. The +temperatures they give used as simple refrigerants are much lower than +are generally required industrially, and such cooling as is needed can +be obtained quite satisfactorily, and far more cheaply, by refrigerating +machinery employing more easily condensable gases. Their use as a source +of motive power, again, is impracticable for any ordinary purposes, on +the score of inconvenience and expense. Cases may be conceived of in +which for special reasons it might prove advantageous to use liquid air, +vaporized by heat derived from the surrounding atmosphere, to drive +compressed-air engines, but any advantage so gained would certainly not +be one of cheapness. No doubt the power of a waterfall running to waste +might be temporarily conserved in the shape of liquid air, and thereby +turned to useful effect. But the reduction of air to the liquid state is +a process which involves the expenditure of a very large amount of +energy, and it is not possible even to recover all that expended energy +during the transition of the material back to the gaseous state. Hence +to suggest that by using liquid air in a motor more power can be +developed than was expended in producing the liquid air by which the +motor is worked, is to propound a fallacy worse than perpetual motion, +since such a process would have an efficiency of more than 100%. Still, +in conditions where economy is of no account, liquid air might perhaps, +with effectively isolated storage, be utilized as a motive power, e.g. +to drive the engines of submarine boats and at the same time provide a +supply of oxygen for the crew; even without being used in the engines, +liquid air or oxygen might be found a convenient form in which to store +the air necessary for respiration in such vessels. But a use to which +liquid air machines have already been put to a large extent is for +obtaining oxygen from the atmosphere. Although when air is liquefied the +oxygen and nitrogen are condensed simultaneously, yet owing to its +greater volatility the latter boils off the more quickly of the two, so +that the remaining liquid becomes gradually richer and richer in +oxygen. The fractional distillation of liquid air is the method now +universally adopted for the preparation of oxygen on a commercial scale, +while the nitrogen simultaneously obtained is used for the production of +cyanamide, by its action on carbide of calcium. An interesting though +minor application of liquid oxygen, or liquid air from which most of the +nitrogen has evaporated, depends on the fact that if it be mixed with +powdered charcoal, or finely divided organic bodies, it can be made by +the aid of a detonator to explode with a violence comparable to that of +dynamite. This explosive, which might properly be called an emergency +one, has the disadvantage that it must be prepared on the spot where it +is to be used and must be fired without delay, since the liquid +evaporates in a short time and the explosive power is lost; but, on the +other hand, if a charge fails to go off it has only to be left a few +minutes, when it can be withdrawn without any danger of accidental +explosion. + + For further information the reader may consult W. L. Hardin, _Rise and + Development of the Liquefaction of Gases_ (New York, 1899), and + Lefèvre, _La Liquéfaction des gaz et ses applications_; also the + article CONDENSATION OF GASES. But the literature of liquid gases is + mostly contained in scientific periodicals and the proceedings of + learned societies. Papers by Wroblewski and Olszewski on the + liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen may be found in the _Comptes + rendus_, vols, xcvi.-cii., and there are important memoirs by the + former on the relations between the gaseous and liquid states and on + the compressibility of hydrogen in _Wien. Akad. Sitzber._ vols. xciv. + and xcvii.; his pamphlet _Comme l'air a été liquéfié_ (Paris, 1885) + should also be referred to. For Dewar's work, see _Proc. Roy. Inst._ + from 1878 onwards, including "Solid Hydrogen" (1900); "Liquid Hydrogen + Calorimetry" (1904); "New Low Temperature Phenomena" (1905); "Liquid + Air and Charcoal at Low Temperatures" (1906); "Studies in High Vacua + and Helium at Low Temperatures" (1907); also "The Nadir of Temperature + and Allied Problems" (Bakerian Lecture), _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (1901), and + the Presidential Address to the British Association (1902). The + researches of Fleming and Dewar on the electrical and magnetic + properties of substances at low temperatures are described in _Proc. + Roy. Soc._ vol. lx., and _Proc. Roy. Inst._ (1896); see also + "Electrical Resistance of Pure Metals, Alloys and Non-Metals at the + Boiling-point of Oxygen," _Phil. Mag._ vol. xxxiv. (1892); "Electrical + Resistance of Metals and Alloys at Temperatures approaching the + Absolute Zero," _ibid._ vol. xxxvi. (1893); "Thermoelectric Powers of + Metals and Alloys between the Temperatures of the Boiling-point of + Water and the Boiling-point of Liquid Air," _ibid._ vol. xl. (1895); + and papers on the dielectric constants of various substances at low + temperatures in _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vols. lxi. and lxii. Optical and + spectroscopic work by Liveing and Dewar on liquid gases is described + in _Phil. Mag._ vols. xxxiv. (1892), xxxvi. (1893), xxxviii. (1894) + and xl. (1895); for papers by the same authors on the separation and + spectroscopic examination of the most volatile and least volatile + constituents of atmospheric air, see _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vols. lxiv., + lxvii. and lxviii. An account of the influence of very low + temperatures on the germinative power of seeds is given by H. T. Brown + and F. Escombe in _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. lxii., and by Sir W. + Thiselton Dyer, _ibid._ vol. lxv., and their effect on bacteria is + discussed by A. Macfadyen, _ibid._ vols. lxvi. and lxxi. (J. Dr.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Figs. 1, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13 in this article are from _Proc. + Roy. Inst._, by permission. + + [2] It may be noted that now that the commercial production of oxygen + is effected by the liquefaction of air, with separation of its + constituents in what is essentially a Coffey still, the chemist has + at his command large quantities not only of the less volatile + constituents, krypton and xenon, but also of the more volatile ones, + neon and helium. Roughly a million volumes of air contain 20 volumes + of neon and helium, about 15 of the former to 5 of the latter, + approximately 1 volume of hydrogen being associated with them, so + that in view of the enormous amounts of oxygen that are produced, + helium can be obtained in practically any quantity directly from the + atmosphere. + + + + +LIQUORICE. The hard and semi-vitreous sticks of paste, black in colour +and possessed of a sweet somewhat astringent taste, known as liquorice +paste or black sugar, are the inspissated juice of the roots of a +leguminous plant, _Glycyrrhiza glabra_, the _radix glycyrrhizae_ of the +pharmacopoeia. The plant is cultivated throughout the warmer parts of +Europe, especially on the Mediterranean shores, and to some extent in +Louisiana and California. The roots for use are obtained in lengths of 3 +or 4 ft., varying in diameter from 1/4 to 1 in.; they are soft, flexible +and fibrous, and internally of a bright yellow colour, with a +characteristic, sweet pleasant taste. To this sweet taste of its root +the plant owes its generic name _Glycyrrhiza_ ([Greek: glykyrrhiza], the +sweet-root), of which the word liquorice is a corruption. The roots +contain grape-sugar, starch, resin, asparagine, malic acid and the +glucoside glycyrrhizin, C^24H36O9, a yellow amorphous powder with an +acid reaction and a distinctive bitter-sweet taste. On hydrolysis, +glycyrrhizin yields glucose and glycyrrhetin. + + Stick liquorice is made by crushing and grinding the roots to a pulp, + which is boiled in water over an open fire, and the decoction + separated from the solid residue of the root is evaporated till a + sufficient degree of concentration is attained, after which, on + cooling, it is rolled into the form of sticks or other shapes for the + market. The preparation of the juice is a widely extended industry + along the Mediterranean coasts; but the quality best appreciated in + the United Kingdom is made in Calabria, and sold under the names of + Solazzi and Corigliano juice. Liquorice enters into the composition of + many cough lozenges and other demulcent preparations; and in the form + of aromatic syrups and elixirs it has a remarkable effect in masking + the taste of nauseous medicines. + + + + +LIQUOR LAWS. In most Western countries the sale of alcoholic liquor is +regulated by law. The original and principal object is to check the +evils arising from the immoderate use of such liquor, in the interest of +public order, morality and health; a secondary object is to raise +revenue from the traffic. The form and the stringency of the laws passed +for these purposes vary very widely in different countries according to +the habits of the people and the state of public opinion. The evils +which it is desired to check are much greater in some countries than in +others. Generally speaking they are greater in northern countries and +cold and damp climates than in southern and more sunny ones. Climate has +a marked influence on diet for physiological reasons over which we have +no control. The fact is attested by universal experience and is +perfectly natural and inevitable, though usually ignored in those +international comparisons of economic conditions and popular customs +which have become so common. It holds good both of food and drink. The +inhabitants of south Europe are much less given to alcoholic excess than +those of central Europe, who again are more temperate than those of the +north. There is even a difference between localities so near together as +the east and west of Scotland. The chairman of the Prison Commissioners +pointed out before a British royal commission in the year 1897 the +greater prevalence of drunkenness in the western half, and attributed it +in part to the dampness of the climate on the western coast. But race +also has an influence. The British carry the habit of drinking wherever +they go, and their colonial descendants retain it even in hot and dry +climates. The Slav peoples and the Magyars in central Europe are much +more intemperate than the Teutonic and Latin peoples living under +similar climatic conditions. These natural differences lead, in +accordance with the principle discerned and enunciated by Montesquieu, +to the adoption of different laws, which vary with the local conditions. +But social laws of this character also vary with the state of public +opinion, not only in different countries but in the same country at +different times. The result is that the subject is in a state of +incessant flux. There are not only many varieties of liquor laws, but +also frequent changes in them, and new experiments are constantly being +tried. The general tendency is towards increased stringency, not so much +because the evils increase, though that happens in particular places at +particular times, as because public opinion moves broadly towards +increasing condemnation of excess and increasing reliance on legislative +interference. The first is due partly to a general process of refining +manners, partly to medical influence and the growing attention paid to +health; the second to a universal tendency which seems inherent in +democracy. + +Liquor laws may be classified in several ways, but the most useful way +for the present purpose will be to take the principal methods of +conducting the traffic as they exist, under four main headings, and +after a brief explanation give some account of the laws in the principal +countries which have adopted them. The four methods are: (1) licensing +or commercial sale for private profit under a legal permit; (2) sale by +authorized bodies not for private profit, commonly known as the +Scandinavian or company system; (3) state monopoly; (4) prohibition. It +is not a scientific classification, because the company system is a form +of licensing and prohibition is no sale at all; but it follows the lines +of popular discussion and is more intelligible than one of a more +technical character would be. All forms of liquor legislation deal +mainly with retail sale, and particularly with the sale for immediate +consumption on the spot. + +1. _Licensing._--This is by far the oldest and the most widely adopted +method; it is the one which first suggests itself in the natural course +of things. Men begin by making and selling a thing without let or +hindrance to please themselves. Then objections are raised, and when +they are strong or general enough the law interferes in the public +interest, at first mildly; it says in effect--This must not go on in +this way or to this extent; there must be some control, and permission +will only be given to duly authorized persons. Such persons are licensed +or permitted to carry on the traffic under conditions, and there is +obviously room for infinite gradations of strictness in granting +permission and infinite variety in the conditions imposed. The procedure +may vary from mere notification of the intention to open an +establishment up to a rigid and minutely detailed system of annual +licensing laid down by the law. But in all cases, even when mere +notification is required, the governing authority has the right to +refuse permission or to withdraw it for reasons given, and so it retains +the power of control. At the same time holders of the permission may be +compelled to pay for the privilege and so contribute to the public +revenue. The great merit of the licensing system is its perfect +elasticity, which permits adjustment to all sorts of conditions and to +the varying demands of public opinion. It is in force in the United +Kingdom, which first adopted it, in most European countries, in the +greater part of North America, including both the United States and +Canada, in the other British dominions and elsewhere. + +2. _The Scandinavian or Company System._--The principle of this method +is the elimination of private profit on the ground that it removes an +incentive to the encouragement of excessive drinking. A monopoly of the +sale of liquor is entrusted to a body of citizens who have, or are +supposed to have, no personal interest in it, and the profits are +applied to public purposes. The system, which is also called +"disinterested management," is adopted in Sweden and Norway; and the +principle has been applied in a modified form in England and Finland by +the operation of philanthropic societies which, however, have no +monopoly but are on the same legal footing as ordinary traders. + +3. _State Monopoly._--As the name implies, this system consists in +retaining the liquor trade in the hands of the state, which thus secures +all the profit and is at the same time able to exercise complete +control. It is adopted in Russia, in certain parts of the United States +and, in regard to the wholesale trade, in Switzerland. + +4. _Prohibition._--This may be general or local; in the latter case it +is called "local option" or "local veto." The sale of liquor is made +illegal in the hope of preventing drinking altogether or of diminishing +it by making it more difficult. General prohibition has been tried in +some American states, and is still in force in a few; it is also applied +to native races, under civilized rule, both in Africa and North America. +Local prohibition is widely in force in the United States, Canada and +Australasia, Sweden and Norway. In certain areas in other countries, +including the United Kingdom, the sale of liquor is in a sense +prohibited, not by the law, but by the owners of the property who refuse +to allow any public-houses. Such cases have nothing to do with the law, +but they are mentioned here because reference is often made to them by +advocates of legal prohibition. + + +THE UNITED KINGDOM + +England has had a very much longer experience of liquor legislation than +any other country, and the story forms an introduction necessary to the +intelligent comprehension of liquor legislation in general. England +adopted a licensing system in 1551, and has retained it, with +innumerable modifications, ever since. The English were notorious for +hard drinking for centuries before licensing was adopted, and from time +to time sundry efforts had been made to check it, but what eventually +compelled the interference of the law was the growth of crime and +disorder associated with the public-houses towards the end of the 15th +century. Numbers of men who had previously been engaged in the civil +wars or on the establishment of feudal houses were thrown on the world +and betook themselves to the towns, particularly London, where they +frequented the ale-houses, "dicing and drinking," and lived largely on +violence and crime. An act was passed in 1495 against vagabonds and +unlawful games, whereby justices of the peace were empowered to "put +away common ale-selling in towns and places where they should think +convenient and to take sureties of keepers of ale-houses in their good +behaviour." That was the beginning of statutory control of the trade. +The act clearly recognized a connexion between public disorder and +public-houses. The latter were ale-houses, for at that time ale was the +drink of the people; spirits had not yet come into common use, and wine, +the consumption of which on the premises was prohibited in 1552, was +only drunk by the wealthier classes. + +_Early History of Licensing._--The act of 1551-1552, which introduced +licensing, was on the same lines but went further. It confirmed the +power of suppressing common ale-selling, and enacted that no one should +be allowed to keep a common ale-house or "tippling" house without +obtaining the permission of the justices in open session or of two of +their number. It further "directed that the justices should take from +the persons whom they licensed such bond and surety by recognisance as +they should think convenient, and empowered them in quarter session to +inquire into and try breaches by licensed persons of the conditions of +their recognisances and cases of persons keeping ale-houses without +licences and to punish the offenders" (Bonham Carter, Royal Commission +on Liquor Licensing Laws, vol. iii.). This act embodied the whole +principle of licensing, and the object was clearly stated in the +preamble: "For as much as intolerable hurts and troubles to the +commonwealth of this realm doth daily grow and increase through such +abuses and disorders as are had and used in common ale-houses and other +places called tippling houses." The evil was not due merely to the use +of alcoholic liquor but to the fact that these houses, being +public-houses, were the resort of idle and disorderly characters. The +distinction should be borne in mind. + +The act seems to have been of some effect, for no further legislation +was attempted for half a century, though there is abundant evidence of +the intemperate habits of all classes. Mr Bonham Carter (loc. cit.) +observes:-- + + "The recognisances referred to in the act were valuable instruments + for controlling the conduct of ale-house keepers. The justices, in + exercise of their discretion, required the recognisances to contain + such conditions for the management and good order of the business as + they thought suitable. In this way a set of regulations came into + existence, many of which were subsequently embodied in acts of + Parliament. In some counties general rules were drawn up, which every + ale-house keeper was bound to observe." + +It is interesting to note that among the conditions laid down about this +time were the following: Closing at 9 P.M. and during divine service on +Sunday; in some cases complete closing on Sunday except to travellers; +the licence-holder to notify to the constable all strangers staying for +more than a night and not to permit persons to continue drinking or +tippling; prohibition of unlawful games, receiving stolen goods and +harbouring bad characters; the use of standard measures and prices fixed +by law. There was, however, no uniformity of practice in these respects +until the 17th century, when an attempt was made to establish stricter +and more uniform control by a whole series of acts passed between 1603 +and 1627. The evils which it was sought to remedy by these measures were +the existence of unlicensed houses, the use of ale-houses for mere +drinking and the prevalence of disorder. It was declared that the +ancient and proper use of inns and ale-houses was the refreshment and +lodging of travellers, and that they were not meant for "entertainment +and harbouring of lewd and idle people to spend and consume their money +and their time in lewd and drunken manner." Regulations were +strengthened for the suppression of unlicensed houses, licences were +made annual, and the justices were directed to hold a special licensing +meeting once a year (1618). Penalties were imposed on innkeepers for +permitting tippling, and also on tipplers and drunkards (1625). In 1634 +licensing was first applied to Ireland. Later in the century heavy +penalties were imposed for adulteration. + +The next chapter in the history of licensing has to do with spirits, and +is very instructive. Spirits were not a native product like beer; brandy +was introduced from France, gin from the Netherlands and whisky from +Ireland; but down to the year 1690 the consumption was small. The home +manufacture was strictly limited, and high duties on imported spirits +rendered them too dear for the general public unless smuggled. +Consequently the people had not acquired the taste for them. But in 1690 +distilling was thrown open to any one on the payment of very trifling +duties, spirits became extremely cheap and the consumption increased +with great rapidity. Regulation of the retail traffic was soon found to +be necessary, and by an act passed in 1700-1701, the licensing +requirements already existing for ale-house keepers were extended to +persons selling distilled liquors for consumption on the premises. A new +class of public-houses in the shape of spirit bars grew up. In the year +1732 a complete and detailed survey of all the streets and houses in +London was carried out by William Maitland, F.R.S. Out of a total of +95,968 houses he found the following: brew-houses 171, inns 207, taverns +447, ale-houses 5975, brandy-shops 8659; total number of licensed houses +for the retail sale of liquor 15,288, of which considerably more than +one-half were spirit bars. The population was about three-quarters of a +million. About one house in every six was licensed at this time, and +that in spite of attempts made to check the traffic by restrictive acts +passed in 1728-1729. The physical and moral evils caused by the +excessive consumption of spirits were fully recognized; an additional +duty of 5s. a gallon was placed on the distiller, and retailers were +compelled to take out an excise licence of £20 per annum. The object was +to make spirits dearer and therefore less accessible. At the same time, +with a view to lessening the number of houses, the licensing procedure +of the justices was amended by the provision that licences should only +be granted at a general meeting of the justices acting in the division +where the applicant resided, thus abolishing the power conferred by the +original licensing act, of any two justices to grant a licence. This +change, effected in 1729, was a permanent improvement, though it did not +prevent the existence of the prodigious numbers of houses recorded by +Maitland in 1732. The attempt to make spirits dearer by high excise +duties, on the other hand, was adjudged a failure because it led to +illicit trade, and the act of 1728 was repealed in 1732. But the evil +was so glaring that another and more drastic attempt in the same +direction was made in 1736, when the famous Gin Act was passed in +response to a petition presented to parliament by the Middlesex +magistrates, declaring "that the drinking of geneva and other distilled +waters had for some years past greatly increased; that the constant and +excessive use thereof had destroyed thousands of His Majesty's subjects; +that great numbers of others were by its use rendered unfit for useful +labour, debauched in morals and drawn into all manner of vice and +wickedness...." The retailing of spirits in quantities of less than 2 +gallons was made subject to a licence costing £50 and the retailer had +also to pay a duty of 20s. on every gallon sold. This experiment in +"high licensing" was a disastrous failure, though energetic attempts +were made to enforce it by wholesale prosecutions and by strengthening +the regulations against evasion. Public opinion was inflamed against it, +and the only results were corruptions of the executive and an enormous +increase of consumption through illicit channels. The consumption of +spirits in England and Wales nearly doubled between 1733 and 1742, and +the state of things was so intolerable that after much controversy the +high duties were repealed in 1742 with the object of bringing the trade +back into authorized channels; the cost of a licence was reduced from +£50 to £1 and the retail duty from 20s. to 1d. a gallon. + +This period witnessed the high-water mark of intemperance in England. +From various contemporary descriptions it is abundantly clear that the +state of things was incomparably worse than anything in modern times, and +that women, whose participation in the practice of drinking and +frequenting public-houses is recorded by writers in the previous century, +were affected as well as men. The experience is particularly instructive +because it includes examples of excess and deficiency of opportunities +and the ill effects of both on a people naturally inclined to indulgence +in drink. It was followed by more judicious action, which showed the +adaptability of the licensing system and the advantages of a mean between +laxity and severity. Between 1743 and 1753 acts were passed which +increased control in a moderate way and proved much more successful than +the previous measures. The retail licence duty was moderately raised and +the regulations were amended and made stricter. The class of houses +eligible for licensing was for the first time taken into account, and the +retailing of spirits was only permitted on premises assessed for rates +and, in London, of the annual value of £10; justices having an interest +in the trade were excluded from licensing functions. Another measure +which had an excellent effect made "tippling" debts--that is, small +public-houses debts incurred for spirits--irrecoverable at law. The +result of these measures was that consumption diminished and the class of +houses improved. At the same time (1753) the general licensing provisions +were strengthened and extended. The distinction between new licences and +the renewal of old ones was for the first time recognized; applicants for +new licences in country districts were required to produce a certificate +of character from the clergy, overseers and church-wardens or from three +or four householders. The annual licensing sessions were made statutory, +and the consent of a justice was required for the transfer of a licence +from one person to another during the term for which it was granted. +Penalties for infringing the law were increased, and the licensing system +was extended to Scotland (1755-1756). With regard to wine, it has already +been stated that consumption on the premises was forbidden in 1552, and +at the same time the retail sale was restricted to towns of some +importance and the number of retailers, who had to obtain an appointment +from the corporation or the justices, was strictly limited. In 1660 +consumption on the premises was permitted under a Crown (excise) licence, +good for a variable term of years; in 1756 this was changed to an annual +excise licence of fixed amount, and in 1792 wine was brought under the +same jurisdiction of the justices as other liquors. + +It is clear from the foregoing that a great deal of legislation occurred +during the 18th century, and that by successive enactments, particularly +about the middle of the century, the licensing system gradually became +adjusted to the requirements of the time and took a settled shape. The +acts then passed still form the basis of the law. In the early part of +the 19th century another period of legislative activity set in. A +parliamentary inquiry into illicit trade in spirits took place in 1821, +and in 1828 important acts were passed amending and consolidating the +laws for England and for Scotland; in 1833 a general Licensing Act was +passed for Ireland. These are still the principal acts, though they have +undergone innumerable amendments and additions. The English act of 1828 +introduced certain important changes. A licence from the justices was no +longer required for the sale of liquor for consumption off the premises, +and the power of the justices to suppress public-houses at their +discretion (apart from the annual licensing), which they had possessed +since 1495, was taken away. The removal of this power, which had long +been obsolete, was the natural corollary of the development of the +licensing system, its greater stringency and efficiency and the increase +of duties imposed on the trade. Men on whom these obligations were laid, +and who were freshly authorized to carry on the business every year, +could not remain liable to summary deprivation of the privileges thus +granted and paid for. The justices had absolute discretion to withhold +licences from an applicant whether new or old; but an appeal was allowed +to quarter sessions against refusal and also against conviction for +offences under the act. The main points in the law at this time were the +following. The sale of alcoholic liquors for consumption on the premises +was forbidden under penalties except to persons authorized according to +law by the justices. Licences were granted for one year and had to be +renewed annually. The justices held a general meeting each year at a +specified time for the purpose of granting licences; those peculiarly +interested in the liquor trade were disqualified. The licence contained +various provisions for regulating the conduct of the house and +maintaining order, but closing was only required during the hours of +divine service on Sunday. Applicants for new licences and for the +transfer of old ones (granted at a special sessions of the justices) +were required to give notice to the local authorities and to post up +notices at the parish church and on the house concerned. + +_Excise Licences._--It will be convenient at this point to explain the +relation between that part of the licensing system which is concerned +with the conduct of the traffic and lies in the jurisdiction of the +justices and that part which has to do with taxation or revenue. The +former is the earlier and more important branch of legislative +interference; we have traced its history from 1495 down to 1828. Its +object from the beginning was the maintenance of public order and good +conduct, which were impaired by the misuse of public-houses; and all the +successive enactments were directed to that end. They were attempts to +suppress or moderate the evils arising from the traffic by regulating +it. The excise licensing system has nothing to do with public order or +the conduct of the traffic; its object is simply to obtain revenue, and +for a long time the two systems were quite independent. But time and +change gradually brought them into contact and eventually they came to +form two aspects of one unified system. Licensing for revenue was first +introduced in 1660 at the same time as duties on the manufacture of beer +and spirits: but it was of an irregular character and was only applied +to wine, which was not then under the jurisdiction of the justices at +all (see above). In 1710 a small annual tax was imposed on the retailers +of beer and ale and collected by means of a stamp on the justices' +licence. In 1728 an annual excise licence of £20 was imposed on +retailers of spirits, and in 1736 this was raised to £50 (see above). +The object of these particular imposts, however, was rather to check the +sale, as previously explained, than to secure revenue. In 1756 the +previous tax on the retail sale of wine for consumption on the premises +was changed to an annual excise licence, which was in the next year +extended to "made wines" and "sweets" (British wines). Similar licences, +in place of the previous stamps, were temporarily required for beer and +ale between 1725 and 1742 and permanently imposed in 1808. Thus the +system of annual excise licences became gradually applied to all kinds +of liquor. In 1825 the laws relating to them were consolidated and +brought into direct relation with the other licensing laws. It was +enacted that excise licences for the retail of liquor should only be +granted to persons holding a justices' licence or--to use the more +correct term--certificate. The actual permission to sell was obtained on +payment of the proper dues from the excise authorities, but they had no +power to withhold it from persons authorized by the justices. And that +was still the system in 1910. + +_Licensing since 1828._--There was no change in the form of the British +licensing system between the consolidation of the law in 1825-1828 and +the time (1910) at which we write; but there were a great many changes +in administrative detail and some changes in principle. Only the most +important can be mentioned. In 1830 a bold experiment was tried in +exempting the sale of beer from the requirement of a justice's licence. +Any householder rated to the parish was entitled, under a bond with +sureties, to take out an excise licence for the sale of beer for +consumption on or off the premises. This measure, which applied to +England and was commonly known as the Duke of Wellington's Act, had two +objects; one was to encourage the consumption of beer in the hope of +weaning the people from spirits; the other was to counteract the +practice of "tieing" public-houses to breweries by creating free ones. +With regard to the first, it was believed that spirit-drinking was +increasing again at the time and was doing a great deal of harm. The +reason appears to have been a great rise in the returns of consumption, +which followed a lowering of the duty on spirits from 11s. 8¼d. to 7s. +a gallon in 1825. The latter step was taken because of the prevalence of +illicit distillation. In 1823 the duty had been lowered for the same +reason in Scotland from 6s. 2d. and in Ireland from 5s. 7d. to a uniform +rate of 2s. 4¾d. a gallon, with so much success in turning the trade +from illegal to legal channels that a similar change was thought +advisable in England, as stated. The legal or apparent consumption rose +at once from 7 to nearly 13 million gallons; but it is doubtful if there +was much or any real increase. According to an official statement, more +than half the spirits consumed in 1820 were illicit. The facts are of +much interest in showing what had already been shown in the 18th +century, that the liquor trade will not bear unlimited taxation; the +traffic is driven underground. It is highly probable that this accounts +for part of the great fall in consumption which followed the raising of +the spirit duty from 11s. to 14s. 9d. under Mr Lloyd George's Budget in +1909. With regard to "tied" houses, this is the original form of +public-house. When beer was first brewed for sale a "tap" for retail +purposes was attached to the brewery, and public-houses may still be +found bearing the name "The Brewery Tap." At the beginning of the 19th +century complaints were made of the increasing number of houses owned or +controlled by breweries and of the dependence of the licence-holders, +and in 1817 a Select Committee inquired into the subject. The Beerhouse +Act does not appear to have checked the practice or to have diminished +the consumption of spirits; but it led to a great increase in the number +of beer-houses. It was modified in 1834 and 1840, but not repealed until +1869, when beer-houses were again brought under the justices. + +Most of the other very numerous changes in the law were concerned with +conditions imposed on licence-holders. The hours of closing are the most +important of these. Apart from the ancient regulations of closing during +divine service on Sunday, there were no restrictions in 1828; but after +that at least a dozen successive acts dealt with the point. The first +important measure was applied in London under a Police Act in 1839; it +ordered licensed houses to be closed from midnight on Saturday to +mid-day on Sunday, and produced a wonderful effect on public order. In +1853 a very important act (Forbes Mackenzie) was passed for Scotland, by +which sale on Sunday was wholly forbidden, except to travellers and +lodgers, and was restricted on week days to the hours between 8 A.M. and +11 P.M. This act also introduced a distinction between hotels, +public-houses and grocers licensed to sell liquor, and forbade the sale +to children under 14 years, except as messengers, and to intoxicated +persons. In England, after a series of enactments in the direction of +progressive restriction, uniform regulations as to the hours of opening +and closing for licensed premises were applied in 1874, and are still in +force (see below). In 1878 complete Sunday closing, as in Scotland, was +applied in Ireland, with the exemption of the five largest towns, +Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Limerick and Waterford; and in 1881 the same +provision was extended to Wales. + +Other changes worthy of note are the following. In 1860 the free sale of +wine for consumption off the premises was introduced by the Wine and +Refreshment Houses Act, which authorized any shopkeeper to take out an +excise licence for this purpose; the licences so created were +subsequently known as grocers' licences. By the same act refreshment +houses were placed under certain restrictions, but were permitted to +sell wine for consumption on the premises under an excise licence. In +1861 spirit dealers were similarly authorized to sell spirits by the +bottle. The effect of these measures was to exempt a good deal of the +wine and spirit trade from the control of the justices, and the idea was +to wean people from public-house drinking by encouraging them to take +what they wanted at home and in eating-houses. + +In 1869 this policy of directing the habits of the people into channels +thought to be preferable, which had been inaugurated in 1830, was +abandoned for one of greater stringency all round, which has since been +maintained. All the beer and wine retail licences were brought under the +discretion of the justices, but they might only refuse "off" licences +and the renewal of previously existing beer-house "on" licences upon +specified grounds, namely (1) unsatisfactory character, (2) disorder, +(3) previous misconduct, (4) insufficient qualification of applicant or +premises. In 1872 an important act further extended the policy of +restriction; new licences had to be confirmed, and the right of appeal +in case of refusal was taken away; penalties for offences were increased +and extended, particularly for public drunkenness, and for permitting +drunkenness; the sale of spirits to persons under 16 was prohibited. In +1876 many of these provisions were extended to Scotland. In 1886 the +sale of liquor for consumption on the premises was forbidden to persons +under 13 years. In 1901 the sale for "off" consumption was prohibited to +persons under 14, except in sealed vessels; this is known as the Child +Messenger Act. These measures for the protection of children were +extended in 1908 by an act which came into operation in April 1909, +excluding children under 14 from the public-house bars altogether. The +progressive protection of children by the law well illustrates the +influence of changing public opinion. The successive measures enumerated +were not due to increasing contamination of children caused by their +frequenting the public-house, but to recognition of the harm they +sustain thereby. The practice of taking and sending children to the +public-house, and of serving them with drink, is an old one in England. +A great deal of evidence on the subject was given before a Select +Committee of the House of Commons in 1834; but it is only in recent +years, when the general concern for children has undergone a remarkable +development in all directions, that attempts have been made to stop it. +In 1902 clubs, which had been increasing, and habitual drunkards, were +brought under the law. + +In 1904 a new principle was introduced into the licensing system in +England, and this, too, was due to change in public opinion. Between +1830 and 1869, under the influence of the legislation described above, a +continuous increase in the number of public-houses took place in +England; but after 1869 they began to diminish through stricter control, +and this process has gone on continuously ever since. Reduction of +numbers became a prime object with many licensing benches; they were +reluctant to grant new licences, and made a point of extinguishing old +ones year by year. At first this was easily effected under the new and +stringent provisions of the legislation of 1869-1872, but it gradually +became more difficult as the worst houses disappeared and the remaining +ones were better conducted, and gave less and less excuse for +interference. But the desire for reduction still gained ground, and a +new principle was adopted. Houses against which no ill-conduct was +alleged were said to be "superfluous," and on that ground licences were +taken away. But this, again, offended the general sense of justice; it +was felt that to take away a man's living or a valuable property for no +fault of his own was to inflict a great hardship. To meet the difficulty +the principle of compensation was introduced by the act of 1904. It +provides that compensation shall be paid to a licence-holder (also to +the owner of the premises) whose licence is withdrawn on grounds other +than misconduct of the house or unsuitability of premises or of +character. The compensation is paid out of a fund raised by an annual +charge on the remaining licensed houses. This act has been followed by a +large reduction of licences. + +_State of the Law in 1910._--In consequence of the long history and +evolution of legislation in the United Kingdom and of the innumerable +minor changes introduced, only a few of which have been mentioned above, +the law has become excessively complicated. The differences between the +English, Scottish and Irish codes, the distinction between the several +kinds of liquor, between consumption on and off the premises, between +new licences and the renewal of old ones, between premises licensed +before 1869 and those licensed since, between excise and justices' +licences--all these and many other points make the subject exceedingly +intricate; and it is further complicated by the uncertainty of the +courts and a vast body of case-made law. Only a summary of the chief +provisions can be given here. + +1. The open sale of intoxicating liquor (spirits, wine, sweets, beer, +cider) by retail is confined to persons holding an excise licence, with +a few unimportant exceptions, including medicine. + +2. A condition precedent to obtaining such a licence is permission +granted by the justices who are the licensing authority and called a +justices' licence or certificate. Theatres, passenger boats and +canteens are exempted from this condition; also certain dealers in +spirits and wine. + +3. Justices' licences are granted at special annual meetings of the +local justices, called Brewster Sessions. Justices having a pecuniary +interest in the liquor trade of the district, except as railway +shareholders, are disqualified from acting; "bias" due to other +interests may also be a disqualification. + +4. Justices' licences are only granted for one year and must be renewed +annually, with the exception of a particular class, created by the act +of 1904 and valid for a term of years. Distinctions are made between +granting a new licence and renewing an old one. The proceedings are +stricter and more summary in the case of a new licence; notice of +application must be given to the local authorities; the premises must be +of a certain annual value; a plan of the premises must be deposited +beforehand in the case of an "on" licence; the justices may impose +conditions and have full discretion to refuse without any right of +appeal; the licence, if granted, must be confirmed by a higher +authority. In the case of old licences on the other hand, no notice is +required; they are renewed to the former holders on application, as a +matter of right; unless there is opposition or objection, which may come +from the police or from outside parties or from the justices themselves. +If there is objection the renewal may be refused, but only on specified +grounds--namely misconduct, unfitness of premises or character, +disqualification; otherwise compensation is payable on the plan +explained above. There is a right of appeal to a higher court against +refusal. In all cases, whether the justices have full discretion or not, +they must exercise their discretion in a judicial manner and not +arbitrarily. + +5. Licences may be transferred from one person to another in case of +death, sickness, bankruptcy, change of tenancy, wilful omission to apply +for renewal, forfeiture or disqualification. Licences may also be +transferred from one house to another in certain circumstances. + +6. A licence may be forfeited through the conviction of the holder of +certain specified serious offences. + +7. Persons may similarly be disqualified from holding a licence. + +8. Liquor may only be sold on the premises specified in the licence and +during the following hours:--week-days; London, 5 A.M. to 12.30 P.M. +(Saturday, midnight); large towns 6 A.M. to 11 P.M.; other places 6 A.M. +to 10 P.M.--Sundays; London, 1 P.M. to 3 P.M., 6 P.M. to 11 P.M.; other +places 12.30 P.M. (or 1 P.M.) to 2.30 P.M. (or 3 P.M.), 6 P.M. to 10 +P.M.; Christmas Day and Good Friday are counted as Sunday. In Scotland, +Wales and Ireland (except the five chief towns) no sale is permitted on +Sunday. Licence holders may sell during prohibited hours to lodgers +staying in the house and to _bona-fide_ travellers, who must be not less +than 3 m. from the place they slept in on the previous night. Extension +of hours of sale may be granted for special occasions and for special +localities (e.g. early markets). + +9. The following proceedings are prohibited in licensed premises: +permitting children under 14 to be in a bar, selling any liquor to +children under 14 for consumption on the premises, selling liquor to +children under 14 as messengers except in corked and sealed vessels, +selling spirits for consumption on the premises to persons under 16; +selling to drunken persons and to habitual drunkards; permitting +drunkenness, permitting disorder, harbouring prostitutes, harbouring +constables, supplying liquor to constables on duty, bribing constables, +permitting betting (persistent) or gaming, permitting premises to be +used as a brothel, harbouring thieves, permitting seditious meetings; +permitting the payment of wagers on premises; permitting premises to be +used for election committee rooms. In and within 20 m. of London music +and dancing are prohibited on licensed premises except under special +licences. + +10. The police have the right of entry to licensed premises at any time +for the purpose of preventing or detecting offences. + +11. The injurious adulteration of any liquor is prohibited; also the +dilution of beer; but dilution of spirits is not unlawful if the +customer's attention is drawn to the fact. + +12. All clubs in which intoxicating liquor is sold must be registered. +If the liquor is the collective property of the members no licence is +required for retail sale, but no liquor can be sold for consumption off +the premises. Clubs run for profit, known as proprietory clubs, are on +the same legal footing as public-houses. + +13. Penalties incurred by licence-holders for offences under the +foregoing provisions. For selling any other kind of liquor than that +authorized--first offence, fine not exceeding £50 or one month's +imprisonment; second offence, fine not exceeding £100 or 3 months' +imprisonment with forfeiture of licence and, if ordered, confiscation of +liquor and disqualification for five years; third offence, fine not +exceeding £100 or six months' imprisonment with forfeiture of licence +and, if ordered, confiscation of liquor and unlimited disqualification. +Under the Excise Acts the penalty for selling without a licence is--for +spirits, a fine of £100, confiscation of liquor, forfeiture of licence +and perpetual disqualification; for wine, a fine of £20; for beer or +cider "on" consumption £20, "off" consumption £10. For sale to children; +first offence, fine up to £2, second offence, fine up to £5. Permitting +premises to be used as a brothel, fine of £20, forfeiture of licence and +perpetual disqualification. Other offences, fine up to £10 for first +conviction, up to £20 for second. + +14. The following are offences on the part of the public. Being found +drunk on any highway or other public place or on licensed premises; +penalty, fine up to 10s. for first conviction, up to 20s. for second, +and up to 40s. for third. Riotous or disorderly conduct while drunk; +fine up to 40s. Falsely pretending to be a traveller or lodger; fine up +to £5. Causing children to be in a bar or sending them for liquor +contrary to the law; fine up to £2 for first and up to £5 for second +offence. Attempt to obtain liquor by a person notified to the police as +an habitual drunkard; fine up to 20s. for first offence, up to 40s. for +subsequent ones. Giving drunken persons liquor or helping them to get it +on licensed premises; fine up to 40s. or imprisonment for a month. +Causing children under 11 to sing or otherwise perform on licensed +premises, and causing boys under 14 or girls under 16 to do so between 9 +P.M. and 6 A.M.; fine up to £25 or three months' imprisonment. + +The foregoing statement of the law does not in all respects apply to +Scotland and Ireland, where the administration differs somewhat from +that of England. In Scotland the provost and bailies are the licensing +authority in royal and parliamentary burghs, and elsewhere the justices. +They hold two sessions annually for granting licences and have +considerably more power in some respects than in England. The hours of +opening are from 8 A.M. to 11 P.M. (week days only), but there is a +discretionary power to close at 10 P.M. In Ireland the licensing +authority is divided between quarter sessions and petty sessions. +Public-house licences are granted and transferred at quarter sessions; +renewals and other licences are dealt with at petty sessions. In Dublin, +Belfast, Cork, Londonderry and Galway the licensing jurisdiction of +quarter sessions is exercised by the recorder, elsewhere by the justices +assembled and presided over by the county court judge. The licensing +jurisdiction of petty sessions is exercised by two or more justices, but +in Dublin by one divisional justice. + + +-------------------------------+--------------------+------------------------------+ + | Licence. | Old Duty. | New Duty 1909-1910. | + +-------------------------------+--------------------+------------------------------+ + |_Manufacturers' Licences_-- | | | + | Distiller (spirits) | £10, 10s. | £10 for first 50,000 | + | | | gallons, £10 for every | + | | | additional 25,000 gallons. | + | Rectifier (spirits) | £10, 10s. | £15, 15s. | + | Brewer | £1 | £1 for first 100 barrels, | + | | | 12s. for every additional | + | | | 50 barrels. | + | Sweets (British wines) | £1 | £5, 5s. | + | | | | + |_Wholesale Dealers' Licences_--| | | + | Spirits | £10, 10s. | £15, 15s. | + | Beer | £3, 6s. 1d. | £10, 10s. | + | Wine | £10, 10s. | No change. | + | Sweets | £5, 5s. | No change. | + | | | | + |_Retail Licences On_-- | | | + | Full or Publican's | £4, 10s. to £60 | Half the annual value of | + | (spirits, beer, wine and | according to | premises, with a fixed | + | cider) | annual value | minimum ranging from £5 in | + | | of premises. | places with less than | + | | | 2000 inhabitants to £35 in | + | | | towns having over 100,000 | + | | | inhabitants. | + | Beer-house | £3, 10s. | One-third of annual value | + | | | of premises, with a | + | | | minimum as above ranging | + | | | from £3, 10s. to £23, 10s. | + | Wine (confectioners') | £3, 10s. | From £4, 10s. to £12 | + | | | according to annual value. | + | Cider | £1, 5s. | From £2, 5s. to £6. | + | Sweets | £1, 5s. | From £2, 5s. to £6. | + | | | | + |_Retail Licences Off_-- | | | + | Spirits | £3, 3s. /| | + | Spirits (grocers', Scotland) | £4, 4s. to | | From £10 to £50 according to | + | | £13, 13s. 6d. < | annual value. | + | Spirits (grocers', Ireland) | £9, 18s. 5d. to | | | + | | £14, 6s. 7d. \| | + | Beer (England) | £1, 5s. | £1, 10s. to £10. | + | Beer (grocers', Scotland) |£2, 10s. and £4, 4s.| £1, 10s. to £10. | + | Wine (grocers') | £2, 10s. 0d. | £2, 10s. to £10. | + +-------------------------------+--------------------+------------------------------+ + +_Excise Licences and Taxation._--The excise licences may be divided into +four classes, (1) manufacturers', (2) wholesale dealers', (3) retail +dealers' for "on" consumption, (4) retail dealers' for "off" +consumption. Only the two last classes come under the jurisdiction of +the justices, as explained above. The total number of different excise +licences is between 30 and 40, but several of them are subvarieties and +unimportant or are peculiar to Scotland or Ireland. The duties charged +on them were greatly changed and increased by the Finance Act of +1909-1910, and it seems desirable to state the changes thus introduced. +The table on the previous page gives the principal kinds of licence with +the old and the new duties. + +There are in addition "occasional" licences valid for one or more days, +which come under the jurisdiction of the justices; the duty is 2s. 6d. a +day for the full licence (raised to 10s.) and 1s. for beer or wine only +(raised to 5s.). + +The total amount raised by the excise licences in the United Kingdom for +the financial year ending 31st March 1909 was £2,209,928. Of this amount +£1,712,160, or nearly four-fifths, was derived from the full or +publicans' licence, £126,053 from the wholesale spirit licence and +£88,167 from the beer-house licence; the rest are comparatively +unimportant. But the licences only represent a small part of the revenue +derived from liquor. The great bulk of it is collected by means of +duties on manufacture and importation. The total amount for the year +ending March 1909 was £37,428,189, or nearly 30% of the total taxation +revenue of the country. The excise duties on the manufacture of spirits +yielded £17,456,366 and those on beer £12,691,332; customs duties on +importation yielded £5,046,949. The excise duty on spirits was at the +rate of 11s. a gallon, raised at the end of April 1909 to 14s. 9d.; the +corresponding duty on beer is 7s. 9d. a barrel (36 gallons). The +relative taxation of the liquor trade in the United States, which has +become important as a political argument, is discussed below. + +_Effects of Legislation._--The only effects which can be stated with +precision and ascribed with certainty to legislation are the increase or +diminution of the number of licences or licensed premises; secondary +effects, such as increase or diminution of consumption and of +drunkenness, are affected by so many causes that only by a very careful, +well-informed and dispassionate examination of the facts can positive +conclusions be drawn with regard to the influence of legislation (see +TEMPERANCE). There is no more prolific ground for fallacious statements +and arguments, whether unconscious or deliberate. The course of +legislation traced above, however, does permit the broad conclusion that +great laxity and the multiplication of facilities tend to increase +drinking and disorder in a country like the United Kingdom, and that +extreme severity produces the same or worse effects by driving the trade +into illicit channels, which escape control, and thus really increasing +facilities while apparently diminishing them. The most successful course +has always been a mean between these extremes in the form of restraint +judiciously applied and adjusted to circumstances. The most salient +feature of the situation as influenced by the law in recent years is the +progressive reduction in the number of licensed houses since 1869. +Previously they had been increasing in England. + +The number of public-houses, including beer-houses for "on" consumption, +in 1831 was 82,466; in 1869 it had risen to 118,602; in 1909 it had +fallen again to 94,794. But if the proportion of public-houses to +population be taken there has been a continuous fall since 1831, as the +following table shows:-- + + _England and Wales._ + + +--------+----------------+---------------+ + | | No. of | Proportion | + | Year. | "on" Licences. | per 10,000 of | + | | | Population. | + +--------+----------------+---------------+ + | 1831 | 82,466 | 59 | + | 1871 | 112,886 | 49 | + | 1901 | 101,940 | 31 | + | 1909 | 94,794 | 26 | + +--------+----------------+---------------+ + +The change may be put in another way. In 1831 there was one public-house +to 168 persons; in 1909 the proportion was 1 to 375. The proportional +reduction goes back to the 18th century. In 1732 there was in London one +public-house to every 50 persons (see above). + +In Scotland the number of public-houses has been diminishing since 1829, +when there were 17,713; in 1909 there were only 7065, while the +population had more than doubled. The number in proportion to population +has therefore fallen far more rapidly than in England, thus--1831, 1 to +134 persons; 1909, 1 to 690 persons. In Ireland the story is different. +There has been a fall in the number of public-houses since 1829, when +there were 20,548; but it has not been large or continuous and the +population has been steadily diminishing during the time, so that the +proportion to population has actually increased, thus--1831, 1 to 395 +persons; 1909, 1 to 249 persons. As a whole, however, the United Kingdom +shows a large and progressive diminution of public-houses to population; +nor is this counterbalanced by an increase of "off" licences. If we take +the whole number of licences we get the following movement in recent +years:-- + + _No. of Retail Licences ("on" and "off") per 10,000 of Population._ + + +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | 1893. | 1903. | 1909. | + +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+ + | England and Wales | 46 | 42 | 37 | + | Scotland | 37 | 33 | 30 | + | Ireland | 41 | 46 | 45 | + | United Kingdom | 45 | 42 | 37 | + +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+ + +The diminution in the number of public-houses in England was markedly +accelerated by the act of 1904, which introduced the principle of +compensation. The average annual rate of reduction in the ten years +1894-1904 before the act was 359; in the four years 1905-1908; after the +act it rose to 1388. The average annual number of licences suppressed +with compensation was 1137, and the average annual amount of +compensation paid was £1,096,946, contributed by the trade as explained +above. + +The reduction of public-houses has been accompanied in recent years by a +constant increase in the number of clubs. By the act of 1902, which +imposed registration, they were brought under some control and the +number of legal clubs was accurately ascertained. Previously the number +was only estimated from certain _data_ with approximate accuracy. The +following table gives the official figures:-- + + _Clubs: England and Wales._ + + +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | 1887.| 1896.| 1904.| 1905.| 1906.| 1907.| 1908.| 1909.| + +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Number | 1982 | 3655 | 6371 | 6589 | 6721 | 6907 | 7133 | 7353 | + | Proportion | | | | | | | | | + | per 10,000 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.89 | 1.93 | 1.95 | 1.98 | 2.02 | 2.08 | + +--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + +Clubs represent alternative channels to the licensed trade and they are +under much less stringent control; they have no prohibited hours and the +police have not the same right of entry. In so far, therefore, as clubs +replace public-houses the reduction of the latter does not mean +diminished facilities for drinking, but the contrary. In the years +1903-1908 the average number of clubs proceeded against for offences was +74 and the average number struck off the register was 52. The increase +of clubs and the large proportion struck off the register suggest the +need of caution in dealing with the licensed trade; over-stringent +measures defeat their own end. + +Persistent attempts have for many years been made to effect radical +changes in the British system of licensing by the introduction of some +of the methods adopted in other countries, and particularly those in the +United States. But it is difficult to engraft new and alien methods, +involving violent change, upon an ancient system consolidated by +successive statutory enactments and confirmed by time and usage. The +course of the law and administration since 1869 has made it particularly +difficult. The stringent conditions imposed on licence-holders have +given those who fulfil them a claim to consideration, and the reduction +of licences, by limiting the market, has enhanced their value. An +expectation of renewal, in the absence of misconduct, has grown up by +usage and been confirmed by the law, which recognizes the distinction +between granting a new licence and renewing an old one, by the treasury +which levies death duties on the assumption that a licence is an +enduring property, by local authorities which assess upon the same +assumption, and by the High Courts of Justice, whose decisions have +repeatedly turned on this point. The consequence of all this is that +very large sums have been invested in licensed property, which has +become part of the settled order of society; and to destroy it by some +sudden innovation would cause a great shock. The position is entirely +different in other countries where no such control has ever been +exercised. It is possible to impose a new system where previously there +was none, but not to replace suddenly an old and settled one for +something entirely different. Only the most convincing proof of the need +and the advantages of the change would justify it; and such proof has +not been forthcoming. The British system has the great merit of +combining adaptability to different circumstances and to changing +customs with continuity and steadiness of administration. The advantages +of abandoning it for some other are more than doubtful, the difficulties +are real and serious. Over a very long period it has been repeatedly +readjusted in conformity with the movement of public opinion and of +national habits; while under it the executive have gradually got the +traffic well in hand, and a great and progressive improvement in order +and conduct has taken place. The process is gradual but sure, and the +record will compare favourably with that of any other comparable +country. Further readjustment will follow and is desirable. The great +defect of the law is its extreme complexity; it needs recasting and +simplification. There are too many kinds of licence, and the +classification does not correspond with the actual conditions of the +traffic. Some licences are obsolete and superfluous; others make no +distinction between branches of the trade which fulfil entirely +different functions and require different treatment. The full or +publican's licence, which is incomparably the most important, places on +the same legal footing hotels, restaurants, village inns and mere +drinking bars, and the lack of distinction is a great stumbling-block. +In the attempt made in 1908 to introduce new legislation it was found +necessary to incorporate distinctions between different classes of +establishment, although that was not contemplated in the original bill. +It will always be found necessary whenever the subject is seriously +approached, because the law has to deal with things as they actually +are. It does not fall within the scope of this article to discuss the +numerous controversial questions which arise in connexion with various +legislative proposals for dealing with the liquor traffic; but an +account of the methods which it has been proposed to adopt from other +countries will be found below. + + +THE UNITED STATES + +The liquor legislation of the United States presents a great contrast to +that of the United Kingdom, but it is not less interesting in an +entirely different way. In place of a single homogeneous system +gradually evolved in the course of centuries it embraces a whole series +of different ones based on the most diverse principles and subject to +sudden changes and frequent experiments. It is not sufficiently +understood in Europe that the legislatures of the several states are +sovereign in regard to internal affairs and make what laws they please +subject to the proviso that they cannot over-ride the Federal law. There +is therefore no uniformity in regard to such matters as liquor +legislation, and it is a mistake to speak of any particular system as +representing the whole country. The United States government only +interferes with the traffic to tax it for revenue, and to regulate the +sale of liquor to Indians, to soldiers, etc. The liquor traffic is +subject--whether in the form of manufacture, wholesale or retail +trade--to a uniform tax of 25 dollars (£5) per annum imposed on every +one engaged in it. Congress, under the constitution, controls interstate +commerce, and the Supreme Court has decided that without its consent no +state can prevent a railway or other carrying agency from bringing +liquor to any point within its borders from outside. Thus no state can +keep out liquor or prevent its consumption, but any state legislature +may make what internal regulations it pleases and may prohibit the +manufacture and sale altogether within its own borders. It may go +further. In 1887 a judgment was delivered by the Supreme Court of the +United States that it is within the discretionary power of a state to +protect public health, safety and morals even by the destruction of +property without compensation, and that the constitution of the United +States is not thereby violated. Use has been made of this power in +Kansas, and it appears therefore that persons who engage in the liquor +trade do so at their own risk. There is in fact no stability at all +except in a few states which have incorporated some principle in their +constitutions, and even that does not ensure continuity of practice, as +means are easily found for evading the law or substituting some other +system which amounts to the same thing. As a whole the control of the +liquor traffic oscillates violently between attempted suppression and +great freedom combined with heavy taxation of licensed houses. + +In the great majority of the states some form of licensing exists; it is +the prevailing system and was adopted, no doubt from England, at an +early period. It is exercised in various ways. The licensing authority +may be the municipality or a specially constituted body or the police or +a judicial body. The last, which is the method in Pennsylvania, seems to +be exceptional. According to Mr Fanshawe there is a general tendency, +due to the prevailing corruption, to withdraw from municipal authorities +power over the licensing, and to place this function in the hands of +commissioners, who may be elected or nominated. In New York state the +licensing commissioners used to be nominated in cities by the mayors and +elected elsewhere; but by the Raines law of 1896 the whole +administration was placed under a state commissioner appointed by the +governor with the consent of the Senate. A similar plan is in force in +some important cities in other states. In Boston the licensing is in the +hands of a police board appointed by the governor; in Baltimore and St +Louis the authority is vested in commissioners similarly appointed; and +in Washington the licensing commissioners are appointed by the +president. In Pennsylvania, where the court of quarter sessions is the +authority, the vesting of licensing in a judicial body dates back to +1676 and bears the stamp of English influence. It is noteworthy that in +Philadelphia and Pittsburg (Allegheny county) the judicial court was for +a time given up in favour of commissioners, but the change was a great +failure and abandoned in 1888. The powers of the licensing authority +vary widely; in some cases the only grounds of refusal are conduct and +character, and licences are virtually granted to every applicant; in +others the discretion to refuse is absolute. In Massachusetts the number +of licences allowed bears a fixed ratio to the population, namely 1 to +1000, except in Boston, where it is 1 to 500, but as a rule where +licences are given they are given freely. They are valid for a year and +granted on conditions. The first and most general condition is the +payment of a fee or tax, which varies in amount in different states. +Under the "high licence" system (see below) it generally varies +according to the size of the locality and the class of licence where +different classes are recognized. In Massachusetts there are six +licences; three for consumption on the premises--namely (1) full licence +for all liquors, (2) beer, cider, and light wine, (3) beer and cider; +two for consumption off the premises--namely (1) spirits, (2) other +liquors; the sixth is for druggists. In New York state also there are +six classes of licence, though they are not quite the same; but in many +states there appears to be only one licence, and no distinction between +on and off sale, wholesale or retail. Another condition generally +imposed in addition to the tax is a heavy bond with sureties; it varies +in amount but is usually not less than 2000 dollars (£400) and may be as +high as 6000 dollars (£1200). A condition precedent to the granting of a +licence imposed in some states is the deposit of a petition or +application some time beforehand, which may have to be backed by a +certain number of local residents or tax-payers. In Pennsylvania the +required number is 12, and this is the common practice elsewhere; in +Missouri a majority of tax-payers is required, and the licence may even +then be refused, but if the petition is signed by two-thirds of the +tax-payers the licensing authority is bound to grant it. This seems to +be a sort of genuine local option. Provision is also generally made for +hearing objectors. Another condition sometimes required (Massachusetts +and Iowa) is the consent of owners of adjoining property. In some states +no licences are permitted within a stated distance of certain +institutions; e.g. public parks (Missouri) and schools (Massachusetts). +Regulations imposed on the licensed trade nearly always include +prohibition of sale to minors under 18 and to drunkards, on Sundays, +public holidays and election days, and prohibition of the employment of +barmaids. Sunday closing, which is universal, dates at least from 1816 +(Indiana) and is probably much older. The hours of closing on week days +vary considerably but are usually 10 P.M. or 11 P.M. Other things are +often prohibited including indecent pictures, games and music. + +_State Prohibition._--In a few states no licences are allowed. State +prohibition was first introduced in 1846 under the influence of a strong +agitation in Maine, and within a few years the example was followed by +the other New England states; by Vermont in 1852, Connecticut in 1854, +New Hampshire in 1855 and later by Massachusetts and Rhode Island. They +have all now after a more or less prolonged trial given it up except +Maine. Other states which have tried and abandoned it are Illinois +(1851-1853), Indiana (1855-1858), Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, South +Dakota. The great Middle states have either never tried it, as in the +case of New York (where it was enacted in 1855 but declared +unconstitutional), Pennsylvania and New Jersey, or only gave it a +nominal trial, as with Illinois and Indiana. A curious position came +about in Ohio,[1] one of the great industrial states. It did not adopt +prohibition, which forbids the manufacture and sale of liquor; but in +1851 it abandoned licensing, which had been in force since 1792, and +incorporated a provision in the constitution declaring that no licence +should thereafter be granted in the state. The position then was that +retail sale without a licence was illegal and that no licence could be +granted. This singular state of things was changed in 1886 by the "Dow +law," which authorized a tax on the trade and rendered it legal without +expressly sanctioning or licensing it. There were therefore no licences +and no licensing machinery, but the traffic was taxed and conditions +imposed. In effect the Dow law amounted to repeal of prohibition and its +replacement by the freest possible form of licensing. In Iowa, which +early adopted a prohibitory law, still nominally in force, a law, known +as the "mulct law," was passed in 1894 for taxing the trade and +practically legalizing it under conditions. The story of the forty +years' struggle in this state between the prohibition agitation and the +natural appetites of mankind is exceedingly instructive; it is an +extraordinary revelation of political intrigue and tortuous proceedings, +and an impressive warning against the folly of trying to coerce the +personal habits of a large section of the population against their will. +It ended in a sort of compromise, in which the coercive principle is +preserved in one law and personal liberty vindicated by another +contradictory one. The result may be satisfactory, but it might be +attained in a less expensive manner. What suffers is the principle of +law itself, which is brought into disrepute. + +State prohibition, abandoned by the populous New England and central +states, has in recent years found a home in more remote regions. In 1907 +it was in force in five states--Maine, Kansas, North Dakota, Georgia and +Oklahoma; in January, 1909, it came into operation in Alabama, +Mississippi, and North Carolina; and in July 1909 in Tennessee. + +_Local Prohibition._--The limited form of prohibition known as local +veto is much more extensively applied. It is an older plan than state +prohibition, having been adopted by the legislature of Indiana in 1832. +Georgia followed in the next year, and then other states took it up for +several years until the rise of state prohibition in the middle of the +century caused it to fall into neglect for a time. But the states which +adopted and then abandoned general prohibition fell back on the local +form, and a great many others have also adopted it. In 1907 it was in +force in over 30 states, including all the most populous and important, +with one or two exceptions. But the extent to which it is applied varies +very widely and is constantly changing, as different places take it up +and drop it again. Some alternate in an almost regular manner every two +or three years, or even every year; and periodical oscillations of a +general character occur in favour of the plan or against it as the +result of organized agitation followed by reaction. The wide +discrepancies between the practice of different states are shown by some +statistics collected in 1907, when the movement was running favourably +to the adoption of no licence. In Tennessee the whole state was under +prohibition with the exception of 5 municipalities; Arkansas, 56 out of +75 counties; Florida, 35 out of 46 counties; Mississippi, 56 out of 77 +counties; North Carolina, 70 out of 97 counties; Vermont, 3 out of 6 +cities and 208 out of 241 towns. These appear to be the most prohibitive +states, and they are all of a rural character. At the other end of the +scale were Pennsylvania with 1 county and a few towns ("town" in +America is generally equivalent to "village" in England); Michigan, 1 +county and a few towns; California, parts of 8 or 10 counties. New York +had 308 out of 933 towns, Ohio, 480 out of 768 towns, Massachusetts, 19 +out of 33 cities and 249 out of 321 towns. At the end of 1909 a strong +reaction against the prohibition policy set in, notably in +Massachusetts. + +There is no more uniformity in the mode of procedure than in the extent +of application. At least five methods are distinguished. In the most +complete and regular form a vote is taken every year in all localities +whether there shall be licences or not in the ensuing year and is +decided by a bare majority. A second method of applying the general vote +is to take it at any time, but not oftener than once in four years, on +the demand of one-tenth of the electorate. A third plan is to apply this +principle locally and put the question to the vote, when demanded, in +any locality. A fourth and entirely different system is to invest the +local authority with powers to decide whether there shall be licences or +not; and a fifth is to give residents power to prevent licences by means +of protest or petition. The first two methods are those most widely in +force; but the third plan of taking a local vote by itself is adopted in +some important states, including New York, Ohio and Illinois. Opinions +differ widely with regard to the success of local veto, but all +independent observers agree that it is more successful than state +prohibition, and the preference accorded to it by so many states after +prolonged experience proves that public opinion broadly endorses that +view. Its advantage lies in its adaptability to local circumstances and +local opinion. It prevails mainly in rural districts and small towns; in +the larger towns it is best tolerated where they are in close proximity +to "safety valves" or licensed areas in which liquor can be obtained; +the large cities do not adopt it. On the other hand, it has some serious +disadvantages. The perpetually renewed struggle between the advocates +and opponents of prohibition is a constant cause of social and political +strife; and the alternate shutting up and opening of public houses in +many places makes continuity of administration impossible, prevents the +executive from getting the traffic properly in hand, upsets the habits +of the people, demoralizes the trade and stands in the way of steady +improvement. + +_Public Dispensaries._--This entirely different system of controlling +the traffic has been in general operation in one state only, South +Carolina; but it was also applied to certain areas in the neighbouring +states of North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. The coloured element is +very strong in these states, especially in South Carolina, where the +coloured far exceeds the white population. The dispensary system was +inaugurated there in 1893. It had been preceded by a licensing system +with local veto (adopted in 1882), but a strong agitation for state +prohibition brought matters to a crisis in 1891. The usual violent +political struggle, which is the only constant feature of liquor +legislation in the United States, took place, partly on temperance and +partly on economic grounds; and a way out was found by adopting an idea +from the town of Athens in Georgia, where the liquor trade was run by +the municipality through a public dispensary. A law was passed in 1892 +embodying this principle but applying it to the whole state. The measure +was fiercely contested in the courts and the legislature for years and +it underwent numerous amendments, but it survived. Under it the state +became the sole purveyor of liquor, buying wholesale from the +manufacturers and selling retail through dispensaries under public +management and only for consumption off the premises. Many changes were +introduced from time to time without abandoning the principle, but in +1907 the system of state control was replaced by one of county +administration. Local veto is also in force, and thus the localities +have the choice of a dispensary or no sale at all. The regulations are +very strict. The dispensaries are few and only open on week-days and +during the day-time; they close at sunset. Liquor is only sold in +bottles and in not less quantities than half a pint of spirits and a +pint of beer, and it must be taken away; bars are abolished. There is a +general consensus of testimony to the effect of the system in improving +public order especially among the coloured population, who are very +susceptible to drink. The law seems to be well carried out in general, +but Charleston and Columbia, the only two considerable towns, are +honeycombed with illicit drink-shops, as the writer has proved by +personal experience. Columbia is the capital and the seat of cotton +manufactures, as are all the larger towns, with the exception of +Charleston, which is the port and business centre. The population of the +state is predominantly rural, and local prohibition obtains in 18 out of +41 counties. + + The following statistical comparison, extracted from the United States + Census of 1900 and the Inland Revenue Returns by Mr W. O. Tatum (_New + Encyclopedia of Social Reform_) and here presented in tabular form, is + highly instructive. It shows the population and number of liquor + dealers paying the United States tax in two prohibition states, one + state under what is considered the best licensing system, and South + Carolina. + + +-------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+ + | | | Wholesale| Retail | + | State. |Population.| Liquor | Liquor | + | | | Dealers. |Dealers.| + +-------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+ + | Maine (Prohibition) | 694,466 | 51 | 1366 | + | Kansas (Prohibition) | 1,470,495 | 129 | 3125 | + | Massachusetts (Licence) | 2,805,346 | 617 | 5092 | + | S. Carolina (Dispensary)| 1,340,316 | 13 | 534 | + +-------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+ + + This table may be said to epitomize the results of the United States + restrictive liquor laws. It presents examples of three different + systems; the proportion of retail liquor sellers to population + is--under complete prohibition, 1 to 508 and 1 to 475; under licence + and local prohibition, 1 to 530; under dispensary and local + prohibition, 1 to 2509. But the remarkable thing is the enormous + amount of illicit traffic existing under all three systems. It is + incomparably greatest under complete prohibition because the whole of + the traffic in these states is illicit. In South Carolina one of the + wholesale dealers and 388 of the 534 retailers were illicit. In + Massachusetts the number cannot be stated, but it is very large. If + the whole state were under licence the total legal number of licences, + which is limited in proportion to population (see above), would be + 3400; and in that case there would be some 1700 illicit retailers. But + a large part of the state, probably more than half, is under local + prohibition, so that the majority of the 5000 retail dealers must be + illicit. These facts, which are typical and not exceptional, reveal + the failure of the laws to control the traffic; only partial or + spasmodic attempts are made to enforce them and to a great extent they + are ignored by common consent. The illegal trade is carried on so + openly that the United States revenue officers have no difficulty in + collecting the federal tax. It is not a satisfactory state of things, + or one which countries where law is respected would care to imitate. + The example is a good lesson in what to avoid. + + _Taxation._--Mention has been made above of the federal and state + taxation imposed on the liquor trade. The former is uniform; the + latter varies greatly, even in those states which have adopted the + "high licence." This system is intended to fulfil two purposes; to act + as an automatic check on the number of licences and to produce + revenue. It was introduced in Nebraska in 1881, when a tax of 1000 + dollars (£200) was placed on saloons (public houses) in large towns, + and half that amount in smaller ones. The practice gradually spread + and has now been adopted by a large number of states, noticeably the + populous and industrial north-eastern and central states. In + Massachusetts, where the high licence was adopted in 1874 when the + state returned to licensing after a trial of prohibition, the fees are + exceptionally high, the minimum for a fully licensed on and off house + being 1300 dollars (£260); in Boston the average tax is £310. In New + York state it ranges from 150 dollars (£30) in sparsely populated + districts to 1200 dollars (£240), and in Pennsylvania it is much the + same. In New Jersey, on the other hand, it ranges from £20 to £60; in + Connecticut from £50 to £90; in Rhode Island from £40 to £80. In + Missouri, which has a special system of its own and a sort of sliding + scale, great variations occur and in some cases the tax exceeds £500. + In Michigan it is uniform at £100. The mean for the large cities is + £133. The revenue derived from this source is distributed in many + ways, but is generally divided in varying proportions between the + state, the county and the municipality; sometimes a proportion goes to + the relief of the poor, to road-making or some other public purpose. + The amount levied in the great cities is very large. It will be seen + from the foregoing that the taxation of licences is much heavier in + the United States than in the United Kingdom. The total yield was + ascertained by a special inquiry in 1896 and found to be rather less + than 12 millions sterling; in the same year the yield from the same + source in the United Kingdom was just under 2 millions. Allowing for + difference of population the American rate of taxation was 3¼ times as + great as the British. It has been inferred that the liquor trade is + much more highly taxed in the United States and that it would bear + largely increased taxation in the United Kingdom; that argument was + brought forward in support of Mr Lloyd George's budget of 1909. But it + only takes account of the tax on licences and leaves out of account + the tax on liquor which is the great source of revenue in the United + Kingdom, as has been shown above. The scales are much lower in the + United States, especially on spirits, which are only taxed at the + average rate of 5s. 8d. a gallon against 11s. (raised to 14s. 9d. in + 1909) in the United Kingdom. Mr Frederic Thompson has calculated out + the effect of the two sets of rates and shown that if British rates + were applied to the United States the average yield in the three years + ending 1908 would be raised from 44 millions to 76 millions; and + conversely if American rates were applied to the United Kingdom the + average yield would be lowered from 36 millions to 23 millions. Taking + licences and liquor taxation together he finds that the application of + the British standards for both would still raise the total yield in + the United States by 39%; and that even the exceptionally high rates + prevailing in Massachusetts would, if applied to the United Kingdom, + produce some 4 millions less revenue than the existing taxation. Other + calculations based on the consumption and taxation per head lead to + the same conclusion that the trade is actually taxed at a considerably + higher rate in the United Kingdom. In the three years ending 1908 the + average amount paid per head in taxation was 13s. 8¾d. in the United + States and 17s. 6¾d. in the United Kingdom. It may be added that the + method of taxing licences heavily has certain disadvantages; it + stimulates that illicit trade which is the most outstanding feature of + the traffic in the United States, and combined with the extreme + insecurity of tenure involved in local option it gives licence-holders + additional inducements to make as much money as possible by any means + available, while they have the opportunity, for no compensation is + ever paid for sudden dispossession. The notion that the trade will + stand an indefinite amount of taxation is a dangerous and oft-proved + fallacy. + + +_European Countries._ + +With the exception of Sweden, Norway and Russia, which have special +systems of their own, the continental countries of Europe have as yet +paid comparatively little legislative attention to the subject of the +liquor traffic, which is recognized by the law but for the most part +freely permitted with a minimum of interference. Differences exist, but, +generally speaking, establishments may be opened under a very simple +procedure, which amounts to an elementary form of licensing, and the +permission is only withdrawn for some definite and serious offence. +Regulations and conditions are for the most part left to the discretion +of the local authority and the police and are not burdensome. The reason +for such freedom as compared with the elaborate and stringent codes of +the United Kingdom and the United States is not less concern for public +welfare but the simple fact that the traffic gives less trouble and +causes less harm through the abuse of drink; the habits of the people +are different in regard to the character of the drinks consumed, the +mode of consumption and the type of establishment. Cafés, restaurants +and beer-gardens are much more common, and mere pot-houses less so than +in the English-speaking countries. Where trouble arises and engages the +attention of the authorities and the legislature, it is almost +invariably found to be associated with the consumption of spirits. In +several of the wine-producing countries, which are generally marked by +the temperate habits of the people, the widespread havoc among the vines +caused some years ago by the phylloxera led to an increased consumption +of spirits which had a bad effect and aroused considerable anxiety. This +was notably the case in France, where an anti-alcohol congress, held in +1903, marked the rise of public and scientific opinion on the subject. +Temperance societies have become active, and in some countries there is +a movement towards stricter regulations or at least a demand for it; but +in others the present law is a relaxation of earlier ones. + + _France._--The present law governing the licensing of establishments + where liquor is sold for consumption on the premises was passed in + 1880; it abrogated the previous decree of 1851, by which full + discretion was vested in the local authorities, and freed the traffic + from arbitrary restrictions. It provides that any person desiring to + open a café, cabaret or other place for retailing liquor must give + notice to the authorities, with details concerning himself, the + establishment and the proprietor, at least 15 days beforehand; the + authority in Paris is the préfecture of police and elsewhere the + mairie. Transfers of proprietorship or management must be notified + within 15 days, and intended transference of location 8 days + beforehand. The penalty for infraction is a fine of 16 francs to 100 + francs. Legal minors and persons convicted of certain crimes and + offences--theft, receiving stolen goods, various forms of swindling, + offences against morality, the sale of adulterated articles--are + prohibited; in the case of crimes, forever; in the case of offences, + for five years. Otherwise permission cannot be refused, subject to + conditions which the local authority has power to lay down regulating + the distance of such establishments from churches, cemeteries, + hospitals, schools and colleges. But persons engaged in the trade, who + are convicted of the offences mentioned above and of infraction of the + law for the suppression of public drunkenness, are disabled, as above. + The law practically amounts to free trade and the number of houses has + increased under it; in 1900 there was one to every 81 persons. This + proportion is only exceeded by Belgium. Under the Local Government Act + of 1884 municipal authorities are empowered, for the maintenance of + public order, to fix hours of closing, regulate dancing, forbid the + employment of girls and the harbouring of prostitutes and make other + regulations. The hours of closing differ considerably but usually they + are 11 P.M., midnight or 1 A.M. The trade is lightly taxed; retailers + pay from 15 to 50 francs a year; wholesale dealers, 125 francs; + breweries the same in most departments, distilleries 25 francs. The + excise revenue from liquor amounted to £20,000,000 in 1900. + + _Germany._--The German law and practice are broadly similar to the + French, but the several states vary somewhat in detail. Under the + imperial law of 1879 inns or hotels and retail trade in spirits for on + or off consumption may not be carried on without a permit or licence + from the local authority which, however, can only be refused on the + ground of character or of unsuitability of premises. This is the + general law of the empire; but the state governments are empowered to + make the granting of a licence for retailing spirits dependent on + proof that it is locally required, and also to impose the same + condition on inn-keeping and the retailing of other drinks in places + with less than 15,000 inhabitants and in larger ones which obtain a + local statute to that effect. Before a licence is granted the opinion + of the police and other executive officers is to be taken. The + licensing authority is the mayor in towns and the chairman of the + district council in rural areas. The provisions with regard to the + dependence of a licence on local requirements have been adopted by + Prussia and other states, but apparently little or no use is made of + them. Permits are very freely granted, and the number of licensed + houses, though not so great as in France, is very high in proportion + to population. Three classes of establishment are recognized--(1) + _Gast-wirthschaft_, (2) _Schank-wirthschaft_, (3) _Klein-handel_. + _Gast-wirthschaft_ is inn-keeping, or the lodging of strangers in an + open house for profit, and includes "pensions" of a public character; + the imperial law provides that a licence may be limited to this + function and need not include the retailing of liquor. + _Schank-wirthschaft_ is the retailing for profit of all sorts of + drinks, including coffee and mineral waters; it corresponds to café in + France and refreshment house in England; but the mere serving of food + does not come under the law with which we are here concerned. + _Klein-handel_ is retail sale either for on or off consumption, and + the liquor for which a licence is required in this connexion is + described as _branntwein_ or _spiritus_, and is defined as distilled + alcoholic liquor, whether by itself or in combination. A licence for + _Schank-wirthschaft_ includes _Klein-handel_, but not vice-versa; none + is required for the retail sale of wine which is the seller's own + produce. Licences may be withdrawn for offences against the law. + Licensed houses are under the supervision of the police, who fix the + hours of closing; it is usually 10 P.M., but is commonly extended to + 11 P.M. or midnight in the larger towns and still later in the case of + particular establishments. Some cafés in Berlin do not close till 3 + A.M. and some never close at all. Persons remaining on the premises in + forbidden hours after being ordered to leave by the landlord are + liable to punishment. Serving drunkards and persons of school age is + forbidden. Drunkards, in addition to fines or imprisonment for + disorderly conduct, are liable to be deprived of control of their + affairs and placed under guardianship. For music and dancing special + permits are required. With regard to taxation, in Prussia all business + establishments beyond a certain value pay an annual tax and licensed + houses are on the same footing as the rest. Businesses producing less + than £75 a year or of less than £150 capital value are free; the rest + are arranged in four classes on a rising scale. In the three lower + classes the tax ranges from a minimum of 4s. to a maximum of £24; in + the highest class, which represents businesses producing £2500 and + upwards (or a capital value of £50,000 and upwards) the tax is 1% of + the profits. There is also a stamp duty on the licence ranging from + 1s. 6d. to £5. The latter goes to the local revenue, the business tax + to the government. Beer and spirits are also subject to an excise tax, + from which the imperial revenue derived £7,700,000 in 1901; but the + total taxation of the liquor trade could only be calculated from the + returns of all the federated states. + + The laws of France and Germany are fairly representative of the + European states, with some minor variations. In _Holland_ the number + of licensed spirit retailers is limited in proportion to population (1 + to 500), and the taxation, which is both national and local, ranges + from 10 to 25% of the annual value. + + In _Austria-Hungary_ and _Rumania_ the licence duty is graduated + according to the population of the place, as used to be the case in + Prussia. In 1877 a severe police law was applied to Galicia in order + to check the excesses of spirit-drinking. The Poles, it may be + observed, are spirit-drinkers, and the exceptional treatment of this + part of the Austrian empire is one more illustration of the trouble + arising from that habit, which forces special attempts to restrain it. + The law, just mentioned, in Holland is another instance; and the + particular cases of Russia and Scandinavia, described below, enforce + the same lesson. Where the drink of the people is confined to wine and + beer there is comparatively little trouble. In _Switzerland_ the + manufacture and wholesale sale of spirits has been a federal monopoly + since 1887, but the retailing is a licensed trade, as elsewhere, and + is less restricted than formerly. Before federation in 1874 the + cantons used to direct local authorities to restrict the number of + licences in proportion to population; but under the new constitution + the general principle of free trade was laid down, and the Federal + Council intimated to the cantonal authorities that it was no longer + lawful to refuse a licence on the ground that it was not needed. + + _Russia._--In 1895 Russia entered upon an experiment in regard to the + spirit traffic and began to convert the previously existing licence + system into a state monopoly. The experiment was held to be successful + and was gradually extended to the whole country. Under this system, + which to some extent resembles that of South Carolina but is much less + rigid, the distilleries remain in private hands but their output is + under government control. The retail sale is confined to government + shops, which sell only in sealed bottles for consumption off the + premises, and to commercial establishments which sell on commission + for the government. Spirit bars are abolished and only in a few high + class restaurants are spirits sold by the glass; in ordinary + eating-houses and at railway refreshment rooms they are sold in sealed + government bottles but may be consumed on the premises. The primary + object was to check the excesses of spirit-drinking which were very + great in Russia among the mass of the people. The effect has been a + very large reduction in the number of liquor shops, which has extended + also to the licensed beer-houses though they are not directly affected + as such. Presumably when they could no longer sell spirits it did not + pay them to take out a licence for beer. + + _Sweden and Norway._--In these countries the celebrated "Gothenburg" + or company system is in force together with licensing and local veto. + Like the Russian state monopoly the company system applies only to + spirits, and for the same reason; spirits are or were the common drink + of the people and excessive facilities in the early part of the 19th + century produced the usual result. The story is very similar to that + of England in the 18th century, given above. From 1774 to 1788 + distilling in Sweden was a crown monopoly, but popular opposition and + illicit trade compelled the abandonment of this plan in favour of + general permission granted to farmers, innkeepers and landowners. At + the beginning of the 19th century the right to distil belonged to + every owner and cultivator of land on payment of a trifling licence + duty, and it was further extended to occupiers. In 1829 the number of + stills paying licence duty was 173,124 or 1 to every 16 persons; the + practice was in fact universal and the whole population was debauched + with spirits. The physical and moral results were the same as those + recorded in England a hundred years before. The supply was somewhat + restricted by royal ordinance in 1835, but the traffic was not + effectively dealt with until 1855 when a law was passed which + practically abolished domestic distilling by fixing a minimum daily + output of 200 gallons, with a tax of about 10d. a gallon. This turned + the business into a manufacture and speedily reduced the number of + stills. At the same time the retail sale was subjected to drastic + regulations. A licensing system was introduced which gave the local + authority power to fix the number of licences and put them up to + auction or to hand over the retail traffic altogether to a company + formed for the purpose of carrying it on. The latter idea, which is + the Gothenburg system, was taken from the example of Falun and + Jönköping which had a few years ago voluntarily adopted the plan. The + law of 1855 further gave rural districts the power of local veto. + Four-fifths of the population live in rural districts, and the great + majority of them immediately took advantage of the provision. The + company system, on the other hand, was not applied by the towns until + 1865, when Gothenburg adopted it. + + In Norway the course of events was very similar. There, too, + distilling and spirit-drinking were practically universal in the early + part of the century under the laws of 1816, but were checked by + legislation a few years sooner than in Sweden. In 1845 a special + licensing system was introduced, giving the local authority power to + fix the number of licences, and in 1848 the small and domestic stills + were stopped. The Gothenburg system was not adopted in Norway until + 1871 and then with some modification. The essence of this method of + conducting the retail traffic is that the element of private gain is + eliminated. A monopoly is granted to a company consisting of a number + of disinterested citizens of standing with a capital, and they manage + the sale both for "on" and "off" consumption in the public interest. + The profits, after payment of 5% on the capital, originally went in + Sweden mainly to the municipality in relief of rates, in Norway to + objects of public utility. The latter was considered preferable + because it offers less temptation to make the profits as high as + possible. Fault has, however, been found with both methods, and + payment of profits to the state is now preferred. In 1894 a law was + passed in Norway providing for the following distribution: 65% to the + state, 20% to the company, and 15% to the municipality. In 1907 Sweden + adopted a law in the same direction. The intention is to eliminate + more completely the motive of gain from the traffic. In 1898 the net + profits of the companies exceeded half a million sterling in Sweden + and reached £117,500 in Norway. + + The company system had in 1910 had more than half a century's trial; + it had gone through some vicissitudes and been subjected to much + criticism, which was balanced by at least as much eulogy. It had held + its own in Sweden, where 101 towns had adopted it in 1906. In Norway + at the same date it was in force in 32 towns while 29 had adopted + local veto, which was extended from the country districts, where it + had previously been optional, to the towns by the law of 1894. + + As we have already said, it only applies to spirits. In both countries + the sale of beer and wine for "on" consumption is carried on in the + ordinary way under a licensing system; the sale of beer in bottles for + consumption off the premises is practically free. The beer traffic is + regarded by some as a "safety valve" and by others as a defect in the + system. The consumption has greatly increased in Sweden; in Norway it + increased up to 1900 and has since declined. But other more + deleterious substitutes for spirits have come into use in the shape of + concocted "wines" and methylated spirits. The company management has + had the following effects: it has greatly reduced the number of spirit + bars, improved their character and conduct, added eating-rooms, where + good and cheap meals are served, stopped drinking on credit and by + persons under 18 years of age, shortened the hours of sale, raised the + price and lowered the strength of spirits. But the restrictions placed + on the sale for consumption on the premises has stimulated the retail + bottle trade and home drinking. + + + _British Dominions._ + + _Canada._--Liquor legislation in Canada has been much influenced by + the proximity and example of the United States. Licensing, modified by + local veto, prevails throughout the Dominion except in the Indian + settlements; but the several provinces have their own laws, which vary + in stringency. As a whole the licensing system rather resembles the + American than the British type. The licensing authority is either a + board of commissioners or the municipality, and there has been the + same tendency as in the United States to substitute the former for the + latter. In British Columbia no new hotel licence is granted in cities + except on the request of two-thirds of the owners and occupiers of the + adjoining property, but their consent is not necessary for renewal. In + other provinces the municipal authority has power to limit as well as + regulate the licensed trade. Sunday closing is the rule; on week-days + the usual closing hour in the large towns is 11 P.M. The power of + locally prohibiting licensed houses by vote was introduced by the + Canada Temperance Act, a federal law passed in 1875 and commonly known + as the Scott Act. Extensive use has been made of it, especially in the + maritime provinces, where the temperance sentiment is very strong, but + in recent years it has rather lost ground. In 1908 it was in force in + 22 counties or cities, of which ten were in Nova Scotia, ten in New + Brunswick and two in Manitoba; it was nowhere in force in the + remaining provinces. Three elections were held under the act in + 1907-1908, two in Nova Scotia and one in New Brunswick, and in the + first two prohibition was defeated. In 1910 Nova Scotia, apparently + dissatisfied with the progress of local prohibition under the Scott + Act, passed a prohibitory law for the whole province, exempting + Halifax, the capital and only considerable town, but making provision + for its subsequent inclusion by a referendum to the ratepayers. There + is in Canada the same oscillation of public opinion as in the United + States, and the same toleration of evasion of the law. The writer has + stayed in hotels in several prohibition towns, where there was not + only a regular bar but a printed wine list from which anything could + be ordered at meals without any concealment at all. The chief + difference between the conduct of hotels under prohibition and under + licensing is that under licensing the bar is closed at the legal hour, + which is usually 11 o'clock, and under prohibition it remains open as + long as there are any customers to serve. The law is nominally + respected by imposing a periodical fine. In small towns and rural + districts local prohibition is much more effective. In short the + experience of Canada confirms that of the United States. In addition + to the federal law, the local authorities have power, in Quebec, to + prohibit as well as to regulate the trade. The high licence system has + not been adopted in Canada. The total revenue derived by the Dominion + government in 1908 from taxation of the liquor trade, including duties + and licence fees, was £1,800,000. + + _Australia._--The licensing laws of Australia are less repressive and + the practice more resembles the British model. Queensland has adopted + local prohibition, but it is not applied. New South Wales has a + limited form of veto applying only to new licences; South Australia + has the same together with a provision for the optional reduction of + licences; Victoria, on the other hand, allows an option both ways, for + reducing or increasing the licences; West Australia and Tasmania + merely give the local ratepayers the right of protest; in West + Australia it holds good against new licences only and if a majority + object the licence is refused; in Tasmania protest may be made against + renewals and transfers also, but the decision lies with the licensing + authority. There is practically no prohibition in the Commonwealth. + + _New Zealand._--This state has a licensing system with local option + provisions of its own. The licensing authority is a local committee, + and there are seven kinds of licence, of which two are for consumption + on the premises. The fees range from £1 for a wine licence to £40 for + a full publican's licence in towns, or £45 for one permitting an + additional hour's sale at night; the fees go to the revenue of the + local authority. In 1907 the total number of licences granted was 2179 + and the fees paid amounted to £45,865. Of the whole number, 1367, or 1 + to every 666 persons, were houses licensed for on consumption. The + closing hour is 10 P.M. except for houses specially licensed to be + open till 11 P.M. In 1893 local option was introduced by the Alcoholic + Liquors Sale Control Act, which provided for the taking of a poll on + the question of licences. The electoral districts for the purpose are + the same as for the House of Representatives, except that the cities + of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin each form a single + district for the licensing poll. It is taken at the same time as the + election of members of the House of Representatives, and three + questions are propounded--(1) continuance of existing licences, (2) + reduction, (3) no licences. A voter may vote for two proposals but not + more. An absolute majority of all the votes recorded carries (1); an + absolute majority of all the votes recorded carries (2), whereupon the + licensing committee reduces the licences by any number from 5 to 25% + of the total. But if three-fifths of all the votes cast are in favour + of no licence then that supersedes (1) and (2). The poll taken in + December 1905 gave the following results: of the 68 districts 40 + carried no proposal (which is equivalent to continuance of existing + licences), 18 carried continuance, 4 reduction, 6 no licence, + including 3 which had previously adopted no licence. Women, it must be + remembered, vote as well as men. The aggregate vote in favour of no + licence shows a large proportional increase since the first poll in + the present system in 1896. + + AUTHORITIES.--Royal Commission on Liquor Licensing Laws 1896-1899, + Reports and Appendices; Licensing Statistics of England and Wales, + annual. Canada Year-book; New Zealand Year-book; _Code de Commerce_, + France; _Gewerbeordnung_, German Empire; Hand-book of Canada (British + Association); _New Encyclopedia of Social Reform; Brewers' Almanack_; + Committee of Fifty (New York), _The Liquor Problem in its Legislative + Aspects_ (F. H. Wines and J. Koren); E. L. Fanshawe, _Liquor + Legislation in the United States and Canada_; E.R.L. Gould, _The + Gothenburg System_ (Special Report of the United States Commissioner + of Labor); E. A. Pratt, _Licensing and Temperance in Sweden, Norway + and Denmark_; J. Rowntree and A. Sherwell, _The Temperance Problem and + Social Reform_; _The Taxation of the Liquor Trade_; A. Shadwell, + _Drink, Temperance and Legislation_; Strauss und Torney, + _Schanks-Konzessionswesen_; F. W. Thompson, _High Licence_. See also + TEMPERANCE. (A. Sl.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In 1908 local option was adopted in Ohio. + + + + +LIRA, the Italian name (Lat. _libra_, pound) for a silver coin, the +Italian unit of value in the Latin Monetary Union, corresponding to the +French, Swiss and Belgian franc (q.v.), and the drachma of Greece, &c. +The name is sometimes used of the Turkish pound, _medjidie_. + + + + +LIRI, or GARIGLIANO (anc. _Liris_), a river of central Italy, which +rises at Cappadocia, 7 m. W. of Avezzano, and traverses a beautiful +valley between lofty mountains, running S.S.E. as far as Arce. This +valley is followed by the railway from Avezzano to Roccasecca. At Isola +del Liri are two fine waterfalls. Below Ceprano, the ancient Fregellae, +after it has issued from the mountains, the Liri is joined by the Sacco +(anc. _Trerus_) formed by the union of several torrents between +Palestrina and Segni, and the Melfa from the mountains N.E. of Atina, +and runs E. through a broader valley. It then turns S. again through the +mountains S.W. of the Via Latina (the line of which is followed by the +modern railway to Naples), keeping W. of Rocca Monfina, and falls into +the sea just below Minturnae, after a course of 104 m. It is not +navigable at any point. + + + + +LIROCONITE, a rare mineral consisting of hydrous basic copper and +aluminium arsenate, with the probable formula Cu9Al4(OH)15(AsO4)5·20H2O. +It crystallizes in the monoclinic system, forming flattened octahedra +almost lenticular in shape (hence the German name _Linsenkupfer_). +Characteristic is the bright sky-blue colour, though sometimes, possibly +owing to differences in chemical composition, it is verdigris-green. The +colour of the streak or powder is rather paler; hence the name +liroconite, from the Gr. [Greek: leiros], pale, and [Greek: konia], +powder. The hardness is 2½, and the specific gravity 2.95. The mineral +was found at the beginning of the 19th century in the copper mines near +Gwennap in Cornwall, where it was associated with other copper arsenates +in the upper, oxidized portions of the lodes. (L. J. S.) + + + + +LISBON (_Lisboa_), the capital of the kingdom of Portugal and of the +department of Lisbon; on the right bank of the river Tagus, near its +entrance into the Atlantic Ocean, in 38° 42´ 24´´ N. and 9° 11´ 10´´ W. +Pop. (1900) 356,009. Lisbon, the westernmost of European capitals, is +built in a succession of terraces up the sides of a range of low hills, +backed by the granite mountains of Cintra. It fronts the Tagus, and the +view from the river of its white houses, and its numerous parks and +gardens, is comparable in beauty with the approach to Naples or +Constantinople by sea. The lower reaches of the estuary form a channel +(Entrada do Tejo) about 2 m. wide and 8 m. long, which is partially +closed at its mouth by a bar of silt. Owing to the reclamation of the +foreshore on the right, and the consequent narrowing of the waterway, +the current flows very swiftly down this channel, which is the sole +outlet for the immense volume of water accumulated in the Rada de +Lisboa--a tidal lake formed by the broadening of the estuary in its +upper part to fill a basin 11 m. long with an average breadth of nearly +7 m. The southern or left shore of the channel rises sharply from the +water's edge in a line of almost unbroken though not lofty cliffs; the +margin of the lake is flat, marshy and irregular. Lisbon extends for +more than 5 m. along the shores of both channel and lake, and for more +than 3 m. inland. Its suburbs, which generally terminate in a belt of +vineyards, parks or gardens, interspersed with villas and farms, stretch +in some cases beyond the Estrada Militar, or Estrada da Nova +Circumvallação, an inner line of defence 25 m. long, supplementary to +the forts and other military works at the mouth of the Tagus, on the +heights of Cintra and Alverca, and at Caxias, Sacavem, Monsanto and +Ameixoeira. The climate of Lisbon is mild and equable, though somewhat +oppressive in summer. Extreme cold is so rare that in the twenty years +1856-1876 snow fell only thrice; and in the 18th and early 19th +centuries Lisbon was justly esteemed as a winter health-resort. The mean +annual temperature is 60.1° F., the mean for winter 50.9°, the average +rainfall 29.45 in. As in 1906, when no rain fell between April and +September, long periods of drought are not uncommon, although the +proximity of the Atlantic and the frequency of sea-fogs keep the +atmosphere humid; the mean atmospheric moisture is nearly 71 (100 = +saturation). There is a good water supply, conveyed to the city by two +vast aqueducts. The older of these is the Aqueducto das Aguas Livres, +which was built in the first half of the 18th century and starts from a +point near Bellas, 15 m. W.N.W. Its conduits, which are partly +underground, are conveyed across the Alcantara valley through a +magnificent viaduct of thirty-five arches, exceeding 200 ft. in height. +At the Lisbon end of the aqueduct is the Mae d'Agua (i.e. "Mother of +Water"), containing a huge stone hall in the midst of which is the +reservoir. The Alviella aqueduct, opened in 1880, brings water from +Alviella near Pernes, 70 m. N.N.E. Numerous fountains are among the +means of distribution. Sewage is discharged into the Tagus, and the +sanitation of the city is good, except in the older quarters. + +_Divisions of the City._--The four municipal districts (_bairros_) into +which Lisbon is divided are the _Alfama_, or old town, in the east; the +_Cidade Baixa_, or lower town, which extends inland from the naval +arsenal and custom house; the _Bairro Alto_, comprising all the high +ground west of the Cidade Baixa; and the _Alcantara_, or westernmost +district, named after the small river Alcantara, which flows down into +the Tagus. Other names commonly used, though unofficial, are "Lisboa +Oriental" as an alternative for Alfama; "Lisboa Occidental" for the +slopes which lead from the Cidade Baixa to the Bairro Alto; "Buenos +Ayres" (originally so named from the number of its South American +residents) for the Bairro Alto S.W. of the Estrella Gardens and E. of +the Necessidades Park; "Campo de Ourique" and "Rato" for the suburbs +respectively N.W. and N.E. of Buenos Ayres. + +_The Alfama._--The Alfama, which represents Roman and Moorish Lisbon, is +less rich in archaeological interest than its great antiquity might +suggest, although parts of a Roman temple, baths, &c., have been +disinterred. But as the earthquake of 1755 did comparatively little +damage to this quarter, many of its narrow, steep and winding alleys +retain the medieval aspect which all other parts of the city have lost; +and almost rival the slums of Oporto in picturesque squalor. The most +conspicuous feature of the Alfama is the rocky hill surmounted by the +Castello de São Jorge, a Moorish citadel which has been converted into a +fort and barracks. The Sé Patriarchal, a cathedral founded in 1150 by +Alphonso I., is said by tradition to have been a Moorish mosque. It was +wrecked by an earthquake in 1344 and rebuilt in 1380, but the earthquake +of 1755 shattered the dome, the roof and belfry were subsequently +burned, and after the work of restoration was completed the choir and +façade were the only parts of the 14th-century Gothic church unspoiled. +In one of the side chapels is the tomb of St Vincent (d. 304), patron +saint of Lisbon; a pair of ravens kept within the cathedral precincts +are popularly believed to be the same birds which, according to the +legend, miraculously guided the saint's vessel to the city. The armorial +bearings of Lisbon, representing a ship and two ravens, commemorate the +legend. Other noteworthy buildings in the Alfama are the 12th-century +church of São Vicente de Fóra, originally, as its name implies, +"outside" the city; the 13th-century chapel of Nossa Senhora do Monte; +the 16th-century church of Nossa Senhora da Graça, which contains a +reputed wonder-working statue of Christ and the tomb of Alphonso +d'Albuquerque (1453-1515); and a secularized Augustinian monastery, used +as the archbishop's palace. + +_Modern Lisbon._--West of the Alfama the city dates chiefly from the +period after the great earthquake. Its lofty houses, arranged in long +straight streets, its gardens and open spaces, a few of its public +buildings, and almost all its numerous statues and fountains, will bear +comparison with those of any European capital. The centre of social and +commercial activity is the district which comprises the Praça do +Commercio, Rua Augusta, Rocío, and Avenida da Liberdade, streets and +squares occupying the valley of a vanished tributary of the Tagus. The +Praça do Commercio is a spacious square, one side of which faces the +river, while the other three sides are occupied by the arcaded buildings +of the custom house, post office and other government property. In the +midst is a bronze equestrian statue of Joseph I., by J. M. de Castro, +which was erected in 1775 and gives point to the name of "Black Horse +Square" commonly applied to the Praça by the British. A triumphal arch +on the north side leads to Rua Augusta, originally intended to be the +cloth-merchants' street; for the plan upon which Lisbon was rebuilt +after 1755 involved the restriction of each industry to a specified +area. This plan succeeded in the neighbouring Rua Aurea and Rua da +Prata, still, as their names indicate, famous for goldsmiths' and +silversmiths' shops. Rua Augusta terminates on the north in the Rocío or +Praça de Dom Pedro Quarto, a square paved with mosaic of a curious +undulatory pattern and containing two bronze fountains, a lofty pillar +surmounted by a statue of Pedro IV., and the royal national theatre +(Teatro de Dona Maria Segunda), erected on the site which the +Inquisition buildings occupied from 1520 to 1836. The narrow Rua do +Principe, leading past the central railway station, a handsome Mauresque +building, connects the Rocío with the Avenida da Liberdade, one of the +finest avenues in Europe. The central part of the Avenida, a favourite +open-air resort of Lisbon society, is used for riding and driving; on +each side of it are paved double avenues of trees, with flower-beds, +statues, ponds, fountains, &c., and between these and the broad +pavements are two roadways for trams and heavy traffic. Thus the Avenida +has the appearance of three parallel streets, separated by avenues of +trees instead of houses. Its width exceeds 300 ft. It owes its name to +an obelisk 98 ft. high, erected in 1882 at its southern end, to +commemorate the liberation of Portugal from Spanish rule (December, +1640). North and north-east of the Avenida are the Avenida Park, the +Edward VII. Park (so named in memory of a visit paid to Lisbon by the +king of England in 1903), Campo Grande, with its finely wooded walks, +and Campo Pequeno, with the bull-ring. Other noteworthy public gardens +are the Passeio da Estrella, commanding magnificent views of the city +and river, the Largo do Principe Real, planted with bananas and other +tropical trees, the Tapada das Necessidades, originally the park of one +of the royal residences, and the Botanical Gardens of the polytechnic +school, with a fine avenue of palms and collections of tropical and +subtropical flora hardly surpassed in Europe. There are large Portuguese +cemeteries east and west of Lisbon, a German cemetery, and an English +cemetery, known also as _Os Cyprestes_ from the number of its cypresses. +This was laid out in 1717 at the cost of the British and Dutch residents +and contains the graves of Henry Fielding (1707-1754), the novelist, and +Dr Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), the Nonconformist divine. + +Lisbon is the seat of an archbishop who since 1716 has borne _ex +officio_ the honorary title of patriarch; he presides over the House of +Peers and is usually appointed a cardinal. The churches of modern Lisbon +are generally built in the Italian style of the 18th century; the +interiors are overlaid with heavy ornament. Perhaps the finest is the +Estrella church, with its white marble dome and twin towers visible for +many miles above the city. The late Renaissance church of São Roque +contains two beautiful chapels dating from the 18th century, one of +which is inlaid with painted tiles, while the other was constructed in +Rome of coloured marbles, and consecrated by the pope before being +shipped to Lisbon. Its mosaics and lapis lazuli pillars are +exceptionally fine. The 14th-century Gothic Igreja do Carmo was +shattered by the great earthquake. Only the apse, pillared aisles and +outer walls remain standing, and the interior has been converted into an +archaeological museum. The church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição has a +magnificent Manoeline façade. + +The Palacio das Cortes, in which both Houses of Parliament sit, is a +16th-century Benedictine convent, used for its present purpose since +1834. It contains the national archives, better known as the Torre do +Tombo collection, because in 1375 the archives were first stored in a +tower of that name. The royal palace, or Paço das Necessidades, west of +Buenos Ayres, is a vast 18th-century mansion occupying the site of a +chapel dedicated to Nossa Senhora das Necessidades (i.e. "Our Lady who +helps at need"). + + _The Suburbs of Ajuda and Belem._--In the extreme west of Lisbon, + beyond the Alcantara valley, are Belem (i.e. "Bethlehem"), beside the + Tagus, and Ajuda, on the heights above. The Paço de Belem, built in + 1700 for the counts of Aveiro, became the chief royal palace under + John V. (1706-1750). The Torre de Belem, on the foreshore, is a small + tower of beautiful design, built in 1520 for the protection of + shipping. The finest ecclesiastical building in Portugal except the + monasteries of Alcobaça and Batalha also fronts the river. It is the + Convento dos Jeronymos, a Hieronymite convent and church, founded in + 1499 to commemorate the discovery of the sea-route to India by Vasco + da Gama. It was built of white limestone by João de Castilho (d. + 1581), perhaps the greatest of Manoeline architects. Its cloisters + form a square with blunted corners, surrounded by a two-storeyed + arcade, every available portion of which is covered with exquisite + sculptures. Parts of the building have been restored, but the + cloisters and the beautiful central gateway remain unspoiled. The + interior contains many royal tombs, including that of Catherine of + Braganza (d. 1705), the wife of Charles II. of England. The supposed + remains of Camoens and Vasco da Gama were interred here in 1880. In + 1834, when the convent was secularized, its buildings were assigned to + the Casa Pia, an orphanage founded by Maria I. Since 1903 they have + contained the archaeological collections of the Portuguese + Ethnological Museum. The royal Ajuda palace, begun (1816-1826) by John + VI. but left unfinished, derives its name from the chapel of N. S. de + Ajuda ("Our Lady of Aid"). It contains some fine pictures and + historical trophies. In the coach-house there is an unsurpassed + collection of state coaches, the cars upon which figures of saints are + borne in procession, sedan chairs, old cabriolets and other curious + vehicles. + + _The Environs of Lisbon._--The administrative district of Lisbon has + an area of 3065 sq. m., with a population of 709,509 in 1900. It + comprises the lower parts of the Tagus and Sado; the sea-coast from 5 + m. S. of Cape Carvoeiro to within 3 m. of the bluff called the Escarpa + do Rojo; and a strip of territory extending inland for a mean distance + of 30 m. This region corresponds with the southern part of Estremadura + (q.v.). Its more important towns, Setubal, Cintra, Torres Vedras and + Mafra, are described in separate articles. Sines, a small seaport on + Cape Sines, was the birthplace of Vasco da Gama. On the left bank of + the Tagus, opposite Lisbon, are the small towns of Almada, Barreiro, + Aldeia Gallega and Seixal, and the hamlet of Trafaria, inhabited by + fishermen. The beautiful strip of coast west of Oeiras and south of + Cape Roca is often called the "Portuguese Riviera." Its fine climate, + mineral springs and sea-bathing attract visitors at all seasons to the + picturesque fortified bay of Cascaes, or to Estoril, Mont' Estoril and + São João do Estoril, modern towns consisting chiefly of villas, hotels + and gardens. The Boca do Inferno ("Mouth of Hell") is a cavity in the + rocks at Cascaes resembling the Bufador at Peñiscola (q.v.). The + villages of Carcavellos, Bucellas, Lumiar and Collares produce + excellent wines; at Carcavellos is the receiving station for cables, + with a large British staff, and a club and grounds where social and + athletic meetings are held by the British colony. Alhandra, on the + right bank of the Tagus, above Lisbon, was the birthplace of + Albuquerque; fighting bulls for the Lisbon arena are bred in the + adjacent pastures. + +_Railways, Shipping and Commerce._--Lisbon has five railway +stations--the central (Lisboa-Rocío), for the lines to Cintra, northern +and central Portugal, and Madrid via Valencia de Alcántara; the Santa +Apolonia or Caes dos Soldados, at the eastern extremity of the quays, +for the same lines (excluding Cintra) and for southern Portugal and +Andalusia; the Caes do Sodré and Santos, farther west along the quays, +for Cascaes; and the Barreiro, on the left bank of the Tagus, for +southern Portugal. In 1902 the railways north and south of the Tagus +were connected near Lisbon by a bridge. In the previous year an +extensive system of electric tramways replaced the old-fashioned cable +cars and mule trams. Electric and hydraulic lifts are used where the +streets are too steep for trams. Lisbon is lighted by both electricity +and gas; it has an admirable telephone service, and is connected by the +Carcavellos cable-station with Cornwall (England), Vigo in Galicia, +Gibraltar, the Azores and Madeira. + +Ships of the largest size can enter the Tagus, and the Barreiro inlet is +navigable at low water by vessels drawing 16 ft. There are extensive +quays along the right bank, with hydraulic cranes, two graving docks, a +slipway, warehouses and lines of railway. The government and private +docks are on the left bank. Loading and discharging are principally +effected by means of lighters. The exports are wines, oil, fruit, tinned +fish, salt, colonial produce, cork, pitwood, leather and wool. The +imports include cotton and woollen goods, linen, ale and porter, butter, +tea, hardware, tin plates, coal, iron, machinery, chemical manure, &c., +from Great Britain; grain and petroleum from the United States; dried +codfish from Norway and Newfoundland; silks, perfumery and fancy goods +from France; hemp, flax, grain, petroleum and cloth from Russia; linen, +machinery, hardware, sugar, &c., from Germany and Holland, iron, steel, +timber, pitch and salt fish from the Baltic; cocoa, coffee, wax and +rubber from the Portuguese colonies. Towards the close of the 19th +century the tourist traffic from Great Britain and Germany attained +considerable importance, and Lisbon has long been one of the principal +ports of debarcation for passengers from Brazil and of embarcation for +emigrants to South America. Shipbuilding, including the construction of +vessels for the national navy, is a growing industry. The fisheries have +always been important, and in no European fishmarket is the produce more +varied. Sardines and tunny are cured and tinned for export. In addition +to a fleet of about 600 sailing boats, the Tagus is the headquarters of +a small fleet of steam trawlers. The industries of Lisbon include +dyeing, distillation of spirits and manufactures of woollen, cotton, +silk and linen fabrics, of pottery, soap, paper, chemicals, cement, +corks, tobacco, preserved foods and biscuits. + +_Education and Charity._--Although the seat of the only university in +Portugal was fixed at Coimbra in 1527, Lisbon is the educational centre +of the Portuguese world, including Brazil. Its chief learned societies +are the Society of Medical Sciences, the Geographical Society, the Royal +Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Royal Conservatory of +Music and the Propaganda de Portugal. The museum of the Academy of Fine +Arts contains the largest collection of pictures and statues by native +and foreign artists in Portugal. The Geographical Society has gained an +international reputation; it possesses a valuable library and museum. +The National Library, founded in 1796, contains over 400,000 printed +books, and upwards of 9000 MSS. There are also colonial, naval, +artillery, natural history and commercial museums, meteorological and +astronomical observatories, zoological gardens and an aquarium. Purely +educational institutions include the medical, polytechnic, military and +naval schools, commercial, agricultural and industrial institutes, a +school of art, a central lyceum, a school for teachers, &c. The English +college for British Roman Catholics dates from 1628. The Irish +Dominicans have a seminary, and Portuguese ecclesiastical schools are +numerous. There are hospitals for women, and for contagious diseases, +almshouses, orphanages, a foundling hospital and a very large quarantine +station on the south bank of the Tagus, founded in 1857 after an +outbreak of yellow fever had devastated the city. Foremost among the +theatres, circuses and other places of amusement is the royal +opera-house of São Carlos, built in 1792-1793 on the model of the Scala +at Milan. + +_Population._--The population of Lisbon, 187,404[1] in 1878, rose to +301,206 in 1890 and 356,009 in 1900. It includes a large foreign colony, +composed chiefly of Spaniards, British, Germans, French, Brazilians and +immigrants from the Portuguese colonies, among whom are many +half-castes. The majority of the Spaniards are domestic servants and +labourers from Galicia, whose industry and easily gained knowledge of +the kindred Portuguese language enables them to earn a better livelihood +here than in their own homes. The British, German and French communities +control a large share of the foreign trade. The Brazilians and colonial +immigrants are often merchants and landowners who come to the +mother-country to spend their fortunes in a congenial social +environment. + + The street life of the city is full of interest. The bare-footed, + ungainly fishwives, dressed in black and bearing flat trays of fish on + their heads; the Galician water-carriers, with their casks; the + bakers, bending beneath a hundredweight of bread slung in a huge + basket from their shoulders; the countrymen, with their sombreros, + sashes and hardwood quarter-staves, give colour and animation to their + surroundings; while the bag-pipes played by peasants from the north, + the whistles of the knife-grinders, and the distinctive calls of the + vendors of fruit, lottery tickets, or oil and vinegar, contribute a + babel of sound. For church festivals and holidays the country-folk + come to town, the women riding on pillions behind the men, adorned in + shawls, aprons and handkerchiefs of scarlet or other vivid hues, and + wearing the strings of coins and ornaments of exquisite gold and + silver filigree which represent their savings or dowries. The costumes + and manners of all classes may be seen at their best in the great + bull-ring of Campo Pequeno, a Mauresque building which holds many + thousands of spectators. A Lisbon bullfight is a really brilliant + exhibition of athletic skill and horsemanship, in which amateurs often + take part, and neither horses nor bulls are killed. There is a + Tauromachic Club solely for amateurs. + +_History._--The name Lisbon is a modification of the ancient name +_Olisipo_, also written _Ulyssippo_ under the influence of a mythical +story of a city founded by Odysseus (Ulysses) in Iberia, which, however, +according to Strabo, was placed by ancient tradition rather in the +mountains of Turdetania (the extreme south of Spain). Under the Romans +Olisipo became a _municipium_ with the epithet of _Felicitas Julia_, but +was inferior in importance to the less ancient _Emerita Augusta_ +(Mérida). From 407 to 585 it was occupied by Alaric, and thenceforward +by the Visigoths until 711, when it was taken by the Moors. Under the +Moors the town bore in Arabic the name of _Al Oshbuna_ or _Lashbuna_. It +was the first point of Moslem Spain attacked by the Normans in 844. When +Alphonso I. of Portugal took advantage of the decline and fall of the +Almoravid dynasty to incorporate the provinces of Estremadura and +Alemtejo in his new kingdom, Lisbon was the last city of Portugal to +fall into his hands, and yielded only after a siege of several months +(21st October 1147), in which he was aided by English and Flemish +crusaders on their way to Syria. In 1184 the city was again attacked by +the Moslems under the powerful caliph Abu Yakub, but the enterprise +failed. In the reign of Ferdinand I., the greater part of the town was +burned by the Castilian army under Henry II. (1373), and in 1384 the +Castilians again besieged Lisbon, but without success. Lisbon became the +seat of an archbishop in 1390, the seat of government in 1422. During +the 16th century it gained much in wealth and splendour from the +establishment of a Portuguese empire in India and Africa. From 1580 to +1640 Lisbon was a provincial town under Spanish rule, and it was from +this port that the Spanish Armada sailed in 1588. In 1640 the town was +captured by the duke of Braganza, and the independence of the kingdom +restored. + +For many centuries the city had suffered from earthquakes, and on the +1st of November 1755 the greater part of it was reduced almost in an +instant to a heap of ruins. A tidal wave at the same time broke over the +quays and wrecked the shipping in the Tagus; fire broke out to complete +the work of destruction; between 30,000 and 40,000 persons lost their +lives; and the value of the property destroyed was about £20,000,000. +The shock was felt from Scotland to Asia Minor. Careful investigation by +Daniel Sharpe, an English geologist, has delimited the area in and near +Lisbon to which its full force was confined. Lisbon is built in a +geological basin of Tertiary formation, the upper portion of which is +loose sand and gravel destitute of organic remains, while below these +are the so-called Almada beds of yellow sand, calcareous sandstone and +blue clay rich in organic remains. The Tertiary deposits, which +altogether cover an area of more than 2000 sq. m., are separated near +Lisbon from rocks of the Secondary epoch by a great sheet of basalt. The +uppermost of these Secondary rocks is the hippurite limestone. It was +found that no building on the blue clay escaped destruction, none on any +of the Tertiary deposits escaped serious injury, and all on the +hippurite limestone and basalt were undamaged. The line at which the +earthquake ceased to be destructive thus corresponded exactly with the +boundary of the Tertiary deposits. + +At the beginning of the 19th century the French invasion, followed by +the removal of the court to Rio de Janeiro, the Peninsular War, the loss +of Brazil and a period of revolution and dynastic trouble, resulted in +the utter decadence of Lisbon, from which the city only recovered after +1850 (see PORTUGAL: _History_). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Every book which deals with the topography, trade or + history of Portugal as a whole necessarily devotes a portion of its + space to the capital; see PORTUGAL: _Bibliography_. The following + treat more exclusively of Lisbon: A. Dayot, _Lisbonne_ (No. ix. of the + "_Capitales du monde_" series) (Paris, 1892); Freire de Oliveira, + _Elementos para a historia do municipio de Lisboa_ (9 vols., Lisbon, + 1885-1898); J. de Castilho, _Lisboa antiga_ (7 vols., Lisbon, 1890), + and (by the same author) _A Ribeira de Lisboa_ (Lisbon, 1893). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This figure represents the population of a smaller area than that + of modern Lisbon, for the civic boundaries were extended by a decree + dated the 23rd of December 1886. + + + + +LISBURN, a market town, and cathedral city of Co. Antrim, Ireland, +situated in a beautiful and fertile district on the Lagan, and on the +Great Northern railway, 8 m. S.S.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 11,461. +Christ Church (1622) which possesses a fine octagonal spire, is the +cathedral church of the united Protestant dioceses of Down, Connor and +Dromore, and contains a monument to Jeremy Taylor, who was bishop of the +see. The public park was presented to the town by Sir Richard Wallace +(d. 1890), and after his death the castle gardens were also given to the +town. The staple manufacture is linen, especially damasks and muslins, +originally introduced by Huguenots. There are also bleaching and dyeing +works, and a considerable agricultural trade. The town is governed by an +urban district council. The ruins of Castle Robin, 2 m. N. of the town, +stand on a summit of the White Mountains, and the building dates from +the time of Queen Elizabeth. At Drumbo, 3½ m. E. of Lisburn, is one of +the finest examples of early fortification in Ireland, known as the +Giant's Ring, with a cromlech in the centre. Here are also a round tower +and the remains of a church ascribed to St Patrick. + +In the reign of James I., Lisburn, which was then known as Lisnegarvy +(Gambler's Fort), was an inconsiderable village, but in 1627 it was +granted by Charles I. to Viscount Conway, who erected the castle for his +residence, and laid the foundation of the prosperity of the town by the +introduction of English and Welsh settlers. In November 1641 the town +was taken by the insurgents, who on the approach of superior numbers set +fire to it. The troops of Cromwell gained a victory near the town in +1648, and the castle surrendered to them in 1650. The church was +constituted a cathedral in 1662 by Charles II., from whom the town +received the privilege of returning two members to parliament, but after +the Union it returned only one and in 1885 ceased to be a parliamentary +borough. Lisburn gives the titles of earl and viscount to the family of +Vaughan. + + + + +LISIEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Calvados, 30 m. E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) +15,194. Lisieux is prettily situated in the valley of the Touques at its +confluence with the Orbiquet. Towers of the 16th century, relics of the +old fortifications, remain, and some of the streets, bordered throughout +by houses of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, retain their medieval +aspect. The church of St Peter, formerly a cathedral, is reputed to be +the first Gothic church built in Normandy. Begun in the latter half of +the 12th century it was completed in the 13th and 16th centuries. There +is a lantern-tower over the crossing and two towers surmount the west +façade, one only of which has a spire, added towards the end of the 16th +century. In the interior there is a Lady-Chapel, restored in the 15th +century by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, one of the judges of Joan of Arc. The +church of St Jacques (late 15th century) contains beautiful glass of the +Renaissance, some remarkable stalls and old frescoes, and a curious +picture on wood, restored in 1681. The church of St Désir (18th century) +once belonged to a Benedictine abbey. The old episcopal palace near the +cathedral is now used as a court-house, museum, library and prison, and +contains a beautiful hall called the salle dorée. Lisieux is the seat of +a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a +chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of trade arbitrators and a +communal college. Its manufactures of woollens are important, and +bleaching, wool and flax-spinning, tanning, brewing, timber-sawing, +metal-founding, and the manufacture of machinery, hosiery and boots and +shoes are carried on; there is trade in grain, cattle and cheese. + +In the time of Caesar, Lisieux, under the name of _Noviomagus_, was the +capital of the Lexovii. Though destroyed by the barbarians, by the 6th +century it had become one of the most important towns of Neustria. Its +bishopric, suppressed in 1802, dates from that period. In 877 it was +pillaged by the Normans; and in 911 was included in the duchy of +Normandy by the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte. Civil authority was +exercised by the bishop as count of the town. In 1136 Geoffrey +Plantagenet laid siege to Lisieux, which had taken the side of Stephen +of Blois. The town was not reduced till 1141, by which time both it and +the neighbourhood had been brought to the direst extremities of famine. +In 1152 the marriage of Henry II. of England to Eleanor of Guienne, +which added so largely to his dominions, was celebrated in the +cathedral. Thomas à Becket took refuge here, and some vestments used by +him are shown in the hospital chapel. Taken by Philip Augustus and +reunited to France in 1203, the town was a frequent subject of dispute +between the contending parties during the Hundred Years' War, the +religious wars, and those of the League. + + + + +LISKEARD, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin +parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 15 m. W.N.W. of Plymouth, +on the Great Western and the Liskeard and Looe railways. Pop. (1901) +4010. It lies high, above two small valleys opening to that of the Looe +river, in a hilly, picturesque district. The Perpendicular church of St +Martin, with a tower of earlier date, having a Norman arch, is one of +the largest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. The site of a castle +built by Richard, brother of Henry III. and earl of Cornwall, is +occupied by public gardens. At the grammar school, which formerly +occupied a building in those gardens, Dr John Wolcot, otherwise known as +Peter Pindar, was educated. Liskeard was formerly an important mining +centre. Its manufactures include leather and woollen goods, and there +are iron foundries. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 2704 acres. + +Liskeard (Liscarret) was at the time of the Domesday Survey an important +manor with a mill rendering 12d. yearly and a market rendering 4s. By +the Conqueror it had been given to the count of Mortain by whom it was +held in demesne. Ever since that time it has passed with the earldom or +duchy of Cornwall. The fertility of its soil and the river Looe probably +led to early settlement at Liskeard. Richard, king of the Romans, +recognized its natural advantages and built the manor house or castle +and resided there occasionally. In 1240 he constituted Liskeard a free +borough and its burgesses freemen with all the liberties enjoyed by the +burgesses of Launceston and Helston. In 1266 he granted fairs at the +Feasts of the Assumption and St Matthew. His son Edmund earl of Cornwall +in 1275 granted to the burgesses for a yearly rent of £18 (sold by +William III. to Lord Somers) the borough in fee farm with its mills, +tolls, fines and pleas, pleas of the crown excepted. Liskeard was made a +coinage town for tin in 1304. Edward the Black Prince secured to the +burgesses in 1355 immunity from pleas outside their franchise for +trespass done within the borough. Queen Elizabeth granted a charter of +incorporation in 1580 under which there were to be a mayor, recorder and +eight councillors. This charter was surrendered to Charles II. in 1680 +and a new one granted by his brother under which the corporation became +a self-elected body. From 1295 to 1832 Liskeard sent two members to the +House of Commons. The parliamentary franchise, at first exercised by the +burgesses, was vested by James' charter in the corporation and freemen. +By determining to admit no new freemen the voters became reduced to +between 30 and 60. Sir Edward Coke was returned for this borough in +1620, and Edward Gibbon the historian in 1774. In 1832 Liskeard was +deprived of one of its members and in 1885 it became merged in the +county. + + Besides the fairs already mentioned a third was added by Elizabeth's + charter to be held on Ascension Day. These are still among the most + considerable cattle fairs in the county. The same charter ratified a + market on Mondays and provided for another on Saturdays. The latter is + now held weekly, the former twice a month. The flour mill at Lamellion + mentioned in the charter of 1275, and probably identical with the mill + of the Domesday Survey, is still driven by water. + + + + +LISLE, ALICE (c. 1614-1685), commonly known as Lady Alice Lisle, was +born about 1614. Her father, Sir White Beckenshaw, was descended from an +old Hampshire family; her husband, John Lisle (d. 1664), had been one of +the judges at the trial of Charles I., and was subsequently a member of +Cromwell's House of Lords--hence his wife's courtesy title. Lady Lisle +seems to have leaned to Royalism, but with this attitude she combined a +decided sympathy with religious dissent. On the 20th of July 1685, a +fortnight after the battle of Sedgemoor, the old lady consented to +shelter John Hickes, a well-known Nonconformist minister, at her +residence, Moyles Court, near Ringwood. Hickes, who was a fugitive from +Monmouth's army, brought with him Richard Nelthorpe, also a partizan of +Monmouth, and under sentence of outlawry. The two men passed the night +at Moyles Court, and on the following morning were arrested, and their +hostess, who had denied their presence in the house, was charged with +harbouring traitors. Her case was tried by Judge Jeffreys at the opening +of the "Bloody Assizes" at Winchester. She pleaded that she had no +knowledge that Hickes's offence was anything more serious than illegal +preaching, that she had known nothing previously of Nelthorpe (whose +name was not included in the indictment, but was, nevertheless, +mentioned to strengthen the case for the Crown), and that she had no +sympathy with the rebellion. The jury reluctantly found her guilty, and, +the law recognizing no distinction between principals and accessories in +treason, she was sentenced to be burned. Jeffreys ordered that the +sentence should be carried out that same afternoon, but a few days' +respite was subsequently granted, and James II. allowed beheading to be +substituted for burning. Lady Lisle was executed in Winchester +market-place on the 2nd of September 1685. By many writers her death has +been termed a judicial murder, and one of the first acts of parliament +of William and Mary reversed the attainder on the ground that the +prosecution was irregular and the verdict injuriously extorted by "the +menaces and violences and other illegal practices" of Jeffreys. It is, +however, extremely doubtful whether Jeffreys, for all his gross +brutality, exceeded the strict letter of the existing law. + + See Howell, _State Trials_; H. B. Irving, _Life of Judge Jeffreys_; + Stephen, _History of the Criminal Law of England_. + + + + +LISMORE, an island in the entrance to Loch Linnhe, Argyllshire, +Scotland, 5 m. N.W. of Oban. Pop. (1901) 500. It lies S.W. and N.E., is +9½ m. long and 1¾ m. broad, and has an area of 9600 acres. It divides +the lower end of the loch into two channels, the Lynn of Morvern on the +W. and the Lynn of Lome on the E. The name is derived from the Gaelic +_lios mòr_, "great garden." Several ruined castles stand on the coast, +and the highest point of the island is 500 ft. above the sea. The +inhabitants raise potatoes, oats, cattle and horses, and these, with +dairy produce, form the bulk of the trade. Steamers call at +Auchnacrosan. A Columban monastery was founded in Lismore by St Moluag +about 592. About 1200 the see of Argyll was separated from Dunkeld by +Bishop John, "the Englishman," and Lismore soon afterwards became the +seat of the bishop of Argyll, sometimes called "Episcopus Lismoriensis," +quite distinct from the bishop of the Isles (Sudreys and Isle of Man), +called "Episcopus Sodoriensis" or "Insularum," whose see was divided in +the 14th century into the English bishopric of Sodor and Man and the +Scottish bishopric of the Isles. The Rev. John Macaulay (d. 1789), +grandfather of Lord Macaulay, the historian, and the Rev. Donald M'Nicol +(1735-1802), who took up the defence of the Highlands against Dr +Johnson, were ministers of Lismore. + + For the _Book of the Dean of Lismore_ see CELT: _Scottish Gaelic + Literature_. + + + + +LISMORE, a town of Rous county, New South Wales, Australia, 320 m. +direct N. by E. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 4378. It is the principal town of +the north coast district, and the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. The +surrounding country is partly pastoral, and partly agricultural, the +soil being very fertile. The town has a cathedral, school of art, and +other public buildings, while its industrial establishments include +saw-mills, sugar-mills, butter factories and an iron foundry. Standing +at the head of navigation of the Richmond river, Lismore has a large +export trade in dairy produce, poultry, pigs, and pine and cedar timber. + + + + +LISMORE, a market town and seat of a diocese in Co. Waterford, Ireland, +43 m. W.S.W. of Waterford by the Waterford and Mallow branch of the +Great Southern & Western Railway. Pop. (1901) 1583. It is beautifully +situated on a steep eminence rising abruptly from the Blackwater. At the +verge of the rock on the western side is the old baronial castle, +erected by King John in 1185, which was the residence of the bishops +till the 14th century. It was besieged in 1641 and 1643, and in 1645 it +was partly destroyed by fire. The present fabric is largely modern; +while the portico was designed by Inigo Jones. To the east, on the +summit of the height, is the cathedral of St Carthagh, of various dates. +There are portions probably of the 12th and 13th centuries, but the bulk +of the building is of the 17th century, and considerable additions, +including the tower and spire, were made in the 19th. There are a +grammar school, a free school and a number of charities. Some trade is +carried on by means of the river, and the town is the centre of a salmon +fishery district. + +The original name of Lismore was Maghsciath. A monastery founded here by +St Carthagh in 633 became so celebrated as a seat of learning that it is +said no fewer than twenty churches were erected in its vicinity. The +bishopric, which is said to have originated with this foundation, was +united to that of Waterford in 1363. In the 9th and beginning of the +10th centuries the town was repeatedly plundered by the Danes, and in +978 the town and abbey were burned by the men of Ossory. Henry II., +after landing at Waterford, received in Lismore castle the allegiance of +the archbishops and bishops of Ireland. In 1518 the manor was granted to +Sir Walter Raleigh, from whom it passed to Sir Richard Boyle, afterwards +earl of Cork. From the earls of Cork it descended by marriage to the +dukes of Devonshire. It was incorporated as a municipal borough in the +time of Charles I., when it also received the privilege of returning +members to parliament, but at the Union in 1800 it was disfranchised and +also ceased to exercise its municipal functions. + + + + +LISSA (Serbo-Croation _Vis_; Lat. _Issa_), an island in the Adriatic +sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lissa lies 31 m. S. by W. of +Spalato, and is the outermost island of the Dalmatian Archipelago. Its +greatest length is 10½ m.; its greatest breadth 4½ m. In shape it is a +long, roughly drawn parallelogram, surrounded by a wall of rock, which +incloses the fertile central plain, and is broken, on the north, west +and east by natural harbours. Its culminating point is Mount Hum (1942 +ft.), on the south-west. The island, which belongs to the administrative +district of Lesina, is divided between two communes, named after the +chief towns, Lissa (_Vis_), on the north, and Comisa (_Komia_), on the +west. Lissa, the capital, has a strongly fortified harbour. It contains +the palace of the old Venetian counts Gariboldi, the former residence of +the English governor, the monastery of the Minorites and at a little +distance to the west the ruins of the ancient city of Issa. The +islanders gain their livelihood by viticulture, for which Issa was once +famous, by sardine fishing and by the distillation of rosemary oil. Pop. +(1900) 9918, of whom 5261 belonged to the town and commune of Lissa, and +4657 to Comisa. + +Issa is said to have been settled by people from Lesbos, the Issa of the +Aegean. The Parians, assisted by Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse, +introduced a colony in the 4th century B.C. During the First Punic War +(265-241 B.C.) the Issaeans with their beaked ships helped the Roman +Duilius; and the great republic, having defended their island against +the attacks of Agron of Illyria and his queen Teuta, again found them +serviceable allies in the war with Philip of Macedon (c. 215-211). As +early as 996 the Venetians ruled the island, and, though they retired +for a time before the Ragusans, their power was effectually established +in 1278. Velo Selo, then the chief settlement, was destroyed by +Ferdinand of Naples in 1483 and by the Turks in 1571. The present city +arose shortly afterwards. During the Napoleonic wars, the French held +Lissa until 1811, and during this period the island prospered greatly, +its population increasing from 4000 to 12,000 between 1808 and 1811. In +the latter year the French squadron was defeated by the British (see +below); though in the same year a French fleet, flying British colours, +entered Lissa, and only retired after burning 64 merchantmen. +Thenceforward the island gained a valuable trade in British goods, +which, being excluded from every port under French control, were +smuggled into Dalmatia. In 1812 the British established an +administrative system, under native officials, in Lissa and the +adjoining islands of Curzola and Lagosta. All three were ceded to +Austria in 1815. + +_Battles of Lissa._--Two naval actions have been fought in modern times +near this island. The first took place on the 13th of March 1811, and +was fought between a Franco-Venetian squadron, under the command of an +officer named Dubourdieu (of whom little or nothing else is known), and +Captain (afterwards Sir) William Hoste with a small British force. The +Franco-Venetian squadron (Venice was then part of the dominions of the +emperor Napoleon) consisted of six frigates, of which four were of forty +guns, and of five corvettes or small craft. The British squadron was +composed of three frigates, the "Amphion," 32 (Captain William Hoste), +the "Cerberus" (Captain Henry Whitby) and the "Active," 38 (Captain +James A. Gordon). With them was the "Volage," 22 (Captain Phipps +Hornby). The action has a peculiar interest because the French captain +imitated the method of attack employed by Nelson at Trafalgar. He came +down from windward in two lines parallel to one another, and at an angle +to the British squadron. Captain Hoste was not compelled to lie still as +the allies did at Trafalgar. He stood on, and as the two French lines +had to overtake him as he slipped away at an angle to their course, one +of them got in the way of the other. Captain Hoste materially forwarded +the success of his manoeuvre by leading the foremost French ship, the +"Favorite," 40, on to a reef, which was known to himself, but not to the +enemy. Both squadrons then turned, and the Franco-Venetians falling into +great confusion were defeated in spite of the gallant fighting of the +individual ships. Two prizes were taken and Dubourdieu was killed. + +The second naval battle of Lissa was fought between the Austrian and +Italian navies on the 20th of July 1866. The island, then in possession +of the Austrians, was attacked by an Italian squadron from Ancona of 12 +ironclads and 22 wooden vessels. One of the ironclads was damaged in a +bombardment of the forts, and two were detached on other service, when +an Austrian squadron of 7 ironclads, one unarmoured warship the "Kaiser" +and a number of small craft which had left Fasano under the command of +Admiral Tegethoff came to interrupt their operations. The Italian +admiral Persano arranged his ships in a single long line ahead, which +allowing for the necessary space between them meant that the Italian +formation stretched for more than 2 m. Just before the action began +Admiral Persano shifted his flag from the "Ré d'Italia," the fourth ship +in order from the van, to the ram "Affondatore," the fifth. This made it +necessary for the "Affondatore" and the ships astern to shorten speed, +and, as the leading vessels stood on, a gap was created in the Italian +line. Admiral Tegethoff, who was on the port bow of the Italians, +attacked with his squadron in three divisions formed in obtuse angles. +The Italians opened a very rapid and ill-directed fire at a distance of +1000 yds. The Austrians did not reply till they were at a distance of +300 yds. Under Tegethoff's vigorous leadership, and aided by the +disorder in the Italian line, the Austrians brought on a brief, but to +the Italians destructive, mêlée. They broke through an interval between +the third and fourth Italian ships. The unarmed Austrian ships headed to +attack the unarmed Italians in the rear. At this point an incident +occurred to which an exaggerated importance was given. The Italian +ironclad "Ré di Portogallo" of 5600 tons, in the rear of the line, stood +out to cover the unarmoured squadron by ramming the Austrians. She was +herself rammed by the wooden "Kaiser" (5000 tons), but received little +injury, while the Austrian was much injured. The "Kaiser" and the wooden +vessels then made for the protection of fort San Giorgio on Lissa +unpursued. In the centre, where the action was hottest, the Austrian +flagship "Ferdinand Max" of 5200 tons rammed and sank the "Ré d'Italia." +The Italian "Palestro" of 2000 tons was fired by a shell and blew up. By +midday the Italians were in retreat, and Tegethoff anchored at San +Giorgio. His squadron had suffered very little from the wild fire of the +Italians. The battle of the 20th July was the first fought at sea by +modern ironclad steam fleets, and therefore attracted a great deal of +attention. The sinking of the "Ré d'Italia" and the ramming of the +"Portogallo" by the "Kaiser" gave an immense impulse to the then popular +theory that the ram would be a leading, if not the principal, weapon in +modern sea warfare. This calculation has not been borne out by more +recent experience, and indeed was not justified by the battle itself, in +which the attempts to ram were many and the successes very few. The "Ré +d'Italia" was struck only because she was suddenly and most +injudiciously backed, so that she had no way on when charged by the +"Ferdinand Max." + + For the first battle of Lissa see James's _Naval History_, vol. v. + (1837). A clear account of the second battle will be found in Sir S. + Eardley-Wilmot's _Development of Navies_ (London, 1892); see also H. + W. Wilson's _Ironclads in Action_ (London, 1896). (D. H.) + + + + +LISSA (Polish _Lézno_), a town in the Prussian province of Posen, 25 m. +N.E. from Glogau by rail and at the junction of lines to Breslau, Posen +and Landsberg. Pop. (1905) 16,021. The chief buildings are the handsome +palace, the medieval town-hall, the four churches and the synagogue. Its +manufactures consist chiefly of shoes, machinery, liqueurs and tobacco; +it also possesses a large steam flour-mill, and carries on a brisk trade +in grain and cattle. + +Lissa owes its rise to a number of Moravian Brothers who were banished +from Bohemia by the emperor Ferdinand I. in the 16th century and found a +refuge in a village on the estate of the Polish family of Leszczynski. +Their settlement received municipal rights in 1561. During the Thirty +Years' War the population was reinforced by other refugees, and Lissa +became an important commercial town and the chief seat of the Moravian +Brothers in Poland. Johann Amos Comenius was long rector of the +celebrated Moravian school here. In 1656 and 1707 Lissa was burned down. + + See Voigt, _Aus Lissas erster Blütezeit_ (Lissa, 1905), and Sanden, + _Geschichte der Lissaer Schule_ (Lissa, 1905). + + + + +LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846), German economist, was born at Reutlingen, +Württemberg, on the 6th of August 1789. Unwilling to follow the +occupation of his father, who was a prosperous tanner, he became a clerk +in the public service, and by 1816 had risen to the post of ministerial +under-secretary. In 1817 he was appointed professor of administration +and politics at the university of Tübingen, but the fall of the ministry +in 1819 compelled him to resign. As a deputy to the Württemberg chamber, +he was active in advocating administrative reforms. He was eventually +expelled from the chamber and in April 1822 sentenced to ten months' +imprisonment with hard labour in the fortress of Asperg. He escaped to +Alsace, and after visiting France and England returned in 1824 to finish +his sentence, and was released on undertaking to emigrate to America. +There he resided from 1825 to 1832, first engaging in farming and +afterwards in journalism. It was in America that he gathered from a +study of Alexander Hamilton's work the inspiration which made him an +economist of his pronounced "National" views. The discovery of coal on +some land which he had acquired made him financially independent, and he +became United States consul at Leipzig in 1832. He strongly advocated +the extension of the railway system in Germany, and the establishment of +the _Zollverein_ was due largely to his enthusiasm and ardour. His +latter days were darkened by many misfortunes; he lost much of his +American property in a financial crisis, ill-health also overtook him, +and he brought his life to an end by his own hand on the 30th of +November 1846. + +List holds historically one of the highest places in economic thought as +applied to practical objects. His principal work is entitled _Das +Nationale System der Politischen Ökonomie_ (1841). Though his practical +conclusions were different from those of Adam Müller (1779-1829), he was +largely influenced not only by Hamilton but also by the general mode of +thinking of that writer, and by his strictures on the doctrine of Adam +Smith. It was particularly against the cosmopolitan principle in the +modern economical system that he protested, and against the absolute +doctrine of free trade, which was in harmony with that principle. He +gave prominence to the national idea, and insisted on the special +requirements of each nation according to its circumstances and +especially to the degree of its development. + + He refused to Smith's system the title of the industrial, which he + thought more appropriate to the mercantile system, and designated the + former as "the exchange-value system." He denied the parallelism + asserted by Smith between the economic conduct proper to an individual + and to a nation, and held that the immediate private interest of the + separate members of the community would not lead to the highest good + of the whole. That the nation was an existence, standing between the + individual and humanity, and formed into a unity by its language, + manners, historical development, culture and constitution. That this + unity must be the first condition of the security, wellbeing, progress + and civilization of the individual; and private economic interests, + like all others, must be subordinated to the maintenance, completion + and strengthening of the nationality. The nation having a continuous + life, its true wealth must consist--and this is List's fundamental + doctrine--not in the quantity of exchange-values which it possesses, + but in the full and many-sided development of its productive powers. + Its economic education should be more important than the immediate + production of values, and it might be right that one generation should + sacrifice its gain and enjoyment to secure the strength and skill of + the future. In the sound and normal condition of a nation which has + attained economic maturity, the three productive powers of + agriculture, manufactures and commerce should be alike developed. But + the two latter factors are superior in importance, as exercising a + more effective and fruitful influence on the whole culture of the + nation, as well as on its independence. Navigation, railways, all + higher technical arts, connect themselves specially with these + factors; whilst in a purely agricultural state there is a tendency to + stagnation. But for the growth of the higher forms of industry all + countries are not adapted--only those of the temperate zones, whilst + the torrid regions have a natural monopoly in the production of + certain raw materials; and thus between these two groups of countries + a division of labour and confederation of powers spontaneously takes + place. + + List then goes on to explain his theory of the stages of economic + development through which the nations of the temperate zone, which are + furnished with all the necessary conditions, naturally pass, in + advancing to their normal economic state. These are (1) pastoral life, + (2) agriculture, (3) agriculture united with manufactures; whilst in + the final stage agriculture, manufactures and commerce are combined. + The economic task of the state is to bring into existence through + legislative and administrative action the conditions required for the + progress of the nation through these stages. Out of this view arises + List's scheme of industrial politics. Every nation, according to him, + should begin with free trade, stimulating and improving its + agriculture by intercourse with richer and more cultivated nations, + importing foreign manufactures and exporting raw products. When it is + economically so far advanced that it can manufacture for itself, then + a system of protection should be employed to allow the home industries + to develop themselves fully, and save them from being overpowered in + their earlier efforts by the competition of more matured foreign + industries in the home market. When the national industries have grown + strong enough no longer to dread this competition, then the highest + stage of progress has been reached; free trade should again become the + rule, and the nation be thus thoroughly incorporated with the + universal industrial union. What a nation loses for a time in exchange + values during the protective period she much more than gains in the + long run in productive power--the temporary expenditure being strictly + analogous, when we place ourselves at the point of view of the life of + the nation, to the cost of the industrial education of the + individual. The practical conclusion which List drew for Germany was + that she needed for her economic progress an extended and conveniently + bounded territory reaching to the sea-coast both on north and south, + and a vigorous expansion of manufactures and commerce, and that the + way to the latter lay through judicious protective legislation with a + customs union comprising all German lands, and a German marine with a + Navigation Act. The national German spirit, striving after + independence and power through union, and the national industry, + awaking from its lethargy and eager to recover lost ground, were + favourable to the success of List's book, and it produced a great + sensation. He ably represented the tendencies and demands of his time + in his own country; his work had the effect of fixing the attention, + not merely of the speculative and official classes, but of practical + men generally, on questions of political economy; and his ideas were + undoubtedly the economic foundation of modern Germany, as applied by + the practical genius of Bismarck. + + See biographies of List by Goldschmidt (Berlin, 1878) and Jentsch + (Berlin, 1901), also _Fr. List, ein Vorläufer und ein Opfer für das + Vaterland_ (Anon., 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1877); M. E. Hirst's _Life of + Friedrich List_ (London, 1909) contains a bibliography and a reprint + of List's _Outlines of American Political Economy_ (1827). + + + + +LIST (O.E. _liste_, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. _lijst_, Ger. _Leiste_, +adapted in Ital. _lista_ and Fr. _liste_), properly a border or edging. +The word was thus formerly used of a geographical boundary or frontier +and of the lobe of the ear. In current usage "list" is the term applied +to the "selvage" of a piece of cloth, the edging, i.e. of a web left in +an unfinished state or of different material from the rest of the +fabric, to be torn or cut off when it is made up, or used for forming a +seam. A similar edging prevents unravelling. The material, cut off and +collected, is known as "list," and is used as a soft cheap material for +making slippers, padding cushions, &c. Until the employment of rubber, +list was used to stuff the cushions of billiard tables. The same word +probably appears, in a plural form "lists," applied to the barriers or +palisades enclosing a space of ground set apart for tilting (see +TOURNAMENT). It is thus used of any place of contest, and the phrase "to +enter the lists" is frequently used in the sense of "to challenge." The +word in this application was taken directly from the O. Fr. _lisse_, +modern _lice_, in Med. Lat. _liciae_. This word is usually taken to be a +Romanic adaptation of the Teutonic word. In medieval fortifications the +_lices_ were the palisades forming an outwork in front of the main walls +of a castle or other fortified place, and the word was also used of the +space enclosed between the palisades and the enceinte; this was used for +exercising troops, &c. From a transference of "list," meaning edge or +border, to a "strip" of paper, parchment, &c., containing a "list" of +names, numbers, &c., comes the use of the word for an enumeration of a +series of names of persons or things arranged in order for some specific +purpose. It is the most general word for such an enumeration, other +words, such as "register," "schedule," "inventory," "catalogue," having +usually some particular connotation. The chief early use of list in this +meaning was of the roll containing the names of soldiers; hence to "list +a soldier" meant to enter a recruit's name for service, in modern usage +"to enlist" him. There are numerous particular applications of "list," +as in "civil list" (q.v.), "active or retired list" in the navy or army. +The term "free list" is used of an enumeration of such commodities as +may at a particular time be exempt from the revenue laws imposing an +import duty. + + The verb "to list," most commonly found in the imperative, meaning + "hark!" is another form of "listen," and is to be referred, as to its + ultimate origin, to an Indo-European root _klu_-, seen in Gr. [Greek: + klyein], to hear, [Greek: kleos], glory, renown, and in the English + "loud." The same root is seen in Welsh _clûst_ and Irish _clûas_, ear. + Another word "list," meaning pleasure, delight, or, as a verb, meaning + "to please, choose," is chiefly found in such phrases as "the wind + bloweth where it listeth." This is from the O.E. _lystan_, cf. Dut. + _lusten_, Ger. _lüsten_, to take pleasure in, and is also found in the + English doublet "lust," now always used in the sense of an evil or + more particularly sexual desire. It is probably an application of this + word, in the sense of "inclination," that has given rise to the + nautical term "list," for the turning over of a ship on to its side. + + + + +LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO (1775-1848), Spanish poet and educationalist, +was born at Seville on the 15th of October 1775. He began teaching at +the age of fifteen, and when little over twenty was made professor of +elocution and poetry at Seville university. In 1813 he was exiled, on +political grounds, but pardoned in 1817. He then returned to Spain and, +after teaching for three years at Bilbao, started a critical review at +Madrid. Shortly afterwards he founded the celebrated college of San +Mateo in that city. The liberal character of the San Mateo educational +system was not favoured by the government, and in 1823 the college was +closed. Lista after some time spent in Bayonne, Paris and London was +recalled to Spain in 1833 to edit the official _Madrid Gazette_. He was +one of the founders of the Ateneo, the free university of Madrid, and up +till 1840 was director of a college at Cadiz. All the leading spirits of +the young generation of Spaniards, statesmen, writers, soldiers and +diplomatists came under his influence. He died at Seville on the 5th of +October 1848. + + + + +LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER, 1st BARON (1827- ), English surgeon, was born at +Upton, in Essex, on the 5th of April 1827. His father, Joseph Jackson +Lister, F.R.S., was eminent in science, especially in optical science, +his chief claim to remembrance being that by certain improvements in +lenses he raised the compound microscope from the position of a +scientific toy, "distorting as much as it magnified," to its present +place as a powerful engine of research. Other members of Lord Lister's +family were eminent in natural science. In his boyhood Joseph Lister was +educated at Quaker schools; first at Hitchin in Hertfordshire, and +afterwards at Tottenham, near London. In 1844 he entered University +College, London, as a student in arts, and took his B.A. degree at the +University of London in 1847. He continued at University College as a +medical student, and became M.B. and F.R.C.S. in 1852. The keen young +student was not long in bringing his faculties to bear upon pathology +and the practice of medicine. While house-surgeon at University College +Hospital, he had charge of certain cases during an outbreak of hospital +gangrene, and carefully observed the phenomena of the disease and the +effects of treatment upon it. He was thus early led to suspect the +parasitic nature of the disorder, and searched with the microscope the +material of the spreading sore, in the hope of discovering in it some +invading fungus; he soon convinced himself of the cardinal truth that +its causes were purely local. He also minutely investigated cases of +pyaemia, another terrible scourge of hospitals at that time, and made +_camera lucida_ sketches of the appearances revealed by the microscope. + +To realize Lister's work it is necessary to remember the condition of +surgical practice at that date. About the middle of the 19th century the +introduction of anaesthetics had relieved the patient of much of the +horror of the knife, and the surgeon of the duty of speed in his work. +The agony of the sufferer had naturally and rightly compelled the public +to demand rapid if not slap-dash surgery, and the surgeon to pride +himself on it. Within decent limits of precision, the quickest craftsman +was the best. With anaesthetics this state of things at any rate was +changed. The pain of the operation itself no longer counted, and the +surgeon was enabled not only to be as cautious and sedulous as +dexterous, but also to venture upon long, profound and intricate +operations which before had been out of the question. Yet unhappily this +new enfranchisement seemed to be but an ironical liberty of Nature, who +with the other hand took away what she had given. Direct healing of +surgical wounds ("by first intention"), far from being the rule, was a +piece of luck too rare to enter into the calculations of the operator; +while of the graver surgical undertakings, however successful +mechanically, the mortality by sepsis was ghastly. Suppuration, +phagedaena and septic poisonings of the system carried away even the +most promising patients and followed even trifling operations. Often, +too, these diseases rose to the height of epidemic pestilences, so that +patients, however extreme their need, dreaded the very name of hospital, +and the most skilful surgeons distrusted their own craft. New hospitals +or new wards were built, yet after a very short time the new became as +pestiferous as the old; and even scrupulous care in ventilation and +housemaids' cleanliness failed to prevent the devastation. Surgery had +enlarged its freedom, but only to find the weight of its new +responsibilities more than it could bear. + +When Lister was appointed to the chair of surgery in Glasgow the +infirmary of that city was a hotbed of septic disease; so much so that +his hospital visits evidently distressed him greatly. Windows were +widely opened, piles of clean towels were supplied, but still the +pestilence stalked through the wards. The building stands to-day as it +stood then, with no substantial alteration; but by the genius of Lister +its surgical wards are now as free from septic accidents as the most +modern hospital in the land. James Simpson, early in the 'sixties, +pathetically denounced the awful mortality of operations in hospitals, +and indeed uttered desperate protests against the hospital system +itself; yet, not long afterwards, Lister came to prove that it was not +in the hospital that the causes of that mortality lay hidden, but in the +operator himself, his tools and his assistants. Happily this beneficent +discovery was made in time to preserve the inestimable boon of the +hospital system from the counsels of despair. When Lister took up the +task speculation was on the wrong tack; the oxygen of the air was then +supposed to be the chief cause of the dissolution of the tissues, and to +prevent access of air was impossible. For instance, a simple fracture, +as of a bone of the leg, would do perfectly well, while in the very next +bed a compound fracture--one, that is, where the skin is lacerated, and +access to the seat of injury opened out--would go disastrously wrong. If +the limb were amputated, a large proportion of such cases of amputation +succumbed to septic poisoning. + +On graduation as bachelor of medicine, Lister went to Edinburgh, where +he soon afterwards became house-surgeon to Mr Syme; and he was much +impressed by the skill and judgment of this great surgeon, and also by +the superiority of his method of dressing recent wounds with dry lint, +as compared with the "water dressing" in use at University College. Yet +under these more favourable conditions the amelioration was only one of +degree; in most wounds indeed "union by first intention" was rendered +impossible by the presence of the silk ligatures employed for arresting +bleeding, for these could come away only by a process of suppuration. On +the expiry of his house-surgeoncy in Edinburgh, Lister started in that +city an extra-academical course of lectures on surgery; and in +preparation for these he entered on a series of investigations into +inflammation and allied subjects. These researches, which were detailed +fully in three papers in _Phil. Trans._ (1859), and in his Croonian +lecture to the Royal Society in 1863, testified to an earnestness of +purpose, a persevering accuracy of observation and experiment and an +insight of scientific conception which show that if Lister had never +developed the aseptic method of surgery, he would have taken a very high +place in pathology. In his speech in Paris at the Thirteenth +International Congress of Medicine in 1900, Lord Lister said that he had +done no more than seize upon Pasteur's discoveries and apply them to +surgery. But though Lister saw the vast importance of the discoveries of +Pasteur, he saw it because he was watching on the heights; and he was +watching there alone. From Pasteur Lister derived no doubt two fruitful +ideas: first, that decomposition in organic substances is due to living +"germs"; and, secondly, that these lowly and minute forms of vegetable +life spring always, like higher organisms, from parents like themselves, +and cannot arise _de novo_ in the animal body. After his appointment to +the Glasgow chair in 1860, Lister had continued his researches on +inflammation; and he had long been led to suspect that decomposition of +the blood in the wound was the main cause of suppuration. The two great +theories established by Pasteur seemed to Lister to open out the +possibility of what had before appeared hopeless--namely, the prevention +of putrefaction in the wound, and consequently the forestalling of +suppuration. To exclude the oxygen of the air from wounds was +impossible, but it might be practicable to protect them from microbes. + +The first attempt to realize this idea was made upon compound fractures; +and the means first employed was carbolic acid, the remarkable efficacy +of which in deodorizing sewage made Lister regard it as a very powerful +germicide. It was applied to the wound undiluted, so as to form with the +blood a dense crust, the surface of which was painted daily with the +acid till all danger had passed. The results, after a first failure, +were in the highest degree satisfactory, so that, as Lister said in his +presidential address to the British Association in Liverpool, he "had +the joy of seeing these formidable injuries follow the same safe and +tranquil course as simple fractures." The caustic property of undiluted +carbolic acid, though insignificant in comparison with the far greater +evils to be avoided in compound fracture, made it unsuited for general +surgery. To make it applicable to the treatment of abscesses and incised +wounds, it was necessary to mitigate its action by blending it with some +inert body; and the endeavour to find the best medium for this purpose, +such as to combine perfect antiseptic efficiency with the least possible +irritation of the tissues, formed the subject of experiments continued +for many years in the laboratory and in the ward. At one stage in these +inquiries an attempt was made to provide an atmosphere free from living +organisms by means of a fine spray of a watery solution of carbolic +acid; for it was then supposed by Lister to be necessary not only to +purify the surgeon's hands and instruments and the skin of the patient +about the seat of operation, but also to wage war with the microbes +which, as Pasteur had shown, people every cubic inch of the air of an +inhabited room. Under the use of the spray better results were obtained +than ever before, and this success encouraged its use. But researches +carried on for several years into the relations of the blood to +micro-organisms led Lister to doubt the harmfulness of the atmospheric +dust. At the London Congress in 1881 he narrated experiments which +proved that the serum of the blood is a very unfavourable soil for the +development of the bacteria diffused through the air, and others which +showed that the cells of an organizing blood-clot have a very remarkable +power of disposing of microbes and of limiting their advance. Hence he +considered it probable that in surgical operations the atmosphere might +be disregarded altogether.[1] As long, however, as this was only a +matter of probability, he did not dare to discard the spray. But at +length, at the Berlin Congress in 1890, he was able to announce that the +certainty he had so long desired had been arrived at. A careful +consideration of the physical constitution of the spray had shown him +that the microbes of the dust involved in its vortex could not possibly +have their vitality destroyed or even impaired by it. Such being the +case, the uniform success obtained when he had trusted the spray +implicitly as an aseptic atmosphere, abandoning completely certain other +precautions which he had before deemed essential, proved conclusively to +his mind that the air might safely be left entirely out of consideration +in operating.[2] Thus he learnt that not the spray only, but all +antiseptic irrigations or washings of the wound also, with their +attendant irritation of the cut surfaces, might be dispensed with--a +great simplification, indirectly due to experiments with the spray. The +spray had also served a very useful purpose by maintaining a pure +condition of the entourage of the operation; not indeed in the way for +which it was devised, but as a very mild form of irrigation. And Lister +took care to emphasize the necessity for redoubled vigilance on the part +of the surgeon and his assistants when this "unconscious caretaker," as +he called it, had been discarded. + +The announcement that he had given up the spray was absurdly interpreted +in some quarters to mean that he had virtually abandoned his theory and +his antiseptic methods. The truth is that the spray was only one of many +devices tried for a while in the course of the long-continued endeavour +to apply the antiseptic principle to the best advantage, and abandoned +in favour of something better. Two main objects were always kept +steadily in view by him--during the operation to guard the wound against +septic microbes by such means as existing knowledge indicated, and +afterwards to protect it against their introduction, avoiding at the +same time all needless irritation of the tissues by the antiseptic. Upon +the technical methods of attaining these ends this is not the place to +enlarge; suffice it to say that the endowments and the industry of the +discoverer, as seen in the rapidity and flexibility of mind with which +he seized upon and selected the best means, were little less remarkable +than the activity of the same faculties in his original ideas. + +To illustrate this opinion, his work on the ligature may be taken. It +had long been the universal practice of surgeons to employ threads of +silk or flax for tying arteries, long ends being left to provide escape +of the pus (invariably formed during the tedious process of the +separation of the ligature) together with the portion of the arterial +coats included in the knot. Lister hoped that if, by antiseptic means, +the thread were deprived of living microbes, it would no longer cause +suppuration, but might be left with short cut ends to become embedded +permanently among the tissues of the wound, which thus would be allowed +to heal by primary union throughout. A trial of this method upon the +carotid artery of a horse having proved perfectly successful, he applied +it in a case of aneurysm in the human subject; and here again the +immediate results were all that could be desired. But a year later, the +patient having died from other causes, the necropsy showed remnants of +the silk thread incompletely absorbed, with appearances around them +which seemed to indicate that they had been acting as causes of +disturbance. Thus was suggested to him the idea of employing for the +ligature some material susceptible of more speedy absorption; and the +antiseptic treatment of contused wounds having shown that dead tissue, +if protected from putrefaction, is removed by the surrounding structures +without the intervention of suppuration, he resolved to try a thread of +some such nature. Catgut, which is prepared from one of the constituents +of the small intestine of the sheep, after steeping in a solution of +carbolic acid, was used in a preliminary trial upon the carotid artery +of a calf. The animal was killed a month later, when, on dissection, a +very beautiful result was disclosed. The catgut, though removed, had not +been simply absorbed; pari passu with its gradual removal, fibrous +tissue of new formation had been laid down, so that in place of the dead +catgut was seen a living ligature embracing the artery and incorporated +with it. The wound meanwhile had healed without a trace of suppuration. +This success appeared to justify the use of the catgut ligature in the +human subject, and for a while the results were entirely satisfactory. +But though this was the case with the old samples of catgut first +employed, which, as Lister was afterwards led to believe, had been +"seasoned" by long keeping, it was found that when catgut was used fresh +as it comes from the makers, it was unsuited in various ways for +surgical purposes. The attempt by special preparation to obtain an +article in all respects trustworthy engaged his attention from time to +time for years afterwards. To quote the words of Sir Hector Cameron, who +was for several years assistant to Lord Lister, it required "labour and +toilsome investigation and experiment of which few can have any adequate +idea." + +In 1869 Lister succeeded his father-in-law, Syme, in the chair of +clinical surgery of Edinburgh. In 1877 he accepted an invitation to the +chair of surgery at King's College, London, in the anticipation that +here he would be more centrally placed for communication with the +surgical world at home and abroad, and might thus exercise his +beneficent mission to more immediate advantage. In 1896 Lister retired +from practice, but not from scientific study. From 1895 to 1900 he was +President of the Royal Society. In 1883 he was created a baronet, and in +1897 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lister of Lyme Regis. Among +the Coronation honours in 1902, he was nominated an original member of +the new Order of Merit. + +In England Lister's teaching was slow in making its way. The leading +surgeons of Germany were among the first to seize upon the new idea with +avidity and practical success; so early as 1875, in the course of a tour +he made on the Continent, great festivals were held in his honour in +Munich and Leipzig. The countrymen of Pasteur did not lag far behind; +and it is no exaggeration to speak of Lister's appearances in foreign +countries at this time as triumphal. + +The relation of Semmelweiss to Lister is of historical importance. +Lister's work on the antiseptic system began in 1864; his first +publication on the subject was in March 1867. At this date, and for long +afterwards, Semmelweiss was unknown, or ignored, not only by French and +Germans, but also by his own Hungarian people; and this neglect broke +his heart. The French Academy pronounced against his opinions, and so +did the highest pathological authority in Germany. In England, till long +after his death, probably his name was not so much as mentioned. In the +early 'seventies Lister's method was in full operation in Hungary as +elsewhere, yet none of the surgeons of Budapest ever mentioned +Semmelweiss; not even when, in 1883, they gave a great banquet to +Lister. It was after this occasion that Dr Duka, a Hungarian physician +practising in London, wrote a biography of Semmelweiss, which he sent to +Lister, and thus brought Semmelweiss before him for the first time. +Thenceforth Lister generously regarded Semmelweiss as in some measure +his forerunner; though Semmelweiss was not aware of the microbic origin +of septic poisons, nor were his methods, magnificent as was their +success in lying-in hospitals, suitable for surgical work. + +In public Lord Lister's speeches were simple, clear and graceful, +avoiding rhetorical display, earnest for the truth, jealous for his +science and art, forgetful of himself. His writings, in like manner +plain, lucid and forcible, scarcely betray the labour and thought of +their production. With the courtesy and serenity of his carriage he +combined a passionate humanity, so often characteristic of those who +come of the Society of Friends, and a simple love of truth which showed +itself in his generous encouragement of younger workers. (T. C. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Trans. of the International Medical Congress_ (1881), vol. + ii. p. 373. + + [2] See _Verhandlungen des X internationalen Congresses_, Bd. i. p. + 33. + + + + +LISTER, MARTIN (c. 1638-1712), English naturalist and physician, was +born at Radclive, near Buckingham. He was nephew of Sir Matthew Lister, +physician to Anne, queen of James I., and to Charles I. He was educated +at St John's College, Cambridge, 1655, graduated in 1658/9, and was +elected a fellow in 1660. He became F.R.S. in 1671. He practised +medicine at York until 1683, when he removed to London. In 1684 he +received the degree of M.D. at Oxford, and in 1687 became F.R.C.P. He +contributed numerous articles on natural history, medicine and +antiquities to the _Philosophical Transactions_. His principal works +were _Historiae animalium Angliae tres tractatus_ (1678); _Historiae +Conchyliorum_ (1685-1692), and _Conchyliorum Bivalvium_ (1696). As a +conchologist he was held in high esteem, but while he recognized the +similarity of fossil mollusca to living forms, he regarded them as +inorganic imitations produced in the rocks. In 1683 he communicated to +the Royal Society (_Phil. Trans._, 1684), _An ingenious proposal for a +new sort of maps of countries; together with tables of sands and clays, +such as are chiefly found in the north parts of England_. In this essay +he suggested the preparation of a soil or mineral map of the country, +and thereby is justly credited with being the first to realize the +importance of a geological survey. He died at Epsom on the 2nd of +February 1712. + + + + +LISTON, JOHN (c. 1776-1846), English comedian, was born in London. He +made his public _début_ on the stage at Weymouth as Lord Duberley in +_The Heir-at-law_. After several dismal failures in tragic parts, some +of them in support of Mrs Siddons, he discovered accidentally that his +_forte_ was comedy, especially in the personation of old men and country +boys, in which he displayed a fund of drollery and broad humour. An +introduction to Charles Kemble led to his appearance at the Haymarket on +the 10th of June 1805 as Sheepface in the _Village Lawyer_, and his +association with this theatre continued with few interruptions until +1830. _Paul Pry_, the most famous of all his impersonations, was first +presented on the 13th of September 1825, and soon became, thanks to his +creative genius, a real personage. Liston remained on the stage till +1837; during his last years his mind failed, and he died on the 22nd of +March 1846. He had married in 1807 Miss Tyrer (d. 1854), a singer and +actress. + + Several pictures of Liston in character are in the Garrick Club, + London, and one as Paul Pry in the South Kensington Museum. + + + + +LISTON, ROBERT (1794-1847), Scottish surgeon, was born on the 28th of +October 1794 at Ecclesmachan, Linlithgow, where his father was parish +minister. He began the study of anatomy under Dr John Barclay +(1758-1826) at Edinburgh in 1810, and soon became a skilful anatomist. +After eight years' study, he became a lecturer on anatomy and surgery in +the Edinburgh School or Medicine; and in 1827 he was elected one of the +surgeons to the Royal Infirmary. In 1835 he was chosen professor of +clinical surgery in University College, London, and this appointment he +held until his death, which occurred in London on the 7th of December +1847. Liston was a teacher more by what he did than by what he said. He +taught simplicity in all operative procedures; fertile in expedients, of +great nerve and of powerful frame, he is remembered as an +extraordinarily bold, skilful and rapid operator. He was the author of +_The Elements of Surgery_ (1831-1832) and _Practical Surgery_ (1837), +and made several improvements in methods of amputation, and in the +dressing of wounds. + + + + +LISZT, FRANZ (1811-1886), Hungarian pianist and composer, was born on +the 22nd of October 1811, at Raiding, in Hungary. His appeal to +musicians was made in a threefold capacity, and we have, therefore, to +deal with Liszt the unrivalled pianoforte virtuoso (1830-1848); Liszt +the conductor of the "music of the future" at Weimar, the teacher of +Tausig, Bülow and a host of lesser pianists, the eloquent writer on +music and musicians, the champion of Berlioz and Wagner (1848-1861); and +Liszt the prolific composer, who for some five-and-thirty years +continued to put forth pianoforte pieces, songs, symphonic orchestral +pieces, cantatas, masses, psalms and oratorios (1847-1882). As virtuoso +he held his own for the entire period during which he chose to appear in +public; but the militant conductor and prophet of Wagner had a hard +time of it, and the composer's place is still in dispute. Liszt's +father, a clerk to the agent of the Esterhazy estates and an amateur +musician of some attainment, was Hungarian by birth and ancestry, his +mother an Austrian-German. The boy's gifts attracted the attention of +certain Hungarian magnates, who furnished 600 gulden annually for some +years to enable him to study music at Vienna and Paris. At Vienna he had +lessons in pianoforte playing from Carl Czerny of "Velocity" fame, and +from Salieri in harmony and analysis of scores. In his eleventh year he +began to play in public there, and Beethoven came to his second concert +in April 1823. During the three years following he played in Paris, the +French provinces and Switzerland, and paid three visits to England. In +Paris he had composition lessons from Paër, and a six months' course of +lessons in counterpoint from Reicha. In the autumn of 1825 the handsome +and fascinating _enfant gâté_ of the salons and ateliers--"La Neuvième +Merveille du monde"--had the luck to get an operetta (_Don Sancho_) +performed three times at the Académie Royale. The score was accidentally +destroyed by fire, but a set of studies à la Czerny and Cramer, +belonging to 1826 and published at Marseilles as 12 Études, op. i., is +extant, and shows remarkable precocity. After the death of his father in +1828 young Liszt led the life of a teacher of the pianoforte in Paris, +got through a good deal of miscellaneous reading, and felt the influence +of the religious, literary and political aspirations of the time. He +attended the meetings of the Saint-Simonists, lent an ear to the +romantic mysticism of Père Enfantin and later to the teaching of Abbé +Lamennais. He also played Beethoven and Weber in public--a very +courageous thing in those days. The appearance of the violinist Paganini +in Paris, 1831, marks the starting-point of the supreme eminence Liszt +ultimately attained as a virtuoso. Paganini's marvellous technique +inspired him to practise as no pianist had ever practised before. He +tried to find equivalents for Paganini's effects, transcribed his violin +caprices for the piano, and perfected his own technique to an +extraordinary degree. After Paganini he received a fresh impulse from +the playing and the compositions of Chopin, who arrived in 1831, and yet +another impulse of equal force from a performance of Berlioz's +"Symphonie Fantastique, épisode de la vie d'un artiste," in 1832. Liszt +transcribed this work, and its influence ultimately led him to the +composition of his "Poèmes symphoniques" and other examples of +orchestral programme-music. + +From 1833 to 1848--when he gave up playing in public--he was greeted with +frantic applause as the prince of pianists. Five years (1835-1840) were +spent in Switzerland and Italy, in semi-retirement in the company of +Madame la comtesse d'Agoult (George Sand's friend and would-be rival, +known in literary circles as "Daniel Stern," by whom Liszt had three +children, one of them afterwards Frau Cosima Wagner): these years were +devoted to further study in playing and composition, and were interrupted +only by occasional appearances at Geneva, Milan, Florence and Rome, and +by annual visits to Paris, when a famous contest with Thalberg took place +in 1837. The enthusiasm aroused by Liszt's playing and his +personality--the two are inseparable--reached a climax at Vienna and +Budapest in 1839-1840, when he received a patent of nobility from the +emperor of Austria, and a sword of honour from the magnates of Hungary in +the name of the nation. During the eight years following he was heard at +all the principalcentres--including London, Leipzig, Berlin, Copenhagen, +St Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Constantinople, Lisbon and Madrid. He +gained much money, and gave large sums in charity. His munificence with +regard to the Beethoven statue at Bonn made a great stir. The +subscriptions having come in but sparsely, Liszt took the matter in +hand, and the monument was completed at his expense, and unveiled at a +musical festival conducted by Spohr and himself in 1845. In 1848 he +settled at Weimar with Princess Sayn-Wittgenstein (d. 1887), and remained +there till 1861. During this period he acted as conductor at court +concerts and on special occasions at the theatre, gave lessons to a +number of pianists, wrote articles of permanent value on certain works of +Berlioz and the early operas of Wagner, and produced those orchestral and +choral pieces upon which his reputation as a composer mainly depends. His +ambition to found a school of composers as well as a school of pianists +met with complete success on the one hand and partial failure on the +other. His efforts on behalf of Wagner, who was then an exile in +Switzerland, culminated in the first performance of _Lohengrin_ on the +28th of August 1850, before a special audience assembled from far and +near. Among the works produced for the first time or rehearsed with a +view to the furtherance of musical art were Wagner's _Tannhäuser_, _Der +fliegende Holländer_, _Das Liebesmahl der Apostel_, and _Eine Faust +Overtüre_, Berlioz's _Benvenuto Cellini_, the _Symphonie Fantastique_, +_Harold en Italie_, _Roméo et Juliette_, _La Damnation de Faust_, and +_L'Enfance du Christ_--the last two conducted by the composer--Schumann's +_Genoveva_, _Paradise and the Peri_, the music to _Manfred_ and to +_Faust_, Weber's _Euryanthe_, Schubert's _Alfonso und Estrella_, Raff's +_König Alfred_, Cornelius's _Der Barbier von Baghdad_ and many more. It +was Liszt's habit to recommend novelties to the public by explanatory +articles or essays, which were written in French (some for the _Journal +des débats_ and the _Gazette musicale_ of Paris) and translated for the +journals of Weimar and Leipzig--thus his two masterpieces of sympathetic +criticism, the essays _Lohengrin et Tannhäuser à Weimar_ and _Harold en +Italie_, found many readers and proved very effective. They are now +included, together with articles on Schumann and Schubert, and the +elaborate and rather high-flown essays on Chopin and _Des Bohémiens et de +leur musique en Hongrie_ (the latter certainly, and the former probably, +written in collaboration with Madame de Wittgenstein), in his _Gesammelte +Schriften_ (6 vols., Leipzig). The compositions belonging to the period +of his residence at Weimar comprise two pianoforte concertos, in E flat +and in A, the "Todtentanz," the "Concerto pathétique" for two pianos, the +solo sonata "An Robert Schumann," sundry "Études," fifteen "Rhapsodies +Hongroises," twelve orchestral "Poèmes symphoniques," "Eine Faust +Symphonie," and "Eine Symphonie zu Dante's 'Divina Commedia,'" the "13th +Psalm" for tenor solo, chorus and orchestra, the choruses to Herder's +dramatic scenes "Prometheus," and the "Missa solennis" known as the +"Graner Fest Messe." Liszt retired to Rome in 1861, and joined the +Franciscan order in 1865.[1] From 1869 onwards Abbé Liszt divided his +time between Rome and Weimar, where during the summer months he received +pupils--gratis as formerly--and, from 1876 up to his death at Bayreuth on +the 31st of July 1886, he also taught for several months every year at +the Hungarian Conservatoire of Budapest. + +About Liszt's pianoforte technique in general it may be said that it +derives its efficiency from the teaching of Czerny, who brought up his +pupil on Mozart, a little Bach and Beethoven, a good deal of Clementi +and Hummel, and a good deal of his (Czerny's) own work. Classicism in +the shape of solid, respectable Hummel on the one hand, and Carl Czerny, +a trifle flippant, perhaps, and inclined to appeal to the gallery, on +the other, these gave the musical parentage of young Liszt. Then appears +the Parisian Incroyable and grand seigneur--"Monsieur Lits," as the +Parisians called him. Later, we find him imitating Paganini and Chopin, +and at the same time making a really passionate and deep study of +Beethoven, Weber, Schubert, Berlioz. Thus gradually was formed the +master of style--whose command of the instrument was supreme, and who +played like an inspired poet. Liszt's strange musical nature was long in +maturing its fruits. At the pianoforte his achievements culminate in the +two books of studies, twice rewritten, and finally published in 1852 as +_Études d'exécution transcendante_, the _Études de concert_ and the +_Paganini Studies_; the two concertos and the _Todtentanz_, the _Sonata +in B minor_, the _Hungarian Rhapsodies_ and the fine transcriptions of +Beethoven's symphonies (the 9th for two pianofortes as well as solo), +and of Berlioz's _Symphonie fantastique_, and the symphony, _Harold en +Italie_. In his orchestral pieces of Liszt appears--next to Berlioz--as +the most conspicuous and most thorough-going representative of programme +music, i.e. instrumental music expressly contrived to illustrate in +detail some poem or some succession of ideas or pictures. It was Liszt's +aim to bring about a direct alliance or amalgamation of instrumental +music with poetry. To effect this he made use of the means of musical +expression for purposes of illustration, and relied on points of support +outside the pale of music proper. There is always danger of failure +when an attempt is thus made to connect instrumental music with +conceptions not in themselves musical, for the order of the ideas that +serve as a programme is apt to interfere with the order which the +musical exposition naturally assumes--and the result in most cases is +but an amalgam of irreconcilable materials. In pieces such as Liszt's +"Poèmes symphoniques," _Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne_ (1848-1856), +after a poem by Victor Hugo, and _Die Ideale_ (1853-1857), after a poem +by Schiller, the hearer is bewildered by a series of startling +orchestral effects which succeed one another apparently without rhyme or +reason. The music does not conform to any sufficiently definite musical +plan--it is hardly intelligible as music without reference to the +programme. Liszt's masterpiece in orchestral music is the _Dante +Symphony_ (1847-1855), the subject of which was particularly well suited +to his temperament, and offered good chances for the display of his +peculiar powers as a master of instrumental effect. By the side of it +ranks the _Faust Symphony_ (1854-1857), in which the moods of Goethe's +characters--Faust, Gretchen and Mephistopheles--are depicted in three +instrumental movements, with a chorus of male voices, supplying a kind +of comment, by way of close. The method of presentation in both +symphonies is by means of representative themes (_Leitmotif_), and their +combination and interaction. Incidents of the poem or the play are +illustrated or alluded to as may be convenient, and the exigencies of +musical form are not unfrequently disregarded for the sake of special +effects. Of the twelve Poèmes symphoniques, _Orphée_ is the most +consistent from a musical point of view, and is exquisitely scored. +Melodious, effective, readily intelligible, with a dash of the +commonplace, _Les Préludes_, _Tasso_, _Mazeppa_ and _Fest-Klänge_ bid +for popularity. In these pieces, as in almost every production of his, +in lieu of melody Liszt offers fragments of melody--touching and +beautiful, it may be, or passionate, or tinged with triviality; in lieu +of a rational distribution of centres of harmony in accordance with some +definite plan, he presents clever combinations of chords and ingenious +modulations from point to point; in lieu of musical logic and +consistency of design, he is content with rhapsodical improvisation. The +power of persistence seems wanting. The musical growth is spoilt, the +development of the themes is stopped, or prevented, by some reference to +extraneous ideas. Everywhere the programme stands in the way. In much of +Liszt's vocal music, particularly in the songs and choral pieces written +to German words, an annoying discrepancy is felt to exist between the +true sound of the words and the musical accents. The music is generally +emotional, the expression direct and passionate; there is no lack of +melodic charm and originality, yet the total effect is frequently +disappointing. In the choral numbers of the five masses, and in the +oratorios _Die Heilige Elisabeth_ and _Christus_, the rarity of fugal +polyphony acts as a drawback. Its almost complete absence in some of +these works makes for monotony and produces a sense of dullness, which +may not be inherent in all the details of the music, but is none the +less distinctly present. + + Omitting trifles and all publications that have been cancelled, the + following list of compositions may be taken as fairly comprehensive:-- + + _Pianoforte Pieces._--Études d'exécution transcendante; Études de + concert; Zwei Etuden, Waldesrauschen, Gnomentanz; Ab Irato; Paganini + Studies; Années de Pélerinage, 3 sets; Harmonies poétiques et + religieuses, 1-10; Consolations, 1-6; Ave Maria in E; Sonata in B + minor; Konzert-Solo in E minor; Scherzo und Marsch; Ballades, I. II.; + Polonaises, I. II.; Apparitions, 1-3; Berceuse; Valse impromptu; + Mazurka brillant; 3 Caprices Valses; Galop chromatique; + Mephisto-Walzer, I., II., III. and Polka; Zwei Legenden, "Die + Vogelpredigt," "Der heilige Franciscus auf den Wogen schreitend"; "Der + Weihnachtsbaum," 1-12; Sarabande und Chaconne ("Almira"); Elegies, I., + II. and III.; La lugubre Gondola; Dem Andenken Petöfi's; Mosonyi's + Grabgeleit; Romance oubliée; Valses oubliées, 1-3; Liebesträume, 1-3 + (originally songs); Hexameron; Rhapsodies Hongroises, 1-18. + + _Pieces for Two Pianos._--Concerto pathétique (identical with the + Konzert-Solo in E minor); Dante symphony; Faust symphony; Poèmes + symphoniques, 1-12; Beethoven's 9th symphony. + + _Pianoforte with Orchestra._--Concertos I. in E flat, II. in A; + Todtentanz; Fantasie ueber Motif aus Beethoven's "Ruinen von Athen"; + Fantasie ueber Ungarische National Melodien; Schubert's Fantasia in C; + Weber's Polacca in E. + + _Fantaisies de Concert for Piano Solo._--Don Juan; Norma; Sonnambula; + I Puritani; Lucia, I., II.; Lucrezia, I., II.; La Juive; Robert le + Diable; Les Huguenots; Le Prophète, 1-4. _Paraphrases_, Auber, + Tarantella di bravura (Masaniello); Verdi, Rigoletto, Ernani, Il + Trovatore; Mendelssohn, "Hochzeitsmarsch und Elfenreigen"; Gounod, + Valse de Faust, Les Adieux de Roméo et Juliette; Tschaikowsky, + Polonaise; Dargomiyski, Tarantelle; Cui, Tarantella; Saint-Saëns, + Danse macabre; Schubert, Soirées de Vienne, Valses caprices, 1-9. + + _Transcriptions._--Beethoven's Nine Symphonies; Berlioz's "Symphonie + fantastique," "Harold en Italie"; Bénédiction et Serment (Benvenuto + Cellini); Danse des Sylphes (Damnation de Faust); Weber's overtures, + Der Freischütz, Euryanthe, Oberon, Jubilee; Beethoven's and Hummel's + Septets; Schubert's Divertissement à la Hongroise; Beethoven's + Concertos in C minor, G and E flat (orchestra for a second piano); + Wagner's Tannhäuser overture, march, romance, chorus of pilgrims; + Lohengrin, Festzug und Brautlied, Elsa's Brautgang, Elsa's Traum, + Lohengrin's Verweiss an Elsa; Fliegender Holländer, Spinnlied; Rienzi, + Gebet; Rheingold, Walhall; Meistersinger, "Am stillen Herd"; Tristan, + Isolde's Liebestod; Chopin's six Chants Polonais; Meyerbeer's + Schillermarsch; Bach's six organ Preludes and Fugues; Prelude and + Fugue in G minor; Beethoven, Adelaide; 6 miscellaneous and 6 + Geistliche Lieder; Liederkreis; Rossini's Les Soirées musicales; + Schubert, 59 songs; Schumann, 13 songs; Mendelssohn, 8 songs; Robert + Franz, 13 songs. + + _Organ Pieces._--Missa pro organo; Fantasia and Fugue, "Ad nos, ad + salutarem undam"; B-A-C-H Fugue; Variations on Bach's Basso continuo, + "Weinen, Klagen"; Bach's Introduction and Fugue, "Ich hatte viel + Bekümmerniss"; Bach's Choral Fugue, "Lob und Ehre"; Nicolai's + Kirchliche Festouvertüre, "Ein feste Burg"; Allegri's Miserere; + Mozart's Ave Verum; Arcadelt's Ave Maria; Lasso's Regina Coeli. + + _Orchestral Pieces._--Eine Symphonie zu Dante's "Divina Commedia"; + Eine Faust Symphonie; Poèmes symphoniques: 1. "Ce qu'on entend sur la + montagne"; 2. Tasso; 3. Les Préludes; 4. Orphée; 5. Prométhée; 6. + Mazeppa; 7. Fest-Klänge; 8. Héroïde funèbre; 9. Hungaria; 10. Hamlet; + 11. Hunnenschlacht; 12. Die Ideale; Zwei Episoden aus Lenau's Faust: + I. Der nächtliche Zug, II. Der Tanz in der Dorfschenke; Marches, + Rakoczy, Goethe, Huldigung, "Vom Fels zum Meer" (for a military band); + Ungarischer, Heroischer and Sturmmarsch; Le Triomphe funèbre du Tasse; + "Von der Wiege bis zum Grab"; six Hungarian rhapsodies; four marches; + four songs, and Die Allmacht, by Schubert. + + _Vocal Music._--Oratorios: "Die Legende von der Heiligen Elisabeth," + "Christus," "Stanislaus" (unfinished). Masses: Missa solennis for the + inauguration of the cathedral at Gran; Ungarische Krönungs-messe; + Missa choralis (with organ); Missa and Requiem for male voices (with + organ); Psalms, 13, 137, 23 and 18; 12 Kirchen-Chor-Gesänge (with + organ). Cantatas: Prometheus-chöre; "Beethoven Cantata"; "An die + Künstler"; Die Glocken des Strassburger Münsters; 12 Chöre für + Männergesang; Songs, 8 books; Scena, Jeanne d'Arc au bûcher. + + _Melodramatic Pieces for Declamation, with Pianoforte + Accompaniment._--Leonore (Bürger); Der traurige Mönch (Lenau); Des + todten Dichter's Liebe (Jokai); Der blinde Sänger (Tolstoy). + + _Editions, Text and Variants._--Beethoven's Sonatas; Weber's + Concertstück and Sonatas; Schubert Fantasia, 4 Sonatas, Impromptus, + Valses and Moments musicaux. + + See also L. Ramaun, _Fr. Liszt als Künstler und Mensch_ (1880-1894); + E. Dannreuther, _Oxford Hist. of Music_, vol. vi.(1905). (E. Da.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It is understood that, in point of fact, the Princess + Wittgenstein was determined to marry Liszt; and as neither he nor her + family wished their connexion to take this form, Cardinal Hohenlohe + quietly had him ordained.--[ED. _E.B._]. + + + + +LITANY. This word ([Greek: litaneia]), like [Greek: litê] (both from +[Greek: litomai]), is used by Eusebius and Chrysostom, commonly in the +plural, in a general sense, to denote a prayer or prayers of any sort, +whether public or private; it is similarly employed in the law of +Arcadius (_Cod. Theod._ xvi. tit. 5, leg. 30), which forbids heretics to +hold assemblies in the city "ad litaniam faciendam." But some trace of a +more technical meaning is found in the epistle (_Ep._ 63) of Basil to +the church of Neocaesarea, in which he argues, against those who were +objecting to certain innovations, that neither were "litanies" used in +the time of Gregory Thaumaturgus. The nature of the recently introduced +litanies, which must be assumed to have been practised at Neocaesarea in +Basil's day, can only be conjectured; probably they had many points in +common with the "rogationes," which, according to Sidonius Apollinaris, +had been coming into occasional use in France about the beginning of the +5th century, especially when rain or fine weather was desired, and, so +far as the three fast days before Ascension were concerned, were first +fixed, for one particular district at least, by Mamertus or Mamercus of +Vienne (A.D. c. 450). We gather that they were penitential and +intercessory prayers offered by the community while going about in +procession, fasting and clothed in sackcloth. In the following century +the manner of making litanies was to some extent regulated for the +entire Eastern empire by one of the _Novels_ of Justinian, which forbade +their celebration without the presence of the bishops and clergy, and +ordered that the crosses which were carried in procession should not be +deposited elsewhere than in churches, nor be carried by any but duly +appointed persons. The first synod of Orleans (A.D. 511) enjoins for all +Gaul that the "litanies" before Ascension be celebrated for three days; +on these days all menials are to be exempt from work, so that every one +may be free to attend divine service. The diet is to be the same as in +Quadragesima; clerks not observing these rogations are to be punished by +the bishop. In A.D. 517 the synod of Gerunda provided for two sets of +"litanies"; the first were to be observed for three days (from Thursday +to Saturday) in the week after Pentecost with fasting, the second for +three days from November 1. The second council of Vaison (529), +consisting of twelve bishops, ordered the _Kyrie eleison_--now first +introduced from the Eastern Church--to be sung at matins, mass and +vespers. + +A synod of Paris (573) ordered litanies to be held for three days at the +beginning of Lent, and the fifth synod of Toledo (636) appointed +litanies to be observed throughout the kingdom for three days from +December 14. The first mention of the word litany in connexion with the +Roman Church goes back to the pontificate of Pelagius I. (555), but +implies that the thing was at that time already old. In 590 Gregory I., +moved by the pestilence which had followed an inundation, ordered a +"litania septiformis," sometimes called _litania major_, that is to say, +a sevenfold procession of clergy, laity, monks, virgins, matrons, +widows, poor and children. It must not be confused with the _litania +septena_ used in church on Easter Even. He is said also to have +appointed the processions or litanies of April 25 (St Mark's day), which +seem to have come in the place of the ceremonies of the old Robigalia. +In 747 the synod of Cloveshoe ordered the litanies or rogations to be +gone about on April 25 "after the manner of the Roman Church," and on +the three days before Ascension "after the manner of our ancestors." The +latter are still known in the English Church as Rogation Days. Games, +horse racing, junkettings were forbidden; and in the litanies the name +of Augustine was to be inserted after that of Gregory. The reforming +synod of Mainz in 813 ordered the major litany to be observed by all for +three days in sackcloth and ashes, and barefoot. The sick only were +exempted. + +As regards the form of words prescribed for use in these "litanies" or +"supplications," documentary evidence is defective. Sometimes it would +appear that the "procession" or "litany" did nothing else but chant +_Kyrie eleison_ without variation. There is no reason to doubt that from +an early period the special written litanies of the various churches all +showed the common features which are now regarded as essential to a +litany, in as far as they consisted of (1) invocations, (2) +deprecations, (3) intercessions, (4) supplications. But in details they +must have varied immensely. The offices of the Roman Catholic Church at +present recognize two litanies, the "Litaniae majores" and the "Litaniae +breves," which differ from one another chiefly in respect of the fulness +with which details are entered upon under the heads mentioned above. It +is said that in the time of Charlemagne the angels Orihel, Raguhel, +Tobihel were invoked, but the names were removed by Pope Zacharias as +really belonging to demons. In some medieval litanies there were special +invocations of S. Fides, S. Spes, S. Charitas. The litanies, as given in +the Breviary, are at present appointed to be recited on bended knee, +along with the penitential psalms, in all the six week-days of Lent when +ordinary service is held. Without the psalms they are said on the feast +of Saint Mark and on the three rogation days. A litany is chanted in +procession before mass on Holy Saturday. The "litany" or "general +supplication" of the Church of England, which is appointed "to be sung +or said after morning prayer upon Sundays, Wednesdays and Fridays, and +at other times when it shall be commanded by the ordinary," closely +follows the "Litaniae majores" of the Breviary, the invocations of +saints being of course omitted. A similar German litany will be found in +the works of Luther. In the Roman Church there are a number of special +litanies peculiar to particular localities or orders, such as the +"Litanies of Mary" or the "Litanies of the Sacred Name of Jesus." + +There was originally a close connexion between the litany and the +liturgy (q.v.). The ninefold _Kyrie eleison_ at the beginning of the +Roman Mass is a relic of a longer litany of which a specimen may still +be seen in the Stowe missal. In the Ambrosian liturgy, the threefold +_Kyrie eleison_ or Lesser Litany occurs thrice, after the _Gloria in +excelsis_, after the gospel and at the end of Mass; and on the first +five Sundays in Lent a missal litany is placed before the _Oratio super +populum_, and on the same five Sundays in the Mozarabic rite before the +epistle. In Eastern liturgies litanies are a prominent feature, as in +the case of the deacon's litany at the beginning of the _Missa fidelium_ +in the Clementine liturgy, immediately before the _Anaphora_ in the +Greek liturgy of St James, &c. (F. E. W.) + + + + +LITCHFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Litchfield county, +Connecticut, U.S.A., about 28 m. W. of Hartford, and including the +borough of the same name. Pop. of the township (1890) 3304; (1900) 3214; +(1910) 3005; of the borough (1890) 1058; (1900) 1120; (1910) 903. Area +of the township, 48.6 sq. m. The borough is served by the New York, New +Haven & Hartford railroad. It is situated on elevated land, and is one +of the most attractive of southern New England summer resorts. The +principal elevation in the township is Mt. Prospect, at the base of +which there is a vein of pyrrhotite, with small quantities of nickel and +copper. On the southern border of the borough is Lake Bantam (about 900 +acres, the largest lake in the state) whose falls, at its outlet, +provide water power for factories of carriages and electrical +appliances. Dairying is the most important industry, and in 1899 the +county ranked first among the counties of the state in the value of its +dairy products--$1,373,957, from 3465 farms, the value of the product +for the entire state being $7,090,188. + +The lands included in the township of Litchfield (originally called +Bantam) were bought from the Indians in 1715-1716 for £15. the Indians +reserving a certain part for hunting. The township was incorporated in +1719, was named Litchfield, after Lichfield in England, and was settled +by immigrants from Hartford, Windsor, Wethersfield, Farmington and +Lebanon (all within the state) in 1720-1721. In 1751 it became the +county-seat of Litchfield county, and at the same time the borough of +Litchfield (incorporated in 1879) was laid out. From 1776 to 1780 two +depôts for military stores and a workshop for the Continental army were +maintained, and the leaden statue of George III., erected in Bowling +Green, New York City, in 1770, and torn down by citizens on the 9th of +July 1776, was cut up and taken to Litchfield, where, in the house +(still standing) of Oliver Wolcott it was melted into bullets for the +American army by Wolcott's daughter and sister. Aaron Burr, whose only +sister married Tapping Reeve (1744-1823), lived in Litchfield with Reeve +in 1774-1775. In 1784 Reeve established here the Litchfield Law School, +the first institution of its kind in America. In 1798 he associated with +himself James Gould (1770-1838), who, after Reeve's retirement in 1820, +continued the work, with the assistance of Jabez W. Huntington +(1788-1847), until 1833. The school was never incorporated, it had no +buildings, and the lectures were delivered in the law offices of its +instructors, but among its 1000 or more students were many who +afterwards became famous, including John C. Calhoun; Levi Woodbury +(1789-1851), United States senator from New Hampshire in 1825-1831 and +in 1841-1845, secretary of the navy in 1831-1834 and of the treasury in +1834-1841, and a justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1845; +John Y. Mason; John M. Clayton; and Henry Baldwin (1780-1844), a justice +of the United States Supreme Court from 1830. In 1792 Mrs Sarah Pierce +made one of the first efforts toward the higher education of women in +the United States by opening in Litchfield her Female Seminary, which +had an influential career of about forty years, and numbered among its +alumnae Harriet Beecher Stowe, Mrs Marshall O. Roberts, Mrs Cyrus W. +Field and Mrs Hugh McCulloch. Litchfield was the birthplace of Ethan +Allen; of Henry Ward Beecher; of Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose novel, +_Poganuc People_, presents a picture of social conditions in Litchfield +during her girlhood; of Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1760-1833); of John +Pierpont (1785-1866), the poet, preacher and lecturer; and of Charles +Loring Brace, the philanthropist. It was also the home, during his last +years, of Oliver Wolcott (1726-1797); of Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge +(1774-1835), an officer on the American side in the War of Independence +and later (from 1801 to 1817) a Federalist member of Congress; and of +Lyman Beecher, who was pastor of the First Congregational church of +Litchfield from 1810 to 1826. + + See Payne K. Kilbourne, _Sketches and Chronicles of the Town of + Litchfield, Connecticut_ (Hartford, Conn., 1859); George C. Boswell, + _The Litchfield Book of Days_ (Litchfield, 1900); and for an account + of the Litchfield Female Seminary, Emily N. Vanderpoel, _Chronicles of + a Pioneer School_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1903). + + + + +LITCHFIELD, a city of Montgomery county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 50 m. +N. E. of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1900) 5918; (1910) 5971. Its +principal importance is as a railway and manufacturing centre; it is +served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, the +Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Illinois Central, the +Wabash, and the Litchfield & Madison railways, and by electric lines +connecting with St Louis and the neighbouring towns. In the vicinity are +deposits of bituminous coal, fire-clay and moulding sand. There are +various manufactures in the city. Litchfield was incorporated as a town +in 1856, and was first chartered as a city in 1859. + + + + +LITCHI, or LEE-CHEE, the fruit of _Nephelium Litchi_, a small tree, +native of southern China and one of the most important indigenous +fruits. It is also cultivated in India. The tree bears large compound +leaves with two to four pairs of leathery lanceolate pointed leaflets +about 3 in. long, and panicles of small flowers without petals. The +fruits are commonly roundish, about 1½ in. in diameter, with a thin, +brittle, red shell which bears rough protuberances. In the fresh state +they are filled with a sweet white pulp which envelops a large brown +seed, but in the dried condition the pulp forms a blackish fleshy +substance. The pulp is of the nature of an aril, that is, an additional +seed-coat. + + _Nephelium Longana_, the longan tree, also a native of southern China, + is cultivated in that country, in the Malay Peninsula, India and + Ceylon for its fruit, which is smaller than that of the litchi, being + half an inch to an inch in diameter with a nearly smooth + yellowish-brown brittle skin, and containing a pulpy aril resembling + that of the litchi in flavour. Another species, _N. lappaceum_, a tall + tree native of the Malay Peninsula, where it is known under the names + Rambutan or Rambosteen, is also cultivated for its pleasantly acid + pulpy aril. The fruit is oval, bright red in colour, about 2 in. long + and covered with long fleshy hairs. + + _Nephelium_ belongs to the natural order Sapindaceae, and contains + about twenty-two species. + + + + +LITERATURE, a general term which, in default of precise definition, may +stand for the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing. +Its various forms are the result of race peculiarities, or of diverse +individual temperaments, or of political circumstances securing the +predominance of one social class which is thus enabled to propagate its +ideas and sentiments. In early stages of society, the classes which +first attain a distinct literary utterance are priests who compile the +chronicles of tribal religious development, or rhapsodes who celebrate +the prowess of tribal chiefs. As man feels before he reasons, so poetry +generally precedes prose. It embodies more poignantly the sentiment of +unsophisticated man. Hence sacred books and war-songs are everywhere the +earliest literary monuments, and both are essentially poetic +compositions which have received a religious or quasi-religious +sanction. The recitation of the Homeric poems at the Panathenaea +corresponds to the recitation elsewhere of the sacred texts in the +temple; the statement of Phemios (_Odyssey_, xxii. 347) that a god +inspired his soul with all the varied ways of song expresses the +ordinary belief of early historical times. Versicles of the sacred +chronicles, or fragments of epic poems, were learned by heart and +supplied a standard of popular literary taste. The public declamation of +long chosen passages by priests, and still more by contending rhapsodes, +served to evoke the latent sense of literary criticism; and, at a later +stage, the critical spirit was still further stimulated by the +performance of dramatic pieces written by competing poets. The epical +record of the past was supplemented by the lyrical record of +contemporary events, and as the Homeric poets had immortalized the siege +of Troy, so Pindar commemorated Salamis. Prose of any permanent value +would first show itself in the form of oratory, and the insertion of +speeches by early historians indicates a connexion with rhetoric. The +development of abstract reasoning would tend to deprive prose of its +superfluous ornament and to provide a simpler and more accurate +instrument. + +No new _genre_ has been invented since the days of Plato. The evolution +of literature is completed in Greece, and there its subdivisions may +best be studied. Epic poetry is represented by the Homeric cycle, +lyrical poetry by Tyrtaeus, dramatic poetry by Aeschylus, history by +Herodotus, oratory by Pericles, philosophy by Plato, and criticism by +Zoilus, the earliest of slashing reviewers; and in each department there +is a long succession of illustrious names. Roughly speaking, all +subsequent literature is imitative. Ennius transplanted Greek methods to +Rome; his contemporary L. Fabius Pictor, the earliest Roman historian, +wrote in Greek; and the later Roman poets from Lucretius to Horace +abound in imitations of Greek originals. The official adoption of +Christianity as the state religion changed the spirit of literature, +which became more and more provincial after the downfall of the empire. +Literature did not perish during the "dark ages" which extend from the +sixth century to the beginning of the 11th, but it was subordinate to +scholarship. The dissolution of Latin was not complete till about the +middle of the 9th century, and the new varieties of Romance did not +become ripe for literary purposes till a hundred years later. Meanwhile, +not a single literary masterpiece was produced in western Europe for +five centuries; by comparison only do Boëthius and Venantius Fortunatus +seem to be luminous points in the prolonged night; the promise of a +literary renaissance at the court of Charlemagne was unfulfilled, and +the task of creating a new literature devolved upon the descendants of +the barbarians who had destroyed the old. The Celtic and Teutonic races +elaborated literary methods of their own; but the fact that the most +popular form of Irish verse is adopted from Latin prosody is conclusive +evidence that the influence of Roman--and therefore of Greek--models +persisted in the literature of the outlying provinces which had attained +political independence. The real service rendered to literature by the +provincials lay in the introduction and diffusion of legends freighted +with a burden of mystery which had disappeared with Pan, and these new +valuable materials went to form the substance of the new poetry. + +The home of modern European literature must be sought in France, which +assimilated the best elements in Celtic and Teutonic literature. From +the 11th to the 14th century, France was the centre of intellectual life +in Europe, as Greece and Rome had been before, and as Italy was to be +afterwards. The _chansons de geste_, inspired by the sense of patriotism +and the yearning for religious unity, inculcate feudal and Catholic +doctrine, and as society in the western world was universally committed +to feudalism and Catholicism, these literary expressions of both +theories were widely accepted and copied. The Germanic origin of the +French epic is lost sight of, and imitators are attracted by the French +execution, and by the creative power of the _chansons de geste_. Again, +France takes the stories of the Arthurian court from Welsh texts or from +the lips of Welsh settlers, rehandles the romantic element, and, through +Marie de France and Chrétien de Troyes, imparts to the whole a touch of +personal artistry which is absent from the _chansons de geste_. The +_matière de Bretagne_ goes forth to Italy, Germany and England--later to +Portugal and Spain--bearing the imprint of the French genius. Thus +France internationalizes local subjects, and first assumes a literary +function which, with few interruptions, she has since discharged. She +further gives to Europe models of allegory in the _Roman de la rose_, +founds the school of modern history through Villehardouin, inaugurates +the religious drama and the secular theatre. She never again dominated +the literatures of Europe so absolutely. + +The literary sceptre passed from France to Italy during the 14th +century. Brunetto Latini, who wrote in French as well as in Italian, is +the connecting link between the literatures of the two countries; but +Italy owes its eminence not so much to a general diffusion of literary +accomplishment as to the emergence of three great personalities. Dante, +Boccacio and Petrarch created a new art of poetry and of prose. England +yielded to the fascination in the person of Chaucer, Spain in the person +of her chancellor López de Ayala, and France in the person of Charles +d'Orléans, the son of an Italian mother. Petrarch, once ambassador in +France, alleged that there were no poets out of Italy, and indeed there +were no living poets to compare with him elsewhere. But in all countries +he raised up rivals--Chaucer, Marot, Garcilaso de la Vega--as Sannazaro +did a century and a half later. Sannazaro's _Arcadia_ captured the +Portuguese Montemôr, whose pastoral novel the _Diana_, written in +Spanish, inspired d'Urfé no less than Sidney, and, as d'Urfé's _Astrée_ +is considered the starting-point of the modern French novel, the +historical importance of the Italian original cannot be exaggerated. +Spain never obtained any intellectual predominance corresponding to that +exercised by France and Italy, or to her political authority during the +16th and 17th centuries. This may be attributed partly to her +geographical position which lies off the main roads of Europe, and +partly to the fact that her literature is essentially local. Cervantes, +indeed, may be said to have influenced all subsequent writers of +fiction, and the influence of Spanish literature is visible in the body +of European picaresque tales; but, apart from Corneille and a few other +dramatists who preceded Molière in France, and apart from the +Restoration drama in England, the influence of the Spanish drama was +relatively small. In some respects it was too original to be imitated +with success. Much the same may be said of England as of Spain. Like +Spain, she lies outside the sphere of continental influence; like Spain, +she has innumerable great names in every province of literature, and, in +both cases, to Europe at large these long remained names and nothing +more; like Spain, she is prone to reproduce borrowed materials in shapes +so transformed and rigid as to be unrecognizable and unadaptable. +Moreover, the Reformation isolated England from literary commerce with +the Latin races, and till the 18th century Germany was little more than +a geographical expression. Even when Germany recovered her literary +independence, Lessing first heard of Shakespeare through Voltaire. +Neither Shakespeare nor Milton was read in France before the 18th +century--the first translated by Ducis, the second by Dupré de +Saint-Maur--and they were read with curiosity rather than with rapture. +On the other hand, Boileau, Rapin and Le Bossu were regarded as oracles +in England, and through them French literature produced the +"correctness" of Queen Anne's reign. Horace Walpole is half a Frenchman, +Hume imitates Montesquieu's cold lucidity, Gibbon adapts Bossuet's +majestic periods to other purposes. On the other hand Voltaire takes +ideas from Locke, but his form is always intensely personal and +inimitably French. After the 16th century English literature, as a +whole, is refractory to external influence. Waves of enthusiasm pass +over England--for Rousseau, for Goethe--but leave no abiding trace on +English literature. During the latter half of the 18th century France +resumed something of her old literary supremacy; the literatures of +Italy and Spain at this period are purely derivative, and French +influence was extended still further on the continent as the result of +the Romantic movement. Since that impulse was exhausted, literature +everywhere has been in a state of flux: it is less national, and yet +fails to be cosmopolitan. All writers of importance, and many of no +importance, are translated into other European languages; the quick +succession of diverse and violent impressions has confused the scheme of +literature. Literature suffers likewise from the competition of the +newspaper press, and as the press has multiplied it has grown less +literary. The diversities of modern interests, the want of leisure for +concentrated thought, suggest that literature may become once more the +pleasure of a small caste. But the desire for the one just form which +always inspires the literary artist visits most men sometimes, and it +cannot be doubted that literature will continue to accommodate itself to +new conditions. (J. F.-K.) + + + + +LITERNUM, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, on the low sandy coast +between Cumae and the mouth of the Volturnus. It was probably once +dependent on Cumae. In 194 B.C. it became a Roman colony. It is mainly +famous as the residence of the elder Scipio, who withdrew from Rome and +died here. His tomb and villa are described by Seneca. Augustus is said +to have conducted here a colony of veterans,[1] but the place never had +any great importance, and the lagoons behind it made it unhealthy, +though the construction of the Via Domitiana through it must have made +it a posting station. It ceased to exist in the 8th century. No remains +are visible. + + See J. Beloch, _Campanien_, ed. ii. (Breslau, 1890), 377. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Mommsen in C.I.L. x. 343 does not accept this statement, but an + inscription found in 1885 confirms it. + + + + +LITHGOW, WILLIAM (1582-? 1650), Scottish traveller and writer, was born +and educated in Lanark. He was caught in a love-adventure, mutilated of +his ears by the brothers of the lady (hence the sobriquet "Cut-lugged +Willie"), and forced to leave Scotland. For nineteen years he travelled, +mostly on foot, through Europe, the Levant, Egypt and northern Africa, +covering, according to his estimate, over 36,000 m. The story of his +adventures may be drawn from _The Totall Discourse of the Rare +Adventures and painfull Peregrinations of long nineteene Yeares_ +(London, 1614; fuller edition, 1632, &c.); _A True and Experimentall +Discourse upon the last siege of Breda_ (London, 1637); and a similar +book giving an account of the siege of Newcastle and the battle of +Marston Moor (Edinburgh, 1645). He is the author of a _Present Surveigh +of London_ (London, 1643). He left six poems, written between 1618 and +1640 (reprinted by Maidment, Edinburgh, 1863). Of these "Scotland's +Welcome to King Charles, 1633" has considerable antiquarian interest. +His writing has no literary merit; but its excessively aureate style +deserves notice. + + The best account of Lithgow and his works is by F. Hindes Groome in + the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ The piece entitled _Scotland's Paraenesis to + King Charles II._ (1660), ascribed to him in the catalogue of the + Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, cannot, from internal evidence, be his. + + + + +LITHGOW, a town of Cook county, New South Wales, Australia, 96 m. W.N.W. +of Sydney by rail. Pop. (1901) 5268. The town is situated at an altitude +of 3000 ft., in a valley of the Blue Mountains. It has pottery and +terra-cotta works, breweries, a tweed factory, iron-works, saw-mills, +soap-works and brickfields. Coal, kerosene shale, iron ore and building +stone are found in the district. + + + + +LITHIUM [symbol Li, atomic weight 7.00 (O = 16)], an alkali metal, +discovered in 1817 by J. A. Arfvedson (_Ann. chim. phys._ 10, p. 82). It +is only found in combination, and is a constituent of the minerals +petalite, triphyline, spodumene and lepidolite or lithia mica. It occurs +in small quantities in sea, river and spring water, and is also widely +but very sparingly distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom. It may +be obtained (in the form of its chloride) by fusing lepidolite with a +mixture of barium carbonate and sulphate, and potassium sulphate (L. +Troost, _Comptes rendus_, 1856, 43, p. 921). The fused mass separates +into two layers, the upper of which contains a mixture of potassium and +lithium sulphates; this is lixiviated with water and converted into the +mixed chlorides by adding barium chloride, the solution evaporated and +the lithium chloride extracted by a mixture of dry alcohol and ether. +The metal may be obtained by heating dry lithium hydroxide with +magnesium (H. N. Warren, _Chem. News_, 1896, 74, p. 6). L. Kahlenberg +(_Jour. phys. Chem_., 3, p. 601) obtained it by electrolysing the +chloride in pyridine solution, a carbon anode and an iron or platinum +cathode being used. O. Ruff and O. Johannsen (_Zeit. elektrochem._, +1906, 55, p. 537) electrolyse a mixture of bromide and chloride which +melts at 520°. It is a soft, silvery-white metal, which readily +tarnishes on exposure. Its specific gravity is 0.59, and it melts at +180° C. It burns on ignition in air, and when strongly heated in an +atmosphere of nitrogen it forms lithium nitride, Li3N. It decomposes +water at ordinary temperature, liberating hydrogen and forming lithium +hydroxide. + + _Lithium hydride_, LiH, obtained by heating the metal in a current of + hydrogen at a red heat, or by heating the metal with ethylene to 700° + C. (M. Guntz, _Comptes rendus_, 1896, 122, p. 244; 123, p. 1273), is a + white solid which inflames when heated in chlorine. With alcohol it + forms lithium ethylate, LiOC2H5, with liberation of hydrogen. _Lithium + oxide_, Li2O, is obtained by burning the metal in oxygen, or by + ignition of the nitrate. It is a white powder which readily dissolves + in water to form the _hydroxide_, LiOH, which is also obtained by + boiling the carbonate with milk of lime. It forms a white caustic + mass, resembling sodium hydroxide in appearance. It absorbs carbon + dioxide, but is not deliquescent. _Lithium chloride_ LiCl, prepared by + heating the metal in chlorine, or by dissolving the oxide or carbonate + in hydrochloric acid, is exceedingly deliquescent, melts below a red + heat, and is very soluble in alcohol. _Lithium carbonate_, Li2CO3, + obtained as a white amorphous precipitate by adding sodium carbonate + to a solution of lithium chloride, is sparingly soluble in water. + _Lithium phosphate_, Li3PO4, obtained by the addition of sodium + phosphate to a soluble lithium salt in the presence of sodium + hydroxide, is almost insoluble in water. _Lithium ammonium_, LiNH3, is + obtained by passing ammonia gas over lithium, the product being heated + to 70° C. in order to expel any excess of ammonia. It turns brown-red + on exposure to air, and is inflammable. It is decomposed by water + evolving hydrogen, and when heated _in vacuo_ at 50°-60° C. it gives + lithium and ammonia. With ammonia solution it gives hydrogen and + _lithiamide_, LiNH2 (H. Moissan, _ibid._, 1898, 127, p. 685). _Lithium + carbide_, Li2C2, obtained by heating lithium carbonate and carbon in + the electric furnace, forms a transparent crystalline mass of specific + gravity 1.65, and is readily decomposed by cold water giving acetylene + (H. Moissan, _ibid._, 1896, 122, p. 362). + + Lithium is detected by the faint yellow line of wave-length 6104, and + the bright red line of wave-length 6708, shown in its flame spectrum. + It may be distinguished from sodium and potassium by the sparing + solubility of its carbonate and phosphate. The atomic weight of + lithium was determined by J. S. Stas from the analysis of the + chloride, and also by conversion of the chloride into the nitrate, the + value obtained being 7.03 (O = 16). + + The preparations of lithium used in medicine are: _Lithii Carbonis_, + dose 2 to 5 grs.; _Lithii Citras_, dose 5 to 10 grs.; and _Lithii + Citras effervescens_, a mixture of citric acid, lithium citrate, + tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate, dose 60 to 120 grs. Lithium + salts render the urine alkaline and are in virtue of their action + diuretic. They are much prescribed for acute or chronic gout, and as a + solvent to uric acid calculi or gravel, but their action as a solvent + of uric acid has been certainly overrated, as it has been shown that + the addition of medicinal doses of lithium to the blood serum does not + increase the solubility of uric acid in it. In concentrated or large + doses lithium salts cause vomiting and diarrhoea, due to a + gastro-enteritis set up by their action. In medicinal use they should + therefore be always freely diluted. + + + + +LITHOGRAPHY (Gr. [Greek: lithos], a stone, and [Greek: graphein], to +write), the process of drawing or laying down a design or transfer, on a +specially prepared stone or other suitable surface, in such a way that +impressions may be taken therefrom. The principle on which lithography +is based is the antagonism of grease and water. A chemically pure +surface having been secured on some substance that has an equal affinity +for both grease and water, in a method hereafter to be described, the +parts intended to print are covered with an unctuous composition and the +rest of the surface is moistened, so that when a greasy roller is +applied, the portion that is wet resists the grease and that in which an +affinity for grease has been set up readily accepts it; and from the +surface thus treated it will be seen that it is an easy thing to secure +an impression on paper or other material by applying suitable pressure. + +The inventor of lithography was Alois Senefelder (1771-1834); and it is +remarkable what a grip he at once seemed to get of his invention, for +whereas the invention of printing seems almost a matter of evolution, +lithography seems to come upon the scene fully equipped for the battle +of life, so that it would be a bold craftsman at the present day who +would affirm that he knew more of the principles underlying his trade +than Senefelder (q.v.) did within thirty years of its invention. Of +course practice has led to dexterity, and the great volume of trade has +induced many mechanical improvements and facilities, but the principles +have not been taken any further, while some valuable methods have been +allowed to fall into desuetude and would well repay some experimentally +disposed person to revive. + +Lithography may be divided into two main branches--that which is drawn +with a greasy crayon (rather illogically called "chalk") on a grained +stone, and that which is drawn in "ink" on a polished stone. Whatever +may be thought in regard to the original work of the artists of various +countries who have used lithography as a means of expression, there can +be little doubt that in the former method the English professed +lithographer has always held the pre-eminence, while French, German and +American artists have surpassed them in the latter. + +Chalk lithography subdivides itself into work in which the black +predominates, although it may be supported by 5 or 6 shades of modified +colour--this branch is known as "black and tint" work--and that in which +the black is only used locally like any other colour. Frequently this +latter class of work will require a dozen or more colours, while some of +the finest examples have had some twenty to thirty stones employed in +them. Work of this description is known as chromo-lithography. Each +colour requires a separate stone, and work of the highest quality may +want two or three blues with yellows, reds, greys and browns in +proportion, if it is desired to secure a result that is an approximate +rendering of the original painting or drawing. The question may perhaps +be asked: "If the well-known three-colour process" (see PROCESS) "can +give the full result of the artist's palette, why should it take so many +more colours in lithography to secure the same result?" The answer is +that the stone practically gives but three gradations--the solid, the +half tint and the quarter tint, so that the combination of three very +carefully prepared stones will give a very limited number of +combinations, while a moderate estimate of the shades on a toned block +would be six; so that a very simple mathematical problem will show the +far greater number of combinations that the three blocks will give. +Beyond this, the chromo-lithographer has to exercise very great powers +of colour analysis; but the human mind is quite unable to settle offhand +the exact proportion of red, blue and yellow necessary to produce some +particular class say of grey, and this the camera with the aid of colour +filters does with almost perfect precision. + +Notwithstanding these disadvantages, lithography has these strong +points: (1) its utility for small editions on account of its, at +present, smaller prime cost; (2) its suitability for subjects of large +size; (3) its superiority for subjects with outlines, for in such cases +the outline can be done in one colour, whereas to secure this effect by +the admixture of the three colours requires marvellously good +registration, the absence of which would produce a very large proportion +of "waste" or faulty copies; (4) capacity for printing on almost any +paper, whereas, at the time of writing, the tri-colour process is almost +entirely limited to printing on coated papers that are very heavy and +not very enduring. + +With regard to the two branches of chalk lithography, the firms that +maintained the English supremacy for black and tint work in the early +days were Hulemandel, Day and Haghe and Maclure, while the best +chromo-lithographic work in the same period was done by Vincent Brooks, +the brothers Hanhart, Thomas Kell and F. Kell. In reference to the +personal work of professed lithographers during the same period, the +names of Louis Haghe, J. D. Harding, J. Needham, C. Baugniet, L. Ghemar, +William Simpson, R. J. Lane, J. H. Lynch, A. Maclure and Rimanozcy stand +for black and tint work; while in chromo-lithography J. M. Carrick, C. +Risdon, William Bunney, W. Long, Samuel Hodson, Edwin Buckman and J. +Lewis have been conspicuous among those who have maintained the standard +of their craft. In the foregoing list will be recognized the names of +several who have had admirable works on the walls of the Royal Academy +and other exhibitions; Mr Lane, who exhibited lithographs from 1824 to +1872, was for many years the doyen of lithographers, and the only one of +their number to attain academic rank, but Lynch and John Cardwell Bacon +were his pupils, and Bacon's son, the painter John H. F. Bacon, was +elected to the Royal Academy in 1903. In the first decade of the 20th +century the number of firms doing high-class work, and the artists who +aided them in doing it, were more numerous than ever, and scarcely less +able, but it would be outside the present purpose to differentiate +between them. + +The _raison d'être_ of "stipple" work is its capacity for retransferring +without serious loss of quality, for it can scarcely be contended that +it is as artistic as the methods just described. Retransferring is the +process of pulling impressions from the original stones with a view to +making up a large sheet of one or more small subjects, or where it is +desired to print a very large number without deterioration of the +original or matrix stone. The higher class work in this direction has +been done in France, Germany and the United States, where for many years +superiority has been shown in regard to the excellence and rapidity of +retransferring. To this cause may be attributed the fact that the box +tops and Christmas cards on the English market were so largely done +abroad until quite recent times. The work of producing even a small face +in the finest hand stipple is a lengthy and tedious affair, and the +English craftsman has seldom shown the patience necessary for this work; +but since the American invention known as Ben Day's shading medium was +introduced into England the trade has largely taken it up, and thereby +much of the tedium has been avoided, so that it has been found possible +by its means to introduce a freedom into stipple work that had not +before been found possible, and a very much better class of work has +since been produced in this department. + +About the year 1868 grained paper was invented by Maclure, Macdonald & +Co. This method consists in impressing on ordinary Scotch transfer or +other suitable paper a grain closely allied to that of the lithographic +stone. It appears to have been rather an improvement than a new +invention, for drawing paper and even canvas had been coated previously +with a material that adhered to a stone and left on the stone the greasy +drawing that had been placed thereon; but still from this to the +beautifully prepared paper that was placed on the market by the firm of +which the late Andrew Maclure was the head was a great advance, and +although the first use was by the ordinary craftsman it was not long +before artists of eminence saw that a new and convenient mode of +expression was opened up to them. + +On the first introduction of lithography the artists of every nation +hastened to avail themselves of it, but soon the cumbrous character of +the stone, and the fact that their subjects had to be drawn backwards in +order that they might appear correctly on the paper, wore down their +newly-born zeal, and it was only when the grained paper system was +perfected, by which they could make their drawings in the comfort of +their studios without reversing, that any serious revival took place. +Although excellent work on grained paper had been done by Andrew +Maclure, Rimanozcy, John Cardwell Bacon, Rudofsky and other craftsmen, +the credit for its furtherance among artists must be given to Thomas Way +and his son T. R. Way, who did much valuable pioneer work in this +direction. The adhesion of such artists of eminence as Whistler, Legros, +Frank Short, Charles Shannon, Fantin Latour, William Strang, Will +Rothenstein, Herbert Railton and Joseph Pennell, did not a little to aid +lithography in resisting the encroachments of other methods into what +may still be considered its sphere. As a means of reproducing effects +which an artist would otherwise get by pencil or crayon, it remains +entirely unequalled, and it is of obvious advantage to art that +twenty-five or fifty copies of an original work should exist, which, +without the aid of lithography, might have only been represented by a +single sketch, perhaps stowed away among the possessions of one private +collector. + +In regard to grained paper work, undue stress has often been placed upon +the rapid deterioration of the stone, some contending that only a few +dozen first-class proofs can be taken; this has led to the feeling that +it is unsuited to book illustration, and damage has been done to the +trade of lithography thereby. It may be mentioned that quite recently +about 100 auto-lithographs in black and three colours, the combined work +of Mr and Mrs Herbert Railton, have been treated by the Eberle system of +etching described below, and although an infinitesimal loss of quality +may have arisen, such as occurs when a copper etching is steel faced, +some 2000 to 3000 copies were printed without further deterioration, and +an edition of vignetted sketches was secured, far in advance of anything +that could have been attained from the usual screen or half-toned +blocks. + +Grained paper is much used in the ordinary lithographic studio for work +such as the hill shading of maps that can be done without much working +up, but the velvety effects that in the hands of Louis Haghe and his +contemporaries were so conspicuous, cannot be secured by this method. +The effects referred to were obtained by much patient work of a +"tinter," who practically laid a ground on which the more experienced +and artistic craftsman did his work either by scraping or accentuation. +Where fine rich blacks are needed, artists will do well to read the +notes on the "aquatint" and "wash" methods described by Senefelder in +his well-known treatise, and afterwards practised with great skill by +Hulemandel. + +Lithography is of great service in educational matters, as its use for +diagrams, wall pictures and maps is very general; nor does the influence +end with schooldays, for in the form of pictures at a moderate price it +brings art into homes and lives that need brightening, and even in the +form of posters on the much-abused hoardings does something for those +who have to spend much of their time in the streets of great cities. + +According to the census of 1901, 14,686 people in the United Kingdom +found their occupation within the trade, while according to a Home +Office return (1906), 20,367 persons other than lithographic printers +were employed by the firms carrying on the business. As it may be +assumed that an equal number are employed in France, Germany, the United +States of America and the world at large, it is clear that a vast +industrial army is employed in a trade that, like letterpress printing, +has a very beneficial influence upon those engaged in it. + +_Technical Details._--The following description of the various methods +of lithography is such as may be considered of interest to the general +reader, but the serious student who will require formulas and more +precise directions will do well to consult one of the numerous +text-books on the subject. + + _Stone and Stone Substitutes._--The quality of stone first used by + Alois Senefelder, and discovered by him at the village of Solenhofen + in Bavaria, still remains unsurpassed. This deposit, which covers a + very large area and underlies the villages of Solenhofen, Moernsheim + and Langenaltheim, has often been described, sometimes for interested + motives, as nearly exhausted; but a visit in 1906 revealed that the + output--considerable as it had been during a period little short of a + century--was very unimportant when compared to the great mass of + carbonaceous limestone existing in the neighbourhood. The strong point + in favour of this source of supply, in addition to its unrivalled + quality, is the evenness of its stratification, and the fact that + after the removal of the surface deposits, which are very thin, the + stones come out of large size, in thickness of 3 to 5 in., and thus + just suited for lithographic purposes and needing only to be wrought + in the vertical direction. Other deposits of suitable stone have been + found in France, Spain, Italy and Greece, but transit and the absence + of suitable stratification have restricted them to little more than + local use. Beyond this, few of the deposits other than in the + neighbourhood of Solenhofen have been of the exact degree of density + necessary, and the heavier varieties do not receive the grease with + sufficient readiness. The desire to find other sources of supply has + been stimulated by the social conditions existing in southern Bavaria, + for the quarries are largely owned by peasant proprietors, who have + very well-defined business habits of their own which make transactions + difficult. Among other things, they will seldom supply the highest + grades and the largest sizes to those who will not take their + proportion of lower quality and smaller sizes; and this, in view of + the very expensive transit down the Rhine to Rotterdam, with a railway + journey at one end and a sea journey at the other, is a source of + difficulty to the importer in other countries. + + The earliest substitute for lithographic stone was zinc, which has + been used from early days and is now more in demand than ever; it + requires very careful printing as the grease only penetrates the + material to a very slight extent, and the same must be said in regard + to the water. From this cause, when not in experienced hands, trouble + is likely to arise; and when this has occurred, remedial methods are + much more difficult than with stones. When put away for storage, a dry + place is very essential, as corrosion is easily set up. At first the + plates were quite thick, and almost invariably grained by a zinc + "muller" and acid; now a bath of acid is more generally used, and the + operation is known as "passing," while the plates are quite thin, + which renders them suitable for bending round the cylinders of rotary + machines. + + So far we have been dealing with plain zinc, but variations are + caused, either by the oxidization of the surface or by coating the + plate with a composition closely allied to lithographic stone and + applied in a form of semi-solution. This class of plate was first + invented by Messrs C. & E. Layton, and a modification was invented by + Messrs Wezel and Naumann of Leipzig, who brought its use to a high + pitch of perfection for transferred work such as Christmas cards. A + treatment of iron plates by exposing them to a high temperature has + recently been patented, and has had some measure of success, while the + Parker printing plate, which is practically a sheet of zinc so treated + as to secure greater porosity and freedom from oxidization, is rapidly + securing a good position as a stone substitute. + + _Preparation of the Stones._--In this department the cleanliness so + necessary right through the lithographic process must be carefully + observed, and a leading point is to secure a level surface and to + ensure that the front and back of the stone are strictly parallel, + i.e. that the stones stand the test of both the straight edge and the + callipers. A good plan to ensure evenness on the surface is to mark + the front with two diagonal lines of some non-greasy substance till + the top stone (which should not be too small, and should be constantly + revolved on the larger one) has entirely removed them. The application + of the straight edge from time to time will end in securing the + desired flatness, on which so much of the future printing quality + depends. The usual method is to rub out with sand, and then rub with + pumice and polish with water of Ayr or snake stone. For chalk work, + the further work of graining has to be done by revolving a small stone + muller on the surface with exceedingly fine sand or powdered glass. + Many appliances (some very expensive) have been devised for doing the + principal part of this work by machine--none more effective than those + methods by which a disk of about 12 in. is kept revolving on a rod + attached to the ceiling, guided by hand over all parts of the stone; + but for large surfaces the ceiling needs to be rather high so as to + allow of a long expanding rod reaching the surface at a moderate + angle. When this machine is fitted with friction disk driving, very + wide variations of speed are possible, and the machine can be driven + so slowly and evenly as to secure a very fair (but not first class) + grain, in addition to speedy rubbing out, which is the chief aim of + the apparatus. + + _Preparing a Subject in Chalk or Chalk and Tints._--This branch of + work is much less in demand than formerly. A grey stone having been + selected and finely grained with sand or powdered glass passed through + a sieve of 80 to 120 meshes to the lineal inch, and the artist having + made his tracing, this tracing is reversed upon the stone with the + interposition of a piece of paper coated with red chalk, and the chalk + side towards the surface; the lines on the tracing are then gone over + with a tracing point, so that a reproduction in red chalk is left upon + the stone. It will then be desirable to secure a stock of pointed + Lemercier chalks of at least two grades, hard and soft: the pointing + is a matter that requires experience, and is done by the worker + drawing a sharp pen-knife towards him in a slicing manner as though + trying to put a point upon a piece of cheese. Care should be taken + that the falling pieces are gathered into a box, or they may do + irreparable mischief to the work. The work of outlining is done with + No. 1 or hard chalk, and until experience is gained it will be well to + depend chiefly on this grade, securing rich dark effects by tinting or + going over the stone in various directions and then finishing with + lithographic ink where absolute blacks are required. This ink + (Vanhymbeck's or Lemercier's are two good makes) needs careful + preparation, the method being to warm a saucer and rub the ink dry + upon it, then add a little distilled water and incorporate with the + finger. It is of great importance not to use any ink left over for the + next day, but always to have a fresh daily supply. + + When the drawing is thus completed, it will require what is termed + etching, by which the parts intended to receive the printing ink, and + already protected by an acid-resisting grease, will be left above the + unprotected surface. The acid and gum mixture varies in accordance + with the quality of the work and the character of the stone. A + patiently executed specimen will, for instance, stand more etching + than a hastily drawn one; while a grey stone will require more of the + nitric acid than a yellow one. This is one of the most important tasks + that a lithographer has to perform. A proportion of 1.5 parts of acid + to 100 parts of a strong solution of gum arabic will be found to be + approximately what is required, but the exact proportion must be + settled by experience, a safe course being to watch the action that + occurs when a small quantity is placed on the unused margin of the + stone. Many put the etching mixture on with a flat camel-hair brush, + which should be of good width to avoid streaks. The present writer's + own preference is to pour the mixture on to the stone when it is in a + slanting position; or it is perhaps better to have an etching trough, + a strong box lined with pitch, with bearers at the bottom to prevent + the stone coming in contact with it, and a hole through which the + diluted acid may pass away for subsequent use. The etching is then + done with acid and water poured over the stone while in a sloping + position, and the subsequent pouring of a solution of gum arabic + completes the preparation. The late Mr William Simpson, whose Crimean + lithographs are well known, once stated at the Society of Arts that in + his opinion Mr Louis Haghe's reproduction of David Robert's great + picture of "The Taking of Jerusalem" was the most important piece of + chalk lithography ever executed, and that he well remembered that it + took two years to execute it, and that all the combined talent of + Messrs Day & Haghe's establishment was utilized in its etching. He + stated that, notwithstanding every precaution, it was under-etched, + and that after half a dozen impressions the great beauty and + brilliancy of the work had departed. This incident indicates + sufficiently the serious nature of this part of the lithographer's + work. + + If the chalk drawing has to have tints, it will be necessary to make + as many dusted offsetts as there are colours to be used; in this class + of work there are generally only two,--one warm or sandy shade and the + other a quiet blue--and these, with the black and the neutral colour + secured by the superposition of the two shades, give an excellent + result, of which Haghe's sketches in Belgium may be taken as a leading + example. + + In making such subjects suitable for present-day printing in the + machine, the paper will require to be of a good "rag" quality, free + from size and damped before printing. To secure accuracy of register + the paper must be kept in a damp cloth to prevent the edges drying, + and other machines should be kept available for each of the tints so + that all work printed in black in the morning may be completed the + same night. In this way large editions might be printed of either + original or retransferred work at prices rendering the prints suitable + for high-class magazines. + + _Preparing a Chromo Lithograph._--For this purpose the proceedings + will be much the same as those suggested for the black and tint work, + but the preliminary tracing will be done in lithographic ink on + tracing transfer paper or scratched on gelatine, the lines being + subsequently filled in with transfer ink, and will be used as a "key," + a guide stone that will not be printed; and the number of stones + necessary will probably be much more numerous. The initial point will + be to consider if the work is to have the edition printed from it, or + whether it has to be transferred after proving and before printing; + generally speaking, large subjects such as diagrams or posters will be + worked direct, while Christmas cards, postcards, handbills or labels, + will be repeated many times on larger stones. For the former class a + much wider range of methods is possible, but many of these are + difficult to transfer, and the deterioration that arises makes it + desirable to limit their use when transferring is contemplated. + Therefore, chalk-rubbed tints, varnish tints, stumping, wash, air + brush, are the methods for original work, while work that has to be + transferred is limited to ink work in line or stipple on a polished + stone with the aid of "mediums" as before described, and ink + "spluttered" on to the stone from a tooth brush. It should be + mentioned that work done on grained paper is more suitable for + retransfer than ordinary chalk work, and so is often very useful when + a chalk effect is desired from a polished stone. In proving, opaque + colours will be got on first, and it will often be found a good plan + to put the black on early, for it gives a good idea of how the work is + proceeding, and the strength of the touches (for the black should + generally be used sparingly) is often pleasantly softened by the + semi-opaque colours which should come on next. It is desirable to pull + impressions of each colour on thoroughly white paper, and beyond this + in important work there should be a progressive colour pattern that + will show how the work looked when two, three or more colours were on, + for this may at the finish be invaluable to show where error has crept + in, and is in any event an immense aid to the machine minder. + + In regard to paper, a description made of rag or rag and esparto is + most desirable for all work on grained stones, but for work in ink and + consequently from polished stone a good coated paper with sufficient + "size" in it is frequently desirable; this paper is generally called + "chromo" paper. + + There is at the present time very little encouragement for the high + class of chromo-lithography that was so much in evidence from 1855 to + 1875, but there is little doubt that the work could be done equally + well by the present-day craftsmen if the demand revived. Belonging to + the period mentioned, distinguished examples of chromo-lithography are + "Blue Lights," after Turner, by Carrick; "Spanish Peasants" and the + Lumley portrait of Shakespeare, by Risdon; "Queen Victoria receiving + the Guards," by W. Bunney, after John Gilbert; and the series of + chromos after John Leech, produced under the general direction of + Vincent Brooks. A small proportion only of the Arundel Society's + prints were executed in England, but many reproductions of + water-colours after Birket Foster, Richardson, Wainwright and others + were executed by Samuel Hodson, James Lewis and others. Perhaps the + most consistently good work of modern times has been the reproduction + of Pellegrini's and Leslie Ward's drawings for _Vanity Fair_, which + from 1870 to 1906 were with very few exceptions executed by the firm + of Vincent Brooks, Day & Son. + + _Transfers._--A very large proportion of work is got on to the stone + by transfer, and there is no more important part of the business + perhaps at the present time. When there is so much original + lithography done on grained paper by artists of eminence, the + transferring of grained paper drawings is the most important. The + stone most desirable for this purpose will be neither a grey nor a + light yellow, but one that stands mid-way between the two; it should + be very carefully polished so as to be quite free from scratches, and + brought to blood-heat by being gradually heated in an iron cupboard + prepared with the necessary apparatus. The methods that sometimes + prevail of pouring boiling water over the stone, heating with the + flame of an ordinary plumber's lamp, or even heating the surface in + front of a fire, are ineffective substitutes, for the surface may thus + become unduly hot and spread the work, and there is no increased + tendency for the chalk to enter into the stone and thus give the work + a long life. If there are no colours or registration troubles to be + considered, it is well to place the transfer in a damping book till + the composition adheres firmly to the finger, before placing it on the + stone; it should then be pulled through twice, after which it should + be damped on the back and pulled through several times; after this has + again been well damped the paper will be found to peel easily off the + stone, leaving the work and nearly all the composition attached; the + latter should then be very gently washed away. + + In cases where the work for some reason must not stretch, such as the + hills on a map, it will be necessary to keep the transfer dry and put + it on a wet stone, but a piece of the margin of the paper should be + tested to see that it is of a class that will adhere to the stone the + first time it is pulled through. Unless the adhesion is very complete + it may not be safe to pull it through more than once. For a small + number of copies a very moderate "etch" is desirable, but for a long + run, where the object is to secure a good edition rather than a few + good proofs, the Eberle system may be adopted. This method consists in + protecting the work with finely powdered resin and then applying the + flame of an ordinary plumber's lamp; this will melt the protecting + medium round the base of each grain of work and allow of a very + vigorous "etch" being applied. As before stated it is not unusual to + secure 2000 to 3000 good copies in the machine after this treatment; + but the rollers, the ink and the superintendence must be of the best. + + When the artist who is not a professed lithographer desires to make + tints to his work, a reversed offset on grained paper should be made + for each colour; this is done by pulling an impression in the usual + way on a hard piece of paper, and while it is yet wet this should be + faced with a piece of grained paper and pulled through again, when the + grained paper will be found to have received the greater portion of + the ink; this should be immediately dusted with offset powder of a red + shade to prevent the grease passing into the paper, and the drawing of + the tints should then be proceeded with in the usual way. Another + method of transfer work is to pull impressions from copper or steel + plates in transfer ink; it is in such way that simple etchings like + those of Cruikshank, Phiz and others are produced, and nearly all + commercial work such as maps, bill heads, &c., are prepared in the + same manner. + + Beyond this, much work is done in lithographic ink on what is called + writing transfer paper, such as circulars, law writing for abstracts, + specifications and plans. + + _Machinery._--The chief items are the hand presses and the machines, + whether flat bed or rotary, the principal places of manufacture being + Leeds, Otley and Edinburgh. Stimulated by American competition, the + standard of excellence in the United Kingdom has been very + considerably raised of late years. The rotary machines have only been + possible since the more frequent use of aluminium and zinc, but these + materials are more suitable to receive transfer than for the general + use of an office, the chief reason being that corrections on stone are + more easily accomplished and more lasting when done. Preliminary work + is therefore frequently done on the stone and transferred to plates + for the machine. + + The question is very frequently asked as to how the necessary + registration of the colours is secured; it may be stated for the + benefit of the amateur that in hand printing this is generally done by + pricking with a pair of needles through printed marks present on each + stone; but in the machine this has been done in different ways, + although in quite early days "pointing" or "needling" was done even on + the machine. On modern machines this registration depends on the + accurate cutting of the edge of the paper, of which at least one + corner must be an absolute right angle. The paper is then laid on a + sloping board in such a way that the longest of the two true edges + gravitates into the gripper of the machine, the stops of which move + slightly forward as the gripper closes; simultaneously what is called + the "side lay" moves forward automatically to a given extent, and in + this way at the critical moment the sheet is always in the same + position in regard to the stone, which has already been firmly secured + in the bed of the machine. + + Quite recently a new method has come into use that is probably + destined to be a great aid to the craft in its competition with other + methods. This is known as offset printing; it is more a matter of + evolution than invention, and proceeds from the method adopted in + tin-plate decoration so much used for box-making and lasting forms of + advertisement. It consists in bringing a sheet of rubber into contact + with the charged stone and then setting-off the impression so obtained + upon card, paper, pegamoid, cloth or other material, the elasticity of + the rubber making it possible to print upon rough surfaces that have + been previously unsuited to lithographic printing. Both flat bed and + rotary machines are available for this system, the latter being + restricted to zinc or aluminium plates, but giving a high speed, while + the former can use both stones and metal plates and may be more + effective for the highest grade of colour work; by both classes of + machines the finest engraved note headings can be printed on rough + paper, and colour work that has for so long been confined to coated or + burnished papers will be available on surfaces such as the artists + themselves use. + + The following treatises may be referred to with advantage by those in + search of more detailed information: _A Complete Course of + Lithography_, by Alois Senefelder (R. Ackermann, London, 1819); _The + Grammar of Lithography_, by W. D. Richmond (13th edition, E. Menken, + London); _Handbook of Lithography_, by David Cumming (London, A. & C. + Black). The first of these will only be found in libraries of + importance; the others are present-day text-books. (F. V. B.) + + + + +LITHOSPHERE (Gr. [Greek: lithos], a stone, and [Greek: sphaira], a +sphere), the crust of the earth surrounding the earth's nucleus. The +superficial soil, a layer of loose earthy material from a few feet to a +few hundreds of feet in thickness, lies upon a zone of hard rock many +thousands of feet in thickness but varying in character, and composed +mainly of sandstones, shales, clays, limestones and metamorphic rocks. +These two layers form the lithosphere. All the tectonic movements of the +solid nucleus produce changes in the mobile lithosphere. Volcanic and +seismic activity is manifested, mountains are folded, levels change, +fresh surfaces are exposed to denudation, erosion and deposition. The +crust is thus subject to constant change while retaining its more or +less permanent character. + + + + +LITHUANIANS and LETTS, two kindred peoples of Indo-European origin, +which inhabit several western provinces of Russia and the north-eastern +parts of Poland and Prussia, on the shores of the Baltic Sea, and in the +basins of the Niemen and of the Duna. Large colonies of Lithuanian and +Lettic emigrants have been established in the United States. The two +races number about 3,500,000, of whom 1,300,000 are Letts. Little is +known about their origin, and nothing about the time of their appearance +in the country they now inhabit. Ptolemy mentions (iii. 5) two clans, +the Galindae and Sudeni, who probably belonged to the western +subdivision of this racial group, the Borussians. In the 10th century +the Lithuanians were already known under the name of Litva, and, +together with two other branches of the same stem--the Borussians and +the Letts--they occupied the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea from +the Vistula to the Duna, extending north-east towards the Lakes +Vierzi-järvi and Peipus, south-east to the watershed between the +affluents of the Baltic and those of the Black Sea, and south to the +middle course of the Vistula (Brest Litovsk)--a tract bounded by Finnish +tribes in the north, and by Slavs elsewhere. + +Inhabiting a forested, marshy country the Lithuanians have been able to +maintain their national character, notwithstanding the vicissitudes of +their history. Their chief priest, _Krive-Kriveyto_ (the judge of the +judges), under whom were seventeen classes of priests and elders, +worshipped in the forests; the Waidelots brought their offerings to the +divinities at the foot of oaks; even now, the veneration of great oaks +is a widely spread custom in the villages of the Lithuanians, and even +of the Letts. + +Even in the 10th century the Lithuanian stem was divided into three main +branches:--the _Borussians_ or _Prussians_; the _Letts_ (who call +themselves _Latvis_, whilst the name under which they are known in +Russian chronicles, _Letygola_, is an abbreviation of _Latvin-galas_, +"the confines of Lithuania"); and the _Lithuanians_, or rather +_Lituanians_, _Litva_ or _Letuvininkaï_,--these last being subdivided +into Lithuanians proper, and _Zhmud'_ (_Zmudz_, _Samogitians_ or +_Zemailey_), the "Lowlanders." To these main branches must be added the +_Yatvyags_, or _Yadzvings_, a warlike, black-haired people who inhabited +the forests at the upper tributaries of the Niemen and Bug, and the +survivors of whom are easily distinguishable as a mixture with +White-Russians and Mazurs in some parts of Grodno, Plotsk, Lomza and +Warsaw. Nestor's chronicle distinguishes also the _Zhemgala_, who later +became known under the name of _Semigallia_, and in the 10th century +inhabited the left bank of the Duna. Several authors consider also as +Lithuanians the _Kors_ of Russian chronicles, or _Courons_ of Western +authors, who inhabited the peninsula of Courland, and the _Golad_, a +clan settled on the banks of the Porotva, tributary of the Moskva river, +which seems to have been thrown far from the main stem during its +migration to the north. The _Krivichi_, who inhabited what is now the +government of Smolensk, seem to belong to the same stem. Their name +recalls the Krive-Kriveyto, and their ethnological features recall the +Lithuanians; but they are now as much Slavonic as Lithuanian. + +All these peoples are only ethnographical subdivisions, and each of them +was subdivided into numerous independent clans and villages, separated +from one another by forests and marshes; they had no towns or fortified +places. The Lithuanian territory thus lay open to foreign invasions, and +the Russians as well as the German crusaders availed themselves of the +opportunity. The Borussians soon fell under the dominion of Germans, and +ceased to constitute a separate nationality, leaving only their name to +the state which later became Prussia. The Letts were driven farther to +the north, mixing there with Livs and Ehsts, and fell under the dominion +of the Livonian order. Only the Lithuanians proper, together with +Samogitians, succeeded in forming an independent state. The early +history of this state is imperfectly known. During the continuous petty +war carried on against Slavonic invasions, the military chief of one of +the clans, Ryngold, acquired, in the first half of the 13th century, a +certain preponderance over other clans of Lithuania and Black Russia +(Yatvyags), as well as over the republics of Red Russia. At this time, +the invasions of the Livonian order becoming more frequent, and always +extending southward, there was a general feeling of the necessity of +some organization to resist them, and Ryngold's son, Mendowg, availed +himself of this opportunity to pursue the policy of his father. He made +different concessions to the order, ceded to it several parts of +Lithuania, and even agreed to be baptized, in 1250, at Novograd Litovsk, +receiving in exchange a crown from Innocent IV., with which he was +crowned king of Lithuanians. He also ceded the whole of Lithuania to the +order in case he should die without leaving offspring. But he had +accepted Christianity only to increase his influence among other clans; +and, as soon as he had consolidated a union between Lithuanians, +Samogitians and Cours, he relapsed, proclaiming, in 1260, a general +uprising of the Lithuanian people against the Livonian order. The yoke +was shaken off, but internal wars followed, and three years later +Mendowg was killed. About the end of the 13th century a new dynasty of +rulers of Lithuania was founded by Lutuwer, whose second son, Gedymin +(1316-1341), with the aid of fresh forces he organized through his +relations with Red Russia, established something like regular +government; he at the same time extended his dominions over Russian +countries--over Black Russia (Novogrodok, Zditov, Grodno, Slonim and +Volkovysk) and the principalities of Polotsk, Tourovsk, Pinsk, Vitebsk +and Volhynia. He named himself _Rex Lethowinorum et multorum +Ruthenorum_. In 1325 he concluded a treaty with Poland against the +Livonian order, which treaty was the first step towards the union of +both countries realized two centuries later. The seven sons of Gedymin +considered themselves as quite independent; but two of them, Olgierd and +Keistut, soon became the more powerful. They represented two different +tendencies which existed at that time in Lithuania. Olgierd, whose +family relations attracted him towards the south, was the advocate of +union with Russia; rather politician than warrior, he increased his +influence by diplomacy and by organization. His wife and sons being +Christians, he also soon agreed to be baptized in the Greek Church. +Keistut represented the revival of the Lithuanian nationality. +Continually engaged in wars with Livonia, and remaining true to the +national religion, he became the national legendary hero. In 1345 both +brothers agreed to re-establish the great principality of Lithuania, +and, after having taken Vilna, the old sanctuary of the country, all the +brothers recognized the supremacy of Olgierd. His son, Jagiello, who +married the queen of Poland, Yadviga, after having been baptized in the +Latin Church, was crowned, on the 14th of February 1386, king of Poland. +At the beginning of the 15th century Lithuania extended her dominions as +far east as Vyazma on the banks of the Moskva river, the present +government of Kaluga, and Poutivl, and south-east as far as Poltava, the +shores of the Sea of Azov, and Haji-bey (Odessa), thus including Kiev +and Lutsk. The union with Poland remained, however, but nominal until +1569, when Sigismund Augustus was king of Poland. In the 16th century +Lithuania did not extend its power so far east and south-east as two +centuries before, but it constituted a compact state, including Polotsk, +Moghilev, Minsk, Grodno, Kovno, Vilna, Brest, and reaching as far +south-east as Chernigov. From the union with Poland, the history of +Lithuania becomes a part of Poland's history, Lithuanians and +White-Russians partaking of the fate of the Polish kingdom (see POLAND: +_History_). After its three partitions, they fell under the dominion of +the Russian empire. In 1792 Russia took the provinces of Moghilev and +Polotsk, and in 1793 those of Vilna, Troki, Novgorod-Syeversk, Brest and +Vitebsk. In 1797 all these provinces were united together, constituting +the "Lithuanian government" (Litovskaya Gubernia). But the name of +Lithuanian provinces was usually given only to the governments of Vilna +and Kovno, and, though Nicholas I. prohibited the use of this name, it +is still used, even in official documents. In Russia, all the +White-Russian population of the former Polish Lithuania are usually +considered as Lithuanians, the name of Zhmud being restricted to +Lithuanians proper. + +The ethnographical limits of the Lithuanians are undefined, and their +number is variously estimated. The Letts occupy a part of the Courland +peninsula of Livonia and of Vitebsk, a few other settlements being +spread also in the governments of Kovno, St Petersburg and Moghilev. The +Lithuanians proper inhabit the governments of Kovno, Vilna, Suvalki and +Grodno; while the Samogitians or Zhmud inhabit the governments of Kovno +and Suvalki. To these must be added about 200,000 Borussians, the whole +number of Lithuanians and Letts in Russia being, according to the census +of 1897, 3,094,469. They are slowly extending towards the south, +especially the Letts; numerous emigrants have penetrated into Slavonic +lands as far as the government of Voronezh. + + The Lithuanians are well built; the face is mostly elongated, the + features fine; the very fair hair, blue eyes and delicate skin + distinguish them from Poles and Russians. Their dress is usually plain + in comparison with that of Poles, and the predominance in it of + greyish colours has been frequently noticed. Their chief occupation is + agriculture. The trades in towns are generally carried on by men of + other races--mostly by Germans, Jews or Poles. The only exception is + afforded to some extent by the Letts. The Samogitians are good + hunters, and all Lithuanians are given to apiculture and cattle + breeding. But the Lithuanians, as well in the Baltic provinces as in + the central ones, were not until the most recent time proprietors of + the soil they tilled. They have given a few families to the Russian + nobility, but the great mass of the people became serfs of foreign + landowners, German and Polish, who reduced them to the greatest + misery. Since the Polish insurrection of 1863, the Russian government + has given to the Lithuanians the land of the Polish proprietors on + much easier terms than in central Russia; but the allotments of soil + and the redemption taxes are very unequally distributed; and a not + insignificant number of peasants (the _chinsheviki_) were even + deprived of the land they had for centuries considered their own. The + Letts remain in the same state as before, and are restrained from + emigrating _en masse_ only by coercive measures. + + The Letts of Courland, with the exception of about 50,000 who belong + to the Greek Church, are Lutherans. Nearly all can read. Those of the + government of Vitebsk, who were under Polish dominion, are Roman + Catholics, as well as the Lithuanians proper, a part of whom, however, + have returned to the Greek Church, in which they were before the union + with Poland. The Samogitians are Roman Catholics; they more than other + Lithuanians have conserved their national features. But all + Lithuanians have maintained much of their heathen practices and creed; + the names of pagan divinities, very numerous in the former mythology, + are continually mentioned in songs, and also in common speech. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Schiemann, _Russland, Polen und Livland bis ins 17te + Jahrhundert_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1886-1887); S. Daukantas, _Lietuvos + Istorija_ (Plymouth, Pa., 1893); J. de Brye, _Étude historique sur la + Lithuanie_ (Paris, 1894); P. D. Bryantsev, _Istorija Litovskago + Gosudarstva_ (Vilna, 1899). (P. A. K.) + +_Language and Literature._--The Lithuanian, Lettic or Lettish and +Borussian or Old Prussian languages together constitute a distinct +linguistic subdivision, commonly called the Baltic subdivision, within +the Indo-European family. They have many affinities to the Slavonic +languages, and are sometimes included with them in a single linguistic +group, the Balto-Slavic. In their phonology, however, though not in +their structure the Baltic languages appear to be more primitive than +the Slavonic. Lithuanian, for example, retains the archaic diphthongs +which disappear in Slavonic--Lith. _véidas_, "face," Gr. [Greek: eidos], +O.S. _vidu_. Among other noteworthy phonological characteristics of +Lithuanian are the conversion of _k_ into a sibilant, the loss of _h_ +and change of all aspirates into tenues and the retention of primitive +consonantal noun-terminations, e.g. the final _s_ in Sans. _Vrkás_, +Lith. _vilkas_, O.S. _vulku_. Lettic is phonologically less archaic than +Lithuanian, although in a few cases it has preserved Indo-European forms +which have been changed in Lithuanian, e.g. the _s_ and _z_ which have +become Lith. _sz_ (_sh_) and _z_ (_zh_). The accent in Lithuanian is +free; in Lettic, and apparently in Old Prussian, it ultimately became +fixed on the first syllable. + + In its morphology Lettic represents a later stage of development than + Lithuanian, their mutual relationship being analogous to that between + Old High German and Gothic. Both languages have preserved seven out of + the eight Indo-European cases; Lithuanian has three numbers, but + Lettic has lost the dual (except in _diwi_, "two" and _abbi_, "both"); + the neuter gender, which still appears in Lithuanian pronouns, has + also been entirely lost in Lettic; in Lithuanian there are four simple + tenses (present, future, imperfect, preterite), but in Lettic the + imperfect is wanting. In both languages the number of periphrastic + verb-forms and of diminutives is large; in both there are traces of a + suffix article; and both have enriched their vocabularies with many + words of foreign, especially German, Russian and Polish origin. The + numerous Lithuanian dialects are commonly divided into High or + Southern, which changes _ty_ and _dy_ into _cz_, _dz_, and Low or + Northern, which retains _ty_, _dy_. Lettic is divided into High (the + eastern dialects), Low (spoken in N.W. Courland) and Middle (the + literary language). Old Prussian ceased to be a spoken language in the + 17th century; its literary remains, consisting chiefly of three + catechisms and two brief vocabularies, date almost entirely from the + period 1517-1561 and are insufficient to permit of any thorough + reconstruction of the grammar. + +The literary history of the Lithuanians and Letts dates from the +Reformation and comprises three clearly defined periods. (1) Up to 1700 +the chief printed books were of a liturgical character. (2) During the +18th century a vigorous educational movement began; dictionaries, +grammars and other instructive works were compiled, and written poems +began to take the place of songs preserved by oral tradition. (3) The +revival of national sentiment at the beginning of the 19th century +resulted in the establishment of newspapers and the collection and +publication of the national folk-poetry. In both literatures, works of a +religious character predominate, and both are rich in popular ballads, +folk-tales and fables. + +The first book printed in Lithuanian was a translation of Luther's +shorter Catechism (Königsberg, 1547); other translations of devotional +or liturgical works followed, and by 1701 59 Lithuanian books had +appeared, the most noteworthy being those of the preacher J. Bretkun +(1535-1602). The spread of Calvinism led to the publication, in 1701, of +a Lithuanian New Testament. The first dictionary was printed in 1749. +But perhaps the most remarkable work of the second period was _The Four +Seasons_, a pastoral poem in hexameters by Christian Donalitius +(1714-1780), which was edited by Nesselmann (Königsberg, 1869) with a +German translation and notes. In the 19th century various collections of +fables and folk-tales were published, and an epic, the _Onikshta Grove_, +was written by Bishop Baranoski. But it was in journalism that the chief +original work of the third period was done. F. Kelch (1801-1877) founded +the first Lithuanian newspaper, and between 1834 and 1895 no fewer than +34 Lithuanian periodicals were published in the United States alone. + +Luther's Catechism (Königsberg, 1586) was the first book printed in +Lettic, as in the sister speech. In the 17th century various +translations of psalms, hymns and other religious works were published, +the majority being Calvinistic in tone. The educational movement of the +18th century was inaugurated by G. F. Stender (1714-1796), author of a +Lettic dictionary and grammar, of poems, tales and of a _Book of Wisdom_ +which treats of elementary science and history. Much educational work +was subsequently done by the Lettic Literary Society, which publishes a +magazine (_Magazin_, Mitau, from 1827), and by the "Young Letts," who +published various periodicals and translations of foreign classics, and +endeavoured to free their language and thought from German influences. +Somewhat similar tasks were undertaken by the "Young Lithuanians," whose +first magazine the _Auszra_ ("Dawn") was founded in 1883. From 1890 to +1910 the literature of both peoples was marked by an ever-increasing +nationalism; among the names most prominent during this period may be +mentioned those of the dramatist Steperman and the poet Martin Lap, both +of whom wrote in Lettic. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lithuanian dictionaries: Nesselmann, _Wörterbuch der + litauischen Sprache_ (Königsberg, 1851); Kurschat, _Wörterbuch der + litauischen Sprache_ (Halle, 1870-1883); A. Juszkiewicz, _Litovskiy + Slovar_ (St Petersburg, 1897, &c.); P. Saurusaitis, _An Abridged + Dictionary of the English-Lithuanian Languages_, 2 pts. (Waterbury, + Conn., 1899-1900); A. Lalis, _Dictionary of the Lithuanian and English + Languages_ (Chicago, 1903, &c.). Grammar and Linguistic: Schleicher, + _Handbuch der litauischen Sprache_ (Prague, 1856-1857); O. Wiedemann, + _Handbuch der litauischen Sprache_ (Strassburg, 1897); A. + Bezzenberger, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der litauischen Sprache_ + (Göttingen, 1877); J. Schiekopp, _Gramatyka litewska poczatkowa_ + (Cracow, 1902). Literature: Nesselmann, _Litauische Volkslieder_ + (Berlin, 1853); A. Juszkiewicz, _Lietùwiskos Dajnos Uzrasytos_, &c. + (Kazan, 1881); A. Leskien and C. Brugman, _Litauische Volkslieder_ + (Strassburg, 1882); C. Bartsch, _Melodieen litauischer Volkslieder_ + (Heidelberg, 1886); A. Juszkiewicz, _Melodje ludowe litewskie_ + (Cracow, 1900, &c.); E. A. Voi'ter, _Litovskaya Khrestomatiya_ (St + Petersburg, 1901, &c.). + + Lettic dictionaries and grammars: Bielenstein, _Die Lettische Sprache_ + (Berlin, 1863-1864); id., _Lettische Grammatik_ (Mitau, 1863); Ulmann + and Brasche, _Lettisches Wörterbuch_ (Riga, 1872-1880); A. + Bezzenberger, _Über die Sprache der preussischen Letten and lettische + Dialekt-Studien_ (Göttingen, 1885); Bielenstein, _Grenzen des + lettischen Volksstammes und der lettischen Sprache_ (St Petersburg, + 1892); Literature: Bielenstein _Tausend lettische Räthsel_ (Mitau, + 1881); T. Treuland, _Latyshskiya Narodnyya Skazki_ (Moscow, 1887, + &c.); K. Baron and H. Wissendorff, _Latwju dainas_ (Mitau, 1894, &c.); + V. Andreyanov, _Lettische Volkslieder und Mythen_ (Halle, 1896). + + Old Prussian: Nesselmann, _Die Sprache der alten Preussen_ (Berlin, + 1845); id., _Thesaurus linguae prussicae_ (Berlin, 1873); Berneker, + _Die preussische Sprache_ (Strassburg, 1896); M. Schultze, _Grammatik + der altpreussischen Sprache_ (Leipzig, 1897). + + + + +LITMUS (apparently a corruption of _lacmus_, Dutch _lacmoes_, _lac_, +lac, and _moes_, pulp, due to association with "lit," an obsolete word +for dye, colour; the Ger. equivalent is _Lackmus_, Fr. _tournesol_), a +colouring matter which occurs in commerce in the form of small blue +tablets, which, however, consist mostly, not of the pigment proper, but +of calcium carbonate and sulphate and other matter devoid of tinctorial +value. Litmus is extensively employed by chemists as an indicator for +the detection of free acids and free alkalis. An aqueous infusion of +litmus, when exactly neutralized by an acid, exhibits a violet colour, +which by the least trace of free acid is changed to red, while free +alkali turns it to blue. The reagent is generally used in the form of +test paper--bibulous paper dyed red, purple or blue by the respective +kind of infusion. Litmus is manufactured in Holland from the same kinds +of lichens (species of _Roccella_ and _Lecanora_) as are used for the +preparation of archil (q.v.). + + + + + +LITOPTERNA, a suborder of South American Tertiary ungulate mammals +typified by _Macrauchenia_, and taking their name ("smooth-heel") from +the presence of a flat facet on the heel-bone, or calcaneum for the +articulation of the fibula. The more typical members of the group were +digitigrade animals, recalling in general build the llamas and horses; +they have small brains, and a facet on the calcaneum for the fibula. The +cheek-dentition approximates more or less to the perissodactyle type. +Both the terminal faces of the cervical vertebrae are flat, the femur +carries a third trochanter, the bones of both the carpus and tarsus are +arranged in linear series, and the number of toes, although commonly +three, varies between one and five, the third or middle digit being +invariably the largest. + +Of the two families, the first is the _Proterotheriidae_, which +exhibits, in respect of the reduction of the digits, a curious +parallelism to the equine line among the Perissodactyla; in this +feature, as well as in the reduction of the teeth, it is more +specialized than the second family. + + The molar teeth approximate to the _Palaeotherium_ type, but have a + more or less strongly developed median longitudinal cleft. The + three-toed type is represented by _Diadiaphorus_, in which the dental + formula is i.½, c.(0/1), p.(4/5), m.(3/8), and the feet are very like + those of _Hipparion_. The cervical vertebrae are of normal form, the + orbit (as in the second family) is encircled by bone, the last molar + has a third lobe, the single pair of upper incisors are somewhat + elongated, and have a gap between and behind them, while the outer + lower incisors are larger than the inner pair, the canines being + small. The skull has a short muzzle, with elongated nasals. Remains of + this and the other representatives of the group are found in the + Patagonian Miocene. In _Proterotherium_, which includes smaller forms + having the same, or nearly the same, dental formula, the molar teeth + differ from those of _Diadiaphorus_ by the deeper median longitudinal + cleft, which completely divides the crown into an inner and an outer + moiety, the two cones of the inner half being united. According to the + description given by Argentine palaeontologists, this genus is also + three-toed, the single-toed representative of the family being + _Thoatherium_, in which the lateral metapodials, or splint-bones, are + even more reduced than in the _Equidae_. + +In the second family--_Macraucheniidae_--the dentition is complete +(forty-four) and without a gap, the crowns of nearly all the teeth being +of nearly uniform height, while the upper molars are distinguished from +those of the _Proterotheriidae_ by a peculiar arrangement of their two +inner cones, and the elevation of the antero-posterior portion of the +cingulum so as to form an extra pit on the crown. To describe this +arrangement in detail is impossible here, but it may be stated that the +two inner cones are closely approximated, and separated by a narrow +V-shaped notch on the inner side of the crown. The elongated cervical +vertebrae are peculiar in that the arch is perforated by the artery in +the same manner as in the llamas. + +In the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia the family is represented by the +generalized genus _Oxyodontotherium_ (in which _Theosodon_ may +apparently be included). It comprises animals ranging up to the size of +a tapir, in which the nostrils were more or less in the normal anterior +position, and the cheek-teeth short-crowned, with the inner cones of the +upper molars well developed and separated by a notch, and the pits of +moderate depth. The last upper premolar is simpler than the molars, and +the canine, which may be double-rooted, is like the earlier premolars. +The radius and ulna, like the tibia and fibula, are distinct, and the +metapodials rudimentary. On the other hand, in _Macrauchenia_, which was +a much larger llama-like animal, the skull is elongated and narrow, with +rudimentary nasals, and the aperture of the nose placed nearly on the +line of the eyes and directed upwards, the muzzle not improbably +terminating in a short trunk. Deep pits on the forehead probably served +for the attachment of special muscles connected with the latter. Very +curious is the structure of the cheek-teeth, which are high-crowned, +with the two inner cones reduced to mere points, and the pits on the +crown-surface large and funnel-shaped. In fact, the perissodactyle type +is almost lost. The cervical vertebrae and limb-bones are very long, the +radius and ulna being completely, and the tibia and fibula partially, +united. The typical _M. patagonica_ is a Pleistocene form as large as a +camel, ranging from Patagonia to Brazil, but remains of smaller species +have been found in the Pliocene (?) of Bolivia and Argentina. + +The imperfectly known _Scalabrinia_ of the Argentine Pliocene appears to +occupy a position intermediate between _Oxyodontotherium_ and +_Macrauchenia_, having the nasal aperture situated in the middle of the +length of the skull, and the crowns of the cheek-teeth nearly as tall as +in the latter, but the lower molars furnished with a projecting process +in the hinder valley, similar to one occurring in those of the former. + +In this place may be mentioned another strange ungulate from the Santa +Cruz beds of Patagonia, namely, _Astrapotherium_, sometimes regarded as +typifying a suborder by itself. This huge ungulate had cheek-teeth +singularly like those of a rhinoceros, and an enormous pair of tusk-like +upper incisors, recalling the upper canines of _Machaerodus_ on an +enlarged scale. In the lower jaw are two large tusk-like canines between +which are three pairs of curiously-formed spatulate incisors, and in +both jaws there is a long diastema. The dental formula appears to be +i.(1/3), c.(0/1), p.(2/1), m.(3/3). + + Next _Astrapotherium_ may be provisionally placed the genus + _Homalodontotherium_, of which the teeth have much lower crowns, and + are of a less decidedly rhinocerotic type than in _Astrapotherium_, + and the whole dentition forms an even and unbroken series. The bodies + of the cervical vertebrae are short, with flattened articular + surfaces, the humerus has an enormous deltoid crest, suggestive of + fossorial powers, and the femur is flattened, with a third trochanter. + According to the Argentine palaeontologists, the carpus is of the + alternating type, and the terminal phalanges of the pentedactyle feet + are bifid, and very like those of Edentata. Indeed, this type of foot + shows many edentate resemblances. The astragalus is square and + flattened, articulating directly with the navicular, although not with + the cuboid, and having a slightly convex facet for the tibia. From the + structure of the above-mentioned type of foot, which is stated to have + been found in association with the skull, it has been suggested that + _Homalodontotherium_ should be placed in the _Ancylopoda_ (q.v.), but, + to say nothing of the different form of the cheek-teeth, all the other + South American Santa Cruz ungulates are so distinct from those of + other countries that this seems unlikely. It may be suggested that we + have rather to deal with an instance of parallelism--a view supported + by the parallelism to the _Equidae_ presented by certain members of + the _Proterotheriidae_. (R. L.*) + + + + +LITOTES (Gr. [Greek: litotês], plainness, [Greek: litos], plain, simple, +smooth), a rhetorical figure in which emphasis is secured for a +statement by turning it into a denial of the contrary, e.g. "a citizen +of no mean city," i.e. a citizen of a famous city, "A. is not a man to +be neglected." Litotes is sometimes used for what should be more +strictly called "meiosis" (Gr. [Greek: meiôsis], lessening, diminution, +[Greek: meiôn], lesser), where the expressions used apparently are weak +or understated, but the effect is to intensify. + + + + +LITTER (through O. Fr. _litere_ or _litiere_, mod. _litière_ from Med. +Lat. _lectaria_, classical _lectica_, _lectus_, bed, couch), a word used +of a portable couch, shut in by curtains and borne on poles by bearers, +and of a bed of straw or other suitable substance for animals; hence +applied to the number of young produced by an animal at one birth, and +also to any disordered heap of waste material, rubbish, &c. In ancient +Greece, prior to the influence of Asiatic luxury after the Macedonian +conquest, the litter ([Greek: phoreion]) was only used by invalids or by +women. The Romans, when the _lectica_ was introduced, probably about the +latter half of the 2nd century B.C. (Gellius x. 3), used it only for +travelling purposes. Like the Greek or Asiatic litter, it had a roof of +skin (_pellis_) and side curtains (_vela_, _plagae_). Juvenal (iv. 20) +speaks of transparent sides (_latis specularibus_). The slaves who bore +the litter on their shoulders (_succollare_) were termed _lecticarii_, +and it was a sign of luxury and wealth to employ six or even eight +bearers. Under the Empire the litter began to be used in the streets of +Rome, and its use was restricted and granted as a privilege (Suet. +_Claudius_). The travelling _lectica_ must be distinguished from the +much earlier _lectica funebris_ or _feretrum_, the funeral bier on which +the dead were carried to their burial-place. + + + + +LITTLE FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Morrison county, Minnesota, +U.S.A., on both banks of the Mississippi river, about 88 m. N.W. of +Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 2354; (1900) 5774, of whom 1559 were +foreign-born, chiefly Germans and Swedes; (1905) 5856; (1910) 6078. It +is served by the Northern Pacific railway. The city is situated in a +prosperous farming region, and has excellent water-power and various +manufactures. Little Falls was settled about 1850, was chartered as a +city in 1889 and adopted a new charter in 1902. Here was buried the +Chippewa chief, Hole-in-the-Day (_c._ 1827-1868), or Bagwunagijik, who +succeeded his father, also named Hole-in-the-Day, as head chief of the +Chippewas in 1846. Like his father, the younger Hole-in-the-Day led his +tribe against the Sioux, and he is said to have prevented the Chippewas +from joining the Sioux rising in 1862. His body was subsequently removed +by his relatives. + + + + +LITTLE FALLS, a city of Herkimer county, New York, U.S.A., on the Mohawk +river, 21 m. E.S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1890) 8783; (1900) 10,381, of whom +1915 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,273. It is served by the New +York Central & Hudson River, the West Shore, the Utica & Mohawk Valley +(electric), and the Little Falls & Dolgeville railways (the last named +being 13 m. long and running only to Salisbury Center and by the Erie +canal). The Mohawk river falls here by a series of rapids 45 ft. in less +than a mile, furnishing water power. Among the manufactures are cotton +yarn, hosiery and knit goods, leather, &c. In 1905 the city's factory +products were valued at $4,471,080. The city has one of the largest +cheese-markets in the United States. The manufacture of flour and +grist-mill products was formerly an important industry; a mill burned in +1782 by Tories and Indians had supplied almost the entire Mohawk Valley, +and particularly Forts Herkimer and Dayton. Near the city is the grave +of General Nicholas Herkimer, to whom a monument was erected in 1896. +Little Falls was settled by Germans in 1782, and was almost immediately +destroyed by Indians and Tories. It was resettled in 1790, and was +incorporated as a village in 1811 and as a city in 1895. + + See George A. Hardin, _History of Herkimer County_ (Syracuse, 1893). + + + + +LITTLEHAMPTON, a seaport and watering-place in the Chichester +parliamentary division of Sussex, England, at the mouth of the Arun, 62 +m. S. by W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. +Pop. of urban district (1901) 7363. There is a beach of firm sand. The +harbour is easily accessible in all weathers, and has a small general +trade. + + + + +LITTLE ROCK, the capital of Arkansas, U.S.A., and the county-seat of +Pulaski county, situated near the centre of the state and on the S. bank +of the Arkansas river, at the E. edge of the Ozark foothills. Pop. +(1890) 25,874; (1900) 38,307, of whom 14,694 were of negro blood, and +2099 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 45,941. Little Rock is served by +the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the St Louis South Western, and the +St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways and by river boats. It +occupies a comparatively level site of 11 sq. m. at an altitude of 250 +to 400 ft. above sea-level and 50 ft. or more above the river, which is +crossed here by three railway bridges and by a county bridge. The city +derived its name (originally "le Petit Roche" and "The Little Rock") +from a rocky peninsula in the Arkansas, distinguished from the "Big +Rock" (the site of the army post, Fort Logan H. Roots), 1 m. W. of the +city, across the river. The Big Rock is said to have been first +discovered and named "Le Rocher Français" in 1722 by Sieur Bernard de la +Harpe, who was in search of an emerald mountain; the Little Rock is now +used as an abutment for a railway bridge. The state capitol, the state +insane asylum, the state deaf mute institute, the state school for the +blind, a state reform school, the penitentiary, the state library and +the medical and law departments of the state university are at Little +Rock; and the city is also the seat of the United States court for the +eastern district of Arkansas, of a United States land office, of Little +Rock College, of the St Mary's Academy, of a Roman Catholic orphanage +and a Roman Catholic convent, and of two schools for negroes--the +Philander Smith College (Methodist Episcopal, 1877), co-educational, and +the Arkansas Baptist College. The city is the seat of Protestant +Episcopal and Roman Catholic bishops. Little Rock has a Carnegie library +(1908), an old ladies' home, a Florence Crittenton rescue home, a +children's home, St Vincent's infirmary, a city hospital, a Catholic +hospital, a physicians' and surgeons' hospital and the Arkansas hospital +for nervous diseases. A municipal park system includes City, Forest, +Wonderland and West End parks. Immigration from the northern states has +been encouraged, and northern men control much of the business of the +city. In 1905 the value of factory products was $4,689,787, being 38.8% +greater than the value in 1900. Cotton and lumber industries are the +leading interests; the value of cotton-seed oil and cake manufactured in +1905 was $967,043, of planing mill products $835,049, and of lumber and +timber products $342,134. Printing and publishing and the manufacture of +foundry and machine shop products and of furniture are other important +industries. Valuable deposits of bauxite are found in Pulaski county, +and the mines are the most important in the United States. + +Originally the site of the city was occupied by the Quapaw Indians. The +earliest permanent settlement by the whites was about 1813-1814; the +county was organized in 1818 while still a part of Missouri Territory; +Little Rock was surveyed in 1821, was incorporated as a town and became +the capital of Arkansas in 1821, and was chartered as a city in 1836. In +1850 its population was only 2167, and in 1860 3727; but in 1870 it was +12,380. Little Rock was enthusiastically anti-Union at the outbreak of +the Civil War. In February 1861, the United States Arsenal was seized by +the state authorities. In September 1863 the Federal generals William +Steele (1819-1885) and John W. Davidson (1824-1881), operating against +General Sterling Price, captured the city, and it remained throughout +the rest of the war under Federal control. Constitutional conventions +met at Little Rock in 1836, 1864, 1868 and 1874, and also the Secession +Convention of 1861. The _Arkansas Gazette_, established at Arkansas Post +in 1819 and soon afterwards removed to the new capital, was the first +newspaper published in Arkansas and one of the first published west of +the Mississippi. + + + + +LITTLETON (or LYTTELTON), EDWARD, BARON (1589-1645), son of Sir Edward +Littleton (d. 1621) chief-justice of North Wales, was born at Munslow +in Shropshire; he was educated at Oxford and became a lawyer, succeeding +his father as chief-justice of North Wales. In 1625 he became a member +of parliament and acted in 1628 as chairman of the committee of +grievances upon whose report the Petition of Right was based. As a +member of the party opposed to the arbitrary measures of Charles I. +Littleton had shown more moderation than some of his colleagues, and in +1634, three years after he had been chosen recorder of London, the king +attached him to his own side by appointing him solicitor-general. In the +famous case about ship-money Sir Edward argued against Hampden. In 1640 +he was made chief-justice of the common pleas and in 1641 lord keeper of +the great seal, being created a peer as Baron Lyttelton. About this +time, the lord keeper began to display a certain amount of indifference +to the royal cause. In January 1642 he refused to put the great seal to +the proclamation for the arrest of the five members and he also incurred +the displeasure of Charles by voting for the militia ordinance. However, +he assured his friend Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, that he +had only taken this step to allay the suspicions of the parliamentary +party who contemplated depriving him of the seal, and he undertook to +send this to the king. He fulfilled his promise, and in May 1642 he +himself joined Charles at York, but it was some time before he regained +the favour of the king and the custody of the seal. Littleton died at +Oxford on the 27th of August 1645; he left no sons and his barony became +extinct. His only daughter, Anne, married her cousin Sir Thomas +Littleton, Bart. (d. 1681), and their son Sir Thomas Littleton (_c._ +1647-1710), was speaker of the House of Commons from 1698 to 1700, and +treasurer of the navy from 1700 to 1710. Macaulay thus sums up the +character of Speaker Littleton and his relations to the Whigs: "He was +one of their ablest, most zealous and most steadfast friends; and had +been, both in the House of Commons and at the board of treasury, an +invaluable second to Montague" (the earl of Halifax). + + + + +LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS DE (_c._ 1407-1481), English judge and legal +author, was born, it is supposed, at Frankley Manor House, +Worcestershire, about 1407. Littleton's surname was that of his mother, +who was the sole daughter and heiress of Thomas de Littleton, lord of +Frankley. She married one Thomas Westcote. Thomas was the eldest of four +sons of the marriage, and took the name of Littleton, or, as it seems to +have been more commonly spelt, Luttelton. The date of his birth is +uncertain; a MS. pedigree gives 1422, but it was probably earlier than +this. If, as is generally accepted, he was born at Frankley Manor, it +could not have been before 1407, in which year Littleton's grandfather +recovered the manor from a distant branch of the family. He is said by +Sir E. Coke to have "attended one of the universities," but there is no +corroboration of this statement. He was probably a member of the Inner +Temple, and lectured there on the statute of Westminster II., _De Donis +Conditionalibus_. His name occurs in the Paston Letters (ed. J. +Gairdner, i. 60) about 1445 as that of a well-known counsel and in +1481/2 he received a grant of the manor of Sheriff Hales, Shropshire, +from a Sir William Trussel as a reward for his services as counsel. He +appears to have been recorder of Coventry in 1450; he was made escheator +of Worcestershire, and in 1447/8 was under-sheriff of the same county; +he became serjeant-at-law in 1453 and was afterwards a justice of assize +on the northern circuit. In 1466 he was made a judge of the common +pleas, and in 1475 a knight of the Bath. He died, according to the +inscription on his tomb in Worcester cathedral, on the 23rd of August +1481. He married, about 1444, Joan, widow of Sir Philip Chetwind of +Ingestrie in Staffordshire, and by her had three sons, through whom he +became ancestor of the families holding the peerages of Cobham (formerly +Lyttelton, q.v.) and Hatherton. + +His _Treatise on Tenures_ was probably written after he had been +appointed to the bench. It is addressed to his second son Richard, who +went to the bar, and whose name occurs in the year books of the reign of +Henry VII. The book, both historically and from its intrinsic merit, may +be characterized as the first text-book upon the English law of +property. The law of property in Littleton's time was mainly concerned +with rights over land, and it was the law relating to this class of +rights which Littleton set himself to digest and classify. The time was +ripe for the task. Ever since the Conquest regular courts of justice had +been at work administering a law which had grown out of an admixture of +Teutonic custom and of Norman feudalism. Under Henry II. the courts had +been organized, and the practice of keeping regular records of the +proceedings had been carefully observed. The centralizing influence of +the royal courts and of the justices of assize, working steadily through +three centuries, had made the rules governing the law of property +uniform throughout the land; local customs were confined within certain +prescribed limits, and were only recognized as giving rise to certain +well-defined classes of rights, such, for instance, as the security of +tenure acquired by villeins by virtue of the custom of the manor, and +the rights of freeholders, in some towns, to dispose of their land by +will. Thus, by the time of Littleton (Henry VI. and Edward IV.), an +immense mass of material had been acquired and preserved in the rolls of +the various courts. Reports of important cases were published in the +"year books." A glance at Statham's _Abridgment_, the earliest digest of +decided cases, published nearly at the same time as Littleton's +_Tenures_, is sufficient to show the enormous bulk which reported cases +had already attained as materials for the knowledge of English law. + +Littleton's treatise was written in that peculiar dialect compounded of +Norman-French and English phrases called law French. Although it had +been provided by a statute of 36 Edward III. that _viva voce_ +proceedings in court should no longer be conducted in the French tongue, +"which was much unknown in the realm," the practice of reporting +proceedings in that language, and of using it in legal treatises, +lingered till a much later period, and was at length prohibited by a +statute passed in the time of the Commonwealth in 1650. Unlike the +preceding writers on English law, Glanville, Bracton and the authors of +the treatises known by the names of Britton and Fleta, Littleton borrows +nothing from the sources of Roman law or the commentators. He deals +exclusively with English law. + +The book is written on a definite system, and is the first attempt at a +scientific classification of rights over land. Littleton's method is to +begin with a definition, usually clearly and briefly expressed, of the +class of rights with which he is dealing. He then proceeds to illustrate +the various characteristics and incidents of the class by stating +particular instances, some of which refer to decisions which had +actually occurred, but more commonly they are hypothetical cases put by +way of illustration of his principles. He occasionally refers to +reported cases. His book is thus much more than a mere digest of +judicial decisions; to some extent he pursues the method which gave to +Roman law its breadth and consistency of principle. In Roman law this +result was attained through the practice of putting to jurisconsults +hypothetical cases to be solved by them. Littleton, in like manner, is +constantly stating and solving by reference to principles of law cases +which may or may not have occurred in actual practice. + + In dealing with freehold estates Littleton adopts a classification + which has been followed by all writers who have attempted to + systematize the English law of land, especially Sir M. Hale and Sir + William Blackstone. It is indeed the only possible approach to a + scientific arrangement of the intricate "estates in land" known to + English law. He classifies estates in land by reference to their + duration, or in other words by reference to the differences between + the persons who are entitled to succeed upon the death of the person + in possession or "tenant." First of all, he describes the + characteristics of tenancy in fee simple. This is still as it was in + Littleton's time the largest interest in land known to the law. Next + in order comes tenancy in fee tail, the various classes of which are + sketched by Littleton with brevity and accuracy, but he is silent as + to the important practice, which first received judicial recognition + shortly before his death, of "suffering a recovery," whereby through a + series of judicial fictions a tenant in tail was enabled to convert + his estate tail into a fee simple, thus acquiring full power of + alienation. After discussing in their logical order other freehold + interests in land, he passes to interests in land called by later + writers interests less than freehold, namely, tenancies for terms of + years and tenancies at will. With the exception of tenancy from year + to year, now so familiar to us, but which was a judicial creation of a + date later than the time of Littleton, the first book is a complete + statement of the principles of the common law, as they for the most + part still exist, governing and regulating interests in lands. The + first book concludes with a very interesting chapter on copyhold + tenures, which marks the exact point at which the tenant by copy of + court roll, the successor of the villein, who in his turn represented + the freeman reduced to villenage by the growth of the manorial system, + acquired security of tenure. + + The second book relates to the reciprocal rights and duties of lord + and tenant, and is mainly of historical interest to the modern lawyer. + It contains a complete statement of the law as it stood in Littleton's + time relating to homage, fealty and escuage, the money compensation to + be paid to the lord in lieu of military service to be rendered to the + king, a peculiar characteristic of English as distinguished from + Continental feudalism. + + Littleton then proceeds to notice the important features of tenure by + knight's service with its distinguishing incidents of the right of + wardship of the lands and person of the infant heir or heiress, and + the right of disposing of the ward in marriage. The non-military + freehold tenures are next dealt with; we have an account of "socage + tenure," into which all military tenures were subsequently commuted by + a now unrecognized act of the Long Parliament in 1650, afterwards + re-enacted by the well-known statute of Charles II. (1660), and of + "frankalmoign," or the spiritual tenure by which churchmen held. In + the description of burgage tenure and tenure in villenage, the life of + which consists in the validity of ancient customs recognized by law, + we recognize survivals of a time before the iron rule of feudalism had + moulded the law of land in the interests of the king and the great + lords. Finally he deals with the law of rents, discussing the various + kinds of rents which may be reserved to the grantor upon a grant of + lands and the remedies for recovery of rent, especially the remedy by + distress.[1] + + The third and concluding book of Littleton's treatise deals mainly + with the various ways in which rights over land can be acquired and + terminated in the case of a single possessor or several possessors. + This leads him to discuss the various modes in which several persons + may simultaneously have rights over the same land, as + parceners:--daughters who are co-heiresses, or sons in gavelkind; + joint tenants and tenants in common. Next follows an elaborate + discussion upon what are called estates upon condition--a class of + interests which occupied a large space in the early common law, giving + rise on one side to estates tail, on another to mortgages. In + Littleton's time a mortgage, which he carefully describes, was merely + a conveyance of land by the tenant to the mortgagee, with a condition + that, if the tenant paid to the mortgagee a certain sum on a certain + day, he might re-enter and have the land again. If the condition was + not fulfilled, the interest of the mortgagee became absolute, and + Littleton gives no indication of any modification of this strict rule, + such as was introduced by courts of equity, permitting the debtor to + redeem his land by payment of all that was due to the mortgagee + although the day of payment had passed, and his interest had become at + law indefeasible. The remainder of the work is occupied with an + exposition of a miscellaneous class of modes of acquiring rights of + property, the analysis of which would occupy too large a space. + + The work is thus a complete summary of the common law as it stood at + the time. It is nearly silent as to the remarkable class of rights + which had already assumed vast practical importance--equitable + interests in lands. These are only noticed incidentally in the chapter + on "Releases." But it was already clear in Littleton's time that this + class of rights would become the most important of all. Littleton's + own will, which has been preserved, may be adduced in proof of this + assertion. Although nothing was more opposed to the spirit of Norman + feudalism than that a tenant of lands should dispose of them by will, + we find Littleton directing by his will the feoffees of certain + manors to make estates to the persons named in his will. In other + words, in order to acquire over lands powers unknown to the common + law, the lands had been conveyed to "feoffees" who had full right over + them according to the common law, but who were under a conscientious + obligation to exercise those rights at the direction and for the + exclusive benefit of the person to whose "use" the lands were held. + This conscientious obligation was recognized and enforced by the + chancellor, and thus arose the class of equitable interests in lands. + Littleton is the first writer on English law after these rights had + risen into a prominent position, and it is curious to find to what + extent they are ignored by him. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The work of Littleton occupies a place in the history + of typography as well as of law. The earliest printed edition seems to + be that by John Lettou and William de Machlinia, two printers who + probably came from the Continent, and carried on their business in + partnership, as their note to the edition of Littleton states, "in + civitate Londoniarum, juxta ecclesiam omnium sanctorum." The date of + this edition is uncertain, but the most probable conjecture, based on + typographical grounds, places it about the latter part of 1481. The + next edition is one by Machlinia alone, probably about two or three + years later than the former. Machlinia was then in business alone + "juxta pontem quae vulgo dicitur Fleta brigge." Next came the Rohan or + Rouen edition, erroneously stated by Sir E. Coke to be the earliest, + and to have been printed about 1533. It was, however, of a much + earlier date. Tomlins, the latest editor of Littleton, gives reasons + for thinking that it cannot have been later than 1490. It is stated in + a note to have been printed at Rouen by William le Tailleur "ad + instantiam Richardi Pynson." Copies of all these editions are in the + British Museum. In all these editions the work is styled _Tenores + Novelli_, probably to distinguish it from the "Old Tenures." + + There are three early MSS. of Littleton in the University Library at + Cambridge. One of these formerly contained a note on its first page to + the effect that it was bought in St Paul's Churchyard on July 20, + 1480. It was therefore in circulation in Littleton's lifetime. The + other two MSS. are of a somewhat later date; but one of them contains + what seems to be the earliest English translation of the _Tenures_, + and is probably not later than 1500. + + In the 16th century editions of Littleton followed in rapid succession + from the presses of Pynson, Redmayne, Berthelet, Tottyl and others. + The practice of annotating the text caused several additions to be + introduced, which, however, are easily detected by comparison of the + earlier copies. In 1581 West divided the text into 746 sections, which + have ever since been preserved. Many of these editions were printed + with large margins for purposes of annotation, specimens of which may + be seen in Lincoln's Inn Library. + + The practice of annotating Littleton was very general, and was adopted + by many eminent lawyers besides Sir E. Coke, amongst others by Sir M. + Hale. One commentary of this kind, by an unknown hand of earlier date + than Sir E. Coke's, was edited by Cary in 1829. Following the general + practice of dealing with Littleton as the great authority on the law + of England, "the most perfect and absolute work that ever was written + in any human science," Sir E. Coke made it in 1628 the text of that + portion of his work which he calls the first part of the institutes of + the law of England, in other words, the law of property. + + The first printed English translation of Littleton was by Rastell, who + seems to have combined the professions of author, printer and + serjeant-at-law, between 1514 and 1533. Many English editions by + various editors followed, the best of which is Tottyl's in 1556. Sir + E. Coke adopted some translation earlier than this, which has since + gone by the name of Sir E. Coke's translation. He, however, throughout + comments not on the translation but on the French text; and the + reputation of the commentary has to some extent obscured the intrinsic + merit of the original. + + See E. Wambaugh, _Littleton's Tenures in English_ (Washington, D.C., + 1903). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] These two books are stated, in a note to the table at the + conclusion of the work, to have been made for the better + understanding of certain chapters of the _Antient Book of Tenures_. + This refers to a tract called _The Old Tenures_, said to have been + written in the reign of Edward III. By way of distinguishing it from + this work, Littleton's book is called in all the early editions + "Tenores Novelli." + + + + +LITTRÉ, MAXIMILIEN PAUL ÉMILE (1801-1881), French lexicographer and +philosopher, was born in Paris on the 1st of February 1801. His father +had been a gunner, and afterwards sergeant-major of marine artillery, in +the French navy, and was deeply imbued with the revolutionary ideas of +the day. Settling down as a collector of taxes, he married Sophie +Johannot, a free-thinker like himself, and devoted himself to the +education of his son Émile. The boy was sent to the Lycée +Louis-le-Grand, where he had for friends Hachette and Eugène Burnouf. +After he had completed his course at school, he hesitated for a time as +to what profession he should adopt, and meanwhile made himself master, +not only of the English and German languages, but of the classical and +Sanskrit literature and philology. At last he determined to study +medicine, and in 1822 entered his name as a student of medicine. He +passed all his examinations in due course, and had only his thesis to +prepare in order to obtain his degree as doctor when in 1827 his father +died, leaving his mother absolutely without resources. He at once +renounced his degree, and, while attending the lectures of P. F. O. +Rayer and taking a keen interest in medicine, began teaching Latin and +Greek for a livelihood. He carried a musket on the popular side in the +revolution of February 1830, and was one of the national guards who +followed Charles X. to Rambouillet. In 1831 he obtained an introduction +to Armand Carrel, the editor of the _National_, who gave him the task of +reading the English and German papers for excerpts. Carrel by chance, in +1835, discovered the ability of his reader, who from that time became a +constant contributor, and eventually director of the paper. In 1836 +Littré began to contribute articles on all sorts of subjects to the +_Revue des deux mondes_; in 1837 he married; and in 1839 appeared the +first volume of his edition of the works of Hippocrates. The value of +this work was recognized by his election the same year into the Académie +des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. At this epoch he came across the +works of Auguste Comte, the reading of which formed, as he himself said, +"the cardinal point of his life," and from this time onward appears the +influence of positivism on his own life, and, what is of more +importance, his influence on positivism, for he gave as much to +positivism as he received from it. He soon became a friend of Comte, and +popularized his ideas in numerous works on the positivist philosophy. At +the same time he continued his edition of Hippocrates, which was not +completed till 1862, published a similar edition of Pliny's _Natural +History_, and after 1844 took Fauriel's place on the committee engaged +on the _Histoire littéraire de la France_, where his knowledge of the +early French language and literature was invaluable. + +It was about 1844 that he started working on his great _Dictionnaire de +la langue française_, which was, however, not to be completed till +thirty years after. In the revolution of July 1848 he took part in the +repression of the extreme republican party in June 1849. His essays, +contributed during this period to the _National_, were collected +together and published under the title of _Conservation, révolution et +positivisme_ in 1852, and show a thorough acceptance of all the +doctrines propounded by Comte. However, during the later years of his +master's life, he began to perceive that he could not wholly accept all +the dogmas or the more mystic ideas of his friend and master, but he +concealed his differences of opinion, and Comte failed to perceive that +his pupil had outgrown him, as he himself had outgrown his master +Saint-Simon. Comte's death in 1858 freed Littré from any fear of +embittering his master's later years, and he published his own ideas in +his _Paroles de la philosophie positive_ in 1850, and at still greater +length in his work in _Auguste Comte et la philosophie positive_ in +1863. In this book he traces the origin of Comte's ideas through Turgot, +Kant and Saint-Simon, then eulogizes Comte's own life, his method of +philosophy, his great services to the cause and the effect of his works, +and finally proceeds to show where he himself differs from him. He +approved wholly of Comte's philosophy, his great laws of society and his +philosophical method, which indeed he defended warmly against J. S. +Mill, but declared that, while he believed in a positivist philosophy, +he did not believe in a religion of humanity. About 1863, after +completing his Hippocrates and his Pliny, he set to work in earnest on +his French dictionary. In the same year he was proposed for the Académie +Française, but rejected, owing to the opposition of Mgr. Dupanloup, +bishop of Orleans, who denounced him in his _Avertissement aux pères de +famille_ as the chief of the French materialists. He also at this time +started with G. Wyrouboff the _Philosophie Positive_, a review which was +to embody the views of modern positivists. His life was thus absorbed in +literary work till the overthrow of the empire called on him to take a +part in politics. He felt himself too old to undergo the privations of +the siege of Paris, and retired with his family to Britanny, whence he +was summoned by M. Gambetta to Bordeaux, to lecture on history, and +thence to Versailles to take his seat in the senate to which he had been +chosen by the department of the Seine. In December 1871 he was elected a +member of the Académie Française in spite of the renewed opposition of +Mgr. Dupanloup, who resigned his seat rather than receive him. Littré's +_Dictionary_ was completed in 1873. An authoritative interpretation is +given of the use of each word, based on the various meanings it had held +in the past. In 1875 Littré was elected a life senator. The most notable +of his productions in these years were his political papers attacking +and unveiling the confederacy of the Orleanists and legitimists, and in +favour of the republic, his republication of many of his old articles +and books, among others the _Conservation, révolution et positivisme_ of +1852 (which he reprinted word for word, appending a formal, categorical +renunciation of many of the Comtist doctrines therein contained), and a +little tract _Pour la dernière fois_, in which he maintained his +unalterable belief in materialism. When it became obvious that the old +man could not live much longer, his wife and daughter, who had always +been fervent Catholics, strove to convert him to their religion. He had +long interviews with Père Millériot, a celebrated controversialist, and +was much grieved at his death; but it is hardly probable he would have +ever been really converted. Nevertheless, when on the point of death, +his wife had him baptized, and his funeral was conducted with the rites +of the Catholic Church. He died on the 2nd of June 1881. + + The following are his most important works: his editions of + Hippocrates (1839-1861), and of Pliny's _Natural History_ (1848-1850); + his translation of Strauss's _Vie de Jésus_ (1839-1840), and Müller's + _Manuel de physiologie_ (1851); his edition of the works of Armand + Carrel, with notes (1854-1858); the _Histoire de la langue française_, + a collection of magazine articles (1862); and his _Dictionnaire de la + langue française_ (1863-1872). In the domain of science must be noted + his edition, with Charles Robin, of Nysten's _Dictionnaire de + médicine, de chirurgie_, &c. (1855); in that of philosophy, his + _Analyse raisonnée du cours de philosophie positive de M. A. Comte_ + (1845); _Application de la philosophie positive au gouvernement_ + (1849); _Conservation, révolution et positivisme_ (1852, 2nd ed., with + supplement, 1879); _Paroles de la philosophie positive_ (1859); + _Auguste Comte et la philosophie positive_ (1863); _La Science au + point de vue philosophique_ (1873); _Fragments de philosophie et de + sociologie contemporaine_ (1876); and his most interesting + miscellaneous works, his _Études et glanures_ (1880); _La Verité sur + la mort d'Alexandre le grand_ (1865); _Études sur les barbares et le + moyen âge_ (1867); _Médecine et médecins_ (1871); _Littérature et + histoire_ (1875); and _Discours de réception à l'Académie française_ + (1873). + + For his life consult C. A. Sainte-Beuve, _Notice sur M. Littré, sa vie + et ses travaux_ (1863); and _Nouveaux Lundis_, vol. v.; also the + notice by M. Durand-Gréville in the _Nouvelle Revue_ of August 1881; + E. Caro, _Littré et le positivisme_ (1883); Pasteur, _Discours de + réception_ at the Academy, where he succeeded Littré, and a reply by + E. Renan. (H. M. S.) + + + + + +LITURGY (Low Lat. _liturgia_; Gr. [Greek: leitos], public, and [Greek: +ergon], work; [Greek: leitourgos], a public servant), in the technical +language of the Christian Church, the order for the celebration and +administration of the Eucharist. In Eastern Christendom the Greek word +[Greek: leitourgia] is used in this sense exclusively. But in +English-speaking countries the word "liturgy" has come to be used in a +more popular sense to denote any or all of the various services of the +Church, whether contained in separate volumes or bound up together in +the form of a Book of Common Prayer. In this article the liturgy is +treated in the former and stricter sense. (For the ancient Athenian +[Greek: leitourgiai], as forms of taxation, see FINANCE.) + +In order to understand terms and references it will be convenient to +give the tabular form the chief component parts of a liturgy, selecting +the Liturgy of Rome as characteristic of Western, and that of +Constantinople as characteristic of Eastern, Christendom; at the same +time appending an explanation of some of the technical words which must +be employed in enumerating those parts. + + + ORDER OF THE ROMAN LITURGY + + _Ordinary of the Mass_. + + 1. Introit, or as it is always called in the Sarum rite, "Office," a + Psalm or part of a Psalm sung at the entry of the priest, or clergy + and choir. + + 2. Kyrie eleison, ninefold, and sometimes lengthily farsed + representing an older, now obsolete, litany. + + 3. Collect, _i.e_. the collect for the day. + + 4. Prophetic lection, now obsolete, except on the Wednesday and + Saturday Ember Days, Good Friday and Easter Even, and Wednesday after + fourth and sixth Sundays in Lent. + + 5. Epistle. + + 6. Gradual. A few verses from the Psalms, the shrunken remainder of a + whole Psalm. + + 7. Sequence. A hymn now obsolete except on Feast of the Seven Dolours, + Easter, Pentecost, Corpus Christi and at Masses for the dead. + + 8. Gospel. + + 9. Creed. + + 10. Collect, now obsolete, though the unanswered invitation, "Let us + pray," still survives. + + 11. Offertory. A verse or verses from the Psalms sung at the offering + of the elements. + + 12. Secret. A prayer or prayers said at the conclusion of the + Offertory. + + 13. Sursum Corda. "Lift up your hearts," with following versicles. + + 14. Preface. There are now ten proper or special prefaces and one + common preface. In older missals they were extremely numerous, almost + every Sunday and Holy-day having one assigned to it. Many of them were + very beautiful. In older missals, Nos. 13, 14 and 15 were sometimes + arranged not as the concluding part of the Ordinary, but as the + opening part of the Canon of the mass. + + 15. Sanctus, or Tersanctus, or Triumphal Hymn, "Holy, Holy, Holy," + &c., ending with the Benedictus, "Blessed is he that cometh," &c. + + + _Canon of the Mass._ + + 1. Introductory prayer for acceptance. Te igitur, &c. + + 2. Intercession for the living. Memento, Domine famulorum, &c. + + 3. Commemoration of apostles and martyrs. Communicantes et memoriam, + &c. + + 4. Prayer for acceptance and consecration of offering. Hanc igitur + oblationem, &c. + + 5. Recital of words of institution. Qui pridie quam pateretur, &c. + + 6. Oblation. Unde et memores, &c. + + 7. Invocation. A passage difficult of interpretation, but apparently + meant to be equivalent to the Eastern Epiklesis or invocation of the + Holy Ghost. Supplices te rogamus, &c. + + 8. Intercession for the dead. Memento etiam, Domine, famulorum, &c. + + 9. Lord's Prayer, with a short introduction and the expansion of the + last petition into a prayer known as the "Embolismus." + + 10. Fraction, i.e. breaking of the host into three parts, to symbolize + the death and passion of Christ. + + 11. Commixture, i.e. placing a small portion of the consecrated bread + into the chalice symbolizing the reunion of Christ's body and soul at + the resurrection. + + 12. Agnus Dei, i.e. a three-fold petition to the Lamb of God. + + 13. Pax, i.e. the kiss of peace. The ancient ritual of the Pax has + become almost obsolete. + + 14. Three prayers, accompanying the Pax and preliminary to communion. + + 15. Communion of priest and people (if any), a short anthem called + "Communio" being sung meanwhile. + + 16. Ablution of paten and chalice. + + 17. Post-communion, i.e. a concluding prayer. + + 18. Dismissal. + + The Canon of the Mass strictly ends with No. 9; Nos. 10-18 being an + appendix to it. + + + LITURGY OF CONSTANTINOPLE + + _Mass of the Catechumens. After preparation and vesting._ + + 1. The Deacon's Litany. + + 2. Three Anthems with accompanying prayers. + + 3. Little Entrance, i.e. ceremonial bringing in of the Book of the + Gospels. + + 4. The Trisagion, i.e. an anthem with an accompanying prayer different + from the Latin Sanctus or Tersanctus. + + 5. Epistle. + + 6. Gospel with a prayer preceding it. + + 7. Bidding prayer. + + 8. Prayer for catechumens. + + 9. Dismissal of catechumens. + + 10. Spreading of the corporal. + + + _Mass of the Faithful._ + + 11. Prayers of the faithful. + + 12. Cherubic Hymn, "Let us who mystically represent the Cherubim, &c." + not represented in the Latin liturgy. + + 13. Great Entrance, i.e. of the unconsecrated elements with incense + and singing and intercessions. + + 14. Kiss of Peace. + + 15. Creed. + + 16. The Benediction, i.e. 2 Cor. xiii. 14. + + 17. Sursum corda. + + 18. Preface. + + 19. Sanctus, or Tersanctus, or "Triumphal Hymn." + + 20. Recital of Words of Institution, prefaced by recital of the + Redemption. + + 21. The oblation. + + 22. The invocation or Epiklesis. + + 23. Intercession for the dead. + + 24. Intercession for the living. + + 25. The Lord's Prayer. + + 26. Prayer of humble access (a) for people (b) for priest. + + 27. Elevation with the invitation "Holy things to holy people." + + 28. Fraction. + + 29. Commixture. + + 30. Thanksgiving. + + 31. Benediction. + + In both these lists many interesting features of ceremonial, the use + of incense, the infusion of warm water (Byzantine only), &c., have not + been referred to. The lists must be regarded as skeletons only. + +There are six main families or groups of liturgies, four of them being +of Eastern and two of them of Western origin and use. They are known +either by the names of the apostles with whom they are traditionally +connected, or by the names of the countries or cities in which they have +been or are still in use. + +Group I. _The Syrian Rite_ (St James).--The principal liturgies to be +enumerated under this group are the Clementine liturgy, so called from +being found in the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions, which +claim in their title, though erroneously, to have been compiled by St +Clement, the 1st-century bishop of Rome; the Greek liturgy of St James; +the Syriac liturgy of St James. Sixty-four more liturgies of this group +have existed, the majority being still in existence. Their titles are +given in F. E. Brightman's _Liturgies, Eastern and Western_ (1896), pp. +lviii.-lxi. + +Group II. _The Egyptian Rite_ (St Mark).--This group includes the Greek +liturgies of St Mark, St Basil and St Gregory, and the Coptic liturgies +of St Basil, St Gregory, St Cyril or St Mark; together with certain less +known liturgies the titles of which are enumerated by Brightman (_op. +cit._ pp. lxxiii. lxxiv.). The liturgy of the Ethiopian church +ordinances and the liturgy of the Abyssinian Jacobites, known as that of +the Apostles, fall under this group. + +Group III. _The Persian Rite_ (SS. Adaeus and Maris).--This Nestorian +rite is represented by the liturgy which bears the names of SS. Adaeus +and Maris together with two others named after Theodore of Mopsuestia +and Nestorius. This group has sometimes been called "East-Syrian." The +titles of three more of its now lost liturgies have been preserved, +namely those of Narses, Barsumas and Diodorus of Tarsus. The liturgy of +the Christians of St Thomas, on the Malabar coast of India, formerly +belonged to this group, but it was almost completely assimilated to the +Roman liturgy by Portuguese Jesuits at the synod of Diamper in 1599. + +Group IV. _The Byzantine Rite._--The Greek liturgies of St Chrysostom, +St Basil and St Gregory Dialogus, or The Presanctified, also extant in +other languages, are the living representatives of this rite. The Greek +liturgy of St Peter is classified under this group, but it is merely the +Roman canon of the Mass &c., inserted in a Byzantine framework, and +seems to have been used at one time by some Greek communities in Italy. +To this group also belongs the Armenian liturgy, of which ten different +forms have existed in addition to the liturgy now in general use named +after St Athanasius. + +We now come to the two western groups of liturgies, which more nearly +concern the Latin-speaking nations of Europe, and which, therefore, must +be treated of more fully. + +Group V. _The Hispano-Gallican Rite_ (St John).--This group of Latin +liturgies, which once prevailed very widely in Western Europe, has been +almost universally superseded by the liturgy of the Church of Rome. +Where it survives, it has been more or less assimilated to the Roman +pattern. It prevailed once throughout Spain, France, northern Italy, +Great Britain and Ireland. The term "Ephesine" has been applied to this +group or family of liturgies, chiefly by English liturgiologists, and +the names of St John and of Ephesus, his place of residence, have been +pressed into service in support of a theory of Ephesine origin, which, +however, lacks proof and may now be regarded as a discarded hypothesis. +Other theories represent the Gallican to be a survival of the original +Roman liturgy, or as an importation into Western Europe from the east +through a Milanese channel. The latter is Duchesne's theory (_Christian +Worship_, London, 1904, 2nd ed., p. 94). + + We must be content with mentioning these theories without attempting + to discuss them. + + The chief traces of oriental influence and affinity lie in the + following points:--(1) various proclamations made by the deacon, + including that of "Silentium facite" before the epistle (Migne, _Pat. + Lat._ tom. lxxxv. col. 534); (2) the presence of a third lesson + preceding the epistle, taken from the Old Testament; (3) the + occasional presence of "preces" a series of short intercessions + resembling the Greek "Ektené" or deacon's litany; (4) the position of + the kiss of peace at an early point in the service, before the canon, + instead of the Roman position after consecration; (5) the exclamation + "Sancta sanctis" occurring in the Mozarabic rite, being the + counterpart of the Eastern "[Greek: Ta hagia tois hagiois]," that is + "holy things to holy people"; (6) traces of the presence of the + "Epiklesis," that is to say, the invocation of the Holy Spirit, in its + Eastern position after the words of institution, as in the prayer + styled the Post-pridie in the Mozarabic service for the second Sunday + after the octave of the Epiphany: "We beseech thee that thou wouldest + sanctify this oblation with the permixture of thy Spirit, and conform + it with full transformation into the body and blood of our Lord Jesus + Christ." (Migne, _Pat. Lat._ tom. lxxxv. col. 250). On the other hand + the great variableness of its parts, and the immense number of its + proper prefaces, ally it to the Western family of liturgies. + +We proceed now to give a more detailed account of the chief liturgies of +this group. + +1. _The Mozarabic Liturgy.--_This was the national liturgy of the +Spanish church till the close of the 11th century, when the Roman +liturgy was forced upon it. Its use, however, lingered on, till in the +16th century Cardinal Jimenes, anxious to prevent its becoming quite +obsolete, had its books restored and printed, and founded a college of +priests at Toledo to perpetuate its use. It survives now only in several +churches in Toledo and in a chapel at Salamanca, and even there not +without certain Roman modifications of its original text and ritual. + + Its date and origin, like the date and origin of all existing + liturgies, are uncertain, and enveloped in the mists of antiquity. It + is not derived from the present Roman liturgy. Its whole structure, as + well as separate details disprove such a parentage, and therefore it + is strange to find St Isidore of Seville (_Lib. de Eccles. Offic_. i. + 15) attributing it to St Peter. No proof is adduced, and the only + value which can be placed upon such an unsupported assertion is that + it shows that a very high and even apostolic antiquity was claimed for + it. A theory, originating with Pinius, that it may have been brought + by the Goths from Constantinople when they invaded Spain, is as + improbable as it is unproven. It may have been derived from Gaul. The + Gallican sister stood to it in the relation of twin-sister, if it + could not claim that of mother. The resemblance was so great that when + Charles the Bald (843-877) wished to get some idea of the character of + the already obsolete Gallican rite, he sent to Toledo for some Spanish + priests to perform Mass according to the Mozarabic rite in his + presence. But there is no record of the conversion of Spain by + Gallican missionaries. Christianity existed in Spain from the earliest + times. Probably St Paul travelled there (Rom. xv. 24). It may be at + least conjectured that its liturgy was Pauline rather than Petrine or + Johannine. + +2. _Gallican Liturgy._--This was the ancient and national liturgy of the +church in France till the commencement of the 9th century, when it was +suppressed by order of Charlemagne, who directed the Roman missal to be +everywhere substituted in its place. All traces of it seemed for some +time to have been lost until three Gallican sacramentaries were +discovered and published by Thomasius in 1680 under the titles of +_Missale Gothicum_, _Missale Gallicum_ and _Missale Francorum_, and a +fourth was discovered and published by Mabillon in 1687 under the title +of _Missale Gallicanum_. Fragmentary discoveries have been made since. +Mone discovered fragments of eleven Gallican masses and published them +at Carlsruhe in 1850. Other fragments from the library at St Gall have +been published by Bunsen (_Analecta Ante-Nicaena_, iii. 263-266), and +from the Ambrosian library at Milan by Cardinal Mai (_Scriptt. Vet. Vat. +Coll._ iii. 2. 247). A single page was discovered in Gonville and Caius +College, Cambridge, published in _Zeitschrift für Kath. Theologie_, vi. +370. + + These documents, illustrated by early Gallican canons, and by + allusions in the writings of Sulpicius Severus, Caesarius of Arles, + Gregory of Tours, Germanus of Paris and other authors, enable us to + reconstruct the greater part of this liturgy. The previously + enumerated signs of Eastern origin and influence are found here as + well as in the Mozarabic liturgy, together with certain other more or + less minute peculiarities, which would be of interest to professed + liturgiologists, but which we must not pause to specify here. They are + the origin of the Ephesine theory that the Gallican liturgy was + introduced into use by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c. 130-200) who had + learned it in the East from St Polycarp, the disciple of the apostle + St John. + +3. _Ambrosian Liturgy._--Considerable variety of opinion has existed +among liturgical writers as to the proper classification of the +"Ambrosian" or "Milanese" liturgy. If we are to accept it in its present +form and to make the present position of the great intercession for +quick and dead the test of its _genus_, then we must classify it as +"Petrine" and consider it as a branch of the Roman family. If, on the +other hand, we consider the important variations from the Roman liturgy +which yet exist, and the traces of still more marked variation which +confront us in the older printed and MS. copies of the Ambrosian rite, +we shall detect in it an original member of the Hispano-Gallican group +of liturgies, which for centuries underwent a gradual but +ever-increasing assimilation to Rome. We know this as a matter of +history, as well as a matter of inference from changes in the text +itself. Charlemagne adopted the same policy towards the Milanese as +towards the Gallican church. He carried off all the Ambrosian church +books which he could obtain, with the view of substituting Roman books +in their place, but the completion of his intentions failed, partly +through the attachment of the Lombards to their own rites, partly +through the intercession of a Gallican bishop named Eugenius (Mabillon, +_Mus. Ital._ tom. i. Pars. ii. p. 106). It has been asserted by Joseph +Vicecomes that this is an originally independent liturgy drawn up by St +Barnabas, who first preached the Gospel at Milan (_De Missae_ Rit. 1 +capp. xi. xii.), and this tradition is preserved in the title and proper +preface for St Barnabas Day in the Ambrosian missal (Pamelius, +_Liturgicon_, i. 385, 386), but it has never been proved. + + We can trace the following points in which the Ambrosian differs from + the Roman liturgy, many of them exhibiting traces of Eastern + influence. Some of them are no longer found in recent Ambrosian + missals and only survive in earlier MSS. such as those published by + Pamelius (_Liturgicon_, tom. i. p. 293), Muratori (_Lit. Rom. Vet._ i. + 132) and Ceriani (in his edition, 1881, of an ancient MS. at Milan). + (a) The prayer entitled "oratio super sindonem" corresponding to the + prayer after the spreading of the corporal; (b) the proclamation of + silence by the deacon before the epistle; (c) the litanies said after + the Ingressa (Introit) on Sundays in Lent, closely resembling the + Greek Ektené; (d) varying forms of introduction to the Lord's Prayer, + in Coena Domini (Ceriani p. 116) in Pascha (Ib. p. 129); (e) the + presence of passages in the prayer of consecration which are not part + of the Roman canon and one of which at least corresponds in import and + position though not in words to the Greek Invocation: _Tuum vero, est, + omnipotens Pater, mittere_, &c. (Ib. p. 116); (f) the survival of a + distinctly Gallican formula of consecration in the Post-sanctus "in + Sabbato Sancto." _Vere sanctus, vere benedictus Dominus noster,_ &c. + (Ib. p. 125); (g) the varying nomenclature of the Sundays after + Pentecost; (h) the position of the fraction or ritual breaking of + bread before the Lord's Prayer; (i) the omission of the second + oblation after the words of institution (Muratori, _Lit. Rom. Vet._ i. + 133); (k) a third lection or _Prophetia_ from the Old Testament + preceding the epistle and gospel; (l) the lay offering of the + oblations and the formulae accompanying their reception (Pamelius, + _Liturgicon_, i. 297); (m) the position of the ablution of the hands + in the middle of the canon just before the words of institution; (n) + the position of the "oratio super populum," which corresponds in + matter but not in name to the collect for the day, before the Gloria + in Excelsis. + +4. _Celtic Liturgy._--We postpone the consideration of this liturgy till +after we have treated of the next main group. + +VI. _The Roman Rite_ (St Peter).--There is only one liturgy to be +enumerated under this group, viz. the present liturgy of the Church of +Rome, which, though originally local in character and circumscribed in +use, has come to be nearly co-extensive with the Roman Catholic Church, +sometimes superseding earlier national liturgies, as in Gaul and Spain, +sometimes incorporating more or less of the ancient ritual of a country +into itself and producing from such incorporation a sub-class of +distinct Uses, as in England, France and elsewhere. Even these +subordinate Uses have for the most part become, or are rapidly becoming, +obsolete. + +The date, origin and early history of the Roman liturgy are obscure. The +first Christians at Rome were a Greek-speaking community, and their +liturgy must have been Greek, and is possibly represented in the +so-called Clementine liturgy. But the date when such a state of things +ceased, when and by whom the present Latin liturgy was composed, whether +it is an original composition, or, as its structure seems to imply, a +survival of some intermediate form of liturgy--all these are questions +which are waiting for solution. + + One MS. exists which has been claimed to represent the Roman liturgy + as it existed in the time of Leo I., 440-461. It was discovered at + Verona by Bianchini in 1735 and assigned by him to the 8th century and + published under the title of _Sacramentarium Leonianum_; but this + title was from the first conjectural, and is in the teeth of the + internal evidence which the MS. itself affords. The question is + discussed at some length by Muratori (_Lit. Rom. Vet._ tom. i. cap. i. + col. 16). Assemani published it under the title of _Sacramentarium + Veronense_ in tom. vi. of his _Codex Liturg. Eccles. Univ_. + + A MS. of the 7th or 8th century was found at Rome by Thomasius and + published by him in 1680 under the title of _Sacramentarium + Gelasianum_. But it was written in France and is certainly not a pure + Gelasian codex; and although there is historical evidence of Pope + Gelasius I. (492-496) having made some changes in the Roman liturgy, + and although MSS. have been published by Gerbertus and others, + claiming the title of Gelasian, we neither have nor are likely to have + genuine and contemporary MS. evidence of the real state of the liturgy + in that pope's time. The most modern and the best edition of the + Gelasian Sacramentary is that by H. A. Wilson (Oxford, 1894). + + The larger number of MSS. of this group are copies of the Gregorian + Sacramentary, that is to say, MSS. representing or purporting to + represent, the state of Roman liturgy in the days of Pope Gregory the + Great. But they cannot be accepted as certain evidence for the + following reasons: not one of them was written earlier than the 9th + century, not one of them was written in Italy, but every one north of + the Alps; every one contains internal evidence of a post-Gregorian + date in the shape of masses for the repose or for the intercession of + St Gregory and in various other ways. + +The Roman liturgy seems to have been introduced into England in the 7th, +into France in the 9th and into Spain in the 11th century, though no +doubt it was known in both France and Spain to some extent before these +dates. In France certain features of the service and certain points in +the ritual of the ancient national liturgy became interwoven with its +text and formed those many varying medieval Gallican Uses which are +associated with the names of different French sees. + +The chief distinguishing characteristics of the Roman rite are these: +(a) the position of the great intercession for quick and dead within the +canon, the commemoration of the living being placed just before and the +commemoration of the departed just after the words of institution; (b) +the absence of an "Epiklesis" or invocation of the Holy Ghost upon the +elements; (c) the position of the "Pax" or "Kiss of Peace after the +consecration" and before the communion, whereas in other liturgies it +occurs at a much earlier point in the service. + + +_Liturgies of the British Islands._ + +Period I. _The Celtic Church._--Until recently almost nothing was known +of the character of the liturgical service of the Celtic church which +existed in these islands before the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, and continued +to exist in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Cornwall for considerable +though varying periods of time after that event. But in recent times a +good deal of light has been thrown on the subject, partly by the +publication or republication of the few genuine works of Patrick, +Columba, Columbanus, Adamnan and other Celtic saints; partly by the +discovery of liturgical remains in the Scottish _Book of Deer_ and in +the Irish _Books of Dimma and Mulling_ and the _Stowe Missal_, &c.; +partly by the publication of medieval Irish compilations, such as the +_Lebar Brecc_, _Liber Hymnorum_, _Martyrology of Oengus_, &c., which +contain ecclesiastical kalendars, legends, treatises, &c., of +considerable but very varying antiquity. The evidence collected from +these sources is sufficient to prove that the liturgy of the Celtic +church was of the Gallican type. In central England the churches, with +everything belonging to them, were destroyed by the heathen invaders at +the close of the 5th century; but the Celtic church in the remoter parts +of England, as well as in the neighbouring kingdoms of Scotland and +Ireland, retained its independence for centuries afterwards. + +An examination of its few extant service-books and fragments of +service-books yields the following evidence of the Gallican origin and +character of the Celtic liturgy: (a) the presence of collects and +anthems which occur in the Gallican or Mozarabic but not in the Roman +liturgy; (b) various formulae of thanksgiving after communion; (c) +frequent biddings or addresses to the people in the form of Gallican +_Praefationes_; (d) the Gallican form of consecration, being a prayer +called "Post-Sanctus" leading up to the words of institution; (e) the +complicated rite of "fraction" or "the breaking of bread," as described +in the Irish treatise at the end of the _Stowe Missal_, finds its only +counterpart in the elaborate ceremonial of the Mozarabic church; (f) the +presence of the Gallican ceremonial of _Pedilavium_ or "Washing of feet" +in the earliest Irish baptismal office. + + For a further description of these and other features which are + characteristic of or peculiar to the Celtic liturgy the reader is + referred to F. E. Warren's _Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church_ + (Oxford, 1881). + +Period II. _The Anglo-Saxon Church._--We find ourselves here on firmer +ground, and can speak with certainty as to the nature of the liturgy of +the English church after the beginning of the 7th century. Information +is drawn from liturgical allusions in the extant canons of numerous +councils, from the voluminous writings of Bede, Alcuin and many other +ecclesiastical authors of the Anglo-Saxon period, and above all from a +considerable number of service-books written in England before the +Norman Conquest. Three of these books are missals of more or less +completeness: (1) the _Leofric Missal_, a composite 10th- to +11th-century MS. presented to the cathedral of Exeter by Leofric, the +first bishop of that see (1046-1072), now in the Bodleian library at +Oxford; edited by F. E. Warren (Oxford, 1883); (2) the missal of Robert +of Jumièges, archbishop of Canterbury (1051-1052), written probably at +Winchester and presented by Archbishop Robert to his old monastery of +Jumièges in the neighbourhood of Rouen, in the public library of which +it now lies; edited by H. A. Wilson (London, 1896); (3) the _Red Book of +Derby_, a MS. missal of the second half of the 11th century, now in the +library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. + +A perusal of these volumes proves what we should have expected a priori, +that the Roman liturgy was in use in the Anglo-Saxon church. This was +the case from the very first. That church owed its foundation to a Roman +pontiff, and to Roman missionaries, who brought, as we are told by Bede, +their native liturgical codices with them (_Hist. Eccles_. lib. ii. cap. +28). Accordingly, when we speak of an Anglo-Saxon missal, we mean a +Roman missal only exhibiting one or more of the following features, +which would differentiate it from an Italian missal of the same century. +(a) Rubrics and other entries of a miscellaneous character written in +the vernacular language of the country. (b) The commemoration of +national or local saints in the kalendar, in the canon of the mass and +in the litanies which occur for use on Easter Even and in the baptismal +offices. (c) The presence of a few special masses in honour of those +local saints, together with a certain number of collects of a +necessarily local character, for the rulers of the country, for its +natural produce, &c. (d) The addition of certain peculiarities of +liturgical structure and arrangement interpolated into the otherwise +purely Roman service from an extraneous source. There are two noteworthy +examples of this in Anglo-Saxon service-books. Every Sunday and festival +and almost every votive mass has its proper preface, although the number +of such prefaces in the Gregorian sacramentary of the same period had +been reduced to eight. There was a large but not quite equal number of +triple episcopal benedictions to be pronounced by the bishop after the +Lord's Prayer and before the communion. This custom must either have +been perpetuated from the old Celtic liturgy or directly derived from a +Gallican source. + +Period III. _Anglo-Norman Church._--The influx of numerous foreigners, +especially from Normandy and Lorraine, which preceded, accompanied and +followed the Conquest, and the occupation by them of the highest posts +in church as well as state had a distinct effect on the liturgy of the +English church. These foreign ecclesiastics brought over with them a +preference for and a habit of using certain features of the Gallican +liturgy and ritual, which they succeeded in incorporating into the +service-books of the church of England. One of the Norman prelates, +Osmund, count of Séez, earl of Dorset, chancellor of England, and bishop +of Salisbury (1078-1099), is credited with having undertaken the +revision of the English service-books; and the missal which we know as +the _Sarum Missal_, or the _Missal according to the Use of Sarum_, +practically became the liturgy of the English church. It was not only +received into use in the province of Canterbury, but was largely adopted +beyond those limits--in Ireland in the 12th and in various Scottish +dioceses in the 12th and 13th centuries. + +It would be beyond our scope here to give a complete list of the +numerous and frequently minute differences between a medieval Sarum and +the earlier Anglo-Saxon or contemporaneous Roman liturgy. They lie +mainly in differences of collects and lections, variations of ritual on +Candlemass, Ash Wednesday and throughout Holy Week; the introduction +into the canon of the mass of certain clauses and usages of Gallican +character or origin; the wording of rubrics in the subjunctive or +imperative tense; the peculiar "Preces in prostratione"; the procession +of Corpus Christi on Palm Sunday; the forms of ejection and +reconciliation of penitents, &c. The varying episcopal benedictions as +used in the Anglo-Saxon church were retained, but the numerous proper +prefaces were discarded, the number being reduced to ten. + +Besides the famous and far-spreading Use of Sarum, other Uses, more +local and less known, grew up in various English dioceses. In virtue of +a recognized diocesan independence, bishops were able to regulate or +alter their ritual, and to add special masses or commemorations for use +within the limits of their jurisdiction. The better known and the more +distinctive of these Uses were those of York and Hereford, but we also +find traces of or allusions to the Uses of Bangor, Lichfield, Lincoln, +Ripon, St Asaph, St Paul's, Wells and Winchester. + + _Service-books._--The Eucharistie service was contained in the volume + called the Missal (_q.v_.), as the ordinary choir offices were + contained in the volume known as the Breviary (_q.v_.). But besides + these two volumes there were a large number of other service-books. Mr + W. Maskell has enumerated and described ninety-one such volumes + employed by the Western Church only. It must be understood, however, + that many of these ninety-one names are synonyms (_Mon. Rit. Eccles. + Anglic_. 1882, vol. i. p. ccxxx.). The list might be increased, but it + will be possible here only to name and briefly describe a few of the + more important of them. (1) The _Agenda_ is the same as the Manual, + for which see below. (2) The _Antiphonary_ contained the antiphons or + anthems, sung at the canonical hours, and certain other minor parts of + the service. (3) The _Benedictional_ contained those triple episcopal + benedictions previously described as used on Sundays and on the chief + festivals throughout the year. (4) The _Collectarium_ contained the + collects for the season, together with a few other parts of the day + offices. It was an inchoate breviary. (5) The _Epistolarium_ contained + the epistles, and the _Evangelistarium_ the gospels for the year. (7) + The _Gradual_ contained the introit, gradual, sequences, and the other + portions of the communion service which were sung by the choir at nigh + mass. (8) The _Legenda_ contained the lections which were read at + matins and at other times, and may be taken as a generic term to + include the _Homiliarium, Passional_ and other volumes. (9) The + _Manual_ was the name usually employed in England to denote the + _Ritual_, which contained the baptismal, matrimonial and other offices + which might be performed by the parish priest. (10) The _Pontifical_ + contained the orders of consecration, ordination, and such other rites + as could, ordinarily, only be performed by a bishop. To these we must + add a book which was not strictly a church office book, but a handy + book for the use of the laity, and which was in very popular use and + often very highly embellished from the 14th to the 16th century, the + _Book of Hours_, or _Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis_, also known as the + _Prymer_ or _Primer_. It contained portions of the canonical hours, + litanies, the penitential Psalms, and other devotions of a + miscellaneous and private character. Detailed information about all + these and other books is to be found in C. Wordsworth and H. + Littlehales', _The Old Service Books of the English Church_. + + The Eastern Church too possessed and still possesses numerous and + voluminous service-books, of which the chief are the following: (1) + The _Euchologian_, containing the liturgy itself with the remaining + sacramental offices bound up in the same volume. (2) The _Horologion_, + containing the unvarying portion of the Breviary. (3) The _Menaea_, + being equivalent to a complete Breviary. (4) The _Menologion_ or + Martyrology. (5) The _Octoechus_ and (6) The _Paracletice_, containing + Troparia and answering to the Western antiphonary. (7) The + _Pentecostarion_, containing the services from Easter Day to All + Saints' Sunday. (8) The _Triodion_, containing those from Septuagesima + Sunday to Easter Even. (9) The _Typicum_ is a general book of rubrics + corresponding to the Ordinale or the Pie of Western Christendom. + +Period IV. _The Reformed Church._--The Anglican liturgy of Reformation +and post-Reformation times is described under the heading of PRAYER, +BOOK OF COMMON, but a brief description may be added here of the +liturgies of other reformed churches. + +_The Liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church._--This liturgy in nearly +its present form was compiled by Scottish bishops in 1636 and +imposed--or, to speak more accurately, attempted to be imposed--upon the +Scottish people by the royal authority of Charles I. in 1637. The +prelates chiefly concerned in it were Spottiswood, bishop of Glasgow; +Maxwell, bishop of Ross; Wedderburn, bishop of Dunblane; and Forbes, +bishop of Edinburgh. Their work was approved and revised by certain +members of the English episcopate, especially Laud, archbishop of +Canterbury; Juxon, bishop of London; and Wren, bishop of Ely. This +liturgy has met with varied fortune and has passed through several +editions. The present Scottish office dates from 1764. It is now used as +an alternative form with the English communion office in the Scottish +Episcopal Church. + +The general arrangements of its parts approximates more closely to that +of the first book of Edward VI. than to the present Anglican Book of +Common Prayer. Among its noteworthy features are (a) the retention in +its integrity and in its primitive position after the words of +institution of the invocation of the Holy Spirit. That invocation runs +thus: "And we most humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us +and of thy almighty goodness vouchsafe to bless and sanctify with thy +word and Holy Spirit these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine +that they may become the body and blood of thy most dearly beloved Son" +(edit. 1764). This kind of petition thus placed is found in the Eastern +but not in the Roman or Anglican liturgies. (b) The reservation of the +sacrament is permitted, by traditional usage, for the purpose of +communicating the absent or the sick. (c) The minimum number of +communicants is fixed at one or two instead of three or four. + + For fuller information see Bishop J. Dowden, _The Annotated Scottish + Communion Service_ (Edinburgh, 1884). + +_American Liturgy._--The Prayer Book of "the Protestant Episcopal +Church" in America was adopted by the general convention of the American +church in 1789. It is substantially the same as the English Book of +Common Prayer, but among important variations we may name the following: +(a) The arrangement and wording of the order for Holy Communion rather +resembles that of the Scottish than that of the English liturgy, +especially in the position of the oblation and invocation immediately +after the words of institution. (b) The Magnificat, Nunc dimittis and +greater part of Benedictus were disused; but these were reinstated among +the changes made in the Prayer Book in 1892. (c) Ten selections of +Psalms are appointed for use as alternatives for the Psalms of the day. +(d) _Gloria in excelsis_ is allowed as a substitute for _Gloria Patri_ +at the end of the Psalms at morning and evening prayer. In addition to +these there are many more both important and unimportant variations from +the English Book of Common Prayer. + +_The Irish Prayer Book._--The Prayer Book in use in the Irish portion +of the United Church of England and Ireland was the Anglican Book of +Common Prayer, but after the disestablishment of the Irish church +several changes were introduced into it by a synod held at Dublin in +1870. These changes included such important points as: (a) the excision +of all lessons from the Apocrypha, (b) of the rubric ordering the +recitation of the Athanasian Creed, (c) of the rubric ordering the +vestments of the second year of Edward VI., (d) of the form of +absolution in the office for the visitation of the sick, (e) the +addition to the Catechism of a question and answer bringing out more +clearly the spiritual character of the real presence. + +_The Presbyterian Church._--The Presbyterian churches of Scotland at +present possess no liturgy properly so called. Certain general rules for +the conduct of divine service are contained in the "Directory for the +Public Worship of God" agreed upon by the assembly of divines at +Westminster, with the assistance of commissioners from the Church of +Scotland, approved and established by an act of the general assembly, +and by an act of parliament, both in 1645. In 1554 John Knox had drawn +up an order of liturgy closely modelled on the Genevan pattern for the +use of the English congregation to which he was then ministering at +Frankfort. On his return to Scotland this form of liturgy was adopted by +an act of the general assembly in 1560 and became the established form +of worship in the Presbyterian church until the year 1645, when the +Directory of Public Worship took its place. Herein regulations are laid +down for the conduct of public worship, for the reading of Scripture and +for extempore prayer before and after the sermon, and in the +administration of the sacrament of baptism and the Lord's Supper, for +the solemnization of marriage, visitation of the sick and burial of the +dead, for the observance of days of public fasting and public +thanksgiving, together with a form of ordination and a directory for +family worship. In all these cases, though the general terms of the +prayer are frequently indicated, the wording of it is left to the +discretion of the minister, with these exceptions: At the act of baptism +this formula must be used--"I baptize thee in the name of the Father, +and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost"; and for the Lord's Supper these +forms are suggested, but with liberty to the minister to use "other the +like, used by Christ or his apostles upon this occasion"--"According to +the holy institution, command, and example of our blessed Saviour, Jesus +Christ, I take this bread, and having given thanks, break it, and give +it unto you. Take ye, eat ye; this is the body of Christ which is broken +for you; do this in remembrance of him." And again "According to the +institution, command and example of our Lord Jesus Christ, I take this +cup and give it unto you; this cup is the New Testament in the blood of +Christ, which is shed for the remission of the sins of many; drink ye +all of it." + +There is also an unvarying form of words directed to be used before the +minister by the man to the woman, and by the woman to the man in the +case of the solemnization of matrimony. The form of words on all other +occasions, including ordination, is left to the discretion of the +officiating minister or of the presbytery. + + _European Protestant Churches. The Calvinistic Churches._--Rather more + of the liturgical element in the shape of a set form of words enters + into the service of the French and German Calvinistic Protestants. The + Sunday morning service as drawn up by Calvin was to open with a + portion of Holy Scripture and the recitation of the ten commandments. + Afterwards the minister, inviting the people to accompany him, + proceeded to a confession of sins and supplication for grace. Then one + of the Psalms of David was sung. Then came the sermon, prefaced by an + extempore prayer and concluding with the Lord's Prayer, creed and + benediction. The communion service began with an exhortation leading + up to the apostles' creed; then followed a long exhortation, after + which the bread and wine were distributed to the people, who advanced + in reverence and order, while a Psalm was being sung, or a suitable + passage of Scripture was being read. After all had communicated a set + form of thanksgiving was said by the minister. Then the Song of Simeon + was sung by the congregation, who were then dismissed with the + blessing. This form of service has been modified in various ways from + time to time, but it remains substantially the type of service in use + among the reformed Calvinistic churches of Germany, Switzerland and + France. + + _The Lutheran Church._--Luther was far more conservative than the rest + of the Protestant reformers and his conservatism appeared nowhere more + than in the service-books which he drew up for the use of the church + which bears his name. In 1523 he published a treatise _Of the Order of + the Service in the Congregation_ and in 1526 he published the _German + Mass_. Except that the vernacular was substituted for the Latin + language, the old framework and order of the Roman missal were closely + followed, beginning with the Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie eleison, still + always sung in Greek, Gloria in excelsis, &c. The text of this and + other Lutheran services is given in _Agende für christliche Gemeinden + des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses_ (Nördlingen, 1853). At the same time + Luther was tolerant and expressed a hope that different portions of + the Lutheran church would from time to time make such changes or + adaptations in the order of service as might be found convenient. The + Lutheran churches of northern Europe have not been slow to avail + themselves of this advice and permission. Most of them have drawn up + liturgies for themselves, sometimes following very closely, sometimes + differing considerably from the original service composed by Luther + himself. In 1822, on the union of the Lutheran and Reformed + (Calvinistic) churches of Prussia, a new liturgy was published at + Berlin. It is used in its entirety in the chapel royal, but great + liberty as to its use was allowed to the parochical clergy, and + considerable variations of text appear in the more recent editions of + this service-book. + + The Church of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians) and the Catholic + Apostolic Church (Irvingites) and other Protestant bodies have drawn + up liturgies for themselves, but they are hardly of sufficient + historical importance to be described at length here. + + The Old Catholics, lastly, published a _Rituale_ in 1875 containing + the occasional offices for baptism, matrimony, burial, &c., and a form + for reception of Holy Communion, in the German language. This latter + is for use in the otherwise unaltered service of the mass, + corresponding in purpose to the order of Communion in English + published the 8th of March 1548 and in use till Whitsunday 1549. + (F. E. W.) + + + + +LITUUS, the cavalry trumpet of the Romans, said by Macrobius (_Saturn_. +lib. vi.) to have resembled the crooked staff borne by the Augurs. The +lituus consisted of a cylindrical tube 4 or 5 ft. long, having a narrow +bore, and terminating in a conical bell joint turned up in such a manner +as to give the instrument the outline of the letter "J." Unlike the +buccina, cornu and tuba, the other military service instruments of the +Romans, the lituus has not been traced during the middle ages, the +medieval instrument most nearly resembling it being the cromorne or +tournebout, which, however, had lateral holes and was played by means of +a reed mouthpiece. A lituus found in a Roman warrior's tomb at Cervetri +(Etruria) in 1827 is preserved in the Vatican. Victor Mahillon gives its +length as 1 m. 60, and its scale as in unison with that of the trumpet +in G (_Catalogue descriptif_, 1896, pp. 29-30). (K. S.) + + + + +LIUDPRAND (LIUTPRAND, LUITPRAND) (c. 922-972), Italian historian and +author, bishop of Cremona, was born towards the beginning of the 10th +century, of a good Lombard family. In 931 he entered the service of King +Hugo of Italy as page; he afterwards rose to a high position at the +court of Hugo's successor Berengar, having become chancellor, and having +been sent (949) on an embassy to the Byzantine court. Falling into +disgrace with Berengar on his return, he attached himself to the emperor +Otto I., whom in 961 he accompanied into Italy, and by whom in 962 he +was made bishop of Cremona. He was frequently employed in missions to +the pope, and in 968 to Constantinople to demand for the younger Otto +(afterwards Otto II.) the hand of Theophano, daughter of the emperor +Nicephorus Phocas. His account of this embassy in the _Relatio de +Legatione Constantinopolitana_ is perhaps the most graphic and lively +piece of writing which has come down to us from the 10th century. The +detailed description of Constantinople and the Byzantine court is a +document of rare value--though highly coloured by his ill reception and +offended dignity. Whether he returned in 971 with the embassy to bring +Theophano or not is uncertain. Liudprand died in 972. + + He wrote (1) _Antapodoseos, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, Libri VI_, + an historical narrative, relating to the events from 887 to 949, + compiled with the object of avenging himself upon Berengar and Willa + his queen; (2) _Historia Ottonis_, a work of greater impartiality and + merit, unfortunately covering only the years from 960 to 964; and (3) + the _Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana_ (968-969). All are to + be found in the _Monum. Germ. Hist_. of Pertz, and in the _Rer. Ital. + Script_. of Muratori; there is an edition by E. Dümmler (1877), and a + partial translation into German, with an introduction by W. + Wattenbach, is given in the second volume of the _Geschichtsschreiber + der deutschen Vorzeit_ (1853). Compare Wattenbach, _Deutschlands + Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter_. Three other works, entitled + _Adversaria, Chronicon, 606-960_, and _Opusculum de vitis Romanorum + pontificum_, are usually, but wrongly, assigned to Liudprand. An + English translation of the embassy to Constantinople is in Ernest + Henderson's _Select Documents of the Middle Ages_ (Bohn series, 1896). + A complete bibliography is in A. Potthast's _Bibl. Hist. Medii Aevi_ + (Berlin, 1896). + + + + + +LIVE OAK, a city and the county-seat of Suwannee county, Florida, +U.S.A., 81 m. by rail W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 687; (1900) 1659; +(1905) 7200; (1910) 3450. Live Oak is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, +the Seaboard Air Line, the Live Oak, Perry & Gulf and the Florida +railways. There are extensive areas of pine lands in the vicinity, and +large quantities of sea-island cotton are produced in the county. Lumber +and naval stores are also important products. The first settlement on +the site of the city was made in 1865 by John Parshley, of +Massachusetts, who erected a large saw-mill here. Live Oak was first +incorporated as a town in 1874, and in 1903 was chartered as a city. + + + + +LIVER (O. Eng. _lifer_; cf. cognate forms, Dutch _lever_, Ger. _Leber_, +Swed. _lefver_, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are _libara, lipora_, &c.; the +Teut. word has been connected with Gr. [Greek: hêpar] and Lat. _jecur_), +in anatomy, a large reddish-brown digestive gland situated in the upper +and right part of the abdominal cavity. When hardened _in situ_ its +shape is that of a right-angled, triangular prism showing five +surfaces--superior, anterior, inferior, posterior and right lateral +which represents the base of the prism. It weighs about three pounds or +one-fortieth of the body Weight. + +Although the liver is a fairly solid organ, it is plastic, and moulds +itself to even hollow neighbouring viscera rather than they to it. The +superior surface is in contact with the diaphragm, but has peritoneum +between (see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES). At its posterior margin the +peritoneum of the great sac is reflected on to the diaphragm to form the +anterior layer of the _coronary ligament_. Near the mid line of the +body, and at right angles to the last, another reflection, the +_falciform ligament_, runs forward, and the line of attachment of this +indicates the junction of the _right_ and _left lobes_ of the liver. The +anterior surface is in contact with the diaphragm and the anterior +abdominal wall. The attachment of the falciform ligament is continued +down it. The posterior surface is more complicated (see fig. 1); +starting from the right and working toward the left, a large triangular +area, uncovered by peritoneum and in direct contact with the diaphragm, +is seen. This is bounded on the left by the inferior vena cava, which is +sunk into a deep groove in the liver, and into the upper part of this +the _hepatic veins_ open. Just to the right of this and at the lower +part of the bare area is a triangular depression for the right +suprarenal body. To the left of the vena cava is the _Spigelian lobe_, +which lies in front of the bodies of the tenth and eleventh thoracic +vertebrae, the lesser sac of peritoneum, diaphragm and thoracic aorta +intervening. To the left of this is the fissure for the _ductus +venosus_, and to the left of this again, the left lobe, in which a broad +shallow groove for the oesophagus may usually be seen. Sometimes the +left lobe stretches as far as the left abdominal wall, but more often it +ends below the apex of the heart, which is 3½ in. to the left of the mid +line of the body. The relations of the lower surface can only be +understood if it is realized that it looks backward and to the left as +well as downward (see fig. 1). Again starting from the right side, two +impressions are seen; the anterior one is for the hepatic flexure of the +colon, and the posterior for the upper part of the right kidney. To the +left of the colic impression is a smaller one for the second part of the +duodenum. Next comes the _gall bladder_, a pear-shaped bag, the fundus +of which is in front and below, the neck behind and above. From the neck +passes the _cystic duct_, which is often twisted into the form of an S. +To the left of the gall bladder is the _quadrate lobe_, which is in +contact with the pylorus of the stomach. To the left of this is the +_left lobe_ of the liver, separated from the quadrate lobe by the +umbilical fissure in which lies the _round ligament_ of the liver, the +remains of the umbilical vein of the foetus. Sometimes this fissure is +partly turned into a tunnel by a bridge of liver substance known as the +_pons hepatis_. The under surface of the left lobe is concave for the +interior surface of the stomach (see ALIMENTARY CANAL: _Stomach +Chamber_), while a convexity, known as the _tuber omentale_, fits into +the lesser curvature of that organ. The posterior boundary of the +quadrate lobe is the _transverse fissure_, which is little more than an +inch long and more than half an inch wide. This fissure represents the +hilum of the liver, and contains the right and left hepatic ducts and +the right and left branches of the hepatic artery and portal vein, +together with nerves and lymphatics, the whole being enclosed in some +condensed subperitoneal tissue known as _Glisson's capsule_. Behind the +transverse fissure the lower end of the Spigelian lobe is seen as a knob +called the _tuber papillare_, and from the right of this a narrow bridge +runs forward and to the right to join the Spigelian lobe to the right +lobe and to shut off the transverse fissure from that for the vena cava. +This is the _caudate lobe_. The right surface of the liver is covered +with peritoneum and is in contact with the diaphragm, outside which are +the pleura and lower ribs. From its lower margin the _right lateral +ligament_ is reflected on to the diaphragm. A similar fold passes from +the tip of the left lobe as the _left lateral ligament_, and both these +are the lateral margins of the coronary ligament. Sometimes, especially +in women, a tongue-shaped projection downward of the right lobe is +found, known as _Riedel's lobe_; it is of clinical interest as it may be +mistaken for a tumour or floating kidney (see C. H. Leaf, _Proc. Anat. +Soc_., February 1899; _Journ. Anat. and Phys_. vol. 33, p. ix.). The +right and left _hepatic ducts_, while still in the transverse fissure, +unite into a single duct which joins the cystic duct from the gall +bladder at an acute angle. When these have united the duct is known as +the _common bile duct_, and runs down to the second part of the duodenum +(see ALIMENTARY CANAL). + +[Illustration: From A. Birmingham Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_. + +FIG. 1.--The Liver from below and behind, showing the whole of the +visceral surface and the posterior area of the parietal surface. The +portal fissure has been slightly opened up to show the vessels passing +through it; the other fissures are represented in their natural +condition--closed. In this liver, which was hardened _in situ_, the +impressions of the sacculations of the colon are distinctly visible at +the colic impression. The round ligament and the remains of the ductus +venosus are hidden in the depths of their fissures.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Transverse section through the hepatic lobules. + + i, i, i, Interlobular veins ending in the intralobular capillaries. + c, c, Central veins joined by the intralobular capillaries. At a, a + the capillaries of one lobule communicate with those adjacent to it.] + + _Minute Structure of the Liver._--The liver is made up of an enormous + number of _lobules_ of a conical form (see fig. 3). If the portal vein + is followed from the transverse fissure, it will be seen to branch and + rebranch until minute twigs called _interlobular veins_ (fig. 2, i) + ramify around the lobules. From these _intralobular capillaries_ run + toward the centre of the lobule, forming a network among the polygonal + hepatic cells. On reaching the core of the conical lobule they are + collected into a central or _intralobular vein_ (fig. 2, c) which + unites with other similar ones to form a _sublobular vein_ (fig. 3, + s). These eventually reach the hepatic radicles, and so the blood is + conducted into the vena cava. In man the lobules are not distinctly + separated one from the other, but in some animals, e.g. the pig, + each one has a fibrous sheath derived from Glisson's capsule (fig. 3, + ct.). + + _Embryology._--The liver first appears as an entodermal hollow + longitudinal outgrowth from the duodenum into the ventral mesentery. + The upper part of this forms the future liver, and grows up into the + _septum transversum_ from which the central part of the diaphragm is + formed (see DIAPHRAGM). From the cephalic part of this primary + diverticulum solid rods of cells called the _hepatic cylinders_ grow + out, and these branch again and again until a cellular network is + formed surrounding and breaking up the umbilical and vitelline veins. + The liver cells, therefore, are entodermal, but the supporting + connective tissue mesodermal from the septum transversum. The lower + (caudal) part of the furrow-like outgrowth remains hollow and forms + the gall bladder. At first the liver is embedded in the septum + transversum, but later the diaphragm and it are constricted off one + from the other, and soon the liver becomes very large and fills the + greater part of the abdomen. At birth it is proportionately much + larger than in the adult, and forms one-eighteenth instead of + one-fortieth of the body weight, the right and left lobes being nearly + equal in size. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Vertical section through two hepatic lobules + of a pig. + + c, c, Central veins receiving the intralobular capillaries. + s, Sublobular vein. + ct, Interlobular connective tissue forming the capsules of the + lobules. + i, i, Interlobular veins.] + + _Comparative Anatomy._--In the Acrania (Amphioxus) the liver is + probably represented by a single ventral diverticulum from the + anterior end of the intestine, which has a hepatic portal circulation + and secretes digestive fluid. In all the Craniata a solid liver is + developed. In the adult lamprey among the Cyclostomata the liver + undergoes retrogression, and the bile ducts and gall bladder + disappear, though they are present in the larval form (Ammocoetes). In + fishes and amphibians the organ consists of right and left lobes, and + a gall-bladder is present. The same description applies to the + reptiles, but a curious network of cystic ducts is found in snakes and + to a less extent in crocodiles. In the Varanidae (Monitors) the + hepatic duct is also retiform (see F. E. Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc_., + 1888, p. 105). In birds two lobes are also present, but in some of + them, _e.g_. the pigeon, there is no gall-bladder. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagrammatic Plan of the Inferior Surface of a + Multi-lobed Liver of a Mammal. The posterior or attached border is + uppermost. + + u, Umbilical vein of the foetus, represented by the round ligament + in the adult, lying in the umbilical fissure. + dv, The ductus venosus. + vc, The inferior vena cava. + p, The vena portae entering the transverse fissure. + llf, The left lateral fissure. + rlf, The right lateral fissure. + cf, The cystic fissure. + ll, The left lateral lobe. + lc, The left central lobe. + rc, The right central lobe. + rl, The right lateral lobe. + s, The Spigelian lobe. + c, The caudate lobe. + g, The gall bladder.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Human Liver showing a reversion to the + generalised mammalian type.] + + In mammals Sir William Flower pointed out that a generalized type of + liver exists, from which that of any mammal may be derived by + suppression or fusion of lobes. The accompanying diagram of Flower + (fig. 4) represents an ideal mammalian liver. It will be seen that the + umbilical fissure (u) divides the organ into right and left halves, as + in the lower vertebrates, but that the ventral part of each half is + divided into a central and lateral lobe. Passing from right to left + there are therefore: right lateral (rl), right central (rc), left + central (lc), and left lateral (ll) lobes. The gall-bladder (g), when + it is present, is always situated on the caudal surface or in the + substance of the right central lobe. The Spigelian (s) and caudate + lobes (c) belong to the right half of the liver, the latter being + usually a leaf-shaped lobe attached by its stalk to the Spigelian, and + having its blade flattened between the right lateral lobe and the + right kidney. The vena cava (vc) is always found to the right of the + Spigelian lobe and dorsal to the stalk of the caudate. In tracing the + lobulation of man's liver back to this generalized type, it is evident + at once that his quadrate lobe does not correspond to any one + generalized lobe, but is merely that part of the right central which + lies between the gall bladder and the umbilical fissure. From a + careful study of human variations (see A. Thomson, _Journ. Anat. and + Phys_. vol. 33, p. 546) compared with an Anthropoid liver, such as + that of the gorilla, depicted by W. H. L. Duckworth (_Morphology and + Anthropology_, Cambridge, 1904, p. 98), it is fairly clear that the + human liver is formed, not by a suppression of any of the lobes of the + generalized type, but by a fusion of those lobes and obliteration of + certain fissures. This fusion is, probably correctly, attributed by + Keith to the effect of pressure following the assumption of the erect + position (Keith, _Proc. Anat. Soc. of Gt. Britain, Journ. Anat. and + Phys_. vol. 33, p. xii.). The accompanying diagram (fig. 5) shows an + abnormal human liver in the Anatomical Department of St Thomas's + Hospital which reproduces the generalized type. In its lobulation it + is singularly like, in many details, that of the baboon (_Papio + maimon_) figured by G. Ruge (_Morph. Jahrb_., Bd. 35, p. 197); see F. + G. Parsons, _Proc. Anat. Soc_., Feb. 1904, _Journ. Anat. and Phys_. + vol. 33, p. xxiii. Georg Ruge "Die äusseren Formverhältnisse der Leber + bei den Primaten," (_Morph. Jahrb_., Bd. 29 and 35) gives a critical + study of the primate liver, and among other things suggests the + recognition of the Spigelian and caudate lobes as parts of a single + lobe, for which he proposes the name of lobus venae cavae. This + doubtless would be an advantage morphologically, though for human + descriptive a natomy the present nomenclature is not likely to be + altered. + + The gall-bladder is usually present in mammals, but is wanting in the + odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla) and Procavia (Hyrax). In the + giraffe it may be absent or present. The cetacea and a few rodents are + also without it. In the otter the same curious network of bile ducts + already recorded in the reptiles is seen (see P. H. Burne, _Proc. + Anat. Soc., Journ. Anat. and Phys_. vol. 33, p. xi.). (F. G. P.) + +SURGERY OF LIVER AND GALL-BLADDER.--Exposed as it is in the upper part +of the abdomen, and being somewhat friable, the human liver is often +torn or ruptured by blows or kicks, and, the large blood-vessels being +thus laid open, fatal haemorrhage into the belly-cavity may take place. +The individual becomes faint, and the faintness keeps on increasing; and +there are pain and tenderness in the liver-region. The right thing to do +is to open the belly in the middle line, search for a wound in the liver +and treat it by deep sutures, or by plugging it with gauze. + +_Cirrhosis of the Liver._--As the result of chronic irritation of the +liver increased supplies of blood pass to it, and if the irritation is +unduly prolonged inflammation is the result. The commonest causes of +this chronic hepatitis are alcoholism and syphilis. The new fibrous +tissue which is developed throughout the liver, as the result of the +chronic inflammation, causes general enlargement of the liver with, +perhaps, nausea, vomiting and jaundice. Later the new fibrous tissue +undergoes contraction and the liver becomes smaller than natural. Blood +then finds difficulty in passing through it, and, as a result, dropsy +occurs in the belly (ascites). This may be relieved by tapping the +cavity with a small hollow needle (Southey's trocar), or by passing into +it a large sharp-pointed tube. This relieves the dropsy, but it does not +cure the condition on which the dropsy depends. A surgical operation is +sometimes undertaken with success for enabling the engorged veins to +empty themselves into the blood-stream in a manner so as to avoid the +liver-route. + +_Inflammation of the Liver_ (hepatitis) may also be caused by an attack +of micro-organisms which have reached it through the veins coming from +the large intestine, or through the main arteries. There are, of course, +as the result, pain and tenderness, and there is often jaundice. The +case should be treated by rest in bed, fomentations, calomel and saline +aperients. But when the hepatitis is of septic origin, suppuration is +likely to occur, the result being an hepatic abscess. + +_Hepatic Abscess_ is especially common in persons from the East who have +recently undergone an attack of dysentery. In addition to the local +pain and tenderness, there is a high temperature accompanied with +shiverings or occasional rigors, the patient becoming daily more thin +and miserable. Sometimes the abscess declares itself by a bulging at the +surface, but if not an incision should be made through the belly-wall +over the most tender spot, and a direct examination of the surface of +the liver made. A bulging having been found, that part of the liver +which apparently overlies the abscess should be stitched up to the sides +of the opening made in belly-wall, and should then be explored by a +hollow needle. Pus being found, the abscess should be freely opened and +drained. It is inadvisable to explore for a suspected abscess with a +hollow needle without first opening the abdomen, as septic fluid might +thus be enabled to leak out, and infect the general peritoneal cavity. +If an hepatic abscess is injudiciously left to itself it may eventually +discharge into the chest, lungs or belly, or it may establish a +communication with a piece of intestine. The only safe way for an +abscess to evacuate itself is on to the surface of the body. + +_Hydatic Cysts_ are often met with in the liver. They are due to a +peculiar development of the eggs of the tape-worm of the dog, which have +been received into the alimentary canal with infected water or uncooked +vegetables, such as watercress. The embryo of the taenia echinococcus +finds its way from the stomach or intestine into a vein passing to the +liver, and, settling itself in the liver, causes so much disturbance +there that a capsule of inflammatory material forms around it. Inside +this wall is the special covering of the embryo which shortly becomes +distended with clear hydatid fluid. The cyst should be treated like a +liver-abscess, by incision through the abdominal or thoracic wall, by +circumferential suturing and by exploration and drainage. + +_Tumours of the Liver_ may be innocent or malignant. The most important +of the former is the _gumma_ of tertiary syphilis; this may steadily and +completely disappear under the influence of iodide of potassium. The +commonest form of malignant tumour is the result of the growth of +cancerous elements which have been brought to the liver by the veins +coming up from a primary focus of the large intestine. Active surgical +treatment of such a tumour is out of the question. Fortunately it is, as +a rule, painless. + +_The Gall-bladder_ may be ruptured by external violence, and if bile +escapes from the rent in considerable quantities peritonitis will be set +up, whether the bile contains septic germs or not. If, on opening the +abdomen to find out what serious effects some severe injury has caused, +the gall-bladder be found torn, the rent may be sewn up, or, if thought +better, the gall-bladder may be removed. The peritoneal surfaces in the +region of the liver should then be wiped clean, and the abdominal wound +closed, except for the passage through it of a gauze drain. + +Biliary concretions, known as _gall stones_, are apt to form in the +gall-bladder. They are composed of crystals of bile-fat, cholesterine. +Sometimes in the course of a _post-mortem_ examination a gall-bladder is +found packed full of gall-stones which during life had caused no +inconvenience and had given rise to no suspicion of their presence. In +other cases gall-stones set up irritation in the gall-bladder which runs +on to inflammation, and the gall-bladder being infected by septic germs +from the intestine (_bacilli coli_) an abscess forms. + +_Abscess of the Gall-bladder_ gives rise to a painful, tender swelling +near the cartilage of the ninth rib of the right side. If the abscess is +allowed to take its course, adhesions may form around it and it may +burst into the intestine or on to the surface of the abdomen, a _biliary +fistula_ remaining. Abscess in the gall-bladder being suspected, an +incision should be made down to it, and, its covering having been +stitched to the abdominal wall, the gall-bladder should be opened and +drained. The presence of concretions in the gall-bladder may not only +lead to the formation of abscess but also to invasion of the +gall-bladder by cancer. + +Stones in the gall-bladder should be removed by operation, as, if left, +there is a great risk of their trying to escape with the bile into the +intestine and thus causing a blockage of the common bile-duct, and +perhaps a fatal leakage of bile into the peritoneum through a +perforating ulcer of the duct. If before opening the gall-bladder the +surface is stitched to the deepest part of the abdominal wound, the +biliary fistula left as the result of the opening of the abscess will +close in due course. + +"Biliary colic" is the name given to the distressing symptoms associated +with the passage of a stone through the narrow bile-duct. The individual +is doubled up with acute pains which, starting from the hepatic region, +spread through the abdomen and radiate to the right shoulder blade. +Inasmuch as the stone is blocking the duct, the bile is unable to flow +into the intestine; so, being absorbed by the blood-vessels, it gives +rise to jaundice. The distress is due to spasmodic muscular contraction, +and it comes on at intervals, each attack increasing the patient's +misery. He breaks out into profuse sweats and may vomit. If the stone +happily finds its way into the intestine the distress suddenly ceases. +In the meanwhile relief may be afforded by fomentations, and by morphia +or chloroform, but if no prospect of the stone escaping into the +intestine appears likely, the surgeon will be called upon to remove it +by an incision through the gall-bladder, or the bile-duct, or through +the intestine at the spot where it is trying to make its escape. +Sometimes a gall-stone which has found its way into the intestine is +large enough to block the bowel and give rise to intestinal obstruction +which demands abdominal section. + + A person who is of what used to be called a "biliary nature" should + live sparingly and take plenty of exercise. He should avoid fat and + rich food, butter, pastry and sauces, and should drink no beer or + wine--unless it be some very light French wine or Moselle. He should + keep his bowels regular, or even loose, taking every morning a dose of + sulphate of soda in a glass of hot water. A course at Carlsbad, Vichy + or Contrexéville, may be helpful. It is doubtful if drugs have any + direct influence upon gall-stones, such as sulphate of soda, olive oil + or oleate of soda. No reliance can be placed upon massage in producing + the onward passage of a gall-stone from the gall-bladder towards the + intestine. Indeed this treatment might be not only distressing but + harmful. (E. O.*) + + + + +LIVERMORE, MARY ASHTON [RICE] (1821-1905), American reformer, was born +in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 19th of December 1821. She studied at +the female seminary at Charlestown, Mass.; taught French and Latin +there, taught in a plantation school in southern Virginia; and for +three years conducted a school of her own in Duxbury, Mass. Upon +returning from Virginia she had joined the abolitionists, and she took +an active part in the Washingtonian temperance movement.[1] In 1845 she +married Daniel Parker Livermore (1819-1899), a Universalist clergyman. +In 1857 they removed to Chicago, Illinois, where she assisted her +husband in editing the religious weekly, _The New Covenant_ (1857-1869). +During the Civil War, as an associate member of the United States +Sanitary Commission, and as an agent of its North-western branch, she +organized many aid societies, contributed to the success of the +North-western Sanitary Fair in Chicago in 1863, and visited army posts +and hospitals. After the war she devoted herself to the promotion of +woman's suffrage and to temperance reform, founding in Chicago in 1869 +_The Agitator_, which in 1870 was merged into the _Woman's Journal_ +(Boston), of which she was an associate editor until 1872. She died in +Melrose, Mass. on the 23rd of May 1905. She had been president of the +Illinois, the Massachusetts and the American woman's suffrage +associations, the Massachusetts Woman's Christian Temperance Union and +the Woman's Congress, and a member of many other societies. She lectured +in the United States, England and Scotland, contributed to magazines and +wrote: _The Children's Army_ (1844), temperance stories; _Thirty Years +Too Late_ (1848), a temperance story; _A Mental Transformation_ (1848); +_Pen Pictures_ (1863), short stories; _What Shall We Do With Our +Daughters? and Other Lectures_ (1883); _My Story of the War_ (1888); and +_The Story of My Life_ (1897). With Frances E. Willard, she edited _A +Woman of the Century: Biographical Sketches of Leading American Women_ +(1893). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This movement was started in 1840 by habitués of a Baltimore + (Md.) tavern, who then founded the Washington Temperance Society + (named in honour of George Washington). The movement spread rapidly + in 1841-1843, but by the close of 1843 it had nearly spent its force. + The members of the Society made a pledge not to drink spirituous or + malt liquors, wine or cider. Women organized Martha Washington + Societies as auxiliary organizations. + + + + +LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF. CHARLES JENKINSON, 1st earl of Liverpool +(1729-1808), English statesman, eldest son of Colonel Charles Jenkinson +(d. 1750) and grandson of Sir Robert Jenkinson, Bart., of Walcot, +Oxfordshire, was born at Winchester on the 16th of May 1729. The family +was descended from Anthony Jenkinson (d. 1611), sea-captain, merchant +and traveller, the first Englishman to penetrate into Central Asia. +Charles was educated at Charterhouse school and University College, +Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1752. In 1761 he entered parliament +as member for Cockermouth and was made under-secretary of state by Lord +Bute; he won the favour of George III., and when Bute retired Jenkinson +became the leader of the "king's friends" in the House of Commons. In +1763 George Grenville appointed him joint secretary to the treasury; in +1766, after a short retirement, he became a lord of the admiralty and +then a lord of the treasury in the Grafton administration; and from 1778 +until the close of Lord North's ministry in 1782 he was +secretary-at-war. From 1786 to 1801 he was president of the board of +trade and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and he was popularly +regarded as enjoying the confidence of the king to a special degree. In +1772 Jenkinson became a privy councillor and vice-treasurer of Ireland, +and in 1775 he purchased the lucrative sinecure of clerk of the pells in +Ireland and became master of the mint. In 1786 he was created Baron +Hawkesbury, and ten years later earl of Liverpool. He died in London on +the 17th of December 1808. Liverpool was twice married: firstly to +Amelia (d. 1770), daughter of William Watts, governor of Fort William, +Bengal, and secondly to Catherine, daughter of Sir Cecil Bisshoff, +Bart., and widow of Sir Charles Cope, Bart.; he had a son by each +marriage. He wrote several political works, but except his _Treatise on +the Coins of the Realm_ (1805) these are without striking merits. They +are, _Dissertation on the establishment of a national and constitutional +force in England independent of a standing army_ (1756); _Discourse on +the conduct of the government of Great Britain respecting neutral +nations_ (1758, new ed., 1837); and _Collection of Treaties between +Great Britain and other Powers 1648-1783_ (1785). His _Coins of the +Realm_ was reprinted by the Bank of England in 1880. + +His son, ROBERT BANKS JENKINSON, 2nd earl (1770-1828), was educated at +Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he had George Canning, +afterwards his close political associate, for a contemporary. In 1790 he +entered parliament as member for Appleby; he became master of the mint +in 1799 and foreign secretary in Addington's administration in 1801, +when he conducted the negotiations for the abortive treaty of Amiens. On +the accession of Pitt to power in 1804, he obtained the home office, +having in the previous year been elevated as Baron Hawkesbury to the +House of Lords, where he acted as leader of the government. He declined +the premiership on the death of Pitt in 1806, and remained out of office +until Portland became prime minister in 1807, when he again became +secretary of state for home affairs. In 1808 he succeeded his father as +earl of Liverpool. In the ministry of Spencer Perceval (1809-1812) he +was secretary for war and the colonies. After the assassination of +Perceval in May 1812 he became prime minister, and retained office till +compelled in February 1827 to resign by the illness (paralysis) which +terminated his life on the 4th of December 1828. + +The political career of the 2nd Lord Liverpool was of a negative +character so far as legislation was concerned; but he held office in +years of great danger and depression, during which he "kept order among +his colleagues, composed their quarrels, and oiled the wheels to make it +possible for the machinery of government to work" (Spencer Walpole). The +energy of Castlereagh and Canning secured the success of the foreign +policy of his cabinet, but in his home policy he was always retrograde. +The introduction of the bill of pains and penalties against Queen +Caroline greatly increased his unpopularity, originated by the severe +measures of repression employed to quell the general distress, which had +been created by the excessive taxation which followed the Napoleonic +wars. Lord Liverpool was destitute of wide sympathies and of true +political insight, and his resignation of office was followed almost +immediately by the complete and permanent reversal of his domestic +policy. He was twice married but had no children, and he was succeeded +by his half-brother CHARLES CECIL COPE JENKINSON, 3rd earl (1784-1851), +who left three daughters. The baronetcy then passed to a cousin, and the +peerage became extinct. But in 1905 the earldom was revived in the +person of the 3rd earl's grandson, CECIL GEORGE SAVILE FOLJAMBE +(1846-1907), who had been a Liberal member of parliament from 1880 to +1892, and in 1893 was created Baron Hawkesbury. He was succeeded in 1907 +by his son, Arthur (b. 1870). + + For the life of the 2nd earl see the anonymous _Memoirs of the Public + Life and Administration of Liverpool_ (1827); C. D. Yonge, _Life and + Administration of the 2nd Earl of Liverpool_ (1868); T. E. Kebbel, + _History of Toryism_ (1886); and Sir S. Walpole, _History of England_, + vol. ii. (1890). + + + + +LIVERPOOL, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and +seaport of Lancashire, England, 201 m. N.W. of London by rail, situated +on the right bank of the estuary of the Mersey, the centre of the city +being about 3 m. from the open sea. The form of the city is that of an +irregular semicircle, having the base line formed by the docks and quays +extending about 9 m. along the east bank of the estuary, which here runs +nearly north and south, and varies in breadth from 1 to 2 m. On the +north the city is partly bounded by the borough of Bootle, along the +shore of which the line of docks is continued. The area of the city is +16,619 acres exclusive of water area. The population at the census of +1901 was 684,958; the estimated population in 1908 was 753,203; the +birth-rate for 1907 was 31.7 and the death-rate 18.3; in 1908 the +rateable value was £4,679,520. + +[Illustration: Liverpool Map.] + +The city lies on a continuous slope varying in gradient, but in some +districts very steep. Exposed to the western sea breezes, with a dry +subsoil and excellent natural drainage, the site is naturally healthy. +The old borough, lying between the pool, now completely obliterated, and +the river, was a conglomeration of narrow alleys without any regard to +sanitary provisions; and during the 16th and 17th centuries it was +several times visited by plague. When the town expanded beyond its +original limits, and spread up the slopes beyond the pool, a better +state of things began to exist. The older parts of the town have at +successive periods been entirely taken down and renovated. The +commercial part of the city is remarkable for the number of palatial +piles of offices, built chiefly of stone, among which the banks and +insurance offices stand pre-eminent. The demand for cottages about the +beginning of the 19th century led to the construction of what are called +"courts," being narrow _culs de sac_, close packed, with no through +ventilation. This resulted in a high rate of mortality, to contend with +which enormous sums have been expended in sanitary reforms of various +kinds. The more modern cottages and blocks of artisan dwellings have +tended to reduce the rate of mortality. + +_Parks._--The earliest public park, the Prince's Park, was laid out in +1843 by private enterprise, and is owned by trustees, but the reversion +has been acquired by the corporation. Sefton Park, the most extensive, +containing 269 acres, was opened in 1872. A large portion of the land +round the margin has been leased for the erection of villas. Wavertree, +Newsham, Sheil and Stanley Parks have also been constructed at the +public expense. Connected with Wavertree Park are the botanic gardens. A +palm house in Sefton Park was opened in 1896 and a conservatory in +Stanley Park in 1900. Since 1882 several of the city churchyards and +burial grounds and many open spaces have been laid out as gardens and +recreation grounds. A playground containing 108 acres in Wavertree was +presented to the city in 1895 by an anonymous donor, and in 1902 the +grounds of a private residence outside the city boundaries containing 94 +acres were acquired and are now known as Calderstones Park. In 1906 +about 100 acres of land in Roby, also outside the boundaries, was +presented to the city. The total area of the parks and gardens of the +city, not including the two last named, is 881½ acres. A boulevard about +1 m. in length, planted with trees in the centre, leads to the entrance +of Prince's Park. + +_Public Buildings._--Scarcely any of the public buildings date from an +earlier period than the 19th century. One of the earliest, and in many +respects the most interesting, is the town-hall in Castle Street. This +was erected from the designs of John Wood of Bath, and was opened in +1754. The building has since undergone considerable alterations and +extensions, but the main features remain. It is a rectangular stone +building in the Corinthian style, with an advanced portico added to the +original building in 1811, and crowned with a lofty dome surmounted by a +seated statue of Britannia, added in 1802. The interior was destroyed by +fire in 1795, and was entirely remodelled in the restoration. In 1900 +considerable alterations in the internal structure were made, and the +council chamber extended so as to afford accommodation for the enlarged +council. It contains a splendid suite of apartments, including a +ball-room approached by a noble staircase. The building is occupied by +the mayor as the municipal mansion house. A range of municipal offices +was erected in Dale Street in 1860. The building is in the Palladian +style, with a dominating tower and square pyramidal spire. + +The crowning architectural feature of Liverpool is St George's Hall, +completed in 1854. The original intention was to erect a hall suited for +the triennial music festivals which had been held in the town. About the +same time the corporation proposed to erect law-courts for the assizes, +which had been transferred to Liverpool and Manchester. In the +competitive designs, the first prize was gained in both cases by Harvey +Lonsdale Elmes. He was employed to combine the two objects in a new +design, of which the present building is the outcome. It is fortunate in +its situation, occupying the most central position in the town, and +surrounded by an area sufficiently extensive to exhibit its proportions, +an advantage which was accentuated in 1898 by the removal of St John's +church, which previously prevented an uninterrupted view of the west +side. The plan is simple. The centre is occupied by the great hall, 169 +ft. in length, and, with the galleries, 87 ft. wide and 74 ft. high, +covered with a solid vault in masonry. Attached to each end, and opening +therefrom, are the law-courts. A corridor runs round the hall and the +courts, communicating with the various accessory rooms. Externally the +east front is faced with a fine portico of sixteen Corinthian columns +about 60 ft. in height. An advanced portico of similar columns fronts +the south end crowned with a pediment filled with sculpture. The style +is Roman, but the refinement of the details is suggestive of the best +period of Grecian art. The great hall is finished with polished granite +columns, marble balustrades and pavements, polished brass doors with +foliated tracery. The fine organ was built by Messrs Willis of London, +from the specification of Dr Samuel Wesley. Elmes having died in 1847 +during the progress of the work, the building was completed by C. R. +Cockerell, R.A. + +Next to the public buildings belonging to the city, the most important +is the exchange, forming three sides of a quadrangle on the north side +of the town-hall. The town-hall was originally built to combine a +mercantile exchange with municipal offices, but the merchants preferred +to meet in the open street adjoining. This, with other circumstances, +led to the erection of a new exchange, a building of considerable merit, +which was begun in 1803 and opened in 1808. It had scarcely been in use +for more than fifty years when it was found that the wants of commerce +had outstripped the accommodation, and the structure was taken down to +make room for the present building. + +The revenue buildings, begun in 1828 on the site of the original +Liverpool dock, formerly combined the customs, inland revenue, +post-office and dock board departments but are now only used by the two +first named. It is a heavy structure, with three advanced porticoes in +the Ilyssus Ionic style. Near by stands the sailors' home, a large +building in the Elizabethan style. The Philharmonic Hall in Hope Street, +with not much pretension externally, is one of the finest music rooms in +the kingdom; it accommodates an audience of about 2500. + +The group of buildings forming the county sessions house, the free +public library, museum, central technical school and gallery of art are +finely situated on the slope to the north of St George's Hall. The +library and gallery of art are separate buildings, connected by the +circular reading-room in the middle. The latter possesses some features +in construction worthy of note, having a circular floor 100 ft. in +diameter without columns or any intermediate support, and a lecture-room +underneath, amphitheatrical in form, with grades or benches hewn out of +the solid rock. In 1884 the county sessions house just mentioned, +adjoining the art gallery was opened for public business. In 1899 new +post-office buildings in Victoria Street were completed. In 1907 two +important additions were made to the buildings of Liverpool, the new +offices of the dock board, built on the site of a portion of the Old +George's dock, and the new cotton exchange in Oldhall street. The fine +mass of buildings which constitute the university and the Royal +Infirmary, lying between Brownlow Hill and Pembroke Place, both groups +designed by Alfred Waterhouse, was begun in 1885. + +Liverpool cathedral, intended when completed to be the largest in the +country, from designs by G. F. Bodley and G. Gilbert Scott, was begun in +1904, when the foundation stone was laid by King Edward VII. The +foundations were completed in 1906 and the superstructure begun. The +foundation of the chapter-house was laid in that year by the duke of +Connaught, and work was then begun on the Lady chapel, the vestries and +the choir. + + _Railways._--There are three terminal passenger stations in Liverpool, + the London & North Western at Lime Street, the Lancashire & Yorkshire + at Exchange and the combined station of the Midland, Great Northern & + Great Central at Central. By the Mersey tunnel (opened in 1886) + connexion is made with the Wirral railway, the Great Central, the + Great Western and the London & North Western, on the Cheshire side of + the river. The Liverpool electric overhead railway running along the + line of docks from Seaforth to Dingle was opened in 1893, and in 1905 + a junction was made with the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway by which + through passenger traffic between Southport and the Dingle has been + established. In 1895 the Riverside station at the Prince's dock was + completed, giving direct access from the landing stage to the London + and North Western system. + + _Water Supply._--The original supply of water was from wells in the + sandstone rock, but in 1847 an act was passed, under which extensive + works were constructed at Rivington, about 25 m. distant, and a much + larger supply was obtained. The vast increase of population led to + further requirements, and in 1880 another act gave power to impound + the waters of the Vyrnwy, one of the affluents of the Severn. These + works were completed in 1892, a temporary supply having been obtained + a year earlier. The corporation had also, however, obtained power to + impound the waters of the Conwy and Marchnant rivers, and to bring + them into Lake Vyrnwy, the main reservoir, by means of tunnels. This + work was completed and opened by the prince of Wales (George V.) in + March 1910. + + _Tramways._--The corporation in 1896 purchased the property, rights, + powers and privileges of the Liverpool Electric Supply Company, and in + the following year the undertaking of the Liverpool Tramway Company, + which they formally took over in the autumn of the same year. Since + that date a large and extended system of electric tramways has been + laid down, which has led to a very remarkable increase in the receipts + and the number of passengers carried. + + _Administration of Justice._--The city has quarter-sessions for + criminal cases, presided over by the recorder, and held eight times in + the year. At least two police courts sit daily, and more if required. + One is presided over by the stipendiary magistrate and the others by + the lay magistrates and the coroner. The court of passage is a very + ancient institution, possibly dating from the foundation of the + borough by King John, and intended for cases arising out of the + imports and exports passing through the town. Its jurisdiction has + been confirmed and settled by parliament and it is competent to try + civil cases arising within the city to any amount. The mayor is + _ex-officio_ the judge, but the presiding judge is an assessor + appointed by the crown and paid by the corporation. The court sits + about five times a year. There is a Liverpool district registry of the + chancery of the County Palatine of Lancaster which has concurrent + jurisdiction with the high court (chancery division) within the + hundred of West Derby. The vice-chancellor holds sittings in + Liverpool. There is a Liverpool district registry of the high court of + justice with common law, chancery, probate and admiralty jurisdiction, + under two district registrars. The Liverpool county court has the + usual limited jurisdiction over a wide local area, together with + bankruptcy jurisdiction over the county court districts of St Helens, + Widnes, Ormskirk and Southport, and admiralty jurisdiction over the + same districts with the addition of Birkenhead, Chester, Runcorn and + Warrington. There are two judges attached to the court. + + _Ecclesiastical._--The see of Liverpool was created in 1880 under the + act of 1879, by the authority of the ecclesiastical commissioners, an + endowment fund of about £100,000 having been subscribed for the + purpose. The parish, which was separated from Walton-on-the-Hill in + 1699, contained two churches, St Nicholas, the ancient chapel, and St + Peter's, then built. There were two rectors, the living being held in + medieties. Of recent years changes have been sanctioned by parliament. + The living is now held by a single incumbent, and a large number of + the churches which have since been built have been formed into + parishes by the ecclesiastical commissioners. St Peter's has been + constituted the pro-cathedral, pending the erection of the cathedral. + Besides the two original parish churches, there are 103 others + belonging to the establishment. The Roman Catholics form a very + numerous and powerful body in the city, and it is estimated that from + a third to a fourth of the entire population are Roman Catholics. A + large part of these are Irish settlers or their descendants, but this + district of Lancashire has always been a stronghold of Roman + Catholicism, many of the landed gentry belonging to old Roman Catholic + families. + + _Charities._--The earliest charitable foundation is the Blue Coat + hospital, established in 1708, for orphans and fatherless children + born within the borough. The original building, opened in 1718, is a + quaint and characteristic specimen of the architecture of the period. + It now maintains two hundred and fifty boys and one hundred girls. In + 1906 the school was removed to new buildings at Wavertree. There is an + orphan asylum, established in 1840, for boys, girls and infants, and a + seamen's orphan asylum, begun in 1869, for boys and girls. The Roman + Catholics have similar establishments. The Liverpool dispensaries + founded in 1778 were among the pioneers of medical charity. The Royal + Infirmary (opened in 1749) had a school of medicine attached, which + has been very successful, and is now merged in the university. The + sailors' home, opened in 1852, designed to provide board, lodging and + medical attendance at a moderate charge for the seamen frequenting the + port, is one of Liverpool's best-known charities. The David Lewis + Workmen's Hostel is an effort to solve the difficulty of providing + accommodation for unmarried men of the artizan class. + + _Literature, Art and Science._--The free library, museum and gallery + of arts, established and managed by the city council, was originated + in 1850. The first library building was erected by Sir William Brown. + The Derby museum, containing the collections of Edward, the 13th earl, + was presented by his son. The Mayer museum of historical antiquities + and art was contributed by Mr Joseph Mayer, F.S.A. Sir Andrew Walker + (d. 1893) erected in 1877 the art gallery which bears his name. Large + additions were made in 1884, the cost being again defrayed by Sir + Andrew Walker. An annual exhibition of painting is held in the autumn + and a permanent collection has been formed, which was augmented in + 1894 when the examples of early Italian art numbering altogether about + 180 pictures, collected at the beginning of the 19th century by + William Roscoe, were deposited in the gallery. The Picton circular + reading-room, and the rotunda lecture-room were built by the + corporation and opened in 1879. Alterations in the museum were + completed in 1902 by which its size was practically doubled. The + literary and philosophical society was established in 1812. The Royal + Institution, established mainly through the efforts of Roscoe in 1817, + possessed a fine gallery of early art in the Walker Art Gallery, and + is the centre of the literary institutions of the town. + + _Education._--Sunday schools were founded for poor children in 1784, + as the result of a town's meeting. These were soon followed by + day-schools supplied by the various denominations. The first were the + Old Church schools in Moorfields (1789), the Unitarian schools in + Mount Pleasant (1790) and Manesty Lane (1792) and the Wesleyan + Brunswick school (1790). In 1826 the corporation founded two + elementary schools, one of which, the North Corporation school, was + erected in part substitution for the grammar school founded by John + Crosse, rector of St Nicholas Fleshshambles, London, a native of + Liverpool, in 1515, and carried on by the Corporation until 1815. From + this date onward the number rapidly increased until the beginning of + the School Board in 1870, and afterwards. Mention should be made of + the training ship "Indefatigable" moored in the Mersey for the sons + and orphans of sailors, and the reformatory institution at Heswall, + Co. Chester, which has recently replaced the training ship "Akbar" + formerly moored in the Mersey. Semi-private schools were founded by + public subscription--the Royal Institution school (1819), the + Liverpool Institute (1825) and the Liverpool College (1840). The first + has ceased to exist. The Institute was a development of the Mechanics' + Institute and was managed by a council of subscribers. It was divided + into a high school and a commercial school. Under a scheme of the + Board of Education under the Charitable Trusts Act this school, + together with the Blackburne House high school for girls, became a + public secondary school and was handed over to the corporation in + 1905. Liverpool College was formerly divided into three schools, + upper, middle and lower, for different classes of the community. The + middle and lower schools passed into the control of the corporation in + 1907. The Sefton Park elementary school and the Pupil Teachers' + College in Clarence Street were transformed into municipal secondary + schools for boys and girls in 1907; the corporation has also a + secondary school for girls at Aigburth. There are several schools + maintained by the Roman Catholics, two schools of the Girls' Public + Day School Company and a large number of private schools. A cadet + ship, the "Conway," for the training of boys intending to become + officers in the mercantile marine, is moored in the Mersey. There are + two training colleges for women, one undenominational, and the other + conducted by the sisters of Notre Dame for Roman Catholic women. The + central municipal technical school is in the Museum Buildings, and + there are three branch technical schools. There are also a nautical + college, a school of cookery and a school of art controlled by the + Education Committee. + + Liverpool University, as University College, received its charter of + incorporation in 1881, and in 1884 was admitted as a college of the + Victoria University. In the same year the medical school of the Royal + Infirmary became part of the University College. In 1900 a + supplemental charter extended the powers of self-government and + brought the college into closer relations with the authorities of the + city and with local institutions by providing for their fuller + representation on the court of governors. In 1903 the charter of + incorporation of the university of Liverpool was received, thus + constituting it an independent university. The university is governed + by the king as visitor, by a chancellor, two pro-chancellors, a + vice-chancellor and a treasurer, by a court of over 300 members + representing donors and public bodies, a council, senate, faculties + and convocation. The fine group of buildings is situated on Brownlow + Hill. + + _Trade and Commerce._--In 1800 the tonnage of ships entering the port + was 490,060; in 1908 it reached 17,111,814 tons. In 1800 4746 vessels + entered, averaging 94 tons; in 1908 there were 25,739, averaging 665 + tons. The commerce of Liverpool extends to every part of the world, + but probably the intercourse with North America stands pre-eminent, + there being lines of steamers to New York, Philadelphia, Boston, + Baltimore, Galveston, New Orleans and the Canadian ports. Cotton is + the great staple import. Grain comes next, American (North and South) + and Australian wheat and oats occupying a large proportion of the + market. An enormous trade in American provisions, including live + cattle, is carried on. Tobacco has always been a leading article of + import into Liverpool, along with the sugar and rum from the West + Indies. Timber forms an important part of the imports, the stacking + yards extending for miles along the northern docks. In regard to + exports, Liverpool possesses decided advantages; lying so near the + great manufacturing districts of Lancashire and the West Riding of + Yorkshire, this port is the natural channel of transmission for their + goods, although the Manchester ship canal diverts a certain proportion + of the traffic, while coal and salt are also largely exported. + + _Manufactures._--The manufactures of Liverpool are not extensive. + Attempts have been repeatedly made to establish cotton mills in and + near the city, but have resulted in failure. Engineering works, + especially connected with marine navigation, have grown up on a large + scale. Shipbuilding, in the early part of the 19th century, was active + and prosperous, but has practically ceased. During the latter half of + the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, pottery and china + manufacture flourished in Liverpool. John Sadler, a Liverpool + manufacturer, was the inventor of printing on pottery, and during the + early period of Josiah Wedgwood's career all his goods which required + printing had to be sent to Liverpool. A large establishment, called + the Herculaneum Pottery, was founded in a suburb on the bank of the + Mersey, but the trade has long disappeared. Litherland, the inventor + of the lever watch, was a Liverpool manufacturer, and Liverpool-made + watches have always been held in high estimation. There are several + extensive sugar refineries and corn mills. The confectionery trade has + developed during recent years, several large works having been built, + induced by the prospect of obtaining cheap sugar directly from the + Liverpool quays. The cutting, blending and preparing of crude tobacco + have led to the erection of factories employing some thousands of + hands. There are also large mills for oil-pressing and making + cattle-cake. + +_Docks._--The docks of the port of Liverpool on both sides of the Mersey +are owned and managed by the same public trust, the Mersey Docks and +Harbour Board. On the Liverpool side they extend along the margin of the +estuary 6½ m., of which 1¼ m. is in the borough of Bootle. The +Birkenhead docks have not such a frontage, but they extend a long way +backward. The water area of the Liverpool docks and basins is 418 acres, +with a lineal quayage of 27 m. The Birkenhead docks, including the great +float of 120 acres, contain a water area of 165 acres, with a lineal +quayage of 9½ m. The system of enclosed docks was begun by the +corporation in 1709. They constituted from the first a public trust, the +corporation never having derived any direct revenue from them, though +the common council of the borough were the trustees, and in the first +instance formed the committee of management. Gradually the payers of +dock rates on ships and goods acquired influence, and were introduced +into the governing body, and ultimately, by an act of 1857, the +corporation was superseded. The management is vested in the Mersey Docks +and Harbour Board, consisting of twenty-eight members, four of whom are +nominated by the Mersey Conservancy commissioners, who consist of the +first lord of the Admiralty, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster +and the president of the Board of Trade, and the rest elected by the +payers of rates on ships and goods, of whom a register is kept and +annually revised. The revenue is derived from tonnage rates on ships, +dock rates on goods, town dues on goods, with various minor sources of +income. + +Down to 1843 the docks were confined to the Liverpool side of the +Mersey. Several attempts made to establish docks in Cheshire had been +frustrated by the Liverpool corporation, who bought up the land and kept +it in their own hands. In 1843, however, a scheme for docks in +Birkenhead was carried through which ultimately proved unsuccessful, and +the enterprise was acquired in 1855 by Liverpool. The Birkenhead docks +were for many years only partially used, but are now an important +centre for corn-milling, the importation of foreign cattle and export +trade to the East. In addition to the wet docks, there are in Liverpool +fourteen graving docks and three in Birkenhead, besides a gridiron on +the Liverpool side. + +The first portion of the great landing stage, known as the Georges' +stage, was constructed in 1847, from the plans of Mr (afterwards Sir) +William Cubitt, F.R.S. This was 500 ft. long. In 1857 the Prince's +stage, 1000 ft. long, was built to the north of the Georges' stage and +distant from it 500 ft. In 1874 the intervening space was filled up and +the Georges' stage reconstructed. The fabric had just been completed, +and was waiting to be inaugurated, when on the 28th of July 1874 it was +destroyed by fire. It was again constructed with improvements. In 1896 +it was farther extended to the north, and its length is now 2478 ft. and +its breadth 80 ft. It is supported on floating pontoons about 200 in +number, connected with the river wall by eight bridges, besides a +floating bridge for heavy traffic 550 ft. in length and 35 ft. in width. +The southern half is devoted to the traffic of the Mersey ferries, of +which there are seven--New Brighton, Egremont, Seacombe, Birkenhead, +Rock Ferry, New Ferry and Eastham. The northern half is used by +ocean-going steamers and their tenders. The warehouses for storing +produce form a prominent feature in the commercial part of the city. +Down to 1841 these were entirely in private hands, distributed as chance +might direct, but in that year a determined effort was made to construct +docks with warehouses on the margin of the quays. This met with +considerable opposition from those interested, and led to a municipal +revolution, but the project was ultimately carried out in the +construction of the Albert dock and warehouses, which were opened by +Prince Albert in 1845. For general produce these warehouses are falling +somewhat into disuse, but grain warehouses have been constructed by the +dock board at Liverpool and Birkenhead, with machinery for discharging, +elevating, distributing, drying and delivering. Warehouses for the +storage of tobacco and wool have also been built by the board. The +Stanley tobacco warehouse is the largest of its kind in the world, the +area of its fourteen floors being some 36 acres. + + Dredging operations at the bar of the Queen's channel, in the channel + itself and at the landing stage enables the largest ocean liners to + enter the river and approach the stage at practically all states of + the tide. The dredging at the bar was begun as an experiment in + September 1890 by two of the board's ordinary hopper barges of 500 + tons capacity each fitted with centrifugal pumps. The result was + favourable, and larger vessels have been introduced. Before dredging + was begun the depth of water at dead low water of spring tides on the + bar was only 11 ft.; now there is about 28 ft. under the same + conditions. The space over which dredging has been carried on at the + bar measures about 7000 ft. by 1250 ft., the latter being the average + width of the buoyed cut or channel through the bar. Dredging has also + taken place on shoals and projections of sand-banks in the main sea + channels. + +_Municipality._--Under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835, the boundaries +of the original borough were extended by the annexation of portions of +the surrounding district, while further additions were made in 1895, +1902 and 1905. The city is divided into thirty-five wards with 103 +councillors and 34 aldermen. In 1893 the title of mayor was raised to +that of lord mayor. In 1885 the number of members of parliament was +increased to nine by the creation of six new wards. The corporation of +Liverpool has possessed from a very early period considerable landed +property, the first grant having been made by Thomas, earl of Lancaster, +in 1309. This land was originally of value only as a source of supply of +turf for firing, but in modern times its capacity as building land has +been a fruitful source of profit to the town. A large proportion of the +southern district is held in freehold by the corporation and leased to +tenants for terms of seventy-five years, renewable from time to time on +a fixed scale of fines. There was formerly another source of income now +cut off. The fee farm rents and town dues originally belonging to the +crown were purchased from the Molyneux family in 1672 on a long lease, +and subsequently in 1777 converted into a perpetuity. With the growth of +the commerce of the port these dues enormously increased, and became a +cause of great complaint by the shipping interest. In 1856 a bill was +introduced into parliament, and passed, by which the town dues were +transferred to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board on payment of +£1,500,000, which was applied in part to the liquidation of the bonded +debt of the corporation, amounting to £1,150,000. + +_History._--During the Norse irruption of the 8th century colonies of +Norsemen settled on both sides of the Mersey, as is indicated by some of +the place-names. After the Conquest, the site of Liverpool formed part +of the fief (inter Ripam et Mersham) granted by the Conqueror to Roger +de Poictou, one of the great family of Montgomery. Although Liverpool is +not named in Domesday it is believed to have been one of the six +berewicks dependent on the manor of West Derby therein mentioned. After +various forfeitures and regrants from the crown, it was handed over by +Henry II. to his falconer Warine. In a deed executed by King John, then +earl of Mortain, about 1191, confirming the grant of this with other +manors to Henry Fitzwarine, son of the former grantee, the name of +Liverpool first occurs. Probably its most plausible derivation is from +the Norse _Hlithar-pollr_, "the pool of the slopes," the pool or inlet +at the mouth of which the village grew up being surrounded by gently +rising slopes. Another possible derivation is from the Prov. E. _lever_, +the yellow flag or rush, A.S. _laefer_. + +After the partial conquest of Ireland by Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, +under Henry II., the principal ports of communication were Bristol for +the south and Chester for the north. The gradual silting up of the river +Dee soon so obstructed the navigation as to render Chester unsuitable. A +quay was then constructed at Shotwick, about 8 m. below Chester, with a +castle to protect it from the incursions of the neighbouring Welsh; but +a better site was sought and soon found. Into the tidal waters of the +Mersey a small stream, fed by a peat moss on the elevated land to the +eastward, ran from north-east to south-west, forming at its mouth an +open pool or sea lake, of which many existed on both sides of the river. +The triangular piece of land thus separated formed a promontory of red +sandstone rock, rising in the centre about 50 ft. above the sea-level, +sloping on three sides to the water. The pool was admirably adapted as a +harbour for the vessels of that period, being well protected, and the +tide rising from 15 to 21 ft. King John repurchased the manor from Henry +Fitzwarine, giving him other lands in exchange. Here he founded a +borough, and by letters patent dated at Winchester, 28th of August 1207, +invited his subjects to take up burgages. + +From the patent rolls and the sheriff's accounts it appears that +considerable use was made of Liverpool in the 13th century for shipping +stores and reinforcements to Ireland and Wales. + +In 1229 a charter was granted by Henry III., authorizing the formation +of a merchants' gild, with hanse and other liberties and free customs, +with freedom from toll throughout the kingdom. Charters were +subsequently granted by successive monarchs down to the reign of William +and Mary, which last was the governing charter to the date of the +Municipal Reform Act (1835). In 1880 when the diocese of Liverpool was +created, the borough was transformed into a city by royal charter. + +The crown revenues from the burgage rents and the royal customs were +leased in fee-farm from time to time, sometimes to the corporation, at +other times to private persons. The first lease was from Henry III., in +1229, at £10 per annum. In the same year the borough, with all its +appurtenances, was bestowed with other lands on Ranulf, earl of Chester, +from whom it passed to his brother-in-law William de Ferrers, earl of +Derby, who seems to have built Liverpool castle between 1232 and 1237. +His grandson, Robert de Ferrers, was implicated in the rising of Simon +de Montfort and his lands were confiscated in 1266 when Liverpool passed +into the hands of Edmund, earl of Lancaster. Ultimately Liverpool again +became the property of the crown, when Henry IV. inherited it from his +father John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. In 1628 Charles I., in great +straits for means which were refused by parliament, offered for sale +about a thousand manors, among which Liverpool was included. The portion +containing Liverpool was purchased by certain merchants of London, who, +in 1635, reconveyed the crown rights, including the fee-farm rent of +£14, 6s. 8d., to Sir Richard Molyneux, then recently created Viscount +Molyneux of Maryborough, for the sum of £450. In 1672 all these rights +and interests were acquired by the corporation. + +Apart from the national objects for which Liverpool was founded, its +trade developed slowly. From £10 per annum, in the beginning of the 13th +century, the crown revenues had increased towards the end of the 14th +century, to £38; but then they underwent a decline. The black death +passed over Liverpool about 1360, and carried off a large part of the +population. The Wars of the Roses in the 15th century unsettled the +north-western districts and retarded progress for at least a century. +The crown revenues diminished from £38 to less than half that sum, and +were finally leased at £14, 6s. 8d., at which they continued until the +sale by Charles I. It is, however, not safe to conclude that the reduced +fee-farm rent represents an equivalent decline in prosperity; the +privileges conferred by the various leases differed widely and may +account for much of the apparent discrepancy. + +Liverpool sent no representatives to Simon de Montfort's parliament in +1264, but to the first royal parliament, summoned in 1295, the borough +sent two members, and again in 1307. The writs of summons were then +suspended for two centuries and a half. In 1547 Liverpool resumed the +privilege of returning members. In 1588 the borough was represented by +Francis Bacon, the philosopher and statesman. During the Civil War the +town was fortified and garrisoned by the parliament. It sustained three +sieges, and in 1644 was escaladed and taken by Prince Rupert with +considerable slaughter. + +The true rise of the commerce of Liverpool dates from the Restoration. +Down to that period its population had been either stationary or +retrogressive, probably never exceeding about 1000. Its trade was +chiefly with Ireland, France and Spain, exporting fish and wool to the +continent, and importing wines, iron and other commodities. The rise of +the manufacturing industry of south Lancashire, and the opening of the +American and West Indian trade, gave the first impulse to the progress +which has since continued. By the end of the century the population had +increased to 5000. In 1699 the borough was constituted a parish distinct +from Walton, to which it had previously appertained. In 1709, the small +existing harbour being found insufficient to accommodate the shipping, +several schemes were propounded for its enlargement, which resulted in +the construction of a wet dock closed with flood-gates impounding the +water, so as to keep the vessels floating during the recess of the tide. +This dock was the first of its kind. The name of the engineer was Thomas +Steers. + +About this date the merchants of Liverpool entered upon the slave trade, +into which they were led by their connexion with the West Indies. In +1709 a single vessel of 30 tons burden made a venture from Liverpool and +carried fifteen slaves across the Atlantic. In 1730, encouraged by +parliament, Liverpool went heartily into the new trade. In 1751, +fifty-three ships sailed from Liverpool for Africa, of 5334 tons in the +aggregate. The ships sailed first to the west coast of Africa, where +they shipped the slaves, and thence to the West India Islands, where the +slaves were sold and the proceeds brought home in cargoes of sugar and +rum. In 1765 the number of Liverpool slavers had increased to +eighty-six, carrying 24,200 slaves. By the end of the century +five-sixths of the African trade centred in Liverpool. Just before its +abolition in 1807 the number of Liverpool ships engaged in the traffic +was 185, carrying 49,213 slaves in the year. + +Another branch of maritime enterprise which attracted the attention of +the merchants of Liverpool was privateering, which, during the latter +half of the 18th century, was a favourite investment. After the outbreak +of the Seven Years' War with France and Spain, in 1756, the commerce of +Liverpool suffered severely, the French having overrun the narrow seas +with privateers, and the premiums for insurance against sea risks rose +to an amount almost prohibitive. The Liverpool merchants took a lesson +from the enemy, and armed and sent out their ships as privateers. Some +of the early expeditions proving very successful, almost the whole +community rushed into privateering, with results of a very chequered +character. When the War of Independence broke out in 1775 American +privateers swarmed about the West India Islands, and crossing the +Atlantic intercepted British commerce in the narrow seas. The Liverpool +merchants again turned their attention to retaliation. Between August +1778 and April 1779, 120 privateers were fitted out in Liverpool, +carrying 1986 guns and 8745 men. + + See W. Enfield, _Hist. of Leverpool_ (1773); J. Aikin, _Forty Miles + round Manchester_ (1795); T. Troughton, _Hist. of Liverpool_ (1810); + M. Gregson, _Portfolio of Fragments relating to Hist. of Lancashire_ + (1817); H. Smithers, _Liverpool, its Commerce_, &c. (1825); R. Syers, + _Hist. of Everton_ (1830); E. Baines, _Hist. of County Palatine of + Lancaster_, vol. iv. (1836); T. Baines, _Hist. of Commerce and Town of + Liverpool_ (1852); R. Brooke, _Liverpool during the last quarter of + 18th Century_ (1853); J. A. Picton, _Memorials of Liverpool_ (2 vols., + 1873); Ramsay Muir and Edith M. Platt, _A History of Municipal + Government in Liverpool_ (1906); Ramsay Muir, _A History of Liverpool_ + (1907). (W. F. I.) + + + + +LIVERSEDGE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary division +of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 7 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on +the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern, and London & North Western +railways. Pop. (1901) 13,980. The industries are chiefly the manufacture +of woollen goods, the making of machinery, chemical manufactures and +coal mining. + + + + +LIVERY, originally the provision of food, clothing, &c., to household +servants. The word is an adaptation of the Anglo-French _livrée_, from +_livrer_, to deliver (Late Lat. _liberare_, to set free, to serve, to +give freely), in the special sense of distributing. In the sense of a +fixed allowance of provender for horses, it survives now only in +"livery-stable," _i.e_. an establishment where horses and carriages are +kept or let out for hire. From the meaning of provision of food and +clothing the word is applied to a uniform worn by the retainers and +servants of a household. In the 15th century in England a badge, collar +or other insignia, the "livery," was worn by all those who pledged +themselves to support one of the great barons in return for his promise +of "maintenance," i.e. of protection against enemies; thus arose the +custom of "livery and maintenance," suppressed by Henry VII. The members +of the London city companies wore a distinctive costume or "livery," +whence the term "livery companies." In law, the term "livery" means +"delivery," the legal handing of property into the possession of +another; for "livery of seisin" see FEOFFMENT. + + + + +LIVERY COMPANIES, the name given to particular companies or societies in +the city of London. They belong to a class of institutions which at one +time were universal in Europe. In most other countries they have +disappeared; in England, while their functions have wholly changed, the +organization remains. The origin of the city companies is to be found in +the craftgilds of the middle ages. The absence of a strong central +authority accounts for the tendency of confederation in the beginning of +modern societies. Artificial groups, formed in imitation of the family, +discharged the duties which the family was no longer able, and the state +was not yet able, to undertake. The inhabitants of towns were forced +into the societies known as gild-merchants, which in course of time +monopolized the municipal government, became exclusive, and so caused +the growth of similar societies among excluded citizens. The craftgilds +were such societies, composed of handicraftsmen, which entered upon a +struggle with the earlier gilds and finally defeated them. The +circumstances and results of the struggle were of much the same +character in England and on the continent. In London the victory of the +crafts is decisively marked by the ordinance of the time of Edward II., +which required every citizen to be a member of some trade or mystery, +and by another ordinance in 1375 which transferred the right of election +of corporate officers (including members of parliament) from the +ward-representatives to the trading companies. Henceforward, and for +many years, the companies engrossed political and municipal power in the +city of London. + +The trading fraternities assumed generally the character of corporations +in the reign of Edward III. Many of them had been chartered before, but +their privileges, hitherto exercised only on sufferance and by payment +of their terms, were now confirmed by letters patent. Edward III. +himself became a member of the fraternity of Linen Armourers, or +Merchant Taylors, and other distinguished persons followed his example. +From this time they are called livery companies, "from now generally +assuming a distinctive dress or livery." The origin of the Grocers' +Company is thus described: "Twenty-two persons, carrying on the business +of pepperers in Soper's Lane, Cheapside, agree to meet together, to a +dinner, at the Abbot of Bury's, St Mary Axe, and commit the particulars +of their formation into a trading society to writing. They elect after +dinner two persons of the company so assembled--Roger Osekyn and +Lawrence de Haliwell--as their first governors or wardens, appointing, +at the same time, in conformity with the pious custom of the age, a +priest or chaplain to celebrate divine offices for their souls" (Heath's +"Account of the Grocers' Company," quoted in Herbert's _Twelve Great +Livery Companies_, 1836, i. 43). The religious observances and the +common feasts were characteristic features of those institutions. They +were therefore not merely trade unions in the current meaning of that +phrase, but may rather be described as forms of industrial +self-government, the basis of union being the membership of a common +trade, and the authority of the society extending to the general +welfare, spiritual and temporal, of its members. It must be remembered +that they flourished at a time when the separate interests of master and +servant had not yet been created; and, indeed, when that fundamental +division of interests arose, the companies gradually lost their +functions in the regulation of industry. The fact that the craftsmen +were a homogeneous order will account for the wide authority claimed by +their societies, and the important public powers which were conceded to +them. In the regulation of trade they possessed extensive powers. They +required every one carrying on the trade to join the company. In 1363, +in answer to a remonstrance against the mischief caused by "the +merchants called grocers who engrossed all manner of merchandize +vendable, and who suddenly raised the prices of such merchandize within +the realm," it was enacted "that all artificers and people of mysteries +shall each choose his own mystery[1] before next Candlemas, and that, +having so chosen it, he shall henceforth use no other." L. Brentano (_On +Gilds_) holds that it is wrong to represent such regulations as +monopolistic, inasmuch as there was no question whatever of a monopoly +in that time nor until the degeneration of the craftgilds into limited +corporations of capitalists. In the regulation of trade the right of +search was an important instrument. The wardens of the grocers are to +"assayen weights, powders, confeccions, platers, oyntments and all other +things belonging to the same crafte." The goldsmiths had the assay of +metals, the fishmongers the oversight of fish, the vintners of the +tasting of wine, &c. The companies enforced their regulations on their +members by force. Many of their ordinances looked to the domestic +affairs and private conduct of the members. The grocers ordain "that no +man of the fraternite take his neyghbor's house y^t is of the same +fraternite, or enhaunce the rent against the will of the foresaid +neyghbor." Perjury is to be punished by the wardens and society with +such correction as that other men of the fellowship may be warned +thereby. Members reduced to poverty by adventures on the sea, increased +price of goods, borrowing and pledging, or any other misfortune, are to +be assisted "out of the common money, according to his situation, if he +could not do without." + +Following what appears to be the natural law of their being, the +companies gradually lost their industrial character. The course of decay +would seem to have been the following. The capitalists gradually assumed +the lead in the various societies, the richer members engrossed the +power and the companies tended to become hereditary and exclusive. +Persons might be members who had nothing to do with the craft, and the +rise of great capitalists and the development of competition in trade +made the regulation of industry by means of companies no longer +possible. For an account of the "degeneration of craftgilds" a general +reference may be made to Brentano, _On Gilds_ (1870), and C. Gross, _The +Gild Merchant_ (2 vols., 1890). The usurpation of power on the part of +the richer members was not always effected without opposition. Brentano +refers to a pamphlet on the Clothworkers' Company, published in 1649, +which asserts that "the commonalty" in the old charters meant, not the +whole gild, but only the masters, wardens and assistants. Herbert +records a dispute in the Goldsmiths' Company in 1529. The mode of +electing officers, and the system of management generally, was +challenged by three members who called themselves "artificers, poor men +of the craft of goldsmiths." The company, or rather, the wardens, the +assistants and livery presented a petition to the lord mayor, which was +answered by the discontented craftsmen. The dispute was carried into the +court of chancery and the star chamber. The artificers accused the +company of subverting their grants, misappropriating the funds and +changing the constitution of the society, and they complain of this +being done by the usurpation of persons who "were but merchant +goldsmiths, and had but little knowledge in the science." In 1531 the +three complainants were expelled from the company, and then the dispute +seems to have ended. In the last stage of the companies the members have +ceased to have any connexion with the trades, and in most cases their +regulative functions have disappeared. The one characteristic which has +clung to them throughout is that of owners of property and managers of +charitable trusts. The connexion between the companies and the +municipality is shortly as follows. The ordinance of Edward II. required +freemen of the city to be members of one or other of the companies. By +the ordinance of 49 Edw. III. (1375), the trading companies were to +nominate the members of common council, and the persons so nominated +alone were to attend both at common councils and at elections. An +ordinance in 7 Richard II. (1383) restored the elections of common +councilmen to the wards, but corporate officers and representatives in +parliament were elected by a convention summoned by the lord mayor from +the nominees of the companies. An act of common council in 7 Edw. IV. +(1467) appointed the election of mayor, sheriffs, &c., to be in the +common council, together with the masters and wardens of the companies. +By 15 Edw. IV. masters and wardens were ordered to associate with +themselves the honest men of their mysteries, and come in their best +liveries to the elections; that is to say, the franchise was restricted +to the "liverymen" of the companies. At this time the corporation +exercised supreme control over the companies, and the companies were +still genuine associations of the traders and householders of the city. +The delegation of the franchise to the liverymen was thus, in point of +fact, the selection of a superior class of householders to represent the +rest. When the corporation lost its control over the companies, and the +members of the companies ceased to be traders and householders, the +liverymen were no longer a representative class, and some change in the +system became necessary. The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867 reformed the +representation in several particulars. The liverymen of the companies, +being freemen of the city, have still, however, the exclusive power of +electing the lord mayor, sheriffs, chamberlain and other corporate +officers. + +The contributions made by the companies to the public purposes of the +state and the city are interesting points in their early history. Their +wealth and their representative character made them a most appropriate +instrument for the enforcement of irregular taxation. The loan of +£21,263, 6s. 8d. to Henry VIII. for his wars in Scotland, in 1544, is +believed by Herbert to be the first instance of a pecuniary grant to the +crown, but the practice rapidly gained ground. The confiscation of +ecclesiastical property at the time of the Reformation affected many of +the trusts of the companies; and they were compelled to make returns of +their property devoted to religious uses, and to pay over the rents to +the crown. In course of time the taxation of the companies became "a +regular source of supply to government." The historians of the city have +for the most part described these as unjust and tyrannical exactions, +but, looking at the representative and municipal character of the +companies, and the purposes to which their contributions were applied, +we may regard them as a rough but not unfair mode of taxation. The +government, when money was wanted for public works, informed the lord +mayor, who apportioned the sums required among the various societies, +and issued precepts for its payment. Contributions towards setting the +poor to work, erecting the Royal Exchange, cleansing the city ditch, +discovering new countries, furnishing military and naval armaments, for +men, arms and ammunition for the defence of the city, are among what +Herbert calls the sponging expedients of the government. The crown +occasionally interfered in a more unjustifiable manner with the +companies in the exercise of their patronage. The Stuarts made strenuous +efforts to get the control of the companies. Terrified by the +proceedings in the _quo warranto_ case, most of the companies +surrendered their charters to the crown, but such surrenders were +annulled by the act of 2 William and Mary (1690) reserving the judgment +in _quo warranto_ against the city. The livery companies now in +existence are the following: + + Apothecaries. | Fellowship Porters. | Needlemakers. + Armourers and | Feltmakers. | Painters. + Brasiers. | Fishmongers. | Pattern Makers. + Bakers. | Fletchers. | Pewterers. + Barbers. | Founders. | Plaisterers. + Basket Makers. | Framework Knitters. | Playing Card + Blacksmiths. | Fruiterers. | Makers. + Bowyers. | Girdlers. | Plumbers. + Brewers. | Glass Sellers. | Poulters. + Broderers. | Glaziers. | Saddlers. + Butchers. | Glovers. | Salters. + Carmen. | Gold and Silver | Scriveners. + Carpenters | Wyre-drawers. | Shipwrights. + Clockmakers. | Goldsmiths. | Silkthrowsters. + Clothworkers. | Grocers. | Skinners. + Coach and | Gunmakers. | Spectacle makers. + Coach-Harness | Haberdashers | Stationers. + Makers. | Horners. | Tallow Chandlers. + Cooks. | Innholders. | Tin Plate Workers. + Coopers. | Ironmongers. | Turners. + Cordwainers. | Joiners. | Tylers and + Curriers. | Leathersellers. | Bricklayers. + Cutlers. | Loriners. | Upholders. + Distillers. | Masons. | Wax Chandlers. + Drapers. | Mercers. | Weavers. + Dyers. | Merchant Taylors. | Wheelwrights. + Fanmakers. | Musicians. | Woolmen. + Farriers. | | + +The following are the twelve great companies in order of civic +precedence: Mercers, Grocers, Drapers, Fishmongers, Goldsmiths, +Skinners, Merchant Taylors, Haberdashers, Salters, Ironmongers, +Vintners, Cloth-workers. The "Irish Society" was incorporated in the 11 +James I. as "the governor and assistants of the new plantation in +Ulster, within the realm of Ireland." The twelve companies contributed +in equal portions the sum of £60,000 for the new scheme, by which it was +intended to settle a Protestant colony in the lands forfeited by the +Irish rebels. The companies divided the settlement into twelve nearly +equal parts, assigning one to each, but the separate estates are still +held to be under the paramount jurisdiction of the Irish Society. The +charter of the society was revoked by the court of star chamber in the +reign of Charles I., but a new one was granted by Charles II., under +which the society still acts. + + Most of the companies administer charities of large value. Many of + them are governors of important schools, _e.g_. the Skinners have the + Tonbridge Grammar School; the Mercers, St Paul's School; the Merchant + Taylors, the school bearing their name, &c. The constitution of the + livery companies usually embraces (a) the court, which includes the + master and wardens, and is the executive and administrative body; (2) + the livery or middle class, being the body from which the court is + recruited; and (3) the general body of freemen, from which the livery + is recruited. Some companies admit women as freemen. The freedom is + obtained either by patrimony (by any person over twenty-one years of + age born in lawful wedlock after the admission of his father to the + freedom), by servitude (by being bound as an apprentice to a freeman + of the company) or by redemption. Admission to many of the companies + is subject to the payment of considerable fees. For example, in the + Merchant Taylors the fees are--upon taking up the freedom, by + patrimony or servitude, £1, 3s. 4d.; by redemption, £84; on admission + to the livery, £80, 8s.; on election to the court of assistants, £115, + 10s. At one time the position of the livery companies was a subject of + much political discussion. Two parties threatened to attack them--on + one side those who were anxious for extensive reforms in the municipal + organization of London; on the other, those who wished to carry + forward the process of inspection and revision of endowments, which + had already overtaken the universities, schools and other charities. A + Royal Commission was appointed in 1880 to inquire into all the livery + companies, into the circumstances and dates of their foundation, the + objects for which they were founded, and how far those objects were + being carried into effect. A very valuable _Report and Appendix_ (4 + vols., 1884) was published, containing, _inter alia_, information on + the constitution and powers of the governing bodies, the mode of + admission of members of the companies, the mode of appointment, duties + and salaries and other emoluments of the servants of the companies, + the property of, or held in trust for, the companies, its value, + situation and description. The companies very freely made returns to + the commission, the only ones not doing so being the Broderers, + Bowyers, Distillers, Glovers, Tin-Plate Workers and Weavers. The + Commission estimated the annual income of the companies to be from + £750,000 to £800,000, about £200,000 of that amount being trust + income, the balance corporate income. + + AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the _Report_ referred to above the + following works may be consulted: H. T. Riley, _Memorials of London + and London Life_ (1868); _Chronicle of London from 1089 to 1483_ (ed. + by Sir N. H. Nicolas and E. Tyrrel, 1827); _Munimenta Gildhallae + Londiniensis_, in Rolls Series, ed. by H. T. Riley (4 vols., + 1859-1862); J. Toulmin Smith, _English Gilds_ (published by Early + English Text Society), with essay by L. Brentano (1870); W. Herbert, + _History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies_ (1837); C. Gross, _The + Gild Merchant_ (2 vols., 1890); W. C. Hazlitt, _The Livery Companies + of the City of London_ (1892), contains a précis of the Royal + Commission; P. H. Ditchfield, _The City Companies of London_ (1904); + G. Unwin, _The Gilds and Companies of London_ (1908). (T. A. I.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Properly the word should be spelled, as it was originally, + "mistery;" it comes through the O. Fr. _mestier_, modern _métier_, + from Lat. _ministerium_, service, employment, and meant a trade or + craft, and hence the plays acted by craftsmen and members of gilds + were called "mystery plays" (see DRAMA). For the word meaning a + hidden or secret rite, with which this has so often been confused, + see MYSTERY. + + + + +LIVIA DRUSILLA (c. 55 B.C.-A.D. 29), Roman empress, was originally the +wife of Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom she had two sons, Drusus and +Tiberius (afterwards emperor). But she attracted the attention of the +future emperor Augustus, who in 38 compelled her husband to divorce her +and married her himself, having first got rid of his own wife Scribonia. +Her two sons, at their dying father's request, were entrusted to the +guardianship of Augustus, to whom she bore no children. Livia was +suspected of committing various crimes to secure the throne for +Tiberius, whereas Augustus naturally favoured the claims of his +blood-relatives. The premature deaths of his nephew Marcellus (whom he +had at first fixed upon as his successor) and of his grandsons Gaius and +Lucius Caesar, the banishment of his grandson Agrippa Postumus, and +even his own death, were attributed to her. But in any case Augustus's +affection for his wife appears to have suffered no diminution up to the +last; by his will he declared her and Tiberius (whom he had adopted in +A.D. 4) his heirs; Livia inherited a third of his property; she was +adopted into the Julian gens, and henceforth assumed the name of Julia +Augusta. The senate also elected her chief priestess of the college +founded in honour of the deified Augustus. She had now reached the +summit of her ambition, and at first acted as joint-ruler with Tiberius. +Tiberius, however, soon became tired of the maternal yoke; his +retirement to Capreae is said to have been caused by his desire to +escape from her. Livia continued to live quietly at Rome, in the full +enjoyment of authority, until her death at an advanced age. Tiberius +appears to have received the news with indifference, if not with +satisfaction; he absented himself from the funeral, and refused to allow +her apotheosis; her will was suppressed for a long time and only carried +out, and the legacies paid, by Caligula. + + See Tacitus, _Annals_, i. v.; Dio Cassius liii. 33, lv. 14-22, lviii. + 2, lix. 2; Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 50, 51; J. Aschbach, _Livia, + Gemahlin des Kaisers Augustus_ (1864); V. Gardthausen, _Augustus und + seine Zeit_, i. 1018 foll., ii. 631 foll. + + + + +LIVINGSTON, EDWARD (1764-1836), American jurist and statesman, was born +in Clermont, Columbia county, New York, on the 26th of May 1764. He was +a great-grandson of Robert Livingston, the first of the family to settle +in America (see LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM, below). He graduated at Princeton +in 1781, was admitted to the bar in 1785, and began to practise law in +New York City, rapidly rising to distinction. In 1795-1801 he was a +Republican representative in Congress, where he was one of the leaders +of the opposition to Jay's treaty, introduced the resolution calling +upon President Washington for all papers relating to the treaty, and at +the close of Washington's administration voted with Andrew Jackson and +other radicals against the address to the president. He opposed the +Alien and Sedition Laws, introduced legislation on behalf of American +seamen, and in 1800 attacked the president for permitting the +extradition by the British government of Jonathan Robbins, who had +committed murder on an English frigate, and had then escaped to South +Carolina and falsely claimed to be an American citizen. In the debate on +this question Livingston was opposed by John Marshall. In 1801 +Livingston was appointed U.S. district-attorney for the state of New +York, and while retaining that position was in the same year appointed +mayor of New York City. When, in the summer of 1803, the city was +visited with yellow fever, Livingston displayed courage and energy in +his endeavours to prevent the spread of the disease and relieve +distress. He suffered a violent attack of the fever, during which the +people gave many proofs of their attachment to him. On his recovery he +found his private affairs in some confusion, and he was at the same time +deeply indebted to the government for public funds which had been lost +through the mismanagement or dishonesty of a confidential clerk, and for +which he was responsible as district-attorney. He at once surrendered +all his property, resigned his two offices in 1803, and removed early in +1804 to Louisiana. He soon acquired a large law practice in New Orleans, +and in 1826 repaid the government in full, including the interest, which +at that time amounted to more than the original principal. + +Almost immediately upon his arrival in Louisiana, where the legal system +had previously been based on Roman, French and Spanish law, and where +trial by jury and other peculiarities of English common law were now +first introduced, he was appointed by the legislature to prepare a +provisional code of judicial procedure, which (in the form of an act +passed in April 1805) was continued in force from 1805 to 1825. In 1807, +after conducting a successful suit on behalf of a client's title to a +part of the batture or alluvial land near New Orleans, Livingston +attempted to improve part of this land (which he had received as his +fee) in the Batture, Ste Marie. Great popular excitement was aroused +against him; his workmen were mobbed; and Governor Claiborne, when +appealed to for protection, referred the question to the Federal +government. Livingston's case was damaged by President Jefferson, who +believed that Livingston had favoured Burr in the presidential election +of 1800, and that he had afterwards been a party to Burr's schemes. +Jefferson made it impossible for Livingston to secure his title, and in +1812 published a pamphlet "for the use of counsel" in the case against +Livingston, to which Livingston published a crushing reply. Livingston's +final victory in the courts brought him little financial profit because +of the heavy expenses of the litigation. During the war with England +from 1812 to 1815 Livingston was active in rousing the mixed population +of New Orleans to resistance. He used his influence to secure amnesty +for Lafitte and his followers upon their offer to fight for the city, +and in 1814-1815 acted as adviser and volunteer aide-de-camp to General +Jackson, who was his personal friend. In 1821, by appointment of the +legislature, of which he had become a member in the preceding year, +Livingston began the preparation of a new code of criminal law and +procedure, afterwards known in Europe and America as the "Livingston +Code." It was prepared in both French and English, as was required by +the necessities of practice in Louisiana, and actually consisted of four +codes--crimes and punishments, procedure, evidence in criminal cases, +reform and prison discipline. Though substantially completed in 1824, +when it was accidentally burned, and again in 1826, it was not printed +entire until 1833. It was never adopted by the state. It was at once +reprinted in England, France and Germany, attracting wide praise by its +remarkable simplicity and vigour, and especially by reason of its +philanthropic provisions in the code of reform and prison discipline, +which noticeably influenced the penal legislation of various countries. +In referring to this code, Sir Henry Maine spoke of Livingston as "the +first legal genius of modern times" (_Cambridge Essays, 1856_, p. 17). +The spirit of Livingston's code was remedial rather than vindictive; it +provided for the abolition of capital punishment and the making of +penitentiary labour not a punishment forced on the prisoner, but a +matter of his choice and a reward for good behaviour, bringing with it +better accommodations. His Code of Reform and Prison Discipline was +adopted by Guatemala. Livingston was the leading member of a commission +appointed to prepare a new civil code,[1] which for the most part the +legislature adopted in 1825, and the most important chapters of which, +including all those on contract, were prepared by Livingston alone. + +Livingston was again a representative in Congress during 1823-1829, a +senator in 1829-1831, and for two years (1831-1833) secretary of state +under President Jackson. In this last position he was one of the most +trusted advisers of the president, for whom he prepared a number of +state papers, the most important being the famous anti-nullification +proclamation of the 10th of December 1832. From 1833 to 1835 Livingston +was minister plenipotentiary to France, charged with procuring the +fulfilment by the French government of the treaty negotiated by W. C. +Rives in 1831, by which France had bound herself to pay an indemnity of +twenty-five millions of francs for French spoliations of American +shipping chiefly under the Berlin and Milan decrees, and the United +States in turn agreed to pay to France 1,500,000 francs in satisfaction +of French claims. Livingston's negotiations were conducted with +excellent judgment, but the French Chamber of Deputies refused to make +an appropriation to pay the first instalment due under the treaty in +1833, relations between the two governments became strained, and +Livingston was finally instructed to close the legation and return to +America. He died on the 23rd of May 1836 at Montgomery Place, Dutchess +county, New York, an estate left him by his sister, to which he had +removed in 1831. Livingston was twice married. His first wife, Mary +McEvers, whom he married on the 10th of April 1788, died on the 13th of +March 1801. In June 1805 he married Madame Louise Moreau de Lassy (d. +1860), a widow nineteen years of age, whose maiden name was Davezac de +Castera, and who was a refugee in New Orleans from the revolution in +Santo Domingo. She was a woman of extraordinary beauty and intellect, +and is said to have greatly influenced her husband's public career. + + See C. H. Hunt, _Life of Edward Livingston_ (New York, 1864); + Livingston's _Works_ (2 vols., New York, 1873); and Louise Livingston + Hunt, _Memoir of Mrs Edward Livingston_ (New York, 1886). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Preliminary work in the preparation of a new civil code had been + done by James Brown and Moreau Lislet, who in 1808 reported a "Digest + of the Civil Laws now in force in the Territory of Orleans with + Alterations and Amendments adapted to the present Form of + Government." + + + + +LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R. (1746-1813), American statesman, son of Robert R. +Livingston (1718-1775; a justice of the New York supreme court after +1763) and brother of Edward Livingston (see above), was born in New York +City, on the 27th of November 1746. He graduated at King's College, New +York (now Columbia University), in 1765, was admitted to the bar in +1773, and for a short time was a law partner of John Jay. In 1773 he +became recorder of New York City, but soon identified himself with the +Whig or Patriot element there, and was forced to give up this position +in 1775. He was a member of the second, third and fourth Provincial +Congresses of New York (1775-1777), was a delegate from New York to the +Continental Congress in 1775-1777 and again in 1779-1780, and was a +member of the committee which drafted the Declaration of Independence. +He was prevented from signing that document by his absence at the time +to attend a meeting of the fourth New York Provincial Congress, which on +the 10th of July became the Convention of the Representatives of the +state of New York, and by which at Kingston in 1777 the first state +constitution was adopted, Livingston having been a member of the +committee that drafted this instrument. He was the first chancellor of +the state, from 1777 to February 1801, and is best known as "Chancellor" +Livingston. In this capacity he administered the oath of office to +Washington at his first inauguration to the presidency, in New York, on +the 30th of April 1789. Previously, from October 1781 to June 1783, he +had been the first secretary of foreign affairs under the Confederation, +and his European correspondence, especially with Franklin, was of the +utmost value in accomplishing peace with Great Britain. In 1788 he had +been a member of the New York Convention, which ratified for that state +the Federal Constitution. He became an anti-Federalist and in 1798 +unsuccessfully opposed John Jay in the New York gubernatorial campaign. +In 1801, having refused an appointment as secretary of the navy, he +became minister to France on President Jefferson's appointment. He had +refused this post when Washington offered it to him in 1794. He arrived +in France in November 1801, and in 1803, in association with James +Monroe, effected on behalf of his government the purchase from France of +what was then known as "Louisiana," the credit for this purchase being +largely his (see LOUISIANA PURCHASE). In 1804 Livingston withdrew from +public life, and after a year of travel in Europe returned to New York, +where he promoted various improvements in agriculture. He did much to +introduce the use of gypsum as a fertilizer, and published an _Essay on +Sheep_ (1809). He was long interested in the problem of steam +navigation; before he went to France he received from the state of New +York a monopoly of steam navigation on the waters of the state and +assisted in the experiments of his brother-in-law, John Stevens; in +Paris he met Robert Fulton, and with him in 1802 made successful trials +on the Seine of a paddle wheel steamboat; in 1803 Livingston (jointly +with Robert Fulton) received a renewal of his monopoly in New York, and +the first successful steam-vessel, which operated on the Hudson in 1807, +was named after Livingston's home, Clermont (N.Y.). He died at Clermont +on the 26th of February 1813. + +Livingston and George Clinton were chosen to represent New York state in +Statuary Hall, in the Capitol, at Washington, D.C.; the statue of +Livingston is by E. D. Palmer. + + See Frederick de Peyster, _Biographical Sketch of Robert R. + Livingston_ (New York, 1876); Robert K. Morton, "Robert R. Livingston: + Beginnings of American Diplomacy," in _The John P. Branch Historical + Papers of Randolph-Macon College_, i. 299-324, and ii. 34-46; and J. + B. Moore, "Robert R. Livingston and the Louisiana Purchase," in + _Columbia University Quarterly_, v. 6 (1904), pp. 221-229. + + + + +LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM (1723-1790), American political leader, was born at +Albany, New York, probably on the 30th of November 1723. He was the son +of Philip Livingston (1686-1749), and grandson of Robert Livingston +(1654-1725), who was born at Ancrum, Scotland, emigrated to America +about 1673, and received grants (beginning in 1686) to "Livingston +Manor" (a tract of land on the Hudson, comprising the greater part of +what are now Dutchess and Columbia counties). This Robert Livingston, +founder of the American family, became in 1675 secretary of the +important Board of Indian Commissioners; he was a member of the New York +Assembly in 1711-1715 and 1716-1727 and its speaker in 1718-1725, and in +1701 made the proposal that all the English colonies in America should +be grouped for administrative purposes "into three distinct +governments." + +William Livingston graduated at Yale College in 1741, studied law in the +city of New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1748. He served in the +New York legislature (1759-1760), but his political influence was long +exerted chiefly through pamphlets and newspaper articles. The Livingston +family then led the Dissenters, who later became Whigs, and the De +Lancey family represented the Anglican Tory interests. Through the +columns of the _Independent Reflector_, which he established in 1752, +Livingston fought the attempt of the Anglican party to bring the +projected King's College (now Columbia University) under the control of +the Church of England. After the suspension of the _Reflector_ in 1753, +he edited in the _New York Mercury_ the "Watch Tower" section +(1754-1755), which became the recognized organ of the Presbyterian +faction. In opposition to the efforts of the Anglicans to procure the +establishment of an American episcopate, he wrote an open _Letter to the +Right Reverend Father in God, John Lord, Bishop of Llandaff_ (1768), and +edited and in large measure wrote the "American Whig" columns in the +_New York Gazette_ (1768-1769). In 1772 he removed to Elizabeth, New +Jersey, where after 1773 he lived on his estate known as "Liberty Hall." +He represented New Jersey in the first and second Continental Congresses +(1774,1775-1776), but left Philadelphia in June 1776, probably to avoid +voting on the question of adopting the Declaration of Independence, +which he regarded as inexpedient. He was chosen first governor of the +state of New Jersey in 1776, and was regularly re-elected until his +death in 1790. Loyal to American interests and devoted to General +Washington, he was one of the most useful of the state executives during +the War of Independence. While governor he was a frequent contributor to +the _New Jersey Gazette_, and in this way he greatly aided the American +cause during the war by his denunciation of the enemy and appeals to the +patriotism of his countrymen. He was a delegate to the Federal +Constitutional Convention of 1787, and supported the New Jersey +small-state plan. In 1754 he joined with his brother, Philip Livingston, +his brother-in-law, William Alexander ("Lord Stirling") and others in +founding what is now known as the Society Library of New York. With the +help of William Smith (1728-1793), the New York historian, William +Livingston prepared a digest of the laws of New York for the period +1691-1756, which was published in two volumes (1752 and 1762). He died +at Elizabeth, New Jersey, on the 25th of July 1790. + + See Theodore Sedgwick, Jr., _Life of William Livingston_ (New York, + 1833); and E. B. Livingston, _The Livingstons of Livingston Manor_ + (1910). + +His brother, PETER VAN BRUGH LIVINGSTON (1710-1792), was a prominent +merchant and a Whig political leader in New York. He was one of the +founders of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), was a +member of the New York Council for some years before the War of +Independence, a member and president of the First Provincial Congress of +New York (1775), and a member of the Second Provincial Congress +(1775-1776). + +Another brother, PHILIP LIVINGSTON (1716-1778), was also prominent as a +leader of the New York Whigs or Patriots. He was a member of the New +York Assembly in 1759-1769, a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress of +1765, a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 until his death and +as such a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and in 1777-1778 +was a member of the first state senate. + +William's son, (HENRY) BROCKHOLST LIVINGSTON (1757-1823), was an officer +in the American War of Independence, and was an able lawyer and judge. +From 1807 until his death he was an associate justice of the United +States Supreme Court, and he wrote political pamphlets under the +pen-name "Decius." + + + + +LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (1813-1873), Scottish missionary and explorer in +Africa, was born on the 19th of March 1813, at the village of Blantyre +Works, in Lanarkshire, Scotland. David was the second child of his +parents, Neil Livingston (for so he spelled his name, as did his son for +many years) and Agnes Hunter. His parents were typical examples of all +that is best among the humbler families of Scotland. At the age of ten +years David left the village school for the neighbouring cotton-mill, +and by strenuous efforts qualified himself at the age of twenty-three to +undertake a college curriculum. He attended for two sessions the medical +and the Greek classes in Anderson's College, Glasgow, and also a +theological class. In September 1838 he went up to London, and was +accepted by the London Missionary Society as a candidate. He took his +medical degree in the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons in Glasgow in +November 1840. Livingstone had set his heart on China, and it was a +great disappointment to him that the society finally decided to send him +to Africa. To an exterior in these early years somewhat heavy and +uncouth, he united a manner which, by universal testimony, was +irresistibly winning, with a fund of genuine but simple humour and fun +that would break out on the most unlikely occasions, and in after years +enabled him to overcome difficulties and mellow refractory chiefs when +all other methods failed. + +Livingstone sailed from England on the 8th of December 1840. From Algoa +Bay he made direct for Kuruman, Bechuanaland, the mission station, 700 +m. north, established by Robert Moffat twenty years before, and there he +arrived on the 31st of July 1841. The next two years Livingstone spent +in travelling about the country to the northwards, in search of a +suitable outpost for settlement. During these two years he became +convinced that the success of the white missionary in a field like +Africa was not to be reckoned by the tale of doubtful conversions he +could send home each year--that the proper work for such men was that of +pioneering, opening up and starting new ground, leaving native agents to +work it out in detail. The whole of his subsequent career was a +development of this idea. He selected the valley of Mabotsa, on one of +the sources of the Limpopo river, 200 m. north-east of Kuruman, as his +first station. Shortly after his settlement here he was attacked by a +lion which crushed his left arm. The arm was imperfectly set, and it was +a source of trouble to him at times throughout his life, and was the +means of identifying his body after his death. To a house, mainly built +by himself at Mabotsa, Livingstone in 1844 brought home his wife, Mary +Moffat, the daughter of Moffat of Kuruman. Here he laboured till 1846, +when he removed to Chonuane, 40 m. farther north, the chief place of the +Bakwain or Bakwena tribe under Sechele. In 1847 he again removed to +Kolobeng, about 40 m. westwards, the whole tribe following their +missionary. With the aid and in the company of two English sportsmen, +William C. Oswell and Mungo Murray, he was able to undertake a journey +to Lake Ngami, which had never yet been seen by a white man. Crossing +the Kalahari Desert, of which Livingstone gave the first detailed +account, they reached the lake on the 1st of August 1849. In April next +year he made an attempt to reach Sebituane, who lived 200 m. beyond the +lake, this time in company with his wife and children, but again got no +farther than the lake, as the children were seized with fever. A year +later, April 1851, Livingstone, again accompanied by his family and +Oswell, set out, this time with the intention of settling among the +Makololo for a period. At last he succeeded, and reached the Chobe +(Kwando), a southern tributary of the Zambezi, and in the end of June +reached the Zambezi itself at the town of Sesheke. Leaving the Chobe on +the 13th of August the party reached Cape Town in April 1852. +Livingstone may now be said to have completed the first period of his +career in Africa, the period in which the work of the missionary had the +greatest prominence. Henceforth he appears more in the character of an +explorer, but it must be remembered that he regarded himself to the last +as a pioneer missionary, whose work was to open up the country to +others. + +Having seen his family off to England, Livingstone left Cape Town on the +8th of June 1852, and turning north again reached Linyante, the capital +of the Makololo, on the Chobe, on the 23rd of May 1853, being cordially +received by Sekeletu and his people. His first object was to seek for +some healthy high land in which to plant a station. Ascending the +Zambezi, he, however, found no place free from the tsetse fly, and +therefore resolved to discover a route to the interior from either the +west or east coast. To accompany Livingstone twenty-seven men were +selected from the various tribes under Sekeletu, partly with a view to +open up a trade route between their own country and the coast. The start +was made from Linyante on the 11th of November 1853, and, by ascending +the Liba, Lake Dilolo was reached on the 20th of February 1854. On the +4th of April the Kwango was crossed, and on the 31st of May the town of +Loanda was entered, Livingstone, however, being all but dead from fever, +semi-starvation and dysentery. From Loanda Livingstone sent his +astronomical observations to Sir Thomas Maclear at the Cape, and an +account of his journey to the Royal Geographical Society, which in May +1855 awarded him its patron's medal. Loanda was left on the 20th of +September 1854, but Livingstone lingered long about the Portuguese +settlements. Making a slight détour to the north to Kabango, the party +reached Lake Dilolo on the 13th of June 1855. Here Livingstone made a +careful study of the hydrography of the country. He "now for the first +time apprehended the true form of the river systems and the continent," +and the conclusions he came to have been essentially confirmed by +subsequent observations. The return journey from Lake Dilolo was by the +same route as that by which the party came, Linyante being reached in +the beginning of September. + +For Livingstone's purposes the route to the west was unavailable, and he +decided to follow the Zambezi to its mouth. With a numerous following, +he left Linyante on the 8th of November 1855. A fortnight afterwards he +discovered the famous "Victoria" falls of the Zambezi. He had already +formed a true idea of the configuration of the continent as a great +hollow or basin-shaped plateau, surrounded by a ring of mountains. +Livingstone reached the Portuguese settlement of Tete on the 2nd of +March 1856, in a very emaciated condition. Here he left his men and +proceeded to Quilimane, where he arrived on the 20th of May, thus having +completed in two years and six months one of the most remarkable and +fruitful journeys on record. The results in geography and in natural +science in all its departments were abundant and accurate; his +observations necessitated a reconstruction of the map of Central Africa. +When Livingstone began his work in Africa the map was virtually a blank +from Kuruman to Timbuktu, and nothing but envy or ignorance can throw +any doubt on the originality of his discoveries. + +On the 12th of December he arrived in England, after an absence of +sixteen years, and met everywhere the welcome of a hero. He told his +story in his _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_ (1857) +with straightforward simplicity, and with no effort after literary +style, and no apparent consciousness that he had done anything +extraordinary. Its publication brought what he would have considered a +competency had he felt himself at liberty to settle down for life. In +1857 he severed his connexion with the London Missionary Society, with +whom, however, he always remained on the best of terms, and in February +1858 he accepted the appointment of "Her Majesty's consul at Quilimane +for the eastern coast and the independent districts in the interior, and +commander of an expedition for exploring eastern and central Africa." +The Zambezi expedition, of which Livingstone thus became commander, +sailed from Liverpool in H.M.S. "Pearl" on the 10th of March 1858, and +reached the mouth of the Zambezi on the 14th of May. The party, which +included Dr (afterwards Sir) John Kirk and Livingstone's brother +Charles, ascended the river from the Kongone mouth in a steam launch, +the "Ma-Robert"; reaching Tete on the 8th of September. The remainder of +the year was devoted to an examination of the river above Tete, and +especially the Kebrabasa rapids. Most of the year 1859 was spent in the +exploration of the river Shiré and Lake Nyasa, which was discovered in +September; and during a great part of the year 1860 Livingstone was +engaged in fulfilling his promise to take such of the Makololo home as +cared to go. In January of next year arrived Bishop C. F. Mackenzie and +a party of missionaries sent out by the Universities Mission to +establish a station on the upper Shiré. + +After exploring the river Rovuma for 30 m. in his new vessel the +"Pioneer," Livingstone and the missionaries proceeded up the Shiré to +Chibisa's; there they found the slave trade rampant. On the 15th of July +Livingstone, accompanied by several native carriers, started to show the +bishop the country. Several bands of slaves whom they met were +liberated, and after seeing the missionary party settled in the +highlands to the south of Lake Chilwa (Shirwa) Livingstone spent from +August to November in exploring Lake Nyasa. While the boat sailed up +the west side of the lake to near the north end, the explorer marched +along the shore. He returned more resolved than ever to do his utmost to +rouse the civilized world to put down the desolating slave-trade. On the +30th of January 1862, at the Zambezi mouth, Livingstone welcomed his +wife and the ladies of the mission, with whom were the sections of the +"Lady Nyassa," a river steamer which Livingstone had had built at his +own expense. When the mission ladies reached the mouth of the Ruo +tributary of the Shiré, they were stunned to hear of the death of the +bishop and one of his companions. This was a sad blow to Livingstone, +seeming to have rendered all his efforts to establish a mission futile. +A still greater loss to him was that of his wife at Shupanga, on the +27th of April 1862. + +The "Lady Nyassa" was taken to the Rovuma. Up this river Livingstone +managed to steam 156 m., but farther progress was arrested by rocks. +Returning to the Zambezi in the beginning of 1863, he found that the +desolation caused by the slave trade was more horrible and widespread +than ever. It was clear that the Portuguese officials were themselves at +the bottom of the traffic. Kirk and Charles Livingstone being compelled +to return to England on account of their health, the doctor resolved +once more to visit the lake, and proceeded some distance up the west +side and then north-west as far as the watershed that separates the +Loangwa from the rivers that run into the lake. Meanwhile a letter was +received from Earl Russell recalling the expedition by the end of the +year. In the end of April 1864 Livingstone reached Zanzibar in the "Lady +Nyassa," and on the 23rd of July Livingstone arrived in England. He was +naturally disappointed with the comparative failure of this expedition. +Still the geographical results, though not in extent to be compared to +those of his first and his final expeditions, were of high importance, +as were those in various departments of science, and he had unknowingly +laid the foundations of the British protectorate of Nyasaland. Details +will be found in his _Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its +Tributaries_, published in 1865. + +By Sir Roderick Murchison and his other staunch friends Livingstone was +as warmly welcomed as ever. When Murchison proposed to him that he +should go out again, although he seems to have had a desire to spend the +remainder of his days at home, the prospect was too tempting to be +rejected. He was appointed British consul to Central Africa without a +salary, and government contributed only £500 to the expedition. The +chief help came from private friends. During the latter part of the +expedition government granted him £1000, but that, when he learned of +it, was devoted to his great undertaking. The Geographical Society +contributed £500. The two main objects of the expedition were the +suppression of slavery by means of civilizing influences, and the +ascertainment of the watershed in the region between Nyasa and +Tanganyika. At first Livingstone thought the Nile problem had been all +but solved by Speke, Baker and Burton, but the idea grew upon him that +the Nile sources must be sought farther south, and his last journey +became in the end a forlorn hope in search of the "fountains" of +Herodotus. Leaving England in the middle of August 1865, via Bombay, +Livingstone arrived at Zanzibar on the 28th of January 1866. He was +landed at the mouth of the Rovuma on the 22nd of March, and started for +the interior on the 4th of April. His company consisted of thirteen +sepoys, ten Johanna men, nine African boys from Nasik school, Bombay, +and four boys from the Shiré region, besides camels, buffaloes, mules +and donkeys. This imposing outfit soon melted away to four or five boys. +Rounding the south end of Lake Nyasa, Livingstone struck in a +north-north-west direction for the south end of Lake Tanganyika, over +country much of which had not previously been explored. The Loangwa was +crossed on the 15th of December 1866. On Christmas day Livingstone lost +his four goats, a loss which he felt very keenly, and the medicine chest +was stolen in January 1867. Fever came upon him, and for a time was his +almost constant companion; this, with other serious ailments which +subsequently attacked him, and which he had no medicine to counteract, +told on even his iron frame. The Chambezi was crossed on the 28th of +January, and the south end of Tanganyika reached on the 31st of March. +Here, much to his vexation, he got into the company of Arab slave +dealers (among them being Tippoo-Tib) by whom his movements were +hampered; but he succeeded in reaching Lake Mweru (Nov. 1867). After +visiting Lake Mofwa and the Lualaba, which he believed was the upper +part of the Nile, he, on the 18th of July 1868, discovered Lake +Bangweulu. Proceeding up the west coast of Tanganyika, he reached Ujiji +on the 14th of March 1869, "a ruckle of bones." Livingstone recrossed +Tanganyika in July, and passed through the country of the Manyema, but +baffled partly by the natives, partly by the slave hunters, and partly +by his long illnesses it was not till the 29th of March 1871 that he +succeeded in reaching the Lualaba, at the town of Nyangwe, where he +stayed four months, vainly trying to get a canoe to take him across. It +was here that a party of Arab slavers, without warning or provocation, +assembled one day when the market was busiest and commenced shooting +the women, hundreds being killed or drowned in trying to escape. +Livingstone had "the impression that he was in hell," but was helpless, +though his "first impulse was to pistol the murderers." The account of +this scene which he sent home roused indignation in England to such a +degree as to lead to determined and to a considerable extent successful +efforts to get the sultan of Zanzibar to suppress the trade. In sickened +disgust the weary traveller made his way back to Ujiji, which he reached +on the 13th of October. Five days after his arrival in Ujiji he was +inspired with new life by the timely arrival of H. M. Stanley, the +richly laden almoner of Mr Gordon Bennett, of the _New York Herald_. +With Stanley Livingstone explored the north end of Tanganyika, and +proved conclusively that the Rusizi runs into and not out of it. In the +end of the year the two started eastward for Unyamwezi, where Stanley +provided Livingstone with an ample supply of goods, and bade him +farewell. Stanley left on the 15th of March 1872, and after Livingstone +had waited wearily in Unyamwezi for five months, a troop of fifty-seven +men and boys arrived, good and faithful fellows on the whole, selected +by Stanley himself. Thus attended, he started on the 15th of August for +Lake Bangweulu, proceeding along the east side of Tanganyika. His old +enemy dysentery soon found him out. In January 1873 the party got among +the endless spongy jungle on the east of Lake Bangweulu, Livingstone's +object being to go round by the south and away west to find the +"fountains." The doctor got worse and worse, and in the middle of April +he had unwillingly to submit to be carried in a rude litter. On the 29th +of April Chitambo's village on the Lulimala, in Ilala, on the south +shore of the lake, was reached. The last entry in the journal is on the +27th of April: "Knocked up quite, and remain--recover--sent to buy milch +goats. We are on the banks of the Molilamo." On the 30th of April he +with difficulty wound up his watch, and early on the morning of the 1st +of May the boys found "the great master," as they called him, kneeling +by the side of his bed, dead. His faithful men preserved the body in the +sun as well as they could, and, wrapping it carefully up, carried it and +all his papers, instruments and other things across Africa to Zanzibar. +It was borne to England with all honour, and on the 18th of April 1874, +was deposited in Westminster Abbey. His faithfully kept journals during +these seven years' wanderings were published under the title of the +_Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_, in 1874, edited +by his old friend the Rev. Horace Waller. In Old Chitambo's the time and +place of his death are commemorated by a permanent monument, which +replaced in 1902 the tree on which his native followers had recorded the +event. + +In spite of his sufferings and the many compulsory delays, Livingstone's +discoveries during these last years were both extensive and of prime +importance as leading to a solution of African hydrography. No single +African explorer has ever done so much for African geography as +Livingstone during his thirty years' work. His travels covered one-third +of the continent, extending from the Cape to near the equator, and from +the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. Livingstone was no hurried traveller; +he did his journeying leisurely, carefully observing and recording all +that was worthy of note, with rare geographical instinct and the eye of +a trained scientific observer, studying the ways of the people, eating +their food, living in their huts, and sympathizing with their joys and +sorrows. In all the countries through which he travelled his memory is +cherished by the native tribes who, almost without exception, treated +Livingstone as a superior being; his treatment of them was always +tender, gentle and gentlemanly. By the Arab slavers whom he opposed he +was also greatly admired, and was by them styled "the very great +doctor." "In the annals of exploration of the Dark Continent," wrote +Stanley many years after the death of the missionary explorer, "we look +in vain among other nationalities for a name such as Livingstone's. He +stands pre-eminent above all; he unites in himself all the best +qualities of other explorers. ... Britain ... excelled herself even when +she produced the strong and perseverant Scotchman, Livingstone." But the +direct gains to geography and science are perhaps not the greatest +results of Livingstone's journeys. His example and his death acted like +an inspiration, filling Africa with an army of explorers and +missionaries, and raising in Europe so powerful a feeling against the +slave trade that through him it may be considered as having received its +deathblow. Personally Livingstone was a pure and tender-hearted man, +full of humanity and sympathy, simple-minded as a child. The motto of +his life was the advice he gave to some school children in +Scotland--"Fear God, and work hard." + + See, besides his own narratives and W. G. Blaikie's _Life_ (1880), the + publications of the London Missionary Society from 1840, the _Journal + and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, the despatches to + the Foreign Office sent home by Livingstone during his last two + expeditions, and Stanley's _Autobiography_ (1909) and _How I Found + Livingstone_ (1872). (J. S. K.) + + + + +LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS, a band of highlands in German East Africa, +forming the eastern border of the rift-valley of Lake Nyasa, at the +northern end of the lake. In parts these highlands, known also under +their native name of Kinga, present rather the character of a plateau +than of a true mountain range, but the latter name may be justified by +the fact that they form a comparatively narrow belt of country, which +falls considerably to the east as well as to the west. The northern end +is well marked in 8° 50´ S. by an escarpment falling to the Ruaha +valley, which is regarded as a north-eastern branch of the main +rift-valley. Southwards the Livingstone range terminates in the deep +valley of the Ruhuhu in 10° 30´ S., the first decided break in the +highlands that is reached from the north, on the east coast of Nyasa. +Geologically the range is formed on the side of the lake by a zone of +gneiss running in a series of ridges and valleys generally parallel to +its axis. The ridge nearest the lake (which in Mount Jamimbi or +Chamembe, 9° 41´ S., rises to an absolute height of 7870 ft., or 6200 +ft. above Nyasa) falls almost sheer to the water, the same steep slope +being continued beneath the surface. Towards the south the range appears +to have a width of some 20 m. only, but northwards it widens out to +about 40 m., though broken here by the depression, drained towards the +Ruaha, of Buanyi, on the south side of which is the highest known summit +of the range (9600 ft.). North and east of Buanyi, as in the eastern +half of the range generally, table-topped mountains occur, composed +above of horizontally bedded quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates. +The uplands are generally clothed in rich grass, forest occurring +principally in the hollows, while the slopes towards the lake are +covered with poor scrub. Native settlements are scattered over the whole +range, and German mission stations have been established at Bulongwa and +Mtandala, a little north of the north end of Nyasa. The climate is here +healthy, and night frosts occur in the cold season. European crops are +raised with success. At the foot of the mountains on Lake Nyasa are the +ports of Wiedhafen, at the mouth of the Ruhuhu, and Old Langenburg, at +the north-east corner of the lake. (E. He.) + + + + +LIVIUS ANDRONICUS (c. 284-204 B.C.), the founder of Roman epic poetry +and drama. His name, in which the Greek [Greek: Andronikos] is combined +with the gentile name of one of the great Roman houses, while indicative +of his own position as a manumitted slave, is also significant of the +influences by which Roman literature was fostered, viz. the culture of +men who were either Greeks or "semi-Graeci" by birth and education, and +the protection and favour bestowed upon them by the more enlightened +members of the Roman aristocracy. He is supposed to have been a native +of Tarentum, and to have been brought, while still a boy, after the +capture of that town in 272, as a slave to Rome. He lived in the +household of a member of the gens Livia, probably M. Livius Salinator. +He determined the course which Roman literature followed for more than a +century after his time. The imitation of Greek comedy, tragedy and epic +poetry, which produced great results in the hands of Naevius, Plautus, +Ennius and their successors, received its first impulse from him. To +judge, however, from the insignificant remains of his writings, and from +the opinions of Cicero and Horace, he can have had no pretension either +to original genius or to artistic accomplishment. His real claim to +distinction was that he was the first great schoolmaster of the Roman +people. We learn from Suetonius that, like Ennius after him, he obtained +his living by teaching Greek and Latin; and it was probably as a +school-book, rather than as a work of literary pretension, that his +translation of the _Odyssey_ into Latin Saturnian verse was executed. +This work was still used in schools in the time of Horace (_Epp._ ii. +1., 69), and, although faultily executed, satisfied a real want by +introducing the Romans to a knowledge of Greek. Such knowledge became +essential to men in a high position as a means of intercourse with +Greeks, while Greek literature stimulated the minds of leading Romans. +Moreover, southern Italy and Sicily afforded many opportunities for +witnessing representations of Greek comedies and tragedies. The Romans +and Italians had an indigenous drama of their own, known by the name of +_Satura_, which prepared them for the reception of the more regular +Greek drama. The distinction between this _Satura_ and the plays of +Euripides or Menander was that it had no regular plot. This the Latin +drama first received from Livius Andronicus; but it did so at the cost +of its originality. In 240, the year after the end of the first Punic +War, he produced at the ludi Romani a translation of a Greek play (it is +uncertain whether a comedy or tragedy or both), and this representation +marks the beginning of Roman literature (Livy vii. 2). Livius himself +took part in his plays, and in order to spare his voice he introduced +the custom of having the solos (_cantica_) sung by a boy, while he +himself represented the action of the song by dumb show. In his +translation he discarded the native Saturnian metre, and adopted the +iambic, trochaic and cretic metres, to which Latin more easily adapted +itself than either to the hexameter or to the lyrical measures of a +later time. He continued to produce plays for more than thirty years +after this time. The titles of his tragedies--_Achilles_, _Aegisthus_, +_Equus Trojanus_, _Hermione_, _Tereus_--are all suggestive of subjects +which were treated by the later tragic poets of Rome. In the year 207, +when he must have been of a great age, he was appointed to compose a +hymn of thanksgiving, sung by maidens, for the victory of the Metaurus +and an intercessory hymn to the Aventine Juno. As a further tribute of +national recognition the "college" or "gild" of poets and actors was +granted a place of meeting in the temple of Minerva on the Aventine. + + See fragments in L. Müller, _Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabularum + Reliquiae_ (1885); also J. Wordsworth, _Fragments and Specimens of + Early Latin_ (1874); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, bk. iii. ch. 14. + + + + +LIVNO, a town of Bosnia, situated on the eastern side of the fertile +plain of Livno, at the foot of Mount Krug (6581 ft.). Pop. about 5000. +The Dalmatian border is 7 m. W. Livno had a trade in grain, live-stock +and silver filigree-work up to 1904, when a fire swept away more than +500 of the old Turkish houses, together with the Roman citadel. Remains +prove that Livno occupies the site of a Roman settlement, the name of +which is uncertain. The Roman Catholic convent of Gurici is 6 m. S. + + + + +LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, _Liflandia_), one of the three Baltic +provinces of Russia, bounded W. by the Gulf of Riga, N. by Esthonia, E. +by the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov and Vitebsk, and S. by +Courland. A group of islands (1110 sq. m.) at the entrance of the Gulf +of Riga, of which Oesel, Mohn, Runo and Paternoster are the largest, +belong to this government. It covers an area of 18,160 sq. m., but of +this the part of Lake Peipus which belongs to it occupies 1090. Its +surface is diversified by several plateaus, those of Haanhof and of the +Livonian Aa having an average elevation of 400 to 700 ft., while several +summits reach 800 to 1000 ft. or more. The edges of the plateaus are +gapped by deep valleys; the hilly tract between the Dvina and its +tributary the Livonian Aa has received, from its picturesque narrow +valleys, thick forests and numerous lakes, the name of "Livonian +Switzerland." The plateau of Odenpäh, drained by tributaries of the +Embach river, which flows for 93 m. from Lake Virz-yärvi into Lake +Peipus, occupies an area of 2830 sq. m., and has an average elevation of +500 ft. More than a thousand lakes are scattered over Livonia, of which +that of Virz-yärvi, having a surface of 106 sq. m. (115 ft. above +sea-level), is the largest. Marshes and peat-bogs occupy one-tenth of +the province. Of the numerous rivers, the Dvina, which flows for 90 m. +along its frontier, the Pernau, Salis, Livonian Aa and Embach are +navigable. + +The Silurian formation which covers Esthonia, appears in the northern +part of Livonia, the remainder of the province consisting of Devonian +strata. The whole is overlaid with glacial deposits, sometimes 400 ft. +thick. The typical bottom moraine, with erratics from Finland, extends +all over the country. Glacial furrows, striae and elongated troughs are +met with everywhere, running mostly from north-west to south-east, as +well as _asar_ or _eskérs_, which have the same direction. Sand-dunes +cover large tracts on the shores of the Baltic. No traces of marine +deposits are found higher than 100 or 150 ft. above the present +sea-level. The soil is not very fertile. Forests cover about two-fifths +of the surface. The climate is rather severe. The mean temperatures are +43° F. at Riga (winter 23°, summer 63°) and 40° at Yuriev. The winds are +very variable; the average number of rainy and snowy days is 146 at Riga +(rainfall 24.1 in.). Fogs are not uncommon. + +The population of Livonia, which was 621,600 in 1816, reached 1,000,876 +in 1870, and 1,295,231 in 1897, of whom 43.4% were Letts, 39.9% Ehsts, +7.6% Germans, 5.4% Russians, 2% Jews and 1.2% Poles. The estimated pop. +in 1906 was 1,411,000. The Livs, who formerly extended east into the +government of Vitebsk, have nearly all passed away. Their native +language, of Finnish origin, is rapidly disappearing, their present +language being a Lettish patois. In 1846 a grammar and dictionary of it +were made with difficulty from the mouths of old people. The Ehsts, who +resemble the Finns of Tavastland, have maintained their ethnic features, +their customs, national traditions, songs and poetry, and their +harmonious language. There is a marked revival of national feeling, +favoured by "Young Esthonia." The prevailing religion is the Lutheran +(79.8%); 14.3% belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; of the Russians, +however, a considerable proportion are Raskolniks (Nonconformists); the +Roman Catholics amount to 2.3%, and the Jews to 2%. The Russian civil +code was introduced in the Baltic provinces in 1835, and the use of +Russian, instead of German, in official correspondence and in law +courts was ordered in 1867, but not generally brought into practice. + + Nearly all the soil belongs to the nobility, the extent of the + peasants' estates being only 15% of the entire area of the government. + Serfdom was abolished in 1819, but the peasants remained under the + jurisdiction of their landlords. The class of peasant proprietors + being restricted to a small number of wealthy peasants, the bulk have + remained tenants at will; they are very miserable, and about + one-fourth of them are continually wandering in search of work. From + time to time the emigration takes the shape of a mass movement, which + the government stops by forcible measures. The average size of the + landed estates is 9500 to 11,000 acres, far above the general average + for Russia. Agriculture has reached a high degree of perfection on the + estates of the landlords. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, + flax and potatoes, with some wheat, hemp and buckwheat. Dairy-farming + and gardening are on the increase. Fishing in Lake Peipus gives + occupation to nearly 100,000 persons, and is also carried on in the + Gulf of Riga and in the rivers. Woollen, cloth, cotton and flax mills, + steam flour and saw mills, distilleries and breweries, machinery + works, paper mills, furniture, tobacco, soap, candle and hardware + works are among the chief industrial establishments. Livonia carries + on a large export trade, especially through Riga and Pernau, in + petroleum, wool, oilcake, flax, linseed, hemp, grain, timber and + wooden wares; the Dvina is the chief channel for this trade. + + Education stands on a much higher level than elsewhere in Russia, no + less than 87% of the children receiving regular instruction. The + higher educational institutions include Yuriev (Dorpat) University, + Riga polytechnic and a high school for the clergy. + + The government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns of + which, with their populations in 1897, are: Riga, capital of the + government (282,943); Arensburg, in the island of Oesel (4621); Yuriev + or Dorpat (42,421); Fellin (7659); Pernau (12,856); Walk (10,139); + Wenden (6327); Werro (4154); and Wolmar (5124). The capital of the + government is Riga. + +Coins of the time of Alexander the Great, found on the island of Oesel, +show that the coasts of the Baltic were at an early period in commercial +relation with the civilized world. The chronicle of Nestor mentions as +inhabitants of the Baltic coast the Chudes, the Livs, the Narova, +Letgola, Semigallians and Kors. It was probably about the 9th century +that the Chudes became tributary to the Varangian-Russian states. As +they reacquired their independence, Yaroslav I. undertook in 1030 a +campaign against them, and founded Yuriev (Dorpat). The Germans first +penetrated into Livonia in the 11th century, and in 1158 several Lübeck +and Visby merchants landed at the mouth of the Dvina. In 1186 the +emissaries of the archbishop of Bremen began to preach Christianity +among the Ehsts and Letts, and in 1201 the bishop of Livonia established +his residence at Riga. In 1202 or 1204 Innocent III. recognized the +order of Brothers of the Sword, the residence of its grand master being +at Wenden; and the order, spreading the Christian religion by the sword +among the natives, carried on from that time a series of uninterrupted +wars against the Russian republics and Lithuania, as well as a struggle +against the archbishop of Riga, Riga having become a centre for trade, +intermediate between the Hanseatic towns and those of Novgorod, Pskov +and Polotsk. The first active interference of Lithuania in the affairs +of Livonia took place immediately after the great outbreak of the +peasants on Oesel; Olgierd then devastated all southern Livonia. The +order, having purchased the Danish part of Esthonia, in 1347, began a +war against the bishop of Riga, as well as against Lithuania, Poland and +Russia. The wars against those powers were terminated respectively in +1435, 1466 and 1483. About the end of the 15th century the master of the +order, Plettenberg, acquired a position of great importance, and in 1527 +he was recognized as a prince of the empire by Charles V. On the other +hand, the authority of the bishops of Riga was soon completely destroyed +(1566). The war of the order with Ivan IV. of Russia in 1558 led to a +division of Livonia, its northern part, Dorpat included, being taken by +Russia, and the southern part falling under the dominion of Poland. From +that time (1561) Livonia formed a subject of dispute between Poland and +Russia, the latter only formally abdicating its rights to the country in +1582. In 1621 it was the theatre of a war between Poland and Sweden, and +was conquered by the latter power, enjoying thus for twenty-five years a +milder rule. In 1654, and again at the beginning of the 18th century, it +became the theatre of war between Poland, Russia and Sweden, and was +finally conquered by Russia. The official concession was confirmed by +the treaty of Nystad in 1721. + + See E. Seraphim, _Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands_ (2nd ed., + Revel, 1897-1904) and _Geschichte von Livland_ (Gotha, 1905, &c.). + (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + + +LIVY [TITUS LIVIUS] (59 B.C.-A.D. 17), Roman historian, was born at +Patavium (Padua). The ancient connexion between his native city and Rome +helped to turn his attention to the study which became the work of his +life. For Padua claimed, like Rome, a Trojan origin, and Livy is careful +to place its founder Antenor side by side with Aeneas. A more real bond +of union was found in the dangers to which both had been exposed from +the assaults of the Celts (Livy x. 2), and Padua must have been drawn to +Rome as the conqueror of her hereditary foes. Moreover, at the time of +Livy's birth, Padua had long been in possession of the full Roman +franchise, and the historian's family name may have been taken by one of +his ancestors out of compliment to the great Livian gens at Rome, whose +connexion with Cisalpine Gaul is well-established (Suet. _Tib._ 3), and +by one of whom his family may have been enfranchized. + +Livy's easy independent life at Rome, and his aristocratic leanings in +politics seem to show that he was the son of well-born and opulent +parents; he was certainly well educated, being widely read in Greek +literature, and a student both of rhetoric and philosophy. We have also +evidence in his writings that he had prepared himself for his great work +by researches into the history of his native town. His youth and early +manhood, spent perhaps chiefly at Padua, were cast in stormy times, and +the impression which they left upon his mind was ineffaceable. In the +Civil War his personal sympathies were with Pompey and the republican +party (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34); but far more lasting in its effects was his +experience of the licence, anarchy and confusion of these dark days. The +rule of Augustus he seems to have accepted as a necessity, but he could +not, like Horace and Virgil, welcome it as inaugurating a new and +glorious era. He writes of it with despondency as a degenerate and +declining age; and, instead of triumphant prophecies of world-wide rule, +such as we find in Horace, Livy contents himself with pointing out the +dangers which already threatened Rome, and exhorting his contemporaries +to learn, in good time, the lessons which the past history of the state +had to teach. + +It was probably about the time of the battle of Actium that Livy +established himself in Rome, and there he seems chiefly to have resided +until his retirement to Padua shortly before his death. We have no +evidence that he travelled much, though he must have paid at least one +visit to Campania (xxxviii. 56), and he never, so far as we know, took +any part in political life. Nor, though he enjoyed the personal +friendship and patronage of Augustus (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34) and stimulated +the historical zeal of the future emperor Claudius (Suet. _Claud._ +xli.), can we detect in him anything of the courtier. There is not in +his history a trace of that rather gross adulation in which even Virgil +does not disdain to indulge. His republican sympathies were freely +expressed, and as freely pardoned by Augustus. We must imagine him +devoted to the great task which he had set himself to perform, with a +mind free from all disturbing cares, and in the enjoyment of all the +facilities for study afforded by the Rome of Augustus, with its liberal +encouragement of letters, its newly-founded libraries and its brilliant +literary circles. As his work went on, the fame which he had never +coveted came to him in ample measure. He is said to have declared in one +volume of his history that he had already won glory enough, and the +younger Pliny (_Epist._ ii. 3) relates that a Spaniard came all the way +from Gades merely to see him, and, this accomplished, at once returned +home satisfied. The accession of Tiberius (A.D. 14) materially altered +for the worse the prospects of literature in Rome, and Livy retired to +Padua, where he died. He had at least one son (Quintil. x. 1. 39), who +also was possibly an author (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ i. 5. 6), and a +daughter married to a certain L. Magius, a rhetorician of no great merit +(Seneca, _Controv._ x. 29. 2). Nothing further is known of his personal +history. + +_Analysis of the History._--For us the interest of Livy's life centres +in the work to which the greater part of it was devoted, the history of +Rome from its foundation down to the death of Drusus (9 B.C.). Its +proper title was _Ab urbe condita libri_ (also called _historiae_ and +_annales_). Various indications point to the period from 27 to 20 B.C., +as that during which the first decade was written. In the first book +(19. 3) the emperor is called Augustus, a title which he assumed early +in 27 B.C., and in ix. 18 the omission of all reference to the +restoration, in 20 B.C., of the standards taken at Carrhae seems to +justify the inference that the passage was written before that date. In +the epitome of book lix. there is a reference to a law of Augustus which +was passed in 18 B.C. The books dealing with the civil wars must have +been written during Augustus's lifetime, as they were read by him (Tac. +_Ann._ iv. 34), while there is some evidence that the last part, from +book cxxi. onwards, was published after his death A.D. 14. + +The work begins with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, and closes with the +death of Drusus, 9 B.C., though it is possible that the author intended +to continue it as far as the death of Augustus. The division into +decades is certainly not due to the author himself, and is first heard +of at the end of the 5th century; on the other hand, the division into +_libri_ or _volumina_ seems to be original. That the books were grouped +and possibly published in sets is rendered probable both by the prefaces +which introduce new divisions of the work (vi. 1, xxi. 1, xxxi. 1) and +by the description in one MS. of books cix.-cxvi. as "bellorum civilium +libri octo." Such arrangement and publication in parts were, moreover, +common with ancient authors, and in the case of a lengthy work almost a +necessity. + +Of the 142 _libri_ composing the history, the first 15 carry us down to +the eve of the great struggle with Carthage, a period, as Livy reckons +it, of 488 years (xxxi. 1); 15 more (xvi-xxx.) cover the 63 years of the +two great Punic wars. With the close of book xlv. we reach the conquest +of Macedonia in 167 B.C. Book lviii. described the tribunate of Tiberius +Gracchus, 133 B.C. In book lxxxix. we have the dictatorship of Sulla (81 +B.C.), in ciii. Caesar's first consulship (59 B.C.), in cix.-cxvi. the +civil wars to the death of Caesar (44 B.C.), in cxxiv. the defeat of +Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, in cxxxiii. and cxxxiv. the battle of +Actium and the accession of Augustus. The remaining eight books give the +history of the first twenty years of Augustus's reign. + +Of this vast work only a small portion has come down to modern times; +only thirty-five books are now extant (i.-x., xxi.-xlv.), and of these +xli. and xliii. are incomplete. The lost books seem to have disappeared +between the 7th century and the revival of letters in the 15th--a fact +sufficiently accounted for by the difficulty of transmitting so +voluminous a work in times when printing was unknown, for the story that +Pope Gregory I. burnt all the copies of Livy he could lay his hands on +rests on no good evidence. Only one important fragment has since been +recovered--the portion of book xci. discovered in the Vatican in 1772, +and edited by Niebuhr in 1820. Very much no doubt of the substance of +the lost books has been preserved both by such writers as Plutarch and +Dio Cassius, and by epitomizers like Florus and Eutropius. But our +knowledge of their contents is chiefly derived from the so-called +_periochae_ or epitomes, of which we have fortunately a nearly complete +series, the epitomes of books cxxxvi. and cxxxvii. being the only ones +missing.[1] These epitomes have been ascribed without sufficient reason +to Florus (2nd century); but, though they are probably of even later +date, and are disappointingly meagre, they may be taken as giving, so +far as they go, a fairly authentic description of the original. They +have been expanded with great ingenuity and learning by Freinsheim in +Drakenborch's edition of Livy.[2] The _Prodigio_ of Julius Obsequens and +the list of consuls in the _Chronica_ of Cassiodorus are taken directly +from Livy, and to that extent reproduce the contents of the lost books. +It is probable that Obsequens, Cassiodorus and the compiler of the +epitomes did not use the original work but an abridgment. + +_Historical Standpoint._--If we are to form a correct judgment on the +merits of Livy's history, we must, above all things, bear in mind what +his aim was in writing it, and this he has told us himself in the +celebrated preface. He set himself the task of recording the history of +the Roman people, "the first in the world," from the beginning. The task +was a great one, and the fame to be won by it uncertain, yet it would +be something to have made the attempt, and the labour itself would bring +a welcome relief from the contemplation of present evils; for his +readers, too, this record will, he says, be full of instruction; they +are invited to note especially the moral lessons taught by the story of +Rome, to observe how Rome rose to greatness by the simple virtues and +unselfish devotion of her citizens, and how on the decay of these +qualities followed degeneracy and decline. + +He does not, therefore, write, as Polybius wrote, for students of +history. With Polybius the greatness of Rome is a phenomenon to be +critically studied and scientifically explained; the rise of Rome forms +an important chapter in universal history, and must be dealt with, not +as an isolated fact, but in connexion with the general march of events +in the civilized world. Still less has Livy anything in common with the +naïve anxiety of Dionysius of Halicarnassus to make it clear to his +fellow Greeks that the irresistible people who had mastered them was in +origin, in race and in language Hellenic like themselves. + +Livy writes as a Roman, to raise a monument worthy of the greatness of +Rome, and to keep alive, for the guidance and the warning of Romans, the +recollection alike of the virtues which had made Rome great and of the +vices which had threatened her with destruction. In so writing he was in +close agreement with the traditions of Roman literature, as well as with +the conception of the nature and objects of history current in his time. +To a large extent Roman literature grew out of pride in Rome, for, +though her earliest authors took the form and often the language of +their writings from Greece, it was the greatness of Rome that inspired +the best of them, and it was from the annals of Rome that their themes +were taken. And this is naturally true in an especial sense of the Roman +historians; the long list of annalists begins at the moment when the +great struggle with Carthage had for the first time brought Rome into +direct connexion with the historic peoples of the ancient world, and +when Romans themselves awoke to the importance of the part reserved for +Rome to play in universal history. To write the annals of Rome became at +once a task worthy of the best of her citizens. Though other forms of +literature might be thought unbecoming to the dignity of a free-born +citizen, this was never so with history. On the contrary, men of high +rank and tried statesmanship were on that very account thought all the +fitter to write the chronicles of the state they had served. And history +in Rome never lost either its social prestige or its intimate and +exclusive connexion with the fortunes of the Roman people. It was well +enough for Greeks to busy themselves with the manners, institutions and +deeds of the "peoples outside." The Roman historians, from Fabius Pictor +to Tacitus, cared for none of these things. This exclusive interest in +Rome was doubtless encouraged by the peculiar characteristics of the +history of the state. The Roman annalist had not, like the Greek, to +deal with the varying fortunes and separate doings of a number of petty +communities, but with the continuous life of a single city. Nor was his +attention drawn from the main lines of political history by the claims +of art, literature and philosophy, for just as the tie which bound +Romans together was that of citizenship, not of race or culture, so the +history of Rome is that of the state, of its political constitution, its +wars and conquests, its military and administrative system. + +Livy's own circumstances were all such as to render these views natural +to him. He began to write at a time when, after a century of +disturbance, the mass of men had been contented to purchase peace at the +price of liberty. The present was at least inglorious, the future +doubtful, and many turned gladly to the past for consolation. This +retrospective tendency was favourably regarded by the government. It was +the policy of Augustus to obliterate all traces of recent revolution, +and to connect the new imperial régime as closely as possible with the +ancient traditions and institutions of Rome and Italy. The _Aeneid_ of +Virgil, the _Fasti_ of Ovid, suited well with his own restoration of the +ancient temples, his revival of such ancient ceremonies as the Ludi +Saeculares, his efforts to check the un-Roman luxury of the day, and his +jealous regard for the purity of the Roman stock. And, though we are +nowhere told that Livy undertook his history at the emperor's +suggestion, it is certain that Augustus read parts of it with pleasure, +and even honoured the writer with his assistance and friendship. + +Livy was deeply penetrated with a sense of the greatness of Rome. From +first to last its majesty and high destiny are present to his mind. +Aeneas is led to Italy by the Fates that he may be the founder of Rome. +Romulus after his ascension declares it to be the will of heaven that +Rome should be mistress of the world; and Hannibal marches into Italy, +that he may "set free the world" from Roman rule. But, if this +ever-present consciousness often gives dignity and elevation to his +narrative, it is also responsible for some of its defects. It leads him +occasionally into exaggerated language (e.g. xxii. 33, "nullius usquam +terrarum rei cura Romanos effugiebat"), or into such mis-statements as +his explanation of the course taken by the Romans in renewing war with +Carthage, that "it seemed more suitable to the dignity of the Roman +people." Often his jealousy for the honour of Rome makes him unfair and +one-sided. In all her wars not only success but justice is with Rome. To +the same general attitude is also due the omission by Livy of all that +has no direct bearing on the fortunes of the Roman people. "I have +resolved," he says (xxxix. 48), "only to touch on foreign affairs so far +as they are bound up with those of Rome." As the result, we get from +Livy very defective accounts even of the Italic peoples most closely +connected with Rome. Of the past history and the internal condition of +the more distant nations she encountered he tells us little or nothing, +even when he found such details carefully given by Polybius. + +Scarcely less strong than his interest in Rome is his interest in the +moral lessons which her history seemed to him so well qualified to +teach. This didactic view of history was a prevalent one in antiquity, +and it was confirmed no doubt by those rhetorical studies which in Rome +as in Greece formed the chief part of education, and which taught men to +look on history as little more than a storehouse of illustrations and +themes for declamation. But it suited also the practical bent of the +Roman mind, with its comparative indifference to abstract speculation or +purely scientific research. It is in the highest degree natural that +Livy should have sought for the secret of the rise of Rome, not in any +large historical causes, but in the moral qualities of the people +themselves, and that he should have looked upon the contemplation of +these as the best remedy for the vices of his own degenerate days. He +dwells with delight on the unselfish patriotism of the old heroes of the +republic. In those times children obeyed their parents, the gods were +still sincerely worshipped, poverty was no disgrace, sceptical +philosophies and foreign fashions in religion and in daily life were +unknown. But this ethical interest is closely bound up with his Roman +sympathies. His moral ideal is no abstract one, and the virtues he +praises are those which in his view made up the truly Roman type of +character. The prominence thus given to the moral aspects of the history +tends to obscure in some degree the true relations and real importance +of the events narrated, but it does so in Livy to a far less extent than +in some other writers. He is much too skilful an artist either to +resolve his history into a mere bundle of examples, or to overload it, +as Tacitus is sometimes inclined to do, with reflections and axioms. The +moral he wishes to enforce is usually either conveyed by the story +itself, with the aid perhaps of a single sentence of comment, or put as +a speech into the mouth of one of his characters (e.g. xxiii. 49; the +devotion of Decius, viii. 10, cf. vii. 40; and the speech of Camillus, +v. 54); and what little his narrative thus loses in accuracy it gains in +dignity and warmth of feeling. In his portraits of the typical Romans of +the old style, such as Q. Fabius Maximus, in his descriptions of the +unshaken firmness and calm courage shown by the fathers of the state in +the hour of trial, Livy is at his best; and he is so largely in virtue +of his genuine appreciation of character as a powerful force in the +affairs of men. + +This enthusiasm for Rome and for Roman virtues is, moreover, saved from +degenerating into gross partiality by the genuine candour of Livy's mind +and by his wide sympathies with every thing great and good. Seneca +(_Suasoriae_ vi. 22) and Quintilian (x. 1. 101) bear witness to his +impartiality. Thus, Hasdrubal's devotion and valour at the battle on the +Metaurus are described in terms of eloquent praise; and even in +Hannibal, the lifelong enemy of Rome, he frankly recognizes the great +qualities that balanced his faults. Nor, though his sympathies are +unmistakably with the aristocratic party, does he scruple to censure the +pride, cruelty and selfishness which too often marked their conduct (ii. +54; the speech of Canuleius, iv. 3; of Sextius and Licinius, vi. 36); +and, though he feels acutely that the times are out of joint, and has +apparently little hope of the future, he still believes in justice and +goodness. He is often righteously indignant, but never satirical, and +such a pessimism as that of Tacitus and Juvenal is wholly foreign to his +nature. + +Though he studied and even wrote on philosophy (Seneca, _Ep._ 100. 9), +Livy is by no means a philosophic historian. We learn indeed from +incidental notices that he inclined to Stoicism and disliked the +Epicurean system. With the scepticism that despised the gods (x. 40) and +denied that they meddled with the affairs of men (xliii. 13) he has no +sympathy. The immortal gods are everywhere the same; they govern the +world (xxxvii. 45) and reveal the future to men by signs and wonders +(xliii. 13), but only a debased superstition will look for their hand in +every petty incident, or abandon itself to an indiscriminate belief in +the portents and miracles in which popular credulity delights. The +ancient state religion of Rome, with its temples, priests and auguries, +he not only reverences as an integral part of the Roman constitution, +with a sympathy which grows as he studies it, but, like Varro, and in +true Stoic fashion, he regards it as a valuable instrument of government +(i. 19. 21), indispensable in a well-ordered community. As distinctly +Stoical is the doctrine of a fate to which even the gods must yield (ix. +4), which disposes the plans of men (i. 42) and blinds their minds (v. +37), yet leaves their wills free (xxxvii. 45). + +But we find no trace in Livy of any systematic application of philosophy +to the facts of history. He is as innocent of the leading ideas which +shaped the work of Polybius as he is of the cheap theorizing which +wearies us in the pages of Dionysius. The events are graphically, if not +always accurately, described; but of the larger causes at work in +producing them, of their subtle action and reaction upon each other, and +of the general conditions amid which the history worked itself out, he +takes no thought at all. Nor has Livy much acquaintance with either the +theory or the practice of politics. He exhibits, it is true, political +sympathies and antipathies. He is on the whole for the nobles and +against the commons; and, though the unfavourable colours in which he +paints the leaders of the latter are possibly reflected from the +authorities he followed, it is evident that he despised and disliked the +multitude. Of monarchy he speaks with a genuine Roman hatred, and we +know that in the last days of the republic his sympathies were wholly +with those who strove in vain to save it. He betrays, too, an insight +into the evils which were destined finally to undermine the imposing +fabric of Roman empire. The decline of the free population, the spread +of slavery (vi. 12, vii. 25), the universal craving for wealth (iii. +26), the employment of foreign mercenaries (xxv. 33), the corruption of +Roman race and Roman manners by mixture with aliens (xxxix. 3), are all +noticed in tones of solemn warning. But his retired life had given him +no wide experience of men and things. It is not surprising, therefore, +to find that he fails altogether to present a clear and coherent picture +of the history and working of the Roman constitution, or that his +handling of intricate questions of policy is weak and inadequate. + +_Sources._--If from the general aim and spirit of Livy's history we pass +to consider his method of workmanship, we are struck at once by the very +different measure of success attained by him in the two great +departments of an historian's labour. He is a consummate artist, but an +unskilled and often careless investigator and critic. The materials +which lay ready to his hand may be roughly classed under two heads: (1) +the original evidence of monuments, inscriptions, &c., (2) the written +tradition as found in the works of previous authors. It is on the second +of these two kinds of evidence that Livy almost exclusively relies. Yet +that even for the very early times a certain amount of original evidence +still existed is proved by the use which was made of it by Dionysius, +who mentions at least three important inscriptions, two dating from the +regal period and one from the first years of the republic (iv. 26, iv. +58, x. 32). We know from Livy himself (iv. 20) that the breastplate +dedicated by Aulus Cornelius Cossus (428 B.C.) was to be seen in his own +day in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, nor is there any reason to +suppose that the _libri lintei_, quoted by Licinius Macer, were not +extant when Livy wrote. For more recent times the materials were +plentiful, and a rich field of research lay open to the student in the +long series of laws, decrees of the senate, and official registers, +reaching back, as it probably did, at least to the beginning of the 3rd +century B.C. Nevertheless it seems certain that Livy never realized the +duty of consulting these relics of the past, even in order to verify the +statements of his authorities. Many of them he never mentions; the +others (e.g. the _libri lintei_) he evidently describes at second hand. +Antiquarian studies were popular in his day, but the instances are very +few in which he has turned their results to account. There is no sign +that he had ever read Varro; and he never alludes to Verrius Flaccus. +The haziness and inaccuracy of his topography make it clear that he did +not attempt to familiarize himself with the actual scenes of events even +that took place in Italy. Not only does he confuse Thermon, the capital +of Aetolia, with Thermopylae (xxxiii. 35), but his accounts of the Roman +campaigns against Volsci, Aequi and Samnites swarm with confusions and +difficulties; nor are even his descriptions of Hannibal's movements free +from an occasional vagueness which betrays the absence of an exact +knowledge of localities. + + The consequence of this indifference to original research and patient + verification might have been less serious had the written tradition on + which Livy preferred to rely been more trustworthy. But neither the + materials out of which it was composed, nor the manner in which it had + been put together, were such as to make it a safe guide. It was indeed + represented by a long line of respectable names. The majority of the + Roman annalists were men of high birth and education, with a long + experience of affairs, and their defects did not arise from seclusion + of life or ignorance of letters. It is rather in the conditions under + which they wrote and in the rules and traditions of their craft that + the causes of their shortcomings must be sought. + + + The Annalists. + + It was not until the 6th century from the foundation of the city that + historical writing began in Rome. The father of Roman history, Q. + Fabius Pictor, a patrician and a senator, can scarcely have published + his annals before the close of the Second Punic War, but these annals + covered the whole period from the arrival of Evander in Italy down at + least to the battle by Lake Trasimene (217 B.C.). Out of what + materials, then, did he put together his account of the earlier + history? Recent criticism has succeeded in answering this question + with some degree of certainty. A careful examination of the fragments + of Fabius (see H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Relliquiae_, Leipzig, + 1870; and C. W. Nitzsch, _Röm. Annalistik_, Berlin, 1873) reveals in + the first place a marked difference between the kingly period and that + which followed the establishment of the republic. The history of the + former stretches back into the regions of pure mythology. It is little + more than a collection of fables told with scarcely any attempt at + criticism, and with no more regard to chronological sequence than was + necessary to make the tale run smoothly or to fill up such gaps as + that between the flight of Aeneas from Troy and the supposed year of + the foundation of Rome. But from its very commencement the history of + the republic wears a different aspect. The mass of floating tradition, + which had come down from early days, with its tales of border raids + and forays, of valiant chiefs and deeds of patriotism, is now rudely + fitted into a framework of a wholly different kind. This framework + consists of short notices of important events, wars, prodigies, + consecration of temples, &c., all recorded with extreme brevity, + precisely dated, and couched in a somewhat archaic style. They were + taken probably from one or more of the state registers, such as the + annals of the pontiffs, or those kept by the aediles in the temple of + Ceres. This bare official outline of the past history of his city was + by Fabius filled in from the rich store of tradition that lay ready to + his hand. The manner and spirit in which he effected this combination + were no doubt wholly uncritical. Usually he seems to have transferred + both annalistic notices and popular traditions to his pages much in + the shape in which he found them. But he unquestionably gave undue + prominence to the tales of the prowess and glory of the Fabii, and + probably also allowed his own strong aristocratic sympathies to colour + his version of the early political controversies. This fault of + partiality was, according to Polybius, a conspicuous blot in Fabius's + account of his own times, which was, we are told, full and in the main + accurate, and, like the earlier portions, consisted of official + annalistic notices, supplemented, however, not from tradition, but + from his own experience and from contemporary sources. But even here + Polybius charges him with favouring Rome at the expense of Carthage, + and with the undue exaltation of the great head of his house, Q. + Fabius Cunctator. + + Nevertheless the comparative fidelity with which Fabius seems to have + reproduced his materials might have made his annals the starting point + of a critical history. But unfortunately intelligent criticism was + exactly what they never received. It is true that in some respects a + decided advance upon Fabius was made by subsequent annalists. M. + Porcius Cato (234-149 B.C.) widened the scope of Roman history so as + to include that of the chief Italian cities, and made the first + serious attempt to settle the chronology. In his history of the Punic + wars Caelius Antipater (c. 130 B.C.) added fresh material, drawn + probably from the works of the Sicilian Greek Silenus, while Licinius + Macer (70 B.C.) distinguished himself by the use he made of the + ancient "linen books." No doubt, too, the later annalists, at any rate + from Caelius Antipater onwards, improved upon Fabius in treatment and + style. But in more essential points we can discern no progress. One + annalist after another quietly adopted the established tradition, as + it had been left by his predecessors, without any serious alterations + of its main outlines. Of independent research and critical analysis we + find no trace, and the general agreement upon main facts is to be + attributed simply to the regularity with which each writer copied the + one before him. But, had the later annalists contented themselves with + simply reproducing the earlier ones, we should at least have had the + old tradition before us in a simple and tolerably genuine form. As it + was, while they slavishly clung to its substance, they succeeded, as a + rule, in destroying all traces of its original form and colouring. L. + Calpurnius Piso, tribune in 149 B.C. and consul in 133 B.C., prided + himself on reducing the old legends to the level of common sense, and + importing into them valuable moral lessons for his own generation. By + Caelius Antipater the methods of rhetoric were first applied to + history, a disastrous precedent enough. He inserted speeches, + enlivened his pages with chance tales, and aimed, as Cicero tells us, + at not merely narrating facts but also at beautifying them. His + successors carried still farther the practice of dressing up the + rather bald chronicles of earlier writers with all the ornaments of + rhetoric. The old traditions were altered, almost beyond the + possibility of recognition, by exaggerations, interpolations and + additions. Fresh incidents were inserted, new motives suggested and + speeches composed in order to infuse the required life and freshness + into these dry bones of history. At the same time the political bias + of the writers, and the political ideas of their day were allowed, in + some cases perhaps half unconsciously, to affect their representations + of past events. Annalists of the Gracchan age imported into the early + struggles of patricians and plebeians the economic controversies of + their own day, and painted the first tribunes in the colours of the + two Gracchi or of Saturninus. In the next generation they dexterously + forced the venerable records of the early republic to pronounce in + favour of the ascendancy of the senate, as established by Sulla. To + political bias was added family pride, for the gratification of which + the archives of the great houses, the funeral panegyrics, or the + imagination of the writer himself supplied an ample store of doubtful + material. Pedigrees were invented, imaginary consulships and + fictitious triumphs inserted, and family traditions and family honours + were formally incorporated with the history of the state. + + Things were not much better even where the annalists were dealing with + recent or contemporary events. Here, indeed, their materials were + naturally fuller and more trustworthy, and less room was left for + fanciful decoration and capricious alteration of the facts. But their + methods are in the main unchanged. What they found written they + copied; the gaps they supplied, where personal experience failed, by + imagination. No better proof of this can be given than a comparison of + the annalist's version of history with that of Polybius. In the fourth + and fifth decades of Livy the two appear side by side, and the + contrast between them is striking. Polybius, for instance, gives the + number of the slain at Cynoscephalae as 8000; the annalists raise it + as high as 40,000 (Livy xxxiii. 10). In another case (xxxii. 6) + Valerius Antias, the chief of sinners in this respect, inserts a + decisive Roman victory over the Macedonians, in which 12,000 of the + latter were slain and 2200 taken prisoner, an achievement recorded by + no other authority. + + Such was the written tradition on which Livy mainly relied. We have + next to examine the manner in which he used it, and here we are met at + the outset by the difficulty of determining with exactness what + authorities he is following at any one time; for of the importance of + full and accurate references he has no idea, and often for chapters + together he gives us no clue at all. More often still he contents + himself with such vague phrases as "they say," "the story goes," "some + think," or speaks in general terms of "ancient writers" or "my + authorities." Even where he mentions a writer by name, it is + frequently clear that the writer named is not the one whose lead he is + following at the moment, but that he is noticed incidentally as + differing from Livy's guide for the time being on some point of detail + (compare the references to Piso in the first decade, i. 55, ii. 32, + &c.). It is very rarely that Livy explicitly tells us whom he has + selected as his chief source (e.g. Fabius xxii. 7; Polybius xxxiii. + 10). By a careful analysis, however, of those portions of his work + which admit of a comparison with the text of his acknowledged + authorities (e.g. fourth and fifth decades, see H. Nissen, + _Untersuchungen_, Berlin, 1863), and elsewhere by comparing his + version with the known fragments of the various annalists, and with + what we are told of their style and method of treatment, we are able + to form a general idea of his plan of procedure. As to the first + decade, it is generally agreed that in the first and second books, at + any rate, he follows such older and simpler writers as Fabius Pictor + and Calpurnius Piso (the only ones whom he there refers to by name), + to whom, so far as the first book is concerned, Niebuhr (_Lectures_, + p. 33) would add the poet Ennius. With the close of the second book or + the opening of the third we come upon the first traces of the use of + later authors. Valerius Antias[3] is first quoted in iii. 5, and signs + of his handiwork are visible here and there throughout the rest of the + decade (vii. 36, ix. 27, x. 3-5). In the fourth book the principal + authority is apparently Licinius Macer, and for the period following + the sack of Rome by the Gauls Q. Claudius Quadrigarius, whose annals + began at this point in the history. We have besides a single reference + (vii. 3) to the antiquarian Cincius, and two (iv. 23, x. 9) to Q. + Aelius Tubero, one of the last in the list of annalists. Passing to + the third decade, we find ourselves at once confronted by a question + which has been long and fully discussed--the relation between Livy and + Polybius. Did Livy use Polybius at all, and, if so, to what extent? + + + Polybius. + + It is conceded on all hands that Livy in this decade makes + considerable use of other authorities than Polybius (e.g. Fabius xxii. + 7; Caelius Antipater xxi. 38, 46, 47, xxii. 31, &c.), that he only + once mentions Polybius (xxx. 45), and that, if he used him, he did so + to a much less extent than in the fourth and fifth decades, and in a + very different manner. It is also agreed that we can detect in Livy's + account of the Hannibalic war two distinct elements, derived + originally, the one from a Roman, the other from a non-Roman source. + But from these generally accepted premises two opposite conclusions + have been drawn. On the one hand, it is maintained (e.g. by Lachmann, + C. Peter, H. Peter, _Hist. Rom. Relliq._) that those parts of Livy's + narrative which point to a non-Roman authority (e.g. Hannibal's + movements prior to his invasion of Italy) are taken by Livy directly + from Polybius, with occasional reference of course to other writers, + and with the omission (as in the later decades) of all matters + uninteresting to Livy or his Roman readers, and the addition of + rhetorical touches and occasional comments. It is urged that Livy, who + in the fourth and fifth decades shows himself so sensible of the great + merits of Polybius, is not likely to have ignored him in the third, + and that his more limited use of him in the latter case is fully + accounted for by the closer connexion of the history with Rome and + Roman affairs, and the comparative excellence of the available Roman + authorities, and, lastly, that the points of agreement with Polybius, + not only in matter but in expression, can only be explained on the + theory that Livy is directly following the great Greek historian. On + the other hand, it is maintained (especially by Schwegler, Nitzsch, + and K. Böttcher) that the extent and nature of Livy's agreement with + Polybius in this part of his work point rather to the use by both of a + common original authority. It is argued that Livy's mode of using his + authorities is tolerably uniform, and that his mode of using Polybius + in particular is known with certainty from the later decades. + Consequently the theory that he used Polybius in the third decade + requires us to assume that in this one instance he departed widely, + and without sufficient reason, from his usual course of procedure. + Moreover, even in the passages where the agreement with Polybius is + most apparent, there are so many discrepancies and divergencies in + detail, and so many unaccountable omissions and additions, as to + render it inconceivable that he had the text of Polybius before him. + But all these are made intelligible if we suppose Livy to have been + here following directly or indirectly the same original sources that + were used by Polybius. The earliest of these original sources was + probably Silenus, with whom may possibly be placed, for books xxi. + xxii., Fabius Pictor. The latter Livy certainly used directly for some + parts of the decade. The former he almost as certainly knew only at + second hand, the intermediate authority being probably Caelius + Antipater. This writer, who confined himself to a history of the + Second Punic War, in seven books, is expressly referred to by Livy + eleven times in the third decade; and in other passages where his name + is not mentioned Livy can be shown to have followed him (e.g. xxii. 5, + 49, 50, 51, xxiv. 9). In the latter books of the decade his chief + authority is possibly Valerius Antias. + + In the fourth and fifth decades the question of Livy's authorities + presents no great difficulties, and the conclusions arrived at by + Nissen in his masterly _Untersuchungen_ have met with general + acceptance. These may be shortly stated as follows. In the portions of + the history which deal with Greece and the East, Livy follows + Polybius, and these portions are easily distinguishable from the rest + by their superior clearness, accuracy and fulness. On the other hand, + for the history of Italy and western Europe he falls back on Roman + annalists, especially, it seems, on Claudius Quadrigarius and Valerius + Antias--a most unfortunate choice--and from them too he takes the + annalistic mould into which his matter is cast. + + + Critical method. + + Livy's general method of using these authorities was certainly not + such as would be deemed satisfactory in a modern historian. He is + indeed free from the grosser faults of deliberate injustice and + falsification, and he resists that temptation to invent, to which "the + minds of authors are only too much inclined" (xxii. 7). Nor is he + unconscious of the necessity for some kind of criticism. He + distinguishes between rumour and the precise statements of recognized + authorities (cf. xxi. 46, v. 21, vii. 6). The latter he reproduced in + the main faithfully, but with a certain exercise of discretion. Where + they disagreed, he calls attention to the fact, occasionally + pronouncing in favour of one version rather than another (ii. 41, xxi. + 46) though often on no adequate grounds, or attempting to reconcile + and explain discrepancies (vi. 12, 38). Where he detects or suspects + the insertion of fabulous matter he has no scruple in saying so. Gross + exaggerations, such as those in which Valerius Antias indulged, he + roundly denounces, and with equal plainness of speech he condemns the + family vanity which had so constantly corrupted and distorted the + truth. "I suppose," he says (viii. 40), "that the record and memorial + of these matters hath been depraved and corrupted by these funeral + orations of praises, ... while every house and family draweth to it + the honour and renown of noble exploits, martial feats and dignities + by any untruth and lie, so it be colourable." The legendary character + of the earliest traditions he frankly admits. "Such things as are + reported either before or at the foundation of the city, more + beautiful and set out with poets' fables than grounded upon pure and + faithful records, I mean neither to aver nor disprove" (_Praef._); and + of the whole history previous to the sack of Rome by the Gauls (390 + B.C.) he writes that it was obscure "both in regard of exceeding + antiquity, and also for that in those days there were very few + writings and monuments, the only faithful safeguard and true + remembrancers of deeds past; and, besides, whatsoever was registered + in the commentaries of the priests and in other public or private + records, the same for the most part, when the city was burned, + perished withal." Further than this, however, Livy's criticism does + not go. Where his written authorities are not palpably inconsistent + with each other or with probability he accepts and transcribes their + record without any further inquiry, nor does he ever attempt to get + behind this record in order to discover the original evidence on which + it rested. His acceptance in any particular case of the version given + by an annalist by no means implies that he has by careful inquiry + satisfied himself of its truth. At the most it only presupposes a + comparison with other versions, equally second-hand, but either less + generally accepted or less in harmony with his own views of the + situation; and in many cases the reasons he gives for his preference + of one account over another are eminently unscientific. Livy's + history, then, rests on no foundation of original research or even of + careful verification. It is a compilation, and even as such it leaves + much to be desired. For we cannot credit Livy with having made such a + preliminary survey of his authorities as would enable him to determine + their relations to each other, and fuse their various narratives into + a consistent whole. It is clear, on the contrary, that his circle of + authorities for any one decade was a comparatively small one, that of + these he selected one, and transcribed him with the necessary + embellishments and other slight modifications until impelled by + various reasons to drop him. He then, without warning, takes up + another, whom he follows in the same way. The result is a curious + mosaic, in which pieces of all colours and dates are found side by + side, and in which even the great artistic skill displayed throughout + fails to conceal the lack of internal unity. Thus many of Livy's + inconsistencies are due to his having pieced together two versions, + each of which gave a differently coloured account of the same event. + Mommsen (_Rom. Forschungen_, ii.) has clearly shown that this is what + has happened in his relation of the legal proceedings against the + elder Africanus in book xxxviii.; and in the story of the first + secession, as he tells it, the older version which represented it as + due to political and the later which explained it by economical + grievances are found side by side. Similarly a change from one + authority to another leads him not unfrequently to copy from the + latter statements inconsistent with those he took from the former, to + forget what he has previously said, or to treat as known a fact which + has not been mentioned before (cf. ii. 1, xxxiv. 6, and Weissenborn's + _Introduction_, p. 37). In other cases where the same event has been + placed by different annalists in different years, or where their + versions of it varied, it reappears in Livy as two events. Thus the + four campaigns against the Volsci (ii. 17 seq.) are, as Schwegler + (_R.G._ i. 13) rightly says, simply variations of one single + expedition. Other instances of such "doublettes" are the two single + combats described in xxiii. 46 and xxv. 18, and the two battles at + Baecula in Spain (xxvii. 18 and xxviii. 13). Without doubt, too, much + of the chronological confusion observable throughout Livy is due to + the fact that he follows now one now another authority, heedless of + their differences on this head. Thus he vacillates between the + Catonian and Varronian reckoning of the years of the city, and between + the chronologies of Polybius and the Roman annalists. + + To these defects in his method must be added the fact that he does not + always succeed even in accurately reproducing the authority he is for + the time following. In the case of Polybius, for instance, he allows + himself great freedom in omitting what strikes him as irrelevant, or + tedious, or uninteresting to his Roman readers, a process in which + much valuable matter disappears. In other cases his desire to give a + vividness and point to what he doubtless considered the rather bald + and dry style of Polybius leads him into absurdities and inaccuracies. + Thus by the treaty with Antiochus (188 B.C.) it was provided that the + Greek communities of Asia Minor "shall settle their mutual differences + by arbitration," and so far Livy correctly transcribes Polybius, but + he adds with a rhetorical flourish, "or, if both parties prefer it, by + war" (xxxviii. 38). Elsewhere his blunders are apparently due to + haste, or ignorance or sheer carelessness; thus, for instance, when + Polybius speaks of the Aetolians assembling at their capital Thermon, + Livy (xxxiii. 35) not only substitutes Thermopylae but gratuitously + informs his readers that here the Pylaean assemblies were held. Thanks + partly to carelessness, partly to mistranslation, he makes sad havoc + (xxxv. 5 seq.) of Polybius's account of the battle of Cynoscephalae. + Finally, Livy cannot be altogether acquitted on the charge of having + here and there modified Polybius in the interests of Rome. + + + Speeches. + + _Style._--Serious as these defects in Livy's method appear if viewed + in the light of modern criticism, it is probable that they were easily + pardoned, if indeed they were ever discovered, by his contemporaries. + For it was on the artistic rather than on the critical side of history + that stress was almost universally laid in antiquity, and the thing + that above all others was expected from the historian was not so much + a scientific investigation and accurate exposition of the truth, as + its skilful presentation in such a form as would charm and interest + the reader. Tried by this standard, Livy deservedly won and held a + place in the very first rank. Asinius Pollio sneered at his + Patavinity, and the emperor Caligula denounced him as verbose, but + with these exceptions the opinion of antiquity was unanimous in + pronouncing him a consummate literary workman. The classical purity of + his style, the eloquence of his speeches, the skill with which he + depicted the play of emotion, and his masterly portraiture of great + men, are all in turn warmly commended, and in our own day we question + if any ancient historian is either more readable or more widely read. + It is true that for us his artistic treatment of history is not + without its drawbacks. The more trained historical sense of modern + times is continually shocked by the obvious untruth of his colouring, + especially in the earlier parts of his history, by the palpable + unreality of many of the speeches, and by the naïveté with which he + omits everything, however important, which he thinks will weary his + readers. But in spite of all this we are forced to acknowledge that, + as a master of what we may perhaps call "narrative history," he has no + superior in antiquity; for, inferior as he is to Thucydides, to + Polybius, and even to Tacitus in philosophic power and breadth of + view, he is at least their equal in the skill with which he tells his + story. He is indeed the prince of chroniclers, and in this respect not + unworthy to be classed even with Herodotus (Quintilian, x. 1. 101). + Nor is anything more remarkable than the way in which Livy's fine + taste and sense of proportion, his true poetic feeling and genuine + enthusiasm, saved him from the besetting faults of the mode of + treatment which he adopted. The most superficial comparison of his + account of the earliest days of Rome with that given by Dionysius + shows from what depths of tediousness he was preserved by these + qualities. Instead of the wearisome prolixity and the misplaced + pedantry which make the latter almost unreadable, we find the old + tales briefly and simply told. Their primitive beauty is not marred by + any attempt to force them into an historical mould, or disguised + beneath an accumulation of the insipid inventions of later times. At + the same time they are not treated as mere tales for children, for + Livy never forgets the dignity that belongs to them as the prelude to + the great epic of Rome, and as consecrated by the faith of + generations. Perhaps an even stronger proof of the skill which enabled + Livy to avoid dangers which were fatal to weaker men is to be found in + his speeches. We cannot indeed regard them, with the ancients, as the + best part of his history, for the majority of them are obviously + unhistorical, and nearly all savour somewhat too much of the + rhetorical schools to be perfectly agreeable to modern taste. To + appreciate them we must take them for what they are, pieces of + declamation, intended either to enliven the course of the narrative, + to place vividly before the reader the feelings and aims of the chief + actors, or more frequently still to enforce some lesson which the + author himself has at heart. The substance, no doubt, of many of them + Livy took from his authorities, but their form is his own, and, in + throwing into them all his own eloquence and enthusiasm, he not only + acted in conformity with the established traditions of his art, but + found a welcome outlet for feelings and ideas which the fall of the + republic had deprived of all other means of expression. To us, + therefore, they are valuable not only for their eloquence, but still + more as giving us our clearest insight into Livy's own sentiments, his + lofty sense of the greatness of Rome, his appreciation of Roman + courage and firmness, and his reverence for the simple virtues of + older times. But, freely as Livy uses this privilege of speechmaking, + his correct taste keeps his rhetoric within reasonable limits. With a + very few exceptions the speeches are dignified in tone, full of life + and have at least a dramatic propriety, while of such incongruous and + laboured absurdities as the speech which Dionysius puts into the mouth + of Romulus, after the rape of the Sabine women, there are no instances + in Livy. + + But, if our estimate of the merits of his speeches is moderated by + doubts as to his right to introduce them at all, no such scruples + interfere with our admiration for the skill with which he has drawn + the portraits of the great men who figure in his pages. We may indeed + doubt whether in all cases they are drawn with perfect accuracy and + impartiality, but of their life-like vigour and clearness there can be + no question. With Livy this portrait-painting was a labour of love. + "To all great men," says Seneca, "he gave their due ungrudgingly," but + he is at his best in dealing with those who, like Q. Fabius Maximus, + "the Delayer," were in his eyes the most perfect types of the true + Roman. + + The general effect of Livy's narrative is no doubt a little spoilt by + the awkward arrangement, adopted from his authorities, which obliges + him to group the events by years, and thus to disturb their natural + relations and continuity. As the result his history has the appearance + of being rather a series of brilliant pictures loosely strung together + than a coherent narrative. But it is impossible not to admire the + copious variety of thought and language, and the evenly flowing style + which carried him safely through the dreariest periods of his history; + and still more remarkable is the dramatic power he displays when some + great crisis or thrilling episode stirs his blood, such as the sack of + Rome by the Gauls, the battle by the Metaurus and the death of + Hasdrubal. + + In style and language Livy represents the best period of Latin prose + writing. He has passed far beyond the bald and meagre diction of the + early chroniclers. In his hands Latin acquired a flexibility and a + richness of vocabulary unknown to it before. If he writes with less + finish and a less perfect rhythm than his favourite model Cicero, he + excels him in the varied structure of his periods, and their + adaptation to the subject-matter. It is true that here and there the + "creamy richness" of his style becomes verbosity, and that he + occasionally draws too freely on his inexhaustible store of epithets, + metaphors and turns of speech; but these faults, which did not escape + the censure even of friendly critics like Quintilian, are + comparatively rare in the extant parts of his work. From the tendency + to use a poetic diction in prose, which was so conspicuous a fault in + the writers of the silver age, Livy is not wholly free. In his earlier + books especially there are numerous phrases and sentences which have + an unmistakably poetic ring, recalling sometimes Ennius and more often + his contemporary Virgil. But in Livy this poetic element is kept + within bounds, and serves only to give warmth and vividness to the + narrative. Similarly, though the influence of rhetoric upon his + language, as well as upon his general treatment, is clearly + perceptible, he has not the perverted love of antithesis, paradox and + laboured word-painting which offends us in Tacitus; and, in spite of + the Venetian richness of his colouring, and the copious flow of his + words, he is on the whole wonderfully natural and simple. + + These merits, not less than the high tone and easy grace of his + narrative and the eloquence of his speeches, gave Livy a hold on Roman + readers such as only Cicero and Virgil besides him ever obtained. His + history formed the groundwork of nearly all that was afterwards + written on the subject. Plutarch, writers on rhetoric like the elder + Seneca, moralists like Valerius Maximus, went to Livy for their stock + examples. Florus and Eutropius abridged him; Orosius extracted from + him his proofs of the sinful blindness of the pagan world; and in + every school Livy was firmly established as a text-book for the Roman + youth. + + _Text._--The received text of the extant thirty-five books of Livy is + taken from different sources, and no one of our MSS. contains them + all. The MSS. of the first decade, some thirty in number, are with one + exception derived, more or less directly, from a single archetype, + viz., the recension made in the 4th century by the two Nicomachi, + Flavianus and Dexter, and by Victorianus. This is proved in the case + of the older MSS. by written subscriptions to that effect, and in the + case of the rest by internal evidence. Of all these descendants of the + Nicomachean recension, the oldest is the Codex Parisinus of the 10th + century, and the best the Codex Mediceus or Florentinus of the 11th. + An independent value attaches to the ancient palimpsest of Verona, of + which the first complete account was given by Mommsen in _Abhandl. der + preussischen Akad. der Wissenschaften_ (1868). It contains the third, + fourth, fifth and fragments of the sixth book, and, according to + Mommsen, whose conclusions are accepted by Madvig (_Emend. Livianae_, + 2nd ed., 1877, p. 37), it is derived, not from the Nicomachean + recension, but from an older archetype common to both. + + For the third decade our chief authority is the Codex Puteanus, an + uncial MS. of the 5th century, now at Paris. For the fourth we have + two leading MSS.--Codex Bambergensis, 11th century, and the slightly + older Codex Moguntinus, now lost and only known through the Mainz + edition of 1518-1519. What remains of the fifth decade depends on the + 5th century Laurishamensis or Vindobonensis from the monastery of + Lorsch, edited at Basel in 1531. + + A bibliography of the various editions of Livy, or of all that has + been written upon him, cannot be attempted here. The following may be + consulted for purposes of reference; W. Engelmann, _Scriptores Latini_ + (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1882); J. E. B. Mayor, _Bibliographical Clue + to Latin Literature_ (1875); Teuffel-Schwabe, _History of Roman + Literature_ (Eng. trans.), 256, 257; M. Schanz, _Geschichte der + römischen Litteratur_. ii. 1 (2nd ed., 1899). The best editions of the + complete text are those of W. Weissenborn (1858-1862, containing an + introductory essay on Livy's life and writings; new edition by M. + Müller, 1902), and J. N. Madvig and J. L. Ussing (1863-1873). The only + English translation of any merit is by Philemon Holland (1600). + (H. F. P.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the fragments of an epitome discovered at Oxyrhynchus see J. + S. Reid in _Classical Review_ (July, 1904); E. Kornemann, _Die neue + Livius-Epitome aus Oxyrhynchus_, with text and commentary (Leipzig, + 1904); C. H. Moore, "The Oxyrhynchus Epitome of Livy in relation to + Obsequens and Cassiodorus," in _American Journal of Philology_ + (1904), 241. + + [2] The various rumours once current of complete copies of Livy in + Constantinople, Chios and elsewhere, are noticed by B. G. Niebuhr, + _Lectures on the History of Rome from the first Punic War_ (ed. L. + Schmitz, 1844), i. 65. + + [3] For Livy's debt to Valerius Antias, see A. A. Howard in _Harvard + Studies in Classical Philology_, xvii. (1906), pp. 161 sqq. + + + + +LIZARD (Lat. _lacerta_[1]), a name originally referred only to the small +European species of four-legged reptiles, but now applied to a whole +order (_Lacertilia_), which is represented by numerous species in all +temperate and tropical regions. Lizards are reptiles which have a +transverse external anal opening (instead of a longitudinal slit as in +Crocodilians and tortoises) and which have the right and left halves of +the mandibles connected by a sutural symphysis. The majority are +distinguished from snakes by the possession of two pairs of limbs, of +external ear-openings and movable eyelids, but since in not a few of the +burrowing, snake-shaped lizards these characters give way entirely, it +is well-nigh impossible to find a diagnosis which should be absolutely +sufficient for the distinction between lizards and snakes. In such +doubtful cases a number of characters have to be resorted to, and, while +each of these may fail when taken singly, their combination decides the +question. It is certain that the snakes have been evolved as a +specialized branch from some Lacertilian stock, and that both "orders" +are intimately related, but it is significant that it is only through +the degraded members of the lizards that recent representatives of the +two great groups seem to run into each other. Such critical characters +are:-- + + Lizards. Snakes. + + Limbs 2 pairs, 1 or 0. 0 or vestigial hind-limbs. + + Ear-opening Usually present. Always absent. + + Eyelids Mostly movable. No movable lids. + + Tongue Often not retractile. Always bifid and + retractile into itself. + + Teeth Pleuro- or acrodont, Acrodont, anchylosed. + not anchylosed. + + Mandibles Mostly firmly united Never with suture, + suturally. mostly ligamentous. + + Columella cranii Mostly present. Absent. + Mostly with bony arches + across the temporal No bony arches. + region. + Osteoderms common. No bony arches. + No osteoderms. + +The lizards and snakes are the two dominant reptilian orders which are +still on the increase in species, though certainly not in size. As a +moderate estimate, the number of recent species of lizards is about +1700. As a group they are cosmopolitan, their northern limit approaching +that of the permanently frozen subsoil, while in the southern hemisphere +the southern point of Patagonia forms the farthest limit. As we approach +the tropics, the variety of forms and the number of individuals +increase, the most specialized and developed forms, and also the most +degraded, being found in the tropics. In the temperate regions they +hibernate. The majority live on broken ground, with or without much +vegetation; many are arboreal and many are true desert animals, while a +few are more or less aquatic; one, the leguan of the Galapagos, +_Amblyrhynchus_, even enters the sea. Some, like the majority of the +geckos, are nocturnal. In adaptation to these varied surroundings they +exhibit great variety in shape, size and structure. Most of these +modifications are restricted to the skin, limbs, tail or tongue. Most +lizards live on animal food, varying from tiny insects and worms to +lizards, snakes, birds and mammals, while others prefer a mixed or an +entirely vegetable diet. Accordingly, the teeth and the whole digestive +tract are modified. But swiftness, the apparatus necessary for climbing, +running and digging, the mechanism of the tongue, the muscles of the +jaws (hence modifications of the cranial arches) stand also in +correlation with the kind of food and with the way in which it has to be +procured. Generally the teeth are conical or pointed, more rarely blunt, +grooved or serrated. They are inserted either on the inner side of the +margin of the jaws (_pleurodonta_) or on the edge of the bones +(_acrodonta_). The tongue is generally beset with more or less scaly or +velvety papillae and has always a well-marked posterior margin, while +the anterior portion may or may not be more or less retractile into the +posterior part. + +In many lizards the muscles of the segments of the tail are so loosely +connected and the vertebrae are so weak that the tail easily breaks off. +The severed part retains its muscular irritability for a short time, +wriggling as if it were a living creature. A lizard thus mutilated does +not seem to be much affected, and the lost part is slowly reproduced. +This faculty is of advantage to those lizards which lack other means of +escape when pursued by some other animal, which is satisfied with +capturing the detached member. + +The motions of most lizards are executed with great but not enduring +rapidity. With the exception of the chameleon, all drag their body over +the ground, the limbs being wide apart, turned outwards and relatively +to the bulk of the body generally weak. But the limbs show with regard +to development great variation, and an uninterrupted transition from the +most perfect condition of two pairs with five separate clawed toes to +their total disappearance; yet even limbless lizards retain bony +vestiges beneath the skin. The motions of these limbless lizards are +similar to those of snakes, which they resemble in their elongate body. + +The eggs are elliptical in shape, both poles being equal, and are +covered with a shell which may be thin and leathery or hard and +calcareous. The number of eggs laid is small in comparison with other +reptiles, rarely exceeding a score, and some like the anolids and the +geckos deposit only one or two. The parents leave the eggs to hatch +where they are deposited, in sand or in mould. Many lizards, however, +retain the eggs in the oviducts until the embryo is fully developed; +these species then bring forth living young and are called +ovo-viviparous by purists. Some lizards possess a considerable amount of +intelligence; they play with each other, become very tame, and act +deliberately according to circumstances. As a rule the Iguanids and +Varans are as bright as the Agamas are dull. Many have the power of +changing colour, a faculty which they share only with various frogs, +toads and fishes. Lizards are not poisonous, with the single exception +of _Heloderma_. + + The Lacertilia, or lizards in the wider sense, fall easily into three + natural groups: geckos (q.v.), chameleons (q.v.) and lizards. + + I. Suborder, GECKONES. Pleurodont lizards with well-developed limbs; + without temporal bony arches; postthoracic ribs united across the + abdomen. Tongue, thick and broad, slightly nicked anteriorly. With few + exceptions they have amphicoelous vertebrae, the parietal bones remain + separate and they have no eyelids, with very few exceptions. + + 1. Family, _Geckonidae._--Amphicoelous; parietals separate; clavicles + dilated and with a perforation near the ventral end. Cosmopolitan, + although mainly tropical, with about 270 species (see GECKO). + + Nearly all geckos are nocturnal and the pupil contracts into a + vertical slit, except in a few diurnal kinds, e.g. _Phelsuma_ of + islands in the Indian Ocean, and _Lygodactylus_ of Africa. + _Aelurosaurus_ of Borneo and Australia, and _Ptenopus_ of South + Africa, have upper and lower movable eyelids. Whilst the skin is + mostly soft on the back, with little granular tubercles, scales + (except on the belly) are absent, but they are present in + _Homopholis_, in _Geckolepis_ of Madagascar, and most fully developed + in _Teratoscincus scincus_. This peculiar little inhabitant of the + steppes and desert regions of Turkestan and Persia, by rubbing the + imbricating scales upon each other, produces a shrill cricket-like + noise, whilst sitting at night in front of its hole in the ground. + Furthermore it is so thoroughly adapted to running upon the desert + sand that its digits are devoid of adhesive lamellae. The same + beautiful adaptation to the surroundings exists also in _Ptenopus_ + (with fringed toes) and _Stenodactylus_, which are likewise + deserticolous. _Aeluronyx_ of Madagascar and Seychelles has cat-like + retractile claws. _Naultinus elegans_ of New Zealand is said to be + viviparous; the others lay but one rather large egg at a time. Many + species have a feeble voice which resembles a repeated click of the + tongue, and their name "gecko" is supposed to be an Indian imitation + of the sound. + + 2. Family, _Uroplatidae._--Amphicoelous; parietals separate; but the + nasal bones are fused together, and the clavicles are not dilated. + Genus _Uroplates_, with a few species, e.g. _U. fimbriatus_ in + Madagascar. + + 3. Family, _Eublepharidae._--Procoelous; parietals united; eyelids + functional; clavicles expanded as in the true geckos which they + resemble in other respects. The few genera and species are undoubtedly + a heterogeneous assembly, as indicated by their very scattered + distribution, but they all agree in their decidedly handsome colour + pattern, bands of dark brown to maroon upon a light ground. + _Eublepharis_, with one species each in Panama, Mexico, Texas and + California; two in India. _Coleonyx elegans_ in forests of Central + America and Mexico. _Psilodactylus_ in West Africa. + + II. Suborder, CHAMAELEONTES. Acrodont, Old World lizards, with + laterally compressed body, prehensile tail and well developed limbs + with the digits arranged in opposing, grasping bundles of two and + three respectively. The chameleons (q.v.) have many structural + peculiarities. + + III. Suborder, LACERTAE. Procoelous vertebrae; ventral portions of the + clavicles not dilated; parietal bones fused into one. + + The general appearance is too misleading for the classification of the + Lacertae. E. D. Cope (_Proc. Ac. Philad._, 1864, pp. 224 et seq. and + _Proc. Amer. Ass._ xix., 1871, p. 236, &c.) therefore relied upon more + fundamental characters, notably the presence or absence of osteoderms, + the formation of the skull, the teeth and the tongue. G. A. Boulenger + (_Ann. Nat. Hist._ 5, xiv., 1884, p. 117, &c.) has further improved + upon the then prevailing arrangements, and has elaborated a + classification which, used by himself in the three volumes of the + catalogue of lizards in the British Museum, is followed in the present + article with slight alterations in the order of treatment of the + families. In the following diagnoses of the families preference is + given to such characters as are most easily ascertained. + + The 17 "families" fall into 4 or 5 main groups. Presumably the + presence of osteoderms and of complete cranial arches are more archaic + than their absence, just as we conclude that limbless forms have been + evolved from various groups possessed of fully developed limbs. + _Zonuridae_ and _Anguidae_ assume a central position, with _Agamidae_ + and _Iguanidae_ as two parallel families (not very different from each + other) of highest development, one in the Old World, the other in + America. _Xenosaurus_ seems to be an offshoot intermediate between the + _Iguanidae_ and the _Anguidae_; a degraded form of latter is perhaps + _Aniella_ of California, whilst _Heloderma_ and _Lanthanotus_ are also + specialized and isolated offshoots. A second group is formed by the + few American _Xantusiidae_, the numerous American _Tejidae_, and the + burrowing, degraded American and African _Amphisbaenidae_. A third + group comprises the cosmopolitan _Scincidae_, the African and Malagasy + _Gerrhosauridae_ which in various features remind us of the + _Anguidae_, and the African and Eurasian _Lacertidae_ which are the + highest members of this group. _Anelytropidae_ and perhaps also + _Dibamidae_ may be degraded Scincoids. The _Varanidae_ stand quite + alone, in many respects the highest of all lizards, with some, quite + superficial, Crocodilian resemblances. Lastly there are the few + _Pygopodidae_ of the Australian region, with still quite obscure + relationship. + + Family 1. _Agamidae._--Acrodont; tongue broad and thick, not + protractile; no osteoderms. Old World. + + The agamas have always two pairs of well-developed limbs. The teeth + are usually differentiated into incisors, canines and molars. The skin + is devoid of ossifications, but large and numerous cutaneous spines + are often present, especially on the head and on the tail. The family, + comprising some 200 species, with about 30 genera, shows great + diversity of form; the terrestrial members are mostly flat-bodied, the + arboreal more laterally compressed and often with a very long tail. + Most of them are insectivorous, but a few are almost entirely + vegetable feeders. They are an exclusively Old World family; they are + most numerous in Australia (except New Zealand) and the Indian and + Malay countries; comparatively few live in Africa (none in Madagascar) + and in the countries from Asia Minor to India. + + The majority of the ground-agamas, and the most common species of the + plains, deserts or rocky districts of Africa and Asia, belong to the + genera _Stellio_ and _Agama_. Their scales are mixed with larger + prominent spines, which in some species are particularly developed on + the tail, and disposed in whorls. Nearly all travellers in the north + of Africa mention the _Hardhón_ of the Arabs (_Agama stellio_), which + is extremely common, and has drawn upon itself the hatred of the + Mahommedans by its habit of nodding its head, which they interpret as + a mockery of their own movements whilst engaged in prayer. In some of + the Grecian islands they are still called _korkordilos_, just as they + were in the time of Herodotus. _Uromastix_ is one of the largest of + ground-agamas, and likewise found in Africa and Asia. The body is + uniformly covered with granular scales, whilst the short, strong tail + is armed with powerful spines disposed in whorls. The Indian species + (_U. hardwicki_) is mainly herbivorous; the African _U. acanthinurus_ + and _U. spinipes_, the Dab of the Arabs, take mixed food. + _Phrynocephalus_ is typical of the steppes and deserts of Asia. + _Ceratophora_ and _Lyriocephalus_ scutatus, the latter remarkable for + its chameleon-like appearance, are Ceylonese. _Calotes_, peculiar to + Indian countries, comprises many species, e.g. _C. ophiomachus_, + generally known as the "bloodsucker" on account of the red colour on + the head and neck displayed during excitement. _Draco_ (see DRAGON) is + Indo-Malayan. _Physignathus_ is known from Australia to Cochin China. + + Of the Australian agamas no other genus is so numerously represented + and widely distributed as _Grammatophora_, the species of which grow + to a length of from 8 to 18 in. Their scales are generally rough and + spinous; but otherwise they possess no strikingly distinguishing + peculiarity, unless the loose skin of their throat, which is + transversely folded and capable of inflation, be regarded as such. On + the other hand, two other Australian agamoids have attained some + celebrity by their grotesque appearance, due to the extraordinary + development of their integuments. One (fig. 1) is the frilled lizard + (_Chlamydosaurus kingi_), which is restricted to Queensland and the + north coast, and grows to a length of 3 ft., including the long + tapering tail. It is provided with a frill-like fold of the skin round + the neck, which, when erected, resembles a broad collar. This lizard + when startled rises with the fore-legs off the ground and squats and + runs on its hind-legs. The other lizard is one which most + appropriately has been called _Moloch horridus_. It is covered with + large and small spine-bearing tubercules; the head is small and the + tail short. It is sluggish in its movements, and so harmless that its + armature and (to a casual observer) repulsive appearance are its sole + means of defence. It grows only to a length of 10 in., and is not + uncommon in the flats of South and West Australia. + + Family 2. _Iguanidae._--Pleurodont; tongue broad and thick, not + protractile; no osteoderms. America, Madagascar and Fiji Islands. + + According to the very varied habits, their external appearance varies + within wide limits, there being amongst the 300 species, with 50 + genera, arboreal, terrestrial, burrowing and semi-aquatic forms, and + even one semi-marine kind. All have well-developed limbs. In their + general structure the _Iguanidae_ closely resemble the _Agamidae_, + from which they differ mainly by the pleurodont dentition. Most of + them are insectivorous. Some, especially _Anolis_ and _Polychrus_, can + change colour to a remarkable extent. The family ranges all through + the neotropical region, inclusive of the Galapagos and the Antilles, + into the southern and western states of North America. Remarkable + cases of discontinuous distribution are _Chalarodon_ and _Hoplodon_ in + Madagascar, and _Brachylophus fasciatus_ in the Fiji Islands. + _Conolophus subcristatus_ and _Amblyrhynchus cristatus_ inhabit the + Galapagos; the former feeds upon cactus and leaves, the latter is + semi-marine, diving for the algae which grow below tide-marks. For + _Basiliscus_ see BASILISK; IGUANA is dealt with under its own heading; + allied is _Metopoceros cornutus_ of Hayti. _Polychrus_, the + "chameleon," and _Liolaemus_ are South American; _Ctenosaura_ of + Central America and Mexico resembles the agamoid _Uromastix_. + _Corythophanes_ and _Laemanctus_, with only a few species, are rare + inhabitants of the tropical forests of Central America and Mexico. + _Sauromalus_, _Crotaphytus_, _Callisaurus_, _Holbrookia_, _Uma_, _Uta_ + are typical Sonoran genera, some ranging from Oregon through Mexico. + Allied is _Sceloporus_, with about 34 species, the most characteristic + genus of Mexican lizards; only 4 species live in the United States, + and only 3 or 4 are found south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and are + restricted to Central America. The majority are humivagous, while + others are truly arboreal, e.g. _S. microlepidotus_, a species which, + moreover, has the greatest possible altitudinal range, from the hot + country of southern Oaxaca to the upper tree-line of Citlaltepetl, + about 13,500 ft. elevation; many species are viviparous. _Phrynosoma_, + with about a dozen species, the "horned toads" of California to Texas, + and through Mexico. Some of these comical-looking little creatures are + viviparous, others deposit their eggs in the ground. They are well + concealed by the colour of their upper parts, which in most cases + agrees with the prevailing tone of their surroundings, mostly arid, + stony or sandy localities; the large spikes on the head protect them + from being swallowed by snakes. The enlarged spiny scales scattered + over the back look as if it were sprinkled with the dried husks of + seeds. They are entirely insectivorous, bask on the broiling hot sand + and then can run fast enough; otherwise they are sluggish, dig + themselves into the sand by a peculiar shuffling motion of the fringed + edges of their flattened bodies, and when surprised they feign death. + The statement, persistently repeated (O. P. Hay, _Proc. U.S. Nat. + Mus._ xv., 1892, pp. 375-378), that some, e.g. _P. blainvillei_ of + California, have the power of squirting a blood-red fluid from the + corner of the eye, still requires renewed investigation. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Frilled Lizard (_Chlamydosaurus kingi_).] + + The smallest lizards of this family belong to the genus _Anolis_, + extremely numerous as regards species (more than 100) and individuals + on bushes and trees of tropical America, and especially of the West + Indies. They offer many points of analogy to the humming birds in + their distribution, colours and even disposition. Hundreds may be seen + on a bright day, disporting themselves on trees and fences, and + entering houses. Like the iguanas, they (at least the males) are + provided with a large, expansible dewlap at the throat, which is + brilliantly coloured, and which they display on the slightest + provocation. This appendage is merely a fold of the skin, ornamental + and sexual; it has no cavity in its interior, and has no communication + with the mouth or with the respiratory organs; it is supported by the + posterior horns of the hyoid bone, and can be erected and spread at + the will of the animal. The presence of such dewlaps in lizards is + always a sign of an excitable temper. Many, e.g. _A. carolinensis_, + the "chameleon," can change colour to an extraordinary degree. They + are much fed upon by birds and snakes, and have a fragile tail, easily + reproduced. They bring forth only one large egg at a time, but + probably breed several times during the season. + + Family 3. _Xenosauridae._--Pleurodont; solid teeth; anterior part of + tongue slightly emarginate and retractile, and covered with flat + papillae; no osteoderms. Mexico. + + The only representative of this family is _Xenosaurus grandis_, + recorded from the mountains of Orizaba, Cordoba and Oaxaca. The + four-footed creature is less than 1 ft. in length; the body is + depressed, covered above with minute granules and tubercles; a + distinct fold of skin extends from the axilla to the groin, reminding + of the similar fold of some _Anguidae_, to which this singular genus + seems to be allied. + + Family 4. _Anguidae._--Pleurodont; teeth solid, sometimes + (_Ophiosaurus_) grooved; anterior part of tongue emarginate and + retractile into the posterior portion; osteoderms on the body, and + especially on the head where they are roofing over the temporal fossa; + entirely zoophagous and ovo-viviparous. America, Europe and India. + + _Gerrhonotus_, 8 species, in mountainous countries, from British + Columbia to Costa Rica; like _Diploglossus s. Celestus_ of Mexico, the + Antilles and Central America, with well-developed limbs, but with a + lateral fold. _Anguis fragilis_ and two species of _Ophiosaurus_ are + the only members of this family which are not American, and even the + third species of _Ophiosaurus_, _O. ventralis_, lives in the United + States. _Ophiosaurus s. Pseudopus_, the glass-snake, from Morocco and + the Balkan peninsula to Burma and Fokien; also in the U.S.A., with the + limbs reduced to a pair of tiny spikes near the vent, and a lateral + fold along the snake-like body. _Anguis_, with its sole species + fragilis, the slow-worm or blind-worm, is devoid of a lateral fold, + and the limbs are entirely absent. Europe, Algeria and western Asia. + + Family 5. _Helodermatidae_, with _Heloderma_ of Arizona and Mexico, + and _Lanthanotus_ of Borneo.--The teeth of _Heloderma_ are recurved, + with slightly swollen bases, loosely attached to the inner edge of the + jaws; each tooth is grooved, and those of the lower jaw are in close + vicinity of the series of labial glands which secrete a poison; the + only instance among lizards.[2] Limbs well developed. Tongue + resembling that of the _Anguidae_. The skin of the upper surface is + granular, with many irregular bony tubercles which give it an ugly + warty look. _H. horridum_ in Mexico, and _H. suspectum_, the gila + monster, in the hot and sandy lowlands of the Gila basin. The animal, + which reaches a length of more than 2 ft., is blackish-brown and + yellow or orange, and on the thick tail these "warning colours" are + arranged in alternate rings. Small animals are probably paralyzed or + killed by the bite, the poison being effective enough to produce + severe symptoms even in man. The Zapotecs, who call the creature + Talachini, and other tribes of Mexico have endowed it with fabulous + properties and fear it more than the most poisonous snakes. + _Lanthanotus corneensis_, of which only a few specimens are known, is + apparently closely allied to _Heloderma_, although the teeth are not + grooved, osteoderms are absent and probably also the poison glands. + + Family 6. _Aniellidae._--One genus, _Aniella_, with a few worm- or + snake-shaped species in California, which seem to be degraded forms of + _Anguidae_. The eyes and ears are concealed, the limbs are entirely + absent, body and tail covered with soft, imbricating scales. The + tongue is villose, smooth, bifid anteriorly. The few teeth are + recurved, with swollen bases. The skull is much reduced. Total length + of _A. pulchra_ up to 8 in. + + Family 7. _Zonuridae._--Pleurodont; tongue short, villose, scarcely + protractile, feebly nicked at the tip. With osteoderms at least upon + the skull, where they roof in the temporal region. Africa and + Madagascar. + + Only 4 genera, with about 15 species. _Zonurus_ of South Africa and + Madagascar has the whole head, neck, back and tail covered with strong + bony scales, the horny covering of which forms sharp spikes, + especially on the tail. They defend themselves by jerking head and + tail sidewards. _Z. giganteus_ reaches 15 in. in length, and is, like + the other members of the family, zoophagous. The other genera live in + southern and in tropical Africa: _Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_ and + _Chamaesaura_; the latter closely approaches the _Anguidae_ by its + snake-shaped body, very long tail and much reduced limbs, which in _C. + macrolepis_ are altogether absent. + + Family 8. _Xantusiidae._--Pleurodont; tongue very short and scaly; no + osteoderms; supratemporal fossa roofed over by the cranial bones; eyes + devoid of movable lids; tympanum exposed; femoral pores present; limbs + and tail well developed. American. + + _Xantusia_ (so named after Xantus, a Hungarian collector), e.g. _X. + vigilis_ and a few other species from the desert tracts of Nevada and + California to Lower California. _Lepidophyma flavomaculatum_, Central + America; and _Cricosaura typica_ in Cuba. + + Family 9. _Tejidae._--Teeth solid, almost acrodont; tongue long and + narrow, deeply bifid, beset with papillae; no osteoderms; scales of + the back very small or quite granular; limbs sometimes reduced. + America. + + This large, typically American family comprises more than 100 species + which have been arranged in many genera. Some are entirely arboreal, + dwellers in forests, while others, like _Cnemidophorus_ and _Ameiva_, + are strictly terrestrial, with great running powers; a few dwell below + the surface and are transformed into almost limbless worm-shaped + creatures. The family is essentially neotropical. Of its several dozen + genera only two extend through and beyond Central America: _Ameiva_ + into the eastern and western Hot-lands of Mexico, _Cnemidophorus_ + (monographed by H. Gadow, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1906, pp. 277-375) + through Mexico into the United States, where _C. sexlineatus_, the + "swift," has spread over most of the Union. _Tupinambis teguixin_, the + "teju" of South America and the West Indies, is the largest member of + the family; it reaches a length of a yard, most of which, however, + belongs to the strong, whip-like tail. _Teguixin_ is taken from the + Aztec _teco-ixin_, i.e. rock-lizard, the vernacular name of + _Sceloporus torquatus_ which is one of the _Iguanidae_ misspelt and + misapplied. The tejus frequent forests and plantations and are + carnivorous, eating anything they can overpower. They in turn are much + hunted for the sake of their delicate flesh. They defend themselves + not only with their powerful jaws and sharp claws, but also with + lashing strokes of the long tail. They also use this whip for killing + snakes which they are said to eat. Their long-oval, hard-shelled eggs + are deposited in the ground. They retire into self-dug burrows. + _Cophias_ and _Scolecosaurus_ have very much reduced limbs. In the + genus _Tejus_ the teeth of the adult become molar-like; and in + _Dracaena_ they are transformed into large, oval crushers, indicating + strictly herbivorous habits, while most members of the family live + upon animal food. + + Family 10. _Amphisbaenidae._--The body is covered with soft skin, + forming numerous rings with mere vestiges of scales. Worm-shaped, + without limbs, except _Chirotes_ which has short, clawed fore-limbs. + Eyes and ears concealed. Tongue slightly elongated, covered with + scale-like papillae and bifurcating. Tail extremely short. Acrodont or + pleurodont. America, Mediterranean countries, and Africa with the + exception of Madagascar. + + _Chirotes canaliculatus_, and two other species; Pacific side of + Mexico and Lower California. With five, four or three claws on the + stout little digging fore-limbs. These pink, worm-like creatures live + in sandy, moist localities, burrowing little tunnels and never + appearing on the surface. _Amphisbaena_ (q.v.). _Rhinëura_ of Florida, + and also known from the Oligocene of South Dakota; _Lepidosternum_ of + South America; and _Anops_ in America and Africa; _Blanus cinereus_, + Mediterranean countries. _Trogonophis_, _Pachycalamus_ and _Agamodon_ + of Africa are all acrodont; the other genera are pleurodont. In all + about a dozen genera, with some 60, mostly tropical species. + + Family 11. _Scincidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue scaly, feebly nicked in + front. Osteoderms on the head and body. Limbs often reduced. + Cosmopolitan. The temporal region is covered over, as in the + _Lacertidae_ and _Anguidae_, with strongly developed dermal + ossifications. Similar osteoderms underlie the scales of the body and + tail. Femoral pores are absent. + + All the skinks seem to be viviparous, and they prefer dry, sandy + ground, in which they burrow and move quickly about in search of their + animal food. This partly subterranean life is correlated with the + frequent reduction of the limbs which, in closely allied forms, show + every stage from fully developed, five-clawed limbs to complete + absence. Some have functional fore-limbs but mere vestiges of + hind-limbs; in others this condition is reversed. In some + deserticolous kinds e.g. _Ablepharus_, the lower eyelid is transformed + into a transparent cover which is fused with the rim of the reduced + upper lid. The same applies to the limbless little _Ophiopsiseps + nasutus_ of Australia. This large family contains about 400 species, + with numerous genera; the greatest diversity in numbers and forms + occurs in the tropical parts of the Old World, especially in the + Australian region, inclusive of many of the Pacific islands. New + Zealand has at least 6 species of _Lygosoma_. America, notably South + America, has comparatively very few skinks. + + The skink, which has given the name to the whole family, is a small + lizard (_Scincus officinalis_) of 6 or 8 in. in length, common in arid + districts of North Africa and Syria. A peculiarly wedge-shaped snout, + and toes provided with strong fringes, enable this animal to burrow + rapidly in and under the sand of the desert. In former times large + quantities of it were imported in a dry state into Europe for + officinal purposes, the drug having the reputation of being + efficacious in diseases of the skin and lungs; and even now it may be + found in apothecaries' shops in the south of Europe, country people + regarding it as a powerful aphrodisiac for cattle. + + _Mabouia_, with many species, in the whole of Africa, southern Asia + and in tropical America. _M. (Euprepes) vittata_, the "poisson de + sable" of Algeria, is semi-aquatic. _Chalcides s. Seps_, of the + Mediterranean countries and south-western Asia, has a transparent disk + on the lower eyelid which is movable; limbs very short or reduced to + mere vestiges. _Lygosoma_ circumtropical; _Eumeces_, also with many + small species, in America, Africa and Asia. _Cyclodus s. Tiliqua_ of + Australia, Tasmania and Malay Islands, has stout lateral teeth with + rounded-off crowns; _C. gigas_ of the Moluccas and of New Guinea is + the largest member of the family, reaching a length of nearly 2 ft.; + the limbs are well developed, as in _Trachysaurus rugosus_ of + Australia, which is easily recognized by the large and rough scales + and the short, broad, stump-like tail. + + Family 12. _Anelytropidae._--An artificial assembly of a few degraded + Scincoids. The worm-shaped body is devoid of osteoderms. The tongue is + short, covered with imbricating papillae and slightly nicked + anteriorly. Teeth pleurodont. _Anelytropsis papillosus_, of which only + three specimens are known, from the humus of forests in the state of + Vera Cruz. Eyes concealed. _Typhlosaurus_ and _Feylinia_ in tropical + Africa and Madagascar. + + Family 13. _Dibamidae._--_Dibamus novae-Guineae_ of New Guinea, the + Moluccas, Celebes and the Nicobar Islands. Tongue arrow-shaped, + covered with curved papillae. The vermiform body is covered with + cycloid imbricating scales, devoid of osteoderms. Limbs and even their + arches are absent, excepting a pair of flaps which represent the + hind-limbs in the males. + + Family 14. _Gerrhosauridae._--Pleurodont. Tongue long, with papillae, + like that of the _Lacertidae_ but only feebly nicked anteriorly. + Osteoderms on the head and body, roofing over the temporal region. + Femoral pores present, also mostly a lateral fold. Limbs sometimes + reduced to small stumps. Tail long and brittle. The few genera and + species of this family are restricted to Africa, south of the Sahara + and Madagascar. + + _Gerrhosaurus_, with lateral fold and complete limbs; _Tetradactylus_ + also with a fold, but with very variable limbs; _Condylosaurus_; all + in Africa. _Zonosaurus_ and _Tracheloptychus_ in Madagascar. + + Family 15. _Lacertidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue long and bifid, with + papillae or folds, with osteoderms on the head but not on the body. + Limbs always well developed. Palaearctic and palaeotropical with the + exception of Madagascar; not in the Australian region. + + The _Lacertidae_ or true lizards comprise about 20 genera, with some + 100 species, most abundant in Africa; their northern limit coincides + fairly with that of the permanently frozen subsoil. They all are + terrestrial and zoophagous. The long, pointed tail is brittle. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Heads of British Lizards. a, _Lacerta + vivipara_; b, _L. agilis_; c, _L. viridis_.] + + Most of the European lizards with four well developed limbs belong to + the genus _Lacerta_. Only three species occur in Great Britain (see + fig. 2). The common lizard (_Lacerta vivipara_) frequents heaths and + banks in England and Scotland, and is locally met with also in + Ireland; it is viviparous. Much scarcer is the second species, the + sand-lizard (_Lacerta agilis_), which is confined to some localities + in the south of England, the New Forest and its vicinity; it does not + appear to attain on English soil the same size as on the continent of + Europe where it abounds, growing sometimes to a length of 9 in. + Singularly, a snake (_Coronella laevis_), also common on the + continent, and feeding principally on this lizard, has followed it + across the British Channel, apparently existing in those localities + only in which the sand-lizard has settled. This lizard is oviparous. + The males differ by their brighter green ground colour from the + females, which are brown, spotted with black. The third British + species, the green lizard (_Lacerta viridis_), does not occur in + England proper; it has found a congenial home in the island of + Guernsey, but is there much less developed as regards size and beauty + than on the continent. This species is larger than the two preceding; + it is green, with minute blackish spots. In Germany and France one + other species only (_Lacerta muralis_) appears; but in the south of + Europe the species of _Lacerta_ are much more numerous, the largest + and finest, being _L. ocellata_, which grows to a length of 18 or 20 + in., and is brilliantly green, ornamented with blue eye-like spots on + the sides. Even the small island-rocks of the Mediterranean, sometimes + only a few hundred yards in diameter, are occupied by peculiar races + of lizards, which have attracted much attention from the fact that + they have assumed under such isolated conditions a more or less dark, + almost black, coloration. _L. muralis_, with its numerous varieties, + has been monographed by G. A. Boulenger, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xvii. + (1905), pp. 351-422, pl. 22-29. + + Other genera are _Psammodromus_ and _Acanthodactylus_ in south-western + Europe and northern Africa. _Cabrita_ in India, with transparent lower + eyelids. _Ophiops_, likewise with transparent but united lids, from + North Africa to India. + + Family 16. _Varanidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue very long, smooth and + bifid. Osteoderms absent. Limbs always well developed. Old World. + + This family contains only one genus, _Varanus_, with nearly 30 + species, in Africa, Arabia and southern Asia, and Australia, but not + in Madagascar. The generic term is derived from the Arabic _Ouaran_, + which means lizard. Owing to a ridiculous muddle, this Arabic word has + been taken to mean "warning" lizard, hence the Latin _Monitor_, one of + the many synonyms of this genus, now often used as the vernacular. + Many of the "monitors" are semi-aquatic, e.g. _V. niloticus_, and + these have a laterally compressed tail; others inhabit dry sandy + districts, e.g. _V. scincus_, the _ouaran el ard_ of North Africa; + others prefer wooded localities. _V. salvator_ is the largest species, + reaching a length of 7 ft.; it ranges from Nepal and southern China to + Cape York; a smaller species, common in New Guinea and Australia, is + _V. gouldi_. They all are predaceous, powerful creatures, with a + partiality for eggs. Their own eggs are laid in hollow trees, or + buried in the sand. The young are prettily spotted with white and + black ocelli, but the coloration of the adult is mostly very plain. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Monitor of the Nile (_Varanus niloticus_).] + + The following families are much degraded in conformity with their, in + most cases, subterranean life. They are of doubtful relationships and + contain each but a few species. + + Family 17. _Pygopodidae._--Pleurodont, snake-shaped, covered with + roundish, imbricating scales. Tail long and brittle. Fore-limbs + absent; hind-limbs transformed into a pair of scale-covered flaps. + Tongue slightly forked. Eyes functional but devoid of movable lids. + Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. + + _Pygopus_, e.g. _P. lepidopus_, about 2 ft. long, two-thirds belonging + to the tail, distributed over the whole of Australia. + + _Lialis burtoni_, of similar size and distribution, has the hind-limbs + reduced to very small, narrow appendages. The members of this family + seem to lead a snake-like life, not subterranean, and some are said to + eat other lizards. _L. jicari_, from the Fly river, has a very + snake-like appearance, with a long, pointed snout like certain + tree-snakes, but with an easily visible ear-opening; their eyelids are + reduced to a ring which is composed of two or three rows of small + scales. (H. F. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the etymology of this word, see CROCODILE. + + [2] For anatomical detail and experiments, see R. W. Shufeldt, _P. Z. + S._ (1890), p. 178; G. A. Boulenger, _ibid._ (1891), p. 109, and C. + Stewart, _ibid._ (1891), p. 119. + + + + +LIZARD POINT, or THE LIZARD, the southernmost point of Great Britain, in +Cornwall, England, in 49° 57´ 30´´ N., 5° 12´ W. It is generally the +first British land sighted by ships bound up the English Channel, and +there are two lighthouses on it. The cliff scenery is magnificent, and +attracts many visitors. The coast is fretted into several small bays, +such as Housel and, most famous of all, Kynance Cove; caves pierce the +cliffs at many points, and bold isolated rocks fringe the shore. The +coloured veining of the serpentine rock is a remarkable feature. The +Lion's Den is a chasm formed by the falling in of a sea-cave in 1847; +the Stags is a dangerous reef stretching southward from the point, and +at Asparagus Island, Kynance Cove, is a natural funnel in which the air +is compressed by the waves and causes a violent ejection of foam. The +principal village is Lizard Town, 10½ m. from Helston, the nearest +railway station. + + + + +LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HÅKAN JORDAN (1823-1905), Swedish man of letters, was +born at Lund on the 6th of March 1823. He was educated at Lund +university, where he was professor of German (1850-1859), of aesthetics +(1859-1889) and rector (1875-1885). He had been a member of the Swedish +Academy for twenty years at the time of his death in September 1905. His +most important work, _Svenska vitterhetens häfder efter Gustav III.'s +död_ (5 vols., Lund., 1873-1895), is a comprehensive study of Swedish +literature in the 19th century. His other works include: _Framställning +af de förnämste estetiska systemerna_ (an exposition of the principal +system of aesthetics; 2 vols., 1856-1860); _Svenska dramat intill slutet +af 17 århundradet_ (a history of the Swedish drama down to the end of +the 17th century, Lund, 1864); an edition (1864) of the _Epistlar_ of +Bellman and Fredman, and a history of the Swedish Academy in the year of +its centenary (1886). + + His scattered writings were collected as _Smärre Skrifter_ (3 vols., + 1872-1881). + + + + +LLAMA, the Spanish modification of the Peruvian name of the larger of +the two domesticated members of the camel-tribe indigenous to South +America. The llama (_Lama huanacus glama_) is a domesticated derivative +of the wild guanaco, which has been bred as a beast of burden. Chiefly +found in southern Peru, it generally attains a larger size than the +guanaco, and is usually white or spotted with brown or black, and +sometimes altogether black. The following account by Augustin de Zarate +was given in 1544: + +[Illustration: Llama.] + + "In places where there is no snow, the natives want water, and to + supply this they fill the skins of sheep with water and make other + living sheep carry them, for, it must be remarked, these sheep of Peru + are large enough to serve as beasts of burden. They can carry about + one hundred pounds or more, and the Spaniards used to ride them, and + they would go four or five leagues a day. When they are weary they lie + down upon the ground, and as there are no means of making them get up, + either by beating or assisting them, the load must of necessity be + taken off. When there is a man on one of them, if the beast is tired + and urged to go on, he turns his head round, and discharges his + saliva, which has an unpleasant odour, into the rider's face. These + animals are of great use and profit to their masters, for their wool + is very good and fine, particularly that of the species called pacas, + which have very long fleeces; and the expense of their food is + trifling, as a handful of maize suffices them, and they can go four or + five days without water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat + sheep of Castile. There are now public shambles for the sale of their + flesh in all parts of Peru, which was not the case when the Spaniards + came first; for when one Indian had killed a sheep his neighbours came + and took what they wanted, and then another Indian killed a sheep in + his turn." + +The disagreeable habit of spitting is common to all the group. + +In a wide sense the term "llama" is used to designate all the South +American _Camelidae_. (See TYLOPODA.) + + + + +LLANBERIS, a town of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 8½ m. E. by S. of +Carnarvon, by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. +(1901) 3015. It is finely situated in a valley near the foot of +Snowdon. The valley has two lakes, Llyn Peris and Llyn Padarn, of over 1 +m. and 2 m. long respectively, about ¼ m. apart. From Padarn rises the +Seint, called Rothell in its upper part. Dolbadarn Castle is a circular +tower near the foot of Peris lake. Dolbadarn means the "Padarn meadow." +Several Welsh churches are dedicated to Padarn. In the castle Owen Goch +(Owen the Red) was imprisoned from 1254 to 1277, by the last Llewelyn, +whose brother Dafydd held it for some time against Edward I. During the +time of Owen Glendower (_temp._ Henry IV. and Henry V.), the castle +often changed hands. Near is Ceunantmawr waterfall. The Vaenol slate +quarries are here, and hence is the easiest ascent of Snowdon, with a +railway to the summit. From the road over the fine Llanberis pass +towards Capel Curig, a turn to the right leads to Beddgelert, through +Nant Gwynnant ("white" or "happy valley," or "stream"), where Pembroke +and Ieuan ap Robert (for the Lancastrians) had many skirmishes in the +time of Edward IV. Gwynnant Lake is about 1 m. long, by ¼ m. broad, and +below it is the smaller Llyn Dinas. + + + + +LLANDAFF, a city of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the Taff Vale railway, 149 +m. from London. Pop. (1901) 5777. It is almost entirely within the +parliamentary borough of Cardiff. It is nobly situated on the heights +which slope towards the southern bank of the Taff. Formerly the see of +Llandaff was looked upon as the oldest in the kingdom; but its origin is +obscure, although the first two bishops, St Dubricius and St Teilo, +certainly flourished during the latter half of the 6th century. By the +12th century, when Urban was bishop, the see had acquired great wealth +(as may be seen from the _Book of Llandaff_, a collection of its records +and land-grants compiled probably by Geoffrey of Monmouth), but after +the reign of Henry VIII. Llandaff, largely through the alienations of +its bishops and the depredations of the canons, became impoverished, and +its cathedral was left for more than a century to decay. In the 18th +century a new church, in debased Italian style, was planted amid the +ruins. This was demolished and replaced (1844-1869) by the present +restored cathedral, due chiefly to the energy of Dean Williams. The +oldest remaining portion is the chancel arch, belonging to the Norman +cathedral built by Bishop Urban and opened in 1120. Jasper Tudor, uncle +of Henry VII., was the architect of the north-west tower, portions of +which remain. The cathedral is also the parish church. The palace or +castle built by Urban was destroyed, according to tradition, by Owen +Glendower in 1404, and only a gateway with flanking towers and some +fragments of wall remain. After this, Mathern near Chepstow became the +episcopal residence until about 1690, when it fell into decay, leaving +the diocese without a residence until Llandaff Court was acquired during +Bishop Ollivant's tenure of the see (1849-1882). For over 120 years the +bishops had been non-resident. The ancient stone cross on the green +(restored in 1897) is said to mark the spot on which Archbishop Baldwin, +and his chaplain Giraldus Cambrensis, preached the Crusade in 1187. +Money bequeathed by Thomas Howell, a merchant, who died in Spain in +1540, maintains an intermediate school for girls, managed by the +Drapers' Company, Howell's trustees. There is an Anglican theological +college, removed to Llandaff from Aberdare in 1907. The city is almost +joined to Cardiff, owing to the expansion of that town. + +Llandaff Court, already mentioned, was the ancient mansion of the Mathew +family, from which Henry Matthews, 1st Viscount Llandaff (b. 1826), was +descended. Another branch of this family formerly held the earldom of +Llandaff in the Irish peerage. Henry Matthews, a barrister and +Conservative M.P., whose father was a judge in Ceylon, was home +secretary 1886-1892, and was created viscount in 1895. + + + + +LLANDEILO GROUP, in geology, the middle subdivision of the British +Ordovician rocks. It was first described and named by Sir. R. I. +Murchison from the neighbourhood of Llandeilo in Carmarthenshire. In the +type area it consists of a series of slaty rocks, shales, calcareous +flagstones and sandstones; the calcareous middle portion is sometimes +termed the "Llandeilo limestone"; and in the upper portion volcanic +rocks are intercalated. A remarkable feature in the history of the +Llandeilo rocks in Britain, more especially in North Wales and +Cumberland, was the outbreak of volcanic action; vast piles of Llandeilo +lava and ashes form such hills as Cader Idris, and the Arenigs in Wales, +and Helvellyn and Scafell in Westmorland and Cumberland. The series is +also found at Builth and in Pembrokeshire. The average thickness in +Wales is about 2000 ft. The group is usually divided in this area into +three subdivisions. In the Corndon district of Shropshire the _Middleton +Series_ represents the Llandeilo group; it includes, in descending +order, the Rorrington black shales, the _Meadowtown limestones_ and +flags, and the western grits and shales. In the Lake District the great +_volcanic series of Borrowdale_, green slates and porphyries, 8000 to +9000 ft. in thickness, lies on this horizon; and in the Cross Fell area +the _Milburn beds_ of the Skiddaw slates (see ARENIG) appear to be of +the same age. In Scotland the Llandeilo group is represented by the +_Glenkiln shales_, black shales and yellowish mudstones with radiolarian +cherts and volcanic tuffs; by the _Barr Series_, including the Benan +conglomerates, Stinchar limestone and Kirkland sandstones; and by the +Glenapp conglomerates and Tappins mudstones and grits south of Stinchar. +Graptolitic shales, similar to those of southern Scotland, are traceable +into the north-east of Ireland. + + The fossils of the Llandeilo group include numerous graptolites, + _Coenograptus gracilis_ being taken as the zonal fossil of the upper + portion, _Didymograptus Murchisoni_ of the lower. Other forms are + _Climacograptus Scharenbergi_ and _Diplograptus foliaceus_. Many + trilobites are found in these rocks, e.g. _Ogygia Buchi_, _Asaphus + tyrannus_, _Calymene cambrensis_, _Cheirurus Sedgwickii_. Among the + brachiopods are _Crania_, _Leptaena_, _Lingula_, _Strophomena_; + _Cardiola_ and _Modiolopsis_ occur among the Pelecypods; _Euomphalus_, + _Bellerophon_, _Murchisonia_ among the Gasteropods; _Conularia_ and + _Hyolithes_ among the Pteropods; the Cephalopods are represented by + _Orthoceras_ and _Cyrtoceras_. The green roofing slates and plumbago + (graphite) of the Lake District are obtained from this group of rocks, + (see ORDOVICIAN). + + + + +LLANDILO, or LLANDEILO FAWR, a market town and urban district of +Carmarthenshire, Wales, picturesquely situated above the right bank of +the river Towy. Pop. (1901) 1721. Llandilo is a station on the Mid-Wales +section of the London & North-Western railway, and a terminus of the +Llandilo-Llanelly branch line of the Great Western. The large parish +church of St Teilo has a low embattled Perpendicular tower. Adjoining +the town is the beautiful park of Lord Dynevor, which contains the +ruined keep of Dinefawr Castle and the residence of the Rices (Lords +Dynevor), erected early in the 17th century but modernized in 1858. Some +of the loveliest scenery of South Wales lies within reach of Llandilo, +which stands nearly in the centre of the Vale of Towy. + +The name of Llandilo implies the town's early foundation by St Teilo, +the great Celtic missionary of the 6th century, the friend of St David +and reputed founder of the see of Llandaff. The historical interest of +the place centres in its proximity to the castle of Dinefawr, now +commonly called Dynevor, which was originally erected by Rhodri Mawr or +his son Cadell about the year 876 on the steep wooded slopes overhanging +the Towy. From Prince Cadell's days to the death of the Lord Rhys, last +reigning prince of South Wales, in 1196, Dinefawr continued to be the +recognized abode of South Welsh royalty. The castle ruins remain in the +possession of the Rices, Lords Dynevor, heirs and descendants of Prince +Cadell. At one period residence and park became known as New-town, a +name now obsolete. Some personal relics of the celebrated Sir Rhys ap +Thomas, K.G. (1451-1527), are preserved in the modern house. Dinefawr +Castle and its estates were granted away by Henry VIII. on the execution +for high treason of Sir Rhys's grandson, Rhys ap Griffith, but were +restored to the family under Queen Mary. + + + + +LLANDOVERY (_Llan-ym-ddyffri_), a market town and ancient municipal +borough of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated amid hills near the left +bank of the Towy. Pop. (1901) 1809. Llandovery is a station on the +Mid-Wales section of the London & North-Western railway. The +old-fashioned town lies in the parish of Llandingat, and contains the +two churches of Llandingat and Llanfair-ar-y-bryn. The slight remains of +the castle stand on a hillock above the river Brân. The public school +was founded here by Sir Thomas Phillips in 1847. + +The place probably owes its Celtic name of Llan-ym-ddyffri (the church +amid the waters) to the proximity of Llandingat church to the streams of +the Towy, Brân and Gwydderig. On account of its commanding position at +the head of the fertile vale of Towy, Llandovery was a strategic site of +some importance in the middle ages. The castle erected here by the +Normans early in the 12th century frequently changed owners during the +course of the Anglo-Welsh wars before 1282. In 1485 the borough of +Llandovery, or Llanymtheverye, was incorporated by a charter from +Richard III., and this king's privileges were subsequently confirmed by +Henry VIII. in 1521, and by Elizabeth in 1590, the Tudor queen's +original charter being still extant and in the possession of the +corporation, which is officially styled "the bailiff and burgesses of +the borough of Llanymtheverye, otherwise Llandovery." The bailiff +likewise holds the office of recorder, but has neither duties nor +emoluments. In the 17th century the vicarage of Llandingat was held by +the celebrated Welsh poet and preacher, Rhys Prichard, commonly called +"the vicar of Llandovery" (d. 1644). In the middle of the 19th century +William Rees of Tonn published at Llandovery many important works +dealing with early Welsh history and archaeology. + + + + +LLANDOVERY GROUP, in geology, the lowest division of the Silurian (Upper +Silurian) in Britain. C. Lapworth in 1879 proposed the name _Valentian_ +(from the ancient north British province of Valentia) for this group. It +includes in the type area the Tarannon Shales 1000-1500 ft., Upper +Llandovery and May Hill Sandstone 800 ft., Lower Llandovery, 600-1500 +ft. + + The _Lower Llandovery_ rocks consist of conglomerates, sandstones and + slaty beds. At Llandovery they rest unconformably upon Ordovician + rocks (Bala), but in many other places no unconformity is traceable. + These rocks occur with a narrow crop in Pembrokeshire, which curves + round through Llandovery, and in the Rhyader district they attain a + considerable thickness. Northwards they thin out towards Bala Lake. + They occur also in Cardiganshire and Carmarthenshire in many places + where they have not been clearly separated from the associated + Ordovician rocks. + + There is a change in the fauna on leaving the Ordovician and entering + the Llandovery. Among the graptolites the Diplograptidae begin to be + replaced by the Monograptidae. Characteristic graptolite zones, in + descending order, are:--_Monograptus gregarius_, + _Diplograptusvesiculosus_, _D. acuminatus_. Common trilobites + are:--_Acidaspis_, _Encrinurus_, _Phacops_, _Proëtus_; among the + brachiopods are _Orthis elegantula_, _O. testudinaria_, _Meristella + crassa_ and _Pentamerus_ (_Stricklandinia_) _lens_ (_Pentamerus_ is so + characteristic that the Llandovery rocks are frequently described as + the "Pentamerus beds"). + + The _Upper Llandovery_, including the May Hill Sandstone of May Hill, + Gloucestershire, is an arenaceous series generally conglomeratic at + the base, with local lenticular developments of shelly limestone + (Norbury, Hollies and Pentamerus limestones). It occurs with a narrow + outcrop in Carmarthenshire at the base of the Silurian, disappearing + beneath the Old Red Sandstone westward to reappear in Pembrokeshire; + north-eastward the outcrop extends to the Longmynd, which the + conglomerate wraps round. As it is followed along the crop it is found + to rest unconformably upon the Lower Llandovery, Caradoc, Llandeilo, + Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks. The fossils include the trilobites + _Phacops caudata_, _Encrinurus punctatus_, _Calymene Blumenbachii_; + the brachiopods _Pentamerus oblongus_, _Orthis calligramma_, _Atrypa + reticularis_; the corals _Favosites_, _Lindostroemia_, &c.; and the + zonal graptolites _Rastrites maximus_ and _Monograptus spinigerus_ and + others (_Monograptus Sedgwicki_, _M. Clingani_, _M. proteus_, + _Diplograptus Hughesii_). + + The _Tarannon shales_, grey and blue slates, designated by A. Sedgwick + the "paste rock," is traceable from Conway into Carmarthenshire; in + Cardiganshire, besides the slaty facies, gritty beds make their + appearance; and in the neighbourhood of Builth soft dark shales. The + group is poor in fossils with the exception of graptolites; of these + _Cyrtograptus grayae_ and _Monograptus exiguus_ are zonal forms. The + Tarannon group is represented by the Rhyader Pale Shales in + Radnorshire; by the Browgill beds, with _Monograptus crispus_ and _M. + turriculatus_, in the Lake district; in the Moffat Silurian belt in + south Scotland by a thick development, including the Hawick rocks and + Ardwell beds, and the Queensberry group or Gala (Grieston shales, + Buckholm grits and Abbotsford flags); in the Girvan area, by the + Drumyork flags, Bargany group and Penkill group; and in Ireland by the + Treveshilly shales of Strangford Lough, and the shales of Salterstown, + Co. Louth. + + The Upper and Lower Llandovery rocks are represented in descending + order by the Pale shales, Graptolite shales, Grey slates and Corwen + grit of Merionethshire and Denbighshire. In the Rhyader district the + Caban group (Gafalt beds, shales and grits and Caban conglomerate), + and the Gwastaden group (Gigrin mudstones, Ddol shales, Dyffryn flags, + Cerig Gwynion grits) lie on this horizon; at Builth also there is a + series of grits and shales. In the Lake district the lower part of the + Stockdale shales (Skelgill beds) is of Llandovery age. In south + Scotland in the central and southern belt of Silurian rocks, which + extends across the country from Luce Bay to St Abb's Head, the + Birkhill shales, a highly crumpled series of graptolitic beds, + represent the Llandovery horizon. In the Girvan area to the north + their place is taken by the Camregan, Shaugh Hill and Mullock Hill + groups. In Ireland the Llandovery rocks are represented by the + Anascaul slates of the Dingle promontory, by the Owenduff and Gowlaun + grits, Co. Galway, by the Upper Pomeroy beds, by the Uggool and + Ballaghaderin beds, Co. Mayo, and by rocks of this age in Coalpit Bay + and Slieve Felim Mountains. + + Economic deposits in Llandovery rocks include slate pencils + (Teesdale), building stone, flag-stone, road metal and lime. Lead ore + occurs in Wales. (See SILURIAN.) (J. A. H.) + + + + +LLANDRINDOD, or LLANDRINDOD WELLS, a market town, urban district and +health-resort of Radnorshire, Wales, situated in a lofty and exposed +district near the river Ithon, a tributary of the Wye. Pop. (1901) 1827. +Llandrindod is a station on the Mid-Wales section of the London & +North-Western railway. The town annually receives thousands of visitors, +and lies within easy reach of the beautiful Wye Valley and the wild +district of Radnor Forest. The saline, sulphur and chalybeate springs of +Llandrindod have long been famous. According to a treatise published by +a German physician, Dr Wessel Linden, in 1754, the saline springs at +Ffynon-llwyn-y-gog ("the well in the cuckoos' grove") in the present +parish of Llandrindod had acquired more than a local reputation as early +as the year 1696. In the 18th century both saline and sulphur springs +were largely patronized by numbers of visitors, and about 1749 a Mr +Grosvenor built a hydropathic establishment near the old church, on a +site now covered by a farm-house known as Llandrindod Hall. + + + + +LLANDUDNO, a seaside resort in the Arfon parliamentary division of +Carnarvonshire, North Wales, in a detached portion of the county east of +the Conwy, on a strip of sandy soil terminating in the massive limestone +of Great Orme's Head. Pop. of urban district (1901) 9279. The town is +reached by the London & North-Western railway, and lies 227 m. N.W. of +London. A village in 1850, Llandudno is to-day one of the most +flourishing watering-places in North Wales. Sheltered by the Great Orme +on the N.W. and by the Little Orme on the E., it faces a wide bay of the +Irish Sea, and is backed by low sandhills. A Marine Drive encircles the +Great Orme. The Little Orme has caverns and abounds in sea birds and +rare plants. Close to the town are the Gloddaeth woods, open to +visitors. On the Great Orme are old circular buildings, an ancient +fortress, a "rocking-stone" (_cryd Tudno_) and the 7th-century church of +St Tudno, restored in 1885. Druidical and other British antiquities are +numerous in the district. At Deganwy, or Diganwy, 2 m. from Llandudno, +is a castle, Dinas Gonwy (Conwy fort), known to English historians as +Gannoc, dating from the 11th or (according to the Welsh) earlier than +the 9th century. + + + + +LLANELLY, a market town, urban district, and seaport of Carmarthenshire, +Wales, situated on the north shore of the broad estuary of the river +Loughor (Llwchwr), known as Burry river, which forms an inlet of +Carmarthen Bay. Pop. (1901) 25,617. Llanelly is a station on the South +Wales section of the Great Western railway. The town is wholly of modern +appearance. The mother-church of St Elliw, or Elli (whence the town +derives its name) has been practically rebuilt (1906), but it retains +its 13th-century tower and other ancient features of the original +fabric. Its situation on a broad estuary and its central position with +regard to a neighbourhood rich in coal, iron and limestone, have +combined to make Llanelly one of the many important industrial towns of +South Wales. Anthracite and steam-coal from the collieries of the coast +and along the Loughor Valley are exported from the extensive docks; and +there are also large works for the smelting of copper and the +manufacture of tin plates. + +Llanelly, though an ancient parish and a borough by prescription under a +portreeve and burgesses in the old lordship of Kidwelly, remained +insignificant until the industrial development in South Wales during the +19th century. In 1810 the combined population of Llanelly, with its four +subsidiary hamlets of Berwick, Glyn, Hencoed and Westowe, only amounted +to 2972; in 1840 the inhabitants of the borough hamlet alone had risen +to 4173. Llanelly is now the most populous town in Wales outside the +confines of Glamorganshire. In 1832 Llanelly was added as a contributory +borough to the Carmarthen parliamentary district. + + + + +LLANES, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, on the +river Carrocedo and the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1900) 18,684. The streets +are mostly narrow and irregular, and contain some curious old houses. +The principal buildings are a fine Gothic church and an old Augustinian +monastery, which has been converted into a school and meteorological +station. In summer the fine climate, scenery and sea-bathing attract +many visitors. Llanes is a second-class port for light-draught vessels; +but the entrance is narrow, and rather difficult in rough weather. The +trade is chiefly in agricultural produce, timber, butter and fish. + + + + +LLANGOLLEN, a picturesque market-town and summer resort of Denbighshire, +N. Wales, in the Dee (_Dyfrdwy_) valley, on a branch of the Great +Western Railway, 9 m. S.W. of Wrexham, 202½ m. from London by rail. Pop. +of urban district (1901) 3303. The Dee is here crossed by a 14th-century +bridge of four arches, "one of the seven wonders of Wales," built by +John Trevor, afterwards bishop of St Asaph (_Llanelwy_). The Anglican +church of St Collen, Norman and Early English, has a monument in the +churchyard to the "Ladies of Llangollen," Lady Eleanor Butler and Hon. +Sarah Ponsonby, of Plas Newydd, (1778 to 1829 and 1831 respectively). +The house is now a museum. Castell Dinas Brân (the castle of the town of +Brân; the mountain stream below is also called Brân), the ruins of a +fortress on a high conical hill about 1 m. from the town, is supposedly +British, of unknown date. "An old ruynous thinge," as the Elizabethan +poet Churchyard calls it even in the 16th century, it was inhabited, +apparently, about 1390, by Myfanwy Fechan of the Tudor Trevor family and +beloved by the bard Howel ab Einion Llygliw, whose ode to her is still +extant. Valle Crucis Abbey (_Llan Egwest_) is a Cistercian ruin at the +foot of Bronfawr hill, some 2 m. N.W. of Llangollen, founded about 1200 +by Madoc ab Gruffydd Maelor, lord of Dinas Brân and grandson of Owen +Gwynedd, prince of Wales. Llan Egwest, dissolved in 1535, was given by +James I. to Lord Edward Wootton. In the meadow adjoining, still called +Llwyn y Groes ("grove of the cross"), is "Eliseg's Pillar." Eliseg was +father of Brochmael, prince of Powys, and his grandson, Concen or +Congen, appears to have erected the pillar, which is now broken, with an +illegible inscription; the modern inscription dates only from 1779. At +Llangollen are linen and woollen manufactures, and near are collieries, +lime and iron works. Brewing, malting and slate-quarrying are also +carried on. Within the parish, an aqueduct carries the Ellesmere canal +across the Dee. + + + + +LLANQUIHUE (pron. _lan-kè-wa_), a province of southern Chile bordering +on the northern shores of the Gulf and Straits of Chacao, and extending +from the Pacific to the Argentine frontier. The province of Valdivia +lies N. and is separated from it in part by the Bueno river. Pop. (1895) +78,315. Area 45,515 sq. m. It is a region of forests, rivers and lakes, +and the greater part is mountainous. The rainfall is excessive, the +average at Puerto Montt being 104 in. a year, and the temperature is +singularly uniform, the average for the summer being 58½°, of the winter +47½°, and of the year 53° F. There are several large lakes in the +eastern part of the province--Puyehue, on the northern frontier, +Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos. Lake Llanquihue is the largest +body of fresh water in Chile, having an extreme length from N. to S., or +from Octai to Varas, of about 33 m., and extreme breadth of nearly the +same. There is a regular steamship service on the lake between Octai and +Varas, and its western shores are well settled. The volcanoes of Calbuco +and Osorno rise from near its eastern shores, the latter to a height of +7382 ft. The outlet of the lake is through Maullin river, the lower +course of which is navigable. The other large rivers of the province are +the Bueno, which receives the waters of Lakes Puyehue and Rupanco, and +the Puelo, which has its rise in a lake of the same name in the +Argentine territory of Chubut. A short tortuous river of this vicinity, +called the Petrohue, affords an outlet for the picturesque lake of Todos +los Santos, and enters the Reloncavi Inlet near the Puelo. The southern +coast of the province is indented by a number of inlets and bays +affording good fishing, but the mouths of the rivers flowing into the +Pacific are more or less obstructed by sand-bars. Apart from the lumber +industry, which is the most important, the productions of Llanquihue +include wheat, barley, potatoes and cattle. The white population is +composed in great part of Germans, who have turned large areas of forest +lands in the northern districts into productive wheat fields. The +capital is Puerto Montt, on a nearly land-locked bay called the +Reloncavi, designed to be the southern terminus of the longitudinal +railway from Tacna, a distance of 2152 m. An important town in the +northern part of the province is Osorno, on the Rahue river, which is +chiefly inhabited by Germans. It exports wheat and other farm produce, +leather, lumber and beer. + + + + +LLANTRISANT, a small town and a contributory parliamentary borough of +Glamorganshire, Wales, picturesquely situated with a southern aspect, +commanding a fine view of the vale of Glamorgan, in a pass on the +mountain range which separates that vale from the valley of the Taff. +The population of the parish in 1901 was 10,091 and of the contributory +borough 2057. A branch of the Taff Vale railway running from Pontypridd +to Cowbridge and Aberthaw has a station, Cross Inn, ½ m. below the town, +while nearly 2 m. farther south it passes (near the village of +Pontyclun) through Llantrisant station on the Great Western railway main +line, which is 156¼ m. by rail from London and 11 m. N.W. from Cardiff. +The castle, which according to G. T. Clark was "second only to Cardiff +in military importance," dates from the reign of Henry III. or Edward I. +Of the original building nothing remains, and of a later building only a +tall and slender fragment. It was the head of the lordship of Miskin, a +great part of which was in the hands of native owners, until the last of +them, Howel ap Meredith, was expelled by Richard de Clare (1229-1262). +Since then it has always been in the hands of the lord of Glamorgan. It +was in the near neighbourhood of the town that Edward II. was captured +in 1327. In 1426 the then lord of Glamorgan, Richard, 5th earl of +Warwick, granted to the residents a charter confirming grants made by +his predecessors in 1346, 1397 and 1424. The corporation was abolished +in 1883, and its property (including 284 acres of common land) is +administered by a town trust under a scheme of the charity +commissioners. The "freemen" of the borough, however, still hold a court +leet in the town-hall. The market formerly held here has been +discontinued, but there are four annual fairs. The church was dedicated +to three saints (Illtyd, Gwyno and Tyfodwg), whence the name +Llantrisant. Originally a Norman building, most of the present fabric +belongs to the 15th century. There are numerous chapels. Welsh is still +the predominant language. Oliver Cromwell's forbears were natives of +this parish, as also was Sir Leoline Jenkins, secretary of state under +Charles II. There are tinplate works at Pontyclun and numerous +collieries in the district. + + + + +LLANTWIT MAJOR (Welsh _Llan-Illtyd-Fawr_), a small market town in the +southern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales, about 1 +m. from the Bristol Channel, with a station on the Barry railway, 5 m. +S. of Cowbridge. Pop. (1901) 1113. About 1 m. N.N.W. of the town there +were discovered in 1888 the remains of a large Roman villa within a +square enclosure of about 8 acres, which has been identified as part of +the site of a Roman settlement mentioned in Welsh writings as Caer +Wrgan. The building seemed to have been the scene of a massacre, +possibly the work of Irish pirates in the 5th century, as some +forty-three human skeletons and the remains of three horses were found +within its enclosure. Etymological reasoning have led some to suggest +that the Roman station of Bovium was at Boverton, 1 m. E. of the town, +but it is more likely to have been at Ewenny (2 m. S.E. of Bridgend) or +perhaps at Cowbridge. On the sea coast are two camps, one known as +Castle Ditches, commanding the entrance to the creek of Colhugh, once +the port of Llantwit. In the time of Henry I. a small colony of Flemings +settled in the district. The town and church derive their name from St +Illtyd or Iltutus, styled the "knight," a native of Brittany and a +great-nephew of Germanus of Auxerre. Having come under the influence of +St Cadoc, abbot of Llancarvan, 6 m. E.N.E. of Llantwit, Illtyd +established at the latter place, about A.D. 520, a monastic college +which became famous as a seat of learning. He attracted a number of +scholars to him, especially from Brittany, including Samson, archbishop +of Dol, Maglorius (Samson's successor) and Paul de Leon, while his Welsh +students included David, the patron saint of Wales, Gildas the +historian, Paulinus and Teilo. The college continued to flourish for +several centuries, sending forth a large number of missionaries until, +early in the 12th century, its revenues were appropriated to the abbey +of Tewkesbury by Fitzhamon, the first Norman lord of Glamorgan. A school +seems, however, to have lingered on in the place until it lost all its +emoluments in the reign of Henry VIII. The present church of St Illtyd +is the result of a sequence of churches which have sprung from a +pre-Norman edifice, almost entirely rebuilt and greatly extended in the +13th century and again partially rebuilt late in the 14th century. It +consists of an "eastern" church which (according to Professor Freeman) +belonged probably to the monks, and is the only part now used for +worship, a western one used as a parochial church before the +dissolution, but now disused, and still farther west of this a chantry +with sacristan's house, now in ruins. The western church consists of the +nave of a once cruciform building, while in continuation of it was built +the eastern church, consisting of chancel, nave (of great height and +width but very short), aisles and an embattled western tower built over +the junction of the two naves. A partial restoration was made in 1888, +and a careful and more complete one in 1900-1905. In the church and +churchyard are preserved some early monumental remains of the British +church, dating from the 9th century, and some possibly from an earlier +date. They include two cross-shafts and one cross with inscriptions in +debased Latin (one being to the memory of St Illtyd) and two cylindrical +pillars, most of them being decorated with interlaced work. There are +some good specimens of domestic architecture of the 17th century. The +town is situated in a fertile district and the inhabitants depend almost +entirely on agriculture. Its weekly market is mainly resorted to for its +stock sales. St Donats castle, 2 m. to the west, was for nearly seven +centuries the home of the Stradling family. + + As to the Roman remains, see the _Athenaeum_ for October 20 (1888), + and the _Antiquary_ for August (1892). As to the church, see the + _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, 3rd ser. iv. 31 (an article by Professor + Freeman), 5th ser., v. 409 and xvii. 129, and 6th ser., iii. 56; A. C. + Fryer, _Llantwit-Major: a Fifth Century University_ (1893). + (D. Ll. T.) + + + + +LLANWRTYD WELLS, an urban district of Breconshire, south Wales, with a +station on the central Wales section of the London & North Western +railway, 231 m. from London. It is situated in the midst of wild +mountain scenery on the river Irfon, a right-bank tributary of the Wye. +The place is chiefly noted for its sulphur and chalybeate springs, the +former being the strongest of the kind in Wales. The medicinal +properties of the sulphur water were discovered, or perhaps +rediscovered, in 1732 by a famous Welsh writer, the Rev. Theophilus +Evans, then vicar of Llangammarch (to which living Llanwrtyd was a +chapelry till 1871). Saline water is obtained daily in the season from +Builth Wells. The Irfon is celebrated as a trout-stream. Out of the +civil parish, which has an area of 10,785 acres and had in 1901 a +population of 854, there was formed in 1907 the urban district, +comprising 1611 acres, and with an estimated population at the date of +formation of 812. Welsh is the predominant language of the district. + +Four miles lower down the Irfon valley, at the junction of the Cammarch +and Irfon, and with a station on the London & North Western railway, is +the village of Llangammarch, noted for its barium springs. The ancient +parish of Llangammarch consists of the townships of Penbuallt and +Treflis, the wells being in the former, which comprises 11,152 acres and +had in 1901 a population of only 433. John Penry, the Puritan martyr, +was born at Cefn-brith in this parish. Charles Wesley's wife, Sarah +Gwynne, was of Garth, an old residence just outside the parish. + + + + +LLEWELYN, the name of two Welsh princes. + +LLEWELYN I., AB IORWERTH (d. 1240), prince of North Wales, was born +after the expulsion of his father, Iorwerth, from the principality. In +1194, while still a youth, Llewelyn recovered the paternal inheritance. +In 1201 he was the greatest prince in Wales. At first he was a friend of +King John, whose illegitimate daughter, Joanna, he took to wife (1201); +but the alliance soon fell through, and in 1211 John reduced Llewelyn to +submission. In the next year Llewelyn recovered all his losses in North +Wales. In 1215 he took Shrewsbury. His rising had been encouraged by the +pope, by France, and by the English barons. His rights were secured by +special clauses in Magna Carta. But he never desisted from his wars with +the Marchers of South Wales, and in the early years of Henry III. he was +several times attacked by English armies. In 1239 he was struck with +paralysis and retired from the active work of government in favour of +his son David. He retired into a Cistercian monastery. + + See the lists of English chronicles for the reigns of John and Henry + III.; also the Welsh chronicle _Brut y Tywysogion_ (ed. Rolls Series); + O. M. Edwards, _History of Wales_ (1901); T. F. Tout in the _Political + History of England_, iii. (1905). + +LLEWELYN II., AB GRUFFYDD (d. 1282), prince of North Wales, succeeded +his uncle David in 1246, but was compelled by Henry III. to confine +himself to Snowdon and Anglesey. In 1254 Henry granted Prince Edward the +royal lands in Wales. The steady encroachment of royal officers on +Llewelyn's land began immediately, and in 1256 Llewelyn declared war. +The Barons' War engaged all the forces of England, and he was able to +make himself lord of south and north Wales. Llewelyn also assisted the +barons. By the treaty of Shrewsbury (1265) he was recognized as overlord +of Wales; and in return Simon de Montfort was supplied with Welsh troops +for his last campaign. Llewelyn refused to do homage to Edward I., who +therefore attacked him in 1276. He was besieged in the Snowdon mountains +till hunger made him surrender, and conclude the humiliating treaty of +Conway (1277). He was released, but in 1282 he revolted again, and was +killed in a skirmish with the Mortimers, near Builth in central Wales. + + See C. Bémont, _Simon de Montfort_ (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in the + _Political History of England_, iii. (1905); J. E. Morris in _The + Welsh Wars of Edward I._ (1901). + + + + +LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO (1756-1823), Spanish historian, was born on the +30th of March 1756 at Rincon de Soto in Aragon. He studied at the +university of Saragossa, and, having been ordained priest, became +vicar-general to the bishop of Calahorra in 1782. In 1785 he became +commissary of the Holy Office at Logroño, and in 1789 its general +secretary at Madrid. In the crisis of 1808 Llorente identified himself +with the Bonapartists, and was engaged for a few years in superintending +the execution of the decree for the suppression of the monastic orders, +and in examining the archives of the Inquisition. On the return of King +Ferdinand VII. to Spain in 1814 he withdrew to France, where he +published his great work, _Historia critica de la inquisicion de España_ +(Paris, 1815-1817). Translated into English, French, German, Dutch and +Italian, it attracted much attention in Europe, and involved its author +in considerable persecution, which, on the publication of his _Portraits +politiques des papes_ in 1822, culminated in a peremptory order to quit +France. He died at Madrid on the 5th of February 1823. Both the personal +character and the literary accuracy of Llorente have been assailed, but +although he was not an exact historian there is no doubt that he made an +honest use of documents relating to the Inquisition which are no longer +extant. + + The English translation of the _Historia_ (London, 1826) is abridged. + Llorente also wrote _Memorias para la historia de la revolucion + española_ (Paris, 1814-1816), translated into French (Paris, + 1815-1819); _Noticias historicas sobre las tres provincias vacongadas_ + (Madrid, 1806-1808); an autobiography, _Noticia biografica_ (Paris, + 1818), and other works. + + + + +LLOYD, EDWARD (1845- ), English tenor vocalist, was born in London on +the 7th of March 1845, his father, Richard Lloyd, being vicar choralist +at Westminster Abbey. From 1852 to 1860 he sang in the abbey choir, and +was thoroughly trained in music, eventually becoming solo tenor at the +Chapel Royal. He began singing at concerts in 1867, and in 1871 appeared +at the Gloucester Musical Festival. His fine evenly-produced voice and +pure style at once brought him into notice, and he gradually took the +place of Sims Reeves as the leading English tenor of the day, his +singing of classical music, and especially of Handel, being particularly +admired. At the Handel Festivals after 1888 he was the principal tenor, +and even in the vast auditorium at the Crystal Palace he triumphed over +acoustic difficulties. In 1888, 1890 and 1892 he paid successful visits +to the United States; but by degrees he appeared less frequently in +public, and in 1900 he formally retired from the platform. + + + + +LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627-1717), English divine, successively bishop of St +Asaph, of Lichfield and Coventry, and of Worcester, was born at +Tilehurst, Berkshire, in 1627, and was educated at Oriel and Jesus +Colleges, Oxford. He graduated M.A. in 1646. In 1663 he was prebendary +of Ripon, in 1667 prebendary of Salisbury, in 1668 archdeacon of +Merioneth, in 1672 dean of Bangor and prebendary of St Paul's, London, +in 1680 bishop of St Asaph, in 1689 lord-almoner, in 1692 bishop of +Lichfield and Coventry, and in 1699 bishop of Worcester. Lloyd was an +indefatigable opponent of the Roman Catholic tendencies of James II., +and was one of the seven bishops who for refusing to have the +Declaration of Indulgence read in his diocese was charged with +publishing a seditious libel against the king and acquitted (1688). He +engaged Gilbert Burnet to write _The History of the Reformation of the +Church of England_ and provided him with much material. He was a good +scholar and a keen student of biblical apocalyptic literature and +himself "prophesied" to Queen Anne, Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, +William Whiston, and John Evelyn the diarist. Lloyd was a stanch +supporter of the revolution. His chief publication was _An Historical +Account of Church Government as it was in Great Britain and Ireland when +they first received the Christian Religion_ (London, 1684, reprinted +Oxford, 1842). He died at Hartlebury castle on the 30th of August 1717. + + + + +LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813-1893), English man of letters, was born at +Homerton, Middlesex, on the 11th of March 1813. He received his early +education at Newcastle-under-Lyme grammar school, and at the age of +fifteen entered a family business in London, with which he was connected +for thirty-five years. He devoted his leisure to the study of art, +architecture, archaeology, Shakespeare, classical and modern languages +and literature. He died in London on the 22nd of December 1893. The work +by which he is best known is _The Age of Pericles_ (1875), characterized +by soundness of scholarship, great learning, and a thorough appreciation +of the period with which it deals, but rendered unattractive by a +difficult and at times obscure style. He wrote also: _Xanthian Marbles_ +(1845); _Critical Essays upon Shakespeare's Plays_ (1875); _Christianity +in the Cartoons_ [of Raphael] (1865), which excited considerable +attention from the manner in which theological questions were discussed; +_The History of Sicily to the Athenian War_ (1872); _Panics and their +Panaceas_ (1869); an edition of _Much Ado about Nothing_, "now first +published in fully recovered metrical form" (1884; the author held that +all the plays were originally written in blank verse). A number of +manuscripts still remain unpublished, the most important of which have +been bequeathed to the British Museum, amongst them being: _A Further +History of Greece_; _The Century of Michael Angelo_; _The +Neo-Platonists_. + + See Memoir by Sophia Beale prefixed to Lloyd's (posthumously + published) _Elijah Fenton: his Poetry and Friends_ (1894), containing + a list of published and unpublished works. + + + + +LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID (1863- ), British statesman, was born at Manchester +on the 17th of January 1863. His father, William George, a Welshman of +yeoman stock, had left Pembrokeshire for London at an early age and +became a school teacher there, and afterwards in Liverpool and +Haverfordwest, and then headmaster of an elementary school at Pwllheli, +Carnarvonshire, where he married the daughter of David Lloyd, a +neighbouring Baptist minister. Soon afterwards William George became +headmaster of an elementary school in Manchester, but after the birth of +his eldest son David his health failed, and he gave up his post and took +a small farm near Haverfordwest. Two years later he died, leaving his +widow in poor circumstances; a second child, another son, was +posthumously born. Mrs George's brother, Richard Lloyd, a shoemaker at +Llanystumdwy, and pastor of the Campbellite Baptists there, now became +her chief support; it was from him that young David obtained his +earliest views of practical and political life, and also the means of +starting, at the age of fourteen, on the career of a solicitor. + +Having passed his law preliminary, he was articled to a firm in +Portmadoc, and in 1884 obtained his final qualifications. In 1888 he +married Margaret, daughter of Richard Owen of Criccieth. From the first +he managed to combine his solicitor's work with politics, becoming +secretary of the South Carnarvonshire Anti-tithe League; and his local +reputation was made by a successful fight, carried to the High Court, in +defence of the right of Nonconformists to burial in the parish +churchyard. In the first county council elections for Carnarvonshire he +played a strenuous part on the Radical side, and was chosen an alderman; +and in 1890, at a by-election for Carnarvon Boroughs, he was returned to +parliament by a majority of 18 over a strong Conservative opponent. He +held his seat successfully at the contests in 1892, 1895 and 1900, his +reputation as a champion of Welsh nationalism, Welsh nonconformity and +extreme Radicalism becoming thoroughly established both in parliament +and in the country. In the House of Commons he was one of the most +prominent guerrilla fighters, conspicuous for his audacity and pungency +of utterance, and his capacity for obstruction while the Conservatives +were in office. During the South African crisis of 1899-1902 he was +specially vehement in opposition to Mr Chamberlain, and took the +"pro-Boer" side so bitterly that he was mobbed in Birmingham during the +1900 election when he attempted to address a meeting at the Town Hall. +But he was again returned for Carnarvon Boroughs; and in the ensuing +parliament he came still more to the front by his resistance to the +Education Act of 1902. + +As the leader of the Welsh party, and one of the most dashing +parliamentarians on the Radical side, his appointment to office when Sir +H. Campbell-Bannerman became premier at the end of 1905 was generally +expected; but his elevation direct to the cabinet as president of the +Board of Trade was somewhat of a surprise. The responsibilities of +administration have, however, often converted a political free-lance +into a steady-going official, and the Unionist press did its best to +encourage such a tendency by continual praise of the departmental action +of the new minister. His settlement of the railway dispute in 1906 was +universally applauded; and the bills he introduced and passed for +reorganizing the port of London, dealing with Merchant Shipping, and +enforcing the working in England of patents granted there, and so +increasing the employment of British labour, were greeted with +satisfaction by the tariff-reformers, who congratulated themselves that +a Radical free-trader should thus throw over the policy of _laisser +faire_. The president of the Board of Trade was the chief success of the +ministry, and when Mr Asquith became premier in 1908 and promoted Mr +Lloyd George to the chancellorship of the exchequer, the appointment was +well received even in the City of London. For that year the budget was +already settled, and it was introduced by Mr Asquith himself, the +ex-chancellor; but Mr Lloyd George earned golden opinions, both at the +Treasury and in parliament, by his industry and his handling of the +Finance Bill, especially important for its inclusion of Old Age +Pensions, in the later stages. + +It was not till the time came nearer for the introduction of the budget +for 1909-1910 that opinion in financial circles showed the change which +was afterwards to become so marked. A considerable deficit, of about +£16,000,000, was in prospect, and the chancellor of the exchequer +aroused misgivings by alluding in a speech to the difficulty he had in +deciding what "hen roost" to "rob." The government had been losing +ground in the country, and Mr Lloyd George and Mr Winston Churchill were +conspicuously in alliance in advocating the use of the budget for +introducing drastic reforms in regard to licensing and land, which the +resistance of the House of Lords prevented the Radical party from +effecting by ordinary legislation. The well-established doctrine that +the House of Lords could not amend, though it might reject, a +money-bill, coupled with the fact that it never had gone so far as to +reject a budget, was relied on by the extremists as dictating the +obvious party tactics; and before the year 1909 opened, the possibility +of the Lords being driven to compel a dissolution by standing on their +extreme rights as regards the financial provision for the year was +already canvassed in political circles, though it was hardly credited +that the government would precipitate a constitutional crisis of such +magnitude. When Mr Lloyd George, on the 29th of April, introduced his +budget, its revolutionary character, however, created widespread dismay +in the City and among the propertied classes. In a very lengthy speech, +which had to be interrupted for half an hour while he recovered his +voice, he ended by describing it as a "war budget" against poverty, +which he hoped, in the result, would become "as remote to the people of +this country as the wolves which once infested its forests." Some of the +original proposals, which were much criticized, were subsequently +dropped, including the permanent diversion of the Old Sinking Fund to a +National Development Fund (created by a separate bill), and a tax on +"ungotten minerals," for which was substituted a tax on mineral rights. +But the main features of the budget were adhered to, and eventually +passed the House of Commons on the 4th of November, in spite of the +persistent opposition of the scanty Unionist minority. Apart from +certain non-contentious provisions, such as a tax on motorcars, the main +features of the measure were large increases in the spirit and tobacco +duties, license duties, estate, legacy and succession duties, and income +tax, and an elaborate and novel system of duties on land-values +("increment duty," "reversion duty," "undeveloped land duty"), depending +on the setting up of arrangements for valuation of a highly complicated +kind. The discussions on the budget entirely monopolized public +attention for the year, and while the measure was defended by Mr Lloyd +George in parliament with much suavity, and by Mr Asquith, Sir Edward +Grey and Mr Haldane outside the House of Commons with tact and +moderation, the feelings of its opponents were exasperated by a series +of inflammatory public speeches at Limehouse and elsewhere from the +chancellor of the exchequer, who took these opportunities to rouse the +passions of the working-classes against the landed classes and the +peers. When the Finance Bill went up to the House of Lords, Lord +Lansdowne gave notice that on the second reading he would move "that +this House is not justified in giving its consent to this bill until it +has been submitted to the judgment of the country," and on the last day +of November this motion was carried by an overwhelming majority of +peers. The government passed a solemn resolution of protest in the House +of Commons and appealed to the country; and the general election of +January 1910 took place amid unexampled excitement. The Unionists gained +a hundred seats over their previous numbers, but the constitutional +issue undoubtedly helped the government to win a victory, depending +indeed solely on the votes of the Labour members and Irish Nationalists, +which a year before had seemed improbable. + +Events had now made Mr Lloyd George and his financial policy the centre +of the Liberal party programme; but party tactics for the moment +prevented the ministry, who remained in office, from simply sending the +budget up again to the Lords and allowing them to pass it. There was no +majority in the Commons for the budget as such, since the Irish +Nationalists only supported it as an engine for destroying the veto of +the Lords and thus preparing the way for Irish Home Rule. Instead, +therefore, of proceeding with the budget, the government allowed the +financial year to end without one, and brought forward resolutions for +curtailing the powers of the Lords, on which, if rejected by them, +another appeal could be made to the people (see PARLIAMENT). Hardly, +however, had the battle been arrayed when the King's death in May upset +all calculations. An immediate continuance of hostilities between the +two Houses was impossible. A truce was called, and a conference arranged +between four leaders from each side--Mr Lloyd George being one--to +consider whether compromise on the constitutional question was not +feasible. The budget for 1909-10 went quietly through, and before the +August adjournment the chancellor introduced his budget for 1910-11, +discussion being postponed till the autumn. It imposed no new taxation, +and left matters precisely as they were. (H. Ch.) + + + + +LLOYD'S, an association of merchants, shipowners, underwriters, and ship +and insurance brokers, having its headquarters in a suite of rooms in +the north-east corner of the Royal Exchange, London. Originally a mere +gathering of merchants for business or gossip in a coffee-house kept by +one Edward Lloyd in Tower Street, London, the earliest notice of which +occurs in the _London Gazette_ of the 18th of February 1688, this +institution has gradually become one of the greatest organizations in +the world in connexion with commerce. The establishment existed in Tower +Street up to 1692, in which year it was removed by the proprietor to +Lombard Street, in the centre of that portion of the city most +frequented by merchants of the highest class. Shortly after this event +Mr Lloyd established a weekly newspaper furnishing commercial and +shipping news, in those days an undertaking of no small difficulty. This +paper took the name of _Lloyd's News_, and, though its life was not +long, it was the precursor of the now ubiquitous _Lloyd's List_, the +oldest existing paper, the _London Gazette_ excepted. In Lombard Street +the business transacted at Lloyd's coffee-house steadily grew, but it +does not appear that throughout the greater part of the 18th century the +merchants and underwriters frequenting the rooms were bound together by +any rules, or acted under any organization. By and by, however, the +increase of marine insurance business made a change of system and +improved accommodation necessary, and after finding a temporary +resting-place in Pope's Head Alley, the underwriters and brokers settled +in the Royal Exchange in March 1774. One of the first improvements in +the mode of effecting marine insurance was the introduction of a printed +form of policy. Hitherto various forms had been in use; and, to avoid +numerous disputes the committee of Lloyd's proposed a general form, +which was adopted by the members on the 12th of January 1779, and +remains in use, with a few slight alterations, to this day. The two most +important events in the history of Lloyd's during the 19th century were +the reorganization of the association in 1811, and the passing of an act +in 1871 granting to Lloyd's all the rights and privileges of a +corporation sanctioned by parliament. According to this act of +incorporation, the three main objects for which the society exists +are--first, the carrying out of the business of marine insurance; +secondly, the protection of the interests of the members of the +association; and thirdly, the collection, publication and diffusion of +intelligence and information with respect to shipping. In the promotion +of the last-named object an intelligence department has been developed +which for wideness of range and efficient working has no parallel among +private enterprises. By Lloyd's Signal Station Act 1888, powers were +conferred on Lloyd's to establish signal stations with telegraphic +communications, and by the Derelict Vessels (Report) Act 1896, masters +of British ships are required to give notice to Lloyd's agents of +derelict vessels, which information is published by Lloyd's. + +The rooms at Lloyd's are available only to subscribers and members. The +former pay an annual subscription of five guineas without entrance fee, +but have no voice in the management of the institution. The latter +consist of non-underwriting members, who pay an entrance fee of twelve +guineas, and of underwriting members who pay a fee of £100. Underwriting +members are also required to deposit securities to the value of £5000 to +£10,000, according to circumstances, as a guarantee for their +engagements. The management of the establishment is delegated by the +members to certain of their number selected as a "committee for managing +the affairs of Lloyd's." With this body lies the appointment of all the +officials and agents of the institution, the daily routine of duty being +entrusted to a secretary and a large staff of clerks and other +assistants. The mode employed in effecting an insurance at Lloyd's is +simple. The business is done entirely by brokers, who write upon a slip +of paper the name of the ship and shipmaster, the nature of the voyage, +the subject to be insured, and the amount at which it is valued. If the +risk is accepted, each underwriter subscribes his name and the amount he +agrees to take or underwrite, the insurance being effected as soon as +the total value is made up. + + See F. Martin, _History of Lloyd's and of Marine Insurance in Great + Britain_ (1876). + + + + +LLWYD, EDWARD (1660-1709), British naturalist and antiquary, was born in +Cardiganshire in 1660. He was educated at Jesus College, Oxford, but did +not graduate; he received the degree of M.A. however in 1701. In 1690, +after serving for six years as assistant, he succeeded R. Plot as keeper +of the Ashmolean museum, a position which he retained until 1709. In +1699 he published _Lithophylacii Britannici Ichnographia_, in which he +described and figured various fossils, personally collected or received +from his friends, and these were arranged in cabinets in the museum. +They were obtained from many parts of England, but mostly from the +neighbourhood of Oxford. A second edition was prepared by Llwyd, but not +published until 1760. He issued in 1707 the first volume of +_Archaeologia Britannica_ (afterwards discontinued). He was elected +F.R.S. in 1708. He died at Oxford on the 30th of June 1709. + + + + +LOACH. The fish known as loaches (_Cobitinae_) form a very distinct +subfamily of the _Cyprinidae_, and are even regarded by some authors as +constituting a family. Characters: Barbels, three to six pairs; +pharyngeal teeth in one row, in moderate number; anterior part of the +air-bladder divided into a right and left chamber, separated by a +constriction, and enclosed in a bony capsule, the posterior part free or +absent. They are more or less elongate in form, often eel-shaped, and +naked or covered with minute scales. Most of the species are small, the +largest known measuring 12 (the European _Misgurnus fossilis_), 13 (the +Chinese _Botia variegata_), or 14 in. (the Central Asian _Nemachilus +siluroides_). They mostly live in small streams and ponds, and many are +mountain forms. They are almost entirely confined to Europe and Asia, +but one species (_Nemachilus abyssinicus_) has recently been discovered +in Abyssinia. About 120 species are known, mostly from Central and +South-Eastern Asia. Only two species occur in Great Britain: the common +_Nemachilus barbatulus_ and the rarer and more local _Cobitis taenia_. +The latter extends across Europe and Asia to Japan. Many of these fishes +delight in the mud at the bottom of ponds, in which they move like +eels. In some cases the branchial respiration appears to be +insufficient, and the intestinal tract acts as an accessory breathing +organ. The air-bladder may be so reduced as to lose its hydrostatic +function and become subservient to a sensory organ, its outer exposed +surface being connected with the skin by a meatus between the bands of +muscle, and conveying the thermo-barometrical impressions to the +auditory nerves. Loaches are known in some parts of Germany as +"Wetterfisch." + + + + +LOAD; LODE. The O.E. _lád_, from which both these words are derived, +meant "way," "journey," "conveyance," and is cognate with Ger. _Leite_. +The Teutonic root is also seen in the O. Teut. _laidjan_, Ger. _leiten_, +from which comes "to lead." The meanings of the word have been +influenced by a supposed connexion with "lade," O.E. _hladan_, a word +common to many old branches of Teutonic languages in the sense of "to +place," but used in English principally of the placing of cargo in a +ship, hence "bill of lading," and of emptying liquor or fluid out of one +vessel into another; it is from the word in this sense that is derived +"ladle," a large spoon or cup-like pan with a long handle. The two +words, though etymologically one, have been differentiated in meaning, +the influence of the connexion with "lade" being more marked in "load" +than in "lode," a vein of metal ore, in which the original meaning of +"way" is clearly marked. A "load" was originally a "carriage," and its +Latin equivalent in the _Promptorium Parvulorum_ is _vectura_. From that +it passed to that which is laid on an animal or vehicle, and so, as an +amount usually carried, the word was used of a specific quantity of +anything, a unit of weight, varying with the locality and the commodity. +A "load" of wheat = 40 bushels, of hay = 36 trusses. Other meanings of +"load" are: in electricity, the power which an engine or dynamo has to +furnish; and in engineering, the weight to be supported by a structure, +the "permanent load" being the weight of the structure itself, the +"external load" that of anything which may be placed upon it. + + + + +LOAF, properly the mass of bread made at one baking, hence the smaller +portions into which the bread is divided for retailing. These are of +uniform size (see BAKING) and are named according to shape ("tin loaf," +"cottage loaf," &c.), weight ("quartern loaf," &c.), or quality of flour +("brown loaf," &c.). "Loaf," O.E. _hláf_, is a word common to Teutonic +languages; cf. Ger. _Laib_, or _Leib_, Dan. _lev_, Goth, _hlaifs_; +similar words with the same meaning are found in Russian, Finnish and +Lettish, but these may have been adapted from Teutonic. The ultimate +origin is unknown, and it is uncertain whether "bread" (q.v.) or "loaf" +is the earlier in usage. The O.E. _hláf_ is seen in "Lammas" and in +"lord," i.e. _hlaford_ for _hlafweard_, the loaf-keeper, or +"bread-warder"; cf. the O.E. word for a household servant _hláf-æta_, +loaf-eater. The Late Lat. _companio_, one who shares, _panis_, bread, +Eng. "companion," was probably an adaptation of the Goth, _gahlaiba_, +O.H. Ger. _gileipo_, messmate, comrade. The word "loaf" is also used in +sugar manufacture, and is applied to sugar shaped in a mass like a cone, +a "sugar-loaf," and to the small knobs into which refined sugar is cut, +or "loaf-sugar." + + The etymology of the verb "to loaf," i.e. to idle, lounge about, and + the substantive "loafer," an idler, a lazy vagabond, has been much + discussed. R. H. Dana (_Two Years before the Mast_, 1840) called the + word "a newly invented Yankee word." J. R. Lowell (_Biglow Papers_, + 2nd series, Introd.) explains it as German in origin, and connects it + with _laufen_, to run, and states that the dialectical form _lofen_ is + used in the sense of "saunter up and down." This explanation has been + generally accepted. The _New English Dictionary_ rejects it, however, + and states that _laufen_ is not used in this sense, but points out + that the German _Landläufer_, the English obsolete word "landlouper," + or "landloper," one who wanders about the country, a vagrant or + vagabond, has a resemblance in meaning. J. S. Farmer and W. E. + Henley's _Dictionary of Slang and its Analogues_ gives as French + synonyms of "loafer," _chevalier de la loupe_ and _loupeur_. + + + + +LOAM (O.E. _lám_; the word appears in Dut. _leem_ and Ger. _Lehm_; the +ultimate origin is the root _lai_-, meaning "to be sticky," which is +seen in the cognate "lime," Lat. _limus_, mud, clay), a fertile soil +composed of a mixture of sand, clay, and decomposed vegetable matter, +the quantity of sand being sufficient to prevent the clay massing +together. The word is also used of a mixture of sand, clay and straw, +used for making casting-moulds and bricks, and for plastering walls, &c. +(see SOIL). + + + + +LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic +languages, cf. Swed. _lån_, Icel. _lán_, Dut. _leen_; the O.E. _laén_ +appears in "lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. +[Greek: leipein] and Lat. _linquere_, to leave), that which is lent; a +sum of money or something of value lent for a specific or indefinite +period when it or its equivalent is to be repaid or returned, usually at +a specified rate of interest (see USURY and MONEY-LENDING). For public +loans see FINANCE, NATIONAL DEBT, and the various sections on finance +under the names of the various countries. + + + + +LOANDA (_São Paulo de Loanda_), a seaport of West Africa, capital of the +Portuguese province of Angola, situated in 8° 48´ S., 13° 7´ E., on a +bay between the rivers Bango and Kwanza. The bay, protected from the +surf by a long narrow island of sand, is backed by a low sandy cliff +which at its southern end sweeps out with a sharp curve and terminates +in a bold point crowned by Fort San Miguel. The depth of water at the +entrance to the bay is 20 fathoms or more. The bay has silted up +considerably, but there is a good anchorage about 1½ m. from the shore +in 7 to 14 fathoms, besides cranage accommodation and a floating dock. +Vessels discharge into lighters, and are rarely delayed on account of +the weather. A part of the town lies on the foreshore, but the more +important buildings--the government offices, the governor's residence, +the palace of the bishop of Angola, and the hospital--are situated on +higher ground. Most of the European houses are large stone buildings of +one storey with red tile roofs. Loanda possesses a meteorological +observatory, public garden, tramways, gas-works, statues to Salvador +Correia de Sá, who wrested Angola from the Dutch, and to Pedro +Alexandrino, a former governor, and is the starting-point of the railway +to Ambaca and Malanje. + +Loanda was founded in 1576, and except between 1640 and 1648, when it +was occupied by the Dutch, has always been in Portuguese possession. It +was for over two centuries the chief centre of the slave trade between +Portuguese West Africa and Brazil. During that time the traffic of the +port was of no small account, and after a period of great depression +consequent on the suppression of that trade, more legitimate commerce +was developed. There is a regular service of steamers between the port +and Lisbon, Liverpool and Hamburg. The town has some 15,000 inhabitants, +including a larger European population than any other place on the west +coast of Africa. It is connected by submarine cables with Europe and +South Africa. Fully half the imports and export trade of Angola (q.v.) +passes through Loanda. + + + + +LOANGO, a region on the west coast of Africa, extending from the mouth +of the Congo river in 6° S. northwards through about two degrees. At one +time included in the "kingdom of Congo" (see ANGOLA, _History_), Loango +became independent about the close of the 16th century, and was still of +considerable importance in the middle of the 18th century. Buali, the +capital, was situated on the banks of a small river not far from the +port of Loango, where were several European "factories." The country +afterwards became divided into a large number of petty states, while +Portugal and France exercised an intermittent sovereignty over the +coast. Here the slave trade was longer maintained than anywhere else on +the West African seaboard; since its extirpation, palm oil and +india-rubber have been the main objects of commerce. The Loango coast is +now divided between French Congo and the Portuguese district of Kabinda +(see those articles). The natives, mainly members of the Ba-Kongo group +of Bantu negroes, and often called Ba-Fiot, are in general well-built, +strongly dolichocephalous and very thick of skull, the skin of various +shades of warm brown with the faintest suggestion of purple. Baldness is +unknown, and many of the men wear beards. Physical deformity is +extremely rare. In religious beliefs and in the use of fetishes they +resemble the negroes of Upper Guinea. + + + + +LOBACHEVSKIY, NICOLAS IVANOVICH (1793-1856), Russian mathematician, was +born at Makariev, Nizhniy-Novgorod, on the 2nd of November (N.S.) 1793. +His father died about 1800, and his mother, who was left in poor +circumstances, removed to Kazan with her three sons. In 1807 Nicolas, +the second boy, entered as a student in the University of Kazan, then +recently established. Five years later, having completed the curriculum, +he began to take part in the teaching, becoming assistant professor in +1814 and extraordinary professor two years afterwards. In 1823 he +succeeded to the ordinary professorship of mathematics, and retained the +chair until about 1846, when he seems to have fallen into official +disfavour. At that time his connexion with the university to which he +had devoted his life practically came to an end, except that in 1855, at +the celebration of his jubilee, he brought it as a last tribute his +_Pangéométrie_, in which he summarized the results of his geometrical +studies. This work was translated into German by H. Liebmann in 1902. He +died at Kazan on the 24th of February (N.S.) 1856. Lobachevskiy was one +of the first thinkers to apply a critical treatment to the fundamental +axioms of geometry, and he thus became a pioneer of the modern +geometries which deal with space other than as treated by Euclid. His +first contribution to non-Euclidian geometry is believed to have been +given in a lecture at Kazan in 1826, but the subject is treated in many +of his subsequent memoirs, among which may be mentioned the +_Geometrische Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Parallellinien_ (Berlin, +1840, and a new edition in 1887), and the _Pangéométrie_ already +referred to, which in the subtitle is described as a précis of geometry +founded on a general and rigorous theory of parallels. (See GEOMETRY, § +_Non-Euclidean_, and GEOMETRY, § _Axioms of_.) In addition to his +geometrical studies, he made various contributions to other branches of +mathematical science, among them being an elaborate treatise on algebra +(Kazan, 1834). Besides being a geometer of power and originality, +Lobachevskiy was an excellent man of business. Under his administration +the University of Kazan prospered as it had never done before; and he +not only organized the teaching staff to a high degree of efficiency, +but arranged and enriched its library, furnished instruments for its +observatory, collected specimens for its museums and provided it with +proper buildings. In order to be able to supervise the erection of the +last, he studied architecture, with such effect, it is said, that he was +able to carry out the plans at a cost considerably below the original +estimates. + + See F. Engel, _N. I. Lobatchewsky_ (Leipzig, 1899). + + + + +LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKI, ALEXIS BORISOVICH, PRINCE (1824-1896), Russian +statesman, was born on the 30th of December 1824, and educated, like +Prince Gorchakov and so many other eminent Russians, at the lyceum of +Tsarskoe Selo. At the age of twenty he entered the diplomatic service, +and became minister at Constantinople in 1859. In 1863 a regrettable +incident in his private life made him retire temporarily from the public +service, but four years later he re-entered it and served for ten years +as _adlatus_ to the minister of the interior. At the close of the +Russo-Turkish war in 1878 he was selected by the emperor to fill the +post of ambassador at Constantinople, and for more than a year he +carried out with great ability the policy of his government, which aimed +at re-establishing tranquillity in the Eastern Question, after the +disturbances produced by the reckless action of his predecessor, Count +Ignatiev. In 1879 he was transferred to London, and in 1882 to Vienna; +and in March 1895 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in +succession to M. de Giers. In this position he displayed much of the +caution of his predecessor, but adopted a more energetic policy in +European affairs generally and especially in the Balkan Peninsula. At +the time of his appointment the attitude of the Russian government +towards the Slav nationalities had been for several years one of extreme +reserve, and he had seemed as ambassador to sympathize with this +attitude. But as soon as he became minister of foreign affairs, Russian +influence in the Balkan Peninsula suddenly revived. Servia received +financial assistance; a large consignment of arms was sent openly from +St Petersburg to the prince of Montenegro; Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria +became ostensibly reconciled with the Russian emperor, and his son Boris +was received into the Eastern Orthodox Church; the Russian embassy at +Constantinople tried to bring about a reconciliation between the +Bulgarian exarch and the oecumenical patriarch; Bulgarians and Servians +professed, at the bidding of Russia, to lay aside their mutual +hostility. All this seemed to foreshadow the creation of a Balkan +confederation hostile to Turkey, and the sultan had reason to feel +alarmed. In reality Prince Lobanov was merely trying to establish a +strong Russian hegemony among these nationalities, and he had not the +slightest intention of provoking a new crisis in the Eastern Question so +long as the general European situation did not afford Russia a +convenient opportunity for solving it in her own interest without +serious intervention from other powers. Meanwhile he considered that the +integrity and independence of the Ottoman empire must be maintained so +far as these other powers were concerned. Accordingly, when Lord +Salisbury proposed energetic action to protect the Armenians, the +cabinet of St Petersburg suddenly assumed the rôle of protector of the +sultan and vetoed the proposal. At the same time efforts were made to +weaken the Triple Alliance, the principal instrument employed being the +_entente_ with France, which Prince Lobanov helped to convert into a +formal alliance between the two powers. In the Far East he was not less +active, and became the protector of China in the same sense as he had +shown himself the protector of Turkey. Japan was compelled to give up +her conquests on the Chinese mainland, so as not to interfere with the +future action of Russia in Manchuria, and the financial and other +schemes for increasing Russian influence in that part of the world were +vigorously supported. All this activity, though combined with a haughty +tone towards foreign governments and diplomatists, did not produce much +general apprehension, probably because there was a widespread conviction +that he desired to maintain peace, and that his great ability and +strength of character would enable him to control the dangerous forces +which he boldly set in motion. However this may be, before he had time +to mature his schemes, and when he had been the director of Russian +policy for only eighteen months, he died suddenly of heart disease when +travelling with the emperor on the 30th of August 1896. Personally +Prince Lobanov was a _grand seigneur_ of the Russian type, proud of +being descended from the independent princes of Rostov, and at the same +time an amiable man of wide culture, deeply versed in Russian history +and genealogy, and perhaps the first authority of his time in all that +related to the reign of the emperor Paul. (D. M. W.) + + + + +LÖBAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Löbau water, +12 m. S.E. of the town of Bautzen, on the Dresden-Görlitz railway. Pop. +(1905) 10,683. There is a spa, König Albert-Bad, largely frequented +during the summer season. The town has agricultural implement, +pianoforte, sugar, machine-building and button works, and trade in +grain, yarn, linen and stockings. Other industries are spinning, +weaving, dyeing, bleaching and brewing. + +Löbau is first mentioned as a town in 1221; it received civic rights +early in the 14th century and, in 1346, became one of the six allied +towns of Lusatia. It suffered severely during the Hussite war and was +deprived of its rights in 1547. + + See Bergmann, _Geschichte der Oberlausitzer Sechsstadt Löbau_ + (Bischofswerda, 1896); and Kretschmer, _Die Stadl Löbau_ (Chemnitz, + 1904). + + + + +LOBBY, a corridor or passage, also any apartment serving as an +ante-room, waiting room or entrance hall in a building. The Med. Lat. +_lobia_, _laubia_ or _lobium_, from which the word was directly adapted, +was used in the sense of a cloister, gallery or covered place for +walking attached to a house, as defined by Du Cange (_Gloss. Med. et +Inf. Lat._, s.v. _Lobia_), _porticus operta ad spatiandum idonea, +aedibus adjuncta_. The French form of _lobia_ was _loge_, cf. Ital. +_loggia_, and this gave the Eng. "lodge," which is thus a doublet of +"lobby." The ultimate derivation is given under LODGE. Other familiar +uses of the term "lobby" are its application (1) to the entrance hall of +a parliament house, and (2) to the two corridors known as +"division-lobbies," into which the members of the House of Commons and +other legislative bodies pass on a division, their votes being recorded +according to which "lobby," "aye" or "no," they enter. The entrance +lobby to a legislative building is open to the public, and thus is a +convenient place for interviews between members and their constituents +or with representatives of public bodies, associations and interests, +and the press. The influence and pressure thus brought to bear upon +members of legislative bodies has given rise to the use of "to lobby," +"lobbying," "lobbyist," &c., with this special significance. The +practice, though not unknown in the British parliament, is most +prevalent in the United States of America, where the use of the term +first arose (see below). + + + + +LOBBYING, in America, a general term used to designate the efforts of +persons who are not members of a legislative body to influence the +course of legislation. In addition to the large number of American +private bills which are constantly being introduced in Congress and the +various state legislatures, there are many general measures, such as +proposed changes in the tariff or in the railway or banking laws, which +seriously affect special interests. The people who are most intimately +concerned naturally have a right to appear before the legislature or its +representative, the committee in charge of the bill, and present their +side of the case. Lobbying in this sense is legitimate, and may almost +be regarded as a necessity. Unfortunately, however, all lobbying is not +of this innocent character. The great industrial corporations, insurance +companies, and railway and traction monopolies which have developed in +comparatively recent years are constantly in need of legislative +favours; they are also compelled to protect themselves against +legislation which is unreasonably severe, and against what are known in +the slang of politics as _strikes_ or _hold-ups_.[1] In order that these +objects may be accomplished there are kept at Washington and at the +various state capitals paid agents whose influence is so well recognized +that they are popularly called "the third house." Methods of the most +reprehensible kind have often been employed by them. + +Attempts have been made to remedy the evil by constitutional +prohibition, by statute law and by the action of the governor of the +state supported by public opinion. Improper lobbying has been declared a +felony in California, Georgia, Utah, Tennessee, Oregon, Montana and +Arizona, and the constitutions of practically all of the states impose +restrictions upon the enactment of special and private legislation. The +Massachusetts anti-lobbying act of 1890, which has served as a model for +the legislation of Maryland (1900), Wisconsin (1905) and a few of the +other states, is based upon the publicity principle. Counsel and other +legislative agents must register with the sergeant-at-arms giving the +names and addresses of their employers and the date, term and character +of their employment. In 1907 alone laws regulating lobbying were passed +in nine states--Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Missouri, +Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota and Texas. + + See James Bryce, _American Commonwealth_ (New York, ed. 1889), i. + 673-678; Paul S. Reinsch, _American Legislatures and Legislative + Methods_ (New York, 1907), chaps. viii., ix.; Margaret A. Schaffner, + "Lobbying," in _Wisconsin Comparative Legislation Bulletins_, No. 2; + and G. M. Gregory, _The Corrupt Use of Money in Politics and Laws for + its Prevention_ (Madison, Wis., 1893). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Bills introduced for purposes of blackmail. + + + + +LOBE, any round projecting part, specifically the lower part of the +external ear, one of the parts into which the liver is divided, also one +of several parts of the brain, divided by marked fissures (see LIVER and +BRAIN). The Greek [Greek: lobos], from which "lobe" is derived, was +applied to the lobe of the ear and of the liver, and to the pod of a +leguminous plant. + + + + +LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1781-1860), German classical scholar, was born +at Naumburg on the 5th of June 1781. After having studied at Jena and +Leipzig, he settled at Wittenberg in 1802 as privat-docent, and in 1810 +was appointed to a professorship in the university. Four years later, he +accepted the chair of rhetoric and ancient literature at Königsberg, +which he occupied till within two years of his death (25th of August +1860). His literary activities were devoted to the history of Greek +religion and to the Greek language and literature. His greatest work, +_Aglaophamus_ (1829), is still valuable to students. In this he +maintains, against the views put forward by G. F. Creuzer in his +_Symbolik_ (1810-1823), that the religion of the Greek mysteries +(especially those of Eleusis) did not essentially differ from the +national religion; that it was not esoteric; that the priests as such +neither taught nor possessed any higher knowledge of God; that the +Oriental elements were a later importation. His edition of the _Ajax_ of +Sophocles (1809) had gained him the reputation of a sound scholar and +critic; his Phrynichus (1820) and _Paralipomena grammaticae graecae_ +(1837) exhibit the widest acquaintance with Greek literature. He had +little sympathy with comparative philology, holding that it needed a +lifetime to acquire a thorough knowledge of a single language. + + See the article by L. Friedländer in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; + C. Bursian's _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ + (1883); Lehrs, _Populäre Aufsätze aus dem Altertum_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, + 1875); Ludwich, _Ausgewählte Briefe von und an Chr. Aug. Lobeck und K. + Lehrs_ (1894); also J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_, + i. (1908), 103. + + + + +LOBEIRA, JOÃO (c. 1233-1285), a Portuguese troubadour of the time of +King Alphonso III., who is supposed to have been the first to reduce +into prose the story of _Amadis de Gaula_ (q.v.). D. Carolina Michaelis +de Vasconcellos, in her masterly edition of the _Cancioneiro de Ajuda_ +(Halle, 1904, vol. i. pp. 523-524), gives some biographical notes on +João Lobeira, who is represented in the Colocci Brancuti _Canzoniere_ +(Halle, 1880) by five poems (Nos. 230-235). In number 230, João Lobeira +uses the same _ritournelle_ that Oriana sings in _Amadis de Gaula_, and +this has led to his being generally considered by modern supporters of +the Portuguese case to have been the author of the romance, in +preference to Vasco de Lobeira, to whom the prose original was formerly +ascribed. The folklorist A. Thomas Pires (in his _Vasco de Lobeira_, +Elvas, 1905), following the old tradition, would identify the novelist +with a man of that name who flourished in Elvas at the close of the 14th +and beginning of the 15th century, but the documents he publishes +contain no reference to this Lobeira being a man of letters. + + + + +LOBELIA, the typical genus of the tribe _Lobelieae_, of the order +Campanulaceae, named after Matthias de Lobel, a native of Lille, +botanist and physician to James I. It numbers about two hundred species, +natives of nearly all the temperate and warmer regions of the world, +excepting central and eastern Europe as well as western Asia. They are +annual or perennial herbs or under-shrubs, rarely shrubby; remarkable +arborescent forms are the tree-lobelias found at high elevations on the +mountains of tropical Africa. Two species are British, _L. Dortmanna_ +(named by Linnaeus after Dortmann, a Dutch druggist), which occurs in +gravelly mountain lakes; and _L. urens_, which is only found on heaths, +&c., in Dorset and Cornwall. The genus is distinguished from _Campanula_ +by the irregular corona and completely united anthers, and by the +excessive acridity of the milky juice. The species earliest described +and figured appears to be _L. cardinalis_, under the name _Trachelium +americanum sive cardinalis planta_, "the rich crimson cardinal's +flower"; Parkinson (_Paradisus_, 1629, p. 357) says, "it groweth neere +the riuer of Canada, where the French plantation in America is seated." +It is a native of the eastern United States. This and several other +species are in cultivation as ornamental garden plants, e.g. the dwarf +blue _L. Erinus_, from the Cape, which, with its numerous varieties, +forms a familiar bedding plant. _L. splendens_ and _L. fulgens_, growing +from 1 to 2 ft. high, from Mexico, have scarlet flowers; _L. Tupa_, a +Chilean perennial 6 to 8 ft. high, has reddish or scarlet flowers; _L. +tenuior_ with blue flowers is a recent acquisition to the greenhouse +section, while _L. amaena_, from North America, as well as _L. +syphilitica_ and its hybrids, from Virginia, have also blue flowers. The +last-named was introduced in 1665. The hybrids raised by crossing +_cardinalis_, _fulgens_, _splendens_ and _syphilitica_, constitute a +fine group of fairly hardy and showy garden plants. Queen Victoria is a +well-known variety, but there are now many others. + + The _Lobelia_ is familiar in gardens under two very different forms, + that of the dwarf-tufted plants used for summer bedding, and that of + the tall showy perennials. Of the former the best type is _L. Erinus_, + growing from 4 to 6 in. high, with many slender stems, bearing through + a long period a profusion of small but bright blue two-lipped flowers. + The variety _speciosa_ offers the best strain of the dwarf lobelias; + but the varieties are being constantly superseded by new sorts. A good + variety will reproduce itself sufficiently true from seed for ordinary + flower borders, but to secure exact uniformity it is necessary to + propagate from cuttings. + + The herbaceous lobelias, of which _L. fulgens_ may be taken as the + type, may be called hardy except in so far as they suffer from damp in + winter; they throw up a series of short rosette-like suckers round the + base of the old flowering stem, and these sometimes, despite all the + care taken of them, rot off during winter. The roots should either be + taken up in autumn, and planted closely side by side in boxes of dry + earth or ashes, these being set for the time they are dormant either + in a cold frame or in any airy place in the greenhouse; or they may be + left in the ground, in which case a brick or two should be put beside + the plants, some coal ashes being first placed round them, and slates + to protect the plants being laid over the bricks, one end resting on + the earth beyond. About February they should be placed in a warm pit, + and after a few days shaken out and the suckers parted, and potted + singly into small pots of light rich earth. After being kept in the + forcing pit until well established, they should be moved to a more + airy greenhouse pit, and eventually to a cold frame preparatory to + planting out. In the more favoured parts of the United Kingdom it is + unnecessary to go to this trouble, as the plants are perfectly hardy; + even in the suburbs of London they live for several years without + protection except in very severe winters. They should have a loamy + soil, well enriched with manure; and require copious waterings when + they start into free growth. They may be raised from seeds, which, + being very fine, require to be sown carefully; but they do not flower + usually till the second year unless they are sown very early in heat. + + The species _Lobelia inflata_, the "Indian tobacco" of North America, + is used in medicine, the entire herb, dried and in flower, being + employed. The species derives its specific name from its + characteristic inflated capsules. It is somewhat irritant to the + nostrils, and is possessed of a burning, acrid taste. The chief + constituent is a volatile liquid alkaloid (cf. nicotine) named + lobeline, which occurs to the extent of about 30 %. This is a very + pungent body, with a tobacco-like odour. It occurs in combination with + lobelic acid and forms solid crystalline salts. The single preparation + of this plant in the British Pharmacopeia is the _Tinctura Lobeliae + Ethereae_, composed of five parts of spirits of ether to one of + lobelia. The dose is 5 to 15 minims. The ether is employed in order to + add to the efficacy of the drug in asthma, but a simple alcoholic + tincture would be really preferable. + + Lobelia has certain pharmacological resemblances to tobacco. It has no + action upon the unbroken skin, but may be absorbed by it under + suitable conditions. Taken internally in small doses, e.g. 5 minims of + the tincture, it stimulates the peristaltic movements of the coecum + and colon. In large doses it is a powerful gastrointestinal irritant, + closely resembling tobacco, and causing giddiness, headache, nausea, + vomiting, purging and extreme prostration, with clammy sweats and + faltering rapid pulse. Its action on the circulation is very decided. + The cardiac terminals of the vagus nerves are paralysed, the pulse + being thus accelerated by loss of the normal inhibitory influence, and + the blood-vessels being relaxed owing to paresis of the vasomotor + centre. The blood-pressure thus falls very markedly. The respiratory + centre is similarly depressed, death ensuing from this action. Lobelia + is thus a typical respiratory poison. In less than toxic doses the + motor terminals of the vagi in the bronchi and bronchioles are + paralysed, thus causing relaxation of the bronchial muscles. It is + doubtful whether lobelia affects the cerebrum directly. It is excreted + by the kidneys and the skin, both of which it stimulates in its + passage. In general terms the drug may be said to stimulate + non-striped muscular fibres in small, and paralyse them in toxic + doses. + + Five minims of the tincture may be usefully prescribed to be taken + night and morning in chronic constipation due to inertia of the lower + part of the alimentary canal. In spasmodic (neurotic) asthma, and also + in bronchitis accompanied by asthmatic spasm of the bronchioles, the + tincture may be given in comparatively large doses (e.g. one drachm) + every fifteen minutes until nausea is produced. Thereafter, whether + successful or not in relieving the spasm, the administration of the + drug must be stopped. + + + + +LOBENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the principality of Reuss, on the +Lemnitz, situated in a pleasant and fertile country, 25 m. N.W. from Hof +by railway. Pop. (1905) 2990. The town, grouped round a rock, upon which +stand the ruins of the old castle, is exceedingly picturesque. It +contains a spacious parish church, a palace, until 1824 the residence of +the princes of Reuss-Lobenstein-Elersdorf, and a hydropathic +establishment. The manufactures include dyeing, brewing and +cigar-making. + + See Zedler and Schott, _Führer durch Lobenstein und Umgebung_ (2nd + ed., Lobenstein, 1903). + + + + +LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES (?1575-?1627), Portuguese bucolic writer, a +lineal descendant in the family of letters of Bernardim Ribeiro and +Christovam Falcão. All we know of his life is that he was born of rich +and noble parents at Leiria, and lived at ease in its picturesque +neighbourhood, reading philosophy and poetry and writing of shepherds +and shepherdesses by the rivers Liz and Lena. He studied at the +university of Coimbra and took the degree of licentiate about 1600. He +visited Lisbon from time to time, and tradition has it that he died by +drowning on his way thither as he was descending the Tagus from +Santarem. Though his first book, a little volume of verses (Romances) +published in 1596, and his last, a rhymed welcome to King Philip III., +published in 1623, are written in Spanish, he composed his eclogues and +prose pastorals entirely in Portuguese, and thereby did a rare service +to his country at a time when, owing to the Spanish domination, +Castilian was the language preferred by polite society and by men of +letters. His _Primavera_, a book that may be compared to the _Diana_ of +Jorge de Montemôr (Montemayor), appeared in 1601, its second part, the +_Pastor Peregrino_, in 1608, and its third, the _Desenganado_, in 1614. +The dullness of these lengthy collections of episodes without plan, +thread or ideas, is relieved by charming and ingenious pastoral songs +named _serranilhas_. His eclogues in endecasyllables are an echo of +those of Camoens, but like his other verses they are inferior to his +_redondilhas_, which show the traditional fount of his inspiration. In +his _Corte na Aldeia_ (1619), a man of letters, a young nobleman, a +student and an old man of easy means, beguile the winter evenings at +Cintra by a series of philosophic and literary discussions in dialogue +which may still be read with pleasure. Lobo is also the author of an +insipid epic in twenty cantos in _ottava rima_ on the Constable D. Nuno +Alvares Pereira, the hero of the war of independence against Spain at +the end of the 14th century. The characteristics of his prose style are +harmony, purity and elegance, and he ranks as one of Portugal's leading +writers. A disciple of the Italian school, his verses are yet free from +imitations of classical models, his descriptions of natural scenery are +unsurpassed in the Portuguese language, and generally his writings +strike a true note and show a sincerity that was rare at the time. Their +popularity may be seen by the fact that the _Primavera_ went through +seven editions in the 17th century and nine in all, a large number for +so limited a market as that of Portugal, while six editions exist of the +_Pastor Peregrino_ and four of the epic poem. An edition of his +collected works was published in one volume in Lisbon in 1723, and +another in four volumes, but less complete, appeared there in 1774. + + See Costa e Silva, _Ensaio biographico critico_, v. 5-112, for a + critical examination of Lobo's writings; also Bouterwek's _History of + Portuguese Literature_. (E. Pr.) + + + + +LOBO, JERONIMO (1593-1678), Jesuit missionary, was born in Lisbon, and +entered the Order of Jesus at the age of sixteen. In 1621 he was ordered +as a missionary to India, and in 1622 he arrived at Goa. With the +intention of proceeding to Abyssinia, whose Negus (emperor) Segued had +been converted to Roman Catholicism by Pedro Paez, he left India in +1624. He disembarked on the coast of Mombasa, and attempted to reach his +destination through the Galla country, but was forced to return. In 1625 +he set out again, accompanied by Mendez, the patriarch of Ethiopia, and +eight missionaries. The party landed on the coast of the Red Sea, and +Lobo settled in Abyssinia as superintendent of the missions in Tigré. He +remained there until death deprived the Catholics of their protector, +the emperor Segued. Forced by persecution to leave the kingdom, in 1634 +Lobo and his companions fell into the hands of the Turks at Massawa, who +sent him to India to procure a ransom for his imprisoned +fellow-missionaries. In this he was successful, but could not induce the +Portuguese viceroy to send an armament against Abyssinia. Intent upon +accomplishing this cherished project, he embarked for Portugal, and +after he had been shipwrecked on the coast of Natal, and captured by +pirates, arrived at Lisbon. Neither at this city, however, nor at Madrid +and Rome, was any countenance given to Lobo's plan. He accordingly +returned to India in 1640, and was elected rector, and afterwards +provincial, of the Jesuits at Goa. After some years he returned to his +native city, and died there on the 29th of January 1678. + + Lobo wrote an account of his travels in Portuguese, which appears + never to have been printed, but is deposited in the monastery of St + Roque, Lisbon. Balthazar Telles made large use of the information + therein in his _Historia geral da Ethiopia a Alta_ (Coimbra, 1660), + often erroneously attributed to Lobo (see Machado's _Bibliotheca + Lusitana_). Lobo's own narrative was translated from a MS. copy into + French in 1728 by the Abbé Joachim le Grand, under the title of + _Voyage historique d'Abissinie_. In 1669 a translation by Sir Peter + Wyche of several passages from a MS. account of Lobo's travels was + published by the Royal Society (translated in M. Thévenot's _Relation + des voyages_ in 1673). An English abridgment of Le Grand's edition by + Dr Johnson was published in 1735 (reprinted 1789). In a _Mémoire + justificatif en réhabilitation des pères Pierre Paez et Jérôme Lobo_, + Dr C. T. Beke maintains against Bruce the accuracy of Lobo's + statements as to the source of the Abai branch of the Nile. See A. de + Backer, _Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus_ (ed. C. Sommervogel, + iv., 1893). + + + + +LOBSTER (O.E. _lopustre_, _lopystre_, a corruption of Lat. _locusta_, +lobster or other marine shell-fish; also a locust), an edible crustacean +found on the coasts of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean. The name is +sometimes loosely applied to any of the larger Crustacea of the order +Macrura, especially to such as are used for food. + +The true lobsters, forming the family _Homaridae_, are distinguished +from the other Macrura by having the first three pairs of legs +terminating in chelae or pincers. The first pair are large and massive +and are composed of six segments, while the remaining legs are each +composed of seven segments. The sternum of the last thoracic somite is +immovably united with the preceding. This last character, together with +some peculiarities of the branchial system, distinguish the lobsters +from the freshwater crayfishes. The common lobster (_Homarus gammarus_ +or _vulgaris_) is found on the European coasts from Norway to the +Mediterranean. The American lobster (_Homarus americanus_), which should +perhaps be ranked as a variety rather than as a distinct species, is +found on the Atlantic coast of North America from Labrador to Cape +Hatteras. A third species, found at the Cape of Good Hope, is of small +size and of no economic importance. + +Both in Europe and in America the lobster is the object of an important +fishery. It lives in shallow water, in rocky places, and is usually +captured in traps known as lobster-pots, or creels, made of wickerwork +or of hoops covered with netting, and having funnel-shaped openings +permitting entrance but preventing escape. These traps are baited with +pieces of fish, preferably stale, and are sunk on ground frequented by +lobsters, the place of each being marked by a buoy. In Europe the +lobsters are generally sent to market in the fresh state, but in +America, especially in the northern New England states and in the +maritime provinces of Canada, the canning of lobsters is an important +industry. The European lobster rarely reaches 10 pounds in weight, +though individuals of 14 pounds have been found, and in America there +are authentic records of lobsters weighing 20 to 23 pounds. + +The effects of over-fishing have become apparent, especially in America, +rather in the reduced average size of the lobsters caught than in any +diminution of the total yield. The imposition of a close time to protect +the spawning lobsters has been often tried, but as the female carries +the spawn attached to her body for nearly twelve months after spawning +it is impossible to give any effective protection by this means. The +prohibition of the capture of females carrying spawn, or, as it is +termed, "in berry," is difficult to enforce. A minimum size, below which +it is illegal to sell lobsters, is fixed by law in most lobster-fishing +districts, but the value of the protection so given has also been +questioned. + +The Norway lobster (_Nephrops norvegicus_) is found, like the common +lobster, from Norway to the Mediterranean. It is a smaller species, with +long and slender claws and is of an orange colour, often beautifully +marked with red and blue. It is found in deeper water and is generally +captured by trawling. It is a curious and unexplained fact that nearly +all the individuals so captured are males. It is less esteemed for food +than the common species. In London it is sold under the name of "Dublin +prawn." + +The rock lobster, spiny lobster, or sea-crawfish (_Palinurus vulgaris_) +belongs to the family _Palinuridae_, distinguished from the _Homaridae_ +by the fact that the first legs are not provided with chelae or pincers, +and that all the legs possess only six segments. The antennae are very +long and thick. It is found on the southern and western coasts of the +British, Islands and extends to the Mediterranean. It is highly esteemed +for the table, especially in France, where it goes by the name of +_Langouste_. Other species of the same family are used for food in +various parts of the world, especially on the Pacific coast of North +America and in Australia and New Zealand. + +In Melbourne and Sydney the name of "Murray lobster" is given to a large +species of crayfish (_Astacopsis spinifer_, formerly known as _Astacus_, +or _Potamobius serratus_) which is much used for food. (W. T. Ca.) + + + + +LOCAL GOVERNMENT, a phrase specially adopted in English usage for the +decentralized or deconcentrated administration, within a state or +national and central government, of local affairs by local authorities. +It is restricted not only in respect of area but also in respect of the +character and extent of the duties assigned to them. It is not to be +confused with local self-government in the wider sense in which the +words are sometimes employed, e.g. for the granting by the crown of +self-government to a colony; the expression, in a general way, may mean +this, but "local government" as technically used in England refers more +narrowly to the system of county or municipal administration, and +English usage transfers it to denote the similar institutions in other +countries. The growth and persistence of this kind of subordinate +government is due practically to the need of relieving the central +authority in the state, and to experience of the failure of a completely +centralized bureaucracy. The degree to which local government is adopted +varies considerably in different countries, and those which are the best +examples of it in modern times--the United Kingdom, the United States, +France and Germany--differ very much in their local institutions, partly +through historical, partly through temperamental, causes. A certain +shifting of ideas from time to time, as to what is local and what is +central, is inevitable, and the same view is not possible in countries +of different configuration, history or political system. The history and +present state of the local government in the various countries are dealt +with in the separate articles on them (ENGLAND, GERMANY, &c.), in the +sections dealing with government and administration, or political +institutions. + + The best recent comparative study of local government is Percy + Ashley's _Local and Central Government_ (Murray, 1906), an admirable + account of the evolution and working of the systems in England, + France, Prussia and United States. Other important works, in addition + to general works on constitutional law, are J. A. Fairlie's _Municipal + Administration_, Shaw's _Municipal Government in Continental Europe_, + Redlich and Hirst's _Local Government in England_, Mr and Mrs Sidney + Webb's elaborate historical inquiry into English local government + (1906), and for Germany, Bornhak's _Geschichte des preussischen + Verwaltungsrechts_. + + + + +LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD, a department of the administration of the United +Kingdom, constituted in 1871. It is the successor of the General Board +of Health, established in 1848 pursuant to the Public Health Act of that +year. The General Board of Health continued in existence until 1854, +when it was reconstituted. Its existence under its new constitution was +originally limited to one year, but was extended from year to year until +1858, when it was allowed to expire, its powers under the various acts +for the prevention of diseases being transferred to the privy council, +while those which related to the control of local authorities passed to +the secretary of state for the home department, to whose department the +staff of officers and clerks belonging to the board was transferred. +This state of affairs continued until 1871, when the Local Government +Board was created by the Local Government Board Act 1871. It consists of +the lord president of the council, the five principal secretaries of +state, the lord privy seal, the chancellor of the exchequer and a +president appointed by the sovereign. The board itself seldom meets, and +the duties of the department are discharged by the president assisted by +a parliamentary and a permanent secretary and a permanent staff. The +president and one of the secretaries usually have seats in parliament, +and the president is generally a member of the cabinet. The salary of +the president, formerly £2000, was raised in 1910 to £5000 a year. The +board has all the powers of the secretary of state under the Public +Health Act 1848, and the numerous subsequent acts relating to sanitary +matters and the government of sanitary districts; together with all the +powers and duties of the privy council under the acts relating to the +prevention of epidemic disease and to vaccination. The powers and duties +of the board have been largely added to by legislation since its +creation; it may be said that the board exercises a general supervision +over the numerous authorities to whom local government has been +entrusted (see ENGLAND: _Local Government_). A committee presided over +by Lord Jersey in 1904 inquired into the constitution and duties of the +board, but made no recommendation as to any change therein. It +recommended, however, an increase in the salaries of the president and +of the parliamentary and permanent secretaries. + + + + +LOCARNO (Ger. _Luggarus_), a small town of Italian appearance in the +Swiss canton of Tessin or Ticino, of which till 1881 it was one of the +three capitals (the others being Bellinzona, q.v., and Lugano, q.v.). It +is built at the north or Swiss end of the Lago Maggiore, not far from +the point at which the Maggia enters that lake, and is by rail 14 m. +S.W. of Bellinzona. Its height above the sea-level is only 682 ft., so +that it is said to be the lowest spot in Switzerland. In 1900 its +population was 3603, mainly Italian-speaking and Romanists. It was taken +from the Milanese in 1512 by the Swiss who ruled it till 1798, when it +became part of the canton of Lugano in the Helvetic Republic, and in +1803 part of that of Tessin or Ticino, then first erected. In 1555 a +number of Protestant inhabitants were expelled for religious reasons, +and going to Zürich founded the silk industry there. Above Locarno is +the romantically situated sanctuary of the Madonna del Sasso (now +rendered easily accessible by a funicular railway) that commands a +glorious view over the lake and the surrounding country. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH, 1ST BARON (1827-1900), British colonial +administrator, son of James Loch, M.P., of Drylaw, Midlothian, was born +on the 23rd of May 1827. He entered the navy, but at the end of two +years quitted it for the East India Company's military service, and in +1842 obtained a commission in the Bengal Light Cavalry. In the Sikh war +in 1845 he was given an appointment on the staff of Sir Hugh Gough, and +served throughout the Sutlej campaign. In 1852 he became second in +command of Skinner's Horse. At the outbreak of the Crimean war in 1854, +Loch severed his connexion with India, and obtained leave to raise a +body of irregular Bulgarian cavalry, which he commanded throughout the +war. In 1857 he was appointed attaché to Lord Elgin's mission to the +East, was present at the taking of Canton, and in 1858 brought home the +treaty of Yedo. In April 1860 he again accompanied Lord Elgin to China, +as secretary of the new embassy sent to secure the execution by China of +her treaty engagements. The embassy was backed up by an allied +Anglo-French force. With Harry S. Parkes he negotiated the surrender of +the Taku forts. During the advance on Peking Loch was chosen with Parkes +to complete the preliminary negotiations for peace at Tungchow. They +were accompanied by a small party of officers and Sikhs. It having been +discovered that the Chinese were planning a treacherous attack on the +British force, Loch rode back and warned the outposts. He then returned +to Parkes and his party under a flag of truce hoping to secure their +safety. They were all, however, made prisoners and taken to Peking, +where the majority died from torture or disease. Parkes and Loch, after +enduring irons and all the horrors of a Chinese prison, were afterwards +more leniently treated. After three weeks' time the negotiations for +their release were successful, but they had only been liberated ten +minutes when orders were received from the Chinese emperor, then a +fugitive in Mongolia, for their immediate execution. Loch never entirely +recovered his health after this experience in a Chinese dungeon. +Returning home he was made C.B., and for a while was private secretary +to Sir George Grey, then at the Home Office. In 1863 he was appointed +lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man. During his governorship the +House of Keys was transformed into an elective assembly, the first line +of railway was opened, and the influx of tourists began to bring fresh +prosperity to the island. In 1882 Loch, who had become K.C.B. in 1880, +accepted a commissionership of woods and forests, and two years later +was made governor of Victoria, where he won the esteem of all classes. +In June 1889 he succeeded Sir Hercules Robinson as governor of Cape +Colony and high commissioner of South Africa. + +As high commissioner his duties called for the exercise of great +judgment and firmness. The Boers were at the same time striving to +frustrate Cecil Rhodes's schemes of northern expansion and planning to +occupy Mashonaland, to secure control of Swaziland and Zululand and to +acquire the adjacent lands up to the ocean. Loch firmly supported +Rhodes, and, by informing President Kruger that troops would be sent to +prevent any invasion of territory under British protection, he +effectually crushed the "Banyailand trek" across the Limpopo (1890-91). +Loch, however, with the approval of the imperial government, concluded +in July-August 1890 a convention with President Kruger respecting +Swaziland, by which, while the Boers withdrew all claims to territory +north of the Transvaal, they were granted an outlet to the sea at Kosi +Bay on condition that the republic entered the South African Customs +Union. This convention was concluded after negotiations conducted with +President Kruger by J. H. Hofmeyr on behalf of the high commissioner, +and was made at a time when the British and Bond parties in Cape Colony +were working in harmony. The Transvaal did not, however, fulfil the +necessary condition, and in view of the increasingly hostile attitude of +the Pretoria administration to Great Britain Loch became a strong +advocate of the annexation by Britain of the territory east of +Swaziland, through which the Boer railway to the sea would have passed. +He at length induced the British government to adopt his view and on the +15th of March 1895 it was announced that these territories +(Amatongaland, &c.), would be annexed by Britain, an announcement +received by Mr Kruger "with the greatest astonishment and regret." +Meantime Loch had been forced to intervene in another matter. When the +commandeering difficulty of 1894 had roused the Uitlanders in the +Transvaal to a dangerous pitch of excitement, he travelled to Pretoria +to use his personal influence with President Kruger, and obtained the +withdrawal of the obnoxious commandeering regulations. In the following +year he entered a strong protest against the new Transvaal franchise +law. Meanwhile, however, the general situation in South Africa was +assuming year by year a more threatening aspect. Cecil Rhodes, then +prime minister of Cape Colony, was strongly in favour of a more +energetic policy than was supported by the Imperial government, and at +the end of March 1895 the high commissioner, finding himself, it is +believed, out of touch with his ministers, returned home a few months +before the expiry of his term of office. In the same year he was raised +to the peerage. When the Anglo-Boer war broke out in 1899 Loch took a +leading part in raising and equipping a body of mounted men, named after +him "Loch's Horse." He died in London on the 20th of June 1900, and was +succeeded as 2nd baron by his son Edward (b. 1873). + + + + +LOCHABER, a district of southern Inverness-shire, Scotland, bounded W. +by Loch Linnhe, the river and loch Lochy, N. by the Corryarrick range +and adjoining hills, N.E. and E. by the district of Badenoch, S.E. by +the district of Rannoch and S. by the river and loch Leven. It measures +32 m. from N.E. to S.W. and 25 m. from E. to W., and is remarkable for +wild and romantic scenery, Ben Nevis being the chief mountain. The +district has given its name to a celebrated type of axe, consisting of a +long shaft with a blade like a scythe and a large hook behind it, which, +according to Sir Walter Scott, was introduced into the Highlands and +Ireland from Scandinavia. It was the weapon of the old City Guard of +Edinburgh. The pathetic song of "Lochaber no more" was written by Allan +Ramsay. + + + + +LOCHES, a town in France, capital of an arrondissement in the department +of Indre-et-Loire, 29 m. S.E. of Tours by rail, on the left bank of the +Indre. Pop. (1906) 3751. The town, one of the most picturesque in +central France, lies at the foot of the rocky eminence on which stands +the castle of the Anjou family, surrounded by an outer wall 1¼ m. in +circumference, and consisting of the old collegiate church of St Ours, +the royal lodge and the donjon. The church of St Ours dates from the +10th to the 12th centuries; among its distinguishing features are the +huge stone pyramids surmounting the nave and the beautiful carving of +the west door. The royal lodge, built by Charles VII. and used as the +subprefecture, contains the tomb of Agnes Sorel and the oratory of Anne +of Brittany. The donjon includes, besides the ruined keep (12th +century), the Martelet, celebrated as the prison of Lodovico Sforza, +duke of Milan, who died there in 1508, and the Tour Ronde, built by +Louis XI. and containing the famous iron cages in which state prisoners, +including--according to a story now discredited--their inventor Cardinal +Balue, were confined. Loches has an hôtel-de-ville and several houses of +the Renaissance period. It has a tribunal of first instance, a communal +college and a training college. Liqueur-distilling and tanning are +carried on together with trade in farm-produce, wine, wood and +live-stock. + +On the right bank of the Loire, opposite the town and practically its +suburb, is the village of Beaulieu-lès-Loches, once the seat of a +barony. Besides the parish church of St Laurent, a beautiful specimen of +12th-century architecture, it contains the remains of the great abbey +church of the Holy Sepulchre founded in the 11th century by Fulk Nerra, +count of Anjou, who is buried in the chancel. This chancel, which with +one of the older transepts now constitutes the church, dates from the +15th century. The Romanesque nave is in ruins, but of the two towers one +survives intact; it is square, crowned with an octagonal steeple of +stone, and is one of the finest extant monuments of Romanesque +architecture. + +Loches (the Roman _Leucae_) grew up round a monastery founded about 500 +by St Ours and belonged to the counts of Anjou from 886 till 1205. In +the latter year it was seized from King John of England by Philip +Augustus, and from the middle of the 13th century till after the time of +Charles IX. the castle was a residence of the kings of France. + + + + +LOCHGELLY, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 7½ m. N.E. of +Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 5472. The town is +modern and owes its prosperity to the iron-works and collieries in its +immediate vicinity. Loch Gelly, from which the town takes its name, +situated ½ m. S.E., measures ½ m. in length by ¾ m. in breadth, contains +some trout and pike, and has on its west banks Lochgelly House, a seat +of the earl of Minto. The Romans are said to have had a station at Loch +Ore in the parish of Ballingry, 2¼ m. N. by W., which was drained about +the end of the 18th century and then cultivated. To the N.E. rises the +hill of Benarty (1131 ft.). Hallyards, about 2 m. S.E. of Lochgelly, is +a ruined house that once belonged to Sir William Kirkaldy of Grange, who +held Edinburgh Castle for Queen Mary. Here James V. was received after +his defeat at Solway Moss in 1542, and here a few Jacobites used to meet +in 1715. + + + + +LOCHGILPHEAD, a municipal and police burgh of Argyllshire, Scotland, at +the head of Loch Gilp, a small arm on the western side of Loch Fyne. +Pop. (1901) 1313. The herring-fishery is the chief industry, but there +is some weaving of woollens and, in summer, a considerable influx of +visitors. Ardrishaig (pop. 1285), a seaport on the west of the mouth of +Loch Gilp, is the east terminus of the Crinan Canal. It is the place of +transhipment from the large Glasgow passenger steamers to the small +craft built for the navigation of the canal. It is an important harbour +in connexion with the Loch Fyne herring-fishery, and there is also a +distillery. During the summer there is a coach service to Ford at the +lower end of Loch Awe. + + + + +LOCHMABEN, a royal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 8 m. +N.E. of Dumfries, with a station on the Caledonian railway company's +branch from Dumfries to Locherbie. Pop. (1901) 1328. It is delightfully +situated, there being eight lakes in the immediate neighbourhood, while +the river Annan, and the Waters of Ae, Kinnel and Dryfe are in the +vicinity. The town hall is a handsome edifice with clock tower. At the +south end of Castle Loch, the chief lake, stand the ruins, a mere shell, +of Lochmaben Castle, dating from the 13th century, where local tradition +declares that Robert Bruce was born--an honour which is also claimed, +however, for Turnberry Castle on the coast of Ayrshire. In the parish +church is a bell said to have been presented to King Robert by the pope +after reconciliation with him. A statue of the king stands in front of +the town hall. Whether it were his birthplace or not, the associations +of Bruce with Lochmaben were intimate. He exempted his followers in the +district from feudal service and their descendants--the "kindly tenants +of Lochmaben"--were confirmed in their tenure by the court of session in +1824. The Castle Loch is the only fresh water in Scotland, and possibly +in the British Isles, where the vendace (_coregonus vandesius_) occurs. +This fish, which is believed to be growing scarcer, is alleged on +doubtful authority to have been introduced by Queen Mary. It is captured +by the sweep-net in August, and is esteemed as a delicacy. The lakes +adjoining the town afford the inhabitants exceptional advantages for the +game of curling. There was once a team of Lochmaben Curlers entirely +composed of shoemakers (souters) who held their own against all comers, +and their prowess added the phrase "to souter" to the vocabulary of the +sport, the word indicating a match in which the winners scored "game" to +their opponents' "love." Lochmaben unites with Annan, Dumfries, +Kirkcudbright and Sanquhar (the Dumfries burghs) in returning one member +to parliament. + + + + +LOCK, MATTHIAS, English 18th-century furniture designer and +cabinet-maker. The dates of his birth and death are unknown; but he was +a disciple of Chippendale, and subsequently of the Adams, and was +possibly in partnership with Henry Copeland (q.v.). During the greater +part of his life he belonged to that flamboyant school which derived its +inspiration from Louis XV. models; but when he fell under the influence +of Robert Adam he absorbed his manner so completely that it is often +difficult to distinguish between them, just as it is sometimes easy to +confound Lock's work with the weaker efforts of Chippendale. Thus from +being extravagantly rococo he progressed to a simple ordered classicism. +His published designs are not equal to his original drawings, many of +which are preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, +while the pieces themselves are often bolder and more solid than is +suggested by the author's representations of them. He was a clever +craftsman and holds a distinct place among the minor furniture designers +of the second half of the 18th century. + + Among his works, some of which were issued in conjunction with + Copeland, are: _A New Drawing Book of Ornaments_ (n. d.); _A New Book + of Ornaments_ (1768); _A New Book of Pier Frames, Ovals, Girandoles, + Tables, &c._ (1769); and _A New Book of Foliage_ (1769). + + + + +LOCK (from the O. Eng. _loc._; the word appears, in different forms, in +many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as "hole," Ger. +_Loch_, "lid," Swed. _lock_, &c.; probably the original was a root +meaning "to enclose"), a fastening, particularly one which consists of a +bolt held in a certain position by one or more movable parts which +require to be placed in definite positions by the aid of a key or of a +secret arrangement of letters, figures or signs, before the bolt can be +moved. It is with such fastenings that the present article chiefly +deals. + + The word is also used, in the original sense of an enclosure or + barrier, for a length of water in a river or canal, or at the entrance + of a dock, enclosed at both ends by gates, the "lock-gates," and + fitted with sluices, to enable vessels to be raised from a lower to a + higher level or vice versa (see CANAL and DOCK). In guns and rifles + the lock is the mechanism which effects the firing of the charge; it + thus appears in the names of old types of weapons, such as wheel-lock, + match-lock, flint-lock (see ARMS AND ARMOUR, § _Firearms_; also GUN + and RIFLE). Lock (Ger. _Locke_) in the sense of a curl or tuft of + hair, the separate groups in which the hair naturally grows, may be, + in ultimate origin, connected with the root of the main word. Lockjaw + is the popular name of the disease known as tetanus (q.v.). The name + "Lock Hospital" is frequently used in English for a hospital for + patients suffering from venereal diseases. According to the _New + English Dictionary_ there was in Southwark as early as 1453 a + leper-hospital, known as the Lock Lazar House, which later was used + for the treatment of venereal diseases. The name appears to have + become used in the present sense as early as the end of the 17th + century. Lock hospitals were established in London in 1745-1747 and in + Dublin in 1754-1755. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The forms in which locks are manufactured, such as padlock, rim-lock, +mortise-lock, one-sided or two-sided, &c., are necessarily extremely +numerous; and the variations in the details of construction of any one +of these forms are still more numerous, so that it is impossible to do +more here than describe the main types which have been or are in common +use. Probably the earliest locks were of Chinese origin. Specimens of +these still extant are quite as secure as any locks manufactured in +Europe up to the 18th century, but it is impossible to ascertain the +date of their manufacture. With the exception, in all probability, of +these Chinese examples, the earliest lock of which the construction is +known is the Egyptian, which was used four thousand years ago. In fig. +1, _aa_ is the body of the lock, _bb_ the bolt and _cc_ the key. The +three pins _p, p, p_ drop into three holes in the bolt when it is pushed +in, and so hold it fast; and they are raised again by putting in the key +through the large hole in the bolt and raising it a little, so that the +pins in the key push the locking pins up out of the way of the bolt. It +was evidently to locks and keys of this nature that the prophet alluded: +"And the key of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder" (Isaiah +xxii. 22), the word _muftah_ used in this passage being the common word +for key to this day. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +In the 18th century the European lock was nothing better than a mere +bolt, held in its place, either shut or open, by a spring b (fig. 2), +which pressed it down, and so held it at either one end or the other of +the convex notch _aa_; and the only impediment to opening it was the +wards which the key had to pass before it could turn in the keyhole. But +it was always possible to find the shape of the wards by merely putting +in a blank key covered with wax, and pressing it against them; and when +this had been done it was unnecessary to cut out the key into the +complicated form of the wards (such as fig. 3), because no part of that +key does any work except the edge _bc_ farthest from the pipe a; and so +a key of the form fig. 4 would do just as well. Thus a small collection +of skeleton keys, as they are called, of a few different patterns, was +all the stock in trade that a lock-picker required. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + + Lever locks. + +The common single-tumbler lock (fig. 5) requires two operations instead +of one to open it. The tumbler _at_ turns on a pivot at t, and has a +square pin at a, which drops into a notch in the bolt _bb_, when it is +either quite open or quite shut, and the tumbler must be lifted by the +key before the bolt can be moved again. The tumbler offered little +resistance to picking, as the height to which it might be lifted was not +limited and the bolt would operate provided only that this height was +sufficient; the improvement which formed the foundation of the modern +key lock was the substitution of what is known as the "lever" for the +tumbler, the difference being that the lever must be lifted to _exactly_ +the right height to allow the bolt to pass. This improvement, together +with the obvious one of using more than one lever, was introduced in +1778 by Robert Barron, and is illustrated in figs. 6 and 7. Unless the +square pin a (fig. 6) is lifted by the key to the proper height and no +higher, the bolt cannot move. Fig. 8 illustrates the key of such a lock +with four levers, the different distances between the centre of the key +barrel and the edge of the bit being adapted to lift the levers to the +respective heights required. This lock differs from the modern lever +lock only in the fact that Barron made his gating in the bolt and +carried stumps on his levers, instead of having the main stump riveted +into the bolt and the gatings in the levers as is the modern practice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +A lock operating on exactly the same principle but entirely different in +construction (fig. 9) was invented by Joseph Bramah in 1784. It consists +of an outer barrel _aaaa_, within which is a revolving barrel, _cccc_, +held in place by a steel disk, _dd_, and provided with a pin b fixed +eccentrically for operating the bolt; the barrel is prevented from +turning by sheet metal sliders _ss_, which slide axially in radial +grooves in the barrel and project into slots cut into the steel disk +which is fastened to the case of the lock. Each slider has a gating cut +in its outer edge sufficiently deep to allow it to embrace the inwardly +projecting steel plate and turn on it with the barrel. The key is of +tubular form having slots cut in its end, each of a depth corresponding +to the position of the gating in one of the sliders; so that, on +inserting the key, each slider is pushed in--against a spring--exactly +far enough to bring its slot opposite the steel disk; in this position +the barrel carrying the sliders is turned by the key and actuates the +bolt. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +Up to 1851 it was generally believed that well-made lever locks of all +types were practically unpickable, but at this time Alfred Charles +Hobbs--an American--demonstrated, by picking the locks of Barron, Chubb, +Bramah and others, that this belief was a fallacy. The method of Hobbs +became widely known as the "tickling" or "tentative" method. In the +modern lever lock the bolt carries a projecting piece--the "main +stump"--which, when the levers are all raised to the proper height, +enters the slots--"gatings"--in their faces. If, when the levers are not +in this position, pressure is applied to the bolt, the main stump will +press against the face of the levers; but owing to inaccuracies of +workmanship and other causes the pressure will not be equal on all the +levers. If now, the pressure on the bolt being maintained, each lever in +turn is carefully raised a little, one will be found on which the +pressure of the stump is greatest; this one is lifted till it becomes +easy and then carefully lowered till it is sustained by the pressure of +the stump in a new position. Another lever now bears the greatest +pressure, and this in its turn is similarly treated. By this gradual or +"tentative" process the levers will in time all be raised to the correct +height and the bolt will slip back without, if sufficient care has been +exercised, any of the levers having been raised above its correct +position. Although this method of picking only became generally known in +1851, it is evident that it was not novel, since in 1817 one of Bramah's +workmen, named Russell, invented the use of false notches or gatings, +which were slots similar to the true gating but of small depth cut in +the face of the levers. Similar false gatings were used in Anthony +Radford Strutt's lock in 1819. The only possible object of these +gatings--two of which are shown in each of the sliders of Bramah's +lock--was to prevent the tentative method of picking. They are, however, +not efficient for their purpose although they render the operation more +difficult and tedious. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +The best-known locks up to 1851 were those of Jeremiah Chubb, their +popularity being due to their superior workmanship and probably still +more to their title "detector." His lock, patented in 1818, contained a +device intended to frustrate attempts at picking, and further to detect +if such an attempt had been made. This device, at any rate as far as +detecting was concerned, had been anticipated by the patent of Thomas +Ruxton in 1816. Since the device only comes into operation when any +lever is raised too high, it is not effective against a skilful +application of the tentative method. The original form of this lock is +shown in fig. 10, when the lever DT, which turns on a pin in the middle, +is acted upon at its end T by a spring S, which will evidently allow +some play to the lever on either side of the corner X; but the moment it +is pushed past that point the spring will carry it farther in the same +direction, like what is called in clock-work a jumper. In its proper +position that end always remains above the turning-point; but, if any +one of the tumblers is raised too high, the other end D of the detector, +which reaches over all the levers, is lifted so far that the end T is +sent down below the corner, and the tooth T then falls into a notch in +the bolt, and so prevents it from being drawn back, even though all the +levers are raised properly by the right key. It thus at once becomes +obvious that somebody has been trying to pick the lock. The way to open +it, then, is to turn the key the other way, as if to overlock the bolt; +a short piece of gating near the end of the levers allows the bolt to +advance just far enough to push the tooth of the detector up again by +means of its inclination there, and then the lock can be opened as +usual. To render the mechanism of locks more inaccessible for picking +purposes, two devices, the "curtain" and the "barrel," were in use; +these devices were simply the one a disk and the other a cylinder +carrying a keyhole which revolved with the key and so closed the fixed +keyhole in the case. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + It is to Hobbs himself that we are indebted for the invention of the + movable stump, since called the safety lever, the only device + introduced rendering the tentative method of picking inoperative. This + invention was incorporated in the "protector" locks of Hobbs, Hart & + Co.; it consists in the employment of a movable main stump which is + not riveted into the bolt as usual, but is set on the end b of a bent + lever _abc_ (fig. 11) which lies in a hollow of the bolt A behind it, + turning on a pivot in the bolt itself, and kept steady by a small + friction-spring e. The stump comes through a hole in the bolt large + enough to let it have a little play; and the long end a of the lever + stands just above the edge of a square pin d, which is fixed in the + back plate of the lock. When the lock is locked, if the bolt be pushed + back, no sensible pressure on the levers is produced, but only just + enough to turn this protector lever, as Hobbs called it, on its pivot + c, and so bring down its end a in front of the square pin, and then + the bolt can no more be pushed back than when held by Chubb's + detector. The protector is set free again by merely pushing the bolt + forward with the key, without reference to the levers. However, the + protector could be prevented from acting by a method used by the + inventor himself for another purpose, viz., by pushing a piece of + watch-spring through the keyhole, and up behind the bolt, so as to + reach the protector at a, and keep it up while the bolt was pushed + back, or, again, by pushing up the watch-spring between any two of the + levers, and holding the end b of the protector with it, so as to press + the stump against the levers. Both these devices, however, are + prevented now by letting in a feather FF in a groove between the bolt + and the back of the lock, which no watch-spring can pass, and also + bringing a piece of the feather forward through the front gating of + the levers just under the stump. In this form the lock is safe against + any mode of picking known. A lock possessing valuable features was + invented in 1852 by Sir Edmund Beckett--afterwards Lord + Grimthorpe--but did not come into general use for commercial reasons. + + All the locks containing many levers so far described have a common + defect in that the levers are moved in one direction by the key and in + the other by springs. But it not infrequently happens that dirt or + grease gets between the levers and causes two or more to stick + together, in which case one of them is lifted too high and the bolt is + prevented from operating. To overcome this difficulty locks, + especially those intended for safes, have been made so that alternate + levers move in opposite directions, the key having two bits on + opposite sides. This construction entails that the key enter the body + of the levers instead of passing below them, an arrangement that had + previously been in use to reduce the space into which gunpowder could + be packed through the keyhole. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + + Key locks. + + The key locks chiefly used in English safes have been the ordinary + lever lock with 6-8 or 10 levers, Chubb's "detector," Hobbs's + "protector" or variants of these. In the Yale lock, which reverts in + some degree to the idea of the ancient Egyptian lock, America has + produced one key lock which has come into almost universal use in that + country and is certainly worthy of note. The key of this lock, shown + full size at _ka_ in fig. 12, is remarkably small, being stamped from + a piece of flat steel and weighing only a small fraction of an ounce. + The barrel _abc_ has to turn, as in the Bramah lock, in order to move + the bolt, which is not shown in the figure. That may be done either as + in Bramah locks or by a tongue or bit attached to the end _ab_ of the + barrel as in several other locks. The barrel is prevented from being + turned, except by the proper key, thus. The (apparently) five plugs + with spiral springs over them in fig. 12 are really all divided at the + cross line _bc_, being all now lifted to the proper height by the key. + Consequently the barrel _abc_ can turn round, as there is no plug + either projecting from it or projecting into it. But when the key is + out, all the plugs are pushed down by the springs, and so the upper + ones descend into the barrel and hold it fast. And again, if any of + the steps of a false key are too high, some of the lower plugs will be + pushed up beyond the barrel into the holes above them, and so the + barrel cannot turn. The bevelled end of the key near a enables it to + be pushed in under the plugs, though with some friction and + resistance. + + It is frequently convenient to have a number of different locks so + arranged that, whilst each has its own individual key, yet one special + or "master" key will operate any of the series. In warded locks this + is done by "differing" the wards of the individual locks so that each + key will only pass its own lock, and then filing away the bit of an + extra key so that it will pass all the wards; the objection to this + method is that any of the individual keys can easily be filed away and + so form a master key. A better method, which meets this objection, + consists in making all the levers except one--or if need be two--of + each lock alike and cutting another gating or widening the gating in + the differing levers, so as to pass the master key which has one--or + two--special steps. + +The growth of safe deposits has called for special locks so that when a +box changes tenants the outgoing tenant's key shall be useless. In some +cases the lock has been taken off and another substituted, but this is a +clumsy makeshift now rarely employed, and has been superseded by the use +of changeable key locks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + The first of these, invented by Robert Newell in 1841, was introduced + into Great Britain from America by Hobbs in 1851. A simpler form, the + construction of which is clearly shown by fig. 13, was brought out by + Hobbs, Hart & Co. The bolt of this lock, instead of the ordinary main + stump, carries a set of sliders, PPS, one corresponding to each lever + and each carrying a projection S corresponding to a portion of the + main stump. It will be seen that if any key having steps of certain + lengths is inserted when the lock is unlocked and the bolt B thrown + thereby, each slider will be raised to a height corresponding to that + to which its lever is raised by the key, and the two fixed teeth CC + will engage two of the teeth in the front of each slider, so that they + will be held in place ready to enter the lever gatings when the same + key is inserted. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.] + + A changeable key lock introduced by the Chatwood Safe Co. has no + gatings in the levers, whose fronts are cut with teeth gearing into + similar teeth cut in a set of disks carrying the gatings. The disks + are mounted on a stud which can be moved by a key from the back of the + lock in such a way that while the main stump is in the + gatings--keeping the disks in position--the disks are carried forward + out of gear with the levers; the key can then be removed and another + having steps of suitable length inserted and turned so as to raise the + levers, the disks being then brought back into gear. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.] + + Both the above locks require that the key steps should have certain + definite lengths corresponding to the teeth, but a later lock + resembling to some extent that brought out by Hobbs, Hart & Co. has + been introduced by the Chatwood Co., in which it is sufficient after + unlocking the lock to file any of the key steps and so alter the + pattern of the key in any way. In this lock, which is illustrated in + fig. 14, unlike all those that have been described, the levers are not + pivoted but slide upon guide stumps; the main stump is divided as in + Hobbs Hart's lock, the various pieces being clamped together by a + screw to form a solid stump. The sliders composing the main stump are + not provided with teeth, the changing being effected as follows: when + the bolt is partly shot by the correct key, the screw which binds the + sliders together as it comes opposite an opening in the back of the + case is loosened, the key is removed and altered--or a fresh key + substituted--and is inserted so as to lift the levers to their correct + height and expose the clamping screw at the back, which is then + tightened. This lock is now commonly used for safe deposits, combined + with a small lever lock of which the custodian carries the key, and + which either blocks the bolt of the main lock or covers the keyhole. + + In connexion with changeable key locks requiring key steps of definite + lengths, much ingenuity has been displayed in designing keys with + movable bits or steps, as fig. 15, which are useful chiefly as + duplicates, being built up to match the key from time to time in use, + and then deposited in some bank or other secure place to be used in + case of emergency. + + + Combination locks. + +From the very earliest times secret devices, either to hide keyholes or +to take the place of locks proper, have been in use; these are to-day +only seriously represented by "combination" locks which, whilst +following the same general principles as key locks, differ entirely in +construction. Locks in which the arranging of the internal parts in +their proper positions was secured by the manipulation of external parts +marked with letters or numbers were common in China in very early times, +but their history is unfortunately lost. This form of lock has been +developed to a very high degree of perfection and is, for safes, in +almost universal use to-day in America. + + The American lock consists of a series of disks mounted upon one + spindle, only one, however--the bolt disk--being fixed thereto, and + provided each with a gating into which a stump connected with the bolt + can drop when all the gatings lie upon a given line parallel to the + axis of the spindle. Each disk is provided with a driving pin so + arranged that it can impinge on and drive a similar pin in its next + neighbour; the gating in the bolt disk and the portion of the stump + which enters it are so formed that the disk can draw the bolt back. + The spindle is provided on the outside with a knob and graduated + disk--usually with 100 divisions--surrounded by an annulus on which a + fixed position is denoted. Each disk, including the bolt disk, is + provided with a pin projecting from its surface in such a way that the + pin of one disk comes into contact with that of the next disk and + drives it round. If, then, the bolt disk being at the back, there are + three letter disks and the spindle is rotated to the left, the bolt + disk will in the course of one revolution pick up letter disk No. + 1--counting from the bolt disk--in the second revolution it will pick + up No. 2, and in the third No. 3, the revolution being continued for + part of a turn till the number corresponding to the correct position + of No. 3 is reached. The revolution of the spindle is now reversed. + The bolt disk leaves No. 1 in the first revolution and picks it up + again, and the second revolution picks up No. 2. The motion is + continued for part of a revolution till No. 2 is brought to the + correct position (No. 3 obviously not being disturbed) and is then + reversed. No. 1 is again left behind and picked up in the first + revolution to the left, the motion being continued till the correct + position of No. 1 is reached, when, on reversal, the gating in the + bolt disk comes into the correct position, the stump falls and a + continuance of the motion to the right draws back the bolt. A lock + constructed in this way would be of little utility, as the combination + would have to be determined once for all by the maker. The difficulty + is got over by making the letter disks in two parts, the inner part + carrying the driving pin and the outer the gating; these two parts are + locked together by small cams or other devices which come into such a + position that they can be released with the help of a square key when + the lock is unlocked. The combination is set by altering the position + of the inner disks with the driving pins in relation to the outer part + carrying the gatings which are meanwhile held steady by the square + key. + + + Time locks. + +One advantage of the combination lock is that there is no key to be lost +or stolen, but the means adopted by burglars, especially in America, are +such that even this is not a perfect protection, cases having occurred +in which a person has been compelled to disclose the combination. With +key locks the keyhole through the safe door forms a distinct point of +danger, and with combination locks the spindle passing through the door +may be attacked by explosives. To obviate these two risks time locks +were introduced in America and have been used in Europe. Essentially the +time lock consists of a high-class chronometer or watch movement, little +liable to get out of order, driving a disk provided with a gating such +that the bolt can only enter the gating during certain hours; as a rule +two, three or four chronometers are used, any one of which can release +the lock. + + The Yale time lock contains two chronometer movements which revolve + two dial plates studded with twenty-four pins to represent the + twenty-four hours of the day. These pins, when pushed in, form a track + on which run rollers supporting the lever which secures the bolt or + locking agency, but when they are drawn out the track is broken, the + rollers fall down and the bolt is released. By pulling out the day + pins, say from 9 till 4, the door is automatically prepared for + opening between these hours, and at 4 it again of itself locks up. For + keeping the repository closed over Sundays and holidays, a subsidiary + segment or track is brought into play by which a period of twenty-four + hours is added to the locked interval. Careful provision is made + against the eventuality of running down or accidental stoppage of the + clock motion, by which the rightful owner might be as seriously + incommoded as the burglar. In the Yale lock, just before the + chronometers run out, a trigger is released which depresses the lever + by which the bolt is held in position. (A. B. Ch.) + + + + +LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704), English philosopher, was born at Wrington, 10 +m. W. of Belluton, in Somersetshire, on the 29th of August 1632, six +years after the death of Bacon, and three months before the birth of +Spinoza. His father was a small landowner and attorney at Pensford, near +the northern boundary of the county, to which neighbourhood the family +had migrated from Dorsetshire early in that century. The elder Locke, a +strict but genial Puritan, by whom the son was carefully educated at +home, was engaged in the military service of the parliamentary party. +"From the time that I knew anything," Locke wrote in 1660, "I found +myself in a storm, which has continued to this time." For fourteen years +his education, more or less interrupted, went on in the rural home at +Belluton, on his father's little estate, half a mile from Pensford, and +6 m. from Bristol. In 1646 he entered Westminster School and remained +there for six years. Westminster was uncongenial to him. Its memories +perhaps encouraged the bias against public schools which afterwards +disturbed his philosophic calm in his _Thoughts on Education_. In 1652 +he entered Christ Church, Oxford, then under John Owen, the Puritan dean +and vice-chancellor of the university. Christ Church was Locke's +occasional home for thirty years. For some years after he entered, +Oxford was ruled by the Independents, who, largely through Owen, unlike +the Presbyterians, were among the first in England to advocate genuine +religious toleration. But Locke's hereditary sympathy with the Puritans +was gradually lessened by the intolerance of the Presbyterians and the +fanaticism of the Independents. He had found in his youth, he says, that +"what was called general freedom was general bondage, and that the +popular assertors of liberty were the greatest engrossers of it too, and +not unfitly called its _keepers_." And the influence of the liberal +divines of the Church of England afterwards showed itself in his +spiritual development. + +Under Owen scholastic studies were maintained with a formality and +dogmatism unsuited to Locke's free inquisitive temper. The aversion to +them which he expressed showed thus early an innate disposition to rebel +against empty verbal reasoning. He was not, according to his own account +of himself to Lady Masham, a hard student at first. He sought the +company of pleasant and witty men, and thus gained knowledge of life. He +took the ordinary bachelor's degree in 1656, and the master's in 1658. +In December 1660 he was serving as tutor of Christ Church, lecturing in +Greek, rhetoric and philosophy. + +At Oxford Locke was nevertheless within reach of liberal intellectual +influence tending to promote self-education and strong individuality. +The metaphysical works of Descartes had appeared a few years before he +went to Oxford, and the _Human Nature_ and _Leviathan_ of Hobbes during +his undergraduate years. It does not seem that Locke read extensively, +but he was attracted by Descartes. The first books, he told Lady Masham, +which gave him a relish for philosophy, were those of this philosopher, +although he very often differed from him. At the Restoration potent +influences were drawing Oxford and England into experimental inquiries. +Experiment in physics became the fashion. The Royal Society was then +founded, and we find Locke experimenting in chemistry in 1663, also in +meteorology, in which he was particularly interested all his life. + +The restraints of a professional career were not suited to Locke. There +is a surmise that early in his Oxford career he contemplated taking +orders in the Church of England. His religious disposition attracted him +to theology. Revulsion from the dogmatic temper of the Presbyterians, +and the unreasoning enthusiasm of the Independents favoured sympathy +afterwards with Cambridge Platonists and other liberal Anglican +churchmen. Whichcote was his favourite preacher, and close intimacy with +the Cudworth family cheered his later years. But, though he has a place +among lay theologians, dread of ecclesiastical impediment to free +inquiry, added to strong inclination for scientific investigation, made +him look to medicine as his profession, and before 1666 we find him +practising as a physician in Oxford. Nevertheless, although known among +his friends as "Doctor Locke," he never graduated in medicine. His +health was uncertain, for he suffered through life from chronic +consumption and asthma. A fortunate event soon withdrew him from the +medical profession. + +Locke early showed an inclination to politics, as well as to theology +and medicine. As early as 1665 he diverged for a short time from medical +pursuits at Oxford, and was engaged as secretary to Sir Walter Vane on +his mission to the Elector of Brandenburg. Soon after his return in 1666 +the incident occurred which determined his career. Lord Ashley, +afterwards first earl of Shaftesbury, had come to Oxford for his health. +Locke was introduced to him by his physician, Dr Thomas. This was the +beginning of a lasting friendship, sustained by common sympathy with +liberty--civil, religious and philosophical. In 1667 Locke moved from +Christ Church to Exeter House, Lord Ashley's London residence, to become +his confidential secretary. Although he retained his studentship at +Christ Church, and occasionally visited Oxford, as well as his patrimony +at Belluton, he found a home and shared fortune with Shaftesbury for +fifteen years. + +Locke's commonplace books throw welcome light on the history of his mind +in early life. A paper on the "Roman Commonwealth" which belongs to this +period, expresses convictions about religious liberty and the relations +of religion to the state that were modified and deepened afterwards; +objections to the sacerdotal conception of Christianity appear in +another article; short work is made of ecclesiastical claims to +infallibility in the interpretation of Scripture in a third; a scheme of +utilitarian ethics, wider than that of Hobbes, is suggested in a fourth. +The most significant of those early revelations is the _Essay concerning +Toleration_ (1666), which anticipates conclusions more fully argued +nearly thirty years later. + +The Shaftesbury connexion must have helped to save Locke from those +idols of the "Den" to which professional life and narrow experience is +exposed. It brought him into contact with public men, the springs of +political action and the duties of high office. The place he held as +Shaftesbury's adviser is indeed the outstanding circumstance in his +middle life. Exeter House afforded every opportunity for society. He +became intimate among others with the illustrious Sydenham; he joined +the Royal Society and served on its council. The foundation of the +monumental work of his life was laid when he was at Exeter House. He was +led to it in this way. It was his habit to encourage informal reunions +of his intimates, to discuss debatable questions in science and +theology. One of these, in the winter of 1670, is historically +memorable. "Five or six friends," he says, met in his rooms and were +discussing "principles of morality and religion. They found themselves +quickly at a stand by the difficulties that arose on every side." Locke +proposed some criticism of the necessary "limits of human understanding" +as likely to open a way out of their difficulties. He undertook to +attempt this, and fancied that what he had to say might find sufficient +space on "one sheet of paper." What was thus "begun by chance, was +continued by entreaty, written by incoherent parcels, and after long +intervals of neglect resumed again as humour and occasions permitted." +At the end of nearly twenty years the issue was given to the world as +Locke's now famous _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_. + +The fall of Shaftesbury in 1675 enabled Locke to escape from English +politics. He found a retreat in France, where he could unite calm +reflection upon the legitimate operations of "human understanding" with +attention to his health. He spent three years partly at Montpellier and +partly in Paris. His journals and commonplace books in these years show +the _Essay_ in preparation. At Paris he met men of science and +letters--Peter Guenellon, the well-known Amsterdam physician; Ole Römer, +the Danish astronomer; Thoynard, the critic; Melchisédech Thévenot, the +traveller; Henri Justel, the jurist; and François Bernier, the expositor +of Gassendi. But there is no mention of Malebranche, whose _Recherche de +la vérité_ had appeared three years before, nor of Arnauld, the +illustrious rival of Malebranche. + +Locke returned to London in 1679. Reaction against the court party had +restored Shaftesbury to power. Locke resumed his old confidential +relations, now at Thanet House in Aldersgate. A period of often +interrupted leisure for study followed. It was a time of plots and +counterplots, when England seemed on the brink of another civil war. In +the end Shaftesbury was committed to the Tower, tried and acquitted. +More insurrectionary plots followed in the summer of 1682, after which, +suspected at home, the versatile statesman escaped to Holland, and died +at Amsterdam in January 1683. In these two years Locke was much at +Oxford and in Somerset, for the later movements of Shaftesbury did not +commend themselves to him. Yet the government had their eyes upon him. +"John Locke lives a very cunning unintelligible life here," Prideaux +reported from Oxford in 1682. "I may confidently affirm," wrote John +Fell, the dean of Christ Church, to Lord Sunderland, "there is not any +one in the college who has heard him speak a word against, or so much as +censuring, the government; and, although very frequently, both in public +and private, discourses have been purposely introduced to the +disparagement of his master, the earl of Shaftesbury, he could never be +provoked to take any notice, or discover in word or look the least +concern; so that I believe there is not in the world such a master of +taciturnity and passion." Unpublished correspondence with his Somerset +friend, Edward Clarke of Chipley, describes Locke's life in those +troubled years. It also reveals the opening of his intimate intercourse +with the Cudworth family, who were friends of the Clarkes, and connected +by birth with Somerset. The letters allude to toleration in the state +and comprehension in the church, while they show an indifference to +theological dogma hardly consistent with an exclusive connexion with any +sect. + +In his fifty-second year, in the gloomy autumn of 1683, Locke retired to +Holland, then the asylum of eminent persons who were elsewhere denied +liberty of thought. Descartes and Spinoza had speculated there; it had +been the home of Erasmus and Grotius; it was now the refuge of Bayle. +Locke spent more than five years there; but his (unpublished) letters +show that exile sat heavily upon him. Amsterdam was his first Dutch +home, where he lived in the house of Dr Keen, under the assumed name of +Dr Van der Linden. For a time he was in danger of arrest at the instance +of the English government. After months of concealment he escaped; but +he was deprived of his studentship at Christ Church by order of the +king, and Oxford was thus closed against him. Holland introduced him to +new friends. The chief of these was Limborch, the successor of +Episcopius as Remonstrant professor of theology, lucid, learned and +tolerant, the friend of Cudworth, Whichcote and More. By Limborch he was +introduced to Le Clerc, the youthful representative of letters and +philosophy in Limborch's college, who had escaped from Geneva and +Calvinism to the milder atmosphere of Holland and the Remonstrants. The +_Bibliothèque universelle_ of Le Clerc was then the chief organ in +Europe of men of letters. Locke contributed several articles. It was his +first appearance as an author, although he was now fifty-four years of +age. This tardiness in authorship is a significant fact in his life, in +harmony with his tempered wisdom. + +In the next fourteen years the world received through his books the +thoughts which had been gradually forming, and were taking final shape +while he was in Holland. The _Essay_ was finished there, and a French +epitome appeared in 1688 in Le Clerc's journal, the forecast of the +larger work. Locke was then at Rotterdam, where he lived for a year in +the house of a Quaker friend, Benjamin Furley, or Furly, a wealthy +merchant and lover of books. At Rotterdam he was a confidant of +political exiles, including Burnet and the famous earl of Peterborough, +and he became known to William, prince of Orange. William landed in +England in November 1688; Locke followed in February 1689, in the ship +which carried the princess Mary. + +After his return to England in 1689 Locke emerged through authorship +into European fame. Within a month after he reached London he had +declined an offer of the embassy to Brandenburg, and accepted the modest +office of commissioner of appeals. The two following years, during which +he lived at Dorset Court in London, were memorable for the publication +of his two chief works on social polity, and of the epoch-making book on +modern philosophy which reveals the main principles of his life. The +earliest of these to appear was his defence of religious liberty, in the +_Epistola de Tolerantia_, addressed to Limborch, published at Gouda in +the spring of 1689, and translated into English in autumn by William +Popple, a Unitarian merchant in London. _Two Treatises on Government_, +in defence of the right of ultimate sovereignty in the people, followed +a few months later. The famous _Essay concerning Human Understanding_ +saw the light in the spring of 1690. He received £30 for the copyright, +nearly the same as Kant got in 1781 for his _Kritik der reinen +Vernunft_. In the _Essay_ Locke was the critic of the empirical data of +human experience: Kant, as the critic of the intellectual and moral +presuppositions of experience, supplied the complement to the incomplete +and ambiguous answer to its own leading question that was given in +Locke's _Essay_. The _Essay_ was the first book in which its author's +name appeared, for the _Epistola de Tolerantia_ and the _Treatises on +Government_ were anonymous. + +Locke's asthma was aggravated by the air of London; and the course of +public affairs disappointed him, for the settlement at the Revolution +fell short of his ideal. In spring, 1691, he took up his residence in +the manor house of Otes in Essex, the country seat of Sir Francis +Masham, between Ongar and Harlow. Lady Masham was the accomplished +daughter of Ralph Cudworth, and was his friend before he went to +Holland. She told Le Clerc that after Locke's return from exile, "by +some considerably long visits, he had made trial of the air of Otes, +which is some 20 m. from London, and he thought that none would be so +suitable for him. His company," she adds, "could not but be very +desirable for us, and he had all the assurances we could give him of +being always welcome; but, to make him easy in living with us, it was +necessary he should do so on his own terms, which Sir Francis at last +assenting to, he then believed himself at home with us, and resolved, if +it pleased God, here to end his days as he did." At Otes he enjoyed for +fourteen years as much domestic peace and literary leisure as was +consistent with broken health, and sometimes anxious visits to London on +public affairs, in which he was still an active adviser. Otes was in +every way his home. In his letters and otherwise we have pleasant +pictures of its inmates and domestic life and the occasional visits of +his friends, among others Lord Peterborough, Lord Shaftesbury of the +_Characteristics_, Sir Isaac Newton, William Molyneux and Anthony +Collins. + +At Otes he was busy with his pen. The _Letter on Toleration_ involved +him in controversy. An _Answer_ by Jonas Proast of Queen's College, +Oxford, had drawn forth in 1690 a _Second Letter_. A rejoinder in 1691 +was followed by Locke's elaborate _Third Letter on Toleration_ in the +summer of the following year. In 1691 currency and finance were much in +his thoughts, and in the following year he addressed an important letter +to Sir John Somers on the _Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and +Raising the Value of Money_. When he was in Holland he had written +letters to his friend Clarke of Chipley about the education of his +children. These letters formed the substance of the little volume +entitled _Thoughts on Education_ (1693), which still holds its place +among classics in that department. Nor were the "principles of revealed +religion" forgotten. The subtle theological controversies of the 17th +century made him anxious to show how simple after all fundamental +Christianity is. In the _Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in +the Scriptures_ (anonymous, 1695), Locke sought to separate the divine +essence of Christ's religion from later accretions of dogma, and from +reasonings due to oversight of the necessary limits of human thought. +This intended Eirenicon involved him in controversies that lasted for +years. Angry polemics assailed the book. A certain John Edwards was +conspicuous. Locke's _Vindication_, followed by a _Second Vindication_ +in 1697, added fuel to this fire. Above all, the great _Essay_ was +assailed and often misinterpreted by philosophers and divines. Notes of +opposition had been heard almost as soon as it appeared. John Norris, +the metaphysical rector of Bemerton and English disciple of Malebranche, +criticized it in 1690. Locke took no notice at the time, but his second +winter at Otes was partly employed in _An Examination of Malebranche's +Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_, and in _Remarks upon some of Mr +Norris's Books_, tracts which throw light upon his own ambiguous theory +of perception through the senses. These were published after his death. +A second edition of the _Essay_, with a chapter added on "Personal +Identity," and numerous alterations in the chapter on "Power," appeared +in 1694. The third, which was only a reprint, was published in 1695. +Wynne's well-known abridgment helped to make the book known in Oxford, +and his friend William Molyneux introduced it in Dublin. In 1695 a +revival of controversy about the currency diverted Locke's attention. +Events in that year occasioned his _Observations on Silver Money_ and +_Further Considerations on Raising the Value of Money_. + +In 1696 Locke was induced to accept a commissionership on the Board of +Trade. This required frequent visits to London. Meantime the _Essay on +Human Understanding_ and the _Reasonableness of Christianity_ were +becoming more involved in a wordy warfare between dogmatists and +latitudinarians, trinitarians and unitarians. The controversy with +Edwards was followed by a more memorable one with Stillingfleet, bishop +of Worcester. John Toland, in his _Christianity not Mysterious_, had +exaggerated doctrines in the _Essay_, and then adopted them as his own. +In the autumn of 1696, Stillingfleet, an argumentative ecclesiastic more +than a religious philosopher, in his _Vindication of the Doctrine of the +Trinity_, charged Locke with disallowing mystery in human knowledge, +especially in his account of the metaphysical idea of "substance." Locke +replied in January 1697. Stillingfleet's rejoinder appeared in May, +followed by a _Second Letter_ from Locke in August, to which the bishop +replied in the following year. Locke's _Third Letter_, in which the +ramifications of this controversy are pursued with a copious expenditure +of acute reasoning and polished irony, was delayed till 1699, in which +year Stillingfleet died. Other critics of the _Essay_ entered the lists. +One of the ablest was John Sergeant, a priest of the Roman Church, in +_Solid Philosophy Asserted Against the Fancies of the Ideists_ (1697). +He was followed by Thomas Burnet and Dean Sherlock. Henry Lee, rector of +Tichmarch, criticized the _Essay_, chapter by chapter in a folio volume +entitled _Anti-Scepticism_ (1702); John Broughton dealt another blow in +his _Psychologia_ (1703); and John Norris returned to the attack, in his +_Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World_ (1701-1704). On the other +hand Locke was defended with vigour by Samuel Bolde, a Dorsetshire +clergyman. The _Essay_ itself was meanwhile spreading over Europe, +impelled by the name of its author as the chief philosophical defender +of civil and religious liberty. The fourth edition (the last while Locke +was alive) appeared in 1700, with important additional chapters on +"Association of Ideas" and "Enthusiasm." What was originally meant to +form another chapter was withheld. It appeared among Locke's posthumous +writings as _The Conduct of the Understanding_, one of the most +characteristic of his works. The French translation of the _Essay_ by +Pierre Coste, Locke's amanuensis at Otes, was issued almost +simultaneously with the fourth edition. The Latin version by Richard +Burridge of Dublin followed a year after, reprinted in due time at +Amsterdam and at Leipzig. + +In 1700 Locke resigned his commission at the Board of Trade, and devoted +himself to Biblical studies and religious meditation. The Gospels had +been carefully studied when he was preparing his _Reasonableness of +Christianity_. He now turned to the Epistles of St Paul, and applied the +spirit of the _Essay_ and the ordinary rules of critical interpretation +to a literature which he venerated as infallible, like the pious +Puritans who surrounded his youth. The work was ready when he died, and +was published two years after. A tract on _Miracles_, written in 1702, +also appeared posthumously. Fresh adverse criticism of the _Essay_ was +reported to him in his last year, and the book was formally condemned by +the authorities at Oxford. "I take what has been done rather as a +recommendation of the book," he wrote to his young friend Anthony +Collins, "and when you and I next meet we shall be merry on the +subject." One attack only moved him. In 1704 his adversary, Jonas +Proast, revived their old controversy. Locke in consequence began a +_Fourth Letter on Toleration_. A few pages, ending in an unfinished +paragraph, exhausted his remaining strength; but the theme which had +employed him at Oxford more than forty years before, and had been a +ruling idea throughout the long interval, was still dominant in the last +days of his life. + +All the summer of 1704 he continued to decline, tenderly nursed by Lady +Masham and her step-daughter Esther. On the 28th of October he died, +according to his last recorded words, "in perfect charity with all men, +and in sincere communion with the whole church of Christ, by whatever +names Christ's followers call themselves." His grave is on the south +side of the parish church of High Laver, in which he often worshipped, +near the tombs of the Mashams, and of Damaris, the widow of Cudworth. At +the distance of 1 m. are the garden and park where the manor house of +Otes once stood. + +Locke's writings have made his intellectual and moral features familiar. +The reasonableness of taking probability as our guide in life was in the +essence of his philosophy. The desire to see for himself what is true in +the light of reasonable evidence, and that others should do the same, +was his ruling passion, if the term can be applied to one so calm and +judicial. "I can no more know anything by another man's understanding," +he would say, "than I can see by another man's eyes." This repugnance to +believe blindly what rested on arbitrary authority, as distinguished +from what was seen to be sustained by self-evident reason, or by +demonstration, or by good probable evidence, runs through his life. He +is typically English in his reverence for facts, whether facts of sense +or of living consciousness, in his aversion from abstract speculation +and verbal reasoning, in his suspicion of mysticism, in his calm +reasonableness, and in his ready submission to truth, even when truth +was incapable of being fully reduced to system by man. The delight he +took in exercising reason in regard to everything he did was what his +friend Pierre Coste remarked in Locke's daily life at Otes. "He went +about the most trifling things always with some good reason." Above all +things he loved order; and he had got the way of observing it in +everything with wonderful exactness. As he always kept the useful in his +eye in all his disquisitions, he esteemed the employments of men only in +proportion to the good they were capable of producing; for which cause +he had no great value for the critics who waste their lives in composing +words and phrases in coming to the choice of a various reading, in a +passage that has after all nothing important in it. He cared yet less +for those professed disputants, who, being taken up with the desire of +coming off with victory, justify themselves behind the ambiguity of a +word, to give their adversaries the more trouble. And whenever he had to +deal with this sort of folks, if he did not beforehand take a strong +resolution of keeping his temper, he quickly fell into a passion; for he +was naturally choleric, but his anger never lasted long. If he retained +any resentment it was against himself, for having given way to so +ridiculous a passion; which, as he used to say, "may do a great deal of +harm, but never yet did anyone the least good." Large, "round-about" +common sense, intellectual strength directed by a virtuous purpose, not +subtle or daring speculation sustained by an idealizing faculty, in +which he was deficient, is what we find in Locke. Defect in speculative +imagination appears when he encounters the vast and complex final +problem of the universe in its organic unity. + +Locke is apt to be forgotten now, because in his own generation he so +well discharged the intellectual mission of initiating criticism of +human knowledge, and of diffusing the spirit of free inquiry and +universal toleration which has since profoundly affected the civilized +world. He has not bequeathed an imposing system, hardly even a striking +discovery in metaphysics, but he is a signal example in the Anglo-Saxon +world of the love of attainable truth for the sake of truth and +goodness. "If Locke made few discoveries, Socrates made none." But both +are memorable in the record of human progress. + + In the inscription on his tomb, prepared by himself, Locke refers to + his books as a true representation of what he was. They are concerned + with _Social Economy_, _Christianity_, _Education_ and _Philosophy_, + besides _Miscellaneous_ writings. + + I. SOCIAL ECONOMY.--(1) _Epistola de Tolerantia_ (1689, translated + into English in the same year). (2) _Two Treatises on Government_ + (1690) (the _Patriarcha_ of Filmer, to which the _First Treatise_ was + a reply, appeared in 1680). (3) _A Second Letter concerning + Toleration_ (1690). (4) _Some Considerations on the Consequence of + Lowering the Rate of Interest and Raising the Value of Money_ (1691). + (5) _A Third Letter for Toleration_ (1692). (6) _Short Observations on + a printed paper entitled, "For encouraging the Coining of Silver Money + in England, and after for Keeping it here"_ (1695). (7) _Further + Considerations concerning Raising the Value of Money_ (1695) + (occasioned by a _Report_ containing an "Essay for the Amendment of + Silver Coins," published that year by William Lowndes, secretary for + the Treasury). (8) _A Fourth Letter for Toleration_ (1706, + posthumous). + + II. CHRISTIANITY.--(1) _The Reasonableness of Christianity as + delivered in the Scriptures_ (1695). (2) _A Vindication of the + Reasonableness of Christianity from Mr Edwards's Reflections_ (1695). + (3) _A Second Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity_ + (1697). (4) _A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St Paul to the + Galatians, First and Second Corinthians, Romans and Ephesians. To + which is prefixed an Essay for the understanding of St Paul's Epistles + by consulting St Paul himself_ (1705-1707, posthumous). (5) _A + Discourse of Miracles_ (1716, posthumous). + + III. EDUCATION.--(1) _Some Thoughts concerning Education_ (1693). (2) + _The Conduct of the Understanding_ (1706, posthumous). (3) _Some + Thoughts concerning Reading and Study for a Gentleman_ (1706, + posthumous). (4) _Instructions for the Conduct of a Young Gentleman_ + (1706, posthumous). (5) _Of Study_ (written in France in Locke's + journal, and published in L. King's _Life of Locke_ in 1830). + + IV. PHILOSOPHY.--(1) _An Essay concerning Human Understanding_, in + four books (1690). (2) _A Letter to the Bishop of Worcester concerning + some passages relating to Mr Locke's Essay of Human Understanding in a + late Discourse of his Lordship's in Vindication of the Trinity_ + (1697). (3) _Mr Locke's Reply to the Bishop of Worcester's Answer to + his Letter_ (1697). (4) _Mr Locke's Reply to the Bishop of Worcester's + Answer to his Second Letter_ (1699). (5) _An Examination of Father + Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_ (1706, posthumous). + (6) _Remarks upon Some of Mr Norris's Books, wherein he asserts Father + Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_ (1720, posthumous). + + MISCELLANEOUS.--(1) _A New Method of a Common Place Book_ (1686). This + was Locke's first article in the _Bibliothèque_ of Le Clerc; his other + contributions to it are uncertain, except the _Epitome of the Essay_, + (in 1688). (2) _The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina_ (prepared + in 1673 when Locke was Lord Shaftesbury's secretary at Exeter House, + remarkable for recognition of the principle of toleration, published + in 1706, in the posthumous collection). (3) _Memoirs relating to the + Life of Anthony, First Earl of Shaftesbury_ (1706). (4) _Elements of + Natural Philosophy_ (1706). (5) _Observations upon the Growth and + Culture of Vines and Olives_ (1706). (6) _Rules of a Society which met + once a Week, for their improvement in Useful Knowledge, and for the + Promotion of Truth and Christian Charity_ (1706). (7) _A Letter from a + Person of Quality to his Friend in the Country_, published in 1875 + (included by Des Maizeaux in his _Collection of Several Pieces of Mr + John Locke's_, 1720), and soon afterwards burned by the common hangman + by orders from the House of Lords, was disavowed by Locke himself. It + may have been dictated by Shaftesbury. There are also miscellaneous + writings of Locke first published in the biographies of Lord King + (1830) and of Mr Fox Bourne (1876). + + _Letters_ from Locke to Thoynard, Limborch, Le Clerc, Guenellon, + Molyneux, Collins, Sir Isaac Newton, the first and the third Lord + Shaftesbury, Lords Peterborough and Pembroke, Clarke of Chipley and + others are preserved, many of them unpublished, most of them in the + keeping of Lord Lovelace at Horseley Towers, and of Mr Sanford at + Nynehead in Somerset, or in the British Museum. They express the + gracious courtesy and playful humour which were natural to him, and + his varied interests in human life. + + I. _Social Economy._--It has been truly said that all Locke's + writings, even the _Essay on Human Understanding_ itself, were + occasional, and "intended directly to counteract the enemies of reason + and freedom in his own age." This appears in his works on social + polity, written at a time when the principles of democracy and + toleration were struggling with divine right of kings, and when "the + popular assertors of public liberty were the greatest engrossers of it + too." "The state" with Locke was the deliberate outcome of free + contract rather than a natural growth or organism. That the people, in + the exercise of their sovereignty, have the right to govern themselves + in the way they judge to be for the common good; and that civil + government, whatever form it assumes, has no right to interfere with + religious beliefs that are not inconsistent with civil society, is at + the foundation of his political philosophy. He rested this sovereignty + on virtual mutual contract on the part of the people themselves to be + so governed. But the terms of the contract might be modified by the + sovereign people themselves, from time to time, in accommodation to + changing circumstances. He saw that things in this world were in a + constant flux, so that no society could remain long in the same state, + and that "the grossest absurdities" must be the issue of "following + custom when reason has left the custom." He was always disposed to + liberal ecclesiastical concessions for the sake of peace, and he + recommended harmonious co-operation with the civil magistrate in all + matters of worship and government that were not expressly determined + by Scripture. + + + The social contract. + + The attack on Sir Robert Filmer in Locke's _First Treatise on + Government_ was an anachronism. The democratic principle argued for in + the _Second Treatise_, while in advance of the practice of his age, + was in parts anticipated by Aquinas and Bodin, as well as by Grotius + and Hooker. Its guiding principle is, that civil rulers hold their + power not absolutely but conditionally, government being essentially a + moral trust, forfeited if the conditions are not fulfilled by the + trustees. This presupposes an original and necessary law of nature or + reason, as insisted on by Hooker. But it points to the constitution of + civil society in the abstract rather than to the actual origin of + government as a matter of fact and past history. There is no + historical proof that power was formally entrusted to rulers by the + conscious and deliberate action of the ruled. Indeed Locke seems to + allow that the consent was at first tacit, and by anterior law of + nature conditional on the beneficial purpose of the trust being + realized. His _Treatises on Government_ were meant to vindicate the + Convention parliament and the English revolution, as well as to refute + the ideas of absolute monarchy held by Hobbes and Filmer. They are + classics in the library of English constitutional law and polity. + + + Religious Toleration. + + Locke's philosophical defence of religious liberty in the four + _Letters of Toleration_ is the most far-reaching of his contributions + to social polity. He had a more modest estimate of human resources for + forming true judgments in religion, and a less pronounced opinion of + the immorality of religious error, than either the Catholic or the + Puritan. The toleration which he spent his life in arguing for + involved a change from the authoritative and absolute to the relative + point of view, as regards man's means of knowledge and belief. It was + a protest against those who in theology "peremptorily require + demonstration and demand certainty where probability only is to be + had." The practice of universal toleration amidst increasing religious + differences was an application of the conception of human + understanding which governs his _Essay_. Once a paradox it is now + commonplace, and the superabundant argument in the _Letters on + Toleration_ fatigues the modern reader. The change is due more to + Locke himself than to anyone else. Free thought and liberty of + conscience had indeed been pleaded for, on various grounds, in the + century in which he lived. Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Glanvill and + other philosophical thinkers in the Church of England urged toleration + in the state, in conjunction with wide comprehension in the church, on + the ground of our necessary intellectual limitation and inability to + reach demonstration in theological debates. Puritans like Owen and + Goodwin, whose idea of ecclesiastical comprehension was dogmatic and + narrow, were ready to accept sectarian variety, because it was their + duty to allow many religions in the nation, but only one form of + theology within their own sect. The existence of separate + nationalities, on the other hand, was the justification of national + churches according to the latitudinarian churchmen with whom Locke + associated: a national church comprehensive in creed, and thus + co-extensive with the nation was their ideal. Locke went far to unite + in a higher principle elements in the broad Anglican and the Puritan + theories, while he recognized the individual liberty of thought which + distinguishes the national church of England. A constant sense of the + limits of human understanding was at the bottom of his arguments for + tolerance. He had no objection to a national establishment of + religion, provided that it was comprehensive enough, and was really + the nation organized to promote goodness; not to protect the + metaphysical subtleties of sectarian theologians. The recall of the + national religion to the simplicity of the gospels would, he hoped, + make toleration of nonconformists unnecessary, as few would then + remain. To the atheist alone Locke refuses full toleration, on the + ground that social obligation can have no hold over him, for "the + taking away of God dissolves all." He argued, too, against full + toleration of the Church of Rome in England, on the ground of its + unnational allegiance to a foreign sovereign. The unfitness of + persecution as a means of propagating truth is copiously insisted on + by Locke. Persecution can only transform a man into a hypocrite; + belief is legitimately formed only by discernment of sufficient + evidence; apart from evidence, a man has no right to control the + understanding; he cannot determine arbitrarily what his neighbours + must believe. Thus Locke's pleas for religious toleration resolve at + last into his philosophical view of the foundation and limits of human + knowledge. + + II. _The Reasonableness of Christianity._--The principles that + governed Locke's social polity largely determined his attitude to + Christianity. His "latitudinarianism" was the result of extraordinary + reverence for truth, and a perception that knowledge may be sufficient + for the purposes of human life while it falls infinitely short of + speculative completeness. He never loses sight of essential + reasonableness as the only ground on which Christian faith can + ultimately rest. But Locke accepted Holy Scripture as infallible with + the reverence of a Puritan. "It has God for its author, salvation for + its end, and truth without any mixture of error for its matter." Yet + he did not, like many Puritans, mean Scripture as interpreted by + himself or by his sect. And faith in its infallibility was combined in + Locke with deep distrust in "enthusiasm." This predisposed him to + regard physical miracles as the solid criterion for distinguishing + reasonable religious conviction from "inclinations, fancies and strong + assurances." Assent in religion as in everything else he could justify + only on the ground of its harmony with reason; professed "illumination + without search, and certainty without proof" was to him a sign of + absence of the divine spirit in the professor. Confidence that we are + right, he would say, is in itself no proof that we are right: when God + asks assent to the truth of a proposition in religion, he either shows + us its intrinsic rationality by ordinary means, or he offers + miraculous proof of the reality of which we need reasonable evidence. + But we must know what we mean by miracle. Reasonableness, in short, + must always at last be our guide. His own faith in Christianity rested + on its moral excellence when it is received in its primitive + simplicity, combined with the miracles which accompanied its original + promulgation. But "even for those books which have the attestation of + miracles to confirm their being from God, the miracles," he says, "are + to be judged by the doctrine, and not the doctrine by the miracles." + Miracles alone cannot vindicate the divinity of immoral doctrine. + Locke's _Reasonableness of Christianity_ was an attempt to recall + religion from the crude speculations of theological sects, destructive + of peace among Christians, to its original simplicity; but this is apt + to conceal its transcendent mystery. Those who practically acknowledge + the supremacy of Jesus as Messiah accept all that is essential to the + Christianity of Locke. His own Christian belief, sincere and earnest, + was more the outcome of the common sense which, largely through him, + moulded the prudential theology of England in the 18th century, than + of the nobler elements present in More, Cudworth and other religious + thinkers of the preceding age, or afterwards in Law and Berkeley, + Coleridge and Schleiermacher. + + III. _Education._--Locke has his place among classic writers on the + theory and art of Education. His contribution may be taken as either + an introduction to or an application of the _Essay on Human + Understanding_. In the _Thoughts on Education_ imaginative sentiment + is never allowed to weigh against utility; information is subordinate + to the formation of useful character; the part which habit plays in + individuals is always kept in view; the dependence of intelligence and + character, which it is the purpose of education to improve, upon + health of body is steadily inculcated; to make children happy in + undergoing education is a favourite precept; accumulating facts + without exercising thought, and without accustoming the youthful mind + to look for evidence, is always referred to as a cardinal vice. Wisdom + more than much learning is what he requires in the teacher. In + instruction he gives the first place to "that which may direct us to + heaven," and the second to "the study of prudence, or discreet + conduct, and management of ourselves in the several occurrences of our + lives, which most assists our quiet prosperous passage through this + present life." The infinity of real existence, in contrast with the + necessary finitude of human understanding and experience, is always in + his thoughts. This "disproportionateness" between the human mind and + the universe of reality imposes deliberation in the selection of + studies, and disregard for those which lie out of the way of a wise + man. Knowledge of what other men have thought is perhaps of too little + account with Locke. "It is an idle and useless thing to make it one's + business to study what have been other men's sentiments in matters + where only reason is to be judge." In his _Conduct of the + Understanding_ the pupil is invited to occupy the point at which "a + full view of all that relates to a question" is to be had, and at + which alone a rational discernment of truth is possible. The + uneducated mass of mankind, he complains, either "seldom reason at + all," or "put passion in the place of reason," or "for want of large, + sound, round-about sense" they direct their minds only to one part of + the evidence, "converse with one sort of men, read but one sort of + books, and will not come in the hearing of but one sort of notions, + and so carve out to themselves a little Goshen in the intellectual + world, where light shines, and, as they conclude, day blesses them; + but the rest of the vast expansion they give up to night and darkness, + and avoid coming near it." Hasty judgment, bias, absence of an a + priori "indifference" to what the evidence may in the end require us + to conclude, undue regard for authority, excessive love for custom and + antiquity, indolence and sceptical despair are among the states of + mind marked by him as most apt to interfere with the formation of + beliefs in harmony with the Universal Reason that is active in the + universe. + + IV. _Philosophy._--The _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_ embodies + Locke's philosophy. It was the first attempt on a great scale, and in + the Baconian spirit, to estimate critically the certainty and the + adequacy of human knowledge, when confronted with God and the + universe. + + The "Introduction" to the _Essay_ is the keynote to the whole. The + ill-fortune of men in their past endeavours to comprehend themselves + and their environment is attributed in a great measure to their + disposition to extend their inquiries into matters beyond the reach of + human understanding. To inquire with critical care into "the original, + certainty and extent of human knowledge, together with the grounds and + degrees of belief, opinion and assent," is accordingly Locke's design + in this _Essay_. Excluding from his enquiry "the physical + consideration of the mind," he sought to make a faithful report, based + on an introspective study of consciousness, as to how far a human + understanding of the universe can reach. Although his report might + show that our knowledge at its highest must be far short of a + "universal or perfect comprehension of whatsoever is," it might still + be "sufficient" for us, because "suited to our individual state." The + "light of reason," the "candle of the Lord," that is set up in us may + be found to shine bright enough for all _our_ purposes. If human + understanding cannot fully solve the infinite problem of the universe, + man may at least see that at no stage of his finite experience is he + necessarily the sport of chance, and that he can practically secure + his own wellbeing. + + The last book of the _Essay_, which treats of Knowledge and + Probability, is concerned more directly than the three preceding ones + with Locke's professed design. It has been suggested that Locke may + have begun with this book. It contains few references to the foregoing + parts of the _Essay_, and it might have appeared separately without + being much less intelligible than it is. The other books, concerned + chiefly with ideas and words, are more abstract, and may have opened + gradually on his mind as he studied more closely the subject treated + in the fourth book. For Locke saw that the ultimate questions about + our knowledge and its extent _presuppose_ questions about ideas. + Without ideas knowledge is impossible. "Idea" is thus a leading term + in the _Essay_. It is used in a way peculiar to himself--"the term + which, I think, stands best for whatsoever is the object of the + understanding when a man thinks" or "whatever it is which the mind can + be employed about." But ideas themselves are, he reminds us, "neither + true nor false, being nothing but bare appearances," phenomena as we + might call them. Truth and falsehood belong only to assertions or + denials concerning ideas, that is, to our interpretations of our ideas + according to their mutual relations. + + + Innate ideas. + + That none of our ideas are "innate" is the argument contained in the + first book. This means that the human mind, before any ideas are + present to it, is a _tabula rasa_: it needs the quickening of ideas to + become intellectually alive. The inward purpose of this famous + argument is apt to be overlooked. It has been criticized as if it was + a speculative controversy between empiricism and intellectualism. For + this Locke himself is partly to blame. It is not easy to determine the + antagonist he had in view. Lord Herbert is referred to as a defender + of innateness. Locke was perhaps too little read in the literature of + philosophy to do full justice to those more subtle thinkers who, from + Plato downwards, have recognized the need for categories of the + understanding and presuppositions of reason in the constitution of + knowledge. "Innate," Lord Shaftesbury says, "is a word Mr Locke poorly + plays on." For the real question is not about the _time_ when ideas + entered the mind, but "whether the constitution of man be such that, + being adult and grown up, the ideas of order and administration of a + God will not infallibly and necessarily spring up in him." This Locke + himself sometimes seems to allow. "That there are certain + propositions," we find him saying, "which, though the soul from the + beginning, or when a man is born, does not know, yet, by assistance + from the outward senses, and the help of some previous cultivation, it + may afterwards come certainly to know the truth of, is no more than + what I have affirmed in my first book" ("Epistle to Reader," in second + edition). And much of our knowledge, as he shows in the fourth book, + is rational insight, immediate or else demonstrable, and thus + intellectually necessary in its constitution. + + What Locke really objects to is, that any of our supposed knowledge + should claim immunity from free criticism. He argues in the first book + against the innateness of our knowledge of God and of morality; yet in + the fourth book he finds that the existence of God is demonstrable, + being supported by causal necessity, without which there can be no + knowledge; and he also maintains that morality is as demonstrable as + pure mathematics. The positions are not inconsistent. The demonstrable + rational necessity, instead of being innate, or conscious from our + birth, may lie latent or subconscious in the individual mind; but for + all that, when we gradually become more awake intellectually, such + truths are seen to "carry their own evidence along with them." Even in + the first book he appeals to the common reason, which he calls "common + sense." "He would be thought void of common sense who asked, on the + one side, or, on the other, went to give a reason, _why_ 'it is + impossible for the same thing to be and not to be.' It carries its own + light and evidence with it, and needs no other proof: he that + understands the terms assents to it for its own sake, or else nothing + else will ever be able to prevail with him to do it" (bk. i. chap. 3, + § 4). + + The truth is that neither Locke, on the one hand, nor the + intellectualists of the 17th century, on the other, expressed their + meaning with enough of precision; if they had, Locke's argument would + probably have taken a form less open to the charge of mere empiricism. + Locke believed that in attacking "innate principles" he was pleading + for universal reasonableness instead of blind reliance on authority, + and was thus, as he says, not "pulling up the foundations of + knowledge," but "laying those foundations surer." When men heard that + there were propositions that could not be doubted, it was a short and + easy way to assume that what are only arbitrary prejudices are + "innate" certainties, and therefore must be accepted unconditionally. + This "eased the lazy from the pains of search, stopped the inquiry of + the doubtful, concerning all that was once styled innate. It was no + small advantage to those who affected to be masters and teachers to + make this the principle of principles--that principles must not be + questioned." The assumption that they were "innate" was enough "to + take men off the use of their own reason and judgment, and to put them + upon believing and taking upon trust without further examination.... + Nor is it a small power it gives one man over another to have the + authority to make a man swallow that for an innate principle which may + serve his purpose who teacheth them" (bk. i. chap. 4, § 24). + + + Genesis of ideas. + + The second book proposes a hypothesis regarding the genesis of our + ideas and closes after an elaborate endeavour to verify it. The + hypothesis is, that all human ideas, even the most complex and + abstract and sublime, ultimately depend upon "experience." Otherwise, + what we take to be ideas are only empty words. Here the important + point is what human "experience" involves. Locke says that our "ideas" + all come, either from the five senses or from reflective + consciousness; and he proposes to show that even those concerned with + the Infinite depend at last on one or other of these two sources: our + "complex ideas" are all made up of "simple ideas," either from without + or from within. The "verification" of this hypothesis, offered in the + thirteenth and following chapters of the second book, goes to show in + detail that even those ideas which are "most abstruse," how remote + soever they may seem from original data of outward sense, or of inner + consciousness, "are only such as the understanding frames to itself by + repeating and joining together simple ideas that it had at first, + either from perceiving objects of sense, or from reflection upon its + own operations." + + To prove this, our thoughts of space, time, infinity, power, + substance, personal identity, causality, and others which "seem most + remote from the supposed original" are examined in a "plain historical + method," and shown to depend either on (a) perception of things + external, through the five senses, or on (b) reflection upon + operations of the mind within. Reflection, "though it be not sense, as + having nothing to do with external objects," is yet, he says, "very + like it, and might properly enough be called internal sense." But the + suggestion that "sense" might designate _both_ the springs of + experience is misleading, when we find in the sequel how much Locke + tacitly credits "reflection" with. The ambiguity of his language makes + opposite interpretations of this cardinal part of the Essay possible; + the best we can do is to compare one part with another, and in + doubtful cases to give him the benefit of the doubt. + + Although the second book is a sort of inventory of our ideas, as + distinguished from the certainty and boundaries of our knowledge, + Locke even here makes the assumption that the "simple ideas" of the + five senses are practically qualities of things which exist without + us, and that the mental "operations" discovered by "reflection" are + those of a person continuously existing. He thus relieves himself of + the difficulty of having at the outset to explain _how_ the immediate + data of outward sense and reflection are accepted as "qualities" of + things and persons. He takes this as a fact. + + Such, according to Locke, are the only simple ideas which can appear + even in the sublimest human speculations. But the mind, in becoming + gradually stored with its "simple ideas" is able to elaborate them in + numberless modes and relations; although it is not in the power of the + most exalted wit or enlarged understanding to invent or frame any new + simple idea, not taken in in one or the other of these two ways. All + that man can imagine about the universe or about God is necessarily + confined to them. For proof of this Locke would have any one try to + fancy a taste which had never affected his palate, or to frame the + idea of a scent he had never felt, or an operation of mind, divine or + human, foreign to all human consciousness. + + + Qualities of matter. + + The contrast and correlation of these two data of experience is + suggested in the chapter on the "qualities of matter" in which we are + introduced to a noteworthy vein of speculation (bk. ii. chap. 8). This + chapter, on "things and their qualities," looks like an interpolation + in an analysis of mere "ideas." Locke here treats simple ideas of the + five senses as qualities of outward things. And the sense data are, he + finds, partly (a) revelations of external things themselves in their + mathematical relations, and partly (b) sensations, boundless in + variety, which are somehow awakened in us through contact and + collision with things relatively to their mathematical relations. + Locke calls the former sort "primary, original or essential qualities + of matter," and the others "secondary or derived qualities." The + primary, which are quantities rather than qualities, are inseparable + from matter, and virtually identical with the ideas we have of them. + On the other hand, there is nothing perceived in the mathematical + relations of bodies which in the least resembles their secondary + qualities. If there were no sentient beings in existence, the + secondary qualities would cease to exist, "except perhaps as unknown + modes of the primary, or, if not, as something still more obscure." On + the other hand, "solidity, extension, figure and motion would," he + assumes, "be really in the world as they are, whether there were any + sensible being to perceive them or not." + + + Matter. + + Thus far the outcome of what Locke teaches about matter is, that it is + Something capable of being expressed in terms of mathematical + quantity, and also in terms of our own sensations. A further step was + to suggest the ultimate dependence of the secondary qualities of + bodies upon "the bulk, figures, number, situation and motions of the + solid parts of which the bodies consist," these mathematical or + primary qualities "existing as we think of them whether or not they + are perceived." This Locke proposes in a hesitating way. For we, "not + knowing what particular size, figure and texture of parts they are on + which depend, and from which result, those qualities which make our + complex idea, for example, of gold, it is impossible we should know + what other qualities result from, or are incompatible with, the same + constitution of the insensible parts of gold; and so consequently must + always coexist with that complex idea we have of it, or else are + inconsistent with it." + + Some of the most remarkable chapters in the second book concern what + may be called "crucial instances" in verification of its fundamental + hypothesis of the dependence of human knowledge upon the simple ideas + presented in our dual experience (bk. ii. ch. 13-28). They carry us + towards the ultimate mysteries which attract meditative minds. The + hypothesis, that even our most profound and sublime speculations are + all limited to data of the senses and of reflection, is crucially + tested by the "modes" and "substances" and "relations" under which, in + various degrees of complexity, we somehow find ourselves obliged to + conceive those simple phenomena. Such are modes of quantity in space, + and time and number, under which Locke reports that we find ourselves + mentally impelled towards immensity, eternity and the innumerable--in + a word, towards Infinity which seems to transcend quantity; then there + is the complex thought of Substance, to which we find ourselves + mysteriously impelled, when the simple phenomena of the senses come to + be regarded as qualities of "something"; again there is the obscure + idea of the identity of persons, notwithstanding their constant + changes of state; and there is, above all, the inevitable tendency we + somehow have to refund a change into what we call its "Cause," with + the associated idea of active power. Locke begins with our complex + ideas of Space, Succession or Time, and Number. + + + Immensity and endlessness and infinity. + + Space, he says, appears when we use our senses of sight and touch; + succession he finds "suggested" by all the changing phenomena of + sense, and by "what passes in our minds"; number is "suggested by + every object of our senses, and every thought of our minds, by + everything that either doth exist or can be imagined." The + modifications of which these are susceptible he reports to be + "inexhaustible and truly infinite, extension alone affording a + boundless field to the mathematicians." But the mystery latent in our + ideas of space and time is, that "something in the mind" irresistibly + hinders us from allowing the possibility of any limit to either. We + find ourselves, when we try, compelled to lose our positive ideas of + finite spaces in the negative idea of Immensity or Boundlessness, and + our positive ideas of finite times in the negative thought of + Endlessness. We have never seen, and we cannot imagine, an object + whose extent is boundless. Yet we find when we reflect that something + forces us to think that space and time must be unlimited. Thus Locke + seems by implication to acknowledge something added by the mind to the + original "simple ideas" of extension and succession; though he finds + that what is added is not positively conceivable. When we reflect on + immensity and eternity, we find them negations of all that is + imaginable; and that whether we try infinite addition or infinite + subdivision. He accepts this fact; he does not inquire why mind finds + itself obliged to add without limit and to divide without limit. He + simply reports that immensity and eternity are inevitable negative + ideas, and also that every endeavour to realize them in positive + images must be an attempt to represent as quantity what is beyond + quantity. After all our additions we are as far from the infinite idea + as we were at the beginning. + + + Substance and personality. + + Locke is too faithful to facts to overlook the ultimate mysteries in + human experience. This is further illustrated in his acknowledgment of + the inconceivable that is at the root of our idea of Substance. He + tries to phenomenalize it, and thus resolve it into simple ideas; but + he finds that it cannot be phenomenalized, and yet that we cannot + dispense with it. An unsubstantiated succession of phenomena, without + a centre of unity to which they are referable as qualities, is + unintelligible: we cannot have a language of adjectives without nouns. + Locke had some apprehension of this transcendent intellectual + obligation. According to his report, "the mind" always obliges us to + suppose Something beyond positive phenomena to which the phenomena + must be attributed; but he was perplexed by this "confused negative" + idea. So for him the word substance means "only an uncertain + supposition of we know not what." If one were to ask him what the + substance is in which this colour and that taste or smell inhere, "he + would find himself in a difficulty like that of the Indian, who, after + saying that the world rested on an elephant, and the elephant on a + broad-backed tortoise, could only suppose the tortoise to rest on + 'Something, I know not what.'" The attempt to conceive it is like the + attempt positively to conceive immensity or eternity: we are involved + in an endless, ultimately incomprehensible, regress. We fail when we + try either positively to phenomenalize substance or to dispense with + the superphenomenal abstraction. Our only positive idea is of an + aggregate of phenomena. And it is only thus, he says, that we can + approach a positive conception of God, namely by "enlarging + indefinitely some of the simple ideas we received from reflection." + Why man must remain in this mental predicament, Locke did not inquire. + He only reported the fact. He likewise struggled bravely to be + faithful to fact in his report of the state in which we find ourselves + when we try to conceive continued personal identity. The paradoxes in + which he here gets involved illustrate this (bk. ii. ch. 27). + + + Causality. + + Locke's thoughts about Causality and Active Power are especially + noteworthy, for he rests our knowledge of God and of the external + universe on those ultimate ideas. The intellectual demand for "the + cause" of an event is what we find we cannot help having; yet it is a + demand for what in the end the mind cannot fully grasp. Locke is + content to trace the idea of "cause and effect," as far as mere + natural science goes, to our "constant observation" that "qualities + and finite substances begin to exist, and receive their existence from + other beings which produce them." We find that this connexion is what + gives intelligibility to ceaseless and what seemed chaotic changes, + converting them into the divinely concatenated system which we call + "the universe." Locke seems hardly to realize all that is implied in + scientific prevision or expectation of change. Anything, as far as + "constant observation" tells us, might a priori have been the natural + cause of anything; and no finite number of "observed" sequences, _per + se_, can guarantee universality and necessity. The idea of power, or + _active_ causation, on the other hand, "is got," he acknowledges, not + through the senses, but "through our consciousness of our own + voluntary agency, and therefore through reflection" (bk. ii. ch. 21). + In bodies we observe no active agency, only a sustained natural order + in the succession of passive sensuous phenomena. The true source of + change in the material world must be analogous to what we are + conscious of when we exert volition. Locke here unconsciously + approaches the spiritual view of active power in the physical universe + afterwards taken by Berkeley, forming the constructive principle of + his philosophy. + + + Ideas and words. + + Locke's book about Ideas leads naturally to his Third Book which is + concerned with Words, or the sensible signs of ideas. Here he analyses + "abstract ideas," and instructively illustrates the confusion apt to + be produced in them by the inevitable imperfection of words. He + unfolds the relations between verbal signs and the several sorts of + ideas; words being the means for enabling us to treat ideas as + typical, abstract and general. "Some parts of this third book," + concerning Words, Locke tells his friend Molyneux, "though the + thoughts were easy and clear enough, yet cost me more pains to express + than all the rest of my _Essay_. And therefore I should not much + wonder, if there be in some places of it obscurity and doubtfulness." + + + Theory of knowledge. + + The Fourth Book, about Knowledge proper and Probability, closes the + _Essay_. Knowledge, he says, is perception of relations among ideas; + it is expressed in our affirmations and negations; and real knowledge + is discernment of the relations of ideas to what is real. In the + foregoing part of the _Essay_ he had dealt with "ideas" and "simple + apprehension," here he is concerned with intuitive "judgment" and + demonstrative "reasoning," also with judgments and reasonings about + matters of fact. At the end of this patient search among our ideas, he + supposes the reader apt to complain that he has been "all this while + only building a castle in the air," and to ask what the purpose of all + this stir is, if we are not thereby carried beyond mere ideas. "If it + be true that knowledge lies only in the agreement or disagreement of + ideas, the visions of an enthusiast and the reasonings of a sober man + will be equally certain. It is no matter how things themselves are" + (bk. iv. 4). This gives the keynote to the fourth book. It does not, + however, carry him into a critical analysis of the rational + constitution of knowledge, like Kant. Hume had not yet shown the + sceptical objections against conclusions which Locke accepted without + criticism. The subtle agnostic, who doubted reason because reason + could not be supported in the end by empirical evidence, was less in + his view than persons blindly resting on authority or prejudice. Total + scepticism he would probably have regarded as unworthy of the serious + attention of a wise man. "Where we perceive the agreement or + disagreement of any of our ideas there is certain knowledge; and + wherever we are sure these ideas agree with the reality of things, + there is certain _real_ knowledge" (bk. iv. ch. 4). + + + Four sorts of knowable relations. + + Locke's report about human knowledge and its narrow extent forms the + first thirteen chapters of the fourth book. The remainder of the book + is concerned for the most part with the probabilities on which human + life practically turns, as he and Butler are fond of reminding us. As + regards kinds of knowledge, he finds that "all knowledge we are + capable of" must be assertion or denial of some one of three sorts of + relation among our ideas themselves, or else of relations between our + ideas and reality that exists independently of us and our ideas. + Accordingly, knowledge is concerned either with (a) relations of + identity and difference among ideas, as when we say that "blue is not + yellow"; or (b) with mathematical relations, as that "two triangles + upon equal bases between two parallels must be equal"; or (c) in + assertions that one quality does or does not coexist with another in + the same substance, as that "iron is susceptible of magnetical + impressions, or that ice is not hot"; or (d) with ontological reality, + independent of our perceptions, as that "God exists" or "I exist" or + "the universe exists." The first sort is analytical; mathematical and + ethical knowledge represents the second; physical science forms the + third; real knowledge of self, God and the world constitutes the + fourth. + + + Intuition and demonstration. + + Locke found important differences in the way in which knowledge of any + sort is reached. In some instances the known relation is self-evident, + as when we judge intuitively that a circle cannot be a triangle, or + that three must be more than two. In other cases the known relation is + perceived to be intellectually necessary through the medium of + premisses, as in a mathematical demonstration. All that is strictly + knowledge is reached in these two ways. But there is a third sort, + namely sense-perception, which hardly deserves the name. For "our + perceptions of the particular existence of finite beings without us" + go beyond mere probability, yet they are not purely rational. There is + nothing self-contradictory in the supposition that our perceptions of + things external are illusions, although we are somehow unable to doubt + them. We find ourselves inevitably "conscious of a different sort of + perception," when we actually see the sun by day and when we only + imagine the sun at night. + + Locke next inquired to what extent knowledge--in the way either of + intuitive certainty, demonstrative certainty, or sense perception--is + possible, in regard to each of the four (already mentioned) sorts of + knowable relation. There is only one of the four in which our + knowledge is co-extensive with our ideas. It is that of "identity and + diversity": we cannot be conscious at all without distinguishing, and + every affirmation necessarily implies negation. The second sort of + knowable relation is sometimes intuitively and sometimes demonstrably + discernible. Morality, Locke thinks, as well as mathematical quantity, + is capable of being demonstrated. "Where there is no property there is + no injustice," is an example of a proposition "as certain as any + demonstration in Euclid." Only we are more apt to be biassed, and thus + to leave reason in abeyance, in dealing with questions of morality + than in dealing with problems in mathematics. + + Turning from abstract mathematical and moral relations to concrete + relations of coexistence and succession among phenomena--the third + sort of knowable relation--Locke finds the light of pure reason + disappear; although these relations form "the greatest and most + important part of what we desire to know." Of these, including as they + do all inductive science, he reports that demonstrable knowledge "is + very short, if indeed we have any at all"; and are not thrown wholly + on presumptions of probability, or else left in ignorance. Man cannot + attain perfect and infallible science of bodies. For natural science + depends, he thinks, on knowledge of the relations between their + secondary qualities on the one hand, and the mathematical qualities of + their atoms on the other, or else "on something yet more remote from + our comprehension." Now, as perception of these atoms and their + relations is beyond us, we must be satisfied with inductive + presumptions, for which "experimental verification" affords, after + all, only conclusions that wider experience may prove to be + inadequate. But this moral venture Locke accepts as "sufficient for + our purposes." + + + Real existence. + + Our knowledge under Locke's fourth category of relations--real + existence--includes (a) intuitive perceptions of our own existence; + (b) demonstrable certainty of the existence of God; and (c) actual + perception of the existence of surrounding things, as long as, but + only as long as the things are present to sense. "If I doubt all other + things, that very doubt makes me perceive my own existence, and will + not suffer me to doubt of that" (iv. 9. 3). Faith in the existence of + God is virtually with Locke an expression of faith in the principle of + active causality in its ultimate universality. Each person knows that + he now exists, and is convinced that he had a beginning; with not less + intuitive certainty he knows that "_nothing_ can no more produce any + real being than it can be equal to two right angles." His final + conclusion is that there must be eternally "a most powerful and most + knowing Being, in which, as the origin of all, must be contained all + the perfections that can ever after exist," and out of which can come + only what it has already in itself; so that as the cause of my mind, + it must be Mind. There is thus causal necessity for Eternal Mind, or + what we call "God." This is cautiously qualified thus in a letter to + Anthony Collins, written by Locke a few months before he died: "Though + I call the thinking faculty in me 'mind,' yet I cannot, because of + that name, equal it in anything to that infinite and incomprehensible + Being, which, for want of right and distinct conceptions, is called + 'Mind' also." But the immanence of God in the things and persons that + compose the universal order, with what this implies, is a conception + foreign to Locke, whose habitual conception was of an extra-mundane + deity, the dominant conception in the 18th century. + + + Knowledge of the external world. + + Turning from our knowledge of Spirit to our knowledge of Matter, + nearly all that one can affirm or deny about "things external is," + according to Locke, not knowledge but venture or presumptive trust. We + have, strictly speaking, no "knowledge" of real beings beyond our own + self-conscious existence, the existence of God, and the existence of + objects of sense as long as they are actually present to sense. "When + I see an external object at a distance, a man for instance, I cannot + but be satisfied of his existence while I am looking at him. (Locke + might have added that when one only 'sees a man' it is merely his + _visible_ qualities that are perceived; his other qualities are as + little 'actual present sensations' as if he were out of the range of + sense.) But when the man leaves me alone, I cannot be certain that he + still exists." "There is no necessary connexion between his existence + a minute since (when he was present to any sense of sight) and his + existence now (when he is absent from all my senses); by a thousand + ways he may have ceased to be. I have not that certainty of his + continued existence which we call knowledge; though the great + likelihood of it puts it past doubt. But this is but probability and + not knowledge" (chap. 11, § 9). Accordingly, purely rational science + of external Nature is, according to Locke, impossible. All our + "interpretations of nature" are inadequate; only reasonable + probabilities, not final rational certainties. This boundless region + affords at the best probabilities, ultimately grounded on moral faith, + all beyond lies within the veil. Such is Locke's "plain, + matter-of-fact" account of the knowledge of the Real that is open to + man. + + + The rationale of probability. + + We learn little from Locke as to the rationale of the probabilities on + which man thus depends when he deals with the past, the distant or the + future. The concluding chapters of the fourth book contain wise advice + to those whose lives are passed in an ever-changing environment, for + avoiding the frequent risk of error in their conclusions, with or + without the help of syllogism, the office of which, as a means of + discovery, is here critically considered. + + + Locke and Hume. + + Investigation of the foundation of inductive inference was resumed by + Hume where Locke left it. With a still humbler view of human reason + than Locke's, Hume proposed as "a subject worthy of curiosity," to + inquire into "the nature of that evidence which assures us of any real + existence and matter of fact, _beyond_ the present testimony of our + senses and the records of our memory; a part of philosophy that has + been little cultivated either by the ancients or the moderns." Hume + argues that custom is a sufficient practical explanation of this + gradual enlargement of our objective experience, and that no deeper + explanation is open to man. All beyond each present transitory + "impression" and the stores of memory is therefore reached blindly, + through custom or habitual association. Associative tendency, + individual or inherited, has since been the favourite constructive + factor of human experience in Empirical Philosophy. This factor is not + prominent in Locke's _Essay_. A short chapter on "association of + ideas" was added to the second book in the fourth edition. And the + tendency to associate is there presented, not as the fundamental + factor of human knowledge, but as a chief cause of human error. + + + Locke and Kant. + + Kant's critical analysis of pure reason is more foreign to Locke than + the attempts of 18th- and 19th-century associationists and + evolutionists to explain experience and science. Kant's aim was to + show the necessary rational constitution of experience. Locke's design + was less profound. It was his distinction to present to the modern + world, in his own "historical plain method," perhaps the largest + assortment ever made by any individual of facts characteristic of + human understanding. Criticism of the presuppositions implied in those + facts--by Kant and his successors, and in Britain more unpretentiously + by Reid, all under the stimulus of Hume's sceptical criticism--has + employed philosophers since the author of the _Essay on Human + Understanding_ collected materials that raised deeper philosophical + problems than he tried to solve. Locke's mission was to initiate + modern criticism of the foundation and limits of our knowledge. Hume + negatively, and the German and Scottish schools constructively, + continued what it was Locke's glory to have begun. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Essay concerning Human Understanding_ has passed + through more editions than any classic in modern philosophical + literature. Before the middle of the 18th century it had reached + thirteen, and it has now passed through some forty editions, besides + being translated into Latin, French, Dutch, German and modern Greek. + There are also several abridgments. In addition to those criticisms + which appeared when Locke was alive, among the most important are + Leibnitz's _Nouveaux Essais sur l'entendement humain_--written about + 1700 and published in 1765, in which each chapter of the _Essay_ of + Locke is examined in a corresponding chapter by Leibnitz; Cousin's + "École sensualiste: système de Locke," in his _Histoire de la + philosophie au XVIII^e siècle_ (1829); and the criticisms in T. H. + Green's Introduction to the _Philosophical Works of Hume_ (1874). The + _Essay, with Prolegomena, biographical, critical and historical_, + edited by Professor Campbell Fraser and published by the Oxford + Clarendon Press in 1894, is the only annotated edition, unless the + _Nouveaux Essais_ of Leibnitz may be reduced to this category. + + The _Letters on Toleration_, _Thoughts on Education_ and _The_ + _Reasonableness of Christianity_ have also gone through many editions, + and been translated into different languages. + + The first collected edition of Locke's _Works_ was in 1714, in three + folio volumes. The best is that by Bishop Law, in four quartos (1777). + The one most commonly known is in ten volumes (1812). + + The _Éloge_ of Jean le Clerc (_Bibliothèque choisie_, 1705) has been + the basis of the memoirs of Locke prefixed to the successive editions + of his _Works_, or contained in biographical dictionaries. In 1829 a + _Life of Locke_ (2nd ed. in two volumes, with considerable additions, + 1830), was produced by Peter, 7th Baron King, a descendant of Locke's + cousin, Anne Locke. This adds a good deal to what was previously + known, as Lord King was able to draw from the mass of correspondence, + journals and commonplace books of Locke in his possession. In the same + year Dr Thomas Foster published some interesting letters from Locke to + Benjamin Furly. The most copious account of the life is contained in + the two volumes by H. R. Fox-Bourne (1876), the results of laborious + research among the Shaftesbury Papers, Locke MSS. in the British + Museum, the Public Record Office, the Lambeth, Christ Church and + Bodleian libraries, and in the Remonstrants' library at Amsterdam. + Monographs on Locke by T. H. Fowler in 1880, in "English Men of + Letters," and by Fraser, in 1890, in Blackwood's "Philosophical + Classics" may be mentioned; also addresses by Sir F. Pollock and + Fraser at the bicentenary commemoration by the British Academy of + Locke's death, published in the _Proceedings_ of the Academy (1904). + See also C. Bastide, _John Locke; ses théories politiques et leur + influence en Angleterre_ (Paris, 1907); H. Ollion, _La Philosophie + générale de J. L._ (1909). (A. C. F.) + + + + +LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677), English musician, perhaps the earliest +English writer for the stage, was born at Exeter, where he became a +chorister in the cathedral. His music, written with Christopher Gibbons +(son of Orlando Gibbons), for Shirley's masque _Cupid and Death_, was +performed in London in 1653. He wrote some music for Davenant's _Siege +of Rhodes_ in 1656; and in 1661 was appointed composer in ordinary to +Charles II. During the following years he wrote a number of anthems for +the Chapel Royal, and excited some criticism on the score of novelty, to +which he replied with considerable heat (_Modern Church Music; +pre-accused, censured and obstructed in its Performance before His +Majesty, April 1st, 1666, &c._; copies in the Fitzwilliam Museum, +Cambridge, and the Royal College of Music). A good deal of music for the +theatre followed, the most important being for Davenant's productions of +_The Tempest_ (1667) and of _Macbeth_ (1672), but some doubt as to this +latter has arisen, Purcell, Eccles or Leveridge, being also credited +with it. He also composed various songs and instrumental pieces, and +published some curious works on musical theory. He died in August 1677, +an elegy being written by Purcell. + + + + +LOCKERBIE, a municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in +the district of Annandale, 14½ m. E.N.E. of Dumfries by the Caledonian +railway. Pop. (1901) 2358. It has long been famous for its cattle and +sheep sales, but more particularly for the great August lamb fair, the +largest in Scotland, at which as many as 126,000 lambs have been sold. +The town hall and Easton institute are in the Scottish Baronial style. +The police station is partly accommodated in an ancient square tower, +once the stronghold of the Johnstones, for a long period the ruling +family under whose protection the town gradually grew up. At Dryfe +Sands, about 2 m. to the W., a bloody encounter took place in 1593 +between the Johnstones and Maxwells. The Maxwells were pursued into +Lockerbie and almost exterminated; hence "Lockerbie Lick" became a +proverbial expression, signifying an overwhelming defeat. + + + + +LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK (1821-1895), English man of letters, was born, +on the 29th of May 1821, at Greenwich Hospital. His father, who was +Civil Commissioner of the Hospital, was Edward Hawke Locker, youngest +son of that Captain William Locker who gave Nelson the memorable advice +"to lay a Frenchman close, and beat him." His mother, Eleanor Mary +Elizabeth Boucher, was a daughter of the Rev. Jonathan Boucher, vicar of +Epsom and friend of George Washington. After a desultory education, +Frederick Locker began life in a colonial broker's office. Soon +deserting this uncongenial calling, he obtained a clerkship in Somerset +House, whence he was transferred to Lord Haddington's private office at +the Admiralty. Here he became deputy-reader and _précis_ writer. In 1850 +he married Lady Charlotte Bruce, daughter of the Lord Elgin who brought +the famous marbles to England, and sister of Lady Augusta Stanley. After +his marriage he left the Civil Service, in consequence of ill-health. In +1857 he published _London Lyrics_, a slender volume of 90 pages, which, +with subsequent extensions, constitutes his poetical legacy. _Lyra +Elegantiarum_ (1867), an anthology of light and familiar verse, and +_Patchwork_ (1879), a book of extracts, were his only other +publications. In 1872 Lady Charlotte Locker died. Two years later Locker +married Miss Hannah Jane Lampson, the only daughter of Sir Curtis +Miranda Lampson, Bart., of Rowfant, Sussex, and in 1885 took his wife's +surname. At Rowfant he died on the 30th of May 1895. Chronic ill-health +debarred Locker from any active part in life, but it did not prevent his +delighting a wide circle of friends by his gifts as a host and +_raconteur_, and from accumulating many treasures as a connoisseur. His +books are catalogued in the volume called the _Rowfant Library_ (1886), +to which an appendix (1900) was added, after his death, under the +superintendence of his eldest son. As a poet, Locker belongs to the +choir who deal with the gay rather than the grave in verse--with the +polished and witty rather than the lofty or emotional. His good taste +kept him as far from the broadly comic on the one side as his kind heart +saved him from the purely cynical on the other. To something of Prior, +of Praed and of Hood he added qualities of his own which lent his work +distinction--a distinction in no wise diminished by his unwearied +endeavour after directness and simplicity. + + A posthumous volume of Memoirs, entitled _My Confidences_ (1896), and + edited by his son-in-law, Mr Augustine Birrell, gives an interesting + idea of his personality and a too modest estimate of his gifts as a + poet. (A. D.) + + + + +LOCKHART, GEORGE (1673-1731), of Carnwath, Scottish writer and +politician, was a member of a Lanarkshire family tracing descent from +Sir Simon Locard (the name being originally territorial, de Loch Ard), +who is said to have accompanied Sir James Douglas on his expedition to +the East with the heart of Bruce, which relic, according to Froissart, +Locard brought home from Spain when Douglas fell in battle against the +Moors, and buried in Melrose Abbey; this incident was the origin of the +"man's heart within a fetterlock" borne on the Lockhart shield, which in +turn perhaps led to the altered spelling of the surname. George +Lockhart's grandfather was Sir James Lockhart of Lee (d. 1674), a lord +of the court of session with the title of Lord Lee, who commanded a +regiment at the battle of Preston. Lord Lee's eldest son, Sir William +Lockhart of Lee (1621-1675), after fighting on the king's side in the +Civil War, attached himself to Oliver Cromwell, whose niece he married, +and by whom he was appointed commissioner for the administration of +justice in Scotland in 1652, and English ambassador at the French court +in 1656, where he greatly distinguished himself by his successful +diplomacy. Lord Lee's second son, Sir George Lockhart (c. 1630-1689), +was lord-advocate in Cromwell's time, and was celebrated for his +persuasive eloquence; in 1674, when he was disbarred for alleged +disrespect to the court of session in advising an appeal to parliament, +fifty barristers showed their sympathy for him by withdrawing from +practice. Lockhart was readmitted in 1676, and became the leading +advocate in political trials, in which he usually appeared for the +defence. He was appointed lord-president of the court of session in +1685; and was shot in the streets of Edinburgh on the 31st of March 1689 +by John Chiesley, against whom the lord-president had adjudicated a +cause. Sir George Lockhart purchased the extensive estates of the earls +of Carnwath in Lanarkshire, which were inherited by his eldest son, +George, whose mother was Philadelphia, daughter of Lord Wharton. + +George Lockhart, who was member for the city of Edinburgh in the +Scottish parliament, was appointed a commissioner for arranging the +union with England in 1705. After the union he continued to represent +Edinburgh, and later the Wigton burghs. His sympathies were with the +Jacobites, whom he kept informed of all the negotiations for the union; +in 1713 he took part in an abortive movement aiming at the repeal of the +union. He was deeply implicated in the rising of 1715, the preparations +for which he assisted at Carnwath and at Dryden, his Edinburgh +residence. He was imprisoned in Edinburgh castle, but probably, through +the favour of the duke of Argyll, he was released without being brought +to trial; but his brother Philip was taken prisoner at the battle of +Preston and condemned to be shot, the sentence being executed on the 2nd +of December 1715. After his liberation Lockhart became a secret agent of +the Pretender; but his correspondence with the prince fell into the +hands of the government in 1727, compelling him to go into concealment +at Durham until he was able to escape abroad. Argyll's influence was +again exerted in Lockhart's behalf, and in 1728 he was permitted to +return to Scotland, where he lived in retirement till his death in a +duel on the 17th of December 1731. Lockhart was the author of _Memoirs +of the Affairs of Scotland_, dealing with the reign of Queen Anne till +the union with England, first published in 1714. These _Memoirs_, +together with Lockhart's correspondence with the Pretender, and one or +two papers of minor importance, were published in two volumes in 1817, +forming the well-known "Lockhart Papers," which are a valuable authority +for the history of the Jacobites. + +Lockhart married Eupheme Montgomerie, daughter of Alexander, 9th earl of +Eglinton, by whom he had a large family. His grandson James, who assumed +his mother's name of Wishart in addition to that of Lockhart, was in the +Austrian service during the Seven Years' War, and was created a baron +and count of the Holy Roman Empire. He succeeded to the estates of Lee +as well as of Carnwath, both of which properties passed, on the death of +his son Charles without issue in 1802, to his nephew Alexander, who was +created a baronet in 1806. + + See _The Lockhart Papers_ (2 vols., London, 1817); Andrew Lang, + _History of Scotland_ (4 vols., London, 1900). For the story of Sir + Simon Lockhart's adventures with the heart of the Bruce, see Sir + Walter Scott's _The Talisman_. (R. J. M.) + + + + +LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON (1794-1854), Scottish writer and editor, was born +on the 14th of July 1794 in the manse of Cambusnethan in Lanarkshire, +where his father, Dr John Lockhart, transferred in 1796 to Glasgow, was +minister. His mother, who was the daughter of the Rev. John Gibson, of +Edinburgh, was a woman of considerable intellectual gifts. He was sent +to the Glasgow high school, where he showed himself clever rather than +industrious. He fell into ill-health, and had to be removed from school +before he was twelve; but on his recovery he was sent at this early age +to Glasgow University, and displayed so much precocious learning, +especially in Greek, that he was offered a Snell exhibition at Oxford. +He was not fourteen when he entered Balliol College, where he acquired a +great store of knowledge outside the regular curriculum. He read French, +Italian, German and Spanish, was interested in classical and British +antiquities, and became versed in heraldic and genealogical lore. In +1813 he took a first class in classics in the final schools. For two +years after leaving Oxford he lived chiefly in Glasgow before settling +to the study of Scottish law in Edinburgh, where he was called to the +bar in 1816. A tour on the continent in 1817, when he visited Goethe at +Weimar, was made possible by the kindness of the publisher Blackwood, +who advanced money for a promised translation of Schlegel's _Lectures on +the History of Literature_, which was not published until 1838. +Edinburgh was then the stronghold of the Whig party, whose organ was the +_Edinburgh Review_, and it was not till 1817 that the Scottish Tories +found a means of expression in _Blackwood's Magazine_. After a somewhat +hum-drum opening, _Blackwood_ suddenly electrified the Edinburgh world +by an outburst of brilliant criticism. John Wilson (Christopher North) +and Lockhart had joined its staff in 1817. Lockhart no doubt took his +share in the caustic and aggressive articles which marked the early +years of _Blackwood_; but his biographer, Mr Andrew Lang, brings +evidence to show that he was not responsible for the virulent articles +on Coleridge and on "The Cockney School of Poetry," that is on Leigh +Hunt, Keats and their friends. He has been persistently accused of the +later _Blackwood_ article (August 1818) on Keats, but he showed at any +rate a real appreciation of Coleridge and Wordsworth. He contributed to +_Blackwood_ many spirited translations of Spanish ballads, which in 1823 +were published separately. In 1818 the brilliant and handsome young man +attracted the notice of Sir Walter Scott, and the acquaintance soon +ripened into an intimacy which resulted in a marriage between Lockhart +and Scott's eldest daughter Sophia, in April 1820. Five years of +domestic happiness followed, with winters spent in Edinburgh and summers +at a cottage at Chiefswood, near Abbotsford, where Lockhart's two eldest +children, John Hugh and Charlotte, were born; a second son, Walter, was +born later at Brighton. In 1820 John Scott, the editor of the _London +Magazine_, wrote a series of articles attacking the conduct of +_Blackwood's Magazine_, and making Lockhart chiefly responsible for its +extravagances. A correspondence followed, in which a meeting between +Lockhart and John Scott was proposed, with Jonathan Henry Christie and +Horace Smith as seconds. A series of delays and complicated negotiations +resulted early in 1821 in a duel between Christie and John Scott, in +which Scott was killed. This unhappy affair, which has been the subject +of much misrepresentation, is fully discussed in Mr Lang's book on +Lockhart. + +Between 1818 and 1825 Lockhart worked indefatigably. In 1819 _Peter's +Letters to his Kinsfolk_ appeared, and in 1822 he edited Peter Motteux's +edition of _Don Quixote_, to which he prefixed a life of Cervantes. Four +novels followed: _Valerius_ in 1821, _Some Passages in the Life of Adam +Blair_, _Minister of Gospel at Cross Meikle_ in 1822, _Reginald Dalton_ +in 1823 and _Matthew Wald_ in 1824. But his strength did not lie in +novel writing, although the vigorous quality of _Adam Blair_ has been +recognized by modern critics. In 1825 Lockhart accepted the editorship +of the _Quarterly Review_, which had been in the hands of Sir John +Taylor Coleridge since Gifford's resignation in 1824. He had now +established his literary position, and, as the next heir to his +unmarried half-brother's property in Scotland, Milton Lockhart, he was +sufficiently independent, though he had abandoned the legal profession. +In London he had great social success, and was recognized as a brilliant +editor. He contributed largely to the _Quarterly Review_ himself, his +biographical articles being especially admirable. He showed the old +railing spirit in an amusing but violent article in the _Quarterly_ on +Tennyson's _Poems_ of 1833, in which he failed to discover the mark of +genius. He continued to write for _Blackwood_; he produced for +_Constable's Miscellany_ in 1828 what remains the most charming of the +biographies of Burns; and he undertook the superintendence of the series +called "Murray's Family Library," which he opened in 1829 with a +_History of Napoleon_. But his chief work was the _Life of Sir Walter +Scott_ (7 vols., 1837-1838; 2nd ed., 10 vols., 1839). There were not +wanting those in Scotland who taxed Lockhart with ungenerous exposure of +his subject, but to most healthy minds the impression conveyed by the +biography was, and is, quite the opposite. Carlyle did justice to many +of its excellencies in a criticism contributed to the _London and +Westminster Review_ (1837). Lockhart's account of the transactions +between Scott and the Ballantynes and Constable caused great outcry; and +in the discussion that followed he showed unfortunate bitterness by his +pamphlet, "The Ballantyne Humbug handled." The _Life of Scott_ has been +called, after Boswell's _Johnson_, the most admirable biography in the +English language. The proceeds, which were considerable, Lockhart +resigned for the benefit of Scott's creditors. + +The close of Lockhart's life was saddened by family bereavement, +resulting in his own breakdown in health and spirits. His eldest boy +(the suffering "Hugh Littlejohn" of Scott's _Tales of a Grandfather_) +died in 1831; Scott himself in 1832; Mrs Lockhart in 1837; and the +surviving son, Walter Lockhart, in 1852. Resigning the editorship of the +_Quarterly Review_ in 1853, he spent the next winter in Rome, but +returned to England without recovering his health; and being taken to +Abbotsford by his daughter Charlotte, who had become Mrs James Robert +Hope-Scott, he died there on the 25th of November 1854. He was buried in +Dryburgh Abbey, near Sir Walter Scott. + + Lockhart's _Life_ (2 vols., London and New York, 1897) was written by + Andrew Lang. A. W. Pollard's edition of the _Life of Scott_ (1900) is + the best. + + + + +LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM STEPHEN ALEXANDER (1841-1900), British general, +was born in Scotland on the 2nd of September 1841, his father being a +Lanarkshire clergyman. He entered the Indian army in 1858, in the Bengal +native infantry. He served in the Indian Mutiny, the Bhutan campaign +(1864-66), the Abyssinian expedition (1867-68; mentioned in despatches), +the Hazara Black Mountain expedition (1868-69; mentioned in despatches). +From 1869 to 1879 he acted as deputy-assistant and assistant +quartermaster-general in Bengal. In 1877 he was military attaché with +the Dutch army in Acheen. He served in the Afghan War of 1878-80, was +mentioned in despatches and made a C.B., and from 1880 to 1885 was +D.Q.G. in the intelligence branch at headquarters. He commanded a +brigade in the Third Burmese War (1886-87), and was made K.C.B., C.S.I., +and received the thanks of the government. An attack of fever brought +him to England, where he was employed as assistant military secretary +for Indian affairs; but in 1890 he returned to India to take command of +the Punjab frontier force, and for five years was engaged in various +expeditions against the hill tribes. After the Waziristan campaign in +1894-95 he was made K.C.S.I. He became full general in 1896, and in 1897 +he was given the command against the Afridis and Mohmands, and conducted +the difficult Tirah campaign with great skill. He was made G.C.B., and +in 1898 became commander-in-chief in India. He died on the 18th of March +1900. Sir William Lockhart was not only a first-rate soldier, but also +had a great gift for dealing with the native tribesmen. Among the latter +he had the _sobriquet_ of Amir Sahib, on account of their respect and +affection for him. + + + + +LOCK HAVEN, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the west branch of the Susquehanna river, near the mouth of +Bald Eagle Creek, about 70 m. N.N.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 7210 +(618 foreign-born and 122 negroes); (1910) 7772. It is served by +branches of the Pennsylvania and the New York Central & Hudson River +railways and by electric interurban railways. The city is pleasantly +situated in an agricultural region, and there are large deposits of +cement and of fire-brick clay in the vicinity. Lock Haven is the seat of +the Central State Normal School (opened 1877), and has a public library +and a hospital. There are various manufactures. The municipality owns +and operates the water-works. The locality was settled in 1769. A town +was founded in 1833, the Pennsylvania Canal (no longer in use here) was +completed to this point in 1834, and the name of the place was suggested +by two canal locks and the harbour, or haven, for rafts in the river. +Lock Haven was made the county-seat immediately after the erection of +Clinton county in 1839, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and first +chartered as a city in 1870. + + + + +LOCKPORT, a city of Will county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Des Plaines +river and the Illinois & Michigan Canal, and the terminus of the Chicago +Sanitary District Drainage Canal, about 33 m. S.W. of Chicago and 4 m. +N.N.E. of Joliet. Pop. (1900) 2659 (552 being foreign-born and 130 +negroes); (1910) 2555. Lockport is served by the Chicago & Alton, and +the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railways, and by the Chicago & Joliet +Electric railway. It is in a picturesque farming country, and there are +good limestone quarries in the valley of the Des Plaines river. It has +manufactures and a considerable trade, especially in grain. A settlement +was made here about 1827; in 1837 the site was chosen as headquarters +for the Illinois & Michigan Canal and a village was laid out; it was +incorporated in 1853, and was chartered as a city in 1904. In 1892 work +was begun on the Chicago Drainage Canal, whose controlling works are +here and whose plant, developing 40,000 h.p. from the 40 ft. fall +between Joliet and Lockport, supplies Lockport with cheap power and has +made it a manufacturing rather than a commercial city. + + + + +LOCKPORT, a city and the county-seat of Niagara county, New York, +U.S.A., on the Erie Canal, 26 m. by rail N. by E. of Buffalo and 56 m. +W. of Rochester. Pop. (1900) 16,581, of whom 2036 were foreign-born and +160 were negroes; (1910 census) 17,970. It is served by the New York +Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways, by the International +railway (electric interurban), and by the Erie Canal. The city owes its +name to the five double locks of the canal, which here falls 66 ft. +(over a continuation of the Niagara escarpment locally known as +"Mountain Ridge") from the level of Lake Erie to that of the Genesee +river. In 1909 a scheme was on foot to replace these five locks by a +huge lift lock and to construct a large harbour immediately W. of the +city. The surplus water from Tonawanda Creek, long claimed both by the +Canal and by the Lockport manufacturers, after supplying the canal +furnishes water-power, and electric power is derived from Niagara. The +factory products, mostly paper and wood-pulp, flour and cereal foods, +and foundry and machine-shop products, were valued in 1905 at +$5,807,980. Lockport lies in a rich farming and fruit (especially apple +and pear) country, containing extensive sandstone and Niagara limestone +quarries, and is a shipping point for the fruits and grains and the +limestone and sandstone of the surrounding country. Many buildings in +the business part of the city are heated by the Holly distributing +system, which pipes steam from a central station or plant, and +originated in Lockport. The city owns and operates the water-works, long +operated under the Holly system, which, as well as the Holly +distributing system, was devised by Birdsill Holly, a civil engineer of +Lockport. In 1909 a new system was virtually completed, water being +taken from the Niagara river at Tonawanda and pumped thence to a +stand-pipe in Lockport. + +The site, that of the most easterly village in New York state held by +the Neutral Nation of Indians, was part of the tract bought by the +Holland Company in 1792-1793. Subsequently most of the land on which the +city stands was bought from the Holland Company by Esek Brown, the +proprietor of a local tavern, and fourteen others, but there were few +settlers until after 1820. In 1822 the place was made the county-seat, +and in 1823 it was much enlarged by the settlement here of workmen on +the Erie Canal, and was the headquarters for a time of the canal +contractors. It was incorporated as a village in 1829, was reached by +the Erie railway in 1852, and in 1865 was chartered as a city. + + + + +LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD (1838- ), French politician, son of Joseph Philippe +Simon (1803-1891), an actor and dramatist who took the name of Lockroy, +was born in Paris on the 18th of July 1838. He had begun by studying +art, but in 1860 enlisted as a volunteer under Garibaldi. The next three +years were spent in Syria as secretary to Ernest Renan, and on his +return to Paris he embarked in militant journalism against the second +empire in the _Figaro_, the _Diable à quatre_, and eventually in the +_Rappel_, with which his name was thenceforward intimately connected. He +commanded a battalion during the siege of Paris, and in February 1871 +was elected deputy to the National Assembly where he sat on the extreme +left and protested against the preliminaries of peace. In March he +signed the proclamation for the election of the Commune, and resigned +his seat as deputy. Arrested at Vanves he remained a prisoner at +Versailles and Chartres until June when he was released without being +tried. He was more than once imprisoned for violent articles in the +press, and in 1872 for a duel with Paul de Cassagnac. He was returned to +the Chamber in 1873 as Radical deputy for Bouches-du-Rhône in 1876, 1877 +and 1881 for Aix, and in 1881 he was also elected in the 11th +arrondissement of Paris. He elected to sit for Paris, and was repeatedly +re-elected. During the elections of 1893 he was shot at by a cab-driver +poet named Moore, but was not seriously injured. For the first ten years +of his parliamentary life he voted consistently with the extreme left, +but then adopted a more opportunist policy, and gave his unreserved +support to the Brisson ministry of 1885. In the new Freycinet cabinet +formed in January he held the portfolio of commerce and industry, which +he retained in the Goblet ministry of 1886-1887. In 1885 he had been +returned at the head of the poll for Paris, and his inclusion in the +Freycinet ministry was taken to indicate a prospect of reconciliation +between Parisian Radicalism and official Republicanism. During his +tenure of the portfolio of commerce and industry he made the preliminary +arrangements for the Exposition of 1889, and in a witty letter he +defended the erection of the Tour Eiffel against artistic Paris. After +the Panama and Boulangist scandals he became one of the leading +politicians of the Radical party. He was vice-president of the Chamber +in 1894 and in 1895, when he became minister of marine under Léon +Bourgeois. His drastic measures of reform alarmed moderate politicians, +but he had the confidence of the country, and held the same portfolio +under Henri Brisson (1898) and Charles Dupuy (1898-1899). He gave his +support to the Waldeck-Rousseau Administration, but actively criticized +the marine policy of Camille Pelletan in the Combes ministry of +1902-1905, during which period he was again vice-president of the +Chamber. M. Lockroy was a persistent and successful advocate of a strong +naval policy, in defence of which he published _La Marine de Guerre_ +(1890), _Six mois rue Royale_ (1897), _La Défense navale_ (1900), _Du +Weser à la Vistula_ (1901), _Les Marines française et allemande_ (1904), +_Le Programme naval_ (1906). His other works include _M. de Moltke et la +guerre future_ (1891) and _Journal d'une bourgeoise pendant la +Révolution_ (1881) derived from the letters of his great-grandmother. M. +Lockroy married in 1877 Madame Charles Hugo, the daughter-in-law of the +poet. + + + + +LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK (1846-1897), English lawyer, was born at Doncaster. +His grandfather and great-grandfather were mayors of Doncaster, and the +former for some years filled the office of judge on the racecourse. He +was educated at a private school, at Manchester grammar school, and +Caius College, Cambridge. Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1872, he +joined the old midland circuit, afterwards going to the north-eastern, +making in his first year 120 guineas and in the next 265 guineas. From +that time he had a career of uninterrupted success. In 1882 he was made +a queen's counsel, in 1884 he was made recorder of Sheffield, and in +1894 he became solicitor-general in Lord Rosebery's ministry, and was +knighted, having first entered parliament as Liberal member for York in +1885, after two unsuccessful attempts, the one at King's Lynn in 1880, +the other at York in 1883. He was solicitor-general for less than a +year. In 1896 Lord Chief Justice Coleridge, Mr Montague Crackanthorpe +and Sir Frank Lockwood went to the United States to attend, as specially +invited representatives of the English bar, the nineteenth meeting of +the American Bar Association. On this trip Sir Frank Lockwood sustained +the reputation which he enjoyed in England as a humorous after-dinner +speaker, and helped to strengthen the bond of friendship which unites +the bench and bar of the United States with the bench and bar of +England. He died in London on the 18th of December 1897. Lockwood had +considerable talent for drawing, inherited from his father, which he +employed, chiefly for the amusement of himself and his friends, in the +making of admirable caricatures in pen and ink, and of sketches of +humorous incidents, real or imaginary, relating to the topic nearest at +hand. An exhibition of them was held soon after his death. + + See Augustine Birrell's biography of Lockwood and _The Frank Lockwood + Sketch-Book_ (1898). + + + + +LOCKWOOD, WILTON (1861- ), American artist, was born at Wilton, +Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1861. He was a pupil and an +assistant of John La Farge, and also studied in Paris, becoming a +well-known portrait and flower painter. He became a member of the +Society of American Artists (1898), and of the Copley Society, Boston, +and an associate of the National Academy of Design, New York. + + + + +LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN (1836- ), English astronomer, was born at +Rugby on the 17th of May 1836. After completing his education on the +Continent of Europe, he obtained a clerkship in the War Office in 1857. +His leisure was devoted to the study of astronomy, and he was appointed +in 1870 secretary to the duke of Devonshire's royal commission on +science. In 1875 he was transferred to the Science and Art Department at +South Kensington, and on the foundation of the Royal College of Science +he became director of the solar physics observatory and professor of +astronomical physics. Eight British government expeditions for observing +total solar eclipses were conducted by him between 1870 and 1905. On the +26th of October 1868 he communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences, +almost simultaneously with Dr P. J. C. Janssen, a spectroscopic method +for observing the solar prominences in daylight, and the names of both +astronomers appear on a medal which was struck by the French government +in 1872 to commemorate the discovery. Lockyer was elected a fellow of +the Royal Society in 1869, and received the Rumford medal in 1874. He +initiated in 1866 the spectroscopic observation of sunspots; applied +Doppler's principle in 1869 to determine the radial velocities of the +chromospheric gases; and successfully investigated the chemistry of the +sun from 1872 onward. Besides numerous contributions to the +_Proceedings_ of the Royal and the Royal Astronomical Societies, he +published several books, both explanatory and speculative. The +_Chemistry of the Sun_ (1887) is an elaborate treatise on solar +spectroscopy based on the hypothesis of elemental dissociation through +the intensity of solar heat. The _Meteoritic Hypothesis_ (1890) +propounds a comprehensive scheme of cosmical evolution, which has evoked +more dissent than approval, while the _Sun's Place in Nature_ (1897) +lays down the lines of a classification of the stars, depending upon +their supposed temperature-relations. Among Lockyer's other works +are--_The Dawn of Astronomy_ (1894), to which _Stonehenge and other +British Stone Monuments astronomically considered_ (1906) may be +considered a sequel; _Recent and coming Eclipses_ (1897); and _Inorganic +Evolution_ (1900). He was created K.C.B. in 1897, and acted as president +of the British Association in 1903-1904. His fifth son, WILLIAM JAMES +STEWART LOCKYER (b. 1868), devoted himself to solar research, and became +chief assistant in the Solar Physics Observatory, South Kensington. + + + + +LOCLE, LE, a town in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel, 24 m. by rail N. of +Neuchâtel, and 5 m. S.W. of La Chaux de Fonds. It is built (3035 ft. +above the sea-level) on the Bied stream in a valley of the Jura, and is +about 1 m. from the French frontier. In 1681 Daniel Jean Richard +introduced watch-making here, which soon drove out all other industries. +In 1900 the population was 12,559, mainly Protestants and +French-speaking. The church tower dates from 1521, but the old town was +destroyed by fire in 1833. The valley in which the town is situated used +to be subject to inundations, but in 1805 a tunnel was constructed by +means of which the surplus waters of the Bied are carried into the +Doubs. About 1 m. W. of the town the Bied plunged into a deep chasm, on +the steep rock face of which were formerly the subterranean mills of the +Col des Roches, situated one above another; but the stream is now +diverted by the above-mentioned tunnel, while another serves the railway +line from Le Locle to Morteau in France (8 m.). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LOCMARIAQUER, a village of western France, on the W. shore of the Gulf +of Morbihan, in the department of Morbihan, 8½ m. S. of Auray by road. +Pop. (1906) 756. Locmariaquer has a small port, and oyster culture is +carried on close to it. Roman remains are to be seen, but the place owes +its celebrity to the megalithic monuments in the vicinity, some of which +are among the largest extant. The menhir of Men-er-H'roeck (Fairy +stone), which was broken into four pieces by lightning in the 18th +century, previously measured about 67 ft. in height, and from 9 to 13 +ft. in thickness. + + + + +LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA (Gr. [Greek: ha], priv., and [Greek: taxis], order; +synonyms, _Tabes dorsalis_, _posterior spinal sclerosis_), a progressive +degeneration of the nervous system, involving the posterior columns of +the spinal cord with other structures, and causing muscular +incoordination and disorder of gait and station. The essential symptoms +of the disease--stamping gait, and swaying with the eyes shut, the +occurrence of blindness and of small fixed pupils--were recognized by +Romberg (1851), but it was the clinical genius of Duchenne and his +masterly description of the symptoms which led to its acceptance as a +definite disease (1858), and he named it locomotor ataxia after its most +striking symptom. In 1869 Argyll Robertson discovered that the eye-pupil +is inactive to light but acts upon accommodation in the great majority +of cases. This most important sign is named the "Argyll Robertson +pupil." With an ever-increasing knowledge of the widespread character of +this disease and its manifold variations in the complex of symptoms, the +tendency among neurologists is to revert to the term employed by +Romberg--_tabes dorsalis_. "Locomotor ataxia," although it expresses a +very characteristic feature of the disease, has this objection: it is a +symptom which does not occur in the first (preataxic) stage of the +disease; indeed a great number of years may elapse before ataxy comes +on, and sometimes the patient, after suffering a very long time from the +disease, may die from some intercurrent complication, having never been +ataxic. + +It is generally recognized by neurologists that persons who are not the +subjects of acquired or hereditary syphilis do not suffer from this +disease; and the average time of onset after infection is ten years (see +NEUROPATHOLOGY). There are three stages: (1) The preataxic, (2) the +ataxic, (3) the bed-ridden paralytic. The duration of the first stage +may be from one or two years, up to twenty years or even longer. In this +stage various symptoms may arise. The patient usually complains of +shooting, lightning-like pains in the legs, which he may attribute to +rheumatism. If a physician examines him he will almost certainly find +the knee-jerks absent and Argyll Robertson pupils present; probably on +inquiry he will ascertain that the patient has had some difficulty in +starting urination, or that he is unable to retain his water or to empty +his bladder completely. In other cases, temporary or permanent paralysis +of one or more muscles of the eyeball (which causes squint and double +vision), a failure of sight ending in blindness, attacks of vomiting (or +gastric crises), painless spontaneous fractures of bones and +dislocations of joints, failing sexual power and impotence, may lead the +patient to consult a physician, when this disease will be diagnosed, +although the patient may not as yet have had locomotor ataxy. All cases, +however, if they live long enough, pass into the second ataxic stage. +The sufferer complains now of difficulty of walking in the dark; he +sways with his eyes shut and feels as if he would fall (Romberg's +symptom); he has the sensation of walking on wool, numbness and +formication of the skin, and many sensory disturbances in the form of +partial or complete loss of sensibility to pain, touch and temperature. +These disturbances affect especially the feet and legs, and around the +trunk at the level of the fourth to the seventh ribs, giving rise to a +"girdle sensation." There may be a numbed feeling on the inner side of +the arm, and muscular incoordination may affect the upper limb as well +as the lower, although there is no wasting or any electrical change. The +ataxic gait is very characteristic, owing to the loss of reflex tonus in +the muscles, and the absence of guiding sensations from all the deep +structures of the limbs, muscles, joints, bones, tendons and ligaments, +as well as from the skin of the soles of the feet; therefore the +sufferer has to be guided by vision as to where and how to place his +feet. This necessitates the bending forward of the body, extension of +the knees and broadening of the basis of support; he generally uses a +walking stick or even two, and he jerks the leg forward as if he were on +wires, bringing the sole of the foot down on the ground with a wide +stamping action. If the arm be affected, he is unable to touch the tip +of his nose with the eyes shut. Sooner or later he passes into the +_third_ bed-ridden stage, with muscles wasted and their tonus so much +lost that he is in a perfectly helpless condition. + +The complications which may arise in this disease are intercurrent +affections due to septic conditions of the bladder, bedsores, pneumonia, +vascular and heart affections. About 10% of the cases, at least, develop +general paralysis of the insane. This is not surprising seeing that it +is due to the same cause, and the etiology of the two diseases is such +as to lead many neurologists to consider them one and the same disease +affecting different parts of the nervous system. _Tabes dorsalis_ occurs +with much greater frequency in men than in women (see NEUROPATHOLOGY). + +The avoidance of all stress of the nervous system, whether physical, +emotional or intellectual, is indicated, and a simple regular life, +without stimulants or indulgence of the sexual passion, is the best +means of delaying the progress of the disease. Great attention should be +paid to micturition, so as to avoid retention and infection of the +bladder. Drugs, even anti-syphilitic remedies, appear to have but little +influence upon the course of the disease. + + + + +LOCO-WEEDS, or CRAZY-WEEDS, leguminous plants, chiefly species of +_Astragalus_ and _Lupinus_, which produce a disease in cattle known as +"loco-disease." The name is apparently taken from the Spanish _loco_, +mad. The disease affects the nervous system of the animals eating the +plants, and is accompanied by exhaustion and wasting. + + + + +LOCRI, a people of ancient Greece, inhabiting two distinct districts, +one extending from the north-east of Parnassus to the northern half of +the Euboean channel, between Boeotia and Malis, the other south-west of +Parnassus, on the north shore of the Corinthian Gulf, between Phocis and +Aetolia. The former were divided into the northern Locri Epicnemidii, +situated on the spurs of Mount Cnemis, and the southern Locri Opuntii, +so named from their chief town Opus (q.v.): and the name Opuntia is +often applied to the whole of this easterly district. Homer mentions +only these eastern Locrians: their national hero in the Trojan war is +Ajax Oileus, who often appears afterwards on Locrian coins. From +Hesiod's time onwards, the Opuntians were thought by some to be of +"Lelegian" origin (see LELEGES), but they were Hellenized early (though +matriarchal customs survived among them)--, and Deucalion, the father of +Hellen himself, is described as the first king of Opus. The westerly +Locri "in Ozolae" on the Corinthian Gulf, a rude and barbarous people, +make no appearance in Greek history till the Peloponnesian war. It was +believed that they had separated from the eastern Locrians four +generations before the Trojan war; yet Homer has no hint of their +existence. Probably the Locrians were once a single people, extending +from sea to sea, till subsequent immigrations forced them apart into two +separate districts. The Locrian dialect of Greek is little known, but +resembles that of Elis: it has [Greek: st] for [Greek: sth]; uses +[alpha]; and has [Greek: ois] in dat. plur. 3rd decl. A colony of +Locrians (whether from Opus or Ozolae was disputed in antiquity) +settled, about the end of the 8th century B.C., at the south-west +extremity of Italy. They are often called Locri Epizephyrii from Cape +Zephyrion 15 m. S. of the city. Their founder's name was Euanthes. Their +social organization resembled that of the Opuntian Locri, and like them +they venerated Ajax Oileus and Persephone. Aristotle (ap. Polyb. xii. 5 +sqq.) records a tradition that these western Locrians were base-born, +like the Parthenians of Tarentum; but this was disputed by his +contemporary Timaeus. See LOCRI (town) below. (J. L. M.) + + + + +LOCRI, an ancient city of Magna Graecia, Italy. The original settlers +took possession of the Zephyrian promontory (Capo Bruzzano some 12 m. N. +of Capo Spartivento), and though after three or four years they +transplanted themselves to a site 12 m. farther north, still near the +coast, 2 m. S. of Gerace Marina below the modern Gerace, they still +retained the name of Locri Epizephyrii ([Greek: Lokroi hoi +epizephurioi]), which served to distinguish them from the Ozolian and +Opuntian Locri of Greece itself (see preceding article). The foundation +of Locri goes back to about 683 B.C. It was the first of all Greek +communities to have a written code of laws given by Zaleucus in 664 B.C. +From Locri were founded the colonies of Meisma and Heiponium +(Hipponium). It succeeded in repelling the attacks of Croton (battle on +the river Sagras, perhaps sometime in the 6th century), and found in +Syracuse a support against Rhegium: it was thus an active adversary of +Athenian aggrandisement in the west. Pindar extolls its uprightness and +love of the heroic muse of beauty, of wisdom, and of war, in the 10th +and 11th Olympian Odes. Stesichorus (q.v.) was indeed of Locrian origin. +But it owed its greatest external prosperity to the fact that Dionysius +I. of Syracuse selected his wife from Locri: its territory was then +increased, and the circuit of its walls was doubled, but it lost its +freedom. In 356 B.C. it was ruled by Dionysius II. From the battle of +Heraclea to the year 205 (when it was captured by P. Cornelius Scipio +Africanus Maior, and placed under the control of his legate Q. +Pleminius), Locri was continually changing its allegiance between Rome +and her enemies; but it remained an ally, and was only obliged like +other Greek coast towns to furnish ships. In later Roman times it is +often mentioned, but was apparently of no great importance. It is +mentioned incidentally until the 6th century A.D., but was destroyed by +the Saracens in 915. + +Excavations in 1889-1890 led to the discovery of an Ionic temple (the +Doric style being usual in Magna Graecia) at the north-west angle of the +town--originally a cella with two naves, a closed pronaos on the E. and +an adytum at the back (W.), later converted into a hexastyle peripheral +temple with 34 painted terra-cotta columns. This was then destroyed +about 400 B.C. and a new temple built on the ruins, heptastyle +peripteral, with no intermediate columns in the cella and opisthodomos, +and with 44 columns in all. The figures from the pediment of the twin +Dioscuri, who according to the legend assisted Locri against Crotona, +are in the Naples museum (see R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, _Griechische +Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien_, Berlin, 1899, pp. l sqq.). +Subsequent excavations in 1890-1891 were of the greatest importance, but +the results remained unpublished up to 1908. From a short account by P. +Orsi in _Atti del Congresso Storico_, vol. v. (Archeologia) Rome, 1904, +p. 201, we learn that the exploration of the environs of the temple led +to the discovery of a large number of archaic terra-cottas, and of some +large trenches, covered with tiles, containing some 14,000 scyphoi +arranged in rows. The plan of the city was also traced; the walls, the +length of which was nearly 5 m., consisted of three parts--the fortified +castles ([Greek: phrouria]) with large towers, on three different hills, +the city proper, and the lower town--the latter enclosed by long walls +running down to the sea. In the Roman period the city was restricted to +the plain near the sea. Since these excavations, a certain amount of +unauthorized work has gone on, and some of the remains have been +destroyed. In the course of these excavations some prehistoric objects +have been discovered, which confirm the accounts of Thucydides and +Polybius that the Greek settlers found the Siculi here before them. + (T. As.) + + + + +LÖCSE (Ger. _Leutschau_), the capital of the county of Szepes, in +Hungary, 230 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 6845, mostly +Germans and Slovaks. The county of Szepes is the highest part of +Hungary, and its north-western portion is occupied by the Tátra +Mountains. Löcse lies in an elevated position surrounded by mountains, +and is one of the oldest towns of Hungary. The church of St James is a +Gothic structure of the 13th century, with richly carved altar, several +monuments, and a celebrated organ erected in 1623, and long reputed the +largest in Hungary. The old town-hall, restored in 1894, contains a +Protestant upper gymnasium, founded in 1544, and one of the oldest +printing establishments in Hungary, founded in 1585. Bee-keeping and the +raising of garden produce are the chief industries. + +Founded by Saxon colonists in 1245, Löcse had by the early part of the +16th century attained a position of great relative importance. In 1599 a +fire destroyed the greater part of the town, and during the 17th century +it suffered repeatedly at the hands of the Transylvanian princes and +leaders. + + + + +LOCUS (Lat. for "place"; in Gr. [Greek: topos]), a geometrical term, the +invention of the notion of which is attributed to Plato. It occurs in +such statements as these: the locus of the points which are at the same +distance from a fixed point, or of a point which moves so as to be +always at the same distance from a fixed point, is a circle; conversely +a circle is the locus of the points at the same distance from a fixed +point, or of a point moving so as to be always at the same distance from +a fixed point; and so in general a curve of any given kind is the locus +of the points which satisfy, or of a point moving so as always to +satisfy, a given condition. The theory of loci is thus identical with +that of curves (see CURVE and GEOMETRY: § _Analytical_). The notion of a +locus applies also to solid geometry. Here the locus of the points +satisfying a single (or onefold) condition is a surface; the locus of +the points satisfying two conditions (or a twofold condition) is a curve +in space, which is in general a twisted curve or curve of double +curvature. + + + + +LOCUST.[1] In its general acceptation this term is applied only to +certain insects of the order _Orthoptera_, family _Acridiidae_. The +family _Locustidae_ is now viewed zoologically in a sense that does not +admit of the species best known as "locusts" being included therein. The +idea of a very destructive insect is universally associated with the +term; therefore many orthopterous species that cannot be considered true +locusts have been so-called; in North America it has even embraced +certain _Hemiptera-Homoptera_, belonging to the _Cicadidae_, and in some +parts of England cockchafers are so designated. In a more narrow +definition the attribute of migration is associated with the destructive +propensities, and it therefore becomes necessary that a true locust +should be a migratory species of the family _Acridiidae_. Moreover, the +term has yet a slightly different signification as viewed from the Old +or New World. In Europe by a locust is meant an insect of large size, +the smaller allied species being ordinarily known as "grasshoppers," +hence the "Rocky Mountain locust" of North America is to Eastern ideas +rather a grasshopper than a locust. + +In Europe, and a greater part of the Old World, the best known migratory +locust is that which is scientifically termed _Pachytylus cinerascens_ +with which an allied species _P. migratorius_ has been often confounded. +Another locust found in Europe and neighbouring districts is _Caloptenus +italicus_, and still another, _Acridium peregrinum_, has once or twice +occurred in Europe, though its home (even in a migratory sense) is more +properly Africa and Asia. These practically include all the locusts of +the Old World, though a migratory species of South Africa known as +_Pachytylus pardalinus_ (presumed to be distinct from _P. migratorius_) +should be mentioned. The Rocky Mountain locust of North America is +_Caloptenus spretus_, and in that continent there occurs an _Acridium_ +(_A. americanum_) so closely allied to _A. peregrinum_ as to be scarcely +distinct therefrom, though there it does not manifest migratory +tendencies. In the West Indies and Central America _A. peregrinum_ is +also reported to occur. + +The females excavate holes in the earth in which the eggs are deposited +in a long cylindrical mass enveloped in a glutinous secretion. The young +larvae hatch and immediately commence their destructive career. As these +insects are "hemimetabolic" there is no quiescent stage; they go on +increasing rapidly in size, and as they approach the perfect state the +rudiments of the wings begin to appear. Even in this stage their +locomotive powers are extensive and their voracity great. Once winged +and perfect these powers become infinitely more disastrous, redoubled by +the development of the migratory instinct. The laws regulating this +instinct are not perfectly understood. Food and temperature have a great +deal to do with it, and there is a tendency for the flights to take a +particular direction, varied by the physical circumstances of the +breeding districts. So likewise each species has its area of constant +location, and its area of extraordinary migration. Perhaps the most +feasible of the suggestions as to the causes of the migratory impulse is +that locusts naturally breed in dry sandy districts in which food is +scarce, and are impelled to wander to procure the necessaries of life; +but against this it has been argued that swarms bred in a highly +productive district in which they have temporarily settled will seek the +barren home of their ancestors. Another ingenious suggestion is that +migration is intimately connected with a dry condition of the +atmosphere, urging them to move on until compelled to stop for food or +procreative purposes. Swarms travel considerable distances, though +probably generally fewer than 1000 m., though sometimes very much more. +As a rule the progress is only gradual, and this adds vastly to the +devastating effects. When an extensive swarm temporarily settles in a +district, all vegetation rapidly disappears, and then hunger urges it on +another stage. The large Old World species, although undoubtedly +phytophagous, when compelled by hunger sometimes attack at least dry +animal substances, and even cannibalism has been asserted as an outcome +of the failure of all other kinds of food. The length of a single flight +must depend upon circumstances. From peculiarities in the examples of +_Acridium peregrinum_ taken in England in 1869, it has been asserted +that they must have come direct by sea from the west coast of Africa; +and what is probably the same species has been seen in the Atlantic at +least 1200 m. from land, in swarms completely covering the ship; thus, +in certain cases flight must be sustained for several days and nights +together. The height at which swarms fly, when their horizontal course +is not liable to be altered by mountains, has been very variously +estimated at from 40 to 200 ft., or even in a particular case to 500 ft. +The extent of swarms and the number of individuals in a swarm cannot be +accurately ascertained. They come sometimes in such numbers as to +completely obscure the sun, when the noise made by the rustling of the +wings is deafening. Nevertheless some idea on this point may be formed +from the ascertained fact that in Cyprus in 1881, at the close of the +season, 1,600,000,000 egg-cases, each containing a considerable number +of eggs, had been destroyed; the estimated weight exceeding 1300 tons. +Yet two years later, it is believed that not fewer than 5,076,000,000 +egg-cases were again deposited in the island. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Pachytylus migratorius_. This and the other +figures are all natural size.] + + In Europe the best known and ordinarily most destructive species is + _Pachytylus cinerascens_, and it is to it that most of the numerous + records of devastations in Europe mainly refer, but it is probably not + less destructive in many parts of Africa and Asia. That the arid + steppes of central Asia are the home of this insect appears probable; + still much on this point is enveloped in uncertainty. In any case the + area of permanent distribution is enormous, and that of occasional + distribution is still greater. The former area extends from the + parallel of 40° N. in Portugal, rising to 48° in France and + Switzerland, and passing into Russia at 55°, thence continuing across + the middle of Siberia, north of China to Japan; thence south to the + Fiji Islands, to New Zealand and North Australia; thence again to + Mauritius and over all Africa to Madeira. The southern distribution is + uncertain and obscure. Taking exceptional distribution, it is well + known that it occasionally appears in the British Isles, and has in + them apparently been noticed as far north as Edinburgh; so also does + it occasionally appear in Scandinavia, and it has probably been seen + up to 63° N. in Finland. Looking at this vast area, it is easy to + conceive that an element of uncertainty must always exist with regard + to the exact determination of the species, and in Europe especially is + this the case, because there exists a distinct species, known as _P. + migratorius_, the migratory area of which appears to be confined to + Turkestan and eastern Europe. + + _P. cinerascens_ is certainly the most common of the "locusts" + occasionally found in the British Isles, and E. de Selys-Longchamps is + of opinion that it breeds regularly in Belgium, whereas the true _P. + migratorius_ is only accidental in that country. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Acridium peregrinum_.] + + A South African species allied to the preceding and provisionally + identified as _Pachytylus salcicollis_ is noteworthy from the + manifestation of the migratory instinct in immature wingless + individuals. The families of young, after destroying the vegetation of + a district, unite in a vast army and move away in search of fresh + pastures, devastating the country as they go and proceeding of + necessity on foot, hence they are known to the Dutch as "voetgangers." + Travelling northwards towards the centre of the continent, the home of + their parents before migration, they are diverted from their course by + no obstacles. Upon reaching a river or stream they search the bank for + a likely spot to cross, then fearlessly cast themselves upon the water + where they form floating islands of insects, most of which usually + succeed in gaining the opposite bank, though many perish in the + attempt. + + _Acridium peregrinum_ (fig. 2) can scarcely be considered even an + accidental visitor to Europe; yet it has been seen in the south of + Spain, and in many examples spread over a large part of England in the + year 1869. It is a larger insect than _P. migratorius_. There is every + reason to believe that it is the most destructive locust throughout + Africa and in India and other parts of tropical Asia, and its ravages + are as great as those of _P. migratorius_. Presumably it is the + species occasionally noticed in a vast swarm in the Atlantic, very far + from land, and presumably also it occurs in the West Indies and some + parts of Central America. In the Argentine Republic a (possibly) + distinct species (_A. paranense_) is the migratory locust. + + _Caloptenus italicus_ (fig. 3) is a smaller insect, with a less + extended area of migration; the destruction occasioned in the + districts to which it is limited is often scarce less than that of its + more terrible allies. It is essentially a species of the Mediterranean + district, and especially of the European side of that sea, yet it is + also found in North Africa, and appears to extend far into southern + Russia. + + _Caloptenus spretus_ (fig. 4) is the "Rocky Mountain locust" or + "hateful grasshopper" of the North American continent. Though a + comparatively small insect, not so large as some of the grasshoppers + of English fields, its destructiveness has procured for it great + notoriety. By early travellers and settlers the species was not + recognized as distinct from some of its non-migratory congeners. But + in 1877, Congress appointed a United States Entomological Commission + to investigate the subject. The report of the commissioners (C. V. + Riley, A. S. Packard and C. Thomas) deals with the whole subject of + locusts both in America and the Old world. _C. spretus_ has its home + or permanent area in the arid plains of the central region east of the + Rocky Mountains, extending slightly into the southern portion of + Canada; outside this is a wide fringe to which the term sub-permanent + is applied, and this is again bounded by the limits of only occasional + distribution, the whole occupying a large portion of the North + American continent; but it is not known to have crossed the Rocky + Mountains westward, or to have extended into the eastern states. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Caloptenus italicus_.] + + As to remedial or preventive measures tending to check the ravages of + locusts, little unfortunately can be said; but anything that will + apply to one species may be used with practically all. Something can + be done (as is now done in Cyprus) by offering a price for all the + egg-tubes collected, which is the most direct manner of attacking + them. Some little can be done by destroying the larvae while in an + unwinged condition, and by digging trenches in the line of march into + which they can fall and be drowned or otherwise put an end to. Little + can be done with the winged hordes; starvation, the outcome of their + own work, probably here does much. In South Africa some success has + attended the spraying of the swarms with arsenic. It has been shown + that with all migratory locusts the breeding-places, or true homes, + are comparatively barren districts (mostly elevated plateaus); hence + the progress of colonization, and the conversion of those heretofore + barren plains into areas of fertility, may (and probably will) + gradually lessen the evil. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Rocky Mountain Locust (_Caloptenus spretus_). + (After Riley.) + + a, a, a, Female in different positions, ovipositing. + b, Egg-pod extracted from ground, with the end broken open. + c, A few eggs lying loose on the ground. + d, e show the earth partially removed, to illustrate an egg-mass + already in place, and one being placed. + f, shows where such a mass has been covered up.] + + Locusts have many enemies besides man. Many birds greedily devour + them, and it has many times been remarked that migratory swarms of the + insects were closely followed by myriads of birds. Predatory insects + of other orders also attack them, especially when they are in the + unwinged condition. Moreover, they have still more deadly insect foes + as parasites. Some attack the fully developed winged insect. But the + greater part attack the eggs. To such belong certain beetles, chiefly + of the family _Cantharidae_, and especially certain two-winged flies + of the family _Bombyliidae_. These latter, both in the Old and New + World, must prevent vast quantities of eggs from producing larvae. + + The larger Old World species form articles of food with certain + semi-civilized and savage races, by whom they are considered as + delicacies, or as part of ordinary diet, according to the race and the + method of preparation. (R. M'L.; R. I. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Lat. _locusta_ was first applied to a lobster or other marine + shell-fish and then, from its resemblance, to the insect. + + + + +LOCUST-TREE, or CAROB-TREE (_Ceratonia siliqua_), a member of the tribe +_Cassieae_ of the order Leguminosae, the sole species of its genus, and +widely diffused spontaneously and by cultivation from Spain to the +eastern Mediterranean regions. The name of the genus is derived from the +often curved pod (Gr. [Greek: keration], a little horn). The flowers +have no petals and are polygamous or dioecious (male, female and +hermaphrodite flowers occur). The seed-pod is compressed, often curved, +indehiscent and coriaceous, but with sweet pulpy divisions between the +seeds, which, as in other genera of the _Cassieae_, are albuminous. The +pods are eaten by men and animals, and in Sicily a spirit and a syrup +are made from them. These husks being often used for swine are called +swine's bread, and are probably referred to in the parable of the +Prodigal Son. It is also called St John's bread, from a misunderstanding +of Matt. iii. 4. The carob-tree was regarded by Sprengel as the tree +with which Moses sweetened the bitter waters of Marah (Exod. xv. 25), as +the _kharrúb_, according to Avicenna (p. 205), has the property of +sweetening salt and bitter waters. Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1241) +cultivated it in 1597, it having been introduced in 1570. + + + + +LODÈVE, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondissement of the +department of Hérault, 36 m. W.N.W. of Montpellier by rail. Pop. (1906), +6142. It is situated in the southern Cévennes at the foot of steep hills +in a small valley where the Soulondres joins the Lergue, a tributary of +the Hérault. Two bridges over the Lergue connect the town with the +faubourg of Carmes on the left bank of the river, and two others over +the Soulondres lead to the extensive ruins of the château de Montbrun +(13th century). The old fortified cathedral of St Fulcran, founded by +him in 950, dates in its present condition from the 13th, 14th and 16th +centuries; the cloister, dating from the 15th and 17th centuries, is in +ruins. In the picturesque environs of the town stands the well-preserved +monastery of St Michel de Grammont, dating from the 12th century and now +used as farm buildings. In the neighbourhood are three fine dolmens. The +manufacture of woollens for army clothing is the chief industry. Wool is +imported in large quantities from the neighbouring departments, and from +Morocco; the exports are cloth to Italy and the Levant, wine, brandy and +wood. The town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board +of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a communal +college. + +Lodève (Luteva) existed before the invasion of the Romans, who for some +time called it _Forum Neronis_. The inhabitants were converted to +Christianity by St Flour, first bishop of the city, about 323. After +passing successively into the hands of the Visigoths, the Franks, the +Ostrogoths, the Arabs and the Carolingians, it became in the 9th century +a separate countship, and afterwards the domain of its bishops. During +the religious wars it suffered much, especially in 1573, when it was +sacked. It ceased to be an episcopal see at the Revolution. + + + + +LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839), English writer on heraldry, was born in +London on the 13th of June 1756, son of Edmund Lodge, rector of +Carshalton, Surrey. He held a cornet's commission in the army, which he +resigned in 1773. In 1782 he became Bluemantle pursuivant-at-arms in the +College of Arms. He subsequently became Lancaster herald, Norroy +king-at-arms, Clarencieux king-at-arms, and, in 1832, knight of the +order of the Guelphs of Hanover. He died in London on the 16th of +January 1839. He wrote _Illustrations of British History_, _Biography +and Manners in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth +and James I._ ... (3 vols., 1791), consisting of selections from the +MSS. of the Howard, Talbot and Cecil families preserved at the College +of Arms; _Life of Sir Julius Caesar ..._ (2nd ed., 1827). He contributed +the literary matter to _Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great +Britain_ (1814, &c.), an elaborate work of which a popular edition is +included in Bohn's "Illustrated Library." His most important work on +heraldry was _The Genealogy of the existing British Peerage ..._ (1832; +enlarged edition, 1859). In _The Annual Peerage and Baronetage_ +(1827-1829), reissued after 1832 as _Peerage of the British Empire_, and +generally known as Lodge's Peerage, his share did not go beyond the +title-page. + + + + +LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850- ), American political leader and author, was +born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 12th of May 1850. He graduated at +Harvard College in 1871 and at the Harvard Law School in 1875; was +admitted to the Suffolk (Massachusetts) bar in 1876; and in 1876-1879 +was instructor in American history at Harvard. He was a member of the +Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1880-1881, and of the National +House of Representatives in 1887-1893; succeeded Henry L. Dawes as +United States Senator from Massachusetts in 1893; and in 1899 and in +1905 was re-elected to the Senate, where he became one of the most +prominent of the Republican leaders, and an influential supporter of +President Roosevelt. He was a member of the Alaskan Boundary Commission +of 1903, and of the United States Immigration Commission of 1907. In the +National Republican Convention of 1896 his influence did much to secure +the adoption of the gold standard "plank" of the party's platform. He +was the permanent chairman of the National Republican Convention of +1900, and of that of 1908. In 1874-1876 he edited the _North American +Review_ with Henry Adams; and in 1879-1882, with John T. Morse, Jr., he +edited the _International Review_. In 1884-1890 he was an overseer of +Harvard College. His doctoral thesis at Harvard was published with +essays by Henry Adams, J. L. Laughlin and Ernest Young, under the title +_Essays on Anglo-Saxon Land Law_ (1876). He wrote: _Life and Letters of +George Cabot_ (1877); _Alexander Hamilton_ (1882), _Daniel Webster_ +(1883) and _George Washington_ (2 vols., 1889), in the "American +Statesmen" series; _A Short History of the English Colonies in America_ +(1881); _Studies in History_ (1884); _Boston_ (1891), in the "Historic +Towns" series; _Historical and Political Essays_ (1892); with Theodore +Roosevelt, _Hero Tales from American History_ (1895); _Certain Accepted +Heroes_ (1897); _The Story of the American Revolution_ (2 vols., 1898); +_The War with Spain_ (1899); _A Fighting Frigate_ (1902); _A Frontier +Town_ (1906); and, with J. W. Garner, _A History of the United States_ +(4 vols., 1906). He edited _The Works of Alexander Hamilton_ (9 vols., +1885-1886) and _The Federalist_ (1891). + +His son, GEORGE CABOT LODGE (1873-1909), also became known as an author, +with _The Song of the Wave_ (1898), _Poems, 1899-1902_ (1902), _The +Great Adventure_ (1905), _Cain: a Drama_ (1904), _Herakles_ (1908) and +other verse. + + + + +LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851- ), English physicist, was born at +Penkhull, Staffordshire, on the 12th of June 1851, and was educated at +Newport (Salop) grammar school. He was intended for a business career, +but being attracted to science he entered University College, London, in +1872, graduating D.Sc. at London University in 1877. In 1875 he was +appointed reader in natural philosophy at Bedford College for Women, and +in 1879 he became assistant professor of applied mathematics at +University College, London. Two years later he was called to the chair +of physics in University College, Liverpool, where he remained till in +1900 he was chosen first principal of the new Birmingham University. He +was knighted in 1902. His original work includes investigations on +lightning, the seat of the electromotive force in the voltaic cell, the +phenomena of electrolysis and the speed of the ion, electromagnetic +waves and wireless telegraphy, the motion of the aether near the earth, +and the application of electricity to the dispersal of fog and smoke. He +presided over the mathematical and physical section of the British +Association in 1891, and served as president of the Physical Society in +1899-1900 and of the Society for Psychical Research in 1901-1904. In +addition to numerous scientific memoirs he wrote, among other works, +_Lightning Conductors and Lightning Guards_, _Signalling without Wires_, +_Modern Views of Electricity_, _Electrons_ and _The Ether of Space_, +together with various books and papers of a metaphysical and theological +character. + + + + +LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558-1625), English dramatist and miscellaneous +writer, was born about 1558 at West Ham. He was the second son of Sir +Thomas Lodge, who was lord mayor of London in 1562-1563. He was educated +at Merchant Taylors' School and Trinity College, Oxford; taking his B.A. +degree in 1577 and that of M.A. in 1581. In 1578 he entered Lincoln's +Inn, where, as in the other Inns of Court, a love of letters and a crop +of debts and difficulties were alike wont to spring up in a kindly soil. +Lodge, apparently in disregard of the wishes of his family, speedily +showed his inclination towards the looser ways of life and the lighter +aspects of literature. When the penitent Stephen Gosson had (in 1579) +published his _Schoole of Abuse_, Lodge took up the glove in his +_Defence of Poetry, Music and Stage Plays_ (1579 or 1580; reprinted for +the Shakespeare Society, 1853), which shows a certain restraint, though +neither deficient in force of invective nor backward in display of +erudition. The pamphlet was prohibited, but appears to have been +circulated privately. It was answered by Gosson in his _Playes Confuted +in Five Actions_; and Lodge retorted with his _Alarum Against Usurers_ +(1584, reprinted ib.)--a "tract for the times" which no doubt was in +some measure indebted to the author's personal experience. In the same +year he produced the first tale written by him on his own account in +prose and verse, _The Delectable History of Forbonius and Prisceria_, +both published and reprinted with the _Alarum_. From 1587 onwards he +seems to have made a series of attempts as a playwright, though most of +those attributed to him are mainly conjectural. That he ever became an +actor is improbable in itself, and Collier's conclusion to that effect +rested on the two assumptions that the "Lodge" of Henslowe's M.S. was a +player and that his name was Thomas, neither of which is supported by +the text (see C. M. Ingleby, _Was Thomas Lodge an Actor?_ 1868). Having, +in the spirit of his age, "tried the waves" with Captain Clarke in his +expedition to Terceira and the Canaries, Lodge in 1591 made a voyage +with Thomas Cavendish to Brazil and the Straits of Magellan, returning +home by 1593. During the Canaries expedition, to beguile the tedium of +his voyage, he composed his prose tale of _Rosalynde, Euphues' Golden +Legacie_, which, printed in 1590, afterwards furnished the story of +Shakespeare's _As You Like It_. The novel, which in its turn owes some, +though no very considerable, debt to the medieval _Tale of Gamelyn_ +(unwarrantably appended to the fragmentary _Cookes Tale_ in certain MSS. +of Chaucer's works), is written in the euphuistic manner, but decidedly +attractive both by its plot and by the situations arising from it. It +has been frequently reprinted. Before starting on his second expedition +he had published an historical romance, _The History of Robert, Second +Duke of Normandy, surnamed Robert the Divell_; and he left behind him +for publication _Catharos, Diogenes in his Singularity_, a discourse on +the immorality of Athens (London). Both appeared in 1591. Another +romance in the manner of Lyly, _Euphues Shadow, the Battaile of the +Sences_ (1592), appeared while Lodge was still on his travels. His +second historical romance, the _Life and Death of William Longbeard_ +(1593), was more successful than the first. Lodge also brought back with +him from the new world _A Margarite of America_ (published 1596), a +romance of the same description interspersed with many lyrics. Already +in 1589 Lodge had given to the world a volume of poems bearing the title +of the chief among them, _Scillaes Metamorphosis, Enterlaced with the +Unfortunate Love of Glaucus_, more briefly known as _Glaucus and Scilla_ +(reprinted with preface by S. W. Singer in 1819). To this tale +Shakespeare was possibly indebted for the idea of _Venus and Adonis_. +Some readers would perhaps be prepared to give up this and much else of +Lodge's sugared verse, fine though much of it is in quality, largely +borrowed from other writers, French and Italian in particular, in +exchange for the lost _Sailor's Kalendar_, in which he must in one way +or another have recounted his sea adventures. If Lodge, as has been +supposed, was the Alcon in _Colin Clout's come Home Again_, it may have +been the influence of Spenser which led to the composition of _Phillis_, +a volume of sonnets, in which the voice of nature seems only now and +then to become audible, published with the narrative poem, _The +Complaynte of Elstred_, in 1593. _A Fig for Momus_, on the strength of +which he has been called the earliest English satirist, and which +contains eclogues addressed to Daniel and others, an epistle addressed +to Drayton, and other pieces, appeared in 1595. Lodge's ascertained +dramatic work is small in quantity. In conjunction with Greene he, +probably in 1590, produced in a popular vein the odd but far from feeble +play of _A Looking Glasse for London and England_ (printed in 1594). He +had already written _The Wounds of Civile War. Lively set forth in the +Tragedies of Marius and Scilla_ (produced perhaps as early as 1587, and +published in 1594), a good second-rate piece in the half-chronicle +fashion of its age. Mr F. G. Fleay thinks there were grounds for +assigning to Lodge _Mucedorus and Amadine_, played by the Queen's Men +about 1588, a share with Robert Greene in _George a Greene, the Pinner +of Wakefield_, and in Shakespeare's 2nd part of _Henry VI._; he also +regards him as at least part-author of _The True Chronicle of King Leir +and his three Daughters_ (1594); and _The Troublesome Raigne of John, +King of England_ (c. 1588); in the case of two other plays he allowed +the assignation to Lodge to be purely conjectural. That Lodge is the +"Young Juvenal" of Greene's _Groatsworth of Wit_ is no longer a +generally accepted hypothesis. In the latter part of his life--possibly +about 1596, when he published his _Wits Miserie_ and the _World's +Madnesse_, which is dated from Low Leyton in Essex, and the religious +tract _Prosopopeia_ (if, as seems probable, it was his), in which he +repents him of his "lewd lines" of other days--he became a Catholic and +engaged in the practice of medicine, for which Wood says he qualified +himself by a degree at Avignon in 1600. Two years afterwards he received +the degree of M.D. from Oxford University. His works henceforth have a +sober cast, comprising translations of Josephus (1602), of Seneca +(1614), a _Learned Summary_ of Du Bartas's _Divine Sepmaine_ (1625 and +1637), besides a _Treatise of the Plague_ (1603), and a popular manual, +which remained unpublished, on _Domestic Medicine_. Early in 1606 he +seems to have left England, to escape the persecution then directed +against the Catholics; and a letter from him dated 1610 thanks the +English ambassador in Paris for enabling him to return in safety. He was +abroad on urgent private affairs of one kind and another in 1616. From +this time to his death in 1625 nothing further concerning him remains to +be noted. + + Lodge's works, with the exception of his translations, have been + reprinted for the Hunterian Club with an introductory essay by Mr + Edmund Gosse. This preface was reprinted in Mr Gosse's _Seventeenth + Century Studies_ (1883). Of _Rosalynde_ there are numerous modern + editions. See also J. J. Jusserand, _English Novel in the Time of + Shakespeare_ (Eng. trans., 1890); F. G. Fleay, _Biographical Chronicle + of the English Drama_ (vol. ii., 1891). (A. W. W.) + + + + +LODGE, a dwelling-place, small and usually temporary, a hut, booth or +tent. The word was in M. Eng. _logge_, from Fr. _loge_, arbour, in +modern French a hut; also box in a theatre; the French word, like the +Italian _loggia_, came from the Med. Lat. _laubia_ or _lobia_, the +sheltered promenade in a cloister, from which English "lobby" is +derived. The Latin is of Teutonic origin from the word which survives in +the Mod. Ger. _Laube_, an arbour, but which earlier was used for any +hut, booth, &c. The word is probably ultimately from the root which +appears in "leaf," meaning a rough shelter of foliage or boughs. The +word is especially used of a house built either in a forest or away from +habitation, where people stay for the purpose of sport, as a "hunting +lodge," "shooting lodge," &c. The most frequent use of the word is of a +small building, usually placed at the entrance to an estate or park and +inhabited by a dependant of the owner. In the same sense the word means +the room or box inhabited by the porter of a college, factory or public +institution. Among Freemasons and other societies the "lodge" is the +name given to the meeting-place of the members of the branch or +district, and is applied to the members collectively as "a meeting of +the lodge." The governing body of the Freemasons presided over by the +grand master is called the "Grand Lodge." At the university of Cambridge +the house where the head of a college lives is called the "lodge." +Formerly the word was used of the den or lair of an animal, but is now +only applied to that of the beaver and the otter. It is also applied to +the tent of a North American Indian, a wigwam or tepee, and to the +number of inhabitants of such a tent. In mining the term is used of a +subterraneous reservoir made at the bottom of the pit, or at different +levels in the shaft for the purpose of draining the mine. It is used +also of a room or landing-place next to the shaft, for discharging ore, +&c. + + + + +LODGER AND LODGINGS. The term "lodger" (Fr. _loger_, to lodge) is used +in English law in several slightly different senses. It is applied (i.) +most frequently and properly to a person who takes furnished rooms in a +house, the landlord also residing on the premises, and supplying him +with attendance; (ii.) sometimes to a person, who takes unfurnished +rooms in a house finding his own attendance; (iii.) to a boarder in a +boarding-house (q.v.). It is with (i.) and (ii.) alone that this article +is concerned. + +Where furnished apartments are let for immediate use, the law implies an +undertaking on the part of the landlord that they are fit for +habitation, and, if this condition is broken, the tenant may refuse to +occupy the premises or to pay any rent. But there is no implied contract +that the apartments shall _continue_ fit for habitation; and the rule +has no application in the case of unfurnished lodgings. In the absence +of express agreement to the contrary, a lodger has a right to the use of +everything necessary to the enjoyment of the premises, such as the door +bell and knocker and the skylight of a staircase, whether the rent of +apartments can be distrained for by the immediate landlord where he +resides on the premises and supplies attendance is a question the answer +to which is involved in some uncertainty. The weight of authority seems +to support the negative view (see Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_, 3rd ed. p. +434). To make good a right to distrain it is necessary to show that the +terms of the letting create a tenancy or exclusive occupation and not a +mere licence, where the owner, although residing on the premises, does +not supply attendance, the question depends on whether there is a real +tenancy, giving the lodger an exclusive right of occupation as against +the owner. The ordinary test is whether the lodger has the control of +the outer door. But the whole circumstances of each case have to be +taken account of. A lodger is rateable to the poor-rate where he is in +exclusive occupation of the apartments let to him, and the landlord does +not retain the control and dominion of the whole structure. As to +distress on a lodger's goods for rent due by an immediate to a superior +landlord, see RENT. As to the termination of short tenancies, as of +apartments, see LANDLORD AND TENANT. The landlord has no lien on the +goods of the lodger for rent or charges. Overcrowding lodging-houses may +be dealt with as a nuisance under the Public Health Acts 1875 and 1891 +and the Housing of the Working Classes Acts. As to the lodger franchise, +see REGISTRATION OF VOTERS. It has been held in England that keepers of +lodging-houses do not come within the category of those persons (see +CARRIER; INNKEEPER) who hold themselves out to the public generally as +trustworthy in certain employments; but that they are under an +obligation to take reasonable care for the safety of their lodgers' +goods; see _Scarborough_ v. _Cosgrove_, 1905, 2 K.B. 805. As to Scots +Law see Bell's _Prin._ s. 236 (4). + +In the United States, the English doctrine of an implied warranty of +fitness for habitation on a letting of furnished apartments has only met +with partial acceptance; it was repudiated, e.g. in the District of +Columbia, but has been accepted in Massachusetts. In the French _Code +Civil_, there are some special rules with regard to furnished +apartments. The letting is reputed to be made for a year, a month or a +day, according as the rent is so much per year, per month or per day; if +that test is inapplicable, the letting is deemed to be made according to +the custom of the place (art. 1758). There are similar provisions in the +Civil Codes of Belgium (art. 1758), Holland (art. 1622) and Spain (Civil +Code, art. 1581). + + See also the articles, BOARDING HOUSE, and FLAT; and the + bibliographies to FLAT and LANDLORD AND TENANT. (A. W. R.) + + + + +LODI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of +Milan, 20½ m. by rail S.E. of that city, on a hill above the right bank +of the Adda, 230 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 19,970 (town), 26,827 +(commune). The site of the city is an eminence rising very gradually +from the Lombard plain, and the surrounding country is one of the +richest dairy districts in Italy. The cathedral (1158), with a Gothic +façade and a 16th-century lateral tower, has a restored interior. The +church of the Incoronata was erected by Battaggio (1488) in the +Bramantesque style. It is an elegant octagonal domed structure, and is +decorated with frescoes by the Piazza family, natives of the town, and +four large altar-pieces by Calisto Piazza (died after 1561). There is a +fine organ of 1507. The 13th-century Gothic church of San Francesco, +restored in 1889, with 14th-century paintings, is also noticeable. The +Palazzo Modegnani has a fine gateway in the style of Bramante, and the +hospital a cloistered quadrangle. In the Via Pompeia is an early +Renaissance house with fine decorations in marble and terra-cotta. +Besides an extensive trade in cheese (Lodi producing more Parmesan than +Parma itself) and other dairy produce, there are manufactures of linen, +silk, majolica and chemicals. + +The ancient Laus Pompeia lay 3½ m. W. of the present city, and the site +is still occupied by a considerable village, Lodi Vecchio, with the old +cathedral of S. Bassiano, now a brick building, which contains +15th-century frescoes. It was the point where the roads from Mediolanum +to Placentia and Cremona diverged, and there was also a road to Ticinum +turning off from the former, but it is hardly mentioned by classical +writers. It appears to have been a _municipium_. No ruins exist above +ground, but various antiquities have been found here. From which +Pompeius, whether Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who gave citizenship to the +Transpadani, or his son, the more famous Pompey, it took its name is not +certain. In the middle ages Lodi was second to Milan among the cities of +northern Italy. A dispute with the archbishop of Milan about the +investiture of the bishop of Lodi (1024) proved the beginning of a +protracted feud between the two cities. In 1111 the Milanese laid the +whole place in ruins and forbade their rivals to restore what they had +destroyed, and in 1158, when in spite of this prohibition a fairly +flourishing settlement had again been formed, they repeated their work +in a more thorough manner. A number of the Lodigians had settled on +Colle Eghezzone; and their village, the Borgo d'Isella, on the site of a +temple of Hercules, soon grew up under the patronage of Frederick +Barbarossa into a new city of Lodi (1162). At first subservient to the +emperor, Lodi was before long compelled to enter the Lombard League, and +in 1198 it formed alliance offensive and defensive with Milan. The +strife between the Sommariva or aristocratic party and the Overgnaghi or +democratic party was so severe that the city divided into two distinct +communes. The Overgnaghi, expelled in 1236, were restored by Frederick +II. who took the city after three months' siege. Lodi was actively +concerned in the rest of the Guelph and Ghibelline struggle. In 1416 its +ruler, Giovanni Vignati, was treacherously taken prisoner by Filippo +Maria Visconti, and after that time it became dependent on Milan. The +duke of Brunswick captured it in 1625, in the interests of Spain; and it +was occupied by the French (1701), by the Austrians (1706), by the king +of Sardinia (1733), by the Austrians (1736), by the Spaniards (1745), +and again by the Austrians (1746). On the 10th of May 1796 was fought +the battle of Lodi between the Austrians and Napoleon, which made the +latter master of Lombardy. + + + + +LODZ (_Lódz_; more correctly _Lodzia_), a town of Russian Poland, in the +government of Piotrków, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Warsaw. It is situated on +the Lodz plateau, which at the beginning of the 19th century was covered +with impenetrable forests. Now it is the centre of a group of industrial +towns--Zgerz, Leczyca, Pabianice, Konstantinov and Aleksandrov. Chiefly +owing to a considerable immigration of German capitalists and workers, +Lodz has grown with American-like rapidity. It consists principally of +one main street, 7 m. long, and is a sort of Polish Manchester, +manufacturing cottons, woollens and mixed stuffs, with chemicals, beer, +machinery and silk. One of the very few educational institutions is a +professional industrial school. The population, which was only 50,000 in +1872, reached 351,570 in 1900; the Poles numbering about 37%, Germans +40% and Jews 22½%. + + + + +LOESS (Ger. _Löss_), in geology, a variety of loam. Typical loess is a +soft, porous rock, pale yellowish or buff in colour; one characteristic +property is its capacity to retain vertical, or even over-hanging, walls +in the banks of streams. These vertical walls have been well described +by von Richthofen (_Führer für Forschungsreisende_, Berlin, 1886) in +China, where they stand in some places 500 ft. high and contain +innumerable cave dwellings; ancient roads too have worn their way +vertically downwards deep into the deposit, forming trench-like ways. +This character in the loess of the Mississippi region gave rise to the +name "Bluff formation." A coarse columnar structure is often exhibited +on the vertical weathered faces of the rock. Another characteristic is +the presence throughout the rock of small capillary tubules, which +appear to have been occupied by rootlets; these are often lined with +calcite. Typical loess is usually calcareous; some geologists regard +this as an essential property, and when the rock has become decalcified, +as it frequently is on the surface by weathering, they call it +"loess-loam" (_lösslehm_). In the lower portions of a loess deposit the +calcium carbonate tends to form concretions, which on account of their +mimetic forms have received such names as _lösskindchen_, _lösspuppen_, +_poupées du loess_, "loess dolls." In deposits of this nature in South +America these concretionary masses form distinct beds. Bedding is absent +from typical loess. The mineral composition of loess varies somewhat in +different regions, but the particles are always small; they consist of +angular grains of quartz, fine particles of hydrated silicates of +alumina, mica scales and undecomposed fragments of felspar, hornblende +and other rock-forming silicates. + + In Europe and America loess deposits are associated with the margins + of the great ice sheets of the glacial period; thus in Europe they + stretch irregularly through the centre eastwards from the north-west + of France, and are not found north of the 57th parallel. In both + regions loess deposits are found within and upon glacial deposits. For + this reason the loess is very commonly assigned to the Pleistocene + period; but some of the loess deposits of northern Europe have been in + process of formation intermittently from the Miocene period onward, + and in South America the great loess formations known as the Pampean + or Patagonian belong to the Eocene, Oligocene and Pleistocene periods. + Most geologists are agreed that the loess is an aeolian or wind-borne + rock, formed most probably during periods of tundra or steppe + conditions. The capillary tubules are supposed to have been caused by + the roots of grass and herbage which kept growing upon the surface + even while the deposit was slowly increasing. Others contend that + loess is of the nature of alluvial loam; this may be true of certain + deposits classed as loess, but it cannot be true of most of the + typical loess formations, for they lie upon older rocks quite + independently of altitude, from near sea level up to 5000 ft. in + Europe and to 11,500 ft. in China; they are often developed on one + side of a mountain range and not upon the other, and in a series of + approximately parallel valleys the loess is frequently found lying + upon one side and that the same in each case, facts pointing to the + agency of prevalent winds. + + The thickness of loess deposits is usually not more than 33 ft., but + in China it reaches 1000 ft. or more; it also attains a great + thickness in South America. Numerous proboscidian and other mammalian + fossils have been found in the loess of Europe; the tapir, mastodon + and giant sloths occur in South America, but the most common fossils + are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms as _Succinea_. + Certain loess deposits in Turkestan have been attributed to rain-wash, + this is the so-called "lake-loess" (_see-löss_); according to Tukowski + the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that the former is + porous, dry and pervious, while the latter is laminated, plastic and + impervious. Two types of loess have been recognized in Russia, the + Hill- or Terrace-loess and the Low-level-loess, a product of the + weathering of underlying rocks. In South Germany the following order + has been recognized: (1) an upper unbedded, non-calcareous loess, (2) + the _gehanglöss_, mixed with subsoil rocks, and (3) the sand or + _thal-löss_, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation on the upper + layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility, such as the + black earth (_Tschernozom_) of southern Russia, the dark _Bordelöss_ + of the Magdeburg district, and the black "cotton soil" (_regur_) of + the Deccan. + + + + +LOFFT, CAPEL (1751-1824), English miscellaneous writer, was born in +London on the 14th of November 1751. He was educated at Eton, and +Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he left to become a member of Lincoln's +Inn. He was called to the bar in 1775, and left by his father's and +uncle's deaths with a handsome property and the family estates. He was a +prolific writer on a variety of topics, and a vigorous contentious +advocate of parliamentary and other reforms, and carried on a voluminous +correspondence with all the literary men of his time. He became the +patron of Robert Bloomfield, the author of _The Farmer's Boy_, and +secured for him the very successful publication of that work. Byron, in +a note to his _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, ridiculed Lofft as +"the Maecenas of shoemakers and preface-writer general to distressed +versemen; a kind of gratis _accoucheur_ to those who wish to be +delivered of rhyme, but do not know how to bring forth." He died at +Montcalieri, near Turin, on the 26th of May 1824. + +His fourth son Capel Lofft, the younger (1806-1873), also a writer on +various topics, inherited his father's liberal ideas and principles, and +carried them in youth to greater extremes. In his old age he abandoned +these theories, which had brought him into the company of some of the +leading political agitators of the day. He died in America, where he had +a Virginia estate. + + + + +LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN, a large and picturesque group of islands lying +N.E. and S.W. off the N.W. coast of Norway, between 67° 30´ and 69° 20´ +N., and between 12° and 16° 35´ E. forming part of the _amt_ (county) of +Nordland. The extreme length of the group from Andenaes, at the north of +Andö, to Röst, is about 150 m.; the aggregate area about 1560 sq. m. It +is separated from the mainland by the Vestfjord, Tjaeldsund and +Vaagsfjord, and is divided into two sections by the Raftsund between +Hindö and Öst-Vaagö. To the W. and S. of the Raftsund lie the Lofoten +Islands proper, of which the most important are Öst-Vaagö, Gimsö, +Vest-Vaagö, Flakstadö, Moskenaesö, Mosken, Värö and Röst; E. and N. of +the Raftsund are the islands of Vesteraalen, the chief being Hindö, +Ulvö, Langö, Skogsö and Andö. The islands, which are all of granite or +metamorphic gneiss, are precipitous and lofty. The highest points and +finest scenery are found on Öst-Vaagö, in the neighbourhood of the +narrow, cliff-bound Raftsund and Troldfjord. The principal peaks are +Higrafstind (3811 ft.), Gjeitgaljartind (3555), Rulten (3483), the +Noldtinder (3467), Svartsundtind (3506). The long line of jagged and +fantastic peaks seen from the Vestfjord forms one of the most striking +prospects on the Norwegian coast, but still finer is the panorama from +the Digermuler (1150 ft.), embracing the islands, the Vestfjord, and the +mountains of the mainland. The channels which separate the islands are +narrow and tortuous, and generally of great depth; they are remarkable +for the strength of their tidal currents, particularly the Raftsund and +the famous Maelström or Moskenström between Moskenaes and Mosken. The +violent tempests which sweep over the Vestfjord, which is exposed to the +S.W., are graphically described in Jonas Lie's _Den Fremsynte_ (1870) +and in H. Schultze's _Udvalgte Skrifter_ (1883), as the Maelström is +imaginatively by Edgar Allan Poe. Though situated wholly within the +Arctic circle, the climate of the Lofoten and Vesteraalen group is not +rigorous when compared with that of the rest of Norway. The isothermal +line which marks a mean January temperature of 32° F. runs south from +the Lofotens, passing a little to the east of Bergen onward to +Gothenburg and Copenhagen. The prevailing winds are from the S. and W., +the mean temperature for the year is 38.5° F., and the annual rainfall +is 43.34 in. In summer the hills have only patches of snow, the snow +limit being about 3000 ft. The natural pasture produced in favourable +localities permits the rearing of cattle to some extent; but the growth +of cereals (chiefly barley, which here matures in ninety days) is +insignificant. The islands yield no wood. The characteristic industry, +and an important source of the national wealth, is the cod fishery +carried on along the east coast of the Lofotens in the Vestfjord in +spring. This employs about 40,000 men during the season from all parts +of Norway, the population being then about doubled, and the surplus +accommodated in temporary huts. The average yield is valued at about +£35,000. The fish are taken in nets let down during the night, or on +lines upwards of a mile in length, or on ordinary hand-lines. The +fishermen are paid in cash, and large sums of money are sent to the +islands by the Norwegian banks each February. Great loss of life is +frequent during the sudden local storms. The fish, which is dried during +early summer, is exported to Spain (where it is known as _bacalao_), +Holland, Great Britain, Belgium, &c. Industries arising out of the +fishery are the manufacture of cod-liver oil and of artificial manure. +The summer cod fisheries and the lobster fishery are also valuable. The +herring is taken in large quantities off the west coasts of Vesteraalen, +but is a somewhat capricious visitant. The islands contain no towns +properly so called, but Kabelvaag on Öst-Vaagö and Svolvaer on a few +rocky islets off that island are considerable centres of trade and (in +the fishing season) of population; Lödingen also, at the head of the +Vestfjord on Hindö, is much frequented as a port of call. A church +existed at Vaagen (Kabelvaag) in the 12th century, and here Hans Egede, +the missionary of Greenland, was pastor. There are factories for fish +guano at Henningvaer (Öst-Vaagö), Kabelvaag, Svolvaer, Lödingen, and at +Bretesnäs on Store Molla. Regular means of communication are afforded by +the steamers which trade between Hamburg or Christiania and Hammerfest, +and also by local vessels; less accessible spots can be visited by small +boats, in the management of which the natives are adepts. There are some +roads on Hindö, Langö, and Andö. The largest island in the group, and +indeed in Norway, is Hindö, with an area of 860 sq. m. The south-eastern +portion of it belongs to the _amt_ of Tromsö. In the island of Andö +there is a bed of coal at the mouth of Ramsaa. + + + + +LOFT (connected with "lift," i.e. raised in the air; O. Eng. _lyft_; cf. +Ger. _Luft_; the French term is _grenier_ and Ger. _Boden_), the term +given in architecture to an upper room in the roof, sometimes called +"cockloft"; when applied over stabling it is known as a hay-loft; the +gallery over a chancel screen, carrying a cross, is called a rood-loft +(see ROOD). The term is also given to a gallery provided in the +choir-aisle of a cathedral or church, and used as a watching-loft at +night. + + + + +LOFTUS, ADAM (c. 1533-1605), archbishop of Armagh and Dublin, and lord +chancellor of Ireland, the son of a Yorkshire gentleman, was educated at +Cambridge. He accompanied the earl of Sussex to Ireland as his chaplain +in 1560, and three years later was consecrated archbishop of Armagh by +Hugh Curwen, archbishop of Dublin. In 1565 Queen Elizabeth, to +supplement the meagre income derivable from the archiepiscopal see owing +to the disturbed state of the country, appointed Loftus temporarily to +the deanery of St Patrick's; and in the same year he became president of +the new commission for ecclesiastical causes. In 1567 he was translated +to the archbishopric of Dublin, where the queen looked to him to carry +out reforms in the Church. On several occasions he temporarily executed +the functions of lord keeper, and in August 1581 he was appointed lord +chancellor of Ireland. Loftus was constantly occupied in attempts to +improve his financial position by obtaining additional preferment. He +had been obliged to resign the deanery of St Patrick's in 1567, and +twenty years later he quarrelled violently with Sir John Perrot, the +lord deputy, over the proposal to appropriate the revenues of the +cathedral to the foundation of a university. Loftus, however, favoured +the project of founding a university in Dublin, though on lines +different from Perrot's proposal, and it was largely through his +influence that the corporation of Dublin granted the lands of the priory +of All Hallows as a beginning of the endowment of Trinity College, of +which he was named first provost in the charter creating the foundation +in 1591. Loftus, who had an important share in the administration of +Ireland under successive lords deputy, and whose zeal and efficiency +were commended by James I. on his accession, died in Dublin on the 5th +of April 1605. By his wife, Jane Purdon, he had twenty children. + +His brother Robert was father of ADAM LOFTUS (c. 1568-1643), who became +lord chancellor of Ireland in 1619, and in 1622 was created Viscount +Loftus of Ely, King's county, in the peerage of Ireland. Lord Loftus +came into violent conflict with the lord deputy, Viscount Falkland, in +1624; and at a later date his quarrel with Strafford was still more +fierce. One of the articles in Strafford's impeachment was based on his +dealings with Loftus. The title, which became extinct on the death of +his grandson, the 3rd viscount, in 1725 (when the family estate of +Monasterevan, re-named Moore Abbey, passed to his daughter's son Henry, +4th earl of Drogheda), was re-granted in 1756 to his cousin Nicholas +Loftus, a lineal descendant of the archbishop. It again became extinct +more than once afterwards, but was on each occasion revived in favour of +a descendant through the female line; and it is now held by the marquis +of Ely in conjunction with other family titles. + + See Richard Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (2 vols., London, + 1840); J. R. O'Flanagan, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland_ (2 + vols., London, 1870); John D'Alton, _Memoirs of the Archbishops of + Dublin_ (Dublin, 1838); Henry Cotton, _Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae_ (5 + vols., Dublin, 1848-1878); William Monck Mason, _History and + Antiquities of the College and Cathedral Church of St Patrick, near + Dublin_ (Dublin, 1819); G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_ vol. iii., sub. + "Ely" (London, 1890). + + + + +LOG (a word of uncertain etymological origin, possibly onomatopoeic; the +_New English Dictionary_ rejects the derivation from Norwegian _lág_, a +fallen tree), a large piece of generally unhewn, wood. The word is also +used in various figurative senses, and more particularly for the +"nautical log," an apparatus for ascertaining the speed of ships. Its +employment in this sense depends on the fact that a piece of wood +attached to a line was thrown overboard to lie like a log in a fixed +position, motionless, the vessel's speed being calculated by observing +what length of line ran out in a given time ("common log"); and the word +has been retained for the modern "patent" or "continuous" log, though it +works in an entirely different manner. + +The origin of the "common log" is obscure, but the beginnings of the +"continuous log" may be traced back to the 16th century. By an invention +probably due to Humfray Cole and published in 1578 by William Bourne in +his _Inventions and Devices_, it was proposed to register a ship's speed +by means of a "little small close boat," with a wheel, or wheels, and an +axle-tree to turn clockwork in the little boat, with dials and pointers +indicating fathoms, leagues, scores of leagues and hundreds of leagues. +About 1668 Dr R. Hooke showed some members of the Royal Society an +instrument for the same purpose, depending on a vane or fly which +rotated as the vessel progressed (Birch, _History of the Royal Society_, +iv. 231), and Sir Isaac Newton in 1715 reported unfavourably on the +"marine surveyor" of Henry de Saumarez, which also depended on a +rotator. Conradus Mel in his _Antiquarius Sacer_ (1719) described a +"pantometron nauticum" which he claimed would show without calculation +the distance sailed by the ship; and J. Smeaton in 1754 published +improvements on the apparatus of Saumarez. William Foxon of Deptford in +1772, James Guerimand of Middlesex in 1776 (by his "marine +perambulator"), and R. H. Gower in 1772, practically demonstrated the +registration of a vessel's speed by mechanical means. Viscount de Vaux +in 1807 made use of water-pressure, as did the Rev. E. L. Berthon in +1849, and C. E. Kelway invented an electrical log in 1876. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +_Common Log._--To ascertain the ship's speed by the common log four +articles are necessary--a log-ship or log-chip, log-reel, log-line and +log-glass. The log-ship (fig. 1) is a wooden quadrant ½ in. thick, with +a radius of 5 or 6 in., the circumference of which is weighted with lead +to keep it upright and retard its passage through the water. Two holes +are made near its lower angles. One end of a short piece of thin line is +passed through one of these holes, and knotted; the other end has +spliced to it a hard bone peg which is inserted in the other hole. The +holes are so placed that the log-ship will hang square from the span +thus formed. The log-line is secured to this span and consists of two +parts. The portion nearest the log-ship is known as the "stray line"; +its length varies from 10 to 20 fathoms, but should be sufficient to +ensure that the log-ship shall be outside the disturbing element of the +ship's wake. The point where it joins the other part is marked by a +piece of bunting, and the line from this point towards its other end is +marked at known intervals with "knots," which consist of pieces of cord +worked in between its strands. A mean degree of the meridian being +assumed to be 69.09 statute miles of 5280 ft., the nautical mile (1/60 +degree) is taken as 6080 ft., which is a sufficiently close +approximation for practical purposes, and the distances between the +knots are made to bear the same relation to 6080 ft. as 28 seconds to an +hour (3600 seconds); that is, they are placed at intervals of 47 ft. 3 +in. The end of the first interval of this length (counting from the +piece of bunting) is marked by a bit of leather, the second by a cord +with two knots, the third by one with three knots, and so on; the middle +of each of these lengths (half-knot) is also marked by a cord with one +knot. It follows that, if, say, five knots of the line run out in 28 +seconds, the ship has gone 5 × 47¼ ft. in that time, or is moving at the +rate of 5 × 6080 ft. (= five nautical miles) an hour; hence the common +use of knot as equivalent to a nautical mile. In the log-glass the time +is measured by running sand, which, however, is apt to be affected by +the humidity of the atmosphere. Sometimes a 30-second glass is used +instead of a 28-second one, and the intervals between the knots on the +log-line are then made 50 ft. 7 in. instead of 47 ft. 3 in. For speeds +over six knots a 14-second glass is employed, and the speed indicated by +the log-line is doubled. + + The log-line, after being well soaked, stretched and marked with + knots, is wound uniformly on the log-reel, to which its inner end is + securely fastened. To "heave the log," a man holds the log-reel over + his head (at high speeds the man and portable reel are superseded by a + fixed reel and a winch fitted with a brake), and the officer places + the peg in the log-ship, which he then throws clear and to windward of + the ship, allowing the line to run freely out. When the bunting at the + end of the stray line passes his hand, he calls to his assistant to + turn the glass, and allows the line to pay out freely. When all the + sand has run through, the assistant calls "Stop!" when the log-line is + quickly nipped, the knots counted, and the intermediate portion + estimated. The strain on the log-ship when the log-line is nipped, + causes the peg to be withdrawn from it, and the log-ship is readily + hauled in. In normal circumstances, the log is hove every hour. In a + steam vessel running at high speed on an ocean route, with engines + working smoothly and uniformly, a careful officer with correct line + and glass can obtain very accurate results with the common log. + +_Ground Log._--In the deltas of shoal rivers, with a strong tide or +current and no land visible, a 5 lb. lead is substituted for the +log-ship; the lead rests on the bottom, and the speed is obtained in a +manner similar to that previously described. Such a "ground-log" +indicates the actual speed over the ground, and in addition, when the +log-line is being hauled in, it will show the real course the ship is +making over the ground. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The A1 Harpoon Ship Log.] + +_Patent Log._--The screw or rotatory log of Edward Massey, invented in +1802, came into general use in 1836 and continued until 1861. The +registering wheelwork was contained in a shallow rectangular box (fig. +2), with a float plate on its upper side, carrying three indicating +dials, recording respectively fractions, units and tens of miles (up to +a hundred). The rotator was connected to the log by a rope 6 ft. in +length, actuating a universal joint on the first spindle of the +register; it consisted of an air-tight thin metal tube with a coned +fore-end, carrying flat metal vanes set at an angle. Alexander Bain in +1846 suggested enclosing the wheelwork in the rotator. In Thomas +Walker's harpoon or frictionless log, introduced in 1861, the wheelwork +was enclosed in a cylindrical case of the same diameter as the body of +the rotator or fan, and the latter was brought close up to the register, +forming a compact machine and avoiding the use of the 6-ft. line. Two +years later a heart-shaped float plate was attached to the case, and the +log called the A1 Harpoon ship log (fig. 3). The log should be washed in +fresh water when practicable, to prevent oxidization of the wheels, and +be lubricated with suitable oil through a hole in the case. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Cherub Log.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Neptune Pattern for securing Rotator.] + +These logs were towed from the ship, but with quick passages and well +surveyed coasts, the need arose for a patent log which could be readily +consulted from the deck, and from which the distance run under varying +speeds could be quickly ascertained. To meet this requirement, Walker in +1878 introduced the Cherub log (fig. 4), a taffrail one, which, however, +is not as a rule used for speeds over 18 knots. Owing to the increased +friction produced by a rotator making approximately 900 revolutions per +mile, towed at the end of a line varying from 40 fathoms for a 12-knot +speed to 60 fathoms for 20 knots, the pull of the line and rotator is +borne by coned rollers, having their outlines tapering to a common point +in their rotation, thus giving a broad rolling surface. Strong worms and +wheels are substituted for the light clockwork. In fig. 4 the shoe H is +secured to the taffrail, and the rotator in the water is hooked to the +eye of the spindle M by the hook D. The case A contains the registering +wheelwork and a sounding bell. The half gimbal B pivoting in the socket +of the base C allows the register to receive the strain in the direct +line. The bearings and rollers are lubricated with castor oil every +twelve hours through holes in the sliding case E, and can be examined by +unscrewing the case E and the eye M. When not in use, the register is +removed from the shoe by lifting a small screw button near C. The tow +line is usually plaited, and to avoid a knot close to the rotator, the +latter is secured to the former by a knot inside an egg-shaped shell +(fig. 5, Neptune pattern). + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Walker's Neptune Log.] + + Walker's Neptune log (fig. 6) is used for vessels of high speed. Case + A contains the wheelwork, and case E the spindle and steel ball + bearings; in each case are openings, closed by sliding tubes, for + examination and lubrication. In fig. 6 the cases A and E are shown + open. Fig. 7 shows the dial plate. In fig. 8 the ball bearings are + shown unscrewed from the body of the log, with eye, cap and spindle. + They consist of two rows of balls rolling in two pairs of V races or + grooves. The outer pair receive the strain of the rotator, and the + inner are for adjustment and to prevent lateral movement. The balls + and races are enclosed in a skeleton cage (fig. 9) unscrewing from the + cap F (fig. 6) for cleaning or renewal; the adjustment of the bearings + is made by screwing up the cage cap b, locked by a special washer and + the two screws a, a (figs. 8, 9). If the outer races become worn, the + complete cage and bearings are reversed; the strain of the line is + then transferred to what had previously been the inner with + practically unworn balls and races. It is for this purpose that the + skeleton cage is screwed internally at both ends, fitting a screwed + ring inside the cap F (fig. 6). To enable the indications of the log + register on the taffrail to be recorded in the chart room or any other + part of the vessel as desired, a chart room electric register has been + introduced. By means of an electric installation between the log + register aft and the electric register in the chart room, every tenth + of a mile indicated by the former is recorded by the latter. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Dial-plate of Neptune Log.] + + Walker's Rocket log (fig. 10) is a taffrail one, with bearings of + hardened steel, and is intended to be slung or secured to the taffrail + by a line; the gimbal pattern has a fitting for the deck. In taffrail + logs, the movement of the line owing to its length becomes spasmodic + and jerky, increasing the vibration and friction; to obviate this a + governor or fly-wheel is introduced, the hook of the tow line K (fig. + 11) and the eye of the register M being attached to the governor. Fig. + 11 represents the arrangement fitted to the Neptune log; with the + Cherub log, a small piece of line is introduced between the governor + and the eye of the register. The two principal American taffrail logs + are the Negus and Bliss (Messrs Norie and Wilson). The former bears a + general resemblance to the Cherub log, but the dial plate is + horizontal and the faces turn upwards. The main shaft bearings are in + two sets and composed of steel balls running in steel cones and cups; + the governor is an iron rod about 16 in. long, with 1 in. balls at the + extremities. The Bliss resembles the Rocket log in shape, and is + secured to the taffrail by a rope or sling. A governor is not + employed. The blades of the rotator are adjustable, being fitted into + its tube or body by slits and holes and then soldered. The outer ends + of the blades are slit (fig. 12) to form two tongues, and with the + wrench (fig. 12) the angle of the pitch can be altered. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Ball Bearings of Neptune Log.] + +All patent logs have errors, the amounts of which should be ascertained +by shore observations when passing a well surveyed coast in tideless +waters on a calm day. Constant use, increased friction (more especially +at high speeds), and damage to the rotator will alter an ascertained log +error; head or following seas, strong winds, currents and tidal streams +also affect the correctness. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Ball Bearings of Neptune Log in Skeleton Case.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Rocket Log.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Neptune Log fitted with Governor.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Bliss Log.] + +A _Log Book_ is a marine or sea journal, containing, in the British +navy, the speed, course, leeway, direction and force of the wind, state +of the weather, and barometric and thermometric observations. Under the +heading "Remarks" are noted (for vessels with sail power) making, +shortening and trimming sails; and (for all ships) employment of crew, +times of passing prominent landmarks, altering of course, and any +subject of interest and importance. The deck log book, kept by the +officers of the watch, is copied into the ship's log book by the +navigating officer, and the latter is an official journal. In steam +vessels a rough and fair engine room register are kept, giving +information with regard to the engines and boilers. In the British +mercantile marine all ships (except those employed exclusively in +trading between ports on the coasts of Scotland) are compelled to keep +an official log book in a form approved by the Board of Trade. A mate's +log book and engine room register are not compulsory, but are usually +kept. (J. W. D.) + + + + +LOGAN, JOHN (c. 1725-1780), also known as TAHGAHJUTÉ, American Indian +chief, a Cayuga by birth, was the son of Shikellamy, a white man who had +been captured when a child by the Indians, had been reared among them, +and had become chief of the Indians living on the Shamokin Creek in what +is now Northumberland county, Pennsylvania. The name Logan was given to +the son in honour of James Logan (1674-1751), secretary of William Penn +and a steadfast friend of the Indians. John Logan lived for some time +near Reedsville, Penn., and removed to the banks of the Ohio river about +1770. He was not technically a chief, but acquired great influence among +the Shawnees, into which tribe he married. He was on good terms with the +whites until April 1774, when, friction having arisen between the +Indians and the whites, a band of marauders, led by one Greathouse, +attacked and murdered several Indians, including, it appears, Logan's +sister and possibly one or more other relatives. Believing that Captain +Michael Cresap was responsible for this murder, Logan sent him a +declaration of hostilities, the result of which was the bloody conflict +known as Lord Dunmore's war. Logan refused to join the Shawnee chief, +Cornstalk, in meeting Governor Dunmore in a peace council after the +battle of Point Pleasant, but sent him a message which has become famous +as an example of Indian eloquence. The message seems to have been given +by Logan to Colonel John Gibson, by whom it was delivered to Lord +Dunmore. Thomas Jefferson first called general attention to it in his +_Notes on Virginia_ (1787), where he quoted it and added: "I may +challenge the whole orations of Demosthenes and Cicero, and of any more +eminent orator, if Europe has furnished more eminent, to produce a +single passage superior to it." Logan became a victim of drink, and in +1780 was killed near Lake Erie by his nephew whom he had attacked. There +is a monument to him in Fair Hill Cemetery, near Auburn, New York. + + Brantz Mayer's _Tahgahjuté, or Logan the Indian and Captain Michael + Cresap_ (Baltimore, 1851, 2nd ed., Albany, 1867) defends Captain + Cresap against Jefferson's charges, and also questions the + authenticity of Logan's message, about which there has been + considerable controversy, though its actual wording seems to be that + of Gibson rather than of Logan. + + + + +LOGAN, JOHN (1748-1788), Scottish poet, was born at Soutra, Midlothian, +in 1748. His father, George Logan, was a farmer and a member of the +Burgher sect of the Secession church. John Logan was sent to Musselburgh +grammar school, and in 1762 to the university of Edinburgh. In 1768-1769 +he was tutor to John, afterwards Sir John, Sinclair, at Ulbster, +Caithness, and in 1770, having left the Secession church, he was +licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Haddington. In 1771 he was +presented to the charge of South Leith, but was not ordained till two +years later. On the death of Michael Bruce (q.v.) he obtained that +poet's MSS. with a view to publication. In 1770 he published _Poems on +Several Occasions, by Michael Bruce_ with a preface, in which, after +eulogizing Bruce, who had been a fellow student of his, he remarked that +"to make up a miscellany some poems wrote by different authors are +inserted, all of them originals, and none of them destitute of merit. +The reader of taste will easily distinguish them from those of Mr Bruce, +without their being particularized by any mark." Logan was an active +member of the committee of the General Assembly of the Church of +Scotland which worked from 1775 to 1781 at revising the "Translations +and Paraphrases" for public worship, in which many of his hymns are +printed. In 1779-1781 he delivered a course of lectures on the +philosophy of history at St Mary's Chapel, Edinburgh. An analysis of +these lectures, _Elements of the Philosophy of History_ (1781), bears +striking resemblance to _A View of Ancient History_ (1787), printed as +the work of Dr W. Rutherford, but thought by Logan's friends to be his. +In 1781 he published his own _Poems_, including the "Ode to the Cuckoo" +and some other poems which had appeared in his volume of Michael Bruce's +poems, and also his own contributions to the Paraphrases. His other +publications were _An Essay on the Manners and Governments of Asia_ +(1782), _Runnamede, a tragedy_ (1783), and _A Review of the Principal +Charges against Warren Hastings_ (1788). His connexion with the theatre +gave offence to his congregation at South Leith; he was intemperate in +his habits, and there was some local scandal attached to his name. He +resigned his charge in 1786, retaining part of his stipend, and +proceeded to London, where he became a writer for the _English Review_. +He died on the 28th of December 1788. Two posthumous volumes of sermons +appeared in 1790 and 1791. They were very popular, and were reprinted in +1810. His _Poetical Works_ were printed in Dr Robert Anderson's _British +Poets_ (vol. xi., 1795), with a life of the author. They were reprinted +in similar collections, and separately in 1805. + +Logan was accused of having appropriated in his _Poems_ (1781) verses +written by Michael Bruce. The statements of John Birrell and David +Pearson on behalf of Bruce were included in Dr Anderson's _Life of +Logan_. The charge of plagiarism has been revived from time to time, +notably by Dr W. Mackelvie (1837) and Mr James Mackenzie (1905). The +whole controversy has been marked by strong partisanship. The chief +points against Logan are the suppression of the major portion of Bruce's +MSS. and some proved cases of plagiarism in his sermons and hymns. Even +in the beautiful "Braes of Yarrow" one of the verses is borrowed direct +from an old border ballad. The traditional evidence in favour of Bruce's +authorship of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" can hardly be set aside, but Dr +Robertson of Dalmeny, who was Logan's literary executor, stated that he +had gone over the MSS. procured at Kinnesswood with Logan. + + Logan's authorship of the poems in dispute is defended by David Laing, + _Ode to the Cuckoo with remarks on its authorship, in a letter to J. + C. Shairp, LL.D._ (1873); by John Small in the _British and Foreign + Evangelical Review_ (July, 1877, April and October, 1879); and by R. + Small in two papers (ibid., 1878). See also BRUCE, MICHAEL. + + + + +LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER (1826-1886), American soldier and political +leader, was born in what is now Murphysborough, Jackson county, +Illinois, on the 9th of February 1826. He had no schooling until he was +fourteen; he then studied for three years in Shiloh College, served in +the Mexican war as a lieutenant of volunteers, studied law in the office +of an uncle, graduated from the Law Department of Louisville University +in 1851, and practised law with success. He entered politics as a +Douglas Democrat, was elected county clerk in 1849, served in the State +House of Representatives in 1853-1854 and in 1857, and for a time, +during the interval, was prosecuting attorney of the Third Judicial +District of Illinois. In 1858 and 1860 he was elected as a Democrat to +the National House of Representatives. Though unattached and unenlisted, +he fought at Bull Run, and then returned to Washington, resigned his +seat, and entered the Union army as colonel of the 31st Illinois +Volunteers, which he organized. He was regarded as one of the ablest +officers who entered the army from civil life. In Grant's campaigns +terminating in the capture of Vicksburg, which city Logan's division was +the first to enter and of which he was military governor, he rose to the +rank of major-general of volunteers; in November 1863 he succeeded +Sherman in command of the XV. Army Corps; and after the death of +McPherson he was in command of the Army of the Tennessee at the battle +of Atlanta. When the war closed, Logan resumed his political career as a +Republican, and was a member of the National House of Representatives +from 1867 to 1871, and of the United States Senate from 1871 until 1877 +and again from 1879 until his death, which took place at Washington, +D.C., on the 26th of December 1886. He was always a violent partisan, +and was identified with the radical wing of the Republican party. In +1868 he was one of the managers in the impeachment of President Johnson. +His war record and his great personal following, especially in the Grand +Army of the Republic, contributed to his nomination for Vice-President +in 1884 on the ticket with James G. Blaine, but he was not elected. His +impetuous oratory, popular on the platform, was less adapted to the +halls of legislation. He was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the +Republic from 1868 to 1871, and in this position successfully urged the +observance of Memorial or Decoration Day, an idea which probably +originated with him. He was the author of _The Great Conspiracy: Its +Origin and History_ (1886), a partisan account of the Civil war, and of +_The Volunteer Soldier of America_ (1887). There is a fine statue of him +by St Gaudens in Chicago. + + The best biography is that by George F. Dawson, _The Life and Services + of Gen. John A. Logan, as Soldier and Statesman_ (Chicago and New + York, 1887). + + + + +LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM EDMOND (1798-1875), British geologist, was born in +Montreal on the 20th of April 1798, of Scottish parents. He was educated +partly in Montreal, and subsequently at the High School and university +of Edinburgh, where Robert Jameson did much to excite his interest in +geology. He was in a business house in London from 1817 to 1830. In 1831 +he settled in Swansea to take charge of a colliery and some +copper-smelting works, and here his interest in geology found abundant +scope. He collected a great amount of information respecting the South +Wales coal-field; and his data, which he had depicted on the 1-in. +ordnance survey map, were generously placed at the disposal of the +geological survey under Sir H. T. de la Beche and fully utilized. In +1840 Logan brought before the Geological Society of London his +celebrated paper "On the character of the beds of clay lying immediately +below the coal-seams of South Wales, and on the occurrence of +coal-boulders in the Pennant Grit of that district." He then pointed out +that each coal-seam rests on an under-clay with rootlets of _Stigmaria_, +and he expressed his opinion that the under-clay was the old soil in +which grew the plants from which the coal was formed. To confirm this +observation he visited America in 1841 and examined the coal-fields of +Pennsylvania and Nova Scotia, where he found the under-clay almost +invariably present beneath the seams of coal. In 1842 he was appointed +to take charge of the newly established geological survey in Canada, and +he continued as director until 1869. During the earlier years of the +survey he had many difficulties to surmount and privations to undergo, +but the work was carried on with great tact and energy, and he spared no +pains to make his reports trustworthy. He described the Laurentian rocks +of the Laurentian mountains in Canada and of the Adirondacks in the +state of New York, pointing out that they comprised an immense series of +crystalline rocks, gneiss, mica-schist, quartzite and limestone, more +than 30,000 ft. in thickness. The series was rightly recognized as +representing the oldest type of rocks on the globe, but it is now known +to be a complex of highly altered sedimentary and intrusive rocks; and +the supposed oldest known fossil, the _Eozoon_ described by Sir J. W. +Dawson, is now regarded as a mineral structure. Logan was elected F.R.S. +in 1851, and in 1856 was knighted. In the same year he was awarded the +Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London for his researches +on the coal-strata, and for his excellent geological map of Canada. +After his retirement in 1869, he returned to England, and eventually +settled in South Wales. He died at Castle Malgwyn in Pembrokeshire, on +the 22nd of June 1875. + + See the _Life_, by B. J. Harrington (1883). (H. B. Wo.) + + + + +LOGAN, a city and the county-seat of Cache county, Utah, U.S.A., on the +Logan river, about 70 m. N. of Salt Lake City. Pop. (1900) 5451 (1440 +foreign-born); (1910) 7522. It is served by the Oregon Short Line +railroad. It lies at the mouth of Logan Cañon, about 4500 ft. above the +sea, and commands magnificent views of the Wasatch Mountains and the +fertile Cache Valley. At Logan is a temple of the Latter-Day Saints (or +Mormons), built in 1883, and the city is the seat of the Agricultural +College of Utah, of Brigham Young College, and of New Jersey Academy +(1878), erected by the women of the Synod of New Jersey and managed by +the Woman's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church. The +Agricultural College was founded in 1888 and opened in 1890; an +agricultural experiment station is connected with it and the institution +comprises schools of agriculture, domestic science and arts, commerce, +mechanic arts and general science. Six experiment stations in different +parts of the state and a central experimental farm near St George, +Washington county, were in 1908 under the direction of the experiment +station in Logan. Brigham Young College was endowed by Brigham Young in +1877 and was opened in 1878; it offers courses in the arts, theology, +civil engineering, music, physical culture, domestic science, nurse +training and manual training. Logan has various manufactures, and is the +trade centre for a fertile farming region. The municipality owns and +operates its water works and its electric lighting plant. Logan was +settled in 1859 and first incorporated in 1866. + + + + +LOGANSPORT, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Indiana, U.S.A., +on the Wabash river, at the mouth of the Eel river, about 67 m. N. by W. +of Indianapolis and 117 m. S. by E. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 16,204, of +whom 1432 were foreign-born, (1910 census) 19,050. It is served by six +divisions of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, two +divisions of the Vandalia (Pennsylvania Lines), and the Wabash railways, +and by electric interurban lines. The city is the seat of the Northern +Indiana Hospital for the Insane (1888), and has a public library, and a +hospital (conducted by the Sisters of St Joseph). Among the principal +buildings are the court house, a Masonic temple, an Odd Fellows' temple, +and buildings of the Order of Elks, of the Knights of Pythias, and of +the fraternal order of Eagles. Situated in the centre of a rich +agricultural region, Logansport is one of the most important grain and +produce markets in the state. The Wabash and the Eel rivers provide good +water power, and the city has various manufactures, besides the railway +repair shops of the Vandalia and of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & +St Louis railways. The value of the city's factory product increased +from $2,100,394 in 1900 to $2,955,921 in 1905, or 40.7%. Limestone, for +use in the manufacture of iron, is quarried in the vicinity. The city +owns and operates the water works and the electric-lighting plant. +Logansport was platted in 1828, was probably named in honour of a +Shawnee chief, Captain Logan (d. 1812), became the county-seat of Cass +county in 1829, and was chartered as a city in 1838. + + + + +LOGAR, a river and valley of Afghanistan. The Logar river drains a wide +tract of country, rising in the southern slopes of the Sanglakh range +and receiving affluents from the Kharwar hills, N.E. of Ghazni. It joins +the Kabul river a few miles below the city of Kabul. The Logar valley, +which is watered by its southern affluents, is rich and beautiful, about +40 m. long by 12 wide, and highly irrigated throughout. Lying in the +vicinity of the capital, the district contributes largely to its +food-supply. The valley was traversed in 1879 by a brigade under Sir F. +(afterwards Lord) Roberts. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 16, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42173 *** |